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600100558P
rx
HISTORY
OT THE
CHRISTIAN CHURCH.
BT
Db. CHARLES HASE,
PBOFE880B OF THEOLOOT IX THE X.*Niy2BSITT OF JENA.
Sranslatt^ ftm t\t Stbtnt^ an)) muc^ m:^tak)i (&ttmti, ^Wmif
BY
CHAKLES E. BLUMENTHAL,
FBOFEBSOR OF HEBREW AND OF MODERN L.\NGUAG£S IX DIOUNBON OOLLEOB,
AND
CONWAY P. WING,
TJUUCm 09 IRE mn PltESBTmiAS CHUSCH IX fiAatiar.Bj tESHgnTML.
LONDON:
TRUBNER & CO., 12 PATERNOSTER ROW.
1855.
//^, /. JcT.
ENTBUED AT STATIONXBa' HALI.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
-»♦♦■
This translation was undertaken because its authors knew of no
work in English which precisely corresponded with it. The his-
tories of Milner, Waddington, Milman, Stebbing, Hardwicke
and Robertson, and the translations of Mosheim, Neander, Dol-
linger, Thiersch and Schaff, have severally specific merits with
reference to the objects of their composition ; but many of them
Rie incomplete as general histories, most of them were written
so as to give undue prominence to some single aspect of the
characters and events of which they treat, and all of them are too
large to be used either as manuals for the scholar, as text-books
for the instructor, or as compendiums for the general reader.
8ume attempts to supply the deficiency by Palmer, Timpson,
Foulkes, Hinds, Goodrich and Ruter, have met with no very
general acceptance. A miniature representation of a vast mass
(►f facts, in which each personage and event shall appear in their
individual freshness and relative proportions, requires for its exe-
cution peculiar talents and rare opportunities. The Grermans
appear to possess these in a greater degree than any other people.
Their learned men highly appreciate the value of such manuals,
and their literature abounds in them. One of these, by Dr.
Gieseler, has been translated, and is almost invaluable. But its
text is a mere epitome of results, and bears no proportion to the
vast materials in the notes ; and the narrative awakens no in-
terest. It would be diflScult to find a graphic picture, or an ex-
iv translator's prbface.
pression of feeling in the whole work. Even the posthumous
volume which has been promised, will leave the history incomplete.
The delay which has taken place in the appearance of this
work has aflforded many opportunities of learning how much this
deficiency was appreciated by competent scholars in England and
America. From the letters we have received, and from public
journals, we might present many testimonies, not only that such
a work was needed, but that nothing in the literature of the
present day was so likely to supply the deficiency as a transla-
tion of the work we had announced. The style of our author is
especially adapted to the Anglo-Saxon mind ; his astonishing
power of condensed expression, — his aesthetic, if not religious sym-
pathies, with every variety of intellectual and moral greatness, —
his skilful daguerreotypes of characters by means of the trans-
mitted light of contemporary language, — the delicate irony and
genial humor which pervade his descriptions, — the picturesque
liveliness with which a single character or incident brings out
the manners and spirit of an age, — the precision with which
his scientific arrangement is preserved, the critical judgment
with which the minutest results of recent investigations are in-
. troduced, — and the graceful proportion and animation with which
the whole stands out before us, render his history attractive to
all kinds of readers. He throws away every name or event which
has no historical utility or organic life ; he appreciates an heroic
spirit wherever it appears, and each period is estimated as nearly
as possible in its own light. His is not merely a history of the
hierarchy, of the nobility, or of great men, but of the Church,
His descriptions, therefore, embrace especially traits of common
life, the progress of the arts, and indications of advancement in
social freedom. If liis theological opinions do not quite coincide
with our own, he seldom, at least in this work, obtrudes theui
upon our attehtion. His object seems to have been to maintain
historical accuracy, rather than to exhibit his own opinions ; and
if sometimes our favorite characters, or views, do not appear in
the light in which we have usually contemplated them, his uni-
form impartiality and intelligence make us suspect our earlier
judgments. None but those who observe the stmcture rather
than the particular dogmatic expressions of this work, will be
tranblator's preface. V
likely to detect the antbor^s peculiar views, and such readers can
afford to give them whatever consideration they deserve. A strik-
ing comparison has been drawn between him and a living English
historian and essayist, but the reference can be only to the live-
liness and brilliancy of his historical scenes, and not to the mi-
nute space in which the picture of more than eighteen centuries
is presented.
As soon as we had determined to translate the work, the
author was informed of our intention, and we publish his reply
to our communication. Unforeseen difiSculties, however, delayed
the publication of our work, and when more than a hundred
pages had been stereotyped, we received a copy of the seventh
edition, with numerous corrections and additions. We have cer-
tainly no reason to regret such an occurrence, although it im-
posed on us the necessity of recalling and rewriting a large
portion of our manuscript. We submitted, however, with cheer-
fulness to the necessity, since we are now able to present an
edition in which some errors have been corrected, the results of
recent research, especially with respect to the second and third
centuries, have been incorporated, and the eventful history of the
last seven years has been added. In an Appendix, we present •
every thing of importance added by the author in the part which
had been already struck off. But as we were obliged in this first
part to retain the numbers of the sections used in the sixth
edition, and subsequently to adopt those used in the seventh,
some confusion has necessarily been created. Should a new
edition be called for, we hope not only to remove this defect, but
to adapt the work to an American position. The section on
America (§ 462) has been already, with the author's concur-
rence, rewritten and enlarged. Considerable pains have also
been taken to adapt the references and authorities to the present
state of English literature, and some references to German trans-
lations of English and French works have been omitted, but
every addition is indicated by brackets. We are well aware that
our work has many faults after all our revisions and efforts to
correct them, but, like the author, we see no end to the labor
which might be bestowed on that which is, by its nature, neces-
sarily imperfect. Dr. Hase has given a large part of his atten-
vi translator's preface.
tion to the original history for more than twenty years. He was
bora in the year 1800 at Steinbach. In 1823, he was a private
instructor in Theology at Tubingen ; in 1829, he was elected a
Professor of Philosophy in Leipsic ; and in 1830, he became a
Professor of Theology in Jena, where he still continues. His
other works are : The Old Pastor's Testament, Tub. 1824 ; The
Murder of Justice, a Vow of the Church, Lps. 1826 ; A Manual
of Evang. Dogmatik, Lps. 1826, 4th and much enlarged edit.,
Lps. 1850 ; Gnosis, Lps. 1827-29, 3 vols. ; Hutterus Kedivivus,
or Dogmatik of the Evang. Luth. Church, Lps. 1829, 7 ed. in
1848 (a work whose purely historical account involved him in
a controversy with Kohr, the great champion of Kationalism,
and led to a series of polemical works on that subject) ; The
Life of Christ, Lps. 1829, 4th imp. edit. 1854 ; Libri Symbolici
Ecclesiae Evangelicae sive Concordia, of which the 3d ed. ap-
peared in Lps. 1846 ; The Two Archbishops, (referring to the
difficulties in the dioceses of Cologne and Posen,) Lps. 1839 ;
The Good Old Law of the Church, two academical discourses,
2d ed. Lps. 1847 ; The Evang. Prot. Church of the German
Empire, on Ecclesiastical Law, 2d ed. Lps. 1852 ; The Modern
Prophets, three Lectures on the Maid of Orleans, Savonarola,
and the Kingdom of the Anabaptists, Lps. 1851. He has also
recently been engaged in the publication of Didot's new edition
of Stephanus' Thesaurus Grecae Linguae, of which the seventh
part has just appeared.
AUTHOR'S LETTER TO THE TRANSLATORS.
To Prof. C. E. Blumenthcd and Rev, C. P. Wing :—
Dear Sirs : — Between him who incorporates in a book the results
of his most serious and profound mental labors, and those who from a
cordial preference endeavor to introduce and interpret it to a foreign
nation, must naturally spring up such an intimate intellectual sympathy,
tnat it would seem surprising for them, if contemporaries, to remain
strangers to each other. I, therefore, hail with grateful feelings the
kind letter you haye sent me across the ocean, and in imagination grasp
the hand of fraternal fellowship extended to me from the land of
WiUiam Penn.
You have doubtless already discovered that no ordinary obstacles
were to be surmounted before a good translation of my Church History
could be made, as my object was to compress the most perfect picture
of the religious life developed in the Church into the smallest frame ;
and hence I was compelled to be very parsimonious in the use of words,
and to refer to the original authorities for many things plain to the
learned, but obscure to the learner. A French translation, once at-
tempted, split upon this rook. I hope, however, that in a sister lan-
guage, so essentially Germanic as the English, these difficulties may be
more easily overcome, and such a confidence is encouraged by the fact,
that in a Danish translation they have been completely vanquished.
If I remember correctly, an attempt to translate my work was onoe
made in England, but was abandoned on account of its supposed incon-
sistency with the views of the Established Church. You have doubtless
considered how far this objection should prevail with reference to the
Church of your country, if the numerous and varied communities Which
have pitched their tents under the banner of the stars and stripes may
J
viii author's letter to the translators.
be truly spoken of as a single Cbupch. I trust, however, that among
those who study history from a higher position than that of a party, an
assimilation of yiews will gradually prevail respecting the silent opin-
ions and facts which lie behind us in the past. I have at least honestly
aimed to recognize in its proper light every element in any way drawn
around our common Lord. I have thus endeavored to approach as
nearly as possible that exalted position from which the history of his
Church will be regarded by Christ himself, not merely as the Judge of
quick and dead, but as the faithful Shepherd seeking the lost lamb.
May my poor book, therefore, be dressed once more in a language
spoken on every ocean and coast, and so come back to me from a world
to which, as to another holy land, hosts of peaceful crusaders are an-
nually pouring to plant anew their hopes, and to realize their long-
cherished ideals in subsequent generations. The brief notice of the
Church in the United States you propose to substitute for my section
on that subject, will doubtless better adapt the work to your country.
Whenever the universal interest of the Church was the topic, I have
myself given more space to the Church of my fathers. I have no
doubt that the alliance commenced between German and American the-
ology will prove a blessing to both. Both nations have certainly a
great mission assigned them in ecclesiastical history, which each must
accomplish in its own peculiar manner.
The sixth edition made its appearance just before the storm which
has since broken over central Europe. Pius IX., haviDg been driven
from his beautiful Babylon by an insurrection which he could not allay
by kindness, has been restored by republican France, to substitute a
government of priests and Jesuits for a Roman Republic. The French
clergy have also hastily concluded to send up the petition " Domine,
salvam fao rempublicam," as long as a democratic republic can be main-
tained in France. In Germany, our national Assembly at Frankfort
not only proclaimed the gospel of liberty for the Church, and the fun-
damental rights of the German nation, but going beyond the people
whom they professed to regard as their model, they threatened to di-
vest the state of all Christian or religious character. The more con-
siderate of our nation sent forth their warnings against such a rupture
with all historical traditions, and painful political events have since
shown that the immediate object of the Protestant German Church
should be much more cautious and consonant with the national spirit
This object unquestionably is, to give to the Church the administration
of its own affairs, in alliance with a state under which the right of
citisenship shall depend upon no creed, and the gospel of Christ shall
h^ proclaimed as the highest principle of right
author's letter to the translators. ix
In the Catholic Church, the independence of the state secured to
the hierarchy by the revolution, was made subservient to such an enor-
mous increase of its powers, that the freedom of the inferior clergy and
of the congregations is seriously endangered. What was called Ger-
man Catholicism, has shown, as the more sagacious perceived from the
commencement, that it lacked the religious energy necessary to effect a
reform in the Christian Church. Since it has ceased to be harassed by
political obstructions it has dwindled into an insignificant sect. But in
the contest between a merely prescriptive Christianity, and the pro-
gressive spirit of modem improvement, many a severe conflict must
doubtless yet take place, before Christ in this respect also will manifest
himself as the Mediator.
Karl Hasb.
Jkna, May 7^ 1850.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
In oomposing the following work, my intention was to present a text-
book to the public, and to accomplish this, I resolved to devote to it all
the severe labor and concentration of effort which such an object requires.
But I was aware that however the general outline might be condensed, the
living freshness which we find in the original monuments and documents
of each historical period, should be preserved unimpaired. Instead,
therefore, of endeavoring, like most of those who have prepared such
works, to present only that which is general aud indefinite, I have con-
tinuallj aimed to hold up that which in each age possessed most of in-
dividual and distinct character : and when it became indispensable that
some general grand features ^ould be rendered prominent, I have
sought to make these so suggestive of the particular facts, that recollec-
tions of the most minute circumstances should throng the mind of the
instructor. In this way, the attention will be aroused while in the pro-
cess of preparation, and the memory will be strengthened in its recollec-
tions, since whatever is characteristic awakens sympathy, and fastens
itself in the memory. In this respect, it may be said that what belongs
to a good text-book, is also an essential part of every historical repre-
sentation. In every century many noble spirits have found their prin-
cipal delight, and expended all their energies, in investigating subjects
connected with ecclesiastical history. And yet for a long time the com-
position of ecclesiastical history seems by no means to have retained the
eminent relative position which it held in former days. Without refer-
ring to historians of an earlier period, where have we any works upon
Church History whose excellence as historical compositions can be com-
pared with those ,pf Maohiavel, Hume, and John Mailer ? Even
among the most recent ecclesiastical histories, that df Spittler is the
only work which can stand the test of a critical examination by the con-
temporary literary world ; but its Christian character is so obviously
one-sided, that every one perceives that in this respect it is far inferior
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Zl
to ihat of Neander. In thus expressiDg my general design, my Object
u to show what has been my aim, however far I have oome short of at-
taining it In these remarks, however, I have had very little reference
to the mere literary style ; for, with respect to this, we in Germany
generally need, and actually receive, much allowance for the dry form
of a compendium. I rather refer to such a careful study of original
authorities that the objects and events assume the living freshness of
reality, and to a complete intellectual apprehension of the facts. I have
also bestowed some attention upon a peculiar department of history,
which, though it has in former times been noticed by all genuine eoole*
siastical historians, never became prominent until the appearance of the
venerable Neander's History of the Christian Religion^ I do not, how-
ever, by any means expect that my present work will receive very de-
cided favor from those who, in a peculiar sense, belong to the school of
Neander, since it was certainly not so much my special object to search
out what was spiritual and devotional among the people, as it was al-
ways to seize upon what was characteristic of the popular religioiL In
the greatness and completeness of such a representation, there must of
course always be much adapted to inspire devotional feelings, and, ac-
cordingly, I have constantly felt that I was writing the history of the
actual kingdom of G-od on earth. But as men have often turned
that which was really sublime into a caricature, many individual points
must necessarily be far enough from edifying.
There are some subjects not usually introduced into an ecclesiastical
history, to which I have awarded a right to a position there, because
they had their origin in the Church. Indeed, in most of the larger
Church Histories, nearly all of them have had a certain kind of con-
sideration already bestowed upon them. Such is, e. g., the treatment
which Schroeckh has given to the subject of Christian art, although the
style in which he has written must be confessed to have been singularly
awkward. In his Encyclopedia, Rosenkranz has also assigned a due
degree of importance to the subject of ecclesiastical architecture. On
the other hand, I have omitted many things ordinarily mentioned even
in the smallest eompendiums. I have, however, so little disposition to
offer an apology for this, that I am rather inclined to reproach myself
that, especially on the subject of Patristies, I so far yielded to usage
that I allowed many topics to retain their ordinary position, which
certainly have no right to a place in history. On various occasions it
has recently been asserted that ecclesiastical history ought, at least in
a course of academical instruction, to throw out a portion of its ballast
And yet we can hardly think that a proper remedy for our difficulties
would be £6und in the plan proposed by Tittmann, according to which
mi PBEFACS TO THE FIRST EDITION.
our future histories must be confined to an account of the promulgation
of Christianity, and of the internal constitution of the Church. For, it
most readily be perceived, that no true representation of the actual
oondition of the Church could ever be made by one who confined him-
self to such arbitrary restrictions. If, indeed, an ecclesiastical history
should attempt merely to present a connected account of all theological
literature, it would go beyond its peculiar province, and become an en-
oyclopedia of theological knowledge. No particular event connected
with theological science ever needs to be noticed, except when it becomes
important as a prominent circumstance belonging to the age, and may
properly be regarded as characteristic of the times. We cannot, how-
ever, entirely dispense with some account of the received doctrines of
the Church. Although a separate history of these is of the highest im-
portance to the interests of theological science, the ecclesiastical his-
torian cannot on that account omit all reference to the subject ; for how
ooold the ecclesiastical movements of the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries
be adequately described without noticing the various forms and processes
through which the doctrinal views of the Church, and its different sects,
then passed, and by which the character of those great movements was
determined ? Indeed, how could a clear representation be given of any
period of the Church, unless it included some account of the system of
faith which animates and sustains the whole. There is, in reality, only
a formal distinction between the history of doctrines as a special science,
and as an element in the general hbtory of the Church ; for, aside from
the difference in the outward extent with which the subject is necessarily
treated, they only refer to the different poles of the same axis, — the
former presenting the doctrine rather as an idea unfolding its own self,
and the latter exhibiting it in its relation to surrounding events. But
the principal method by which ecclesiastical history was to be simplified,
was by discarding a mass of useless material Nothing is a part of
history which has not at some period possessed actual life, and con-
sequently become immortal, by exhibiting in itself a true refraction of
the Christian spirit ; for, as God is only the God of the living, so history ,
is not a record of that which is lifeless and dead, but of that which has
a perpetual life. We have, however, hitherto dragged along a vast
multitude of these still-born trifles. Of what benefit can it be, at least
for students, to have it in their power to repeat the names of all those
persons who have been only remotely connected with the different events
mentioned in history ,^-of Synods which decided upon nothiog, of popes •
who never governed, and of authors who wrote nothing of importance.
A veneration for the names of these silent personages, of whom nothiug
is recorded but the year of their death, has induced many even of our
PBBFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. XIU
greatest ecclesiastical historians to fill whole pages of their works with
the useless catalogue. Should any one think that it is the business of
the instructor to quicken these dry bones by giving an account of their
works, he certainly has very little idea of the range of topics embraced
in the academic lecture ; and I appeal to the experience of any one who
has ever gone through with the text-book of Staudlin or of Muenscher,
and inquire whether he has found it possible to animate the masses
found in them; or if he has been successful in this, whether he has
found any advantages worth the trouble? I have endeavored, as far as
possible, to avoid such useless verbiage in the text, for, although a man-
ual should be expected to require much explanation from the living
teacher, it should also possess some character of its own. By adopting
this plan, opportunity has been acquired for a more extensive notice of
those matters which were really important, and it will sometimes be
found that I have given to spch topics as much space as they ordinarily
receive in larger works. It is possible, indeed, that a degree of dispro-
portion may be discovered between the attention bestowed upon different
individual subjects ; but it was never intended that the most diffuse por-
tions should take the place of the oral lecture, but rather excite the
reader to examine more thoroughly into the minutest particulars. The
principle on which this has been done may be found expressed in the
third section of the work. The academic instruction will at least assist
the student in gaining a complete view of an age, if it only presents that
age most thoroughly in the lives of its individual men ; and it is pre-
cisely by such a concrete representation of exalted particular agents
that the most distinct impression is produced upon the memory.
Shakspeare says, in one of his prologues, *' I pray you, Iook upon the
broil of a few players as if it were a real battle 1 '' In like manner, the
historian may request his readers to regard the intellectual chiefs and
representatives of a particular period as the age itself. Such a course
is not one which I have myself originally discovered, but it is the
necessary result of the multiplication of those admirable biographies of
which Neander has given us such eminent specimens, and to the compo-
sition of which his example has so much contributed.
The reader will sometimes meet with very peculiar expressions, such
as no one would reasonably have expected from my own pen. The ex-
perienced reader of history will readily perceive that these are quotations
vfhich I have taken as a kind of catch-words from the original authori-
ties. I might frequently have designated them as such by some mark,
but they are generally so interwoven and imperceptibly blended with
my own words, that if I had attempted to distinguish the words of other
Xiy PBEFAC£ TO THE FIBST EDITION.
authors from my own, my history would have had almost the aspect of
mosaic work.
Although I have never concealed mj own opinions, I have generally
preferred to let the facts of the narrative speak for themselves. I was
also far more anxious to show why any particular event came to pass,
and how it was regarded when it took place, than to indulge in those
pedantic reflections, in which men every where atteiifpt to act as judges.
And yet even with respect to secular matters, I have never shrunk from
calling every thing by its right name. In the very darkest times, those
who occupied positions purely ecclesiastical, were allowed freely to call
that unchristian which was really so. But probably most persons will
think that when judging of things inconsistent with true religion, I have
used the full liberty which naturally belongs to my position and my
character more frequently on the side of leniency than of severity. I
have no doubt, however, that in both i;pspects I have given ample
grounds for offence to those who apply to other ages the standard of intelli-
gence and improvement to which their own has attained, or who judge
them by the contracted rules of piety which they have adopted; in
whose eyes Catharine of Siena was merely '^ a silly kind of woman,'' and
Julius II. '^ il novum monstrum ; " and who say of Cardinal Hildebrand,
that, '^ the scoundrel even pretended to work miracles ; " or who, on the
other side, relate that the word of the cross was ecclesiastically abolished
in Weimar in the year 1833. But judicious men will not fail to recog-
nise the same disposition in all the apparent changes of opinion which
have taken place. They can regard the same words as seasonable, and
indicative of an exalted mind, when used by Gregory YII., which are
nothing but the helpless lamentations of a feeble old age when they ap-
pear in a Bull of Gregory XYI. With regard to the bright side of the
mediaeval hierarchy, and the dark side of the Reformation, I do not
suppose I need, in a purely theological circle of readers, to guard against
misconstructions with a solicitude like that which Van Raumer recently
exhibited, when writing for the more general body of the people. I
might, indeed, allege that the Reformation was so pure, and so exalted
in its nature, that it needs no concealment of its darker passages ; but
even if this were untrue, I should nevertheless withhold nothing from
the light. Something may be exacted from those for whom the present
work is intended ; for, though they may be young, they should be trained
to take independent and comprehensive views of history. I have, there-
fore, in every instance expressed the whole truth so far as I have myself
known it. The only sections in which I have allowed any restrictions
were those which contain notices of doctrinal history. Among students
with whom I am acquainted, it is always a rule to attend lectures upon
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. XV
Eoolesiastioal History before those upon Didactic Theology ; and it ap-
pears to me right that this should always be the case. I have^ there-
fore, in some instances sacrificed something of the profundity of a
scientific inyestigation, that I might address myself more intelligibly to
the popular mind.
I have also taken some liberty in the general arrangement. No one
oonyersant with the subject would require thatr each historical period
should be accommodated to the same immutable framework. Who
would think of bringing the apostolic Church into the same frame which
has been found so appropriate to the age of the Reformation ? And if
« some exceptions must be conceded by those who are most zealous in be-
half of an invariable system, we shall not hesitate to abandon this phan-
tom of uniform periods, Neither have I thought it necessary when no
change had taken place in some particular state of affairs, in all instances
to announce in a formal manner, that such was the fact, or to introduce
the most unimportant details as I should have felt obliged to do, if I
had had just so many spaces to fill in each period. If an event appears not
to have possessed much influence until a period after that in which it
had its commencement, it will be mentioned only in thai in which it be-
came fully developed. In all cases, I have recognized no other law than
that which requires that each age should be so presented that the clear-
est view of it may be obtained, and most firmly fixed in the memory.
In some instances, especially in modem history, I was doubtful what
arrangement would be best adapted to my purpose. In such cases, my
final decision was determined by a very slight preponderance of reasons
in its favor, and I shall not, therefore, be surprised if others should come
to a different conclusion. If, however, they actually consider all the ad-
vantages and results of each method, they will at least appreciate the
motives by which I was directed in my selection.
A selected literature is the only thing, in itself of no importance,
which is yet essential to a text-book. Where it has been possible, I
have distinguished between original authorities and revised editions.
I have referred to particular passages at the bottom of the page, not
often as proof-passages, but merely as significant and distinct expres-
sions of the age in which they were written, and to be communicated
verbally by the lecturer himself. The small number of them will cer-
tainly not be imputed .to my indolence by those who are aware how
easily such citations are now to be obtained, and how trifling an evidence
they are of genuine study. They will be found most abundant in the
present work with reference to recent times (though without regard to
the views of the contemporary writers), because it was then more diffi-
cult to refer to general original authorities, or to revised editions of them.
XYl PREFACE TO THE THIBD EDITION.
It is, indeed, possible, that if I had waited ten years longer, I could
have established some of my positions with more circumspection. But
if I had done so, I might at that time have had neither the opportunity
nor the inclination to write such a work as is needed for a text-book ;
and as I shall be just as able then to make any improvements within my
power upon the present work, I hope my friends will kindly accept
what I now have to present them, although from the nature of such a
work the writer is likely to console himself at its close with the hope
that he will at some future day be able to improve and perfect it.
JxNA, Jicension Day^ 188i.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
This Church History has been every where so kindly appreciated and
noticed, that I have nothing but my thanks to offer, as I present to the
public another edition. With regard to the division into periods, and
some minor details, I have recently had occasion to explain my views
to a considerable extent in the second number of my polemic treatises.
Jena, March 9th, 1886.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
I CERTAINLY havo reasou to rejoice in the reception with which this
book has been favored, as it ha^ been circulated far beyond the sphere
for which it was originally intended. Such a result is especially pleas-
ing, as it indicates that the interest recently awakened in ecclesiastical
and kindred subjects is not confined to matters pertaining exclusively
to the present generation, but that men are anxious to become thoroughly
acquainted with the condition of things in earlier times, and to become
animated by the rich life of the Church during its whole past existence.
But while this is true, literature itself certainly gains but little by this
rapid succession of new editions, and it has really been a source of vex-
ation to me that I was obliged to allow so fine an opportunity to pass
without contributing more to the perfection of this work. The improve-
ments introduced have generally been in matters of no great importance,
and even where some considerable changes have been made, they have
not been the result of any comprehensive investigations of my own, but
PREFACE TO THE THIBD EDITION. XVU
rather of the labors of others. Thus, the section which relates to
Sayonarola has received some accession to its materials from the re-
searches pnrsned for a while in Florence, by my former beloved col-
league Meier^ and the history of the Popes since the Reformation has
gained something from the ingenious examinations and careful extracts
from original documents lately made by Ranke, Although the brevity
of a text-book has not allowed frequent references to the German
Mythology of Grimm, this work has afforded me much valuable assist-
ance when attempting to gain a complete view of the history of the
Germanic Church.
Prof. Krabbe, in the Literary Advertiser (1837. N. 10-12.), besides
giving a detail of individual facts, which is instructive to any one, and
is especially worthy of my particular thanks, ha^ passed a judgment
upon the spirit of my book, by comparing it with Neander's Church
History as a standard. In this respect, we Germans are a very strange
people. If any one has succeeded in accomplishing any thing excellent
in his own peculiar way, we always think that if another attempts any
thing in the same department, he must set about it in precisely the
same style. But the very fact that this particular kind of historical
writing has had for its representative and cultivator one so eminently
endowed as Neander confessedly is, renders it comparatively needless
that others should enter the same field, and unlikely that any should
^ual him. We can only hope that he may have health sufficient, and
life long enough, to complete his great work. If, however, it is thought
that a text-book in his style is desirable. Dr. Guerike has certainly
made the most diligent use of his pages, and should it bo objected that
Guerike's orthodoxy is extreme, Neander himself has trained up a num-
ber of clever pupils, of whom more than one is competent to write a
text-book. I have received in my own way much advantage from
Neander, but my original constitution is so different from his, and my
mind has passed through a process of development so very different,
that I should have gained but little, whatever efforts I had made to
imitate him. No one should expect to gather grapes of thorns, though
possibly roses might be found upon them.
The judgment of the Hegelian school has been expressed in a review
by Prof. Hasse, in the Annual Register of Scientific Criticism
(1836. N. 66-68.). The liberal spirit of true science, and the friendly
disposition of the writer, cannot be mistaken in the piece, in spite of
the severe terms in which that judgment is expressed. He has, how-
ever, done me some injustice when he asserts that I attempted in my
remarks respecting general and indefinite expressions in my first preface,
to escape from the universal principles of philosophical thought. I
J
XVm PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
only intended there to speak against thpse indefinite phrases which are
so common in our ordinary text-books, as, e, g., the very example which
I then adduced, where whole pages are filled with names distinguished
only by a cross and a date, which give to them the appearance of a
Moravian cemetery, rather than of an abundant and varied individual
life. Against the objection that I indulged too much in the description
of minute details, which might be urged more correctly against historical
representations, I will not reply that it certainly requires more labor
to collect such minor particulars from the original authorities than it
does to make general reflections upon the events, for I am well aware
that my worthy opponent would contend for the former as a part of his
own plan, and that he really would require such an earnest investigation
of facts, as cannot be performed without a severe exercise of thought.
But this earnest inquiry into the origin and nature of things, I have in
no instance avoided. With regard to the general principles contained
in the facts of history ^ it will be found that the summaries prefixed to
the periods contain nothing else, and that the subsequent details of
particular and distinct events may really be regarded as a more ex-
.tended illustration of them. But his account of my method of procedure
in this matter is not altogether correct. He says; '^The author, e, g,y
instead of giving us the true origin of monasticism, presents us with a
description of St Anthony; and even of him, we have merely a series
of peculiar traits of character expressed in the most pithy style.'' And
yet just before the section alluded to, a complete general view of the
origin and spirit of that whole theory of religious life out of which
necessarily proceeded a style of living, of which that of the anchorets
was an extreme form, had been presented (now ^ 64.), and in the next
period, when that which properly may be called the monastic life came
before us, a similar general representation of the true object and spirit
of this style of life is given (now ^ 134.). The reviewer proceeds:
'' We are then presented in a similar style with a portraiture of Cyprian
(now ^ 84.), as the representative of the whole ecclesiastical life of his
age, and a characteristic incident in the life of Leo the Great is given
as a specimen of the mode in which the Roman bishops drew into their
own hands the administration of the government of the whole Church "
But in the first instance here mentioned, the account of Cyprian was
preceded by a history of the process by which the legal relations of the
Church had been formed, and by some notice of the general character-
istics of the ecclesiastical life ; and in the other case, all the antecedent
principles had already been mentioned by means of which the Roman
see had gained a consciousness of its future destiny. Cyprian and Leo
are described to a greater extent than others, because they were re-
PREFACE TO THE THIBD EDITION. XIX
garded as the natural representatives of this peculiar phase of the eccle-
siastical life. Mj ohject was in this way to bring the abstract principles
which I had laid down into a concrete representation by means of these
important individual characters, inasmuch as I had certainly supposed
this to be the proper method in which history should be written. I
suppose I must submit when our critic condescends to impute every
thing which he approves in thb history to what he calls ^' the happy
tact of the writer, which enables him to discover things as it were by
instinct or divination," because he did not find them proceeding from
Hegelian principles, and they were not embellished with the well-known
formulae of his own school. I am not, indeed, one of those who strive
to affect ignorance of those results of the Hegelian philosophy which
have had so general an influence upon the history of our world. But
with respect to historical writing, Marheineke's History of the Reforma-
tion has put the question beyond all doubt, that a man can be an emi-
nent historian, and at the same time a friend of the Hegelian philosophy ;
and yet there are already some symptoms that a zealous Hegelian may
pretty thoroughly ruin the history which he attempts to write. Indeed,
there can be no doubt that if a history of the Church were written, even
by a writer as profound as Daub himself, on the principles and method
lately recommended by him in the Journal for Speculative Theology, it
would turn out to be utterly unreadable to most of our race. At any
rate, we may console ourselves with the recollection, that since the time
of Thucydides there have been some writers who, by a happy tact, or
by divination, have been able to produce something like tolerable his-
tories, although it does not appear that they were guided by Hegelian
principles, or used Hegelian formulae.
It has been pleasant to me to find that some learned men of the
Catholic Church have recognized my honest intention to be uniformly
just toward their Church, and to declare the whole truth in every case.
It would hardly be candid in the different parties generally to expect
from each other more than such acknowledgments of good will, since it
mast necessarily be a condition of their different ecclesiastical positions
that the same events should have a different aspect in the view of each,
and that one should always fiild something of which it disapproves in
the accounts of the other. But it is no small gain when both are con-
vinced of each other's good will. I refer particularly to a criticism by
Prof Hefeky in the Quarterly Journal of Tubingen, (1836, N. 4.) He
is entirely correct when he says, that what I have written in ^ 333,
where it is said, *' the idols were burned," was not intended to express
my own view. Nor is it precisely meant as an expression of what
Zwingle himself believed on the subject It is rather the view and the
XX PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
language of the whole generation in that vicinity from which this de-
struction of the images proceeded ; and although the expression is rather
rude, it was selected as the briefest by which the motives of the actors
could be made known. In the passage in which Amsdorf's installation
as Bishop of Naumburg (now ^ 337), is mentioned, I am better agreed
with the honored Reviewer than he seems to have suspected. For when
it is there said, '* The elector could not resist the temptation to provide
an apostolic bishop for that see,'' it is not merely intended that such
was the purpose of the elector and his counsellors, and such the reason
by which they satisfied their own consciences in this proceeding, but a
slight touch of irony is blended with the whole, and is indicated in the
expression, that the elector could not resist such a temptation^ since the
apostolic character of this bishop, in the opinion of the court, consisted
principally in the fact, that the new incumbent would draw but a small
salary, and consequently the electoral treasury would be enriched by
the ample revenues of the bishopric. I confess, too, that I can see very
little of a more apostolic character in our Lutheran lealot Amsdorf
than in the mild and learned Julius von Pflug. But whatever one may
think with regard to these points, the whole proceeding was in violation
of long established rights. Althoagh a little surprised that he should
have called the style of my work enigmaticaly I was happy to find that
this Reviewer fully appreciated the view which I had expressed with
regard to the relation of a text-book to the oral lecture. It would
seem, however, fVom the historical examples which he adduces, that he
at least suoceeded in completely understanding my meaning when I re-
marked, that the subjects which are more generally treated, and barely
hinted at, in the text-book, are founded upon distinct historical views,
and are so presented as to invite the instructor, who is well informed
on the minute details, to communicate and enlarge upon them. The
style required for this I should not call enigmatic, merely because
those who have not become familar with the original authorities of the
history may find something not properly obscure, but to be passed over
more superficially than other subjects, and without a complete exhaus-
tion of it9 contents. A germ, or a bud, cannot, indeed, be fully seen
until it has become expanded in the flower ; but whoever sees the bud,
has before him not merely an enigma, but what is already an intelligible
reality. This is very much like the comparison which the Reviewer
made between the Florentine and the Roman schools of painting, to
illustrate the distinction between Catholic history and my own, or the
ordinary orthodox hbtories of the Church. Every well-educated person
will readily perceive the import, and the striking nature of this com-
parijM>n. But any one fiunilar with the peeoliariiies of the two schools,
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. XXI
and has a vivid conception of their productions, will appreciate the
profound truth, and the extensive applicability of this ingenious com-
parison.
JsNA, June 4eA, 1887.
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
During the years which have elapsed while the previous editions have
been given to the public, I have had time and inclination enough not
only more thoroughly to investigate many particulars (though I must
not withhold my heartiest thanks from those who have assisted me), but
also to revise the whole, without, however, changing the essential char-
acter of the book. The object for which it was originally intended
would allow of no augmentation of its size. The vastness of its subject
rendered all attempts to render the contents themselves more perfect in
their relations and in their distinctness an absolutely interminable
task. But on this anniversary of the morning on which, seven years
ago, the first preface of this work was written, I am painfully oppressed
by the recollection, that a large part of the most vigorous and most
tranquil portion of my life has been spent in efforts to improve a work
of such a limited extent ; and I cannot venture upon any further prom-
ises with regard to future efforts in this matter.
Jena, Ascension Day^ 1841.
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.
The ten years to which I alluded at the close of the preface to the
first edition have now passed, and it is certain that in an animated in-
tercourse with the age in which I live, many of the positions I first as-
sumed have either been more carefully verified, or have been Changed.
Either in the German, or in a foreign language, this work has found its
way through the hands of the youth into the quiet residences of many
pastors, and even into palaces. Thus, under the divine blessing, may
it proceed onward in its course, producing in the Church a sound
consciousness of her historical development until it shall have fulfilled
its mission.
Jkna, Jan, 1«<, 1844.
XXll PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION.
PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION.
Whatever is new in this edition will be found principallj in those
portions relating to the most ancient and the most modern times.
Most of what I have added to the former has been occasioned bj the
researches of the new school of Tubingen. These were not altogether
unknown to me during the composition of the original work, but in con-
sequence of the works of Baur, Paulus and Schwegler, with reference to
the period immediately after the apostles, they now appear in more per-
fect relations. I was in no danger of maintaining an obstinate resistance
to the fundamental principles of their historical scheme, to avoid the
necessity of taking back my former assertions on the same subject, for,
in the first edition, I had maintained that a primary form of ecclesi-
astical orthodoxy was Ebionism, although afterwards, in consequence of
the progress of other views, this was regarded as a heresy. The very
earliest theological treatise which I published, as long ago as 1824, and
which was quoted by Dr. Schwegler himself, was written to show that
the Epistle to the Hebrews belonged to an Ebionite party. And yet I
have never been convinced that the struggle between the Jewish and the
Pauline parties continued as late as a century after the death of the
apostles, and in countries beyond the limits of Palestine, and constituted
the great moving principle of the history and literatiire of that century.
It did not belong to a mere text-book to discuss the ingenious arguments
which Dr. von Baur has brpught forward, but my present revision has
certainly gone quite far enough into this matter, and my history of this
oldest period of Church history seems almost every where like a quiet
conference with the Tubingen school, by adopting or controverting whose
positions it has been much benefited. I was, of course, unable to make
use at that time of the new edition (4 ed. 1847.) of Neauder's history
of the apostolic Church. The abundant materials which the last four
years have afforded, were easily added, like new annual rings and shoots,
to the old trunk of the most modem history.
I ha^e, for this once, spared myself the disagreeable task of reading
the proof sheets for the correction of typographical errors, but an un-
pleasant mistake has caught my eye in note b, under ^ 8, where my
diligent proof-reader, even in opposition to grammatical propriety, has
allowed ab orbe condita to stand as in the preceding edition.
In quoting from the Fathers, and from some other authors, I was
sometimes obliged to give the page, and I therefore here mention the
editions to which I referred : Athanasii 0pp. Par. 1627. Clemen tis
Alex. 0pp. ed. Potter. Oxon. 1715. Cypriani 0pp. ed. Fell. Amst.
PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. XXIU
1713. Epiphanii 0pp. ed. Petav. Par. 1622. Hieronymi 0pp. ed.
Martianay, when that of Vallarsi is not expressly mentioned. Justini
0pp. ed. Otto. Jen. 1842s. Leon M. 0pp. edd. Ballerini. Origenis
0pp. ed. Delarae. — Gerson. ed. Da Pin. Antu. 1706. Guicciardini.
Van. 1583-4. Mattheus Paris. Par. 1644. Melancth. Epp. in the
Corpus Reformatorum ed. Bretschneider. Platina. 1664. Dutch edition.
Trithemi Annales Hirsang. S. Galli. 1690. «
In the notes to the latest modern history, the abbreviations A. K.
Z. mean the (Darmstadt) Allegemeine Kirchen-Zeitung ; Ev. K. Z.
mean Evangelische KirchenZeituug ; Brl. A. K. Z. mean Berliner
Allgemeine- Kirchen-Zeitung ; A. Z. mean Augsburger AUgemeine
Zeitung ; L. A. Z., or D. A. Z., mean Leipziger, afterwards Deutsche
Allgemeine Zeitung. It may be that some public documents which had
been published in the religious, are quoted from the political journals,
because I had first met with them in the latter, but it is certainly very
desirable for future historical purposes, that our religious periojicals
should collect in a more perfect manner than they have done the original
documents, especially of foreign Churches. This will become especially
important, if the Acta historico-ecclesiastica, which poor Eheinwald com-
menced, should never be continued.
Jeka, Mrst Sunday in Advent, 1847.
PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION.
Although I had supposed that I had before neglected nothing, the re-
vision of this work for a new impression has given occasion for so many
improvements, or at least alterations, that the immensity of the affair
has once more forced itself upon my attention. Hence the necessity,
to my present annoyance, of a much enlarged edition. I might very
properly excuse myself by saying, as Pascal did, in one of his Provin-
cial Letters, that I have no time to make it briefer. An author oughty
indeed, always to take time for a book, since generally he is under no
necessity of publishing prematurely. But the publication of a new
edition is sometimes beyond his control. When, last Spring, I re-com-
menced my lectures upon Church History, a sufficient number of copies
of this text-book were not to be obtained ; I was therefore obliged to
supply my pupils with the separate sheets as they came from the press^
and to finish the preparation within a limited time.
XXIV PBEFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION.
I have been acoustomed generally to correct the last proof-sheets
with my own hands, but on the present occasion I spared myself the un-
pleasant task of reading to find typographical errors ; and I committed
to my students the work of diligently watching for these marks of
human frailty. Their keen young eyes have discovered some mistakes
of this kind ; and not to mention those which are unimportant, and are
easily seen and corrected, I will only notice that instead of Eugenius
VI. f on p. 279, Eugenius lY., should be inserted; and instead of 1835,
in the third line from the bottom of p. 405, 1853 should be printed.
• •••••••
Where quotations are made from the Fathers, and some other
writers, and frequently the precise number of the page must be men-
tioned, I have referred to the following editions : Cypriani 0pp. od.
Fell. Amst. 1713. Epiphauii 0pp. ed. Petav. Par. 1622. Hieronymi
0pp. ed. Martianay, where Yillarsi is not expressly mentioned. Justini
Oppu ed. Otto, Jen. 1847s. Leon. M. 0pp. ed. Ballerinii. Origenis
0pp. ed. Delarue. — Gerson, ed. Du Pin. Antu. 1706. Guicciardini ;
Yen. 1583-4. Mattheus Paris; Par. 1644. Melancth. Epp. in the
Corpus Reformatorum. Platina 1664. Dutch edit. Trethemii Annales
Hirsaug. S. Galli. 1690. Sleidan. Argent. 1555. Sarpi 1699-4.
Seckendorf. Fraucof. 1688.. Ranke, deutsche Gesch. 3. ed.
While the work was passing through the press, and after those
sections to which they referred had been printed, many important works
have appeared, which might have had an influence upon my statements.
I will not mention them here, for after a few months such a list would
be as imperfect as before. The author of a monograph must be ex-
pected, of course, to understand his subject better than others ; but he
who writes a general history, must learn from many, and be corrected
by almost all.
Jkna, Feb. mhy 1854.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAP. L— PLAN.
1. llie Church and the World,
2. Idea of Church History,
8. Proper Province of Church History,
4. Relation to the General History of Religion, •
6. Mode of Treating Church History,
6. Value of Church History,
7. Sources, ....
8. Auxiliary Sciences, . . •
9. BiYision ....
1
1
2
2
8
8
8
4
6
CHAP, n.— GENERAL LTTERATURR
10. Polemical Church History,
11. French Ecclesiastical Historians, .
12. Protestant Scientific Church History,
IS. Writers of the German Catholic Church, .
8
8
11
ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY.
PERIOD I.
FBOM CHRIST TO C0N8TANTINB.
14. General View and Original Authorities, . . .
18
DIVISION L— ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH.
CHAP. L—INTRODUCrORY HISTORY.
L Classio Hjeathxnisii.
15. Popular Life among the Greeks, ....
16. limits of Grecian Refinement, . . ,
17. The Religion of the Greeks, ....
1,8. Relation of Philosophy to the Popular Rdigion,
. *
• *
16
16
16
16
CONTENTS.
19. Rome as a Republic,
20. Dccliiie of Greece,
21. Elevation and Decline of Rome, .
22. Decline of the Popular Religion,
n. JUDAIBH.
25. The Religious Life of the People, .
24. The Dispersed Jews, .
26. Hellenism, ....
26. The Three Sects,
27. The Samaritans, .
28. Proselytes,
CHAP. II.— THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH
29. The First Pentecost,
80. Fortune of the Chiiri.-h of Jerusalem,
31. Jewish Christianity,
82. Samaritan Christians and Sects,
88. Paul, ....
84. Pet«r, .....
86. Position of Parties in the time of Paul, ,
86. John, .....
87. Parties in the Time of John.
88. Traditions Respecting the Apostles, .
89. Apostolical Fatners of the First Century,
40. Political Overthrow of Judaism,
41. The Roman Civil Power, .
42. Constitution of the Local Churches, .
48. Ecclesiastical Life,
44. Mode of Worship,
45. Doctrines of the Church, .
TAOm
. 17
18
. 18
19
20
21
21
22
23
23
24
25
26
26
27
80
81
88
84
85
86
86
87
88
89
40
41
DIVISION IL— FORMATION OF THE CATHOLIC
CHURCH.
CHAP. L— STRUGGLE OF THE CHURCH FOR ITS OWN EXISTENCE
46. The Jews, /.......
47. The Roman People and Empire, .....
48. Conduct of the Individual Emperors of the Second and Third Centuries,
49. Internal History of Paganism, .....
50. New-Platonism, .......
51. Literary Controversies of Christianity, ....
52. The Christian Apologists, ......
58. Religion of Barbarous Nations, .....
54. Spread of Christianity, ......
55. Tne Last Persecution, ......
56. The Martyrs, ........
CHAP, n.— SOCLAL CONSTITUTION OP THE CHURCH
57. Original Documents on Ecclesiastical Law,
58. The Clergy and the Laity, ......
59. Bishops, ........
60. Synods, ...•••..
61. Metropolitans, .......
42
43
44
46
47
49
50
53
53
54
55
ropoi
62. The Tnree Great Bishops,
68. The Catholic Church and its Branoheay .
56
67
59
60
60
61
62
CONTENTS.
XXYU
CHAP, m.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFR
64 Christian Morals, ......
65. St. Anthony, ......
66. Ecclesiastical Discipline, . . . . .
67. The Montaniats, .....
68. The Novatians, ......
69. Holy Seasons, and the Controversy about Easter,
70. Sacred Places, and their Decoration,
7 1. Sacred Services, .....
PAOB
63
64
66
66
67
67
69
69
CHAP. IV.— DOCTRINES OF THE CHURCH, AND OPINIONS OPPOSED
TO THEM.
72. Sources from which the Church derived its System of Faith,
73. Apostolic Fathers of the Second Century. Oont fi^)m g 8Q,
74. Ecclesiastical Literature and Heresy,
75. Ebiouism. Cont from § 35, .
76. I. Gnosticism, .....
77. II. Syrian Gnostics, ....
78. in. Hellenistic Gnostics, ....
79. IV. Gnostics, in an especial sense Christian, .
80. V. Judaizing Gnostics, ....
81. VL Influence of Gnosticism upon the Church,
82. Manichaeism, .....
83. Historico-Ecclesiastieal Theology,
84. Thascius Caecilianus Cyprianus, .
85. L The School of Alexandria, .
86. II. Characteristics of the Alexandrian Theology,
87. IIL Influence of Origen,
88. Appendix to the Literary History,
89. Apocryphal Literature,
90. Subordinationistfi and Monarchians,
71
72
78
74
75
77
78
81
88
86
86
88
89
91
98
94
96
96
98
PERIOD II.
FROM OONSTANTInS TO CHABLES THE GfiEAT.
91. General View, . . . . .
101
DIVISION I.— THE IMPERIAL CHURCH.
02. Original Authorities, ......
CHAR L— VICTORY AND DEFEAT OF CHRKTUNITY
*
93. Constantine and his Sons, . • . . . .
94. Julianus Apostata, ......
95. The Fall of Paganism, . . ...
96. Ma^aalians and Hypaistarians, ....
97. Christianity under the Persians, .....
98 Abyssinia and the Diaspora, .....
99. Mohammed, .......
100. Victories of Islam, . . ....
CHAP. IL— THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE.
101. Conflicts and Sources of the Ecclesiastical Life, .
101
. 108
104
. 106
107
. 107
108
. 108
110
110
XXVIU
CONTENTS.
L Thx Abian CONTBOyicBST.
102. The Synod of Nicaea. Cont from § 90, .
108. Athanasius and Arius, ......
104. Minor Controversies, ......
106. The Synod of Constantinople and the Holy Trinity,
106. Ecclesiastical Literature, .....
IL Tub Obigkmstic Contboykbsy.
107. SynesiuB, Epiphanins, and Hicronymus, ....
108. Cnrysostom, .......
ni Tax Pelagian Comtboyxbst.
109. Pelagianism and Augustinism, .....
110. Augustinus, .......
111. Victory of Augostinism, ......
112. Semipelagianiam, ......
lY. COHTBOYEBSXBI BS9PB0TXNa THS TWO NaTUBS OV OBBOK
118. The Neetorian Controversy, . . •
114 The Entychian Controversy, .
lift. The Monophysites, ....
116. Jostinian, .....
117. The Edict of Peace and the Monophysite Church,
118. The Monothelite Controversy,
119. Ecclesiastical Literature, ....
CHAP. HI.— SOCL^ CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH
120. Legislation and Books of Law,
121. The Roman Empire, ....
122. Power of the Emperor over the Church, . .
128. Power of the Church over the State,
124. Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction,
126. Church Property, ....
126. The Congregation and the Clergy,
127. The Patriarchs. ....
128. The Roman Bishopric hefore Leo,
129. Leo the Great, . . . ^ •
180l The Papacy after Leo. Gregory the Great,
181. General Councils and the Catholic Church, .
FA**
112
113
114
116
110
119
120
122
122
124
124
126
127
128
129
180
181
182
. 134
136
. 137
187
. 188
189
. 140
141
. 142
143
. 144
146
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFB.
182. Religious Spirit of the People and Ecclesiastical Piscipline^
188. Celibacy and Moral Condition of the Clergy,
184w Monastic Life in the East, .....
186. Hermits. Simeon Stvlites, ....
186. Monasticism in the West Benedictines, .
187. Veneration for Saints, .....
188. Public Worship, ......
189. Ecclesiastical Architecture and Works oi Art,
140. Iconoclastic Controversy, .....
147
148
149
160
161
161
163
166
166
CHAP, v.— OPPONENTS OF THE ORDINARY ECCLESIASTICAL SYSTEM.
141. General View,
142. The Donatists, .
148. Audians, MassalianB,
144 Priscilianus,
146. Protesting Ecclesiastical Teachers,
146. History of the Paulioiana, g I,
167
167
168
168
160
l&d
CONTENTS.
■■CT.
DIVISION IL— THE GERMANIC CHURCH.
147. Original Authorities, ... . .
CHAP. I— ESTABLISHMENT OF CHRISTIANITY.
148. Religion of the Germans,
149. Religion of the Northern German Nations,
100. Ariaiiism, ....
101. Victory of Catholicism,
1 52. British and Anglo-Saxon Church,
153 Irruption of Islam in the West, .
154. Germany, Bonifacius, .
155. llie Saxons, ....
156. Overthrow of German Paganism,
CHAP. IL— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH.
157. Original Records of the Canon Law,
158. Relation of the Church to the State, .
169. Property of the Church and the Clergy, .
160. Ecclesiastical Power of the Pope,
161. Secular Power of the Pope, ....
162. Charles the Great, .....
CHAP. m.—ECCLESTASTICAL LIFE.
163. Religious Spirit of the People, ....
164. Ecclesiastical Discipline, ....
165. Morals of the Clergy and Canonical Life, • •
166. Public Worship, .....
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESLASTICAL SCIENOE.
167. Preservation of Literature,
168. Scientific Education under the Carolingians, .
169. Adoptionists, . . . ^ .
PAoa
160
^TV.
.
162
.
.
168
•
165
.
.
166
•
166
•
.
168
168
•
•
169
•
169
^URCH.
•
•
170
.
•
171
•
•
171
•
•
172
•
•
178
.
•
178
•
•
174
•
•
176
•
•
176
•
•
177
1
•
•
178
.
•
179
•
•
180
MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY,
PEKIOD III.
FROM CHABLES TO INNOCENT III.
170. General View and Authorities, . .
181
CHAP. L— GENERAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAPACY.
171. rJeneral View, .....
172. Donation of Constantine in the Ninth Century,
173. Pseudo-Isidore, .....
174. The Female Pope Joanna,
175. Nicholas I., 858-867, and Hadrian II, 867-872,
176. Formosus, 891-896. Stephen VL, 897,
177. Pornocracy, .....
178. The Popes under the Othos. .
179. The Papacy until the Synod of Sutri,
180. The Popes under Ilildebrand, 1048-1073,
188
183
184
186
187
188
189
189
191
191
J
CONTENTS.
181. Gregory VII., April 22, 1073-May 26, 1086,
182. Gregory's Successors, 1086-1099,
188. llie Crusades. Conquest of Jerusalem, .
184w Paschal IL, 1099-1118,
186. Calixtus II.. 1119-1124. Concordat of Worms,
186. Arnold of Brescia, and Bernard of Clairvaux,
187. The Crusade of St Bernard,
188. Frederic I Barbarossa, 1152-1190, .
189 Thomas Becket, ....
190. The Crusade against Salaheddin,
191. Henry VL
192. Innocent III, Jan. 8, 1198-July 16, 1216,
194
197
198
109
200
201
202
2U3
205
206
206
207
CIIAP. IL— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH.
198. Gratian and his Predecessors,
194. The Church and the SUte,
195. Ecclesiastical Power of the Papacy,
196. The Cardinals, ....
197. The Bishops, and the Bishops' Chapters, .
198. Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction,
199. Property of the Church, .
• • •
• • •
• • •
211
212
214
216
216
217
218
CHAP. HI.— ECCLESLASTICAL LIFE.
200. The Religious Spirit of the People,
201. Manners of the Clergy,
202. Church Discipline,
208. Public Worship,
204. Monastic life, ....
205. The Congregation of Clugny, .
206. Minor Orders of the Seventh Century, .
207. The Cistercians and St Bernard,
208. Praemonstrants and Carmelites, .
209. The Trinitarians,
210. The Humiliates, ....
211. Establishment of the Orders of Knighthood,
. 219
221
. 222
223
. 226
226
. 227
228
. 229
230
. 231
231
CHAP. IV.— STATE OF SCIENCE IN THE CHURCH.
212. Scientific Education of the Ninth Century, .
218. First Eucharistio Controversy, ....
214. Gottschalk. Cont from § 12...
216. Literary Interest during? the Tenth Century, under the Othos,
216. Academical Studies in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries,
217. The Second Eucharistic Controversy,
218. Scholasticism. First Period, ....
219. Mysticism. First Period, .....
220. Abelard, 1079-April 21, 1142,
221. The Sacred Scriptures, .....
222. Commencement of a National Literature in the Twelfth Century,
232
234
235
235
236
237
238
240
241
243
243
CHAP, v.— EXTENSION OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCIL
228. The Holy Ansgar, 801-865, ......
224. Germanic Nations of the North, .....
226. The Slavic Nations, . • .
226. Tlie Hungarians, . . .
227. The Finns, Livonians, and Esthonians, .....
246
246
248
260
250
CONTENTS.
XXXI
WCT.
CHAP. VI.—PARTll'S PROTESTING AGAINST THE CHURCH.
228. The Catharists, .....
229. Peter of Bruys and Henry. Tanchelm and Eon,
230. The Waldenses, . * .
231. llie Albigeiisian War, .....
CHAP. VH.— THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
232. Extension of the Church, ....
233. The Roman Empire and tlie Church,
234. Photius, ......
285. Division of the Church, .....
236. State of Science, .....
237. Paulicians. § 2. Cont from § 140,
251
258
254
265.
256
257
25$
25U
2tiU
261
PERIOD IV.
FROM INNOCENT III. TO LUTHEB.
238. General View and Hifltorical Writers,
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248.
249.
250.
251.
252.
268.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
CHAP. L— RELATION OF THE PAPACY TO GENERAL AFFAIRS.
Frederic 11. ,
Overthrow of the House of Hohenstaufen, .
St. Louis, ......
Termination of the Crusades, ....
Rudolph of Hapsburg, 1273-1291. Sicilian Vespers,
The Hermit in the Papal Chair, July 5-Dec. 13, 1294,
Boniface VIIL, Dec. 24, 1294-Oct 11. 1303,
Commencement of the Babylonian Exile,
Louis of Bavaria, 1314-1347. .loanna L of Naples,
Close of the Babylonian Exile,
The Schism, .....
C^juncil of Pisa, March 25-Aug. 7, 1409,
Council of Constance, Nov. 5, 1414-April 22, 1418,
Martin V., Nov. 11, 1417-Feb. 20, 1431,
Council of Basle, 1431-1443 (1449),
The Popes until the End of the Fifteenth Century, .
Alexander VL, Aug. 2, 1492-Aug. 18, 1503,
Julius H-, Nov. 1, 1603-Feb. 21, 1513,
Leo X, March 11, 1513-1617 (1521),
CHAP, a— SOCLAX CONSTITUTION OF THE
Corpus Juris Canonici, ....
The State and the Church, ....
Ecclesiastical Power of the Papacy,
Ecclesiastical Assemblies, ....
The National Churches, ....
The Bishops and their Jurisdiction, .
The Inquisition, .....
CIL\P. III.— ECCLESL^TICAL LIFR
The Two Groat Mendicant Orders,
Public Worship, .....
Flourishing Period of the Iniitiitive Arts in the Church,
Worship of the Saintd, ....
Miracles and Magic, ....
Church Discipline and InduTgences, .
Flagollants and Dancei-s, ....
CHURCK
268
265
267
268
269
269
270
271
272
278
274
276
276
277
278
279
281
282
283
285
286
287
288
290
21*2
202
2^3
295
300
302
807
309
311
812
XXXll
CONTENTS.
•CCT.
272. Morals of the Clergy, ....... 814
278. Religious Character of the People, ..... 816
274. Survey of the Monastic Life, . . . . . .816
276. More iudependent Associations, . . . . . .817
276. The Templars and the Knights of St John, . . . . 818
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL LITERATURR
277. Scholasticism. Second Period, ...... 820
278. Scholasticism. Third Period, ...... 821
279. Mysticism- Second Period, ...... 822
280. Excesses and Compromises, ...... 824
281. The so-called Revival of literature, ..... 826
282. John Reuchlin, 1466-1522, ...... 829
288. Desiderius Erasmus, 1466-1686, ...... 88o
284. The Holy Scriptures, . . . . . . .881
286. The Doctrine of the Church, . . . . . .882
286. Ethics and Casuistry, ....... 883
CHAP, v.— EXTENSION OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.
287. Apologetics. Islam. Judaism, ...... 885
288. Prussia. Lithuania. Lapland, ..... 88C
289. Prester John and the Mongols, ...... 387
29a The New World, ....... 838
CHAP. VL—OPPOSmON AND REFORM.
291. General View, ....... 8S8
I. Hostile Pabtos.
292. The Stedingers and the Heretical Ghibellines, . . 8ao
298. Fraternity of the Free Spirit, ...... 84<»
294. Order of the Apostles, . . . . . . 84 1
296. Termination of the Earlier Sects, . . . . • .812
IL REFoaac
296. Reformation in the Head and Members, .... 848
297. John Wycliffe, 1824-Dec. 81, 1381, . . . . .846
298. John Huss and the Hussites, ...... 847
299. The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren, ..... 860
800. Learned Precursors of the Reformation in Germany, . . 851
801. Jerome Savonarola, ....... 862
CHAP. VIL— THE GREEK CHURCR
802. Arsenius, ........ 854
808. The Light of God and Philosophy, . . . . .354
804. Attempts at Union. Cont from % 286, .... 355
806. End oi the Greek Empire, ...... 806
MODERN CHURCH HISTORY.
PERIOD V.
FROM LUTHER TO THE PEACE OP WESTPHALIA.
S06. General View, ........ 858
CHAP. L— THE GERMAN REFORMATION.
807. Original Authorities and Literary History, .... 869
CONTENTS.
xxxm
808.
809.
810.
811.
812.
818.
814.
815.
816.
817.
81S.
819.
820.
821.
822.
823.
824.
325.
826.
827.
828.
829.
830.
331.
I. Establishment of the Lutheran Church till 1532.
Luther's Youth, ......
The Ninety-Five Theses, ....
Interference of the Pope, .....
Amicable Negotiations, ....
Deputation at Leipsio, June 27-July, 16, 1619, .
Melancthon. General Affairs,
Appeal to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation,
Babylonian Captivity and Christian Freedom,
The Fire-Signal, ......
Political Relations till 1621, ....
Diet at Worms, 1621, .....
The Wartburg, and the Tumult at Wittenberg, 1621, 1622,
System of Doctrines and the Scriptures, .
Diet at Nuremberg, 1522, 1523,
Introduction of the Reformation, ....
Commencement of the Division in Germany, 1524-1526,
The King and the Theologian,
Peasant** War, 1524, 1526, ....
Erasmus and Luther. Cont from 8 285, . . .
Luther's Domestic Life, and his Colleagues, .
Religious Liberty and the Protestation, .
Synod of Homburg, 1526. Saxon Church Visitation, 1527-1529
Tne Diet of Augsburg, 1530,
League of Smalkald and Peace of Nuremberg,
IL Establishment of the Reformed Church umtil 1581
332. Youth and Doctrine of Zwingle, .
833. Introduction of the Reformation,
334. Division of the Swiss Confederacy,
835. The Sacramentarian Controversy,
. 861
363
. 363
364
. 365
866
. 867
868
. 869
370
. 871
372
. 878
878
. 874
876
. 877
. 877
. 879
880
. 881
382
. 883
383
884
886
888
889
lU. ESTABLISHHENT OF THE LUTHERAN ChURCH UNTIL 1556.
836. Articles of Smalkald, ......
837. Progress and Political Power of the Reformation, . ,
888. Negotiations for Peace and Preparations for War,
839. Ludier's Death and Public Character,
840. The Smalkaldic War, 1646-7, .....
841. The Interim, .......
842. Maurice, 1552, .......
848. Religious Peace, Sept 25, 1656, ....
890
891
393
894
895
396
397
808
lY. ESTABUBHMENT OF THE REFORMED ChURGH X7NTIL 1564.
844. The Concordium of Wittenbei'g. Cont from § 338,
845. Italian Switzerland, ......
846. John Calvin, July 10, 1509-May 27, 1564,
899
400
400
CHAP. IL— ESTABLISHMENT OF A PROTESTANT ORTHODOXY.
I. LUTHERANIBM.
347. The Antinomian and Osiandrian Controversies,
348. Lutherans and Philippista. General Affairs,
849. The Synergistic Controversy, .
350. Crypto-Calvinism. Cont finom § 844,
851. Efforts at Concord, ....
852. Reaction of Saxon Calvinism,
858. Spirit and Result of the Doctrinal Controversy,
402 •
404
405
407
409
410
411
XXXIV
CONTENTS.
Mcr.
n. Calvinism.
864. German Reformed Church,
866. The Netherlands, .....
366. Tlie Synod of Dort, Nov. 13, 1618-end of May, 1619,
PASS
412
414
416
CHAP. IlL— PROGRESS OF THE REFORMATION THROUGH EUROPR
857. Tlie United Austrian States until 1609,
368. Sweden, ....
359. Denmark with Norway and Iceland, .
360. Poland, Livonia, and Koorland, .
416
418
419
420
L Great Brttain and IssLAinx
861. Establishment of the Anglican Church,
362. Origin of the Puritans and Independents,
368. Scotland, ......
864. Great Britain under the Stuarts, .
421
428
424
426
IL FHANOIL
866. Tlie Night of St Bartholomew,
866. The Edict of Nantes,
867. Spain and Italy,
426
428
429
CHAP. IV.— FANATICS AND ULTRAISTS OF THE REFORMATION.
868. General Relations of the Reformation,
869. Anabaptists as Fanatics, . . . .
870. Anabaptists as an Orderly Community. CoUegiants,
871. Antitrinitarians, . . . . .
872. Socinians, ......
878. Caspar Schwenckfdd, of Ossing. Sebastian Franck,
430
431
482
432
434
436
CHAP, v.— CONDITION AND RESULTS OF PROTESTANTISM.
874 Protestantism as a Principle, ......
376. Morals, ........
876. Law, .........
877. The Clergy, and Church Property, .....
878. Public Worship and Art, . ...
879. Humanistic Education and Holy Scriptures. Cont from § 284,
880. Philosophy and Theosophy. Mysticism and Practical Christianity,
CHAP. VL— THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.
881. The Popes in the Age of the Reformation, till 1686, .
882. Ignatius de Loyola, 1491-1656, .
388. Development of Jesuitism,
384. The Council of Trent, Dec 13, 1646-Dec 14, 1668,
885. Sixtus v., April 27, 1685-Aug 27, 1690,
886. Popes of the Seventeenth Century,
387. Law and Political Relations, ....
888. Great Change in the Character of Catholicism, .
889. Fraternities for Instruction and Charity,
890. The Fine Art*, .....
891. Tlie Sacred Scriptures. Cont from §§ 286, 386,
892. Laws respecting Doctrines and Internal Theological Controversies,
898. Efforts at Reconciliation, and Controversies with the Protestauta,
894. The Propaganda, .......
895. The East Indies, ......
487
488
440
443
444
446
447
460
. 452
453
. 454
456
. 456
458
. 460
462
. 464
465
. 466
4^8
. 470
470
CONTENTS.
XXXV
SBCT.
896. Japan, . . . .
897. China, ....
898. West Indies. Cont from § 290, .
CHAP. Vn.— THE TPIRTY YEABS* WAR.
899. Occasions, ....
400. The Bohemian War. Cont from § 367, .
401. The Gennan War,
402. The Peace of Westphalia, .
CHAP. Vm.— THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
403. Connections with Protestants,
404. The Rnssian Church,
405. The Abyssinians and Maronites,
472
474
476
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
PERIOD VI.
FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. TO THE PRESENT TIME.
406. General View, ........
CHAP. I.— PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH UNTIL 1760.
407. German Orthodoxy,
408. George Calixtus, 1586-1666, . ./
409. Pietism. Spener, 1685-1705, .
410. Philosophical Influences. Cartesius to Wolf,
411. Peaceable Movements in Theology,
412. Law and Legal Views in the German Church,
413. Legal Relations to the Catholic Church,
414. Attempts at Union,
416. The English Revolution. Cont. from § 364,
41 6. Freethinkers or Deists,
417. The Quakers, ....
418. The United Brethren. Zinzendorf, 1700-1760,
119. The Methodists. Wesley, 1703-1791. Whitefield, 1714-1770,
420. The Church of the New Jerusalem. Swedenborg, 1688-1772,
421. Minor Fanatical Parties, .....
422. Spread of Christianity, . .
CHAP. II.— ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH UNTIL 1760.
423. The Papacy, ........
424. The Gallican Church, ... . .
Jaxsenism.
426. L Port-Royal, ........
426. IL The Constitution Uuigenitus, .....
427. Mysticism, Quietism, and Pious Humor, . . . .
428. Newly Established Orders, .....
429. Spread of Christianity. Cont from § 394ss , .
CHAP. IIL— ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH UNTIL 1814.
L Mattebs Preliminary to tue Revolution.
430. French Philosophy. Cont from § 416, ....
431. Clement XIU (1768-69) and the Jesuits, ....
488
484
486
487
489
490
492
492
496
497
498
602
608
606
606
608
610
611
614
616
618
619
621
621 •
622
624
ZXXVl
CONTENTS.
432. Clement XIV. (1769-74) and the Jesuits, . . . .
488. Pius VI. (1774-99) and his Age until 1789, .
II. French Reyolutiox.
484. The National Assembly (ConstJtuante), 1789-1791,
435. The Legislative Assembly and National Convention, 1791-1795,
486. Theophilanthropists, 1796-1802, . . . . .
487. The Roman Republic. Cont from § 488,
ILL TuE Era op Napoleox.
438. Pius VIL and the Re-establishment of the Gallioan Church,
439. Dispute between the Emperor and the Pope,
440. Overthrow of the Ecclesiastical German Constitution, .
PAoa
525
526
529
531
532
582
533
534
536
CHAP. IV.— THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH TILL 1814.
441. The Age of Enlightenment Cont from 8S 416, 480, . . 587
442. Christian Reaction. I^russian Religious Edict, .... 539
448. Revolution in German Literature, ..... 541
444 Reformation of Philosophy in Germany, . . • • . 548
445. Rationalism and Supematuralism, . . • • 544
446. The Ecclesiastical Party in Germany, ..... 545
447. Small Fanatical Parties, ...... 546
448. Civil Relations of Protestants under Catholic Govemmenta Cont from
§413, 547
CHAP, v.— THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH TILL 1853.
449. Development of Protestantism, ....
450. The Philosophy' of the Absolute, and its Ramifications, .
451. Orthodox Pietism and its Extremes, ....
462. Undecided Controversies between Old and New Protestantism,
458. Prussia, the Union and the Agenda till 1840. Cont from § 414,
454. Lutheranism as a Sect under Frederic William III.,
4.>5. Legal Views and Legal Relations in German Countries,
456. The Prussian National Church and its Branches since 1840,
457. Combinations, .......
458. The Scriptures. Cont from §§ 879, 411, .
459. Calvinism as a Sect, ......
460. Division of the Church in Scotland and in the Pays de Vaud,
461. Tlie Anglican Church and the Dissenters,
462. Ecclesiastical Affairs in the North American Republic, .
468 Legal Condition with respect to Catholic Governments,
464. Old and New Sects, .....
465. Missionary and Bible Societies, ....
466. Spread of Christianity, ....<.
548
550
555
560
566
569
571
576
587
592
595
597
598
601
605
610
612
614
CHAP. VL— THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1858.
467. Re-establishment of the Roman Hierarchy. Cont from § 489, . 617
468. The Popes before the Last, ...... 619
469. Pius IX (June 16, 1846) and It^ly, 620
47a Tlie Gallican Church, . . . . . . .624
471. Spain. Portugal South America, ..... 629
472. Belgium and Holland, ....... 633
478. Restoration of the German Church, ..... 635
474. Tlie Ecclesiastical Controversy in Prussian Germany, . . . 636
475. The German Church since 1848| ..... 640
476. Switzerland, ........ 645
477. Ireland and England, ....... 649
478. Forms of Catholicism, ..... . 652
CONTENTS.
XXXVU
479. German Catholicism, ....
480. Mystics and Wonder- Workers,
481. Orders, .....
482. Spread of Christianity. Cont from §§ 894, 429, .
PAOB
656
661
662
663
CHAP. VIL— THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
483. Catholic and Protestant Influences,
484. Russia. Cont from § 404,
485. Greece and Turkey, .
665
666
669
CHAP. VHL— COMMON DETAILS AND MUTUAL RELATIONE
486. Catholicism and Protestantism, . . . . . .671
487. The Fine Arts. Cont from §§ 378, 390, .... 674
488. Emancipation and Conversion of the Jews, . . . .675
489. Abolition of Slavery, ....... 677
490. St. Simonism and Socialism, ...... 679
491. The Holy Alliance, ....... 681
Appendix, ......... 688
INTRODUCTION.
C. SagtUariuM, Introd. in Hist Eec Jen. T. L 1694. YoL IL ftA. Ji A. Sehmid, 1718. 4 F.
Walch^ Orosds&tze d. xur KHlst nGthlgen Yf^beraitongBlehren u. BQcberkenntn. 65tt ed S. 1771
C. W. Fl&ifge, EinL in d. Stodiom a. in d. Litentnr d. BeL n. KOeach. Outt 1801. {J. O. Dow-
Un{/, Introd. to the Crit Stady of Eoa Hist Lond. 1883. %. J. Jortin^ Bemarks on Eco. Hist Lond.
1948k 2 toLb. & W. BatMt College Lectt on £o& Hist Lond. 1845. & G, Campbell, Lectt on Soc.
Hist Lond. 1884. &)
CHAP. L— PLAN.
jT. p. JkOtegarUn, fL Stud. Plan n. Darst d. Allg. EQesdi. B6tsL 1824 UUmann, Q. SteQnng
dfls KHiat in unsrer Zeit (Stud. a. Krit 1828. p. 667aL) J. A, ffi TlUmann^ 0. BehandL d.
KOesch. Toix anf Unlr. (Illgen's Zeitscbr. 1882. toL L st 2.) Daub, d. Form. d. Dogmen jl
KHlst (Zeitscbr. t SpelEnL Th. 1886. yoL L H. 1) MdMer, EinU In. d. KQesch. (Hist FoL BL t
d. Kath. DeatsebL 1888. toL IY. H. 1-a n. Qeaanun. Schrr. vol XL)
§ 1. The Church and the World.
The Church was originally founded by the Spirit which proceeded from
Jeena, and was intended to embrace in its communion all the religions life
derived from Him, or in connection with Hun. All Churches and SecU com-
prehended in this spiritnal community, are only different manifestations of
the same Spirit. The Ohnrch stands in contrast with the World, when the
latter is regarded as including all forms of life which are merely natural, and
not of a religious character. Especially does it thus stand contrasted with the
State, viewed as the political organization of the people. This contrast, how*
ever, is only in particular relations, since the State is also a divine institution,
and the world was created by Grod and is intended to be gradually pervaded
by the Church. Indeed, the Church, in its character of the earthly kingdom
of God, can never be fully set forth, except in intimate connection with the
world.
§ 2. Idea of Church History,
[P. Sehiif. A YlBdieation of tbe Idea of Hist Deyelopment, Philad. 184& 12. 8e« also his Hist
of Apoet Cbnrcb, New York, 186&]
The Church is always in a progressive state ; i. tf., it is striving to be a per-
petual manifestation of the life of Christ in humanity. In other words, it is
always aiming to exhibit his life more and more perfectly, and on a more ex-
1
r
2 INTRODUCTION. CHAP. L PLAN.
teDsive scale, sometimes in conflict, and sometimes in connection with the
world. Church history is a representation of the Church in this progressive
state, by an exhibition of the facts which have occurred in its course. In its
scientific form, it is the combination of all those individual elements which
have had any influence upon its composition, since it is, 1) critically^ an im-
partial, honest, and strict inquiry into facts, and into the extent of the confi-
dence which can be reposed in their proofs, so that where certainty cannot be
attained, a knowledge of this extent in its different degrees may determine
the scientific character of the narrative ; 2) geneticaUy^ a statement of the
facts in connection with their causes, taking care, however, that no explana-
tions are given inconsistent with the proper nature of the idea developed in
the events, or with the peculiar character of the active agents in them ;
8) theologically^ an estimation of the facts in their precise relation to the reli-
gious spirit, allowing no preconceived opinions to determine what has actu-
ally occurred but only to assist in understanding them as we find them. The
correct manner of narration, or the historical styU^ is that which the student
naturally adopts when he has acquired a true conception of the events, and
then fully expresses this in living freshness and reality.
§ 8. Proper Province of Church History,
Within the appropriate department of Church History lie all facts which
either proceed directly from the common Christian spirit, or indirectly are
dependent upon the opposition or co-operation of the world. Some of these
belong necessarily to the history, and are essential points of development by
which the Christian spirit must be represented ; but others are only carefully
selected representatives of the age in which they occur, or peculiar manifes-
tations of the Christian spirit in some important individuals.
§ 4. Relation to the General History of Religion,
Hist gr6n6rale des odrdmonies, xnoenn et coutiiines rel. de tons les penp1e^ repr^nt^es par figures
desrincM de la main de & Picard, aveo des explicat hist (Atnst 17288a. 7 Tola.) Par. 17418a.
8 vols. J. Mtsiner6, Allg. Krlt Gosch. d. Bellgrionen. Ilann. 18068. S Th. E, V. WeiiUr, Ideen z.
Gesch. d. Entw. d. KeL GL MQnch, 1S0S-1S15. 8 Th. B^nj, Corutani, do la Beliglon, considcroc dana
sa source, sea formes et sea d^vcloppemcna, Par. 1824s8. 2 Th. Ubera. m. Anm. t. Petri BrL 18246.
2volsi
The object of a general history of religion, of which Church history is
only a single department, is the development of the religious spirit of man-
kind in all the forms in which it has appeared. But the religious peculiari-
ties of unevangelized nations are only to be introduced into Church history,
when they are in some way involved in the aifairs of Christendom (general-
ly, at first, in conflict with it), or when they occasion some new relations in
it. For, as the Law was adapted to lead the Jew and Philosophy the Greek
to Christy the same result might be produced among other nations by their
confidence in their own gods. Accordingly, as Christianity Is a religion for
the whole human race, and is therefore the ultimate point and perfection of
all other religions, Church History should be the central point of all histo-
ries of religion, and should gradually incorporate within itself their collected
results.
S6. MODE. YALUK 80UBCES. 3
§ 6. Mode of Treating Church History.
The Christian spirit, in the development of its infinite natnre, and while
gradnflUj appropriating all human things to its use, is destined and is com-
petent to be the religions spirit of man. This result, however, will be ac-
complished by means accordant with its own peculiar law. As the organs by
which it operates are necessarily free individuals and nations, free even for
error and sin, the original principles of the historical movement must neces-
sarily assume an endless diversity of form in the lives of individuals. Hence,
the historical .judgment, as it is expressed in the representation of the events,
must seize upon all these as points of development which find their own ar-
rangement, and have each an appropriate influence. It is not, however, in-
dispensable to the impartiality of the historian, that he should appear to love
nothing and to hate nothing. It is only needful, first of all, that he should nev-
er place the actual facts in false positions, on account of either preferences or
aversions, and then, that he should recognize those conditions under which
others have perhaps necessarily formed opinions and sentiments different
from his own. Indeed, a Church History, in which the author exhibited no
distinct ecclesiastical character, and did not imprint this with clearness upon
his work, would be of very little value to the Church.
§ 6. Value of Church HUtory,
Gristb€U^ de 11. EccL Utllitate, Jen. 1776i F. A. Bdths, t. Einfl. de& KlrchenbiBt 8tad. anf d.
BildoDg del Oem&tbs n. d. Leben. Lp& ISIO. i. T. A. Clarisu^ Or. de Socletatls Cbr. Hist ad In-
ftmn. Bftcrorom antlstttem accommodate tradenda. Gron. 1824.
The absolute value of Church History springs from the fact, that it is an
expression of the self-consciousness of the Church with respect to its com-
plete development. From this is derived its practical necessity. Whoever
wishes independently to direct any portion of the Church, must participate
in this self-consciousness, or he will neither understand its present position,
nor be able to foresee and wisely affect its future course. In this is involved
its utility for controversial and spiritual purposes, or for the assistance of oth-
er sciences. It must, however, be remembered, that when the value and
object of Church history are too exclusively kept in view, its scientific char-
acter is much endangered.
§ 7. Sources,
F. WalcK, Erlt Nacbr. t. d. Qnellen d. KHist (Lpz. 177a) OGtt 1778.
Our certainty with regard to facts must depend upon the sources: 1. Ac-
cording to the degree of their proximity to the particular events mentioned :
a) Original documents and monuments^ which prove a fact, inasmuch as they
constitute an element in it. V) Accounts by eye-witnesses or contemporaries.
e) Historical writers^ who draw directly from sources now lost. The more
remote these authorities are from the events narrated, the more is their credi-
bility liable to criticism. 2. According to the form in which they exist : a)
Writings^ pablic and private, without a uniform preference for the for-
r
4 INTRODUCTIOy. CHAP. L PLAN.
mer. (a) It is often very difficult to prove that a witness was either able or will-
ing to declare the whole truth, since his ability is often affected by his preju-
dices, and his willingness by his party spirit. 5) Monuments^ not only works of
art, but living communities, e) Traditiom^ among which legends, being
merely the work of the hierarchy, prove only what were the views of the
age in which they originated, or were completed ; and popular stories serve
to establish an historical probability in proportion as they are widespread, and
conformed to circumstances which have been otherwise historically authenti-
cated, ij)) A thorough investigation of sources is indispensable only to the
historical \vriter. (c)
§ 8. Auxiliary Sciences,
The auxiliary sciences usually mentioned, such as Ecclesiastical Philolo-
gy, (a) Chronology, (b) Diplomatics, (c) Geography and Statbtics, (d) are espe-
daUy necessary only to the ecclesiastical historian. But General History,
a) (a) 8. OoncHiomm hotb et unpllBsiina collectio, ear. «/. Dom, Mantt^ Flor. et Yea. 175988. 81
Tolft. folio. Canones App. et OoncilL Saeo. 4-7. rec ZT. T. Bruna^ Ber. lS89flw S Th. (BibL Eccl P. I.) ;
[Landon*a Manual of Councils, comprising tb« aubstanco of tlie most remarkable and important ca-
Bona, Land. 1S46. 1 roL 12ma] (fi) Ballarinm Roman. Luxemb. 1727. 19 Tb. f ; Bnllaram amplisa.
ColL op. C. Cocqudin€9^ Bom. 178988. 2S vols, t ; Bullarlam magnum Bom. (1768-1880) op. Andr.
Avocati Barharini^ Bom. 18858flb 8 Th. t ; Bom. Bullarium, a Ansz&ge d. MerkwCLrdlgBten BuIIen,
fibers, m. Bemerk. v. EUeMchmidt, Keuat 1S311 2 vols.; Sammlung aller Concordato, v. S.
Minch^ Lpz. 1S8011 2 vols, (y) Codex liturgicus EccL Universao, ill J. A. Au^manus^ Bom.
174988L 18 Th. 4. (8) Codex regularum Monaat cd. Lucas UoUUniut, Bom. 1661. 8 Tb. 4. aux. J/l
Brockify Aug. Yind. 1759. 6 Th. C (f) Maxima Bibliotheca vett Patrom, Lngd. 1677881 28 Th. t;
Bibl vett Patrum, op. And, GttUandii, Yen. 176588. 14 Th. f. ; oomp. FabricU BibL gracca ITamb.
(170688. 14 Tb.) ed. IfarlesM, 17908& 12 Th. 4 ; Schoenemann, BibL hist literaria Patmm Lat Lpz.
179288. 2 Th. (till 1475): J. O. Walcfi, BibL patristica, Jen. IHO. ed. DanM^ 1884; B<mUr, BibL d.
Kirchenvdter, Lpz. 1776881 10 vols.; AugutH^ Chrestomathia patristica, Lps. 1S12. 2 Th. ; J. O. V.
Engelhardi, Lit Leits. z. Yorles. 0. d. Patrlstlk. Erl. 1828; J. N. Locherer, Lehrb. d. Patrologte,
llainz, 1S87 ; J. A. Mdhler, PatroL a Christ LlterargMoh. edit by Betthmayr, Ratisb. 184a 1 voL ;
[Ubi of the Fathers of the H. Cath. Church before the Division, TransL bj EngL Clergymen, Oxfl
1880. 26 vols, a] (() SUie$ du Pin, Bibliothdque dee auteurs ecclesiastiqnea (Par. 16S6fla. 47 Th.)
Amst 169088. 19 Th. 4. and BibL des auteurs 86par68 do la communion de T^glise Bom. Par. 171881
8 Th. ; comp. Richard Simon, Critique de la BibL de Mr. dn Pin, Par. 1780. 4 Th. ; Caw, 8cripto-
mm EocL literaria (Lond. 1689) ed. 8 Oxon. 1740bb. 2 Th. f ; J: ^. Fabrieii, BibL EooL Hamb. 1718.
t J^tud. BibL Latina mediae et inflmae aetaU^ Uamb. 1784m. 6 Th. aux Manti, Palav. 1751 8 Th.
4; llist Litt^ralre de U France, par des rellg. B6n6dicUn8 de & Maur, Par. 1788aa. 20 Tb. 4; •/: i&
Awemani, BibL orientalls, Bom. 1719S& 4 Th. f Bubm, Orundr. d. Chr. Lit (tni 16th cent),
M&nst 1828, 2 vols, h) Acta Sanctorum quotquot toto orbe coluntnr, edd. Jo. BoUandus aUlqae,
Antv. 1648-1791 68 Th. t oomp. De proeocutione operis BoUandiani, Namur, 1888; Bonner Zelt-
schr. t PhiL u. Kath. Th. H. 17 dc 20 ; Vogel, Ocech. o. Wikrdigung d. Legende (Illgen's Hist TheoL
Abhh. 1824 voL III. p. 140aBw). c) SchUiermach«r, DarstelL des TheoL Studimus, 2 c<L $ 19011
[Brief Outline of the Study of TheoL Ac. Trimslatcd by TTm. Farrer, yrith Beminia. of S. Edinb.
1S50. 8. S 181]
a) J. O. SuiofH, TheflaTiras eocL e patribns graecis, Amst (1682) 1T28. 2 vols. f. ; C. du Frtms,
Oloesarium mediae et inflmae grvedtada, Logd. 1688. 9 vols, f ; Sffusd, Q\om. mediae et InC latlnita-
tis, Par. 1783881 6 vols. I and others; {Adthtng) Oloaei manuale ad Scriptt mediae et inC latinitatis,
Hal. 17728S. 6 Th.; Glossaries of the Germanic and Romanic Languages; [(?. C. Lewis, Essay on
the Origin and Formation of the Bom. Langg. Oxford, 1840. 8w] h) Aerae: ab urbe oondlta, Seleud-
daram, BUspanica, Diocletlana sive maityrum, Constantinopolitana, indictlonum, Dionysiana, comp^
L'Art de v6rifler lee dates les faita historiquea, par un rellg. B^nMictln, Par. 1760. 8 v<^ 4. nouv. ed.
par Vitou d6 & Alois, Par. ISlSs. 28 Th. ; Z. JdOer, Lehrb. d. ChronoL BrL 1881 ; E. BHnck-
meter, Prakt Handbnch d. Ilist ChronoL Lpz. 1840 ; [R Nicolas, The Chron. of Hist 2 ed. Lond.
184a 1 voL 8; J, Haydn, Diet of Dates to All AgM and Nations, Lond. 1846; J5foir*« Chron. and
S A. DIYIBiON INTO PEBIODfi. 5
the history of Jnrispmdenoe, and the history of Philosophy and of Litera-
ture, are all of great importance as preparatory sciences to Church History,
since they present, in a complete form, snhjects whicli, on account of their
individual connection with the Ghurch^ are touched upon hut slightly in
Church history, and cannot he thoroughly understood except in their com-
plete relations.
§ 9. Divuion,
As every thing in a progressive state must he regarded in an order of suc-
oession, all history is necessarily arranged according to time. But individual
groups of things, similar in nature, and connected together hy causes of a
more definite character than mere temporal contiguity, are often found spring-
ing up in the same periods. Hence, the arrangement according to time^ must
be modified hy another according to the mlject. The division according to
periods aims to assign some definite limits for the scientific view. This math-
ematical division hy arhitrary intersections is the more inadmissihle, when
the lines which are drawn pass through some event which constitutes an
epoch, and produces a thorough transformation of the Church. The essential
developments of the Christian spirit which have hitherto heen made, are
Catholicism and Protestantism ; and the principal organs by which it has
acted, have heen the Greco-Roman and the Germanic national spirit. Accord-
ingly, the history of the Church is naturally divided into Three Ages^ and each
of these into Two Period*. I. Ancient Church nietonj^ until the establishment
of the holy Roman empire among the Germanic nations, 800 : Greco-Roman
civilization in the ascendant, but gradually declining, partly on account of its
own weakness, and partly because lost in the German nationality. The Fir%t
Period extends to the victory of the Church under Constantine, 312 ; Estab-
lishment of the Church, and development of Catholicism in the midst of tri-
umphant conflicts and sufferings. The Second Period exhibits the Church, on
the one hand, as the established Church of the empire, attending to tlie com-
pletion and establishment of her faith, and on the other, striving to allay the
storm of national migrations. H. Mediated Church Ilistory^ until the Re-
formation, 1517 : sway of Romano-Germanic Catholicism. The Third Pe-
riod extends to the time when the papal despotism attains its greatest ascend-
ency, under Innocent III., 1216 : victory of the papacy over all opposition.
The Fourth Period presents us with the gradual decline of Catholicism, and
some tokens of a coming reformation. III. Modern Church History until the
Hl^ Tab1«s; new ed. and oont to the present time, Lend. 1850. 8 ; Oxford^ Chron. Tables of An. de
Mod. HIat eont to 1889. OxC 1889. t and HaU^9 New Analyaia of Chron. it Oeo^ new ed. oor. and
Impi Lond. 18801 4 Tola. 8; HatiheiVi Chron. Yiew. New York. 1845] ; F, Piper, Eirchenrochnunjir,
BerL1841. 4; [S. F. JantU^ Chron. Introd. to Chnrch Hist New York. 1850.8; J. K RidJU,
Eeelea. Chron. Lond. 1810. &] c) J. MabilUm, do re diplomatfoa, ed. 3. Par. 1709. t ; Schonemann,
YoIUtand. System d. Allg. Dlplomatlk. Hamb. 1601. 2 vola. ; [Diplomatica, as the Germans tiM tliu
word, la the Seionoe whioh treats of diplomat, 4. g. Bulla, Briefti, Charters, Patents, Ac] d) Carofl
a & Fttitla, Oeograpbia sacra (Par. 1041. t) Amst 1701. 1 ; F. SpanAemii, Qeogr. sacra et occ (0pp.
Logd. ITOL 1 Th. C) ; J, E. T. Wilttch, Ilandb. d. KlrchL Oeogr. a. Btatist bis zn anAing d. 16 Jabrh.
BrL 1846. 8 toIs. ; A. W. MTtlUr, Hferographie, Geach. d. K. in Landcharten, Elberf. 1&22&S 2 Th. £ ;
J.RT. Watseh, Atlaa saoer s. eoel Goth. 1848. t ; St&ndlin, KlrchL Googr. a. Statiatik. Tub. 1S04.
8 Th. ; </. Wifffftrt, Kirvhl. Statistik. Uamb. 1842a. 8 vols.
6 UTTBODUCTION. CHAP. L PLAN.
present time : conflict of Protestantism with Catholicism. The Fifth Period
extends to the peace of Westphalia, 1648 : partial victory of Protestantism,
and the new determination of Catholicism. The Sixth Period shows ns the
conflict hetween ecclesiastical usages and religious independence. The prin-
cipal articles of the arrangement according to subjects are : 1) The territo-
rial extension of the Church ; (a) 2) The constitution of the Church, and its
relation to the State ; {p) 8) The development of the Christian spirit, with
respect to doctrine and science ; (c) 4) The popular life of the Church, {d)
and the system of public worship, {e) But this mechanical framework is
formed only very gradually. That relation is always to be made most promi-
nent which is really predominant in each age. Some elements, as, e. g,^ the
Papacy (/) and the Monastic Orders, (g) appear as independent groups only
in a few periods. After the Reformation, the separate Churches form essen-
tial distinctions. Every Period, then, must form an arrangement out of its
own materials, under the direction of no other law than that which requires
a vivid picture of each age, derived from all its ecclesiastical relations.
a) J. A. FabriciuSj fialutaris lux. ev. toti orbi exorions, b. notitia propagatoram chr. sacrornm.
Qamb. 1781. 4; P. C, Gnitiantu^ \n. e. Gesch. H. Urspr. n. Fortpflanz. d. Cbiistenth. In Earopa,
Tab. 176698. 2 Tb. ; TT: Brotim, Ubt of the Propag: of Cbii!»t among Ileatben since tbo Udorm.
Lond. 1S14. 2 vols. ; C. O. BLumkardt, Vrs. e. Allg. MlflslonegeDcb. Bas. 1S2S. 8 Th. : J. Wiggerit,
Oeecb. d. Kvong. Miss. lS4Sa, 2 vols. ; [C. T. Blutnhardt^ CbristiaD Mls^lonSt Tract Soc Lond. \'<Vi.
18; J. 0. ChouUs, Orig. and Hist of Mlsslims, Boston. ISSS. 2 vols. 4; //t/t>, IIIsU of Chr. MI&&loiif>,
from tho KeC to tbe Present Time. Edinb. 1S42. 12] b) Petnu de Ifarca, Dss. de conconlla sacer-
dotil et Imperii s. de. libertatibos Eccl Gallic. 1. VIIL ed. St, BaUuiun, Par. 1668. f. ; J. //. Bofhmrr,
Lpa. 170S. t;0. J. Hanck, Gcj^rb. d. Kirclil Gesell«chaftsverfass. Uann. 1S08!W. 5 vols. ; C. Riffd^
Gescb. I)ar»t d. Verb. zw. K. a. Stoat Mainz. 1S86. 1 Th. (till JustinUn I.) ; Thamassini, Vetus ct
nova Eccl. dl^cipllna circa beneficia. Luc 172sS. 8 Tb. f. ; XicAeriL, Hist- Cone, generalfnm. Colon. ICSO.
«Tb. 4; F. Wdlch^ Entxr. e. vollst Hist d. KVcts. Lpt 1769; Slavdenmaier, Gesch. d. BLschofi-
wablen. TQb. 1830: J. Ant. u. Ai*g. Tkeiner, Die EioMlir. d. erzwang. Ebelosigk. d. Qeistl. Altenb.
1828. (new Ut 1S4S.) 8 vola. c) C. W, Flugge, Gescb. d. TbeoL Wb«en»ch. (till the Bef.) llal. KPCaa.
8 vok ; K. F. Stdudlin, Ges-b, d. TheoL Wiss. seit Vorbreltung der alton Llteratnr. Gr>tt ISia t
2 voUk : F. Walch, Yollst Hist d. Ketxereien (till the image controv.) Lpz. 1762s8. 11 vol& ; D. Ptta-
viu*^ Opus de theol. dogmatibas (Par. 1644fis. 4 vols, f.) ed. 7%. AUthinut {CUricua), Antv. (Ainst)
1700. 6 Tb. C ; If. Kl«^, Lebrb. d. DGescb. Mainz. 188788. 2 vols.; W. Munacher, Handb. d. DOesch.
(UIl 1604.) Marb. 179788. 4 vols. ed. 8 voU I.-III. lS17s.; Ibid. Lebrb. d. DGesch. (1811-
1819.) m. Belegen u. d. Quellen von D. p. Colin. Cam. 1882m. 1^2 HQlfte, 1 Abtb. FortiE- v. Neu-
decker, 2 Abtb. 1S8S; AugwiU Lebrb. d. DGescb. Lpz. (180& 1811. 18(20.) 1885; Banmgarten Cm-
•^ Lebrb. d. DGescb. Jen. 1882; 2 Abtb. n. Comp. d. DQeseb. Lpz. 1S40-46. 2 Th.\ J. G. V.
JTfi^tfMareft, DGescb. Neust 1S39. 2 vols.; F. K. Meier, Lebrb. d. DGescb. Gfe.%. 1S40; K. li.
Ilagenbachy Lebrb. d. DGescb. Lpz. 1S40-41. 2 Tb.; F. CK Banr, Lebrb. d. DGescb. Stuttg.
1847; Th. Kli^oth, Elnl. In d. DGescb. Parcbim. 1S89 ; [A Transhitlon of tbe Doctrinal Hlatory of
Mueneeher^ bas been published by Dr. Murdoch. New Haven. 1880. 12 : A Transl.ntion of Hagen-
baeh'a Doct Hist by C. W. Buck, was published In Clarke's Ed. For. Tbeol. Lib. 1846. 2 vols. 12.J
d) AcU Sanctorum ($ 7 nt b.) Staudlin, Gescb. der Bittenlebre Jesn. Gutt 1799. 1828. (till 1299.) 4
vols. n. Gescb. d. Cbr. Moral a. d. WicderanlL d. Wise. Gott 1808; J. G. MkUer^ Reliquien alter
Zeiten. Lpz. 18088s. 4 vols. ; Neander^ Denkwilrdigkelten ans der Gescb. dee (Jbristentb. .und
Cbri»tl. Lcbens. Brl. (1S2S8S.) 18258. 8 vols. 0) E. Marteif^ de antiqnia Eccl. ritibua, ed. & Antv.
1786si<. 4 Tb. £ ; A. A. Pettioeia, do Cbr. EocL primaA, mediae et novisa. politia. (Neapi 1777. Yen.
1782. 8 Tb.) edd. Pitter et Sraun. Col. 1629-8a 8 Th. revised by Binterim. Mainz. 1825sa. 7 Th.
in 17 vols.; I/Kherer^ Lebil). d. Cbr. ArcbiioL FrankC 1882; J. Bingham^ Origines & antiquitates
ecc. ex. Angl. (Antiquities of tiie Church, [Lond. new ed. 1846. 2 voK] and otber^) lit red* OriM-
chovius. Hal. (172488.) 175289. 11 Tb. 4; F. J7. BMnwald, KircbL Arcb. BrL 1880; Augiisti,
Handb. d. Cbr. Arch. Au»ng, a. d. DenkwOrdigkk. (18178& 12 vols.) Lpx. 1886s. 8 vols. ; C. C. F.
Siegel, Handb. d. QiristL AlUicrtbQmer, In Alpbab. Ordn. Lpz. 183688. 4 vols. ; W. Bohnter, Cbr.
Kircbl. Altbertbumswlss. Bro&L 1886-9. 2 voliw ; [J. R Riddle, Man. of Cbr. Autb. Lond. 1886. 8; L,
Coleman, Autt of tbe Cbr. Church, transl. and comp. fh»n AugwAL And. 1841. &]
Sia FLACIUS. nOTTINGEE. BASONIUS.
CHAP. II.— GENERAL LITERATURE.
Stdudlin, Qoseb. a. Litentur d. EGcsch. edit hy Hemsen. Hann. 1827. [K B. SagehlKicK,
EnexkL u. Methodologie der TheoL Win. 8 ed. p. 224 Lpz. 1851. 8.]
§ 10. Polemical Church History,
A general Chnrch History could not be reasonably expected, until the
Chnrch was sufficiently extended to embrace a large family of nations. It
was not, in &ct, written nntil the Ohnrch had become divided and the newly
organized party felt the necessity of connecting itself with antiquity, and of dis-
turbing the historical basis of the Oatholic Church. Such was the object of
Matthias Flatus Ulyricus^ when he edited the Magdeburg Centuries, (a) in
which was enlisted all the Protestant learning of the age. It was distin-
guished for its familiarity with original authorities, for its frequent citations,
for a criticism which paid no deference to earlier writers on the same subject,
and for its passionate style of controversy. For more than a century after-
wards, nothing was published but text-books formed from the materials sup-
plied by the Centuries, and written in the same spirit. In the Reformed
Churches, the elementary studies of literary men were turned principally to
individual portions of the general subject to refute some particular assertions
of the Catholic writers. J. H. Hottinger was anxious to compose for his
Church a work (&) of a partisan character like that of the Centuries, but his
History, except in whatever relates to the Oriental and Helvetic Churches,
indicates a limited knowledge of original authorities, and is mingled with
much irrelevant matter. Spanheiin's Church History (c) presents a very rigid
investigation of historical questions, but it was principally aimed against
Baronius. The Catholic Church soon perceived that very little advantage
was to be gained by merely contending against the Centuries, and that it
must supplant that work by another of a superior character. Intrusted with
such a task, CcRsar Baronius wrote his Annals (cT), in which were incorporated
vast treasures of original documents, selected with a keen sagacity and zeal
f) E. S, Cyprian^ t. Uraprnng n. Wacbsthum d. Papsth. Goth. 1719. and often. Frk£ 1788 ; A.
Bower^ Hist of the Popes to 175a (cont hy S. IT. Coft, 8 vols. 8vo. Pbilad. I&IO) ; F. Walch^ £ntw. e.
Vollst Illst d. Papste. Lpx. (175e.) 1768 ; L. T. SpiUer, Oescb. d. Papstth. edit by GurlUt u. Paulus.
Hdlh. 182ft; •;: A. Ltorenie^ Gesch. d. Pupste, a. d. Fr. Lpz. 1828. 2 vols. ; C. J. Wieher, Papstth. n.
Papsie. Stottg. 1884. 2 Th. [J. Ranhe^ Hist of the Popes, transl. by Mr$. Aiutin. 8 vols. 8vo. Lond.
l&IO. and by W. JT. KtUy. Pbilad. 1848. 8 ; D« Cormenin, Hist of the Popes. Pbilad. 1845. 1 vol 8.]
9) R, Bb9piniani de moDachls L VL (Tig. 1588. IGOa) Gen. 1699. f. ; A. D. AUeaerrae, Ascetlcon
s. Origg. rei Monast (Par. Ift74. 4.) rec Gluck, Hal. 1782 ; U, Uelyoiy Hist dcs Ordres Monast]qae^
Par. (17148*. 8 Th.) 182988. 10 Th. 4; Gulnc. 1840. 6 Th.; Ubor. Lpx. 17588s. 8 Tb. revised by
Cmme. Pragm. Gesch. d. Monchsord. Lpt 177488. 10 vols. ; {€. J. Wehef) Die Miincberei. Stuttg.
lS199u 8 vols. ; K MUnch, Oescb. d. M5nchtb. (a collection of materialR) Stnttg. 182a 2 vols. ; [8. P.
Day, Monastic Institotions, their Grig. Prog. Nat and Tendency. Lond. 2 ed. 12mo. 1846 ; G. Emtt-
Uanne, Hist of Monast Grden^ Lond. 1693. a]
o) Eoclefiiasticm Historia, Integram Ecclesiae Cb. Ideam complectens, congcsta per aliquot stndio-
Boa et plos vlroe in nrbe Magdeborgica. Ba^ 1559-74. 18 centuries, t ; New ed. by BaumgarUn and
SemUr NOmb, 1757-65. broken off with the 6tb vol. b) Historla Eccl. N. T. Tig. 1651-67. 9 vols,
tm end of 16th eent the 9th vol. by J. J, JTotUnger^ the son. c) Summa Histori.i6 eccl. (Lugd.
168IM4.) Lpx. 10981 4. [His work is abridged and transl with additions by G. Wi-ight Lond. 6to.
1829.] d) Annakb ccdeafawUd a a n. ad a. 119a Bom. 1588-1607. 12 Th. t and often.
r
8 INTRODUCTION. CHAP. IL LTTSRATUBB.
in behalf of the Roman supremacy, fh)m the archives of the Vatican. The
errors and partialities of the Cardinal were encountered by the critical labors
of the Franciscan Fagi^ in which were exhibited a learned love of truth and
a Galilean attachment to liberty, (e) In Italy numerouB continuations and
abridgments of the Annals were produced, in the same spirit which the orig-
inal author had displayed, but not with equal talent. The continuation by
Raynaldus [till 1565] is the only work, which, in its abundance of materials,
can be regarded as nearly a rival of that which precedes it.(/) A similar hon-
or was sought by Sachnrelli^ (g) in opposition to the later historians of the
Protestant Church, and in the composition of his work he possessed similar
external advantages, but he displays hardly equal diligence in the use of them
except in his earliest volumes.
§ 11. French Eeclesiastieal ffistarians.
Catholic writers of history are always restrained by a certain prescribed mode
of treating their subject, but, within the limits required by this, those who be-
longed to the French school attained a scientific character. The peculiar quali-
ties exhibited by them were the result not merely of the independent spirit and
position of the Gallican Church, but of the influence of an age in which the
learned classes redeemed from obscurity immense collections of materials. Such
was the spirit in which wrote the Dominican NatalU Alexander [Noel], always
learned, dry, and scholastic ; {a) Fleury^ the hermit in the midst of a court,
devotional, gentle, versatile and copious. (1>) Bosmet^ whose History of the
World is written in an ecclesiastical spirit, with logical eloquence, and an ap-
parent insight into the ways of Providence, which implies that the clever
Bishop of Meaux must have been as familiar with the court of the Most Iligh,
as he was with that of his sovereign ; {c) and finally the Jansenist (Sebastian
le Nain de) Tilleinont^ whose Memoirs are a conscientious and ample collec-
tion of the more ancient original authorities, {d)
§ 12, ProUHant Scientific Church Hiitory,
Instead of regarding history as a mere instrument in the hands of eccle-
nastical disputants, CalixtuSy in a series of monographs, pointed out the sci-
entific advantages of an unbiassed investigation of facts ; and Arnold was en-
«) Crttica htstArioo-cfaronologica in Annates BaroniL Anty. (Qonev.) 170& 1727. 4 Th. £ /) An-
nales eccl 18-21 Th. Horn. l(m-1X. Colon. 1698m. ; the whole collection bj Baroniiu, Pagl, Kay-
naldiu, etc cur. MarutL La& 178i^u59. 88 Th. t [The Annales EocL are to be continaed bj Aui/.
Theiner, from 1572 till now ; 8 toIiw have appeared in IS&a. Some. 1858. £] g) Hiatoria eocL Som.
17n-Mw 26 Th. 4. (till 118S.)
a) Selecta Historlae eccl. capita et in loca ^nsdem Insignia dl«. hintorioae, chron. et dogm. Par.
1876-S6. 24 Th. (1ft contaries). I.ator editlona: Hist ccel. Yet et N. T. ed. ManH. Luc. 178S. 0 Th.
t ; Bassano. 177a 9 Th. f 2*) Uist eccleeiastiqae. Par. li»l-1720. 20 Th. 4. and often (till 1414.)
transl. into the Lat ItaL and Oerm. continnod, without suitable qualifications for the work, by
Jsan Claud Fabre. Par. 172«-40. 20 Th. 4. and by Alex. La Croiae. Par. 177ft-7a ft Th. [The work
of Fleury Is in part transl. into Eng. in 6 vols. 4. and is in coune of pubL by J. IT. yeoman. Oxon.
1848.] e) DIscoars sur rilistoire unlverselle depuls le oommenoemont dn monde Jnsqu'4 Tempire da
Charles Magne; [Par. 184ft. 18moi and in 2 mag. ytAa. 8. transl by Mch. Spencer. Lond. 1780. &]
d) M^moires pour ser^ir k i'llist eccl. dos six pr6inlen sltelea, Justiflte par lea dtationa des aatean
orlginauz. Par. 189888. 1ft Th. 4. and often.
S tk SSHLBB. 8CHB0ECKH. HKNKS. 9
oooraged by his Pietum, and a strong predilection for sach studies, to search
eagerly for traces of the Ohristian life In those persons who had in each cen-
tury been r^ected by the Ohnroh. (a) The liberal tendency of the former, and
the pioos spirit of the hitter writer, were equally opposed to the established
Ohnrch of their day. Weumann^s gentle love of tmth, made him strive to re*
condle both these tendencies in his selection of important events, (h) Mo^
theim, conscious of historical talents, with a power of combination always
bold, and sometimes extravagant, and an acquaintance with men in various
and friendly relations, is universally acknowledged to have been a master of
ecclesiastical historical writing. ((?) Next to him, Cramer was distingubhed for
his accurate delineation and careful investigation of the dogmatic history of
the middle ages, (d) while Semler^ with no attractions of style, and no per-
ception of the peculiar condition of earlier times, but with a lofty indepen-
dence, was always plunging anew into the trackless abyss of ancient sources, (e)
In the position thus acquired, but with a more believing spirit, Schrockh has
written a Ohurch History, which, after it ceased to be a tedious Reader, as it
seemed to be in the earlier volumes, and rose to the dignity of a scientific
work, is equally trustworthy with respect to its materials, and ample in its
details. The last volumes were added by Tzsehimer^ with a fresher energy,
and more decided sentiments. (/) Writers of a liberal tendency followed the
path marked out by Semler. SpittUr gave to Church History a more anima-
ted and secular aspect, and at the same time traced more perfectly its con-
nections with General History, (g) Henlce treated it rather as if it were a
history of religious errors, and a court before which was to be arraigned all
kinds of spiritual despotism. When writing of events subsequent to the Re-
formation, his work is especially valuable for its accurate regard for even un-
important matters ; but it is often lifeless, and tinged with the strongest pre-
judices of his age. (A) As soon as the opposition to the ecclesiastical spirit
of earlier times had become developed into a well-defined subjectivity, a
hi^er scientific character was supposed to be attained by the affectation of
extreme indifference. Schmidt collected materials exclusively from the
sources. {%) Engelhardt gives us a clear, calm, and frigid account of the na-
a) Unpavtbeyisebe Klrohen- u. Eetxer-Hlst (FrU 10O9& t 1729. 4 Th. 4) Bchaffh. 1740H. 8
Tta. t h) Introdoetio in memonbilla eccL nuudme Saeculornm primornm et novlsslinoniin (Tub. 1718.
8 Tok.) Hal 1740. 8 Tola. 4. c) nia prinefpal complete work ia, InstltnUonmn Hist ecct. antlqaae
et reeenttorlN L lY. Helmst (17QS. 4.) 1764 4; Ubem n. venn. ▼. J. v. Einem. Lpi. 1768-78. 9 voUl
and bj J. R. SchUff^ Uellbr. (1 4e 8 toIh 1770a) 17868& 7 vola. ; comp. Liicks, Narratio de J. "U
Moabemlo. Outt 1887. 4; [TranaL into Eng. wltb notes, hyJ. Murdoch, New York. 8 vela. 8vo. 8
«d. 134L and by A, MeLaine^ with notea, and often reprinted; his Commcntarll de reb. Chr. ante
Oonat ban been reoentlj traasL into Engl bj Dr. MurdockJ] d) Bowu^Ca EinL In d. Oeaeb. d.
W^t o. BeL ftbera. init Abbandl. Term. n. fortgea. t. OrafMr. Lpi. (174888.) 175786. 8 Tolai
4) HIatoriae eod. soleeta capita. HaL 1767n. 8 Tb. ; Yenraebe e. fruchtbi Ansa. d. KGescb. HaL
177aBa. 8 Th. ; Yen. GbriatL Jahrb. HaL 1788. 8 Tol8. /) ChristL KOeach. (till the Keibrm.) Lpx.
1768-1808. 86 Th. 8 ed. 1-18 Tolaw in8-1803 ; KOeech. since the Bef. Lpx. 1804-10. 10 Tb. g) Grand-
ilflB der Geeeb. d. Chrlatl. Kirche. Gdtt 1782. 6 ed. cont till the present time by O, «/. Planck^
GtML 1812 ; in SpUtter't works. Stuttg. 1827. toL II. h) Allg. Gescb. d. Chr. Kircbe nach d. Zelt-
folga. Braonachw. 1788-161& 8 Tola. 0 ed. of Ist as 8d toIs. 4 ed. of 8d A; 4th Tola, and 2 ed. of Otb
4 6cb Tola. ; the laat ed. of Tola. !». 6s. after a eareftU roTialon (so as cTen to lose many of ita origi-
nal peeaMarttlee), edited and oont (7th St Sth to1&) hjj:& VaUr, The Hiat since tbe Befbrm. toUl
S-8L Vaisr hm also oompriaad in 1 Th. (1828.) and pnbllsbed as Th. 9. 0 Handb. d. Chr. KGesoh.
#
10 INTRODUCTION. CHAP. IL LITERATUBE.
ked facts, and he often descends to the minnteet partionhurs. (I-) The publi-
cation of the original authorities, which had been cautiously commenced with
a profusion of literary treasures by Dam^ (l) was continued by Oieuler^ with
much judgment m his selections and in his critical remarks, and a running
commentary upon his citations, (m) Sometimes Tables, and well digested ex-
tracts, are useful in giving a general view of the whole field, (n) Stdudlin*s
Text-Book is a convenient collection of general facts, with a few traces of
the Kantian philosophy. Narhe's was compiled with diligence, and not with-
out elegance, but it is without accuracy or character. Augu9t€$ is a rapid
and convenient survey of the whole subject, especially of that part which
relates to the Reformation. RehnCi is an extended table of contents, espe-
cially with respect to the secular department of ecclesiastical history.
Lange'i is a return to the Protestant controversial style of writing, but with
a laxer faith in the authority of the Bible and of human reason itself, {o)
The attempt which Marheineehe made to construct a philosophical system of
Church History was abandoned at an early stage of the work, but it was full
of promise, (p) The decidedly pietUtic tendency was for a long time repre-
sented only by Milner^ whose object was entirely practical and devotional
and did not lead him to study the sources, (g) until Neander gave it a scien-
tific character, by referring to the original authorities, developing its doc-
trines in an intelligent manner, and giving prominence to the long-neglected
representations of the Christian life. Though afifectionately attached to the
Church, he was tolerant toward all who opposed it on merely doctrinal
grounds, and clothed all his descriptions with an ample devotional drapery.(r)
In these respects, as well as in others, the Church History of Gueriche is only
a dependent abstract of his work, characterized by the same Christian sin-
cerity, but with a zeal so ardent for strict Lutheranism, that it finally became
little more than a severe lecture upon the apostasies of more recent times. (»)
In the Reformed Church, Jaech Bcunage still pursued the plan of repelling Bos-
Buet^s reproaches, by fastening them upon his opponent's own Church ; but
he has imitated too closely the models which he had chosen from the French
OiMS. 1801-80. 6 Th. 2 ed. 1-4 Th. 1S25-S7. (tlU Innocent IIL) cont by F. W. Rsttberg, 7 Th. GiesB.
ISai k) Handb. d. KGMcb. ErL 18888. 4 Tola. I) Lebrbi d. KGesch. Jena. 181S-8«. 9 vola. ;
KorxgeH Zusaoimenst d. KOesch. Jena. 1824. m) Lehrb. d. KQesch. Bonn. 1824-40. 2 vola. and
8 TolflL ; 1 Abth. (Ull 164a) 4 od. of lat toL ; 1 A 2 Abtb. 1&I4& 8 ed. of 2d vol ; 1 dc 2 Abtb.
ISSlB.; [transL In 8 vola. by & Davidson, Edinb. 1846-68.] n) VaUr, Syncbron. Tabellen d.
KOeach. HaL (1808.) oont by J. C ThUo, 6 ed. Hal. 188a £ ; T«tans HaldL, Hist eccL YI. prlorom
Saee. tynoptice enarraU. Havn. 1880; Medli aevl (604-858.) P. 1. 1882. A\ J. T, L. Daw, Klrcben-
hiat Tab. Jena. 188a t ; C Wahl^ KOesch. in Blldern, fur Stndlrende n. Candidaten. Meiasen.
1840. t ; (AmoseDients) 2^ Langs, Tab. d. E-. o. DGeecb. Jena. 1341. 4 ; J. M. Schroeckh, Hist re*
Uglonls et cccL Cbriat Her. 1777. ed. 7. cor. MarMnecke, 1S28 ; J. G. C. Schmidt, Lehrb. d. KGescb.
Glasa. (180a ISOa) 182& o) Sidudlin, UniTeraalgeach. der Cbr. Kircbe. Uan. 1S07. ft. verb. n. fortgea.
A. T. F. A. Holthauten, 1888; F. A, Natb€, Ck)Dip. Uiat Ecol. ac aacroram Christ Lfia. 1S82 ; Au-
IfuttH, Hist ecc Epitome. Lpz. 1884; F. Rthm, Gmndr. d. Geech. d. Kircbe, mit bee. R&cksw ant d.
YerflMflL dera. Harb. 1885 ; Lobeg. Langs, Lehrb. d. Chr. RGescb. znr Vertheid. Befest n. Fort-
btld. d. Prot Kircbe. Lpz. 1846. p) Univeraal-Kirchenhljit d. Christenth. Erlang. 1806. 1 Tb.
q) [Hist of the (^orch of Christ Lond. 6 vols. 8vo. 1824. 4 vols, a 1884. with a continuation by J.
BooU. Lond. 1S26. 4 vola. 12; Pbllad. 2 vola. 12. 1845.] r) Allg. Geech. d. Chr. Bel n. K. bis auf
Bonl&s YIIL 10 vola. Hamb. 1846; [Gen. Hist of the Ohr. EeL and Church, trausL by J. Torrty,
4 Toll. 8va Beaton. 1847-l^t] «) Handb. d. KGeech. HaL (1888-46^ 8 vola.) 8 vola.; Abrisa d.
S 12^ VEXEMA. SCULEIERMACIIEB. $ 18w BTOLBEBQ. 1 1
literature of his time. (/) VenemcC% Charch History is simply an excellent
ooUection of original aathorities. {u) A few compendiums contain all the re-
salts of the studies in ecclesiastical history, so far as these had been attained
when they were respectively written. That of Royaard especially was writ-
ten with remarkable accuracy and care, (r) Schleiermacher, in his oral com-
monications, endeavored to effect a union of the liberal and pietistic tenden-
cies, and has executed in a rather fragmentary manner, a plan, in which, the
ordinary materials being presupposed, is represented the intensive and exten-
sive development of the new principle of divine life which emanated from
Christ. Of) Ni4idner has contributed, in addition to this, a work which is
something between a text-book and a manual, presenting not merely a dry col-
lection of thoughts, but an abundance of elementary views of individual
subjects, (f) Among the histories adapted to popular use, {y) may be men-
tioned the work of Ofrdrer^ which was at first designed to be a history for
the German people ; but it finally became an ample representation of the
subject, and generally depended for its materials upon the best authorities.
The strongly marked peculiarity of this work, sometimes in a paradoxical
manner, but frequently with much good sense, breaks through the devotional
phrases even of his authorities, (z)
§ 13. WriterB of the German Catholic Church.
It was not until Joseph II. attempted to draw away the German Church
from its connection with Rome, that an independent and liberal, but rather
rash and contracted interest in the ecclesiastical affairs of previous times,
began to be cultivated in Germany. In the commencement of this movement,
BoykOj in his rough style, neglected nothing which could injure the hier-
archy, (a) Dannenmayr^ with more caution, and more general views, pre-
pared a text-book for the Austrian schools, (b) and R, WolfBi&Di forth what de-
serves to be called a satire rather than a history, (c) A movement of a higher
order received its original impulse from the Protestant Church. Stolherg^
with the zeal, the unction, and the unconditional faith of a proselyte, but
with a benevolent and glowing spirit, has presented the more benign aspect
of Catholicism, while writing and singing the History of the Jewish people,
EQesch. Hal. 1842. 0 Hiatoire de Peglise depuis Jcsns Chr. Rotterd. 1600; [Par. 1725. 2 vola. 4]
tt) InatltaUonee Htst eccl. V. et N. Logd. ITTTsa. 7 Th. 4. UU IftOO. v) J. A. Turretini, Hist EooL
comp. mque ad. a. 1700. Gen. 1784. ed. et continuavtt J. Simonla, Hal. 1750 ; Uobera. a. fortgefk T.
Tmner. KonigMb. 1759 ; P. K Jahlon*ki, Institt Hist christ FrcC ad Y. 17588& 2 Th. ed. &
emend. K A. Schulze. 1788s. Tb. IIL ; Historiam Saec 18. add. Stotch. 1767; emend. Schidbedan»f
17S6; W. MiMcher, Lehrb. d. KOescb. Marb. 1804; 2d ed. by WachUr, 1815; 8d ed. hj Beckham,
1826 ; P. UofgUde de Groot, Institt Hist ecc Gronov. 1S85 ; Jl J. Poj/aarda^ Comp, Hist eca
chr. Tn^. ad. Bh. 1840-6. 2 Fasc. it) Gcsch. d. Chr. Kirche, edit by BonneU. Brl. 1810 ; (Worlu^
Abth. L Tol. II.) cr) Gesch. d. Chr. Klrche, Lehrbnch. Lpz. 1846. y) Especially : C. Judd, Gesch.
d. Chr. Klrche. BrL 1S38 ; ff. Thiele, Karze Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche. Zur. 1S40 ; Atb.JBaur, d. KGesch.
in gedriingter Uberslcht Weim. 1846 ; Heribert liau, Allg. Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche (deutschkath.).
FQr das deatscho Volk. FrkC 1846. e) Allg. EQescb. Stnttg. 1841-44. 8 vols. (UU tbe commence-
ment of the lllh cent)
a) Synop»is Hist Bel. et EccL Cbr. methodo systematica adambrata. Prag. 17S5. Einl m d. Cbr.
BeL n. KGesch. Prag. 1788881 2d (modified) ed. 1790. Chr. Bel. a. EGesch. (but one Per.) Pr.
1739-9& 4 Tola, b) Institt Hist Eccl Vien. (1788.) 1806. 2 Th. Thread of the narraUre after Dan-
neam. (Collegienbeft) 2 ed. BottweiL 1826-a 4 Th. c) Oesoh. d. ChristL BaL a. Kirche. ZQr. 1792.
I
12 INTRODUCTION. CHAP. IL LITER ATUBE.
and of the ancient Ohuroh. A continuation of his history by another hand
was merely a labored effort to attain the same style, (d) With the same gen«
eral views, bnt with more accuracy and science, Katerhamp wrote a history,
in which he has exhibited a more profound acquaintance witli the original au-
thorities in his representations of the particular characters and circumstances
of the Church, {e) The liberal school, which now sought to acconmiodate
matters as much as possible with the hierarchy, was represented by Bitter^ (/)
and in the extensive and popular work of Locherer^ (g) in many respects like
that of Schroeckh. The narrative of Butten^tock is carefully limited to a
mere statement of facts, (h) In other places the various parties were in di-
rect hostility to each other. The hierarchical method of writing history was
defended with keen wit by Hortig^ the continuation of whose work by DdU
linger^ is written in a less animated, but in a more serious strain. In his re-
vised edition the latter has promised a great work, in which those fables of
the hierarchy which are altogether untenable, are to be given up as indififer-
ent, but every position capable of any defence is to be maintiuned with all
the weapons which a learned ingenuity can supply. Ilis text-book contains
merely the external facts of history. {%) On the other hand Reichlin-Meld^g
has composed a prolix, declamatory, and flippant libel upon ecclesiastical an-
tiquity, and of course fell out with his own Church, {k) AUog again pre-
sents a specimen of a rather clumsy but spirited attempt to transfer a Protes-
tant form to a Catholic position, {I) and Annegam has compiled just such an
artless, rude, and tiresome History of the Church, as was common in Ger-
many before the time of Joseph IL, and as may even now be seen in many
an obscure seminary, (m)
S Th. d)F.L.rf. Stolb^rg, Oesch. d. Rel J. C. namb. 1806-1818. Id Tb. (tUl 1480.) 2 ed. of 1. 9 Tb.
1810. Index by MoriU, YieD. u. Hamb. 1S3.\ 2 Th. oont by F. R, «. K$rn. Mentz. 1825-1^46. 16-42
Th. Index by 8nMMn. Mentz. 18S1 «) KOe^ch. Muntter. 1S19-S0. 4 Th. (till 107a) /) Handb. d.
KOeflch. £lb«rg. Bonn. 1826-85^ 8 vola. 1838. 2 ed of 1 & 2 voliw g) Gesch. d. Chr. RoL a. Kirohe.
Raventb. 1824^8. 8 Th. (till 107a) A) Institt Hlstoriao EooL N. T. Ylen. 1882-84. 8 Th. (tUl 1517.)
<) llandb. d. Chr. KOesch. v. Ifortiff, beend. t. DoUinger. Landah. 182a 2 Th. Newly revised by
mUinger (Gesch. d. Chr. K.) Lambh. 18338. 1 vol. 1. 2 Abth. (in part Ull IdSO.) By the saoio.
Liehrb. d. KGeftch. Kegonsb. 183898. 2 vola [./. J. Ig. IXUlnger^ Hiat of the Charch. Trans, by
Ed. Oox. Lond. 4 vola. 6va] k) Gesch. dea Chrlstenth. Frcib. 18S0a. 1 Th. In 2 AbUi. (till 1824.)
I) Universal-gosoh. d. Chr. Kirche. Mainz. (1841. 1818.) 1S44. m) Gesch. d. Chr. KIrcho. MunsL 18129.
8 vols. (X)nip. Jen. L. Z. 1844. N. 1448s. [Eng. Gen. Eccl. Histt arc. Wtn. Palmer, C-onipend. Eccl
Hist 5 ed. Oxford. 1844. O. Waddington^ IL of the Church to the Ret Lond. 188a 2 vols. A cont
through the Re£ Lond. 1888. 2 vols. B. J. PrUsOey, Gen. H. of the Chr. Chordi. Lond. 1808. ft voU.
a Jomm' H. of the Chr. Charch to the 17th centary. Lond. 18da 2 vols, a if. BuUer^ H. of the Chr,
Chnrch. New York, a C. A. Goodrich^ Church Uist Burlington. 1S80. a H Stsbbing^ IL of tbo Chr.
Cbaroh (a ConU of MiloerX 8 vola Lond. 1842.]
ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY.
FIRST PERIOD.
FBOH CHBIST TO OONSTANTINE.
• •*
g 14. General View and Original Authorities.
L 1) AH eoclesUstlcal writers of this time. Fragments of those works which have been lost In :
Grdbe^ Splellegfam Patmm et Haer«tioomm Saec L II. et IIL Oxon. (Ift98.) 1700. 1714w 8 toIs. Bauth,
Beliqaiae taerae, a. aactomm fere deperdltorum L et IL Saeo. Fragmenta. [Edit altera. Oxon. 1847t
4 toIsl] S) Fragments of IhgMippi Owofitrfifuira r&p iKKktiauiffTtK&p irpd^tofp in Bouthf toL
L p. 187flBk SuultU 4KK\7iffMtmK^ iffropUu Ed. Val4siu*. Par. 1669. £ K Zimmermann^ Frcf.
1822. ii P. 4. Ifeiniehen. Lpx. 1927s. 8 Tb. 4 Burton, Oxon. 1883. 8 Tola. [A new transl. with LlAs
of Eos. Lond. 1842. 8.] 8) Ituinartt Acta primornm martynim, ed. 2. Amst 1718. f rep. Oalura^
Aug. y. 1802. 8 vols. 4) Paesagee fh>m writers not Christian : Josephns, Snetonloa, Tadtos, PUninai
Dio Oasaia^ Scriptoros Hist Angustae, etc. explained in NaiK Lardner; Collection of the Jewish
and Heathen tesOmonlee of the Christian religion. Lond. 17648B. 4 vols. 4 II. TUUmont (% 11. nt d.)
(XtHH Hist eoc. dnoram priorom Saec Amst 1718. 4 iTosAemlide rebus Chrlstlanonim ante Const
CommentariL Helmst 1758. 4 [transL by Yidal, 2 vols. 8. Lond. 18ia] SemUri Obe& quibns Hist
Chrlatiaa. mostratar osqae ad Const HaL 1784 11 W, MiUman^ Hist of Christianity firom the Birth
of Christ to the extinction of Paganism in the Boman Empire. Lond. 1840. 8 vols, [with notes by
Murdock. 8to. New Tork. Kaye, Eccles. Hist of 2 and 8 Centt 8vo. 1826. 2 vols. & Binds, Hist
of the Bise and early Prog, of Christianity. 2 toIs. Sva Lond. W, B. Taylor, The Hist of Christian-
ity, from its Promnlg. to its legal eetab. in the Bom. Empire. 12ma Lond. 1844 E. Burton, Leetorea
npon the Hist of the Chr. Charch from the Ascen. of J. Christ to the oonversion of Const 4 ed. 12m0i
Lond. 1840. Robert Millar, Hist of the Propsg. of Christ Lond. 2 vols. 8va 1781. 8 ed. Wm. Caw,
Lives of Fathers of the first four ages of the Charch. Lond. 2 vols, fol 1688-87. new ed. by H. Cary,
lS4a 8 vols. & If. Cave, Prim. Chr. or Bel of the Ano. Christians, ed. by Giry. Oxf 1840. 8. Philip
Schaff, H. of the Apostolic Church, transL by E. D. Teomane. New York. 1858. 8. vol. L Samuel
EUiot, Hist of the Early Christians. Lond. 1858. J. C Robertson, Hist of the Christian Church to the
Pontif. of Oreg. the Great Lond. 1S53. 8.]
In the history of the world, Classio Heathenism appears as a single form
of human life, on the development of which, its time was fulfilled ; and Ju-
daism appears as a great prophetic system accomplished hy Christianity. The
Jewish veil, under which the latter made its appearance, was removed by
Paul, and when the Gh)spel had been proclaimed in aU parts of the Roman
14 AXCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. L
empire, the forms of Greek and Roman civilization became incorporated in
the Charch. Bat in the mean time a prodigious struggle was commenced by
the general spirit of antiquity. The Church, not so much by intellectual
weapons, as by its labors and sacrifices, was so completely victorious, that at
the end of this period the Roman empire was under the necessity of either
becoming Christian, or of being utterly subverted. During this struggle, with
no aid from the State, and with no external interference, the Church devel-
oped its appropriate Constitution. With the exception of individual in-
stances of extravagance or timidity, its morals and its discipline were of the
strictest kind, and the private life of its members was serious and heavenly.
The religious feelings of the people, excited by Grecian philosophy, and strug-
gling with subtle foreign elements, now sought to attain definite and fixed
forms of thought. The Period may be naturally divided into two sections,
the first containing the historical conditions under which Christianity was
introduced, and the history of the Apostolic Church, until the death of the
last of the Apostles, near the close of the first century, and the other embra-
cing the formation of the Catholic Church. The Acts of the Apostles, by
Luie^ are the commencement of a Church History, limited by the personal
knowledge, position, and object of the writer. It presents us with the actual
establishment of the Church in its two principal departments — among the
Jews by Peter, and among the Greeks by Paul, (a) The authentic epistles of
these apostles are the most trustworthy monuments of the Apostolic Church.
Hegeaippus^ about the middle of the second century, committed to writing
every thing he thought worthy of preservation in the Apostolic traditions, {b)
The first proper history of the Church (till 324) was written by Eiisebias of
Cac^rea^ under the impression which the great revolutions of his age pro-
duced upon his mind. Though he was affected by the prejudices, he possessed
also the advantages of his position, and while he probably omitted some things,
we have no evidence that he has stated what is untrue, (e)
a) Schneckenberger tL <L Zveck d App. Oesch. Bern. 1841. h) Euwb. II. ecc II. 28. IIL 16. 19.
lY. 7& 11. 22. Compi IH^ron. caUL c. 22. SchultkMi^ Hegcfl. princepe aactor reram Cbr. Tnr. 1S92.
c) With regard to bts authorities and credibility: MoeUer, Hafh. ISld. (Archiv. f. KGesch. vol IIL
at 1.) Dftnz^ Jen. 1S15. P. I. Kestner Ooett 1817. 4. ReuUrddhl^ Lond. Qoth. 1S28. JlUngtra, Tn^.
ad. Rh. 1S88. Jachmanny in Itlgons Zeltschr. 1839. U. 2. F, C. Baur^ comparatur Eva. Historlae ece.
parens com parente Hlstorlamm Herodoto. Tub. 1884 4.
CHAP. L HEATHENISH $ IS. OSEEK LIFE 15
DmSION I. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH.
CHAP. I. mTRODUOTORY HISTORY.
I. Glassio Heathenism.
Crmuer^ Sfmbolik n. Mjthologle d. alten Yulker, bea^ d. Oriechen, I^m. a. Dannst (ISlOea.) 1819m.
Th. ; Baur^ Symb. u. Mjth. a die Natorrel. d. Altorth. Stuitg. 1S25 ; Ldbecky Aglaopiiazniis s. de
Theol myfticM Oraeeornm eaoslB. B«gloin. 1S29. 2 Th. ; O. JHulUr^ Prolegomena za e. wiaa. MytboL
Gdtt 182& [Intmd. to a SdenUflc Syat of Myth, tranal by J. Uitch. Lond. 1844. 8] ; P. win lAm^
Iwg Bntweer^ Hist de la civilisation morale et reL dos Grecs. Groen. 1883-48. 8 Th.; JTeffOt PhiL
d. BeL BrL 188a voL 2. p. 148as. Phil. d. Gcscb. BrL 1387. p. 282ss. ; P. F. Stuhr, die Eel. Systeme
d. Hellenen in ihrer gescb. Entw. Brl. 1888 ; Jf. W. EeffUr^ d. Bel. d. Grlecben a. Burner, Brandeub.
184Si [ W, Smith, Diet of Gr. A Bom. Myth. Lond. 1844-49. 8 volfli B. T. Dwight, Gr. & Bom. Myth.
New York. 1849. 12] ;—Ber0. Ootutant, du Polyth6lsmo romaln. Par. 1888. 2 Th. ; Ifartung, d. BeL d.
Burner. ErL 188& 2 vobi ; Ch. WaU, de reL Bom. antiquiss. Tub. 1845. 4. P. l.—Tholuck, U. d. Weseo
a. sita Einfl. d. Heldentb. (Neandor's Denkwiirdigk, vol. L modified in the 2d ed.) [A. Tholuek,
Nature de Moral InlL of Heathenism, transL by B. Emerson, in Biblical Bep. ft>r 1882. and in Chu>ke*s
BIbl Gab. vol 28. Edinb. 1841] ; Im. yUasch, CL d. Beligionsbegr. d. Alten. (Stnd. n. Krit 1828.
ToL L H. 8b.) ;— /*. Jacob*, a d. Erxiehung d. Hellenen z. Sittlichk. (Verm. Schrr. Lpz. 1829. P. IIL)
Heldentb. a. Chrlstentb. (Lpz. 1887. Th. VI.) ; K. Gruneisen, (L d. SiUUcbe d. bild. Eunst b. d.
Oriech. Lpi. 1888. (Illg. Zeltschr. vol IIL st 2.) [J. Si John, Manners, Castt Arts, &c of Ano. Gr.
Lond. 1842. 8 vols. 8; H, ffase, PabL A PriT. Life of the An. G^eek^ transl from Gemo. Lond. 1888.
8 ; W. A. Seeker, Gallas, or Bom. Scenes of the time of Angostns, illost the manners and custt of
the Bomans, transL fVom the Germ, by F. Metca^e. Lond. 1844. 8. On the State of Man before Chris-
tianity. Lond. 184a 12.]
§ 15. Popular Life among the Greeks,
The original oiyilization which had prevailed m some portions of the
East had finally hecome torpid within limits immntahly fixed hy the com-
bined inflaence of caste and despotism. Bat under the delightful sky of bean-
tifol Greece, the purely earthly life of man, in the midst of efforts to attain
social freedom, and triumphant struggles against the monarch of the Eastern
world (after 490, b. o.), became developed in its fairest natural perfection.
Borne on by youthful energies and a noble spirit of refinement, directed by
a clear understanding and a wise moderation, it received still higher lustre
and distinctness from a state of art which gave utterance to what is beyond
expression, and proclaimed the reconciliation of the spirit with outward na-
ture. Even when it presented nature in its utmost nakedness, it preserved a
chaste moderation, and when it portrayed the darker aspects of our earthly
existence, it always made liberty and beauty triumphant. Grecian manners
and science were carried by travelling expeditions and colonies to the shores
of Asia Minor, Sicily, and Southern Italy, and finally, by means of Alexan-
der's conquests (after 884), Grecian civilization became established over all
the Eastern shores of the Mediterranean.
§ 16. Limits of Grecian Refinement
Man was regarded only as a citizen, and all virtues had relation to the
glory of his native land. The free action of the citizen was founded upon
an order of slaves. A part of the women were confined within the narrow
limits of domestic life, and another purchased a participation in manly plea-
^
16 ANCIENT OHTJBCH HISTORY. PER. I. DIV. L TILL A. D. lOa
Bures and more attractive refinements, with a proportionate loss of womanly
dignity and domestic happiness. The political power of the several States
was developed and consumed in factions contests and civil wars. Even in
the brightest days of Greece, civilization had to contend with remnants of
ancient barbarism and its bloody crimes.
§ 1 7. The Religion of the Oreele.
The celestial world, in which the Greeks believed, was only an ideal
transcript of their ordinary life, embellished by the hand and for the par-
poses of art. Even the &ncifal relation of sex, which they ascribed to their
deities, though borrowed from oriental aUegoriea, was so modified by the
poetic imaginations of the Greeks, as only to rofiect and justify, as in a mir-
ror, the playful spirit of the people. This, however, exerted no very cor-
rupting influence upon a people whose matrimonial life was guarded by usages
and laws, and whose vigorous energies were controlled by the gymnasiom,
and a predominant taste for the beautiful. But every thing great or beanti-
fhl in common life, was adorned and consecrated by some connection with
the gods of their country. It was for this reason that, although the people
were sincerely attached to their deities, and their religious services were joy-
ous festivals embellished with all that art could contribute, they could e^joy
the keen wit of the poet when he ridiculed the weaknesses of the gods, no
less than when he laughed at those of the sovereign people of Athens. The
religion of the Ilellenes was necessarily a deification not so much of nature
in its mysterious depths, as of the spirit in its various manifestations.
The real Deity revealed to them was beauty. The piety best conformed to
the national character was so far from rising above the earth, that it never
went even beyond their native land. The mysteries could of course transmit
no doctrine of religion inconsistent with this spirit of the popular faith.
They were simply celebrations of the festivals of the ancient gods. They
served not only to preserve the memory of the old and fallen deities of na-
ture, but to create a presentiment of a supreme Deity, who, at some future
period, would extend his sovereignty over the universe. The point at which
the HeUenic theology found its termination and constructed an altar to the
Unknown God, was where it submitted to an absolute necessity, ruling over
gods and men.
§ 18. Relation of Philosophy to the Popular Religion,
Socrates (409-899) brought back Philosophy from its attempts to ex-
plain the universe by ingenious fancies, to its appropriate Grecian object,
which was, to render the mind conscious of its nature, and thus to become
the supremo rule of life for a freebom man. In doing so, however, he was
aware that as a citizen of a moral community he was liable to come into
conflict with Athenian usages. From the position which he had attained,
Plato (428-848) and Aristotle (384-822) sought to discover the ultimate prin-
ciple of all knowledge and being. Both recognized a spiritual and indepen-
dent author of the universe, and both appreciated the supreme importance of
the intellectual and moral life. Aristotle, commencing with sensible pheno-
CHXP. L HEATHENISM, f IS. GRECIAN PUILOSOPnT. 17
mena, and proceeding by successive steps of reasoning to general laws, may
bo regarded as the most perfect specimen of a healthy intellectnal educa-
tion among the Greeks. If Plato, on the one hand, by the matter as well as
the form of his speculations, shows that the highest point of Grecian life con-
sisted in adorning the present existence by moral excellence and beanty, on
the other, he fhr transcends this, and stands like a prophet, incomprehensible
by his own age, on account of his earnest consciousness of sinfulness, and
his absolute exaltation of the eternal above the temporal.* Those who un-
dertook the further development of Philosophy, attached themselves once
more to the purely practical tendency of Socrates, and to the various parties
already springing up among his disciples. They, however, seized upon only
disconnected elements of Grecian life. Epicurus (842-271) laid hold of
pleasure alone, to which virtue was subservient as a noceesary means, and
Zeno^ his contemporary, selected power, with which virtue is herself satisfied.
The former regarded the universe as the sport of chance, and the latter be-
lieved it animated by a divine omnipresent soul. In opposition to the views
of these teachers, and especially to those of Plato, there arose in the midst
of the Academy itself, a party under Areesilatts (316-241) and Oameades (214-
129), which advocated a system of overwrought logic, teaching that man was
never designed to know the truth with certainty, and that consequently his
only peace was to be found in dealing with probabilities, and in the conscious-
ness of this universal uncertainty. Philosophy, in all its forms, had passed
beyond the limits of Polytheism. The Socratic school, however, regarded the
popular faith as a mode of conceiving truth indispensable to a people bound
in the fetters of sensuality. Its disciples therefore, without hesitation,
adopted the usages and modes of expression prevalent around them. The
way in which Epicurus maintained the existence of the gods was in fact an
adroit denial of it, but, satisfied with having freed his followers from all fear
of the gods, he was wise enough to warn them of the danger of contending
with public opinion. Stoical Pantheism allowed that the deities existed
merely as names and allegories for the various manifestations of the universal
life, but ^he deportment of the sages toward them was proud and independent.
The later Academy maintained that the existence or non-existence of the
gods was equally probable, and its adherents thought it safest to honor them
with the ordinary forms of worship. While therefore Philosophy was not
Erectly hostile to the idolatry which had prevailed -from ancient times, the
educated portion of the nation were elevated by it above the popular faith.
: § 19. £ome as a Republic,
The Roman people had sprung up in the midst of violence, they had been
kept together by a rigid discipline, and they had to attain maturity in the
battle-field, contending first for their existence, and then for their greatness.
At an early period, the opinion began to prevail, and soon became a predomi-
• C. Aekermann, das ChrlsU. Im PUto a. in d. plat Pbil. Hamb. 1885; F. C. Baur, d. ChitiU. d.
PlatoDlsm. o. Sokr. n. ChristiUL TQb. 1887 ; [Plato contra Atbeoo, or Platonic Theology, by T. LewU.
New York. 184S. ^ Pomi, life, Works, Opiniona) ^kc of Plato. Portland. &]
2
18 ANCIENT CIIUKCn HISTORY. PER. L DIV. I. TILL A. D. 100.
nnnt popular sentiment, that they were destined to attain universal dominion.
All the virtues which constitute the true basis of civil and domestic pros-
perity were practised with simplicity and purity. But the keen enjoyment
of life, natural to youth, became passionate only in individual instances, for
we find among them no general refinement, or cultivation of the elegant arts.
Keligion was wholly under the control of the State, and its sacred rites
were for a long time only in the hands of the Patricians. Its serious cere-
monies pervaded every relation, both of the family and the State. While,
therefore, it was regarded as indispensable to society, it was in reality only a
respectful reverence for a superior power, recognized in the highest degree by
the boldest and mightiest minds.
§ 20. Detline of Greece.
During the strifes of contending factions, political power had become
despotic, in the hands sometimes of the nobles, and sometimes of the popu-
lace. The consequence was that Greece was distracted by internal divisions,
and became subject, first to the Macedonians, and then, with these masters,
(146) to the Romans. The virtues of the people, which had been founded
upon their relation to their native country, could not, of course, survive the
loss of their independence. The individuality of character, which had be-
fore so nobly distinguished them, now degenerated into selfishness ; art be-
came subservient to the grossest sensuality, and it now became evident, in
the midst of public misfortunes, that a life consumed in the mere embellish-
ment of an earthly existence must be totally unsatisfactory. Yet so abundant
was the inheritance of art and science bequeathed to them by their ances-
tors, that their private life was for a long time enriched by its stores, and
Greece gave laws to its conquerors.
§ 21. Blemtion and Decline of Rome,
When Augustus, in his testament, advised the Roman people never to
snrpass the limits which nature had assigned to them, as the permanent bul-
warks of the Empire, all nations inhabiting the coasts of the Mediferranean
had already submitted to the migesty of the Roman power, and all nationali-
ties had been broken up by the stern unity of the Empire. As tlie Romans
had conquered the civilized world, they now resolved to participate in its ad-
vantages, by enjoying not only its coarse sensual pleasures, but its intellectual
treasures. But Grecian civilization was so far in advance of them, that it
could not be conquered without calling forth creative powers in tlie con-
querors. By the subjugation and government of so many provinces, such an
inequality in power and possessions was introduced, that universal freedom
was no longer tolerable, and the popular character became so degraded, that
in spite of republican forms, no one thought of combining public freedom
with the monarchy. The will of the prince was acknowledged to be the su-
preme law, but the supreme power was actually in the army. Accordingly,
the successors of Augustus, while they knew tliat they were masters of the
world, knew quite as well that they could never call one day their own.
They therefore either stupified themselves in the wildest eiyoyment of the
CHAP. L HEATHENISM, f 22. DECLINE. 19
prcsont moment, or sought safety in a reign of terror. Tlie wretchedness of
the Roman populace, and the exhausted condition of the provinces, were in
desperate and frightful contrast with an affluence which strove with shame-
less ingenuity to wrest from nature more enjoyment than she was able to
give or endure. And yet for centuries after the old Roman virtues had been
lost, there remained a noble national spirit, the valor of the legions, and in
private life, the supremacy of the law.
§ 22. Decline of the Popular Religion.
The Greek religion was adapted only to such as were in the eiyoyment of
prosperity. To those who were struggling with misfortune, it offered neither
consolation nor strength, and the gods themselves had apparently deserted
the cities from which they were now invited by the conquerors. The deifi-
cation of Roman despots threw scandal on the gods, and revealed the secret
of their origin. The explanation of the Greek myths undermined also the
veneration which had before been felt for Roman ceremonies.* Philosophy
no longer hesitated to mock a religious worship already abandoned by its
deities. The Roman statesmen, it is true, thought it necessary to maintain a
religion of whose nullity they were persuaded, because it seemed to be the
very foundation of their State. When, however, a people are governed by a
falsehood, the fact cannot long be concealed from them. The human mind,
ordinarily dissatisfied with infidelity, and especially impatient with it in
seasons of peculiar difficulty, now sought for the peace it had lost in all
kinds of barbarous forms of worship. In the midst, too, of those frequent
changes of fortune to which despotic governments are subject, it made an
effort to obtain a knowledge and a control of the dark future, by means of
magical arts. Unbelief and superstition were thus boldly and distinctly ar-
rayed by the side of each other. When the peculiar spirit of each nation
had been destroyed, a popular religion could no longer be generally upheld,
and the gods were all united in the Roman Pantheon. Philosophy, however,
had neither the inclination nor the power to found a new religion.
II. Judaism.
F^av. Jo9fphi Opp. ed. Haterlcamp^ Amst. 1726. 2 Th. f. ; Small ed. by OherthOr, Wurtzb. 17S2sb.
5 TJi. tnil In the 1 Abth. of the Bib!, sacra. Lpa. 182658. 5 Th. [Transl. Into Eng. by W. JTMtfton, &
od. by ilT S'fbbinff. 8vo. Lond. 1941. and a n«w Transl. by R. Tntil^ with notes, Ksmv^ Ac. and
•d. by I. Taykir, Lond. is New York. 1847.] F. C, MtUr^ Judaica s. vetcrum Bcrr. profbnomm de
reb Ja<L fhizmni. Jen. 1S32; Vtlrinya^ de Synogoga vet (Franeq. 1096.) I^ucop. 1720. 4 ; [Vltrlnga's
Synag. A the Chnrch, transl. by Bernard^ Svo. Lond.] X D. Jfieha^is^ mos. Recht. Frkf. 1775fl&
6 Th. (TranaL Into V.nt^ by A. Smith, 4 vola 8to. Lond. 1814]; J. J. /Tow, Gesch. d. Israel, Zar.
27«tV«. 18 Th.; /><« Wette^ Lehrb. d. hebr. ArcbAol. nebst Grandr. d. hebr. Gesch. Lpa. (1814.) 1880;
J. M. J"^ allg. Gesch. d. Isr. BrI. 1832. 2 vols. ; \Joii£* Hist of the Jews, ft-om the Maccabees to the
|Tre<M:nt day, transl. from Germ, by J. 11. ITopklnM^ 1848. New York ;] If. Leo^ Vorles. IL d. Ge«h. d.
jnd- 9(aat4. BrI. 1823. retracted fn hts Lehrb. d. Fniversalgesch. ed. 2. vol. L p. 663m. comp. Stnd. u.
Krit 138a vol I, p. 137SS.: Berthsau, zar Gewb. d. Isr. GGtt 1842: ff. Ewald, Gesch. d. Volkea
.^arael b. Clirlstoa. Gott 13438s. 8 vols. ; J. Saleador, Hist des Institutions de Molse et du people
bcbr. Par. 1629. 8 vols. [This work was answered by M. Dupln^ the elder, In " Jesus devant Caiphe
* L. JTrahner^ Qmndllnlen z. Gesch. d. Yerfiills d. rum. BtaatareL HaL 1887. 4.
20 ANCIENT CHUSCH HISTORY. PEE. L DIV. L TILL A. D. lOa
•t PilAte," Par. 1S29. 8] ; Gramberg, krlt Qesch. d. R. Ideen d. A. T. Ba 1S208. 2 Th.; Vatke, d
BeL d. A. T. BrI. 1585. 1 Th ; <S: Z. Stsinheim, d. Offenb. n. d. Lehrbegr. d. Synag. Frk£ 1B85. 1 vol.
A. F. Gfrbrer^ d. Jahrb. des Ilellea. Stnttg. 1S88. 9 Abtb.— ATfio&e/, d. Propbetlsmas d. Hebr. Breal.
1687. 2 vols. : KdHer^ die Proph. d. A. u. X. T. Lps. 1888 ; [ff. IT. MUman, Hist of tho Jews, from
the B. of Christ to the Abol. of Paganism In the Bom. Emp. with notes by Murdock. 8 vols. New
York. 1831 ; J. JiatiMgt^ Hist of the Jews from Jesns Christ to the pr. time, being a cont of Jose-
phus, transl. by T. Taylor^ Lond. 170S. t ; D, Sitau^»^ He1on*B Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, A Picture
of Judaism In the Cent before Christ, transL fh>m the Qerm. Lond. 1824 2 vols. 8.]
§ 28. The Religious Life of the People,
Jehovah was worshipped as the only living and Most High God. His
government, by agents, in direct communication with himself, collectively
called the Theocracy, was regarded as the only legitimate authority. By his
law the spirit was wrested from its hold upon the natural world, and his
people were separated from all other nations. When the popular life had
attained full maturity during tho period between Samuel and the Exile [1156-
588, B. 0.), a flourishing kind of sacred poetry, with no great refinement of
art, became developed, and the manners and morals of the people, though
rude, were generally strict. The people, however, were always inclined to
apostatize and adopt the sensual and idolatrous worship of nature, prevalent
among the neighboring nations. The state, distracted by the struggle of
the hierarchy with the monarchy, became divided (after 975) into the king-
doms of Judah and Israel, and at last fell a prey to foreign enemies. It was
not until after the Exile, that the spirit of the people corresponded with that
of their law, and then the benefits of such a result, and the complete execu-
tion of their political system, were limited by the dominion of the Persians,
the Greeks, and the Romans, who, without intermission, succeeded one an-
other. A similar religious improvement was founded upon the Sacred Scrip-
tures, the type and mirror of the popular life. In the midst of the calamities
of the Exile, a stronger faith in a future state of existence was awakened, in
connection with the explanation of moral evil by demoniac agency. But a
natural result of the importance which the hierarchy consequently gave to
the outward ritual of the law, was soon experienced in the extreme valuation
of these observances, without reference to their spiritual import. The origi-
nal contradiction involved in the idea they generally entertained of a God,
who was the sole Lord of the Universe, and yet revealed himself as the Grod
of only a single nation, became increasingly prominent, as the world became
more generally known. Their belief also in the exclusive partiality of God
for themselves as a people, in connection with the continual oppression they
experienced from their foreign masters, produced a bitter feeling toward
every thing foreign, and a hatred of the whole human race. It was during
this decline, and as the precise result of it, that the predominant religions cha-
racter of the nation was formed. Its ftmdamental element was an obstinate
nationality, and a bold determination to sacrifice every thing for its preeenra-
tion. This, in connection with their internal dissensions and moral debase-
ment, could lead to nothing but a tragical result, when opposed to the over-
whelming power of the Romans. But a series of prophets had at one time
been produced by the Theocracy, in connection with a spiritual tendency
among the people, which had taught them to solve all the cpntradictions of
CHAP. L JUDAISM. | 24. DISPERSED JEWS. % 25. PDILO. 21
tlio present time, by believing contemplations of the future. These Messianic
prophecies therefore lived on in the hearts of the people, consoling, hot at the
fsame time ensnaring them with the strong expectation that Judaism was des-
tined to become nniversal.
§ 24. The dispersed Jetc* (cV biafrrropa).
Retnond^ Gneh. d. Aosbrelt d. Judeoth. v. Cyras bis a. d. Unterg. d. JQd. Staats. Lpz. 1T89 ; Grooi,
4e mlgntlonlbas Hebrr. «ztrm patrlam ante Ilieraa. a Rom. deletam. Oron. 1817. 4 ; Lsvyuohn^ d«
Jbdaeornm sob Caeaailbas eoaditlone et de Icgiboa eos spectantibtUL Lugd. 1828. 4
According to the laws of war then prevalent, Jewish colonies were trans-
ferred to other lands, in the train of the various conquerors of Palestine.
Individual Jews also wandered into the same countries, for the sake of gain.
In the time of Christ, therefore, Jewish communities, subject to great vicissi-
tadeB of fortune, were to be found in every part of the Koman Empire.
With their characteristic shrewdness, and their inde&tigable industry, they
had acquired wealth by commerce, and by wealth, independence and privi-
leges. They lived according to the law of their fathers, and paid homage to
the hierarchy at Jerusalem, as their highest human authority. In conse-
quenee of their temple tribute (didpaxfui), their offerings, and their pilgrim-
ages, immense wealth flowed into Jerusalem from every part of the world,
and became an instrument of great power in the hands of the priesthood, and
A temptation to Roman rapacity and corruption.
§ 25. Hellenism.
C G. L, Gr—tmann, Qnaestt Pblloiu»i>. L De Theologlae Phil, fontlbos et anetorit II. De
A<{yy PhlL Lpa. 1829; Gfrdrer^ Phllo a. d. alex. Theoeopble, a ▼. ElnlL d. JQd. igfpt Scbnle a. d.
N. T. Stottg. 1881. 2 Abtb. (new Utle, 1885); A. F. Dahtu, gescb. Dant d. J&d. alex. R«l. PhfL
HaL 1867. 2 Abtb. eomp. Baur, In d. Jahrb. t wiss. Kritik. 188S. pi 787-92; J. a L. Oeorffii, Q. d.
neowtea G«9»DflL te Aaffosa. d. Alex. ReL PblL (IIlgens'2eitschr. 1889. H. 8. 4) ; [J. Bryant, Seutt
«r PbU. Jod. on the Word of Qod. Camb. 1797. 8].
Although the Jews who resided in countries pervaded by Grecian culture
seldom gave op their national attachments and spirit, they were unavoidably
mneh affected by the intercourse and science of those around them. Such
was the origin of the Hellenism, which, in Alexandria, then the great mart
of trade even in science, gave birth to the first philosophy of revelation.
This has been transmitted to subsequent times, principally by the writings of
Philo. (a) The contradictory elements of which it was composed were : an
onconditional faith in the divine revelation contained in the Mosaic law, and
an eqnal confidence in the truth of the Platonic philosophy. These conflict-
ing principles were subjectively harmonized by the adoption of the opinions
that the Greek philosophy was derived from the Scriptures, and that the di-
Tine mind in the Scriptures was to be discovered by the allegorical method of
interpretation. Its fundamental principle was : such an extreme refinement
of the idea of God, that every distinct attribute of his nature disappeared.
a) PhUonU Oppi ed. Mangey. Lond. 1742. 2 Tb. f. Tbe greater part of tbls Is used In an ed. cnr.
^fkigkr. Ell (178808.) 1820. 6 Tb. ; Small ed. embradn; tbe remainder, dlacoveriKl by A, Mqjo^ A
Auehsr^ In 2 Abth. of tbe BlbL Patrum. Lpa. 1828aa, 6 Tb. ; Creuter^ z. Krit d. Scbrr. d. Pbllo.
(Stud. n. Krtt 1831. H. 1) ; Groattmann, de PhiL operam contlnua lerie et ord. cliron. Lpai 1841. 4
P.L
22 ANCIENT CIIUBCU HISTORY. PEE. L DIT. L TILL A. D. 100.
and all connection between him and the world ceased. It was therefore sup-
posed that certain intermediate beings (\6yos and.Xoyot) proceeded from God —
fanciful creatures, which can scarcely be called personal existences, nor yet
mere extensions of the divine essence. These gave existence to Matter, which
was not divine, but was formed according to the archetypes of their own
ideal world, and was animated by the divine breath. Even man, so far as
his earthly nature is concerned, is fallen matter, with God concealed from his
▼iew. But that which was originally divine in him, must be liberated by
struggles and self-denioh), until he finds his true life during some favored mo-
ments even in this world, in the blessed contemplation of the Deity. This
divine philosophy was reduced to practice by the Therapeutaey who lived in
separate huts, chiefly in the Mareotis, near Alexandria, abstaining from oil
pleasures, cares, and toils of an earthly life, and entirely devoted to the con-
templation and praise of the divine nature, (b)
g 26. The Tliree SceU.
Trium tciiptorum illastrlain (Dru«iit Scaligeri^ Serarif) de tribus Jad.neornm sectis fjninpm^
ed. THglandim. De1phi& 1703. 2 Th. 4; /». Beer^ OescU Lehren u. Mclnungen aller ret Sccton d.
Jud. BrQnn. 18228. 2 vols. ; Sc-hn^ckenhurger^ die Pharisiier, Kel. Pliilosophrn o. Asketfker? (Beitr.
t. ElnL in> N. T. Stuttg. 1882. N. 7.) GroMmann, De Philos. Sadducaeor. Lptk 1986. IL De fra|^
mentta 8«dd. exeg. 1887. IIL Do etata Sadd. literario» morall et politico. lS8dt 4,
The most distinct forms of Judaism in Palestine, after the time of the
Maccabees, were represented in three regularly organized sects. The Phari-
aeeSy i. e. the Separated, were representatives of the rigid hierarchy, and of
modem Judaism with all its faults and virtues. The most austere portion of
this sect adhered to the authority of Rabbi Shamrnaij and a milder party to
that of Hillel, In the latter party, a tendency toward Hellenism was practi-
cable, and Gamaliel is said to have participated in it. The Sadducees, whose
name signifies the Righteous, and who constituted in fact the wealthy and
aristocratic portions of society, maintained the older Hebraism, the intellectual
liberty of which, in a corrupt and yet 8])eculative period, was easily perverted
so as to encourage licentiousness and unbelief. The disputes which these sects
carried on with each other became sometimes so violent that the govemmont
was disturbed on account of them. The Bssenes, i. e. Healing Ones, or
Saints, were those who had become dissatisfied with the world, and in ditfer-
ent degrees of their order, according to the rigidity of their asceticism, with-
drew from all public life, to live in extreme solitude on the western coast of
the Dead Sea. Their doctrine, so far as it has been made known, indicated
some aflBnity with the Alexandrian philosophy, as it converged evidently to-
ward a theory of angel hierarchy. Their moral system and habits were simi-
lar to those of the Therapeutae, although they adhered more decidedly to the
Hebrew prophecies. Their mode of life was communistic, and their time was <
wholly occupied in prayer and labor. Although they condemned the private
possession of wealth, individuals might possess some property as a fief, from
I) Tbe orig. evidence in Tarions forms in Phllu, and inany erroneoas »tateinent8 with nepect
to them in Eunfbius, IL £cc IL 17; Bdltrmann, gesch. Nachrichten a. d. Alterthnme iL £»i«r
n. Therspeutcn. Brl. 1921; J. Salter^ de Easenis et Thorapeatia, Yrat. 1820; G/rdrer, Abth. S. fi
S90««w ; Ddhnty vol. I. p. iSOas.
CnAP. L JUDAISM. I 87. SAMiVSITANS. f 28. PROSELYTES. 23
the common stock. They never visited the Temple, because bloody sacrifices
were offered in it, but they sent to it their sacred gifts.
§ 27. The Samaritans.
Besides the Jewl»h aooroes of » partisan character, ccmsalt The Samar. Pentatench, even in the
Arable translation, and John iv. 5-48 : iJSiffert) Pg. de temp, schismatis ecc. Judaeoe inter, et Sa-
morr. obortl. Beglom. 188a i. comp. Qase's Leben Jera. pw 108a [Neander*s Life of Christ p. ISOra. ;
n*ngatenh«rg^ On the Pentateach, toI. L pi TOss.; if. Stuart^ Essaf on Sam. Pent & Lit in Bib.
Bcpoa. 1831 P. 4 p. 6SL Jk Easaya on the Old Test Andover, 1845. 8 ; KitUft Joomal of Sac. Lit
JaljT, 1898. p. 898.]
From its first establishment, the kingdom of Israel was always character-
ized by a great laxity of religions faith, a dislike to the Levitical priesthood,
and a fondness for the idolatrous worship of the surrounding nations. Hav-
ing been conquered by the Assyrians (722), the small remnant allowed to re-
main in the country soon became nearly amalgamated with the heathen colo-
nists introduced among them. And yet the inhabitants of Samaria, the
fruitful hill country between Judaea and Galilee, offered to assist the returning
Jews in rebuilding the Temple of Zion. This proposal being rejected. Just
before Alexander's triumphant march through their country, they received
through Manassehf the exiled brother of the Jewish high priest, and the fa-
vor of the Persian monarch, not only a copy of the Pentateuch, but permis-
sion to build a temple to Jehovah on Mount Gerizim. In spite of all their
foreign mixtures, both of sentiments and of blood, the Samaritans were espe-
cially attached to the ancient Hebraism, and carried out its moral and intel-
lectual tendencies. They shared in the political fortunes of Judaea, and were
animated by a similar hatred to the Romans, but the State possessed very little
power, on account of the still greater mutual hatred of the Jews and Sa-
maritans.
§ 28. Proselytes.
The contempt which a people without refinement in art or science, enter-
tained for every thing foreign, was of course met by the Greeks and Eo-
mans with a similar contempt (a) And yet the strength of religious faith
among the Jews, the worship of one Grod, and the veneration for the myste-
rious rites and shrines of the temple of Jehovah, were peculiarly imposing.
Modem Jnddsm, too, was naturally inclined to conquest. Hence from the
general inclination toward foreign religions, and from the dissatisfaction felt
with respect to the social relations of the Empire, many, especially women,
laborers, and slaves, felt attracted by the hopes held out to them by the
Jews. Some became proselytes of righteousness to Judaism, and many re-
nounced idolatry by obeying what were called the Noachian precepts, and
thus, according to the decision of the milder teachers of the law, became
proselytes of the Oate^ i. e. friends of the Jewish nation, and sharers in many
of its hopes, without being subject to the yoke of the law, without adopting
the narrow prejudices of the Jews, and without expecting justification by
their extem^Q services. Others pleased or silenced their consciences by the
a) TaeiL Hist V. 5 ; Minueii Fa. OcUvias c la
24 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOBT. PER. L DIV. L TILL A. D. 100.
practice of Jewish ceremonies, and allowed themselves to be beguiled by
Jewish conjurers, (h)
CHAP. n.-.THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH.
Lud. Capeili Hist ap. lllattnU, Oenev. 1084 4 ed. Fahriciiis, Lpa. 1691 ; J. F. BuddH, Eoc.
tp. Jen. 1789; J. J. Hett^ Gesch. u. Schrr. d. AprwteL Zarch. 1788. 4 ed. 18208S. 8 Th. ; F. LUcke^
Ck>m. de Eoe. Apost. Ooett 1818. 4; J. G. Ptanck^ Oeech. d. Cbrtetenth. In d. PMiode ar. ElnAihr-
ang. Gott 1818; Th. II. A. Neander [lllst of the Planting and Training of the Christian Charela
by the Apoetlea, TransL by J. E. Ryland. Phil. 1 vol. 1844] : F, CK Baur, Paaln^ Stattg. 1845: A.
SdiM^Ur^ das nachapost Zeitalt in d. Hauptmomonten sr. Eutwickl. TQb. 1846. 2 toIs. ; eomp. K.
XtiUr, iL Cbr. Urchr. n. Unchr. in Schwegler's Jahrb. 1S44. Joni \ (W. O. JHetMn^ d. Urchiistentb.
eine Beleaeht der. y. d. Sebole d. Hrn. Dr. v. Bavr^ iL d. Apost Zeita. an^fpettellten Vermathangcn.
HaL 1846 ;) [JT. R. Eagenbach^ F. C Baur, and J. P. Langt^ have each pablished Histories of the
Primitive and Apoetollo Chnrcb, in Genn. ; G. Benson^ Hist of Uie First Planting of Christianity,
Lond. 1756. 8 vols. A\ F. W. P. Oreentcood, Lives of the Twelve Apostles, &o. Bost 1846. 12; L.
Coleman, Anc. Christianity exemplified. Philad. 1858. 8 vols. 8; IT. W. J. ITiierteh, Hist of the
Chr. Chorob, vol L Apostolic Age, TransL by T. CarlyU, Lond. 1852.]
§ 29. Tlie First Pevteeost.
I. Act9^ 2. 1-41 ; II. Herder, Gabe d. Spraeben. Rig. 1794; Ammon, de novis llngals. ErL 1808;
Hate, Zor Gesch. d. ersten Cbr. PflngstH ; {Winer*» Zeitsebr. t Wiss. TbeoL 1827. H. 8;) Bleet, fL
d. Gabe des y\<&(rffais \a\up. (Stud. n. Krit 1829. vol. IL H. 1 ; comp. Olehaueen, vo). II. H. 8;
BepL Y. Bleek, 1880. vol L H. 1. pw 45-64 ; OUhaueen, ibid. p. 64-66l) Baw, Abb. In d. T&b. Zelt-
schr. t TbeoL 1880. H. 2; Bdumlein, Abb. in the Stndien d. Wartemb. Gei9tlicb. 1884. H. 8;
Schneekenburger, in bis Beitr. zar Einl. in'b N. T. N. & Billroth; [Expos, of the Epp. of Paul to
the Cor. (in Edinb. BibL Cabinet, No. 21. 28) on 1 Cor. xlv.]; Z>. Schvle, d. Geisteegaben d. errten
Christen, insbea d. sogen. Gabe d. Spr. BresL 1886; Baur, Krit Uebvrs. (Stad. n. Krit 1888, pi 618Bit.)
Seinecke, Sprachgabe d. ersten Christen. Lpz. 1842.
As the founder of a new popular religion, and as the Messiah and Son of
Grod, who must fulfil all the longings of the j)eople, and the prophecies of the
Scriptures, Jesus had awakened a spirit which in independent spirituality was
to rise above every thing earthly, unite men in love, by regeneration, with
the Father of all, and regardless of all national distinctions, bring them un-
der one great bond of brotherhood in the kingdom of God. A few faithful
disciples, on whom exclusively this Spirit had before rested, waited in close
fellowship at Jerusalem for the promised manifestation of this Spirit. Early
in the morning of the feast of Pentecost, soon after the Kesurrection (about
88), on the occurrence of a remarkable natural phenomenon, they felt con-
scious of an extraordinary inspiration, which they regarded as a shedding
forth of the divine Spirit upon their hearts, from without and above them-
selves. This internal influence manifested itself to others principally by an
animated and copious style of speaking — a speahing with tongues^ which, ac-
cording to Luke, was generally regarded as a decisive evidence that Chris-
tianity had arrived at its completion, (a) Such phenomena were regarded in
the primitive Church as the gift of the Spirit, bestowed without reference to
the ordinary state of the heart, and were indeed frequently abused so as to
become subservient to vanity, (b) Such was the fact until far into the second
l) Jwoen, Sat YL 648. Benee. de supentt (in AxtgwA. de Civ. Del VL 11); Joeephi Antiqq.
VIII. 2. 6. XVIII. 8. 5.
a) Acts 10, 46s. 19, 6. oomp. 8. Ifien h) 1 Oor. 14
CHAP. IL APOST. CHUBCH. | S9. PENTECOST. S 80. JEBUBALEM. 25
oentmy, (e) and even to a still later period, in seasons and congregations
in which powerftil excitements prevailed. At this feast of Pentecost, accord-
ing to the rather ohecnre aooonnt of Lnke, a discourse was delivered in seve-
ral foreign languages. A power to do this, however, was not regarded in
the apostolic Church as the ordinary attendant of this gracious gift ; we have
no account of its repetition, and it is of importance only as indicating that
Ghristianity was destined to hecome universal. But the great fact which
then took place, was the revelation of the new spirit, through which the
Church was visibly and publicly to be established.
§ 80. Fortune of the Church of Jeruealem,
The rage of the people had been appeased by the death of Jesus ; and
when the recollection of his benevolent deeds revived, the feeling began to
prevail throughout the city, that they had imbrued their hands in the blood
of an innocent man, and possibly in that of their own Messiah. When, there-
fore, his timid disciples suddenly announced with great earnestness and con-
fidence that he had risen from the dead, thousands, by baptism, professed
themselves his disciples, and the popular favor was turned toward them.
Alarmed at this, and divided in their own counsels (since many of the Phari-
sees, out of hatred to the Sadducees, were willing that the gospel, which pro-
claimed a resurrection, should prevail), the Sanhedrim were irresolute, and
adopted no efficient measures, while the apostles were full of courage, will-
ing to suffer shame for Christ, and determined to obey God rather than men.
Still, no sooner had those friendly to their cause become connected with
them, than the Galileans^ or Natareans^ became, as before, a much-hated
sect. A party zealous for the law were allowed to stone Stephen (about 86),
and Herod Agrippa looked upon it as a popular measure to persecute the
Christians. James^ the brother of John, was beheaded, and Peter escaped
the same fate only by mysterious aid (44). (a) But when, on the sudden
death of Herod Agrippa, (h) all Palestine became a Roman province, the con-
gregation was allowed to become tranquilly established and enlarged. When
most of the disciples fled, on the persecution after the death of Stephen, the
apostles remained at Jerusalem. There stood together those pillars of the
Church, Peter, James, and John, even as late as near the middle of the cen-
tury. After that, James the Just, the brother of our Lord, is mentioned as
the principal leader among the Christian Jews, although all authentic ac-
oonnts agree in ascribing to him a high degree of circumspection and mod-
eration even in his Judaism, (c) To Judge from the epistle beying his name,
he must have been a pious and earnest teacher, especially in his admonitions
in fsLYor of morality, but with no prominent characteristics peculiar to Chris-
tianity, (d) By Jewish Christians he has since been honored as a kind of na-
tional saint ; and although the disciple of Jesus is not very prominent in his
rigid discipline, and in the remote occasion of his death, this was only to
c) Inen, V. «,
a) Act* C, &>-T, 00 ; 12, 1-19. h) Acts 12, dOaa. eomp. Jo§epM Antlqq. XIX. T, 2. e) Oal. 2, 9,
Mmpk Aettl^ 18m. d) Liter. Reriew, In TheiU, Gomm. in Ep. Jao. pu 2Ss8. ; F, ff, Kem^ Char-
0. Ursproog d. Br. Jak. (from fba Tflb. Zeltaehr.) Tab. 188&
26 AKCIENT CnUECn HISTOEY. PEE. L DIT. L TILL A. D. 100.
prove himself moro perfectly a Christian hero when he was called actually
to die. (e) The plain testimony of history declares, that the High Priest Anah
nus^ a Sadducee, availing himself of the interregnum which took place after
the death of the procurator Felix, had James, and a few others, stoned to
death, as transgressors of the Mosaic law (63). (/)
§ 31. Jewish Christianity,
D. van Hei/Ht^ D& de Judaeo-Christiftnistno ^asqae vl et efflcacltate, qa«n czsernit In rem Chr.
8aec L Lugd. B. 1S2S. comp. % 85.
The dispersion of the congregation after the death of Stephen was the
commencement of its propagation in other regions. The knowledge of Christ
was prohably carried by pilgrims from Jerusalem into all parts of the Ro-
man empire, and yet but a small part of the Jewish population actually be-
came Christian. The principal seat of Christian Judaism among the dis-
persed portion of the nation was at Antioch^ where the name of Christian
was first api)lied to the Church by those who were not its members.
The Jewish law was observed with the utmost strictness. Cliristianity was
regarded as a perfected Judaism, whose hopes were already in part, or soon
to be completely ftilfilled. It was only with this understanding that it could
have gained general acceptance in Palestine. The Pharisees were inclined to
receive, and zealously to advocate it, so far as the doctrine of the resurrec-
tion of Jesus was concerned ; and the Essenes were favorable to its religious
spirituality. The assertion, that a Jewish Christianity of an Essene com-
plexion sprung up at an early period, by an accession of a considerable num-
ber of Essenes to the Church, is rendered probable by partial affinities be-
tween the two systems, and certain by witnesses after the middle of the se-
cond century. But as the gospel was proclaimed principally in public assem-
blies, and as conversions from a community so rigidly secluded must have
been extremely difficult, we can hardly suppose that such an accession could
have taken place in any large numbers, till after the dispersion of the Essene
settlements, and the desolation of the Jewish country. Besides, it does not
appear that Christianity, in its earliest form, possessed any prominent traits
of an Essene character. As it was believed to be intended for all men, those
who looked upon it through an old Hebrew medium, must have regarded the
reception of the law as a necessary part of the process. According to Luke*s
account (Acts x. 11-18), Peter could be indnced to baptize a proselyte of the
gate, and could justify himself for the act before his brethren, in no other
way tliian by the assurance of a divine revelation. But as the Church could
not tft that time conveniently separate its blessings, the more rigid Jewish
Christians demanded that baptized proselytes should afterwards be circum-
cised.
§ 32. Samaritan Christians and Sects,
The first decisive instance in which Christianity broke over the pro-
per limits of the Jewish nation, was that in which the gospel was car-
ried to Samaria. The seed which Jesus, regardless of the popular hatred,
e) Suteb. n. ecG. IL 1. 88. /) Jostphi, Antiqq. XX. 9, 1.
CHAP. IL APOST. CHUECn. { 82. SIMON. % 83. PAUL. 27
had sown in Sychem, was harvested by the apostles, (a) The Samaritans,
however, were at tliat time too much taken up with the claims of certain
founders of new religions in their own midst, strange phantoms of the truth,
to be much interested in a Messiah from Judea. Dotitheus^ professing to be
the prophet promised in the likeness of Moses (Dent. 18, 18), had appeared
among them with a severe exaggeration of the letter of the law, and had
finally starved himself in a cave. (//) Simon Magus obtained many adherents
in Samaria, and perhaps also some in Rome. According to his own assertion,
or at least that of his followers, he was an incarnation of the Spirit which
had created the world, to deliver the soul of the world, in bondage to the
earthly powers, by whom it had been confined in a woman, and at that time
in his own wife, Helena. With the deliverance of this world-soul, all be-
lievers were also to be released from their imprisonment. He was, however,
anxious to purchase the Holy Ghost from the apostles, and trembled before
their malediction, (r) In some accounts, he appears degraded to a mere pan-
der to lewdness^, {cT) and in popular traditions he became the representative of all
magical arts aud their fortunes during his day, in contrast with the triumph-
ant simplicity of pious faith, (e) Menander also aspired to the honor of be-
ing a Messiah, and a divine incarnation, with power to make his followers
immorUd. (/) The influence of each of these three impostors was continued
through some minor sects until some time in the sixth century. They were
often confounded, by those who were not well informed on the subject, with
tlie followers of Christ ; and perhaps some of them, like Simon himself, at
one time, from worldly policy, may have passed themselves off as such. It
18 possible, too, that they may sometimes have really claimed to be Chris-
tians, in uocordanoe with a doctrine by which all religions were mingled to-
gether, and the same God was said to have revealed himself to the Samari-
tans as the Father, to the Jews as the Son, and to the Gentiles as the Spirit
§88. Paul,
J. Paarson^ Aniudes PauL Hal. 1718. [Lond. 16Sa 4 transL into Eng. by Williams^ Cambr.
1884L t2.] W. Paley, Horae PanL or the Troth of the Scriptural Hist of Paul erince(L [With a
■DppL bj E. BiUy. Load. 1840. Illnatrated by Tate. Lond. 1887. PabL in New York. 1848. In
work& Oambr. (aiass.) 1880.] J. T. llemMn, der Ap. P. Outt 1880 ; K. Schroder^ der Ap. P. Lps.
1S80HL 6 vols. ; TholucJt^ LebeoHumstAnde, Character u. Spracbe d. P. ; (Stud, a Krlt 1885. H. 2.
and Verm. Scbrr. yoL IL p. 8*2«.) [Life and Cbar. of Paal, tranal. fh)m the Oerm. of A. Tho-
iMdfc, and pubL in the Edinb. BibL Cabinet, vol. 83.] U. A. SchoU, Erurtr. einiger Cbronol. Pnnkte
in d. Leben^escb. d. P. Jena. 1832 : «/: /^. Wurm^ \L d. Zeitbest im Lebon d. P. ; (Tub. Zeitschr. f.
TbeoL ISSa H. 1) ;— Z. UeUri, Kntw. d. P. Lcbrbcgr. Zur. 1824. edl 5. 1884. A. F. Dahne, Entw.
d. P. Lebrbegr. Hal 1885;— itour, Paulas (p. 24.)
The development of Obristianity as a spiritnal religion for the, whole
world, was accomplished principally by the agency of Sanl, called after the
Boman form Paul. The idea of its liberation from Judaism did not, indeed,
originate with him, for certain Hellenists from Cypms had before preached
a) Ada % 5-17; John 4, 35-3a h) OHff. de princ. IV, 17. (vol. L p. 178) In Jo. torn. 18. (vol. IV.
p. 287); Epiphan. 0pp., vol. L p. 80. c) Acta 8, 9-24; Jtistin. ApoL L c. 26, 66; Tryph. c. 120;
(Simoni Deo Sancto. Senioni Banco Deo Fidlo;) Ireiu L 20. Extracts fh>m both Ettseh. II. eca lit
1& Epiph. Haer. 21. d) Jotephi^ Antlqq. XX, 7. 2. e) Amob. II, 12; Clement^ UomlL II, 298S. ;
Seoognitt I, 72. If, 78a. ; comp. Tar gum Jeruahalemi^ ad Nam. 81, 8; Sueton. Vita Neron. c. IS.
/) JutUni, ApoL L c 26; EpipK Haer. 22.
28 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIV. I. TILL A, D. 100.
the gospel to the Greeks in Antioch, (a) and Stephen did not deny the charge,
that Jesns had come to destroy the temple, and to change the ceremonial
law. (h) But it was reserved for Paul successfully to justify and triumph-
antly to carry out this idea. He helonged to the trihe of Benjamin, was a
Roman citizen bom at Tarsus the capital of Cilicia, had been educated for a
learned Pharisee in the school of Gamaliel at Jerusalem, and was by occupa-
tion a tentmaker. The traces of a Greek education, which his writings
sometimes exhibit, may be ascribed either to the school in which he had been
educated, or to his subsequent pursuits and associations. With a character
not only great but exalted, able and energetic in worldly things, though Aill
of longings after those which are heavenly, he placed himself, in defence of
the law of his fathers, at the head of those who persecuted the followers of
Christ. Stephen fell before his eyes, and Gamaliel warned the rulers that
they should not contend against God. But while journeying to Damascus, to
persecute those Christians whom he might find there (probably 86), he and
bis companions were suddenly struck to the earth by fire from heaven.
Christ now revealed himself to his spirit as the Saviour of the world, and he
could no longer resist the mighty power of truth, (c) His rich natural en-
dowments were now illuminated by the gracious influences of the Holy
Spirit, his former self was cast off, and Christ alone lived within him. After
a residence of three years in Arabia and Damascus, he fled from the latter
city to Jerusalem (89), that he might form an acquaintance with Peter. He
was soon after invited by Barnabas from Tarsus, to assist in the work of the
gospel at Antioch. When both had conveyed provisions fV*om that congrega-
tion to Jerusalem, for the relief of the brethren there (44), they were sent
on a missionary tour to Cyprus, and some provinces of Asia Minor. They
commenced their labors by preaching in the synagogues ; (d) but as they
were generally treated with contempt, and often with much abuse by the
Jews, while they were generally &vored by proselytes, they soon began to
form independent churches, composed principally of Greeks. These they re-
garded, adbording to the custom at Antioch, as not bound to observe the cere-
monial law, and it was even rumored that Paul had gone so far as to prevent
the Jews from circumcising their children. He himself, however, conformed
to the ritual of the law, at least as far as appeared expedient to prevent all
unnecessary ofience to his brethren ; and accordingly, in Christian liberty, he
was a Greek with Greeks and a Jew with Jews. But at Antioch, some from
Jerusalem maintained that circumcision was indbpensable to salvation. In
consequence of the division created by this party, Paul and Barnabas under-
took a journey to Jerusalem (about 60), where, after hearing what God had
already accomplished by their means in carrying the gospel to the heathen,
the three apostles of Jewish Christianity extended to them the hand of fel-
lowship. A charter of privileges was then agreed upon, which was imme-
d) Actt 11, 8(X-89. b) Ads «, ISs. e) Gal 1, 15«. ; 1 Oor. 9, 1 ; 15. 8; Aett 9, 1-99; 99, 8-16 ;
98,9-18; Ammon,6e repcntin« Bauli oonvenione, ErL 1798 (0pp. theoL p. laa.); GreUing, Htst
PsyohoL Yen. Q. d. pi 'tzl. Ueberg. d. P. (Henke*s Mas. 1800. vol. III. p. 99a) Stratus, Streltsohrr.
H. 1. p. 61««. ; oomp. R Bengel, ObM. do P. ad rem Cbr. oonven. 9 P. (0pp. ITamb. 1884) \—C. G,
SlicMsr, de itDno, qao P. ad taora ohr. ooov^rto* mt, Lpa^ 1898. (f) Conip. Rom, 1, 16; 9, 9aai
CHAP. IL APOST. CHUKCIL g 88. PAUL. 2^
diately sent forth in a solemn edict to all Gentile Christians, forhidding any
yoke to be imposed upon them, except a few observances like those which
were required of proselytes. This proceeding could not be reconciled with
the original covenant (Gal. 2, Iss.) without considerable ingenuity of rea-
soning, and was not very consistent with the course which Paul sometimes
pursued, but it was a well-intended scheme to harmonize those conflicting
tendencies which were just springing up in the Church, and of which tradi-
tion gives us an account (Acts 15). (e) It was not until Paul, fully believing
himself called of God to be the apostle to the Gentiles, had extensively pro-
pagated the Church among the Greeks, that it became practically indepen-
dent of the pr^'udices which prevailed in Palestine. During his two long
Journeys, and his protracted residences in Ephesus and Corinth, he established
numerous churches in the several cities of Asia Minor, Macedonia, and
Achaia, encountering far greater difficulties (2 Cor. 11, 20ss.) than are men-
tioned in the Acts of the Apostles. Hated equally by Jews and by Jewish
Christians, with many presentiments of his approaching death, he went,
about Pentecost in the year 58, to Jerusalem. There, abandoned if not be-
trayed by Christians, he was delivered from the hands of the exasperated
mob in the temple by the Koman guards. For two years he was kept in
bonds as a Roman citizen, by the procurator Felix in Cesarea ; and when
Festns came into the same office, as the successor of Felix, in consequence of
bis appeal to the emperor he was sent late in the year 60 to Home. After
a stormy voyage, he was kept in slight confinement in that city, and during
two years he labored in behalf of the great object of his life, not only with
those around him, but by means of epistles and friends with those at a dis-
tance. It is hardly possible that he could have survived the persecution under
Kero, but he was probably beheaded at Rome (64). That he was liberated,
and that he then for the first time visited the utmost limits of Western
Europe ,(/) and finally ended his life during a second imprisonment in Rome,
appears more like a learned conjecture than an ancient tradition, (j/) His
epistles abound in rabbinical explanations, in arguments stated in the form of
bold and complex syllogisms, in evidences of a highly wrought intelligence
in connection with a profound spirit glowing with benevolence, and in waves
of thought which appear to struggle with and break upon one another. His
style was concise and often difficult, but he always had the right word for
every variety of condition, sometimes powerfully convincing or threatening,
and at other times carrying all along with him by his cordial expressions of
affection. A nature like his may have ascribed some things to a divine reve-
lation through visions, which were the result of intelligent reflection, and
which may have been influenced by his peculiar physical temperament, (fi)
€) Schnsckskburger^ Apostelgescb. p. Tlss.; Schwegler^ DacbapostoL ZetUlt toI. I. pw 11688.;
eomp. IfMnder, [Hist of Plant and Train. &c B. IIL Cb. 4. p. 76a8. 8 ed. Pbilad. 1844. a]
/) Clem. RotiK Epw L ad Gorintb. c 5. g) EuMb. H. ecc II, 23 ;—«/'. P. MyntAer^ de nltimia annis
muneris api a P. geatL Havn. 1815 \ J.T.L, Darvs^ de loco Eosebii, qui do altera P. captivitate aglt,
Jen. 1816u 4;—£. F. R. Wolf^ de alt P. captiv. dss. II. Lpa. 1819s. ; Baur^ die Sogen. Pastoralbr. d
Psnl. Stnttg. 1885. p.e888; comp. TQb. Zcitschr. 1888. IT. 8. | 4888.; Stud. n. Krtt 1841. IT. 1.
A) The viaiona related by Luke in tbe Acts of tbe Apoatlea, and tbe allosiona to similar tbings in gen-
nl In tbe Clementinea, are conflrmed in 2 Cor. 12, 1-9.
30 ANCIENT CnUIlCU IIISTOItT. PER. L DIV. L TILL A. D. 100.
His doctrines are essentially the same with those of Jesns, so far as they pro-
ceed from the acknowledgment that Jesus was the Messiah, and are the views
of a profoundly religious mind, affected by similar rational prei)08sessioiis.
They were, however, at the same time, independently founded upon his own
peculiar life and conflicts. In the first, he had experienced the remarkable
contrast between a period of enmity to Christ, and another in which Christ
had become his only life. This private experience he regarded as a specimen
of the life of mankind fallen from God by sin, and reconciled to God by
Christ, and hence his evangelical instructions were specially directed to the
awakening of the consciousness of sinfalness. His conflicts had been princi-
pally directed to the liberation of the Christian spirit from the Jewish law.
He therefore maintained, that if our whole salvation must come from Christ,
the law is not necessary to salvation. The connection between these princi-
ples was made out by showing, that as man has not fulfilled the law, the
works of the law can only lead to condemnation, and salvation can be ob-
tained only by a complete surrender of the heart to Christ ; /. e. by faith
alone, not by a descent from Abraham, not by the merit of our own works,
but wholly from the free grace of God, Paul acknowledged that the old
covenant was divine, but he contended that it was completed by the new
covenant of God with man by Christ, so that now it had become an abroga-
ted institution. In his estimation, Christ was the substance of all religion,
and the sole ruler of the world. The advent of X>hrist to our world was the
lofty central point of all human history, from which he looked back upon the
preliminary revelation which had been given to Jews and Gentiles, and per-
verted by them both, and forward to the final triumph of the kingdom of
God, when all opposition shall be overcome, and Christ himself shall with-
draw, that God may be all in all.
§ 84. Peter,
Mayerhnf^ EInl. In d. Petrin. Schrr. ITamb. 1885; comp. K. Ha9€^ Leben JestL p. 112s. \A,
Le^ LU(B (if the Ap. Peter. Lond. 1852. 12.]
The practical energy which Peter possessed, and on which our Lord him-
self appears to have founded considerable expectations, made him the princi-
pal representative at least of the external affairs of the Church, as long as he
tarried at Jerusalem (until about 60). At a later period, when at Antioch,
principally from regard to particular persons, he relapsed to the exclusively
national view of Christianity, he was decidedly opposed by Paul (Gal. 2,
lis.), who advocated a gospel free for all mankind. In an apostle so prone
to extremes, such an act, which almost seems like a second denial of his
Lord, is no more incredible on the ground that he had before not only toler-
ated, but even been the first to defend Gentile Christianity, than it was in
Barnabas. But his former relation to Paul appears never to have been ftilly
restored, for the first epistle which bears his name contains no conclusive
evidence of this, and in the memory of the next generation, Peter and Paul
were at the head of opposite parties in the Church. According to testimony
derived from times after the middle of the second century, mingled, indeed,
with many errors, legends and party statements, but proving what must have
CHAP. IL APOST. CIIURCn. §84. PETER. J 85. PARTIES. 31
been the opinion of the Roman Chnrch, Peter snffcred crucifixion at Rome
(about 67). (n) Jerome is the first who informs us (catal. c. 1), that he at
one time resided at Antioch, and afterwards was for twenty-five years Bishop
of Rome. Although satisfactory evidence from the history of Paul proves
that he could not have resided for so long a time at Rome, and even older
traditions show that he could have sustained no particular office in the church
of that place, since they mention, in different orders of succession, Linus,
Anacletoa, and Clement, as the first bishops of Rome ; (h) it is nevertheless
certain, that wherever Peter was, his personal influence would always give
him the first position, unless Paul had been by his side. His character is well
reflected in the legend of his flight, from which he was recalled by some
pungent reproof from the lips of Ohrist himself, and in that of his crucifixion
with his head downwards, (e)
§ 86. Position of Parties in the Time of Paul,
In its progress amoug the heathen, the gospel necessarily appealed entire-
ly to the general religious spirit which the apostle to the Gentiles recognized
even among them, {n) since, with the exception of a few myths which might
serve as types of Christ, and some prophetic announcement, made by the
Platonic philosophy with which the apostles were unacquainted, it found no
promises handed down from the fathers, and only the most obscure expecta-
tions. Even after Christianity had torn itself entirely away from the Mosaic
law, in consequence of its own origin as well as of that of its principal
teachers, the Jewish element was still prominent in the phrases, doctrines, di-
yine worship, and polity of the Church, and it was not remodelled until it
gradually became affected by Grecian modes of thought. Jewish and Gen-
tile Christianity existed side by side, either mutually recognizing or exclud-
ing one another. The former was sustained by the influence of those who
had been called the pillars among the apostles, and possessed an external sup-
port in the necessities of the poor saints at Jerusalem, (h) An internal basis
was also supplied, by the concession, that it was a duty which national if not
religions piety required, for a Jew to adhere firmly to the law. Each of these
forms of Christianity, however, must finally have felt, that its own rights de-
pended upon the rejection of the other. It was therefore always urged to
adopt the exclusive policy, which was at first precipitated by certain zealots
among the Jewish Christians, perhaps through a refusal of social intercourse,
or posnbly by the uneasiness created in the minds of some Gentile Chris-
a) DtonyHut Corinth, and Caju« Rom. in EuMb. IT. ecc. IT, 25; (The doabtfUl testimony of Pa-
plia. fb. II, 19;) Iren. Ill, 1. 8; Tet'ttd. c Mara. IV. 5 ;—S. ran Til, de Petro Romac martfre, non
pontifleai, L. B. 1710. 4; J. O. IltrbtA, in d. TQb. Qnartalsckr. 1820. H. 4. p. &675n. : on the other
bajHl, Fr. Spitnhefnii, Da. do Acta prufectione Petri in nrbem Romam. (0pp. ML<«€ell. Lugd B. 1708.
Th. II. P. 881n.); Riur^ In d. Tub. Zoltsohr. 1831. IT. 4; C F. t. Ammon, Forth, d. Chr. z. Welt-
wl Lpt 1840. ToL IV. p. 819» b) EtiAeh. 11. ecc. Ill, 2; Rujtni, Praef. ad Recogn. I»etri; even
tb« CatnloguM lAberiantUi, aboat 854. On the other hand, the mont recent Cath. assertion : DSl-
Unger, KOesch. vol. I. Abth. 1. p. 6S%; Windischmann, Vindlclae Petrinao, Ratisb. 1S86;
SUnglHn, In d. TQb. Qnartal«cbr. 1840. H. 28.; comp. Baur, z. Literatnr 4. Petms-Sa^ In his
Paidin, p. 67188. e) EnMh, H. ecc. Ill, 1; Uleron. catal. c. 1. On the other hand: TertiU, d«
r. c ML [Art in Kitto*i Journal of Bibl. Lit vol V.]
a) Bom. 1, 19 ; Acts 17, 22-29. b) Gal. 2, 10 ; 1 Cor. 18, las.
32 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIV. I. TILL A. D. 100.
tians with respect to the law. (c) If, therefore, Paul himself spoke somewhat
equivocally of the exorhitant respect paid to the apostles of Jewish Ohris-
tianity (2 Cor. 12, 11. Gal. 2, 6), his apostleship, which was referred to by
every opponent as destitute of all external proof of a divine call, would be
barely tolerated by the more liberal portion of the Jewish Ohristians, and by
the more intolerant portion would be positively rejected. Jewish Christian-
ity was certainly in the ascendant in Palestine, and there, until the violent
measures used by Hadrian, no bishops at Jerusalem were chosen except from
among the circumcision, with a decided preference for the acquaintance or
kindred of Jesus according to the flesh, (d) In like manner, in the circle of
Paulas influence. Gentile Christianity alone could have been predominant ;
and in proof of this, an undeniable document exists in the epistle to the Ro-
mans, in which the principal idea is the overwhelming superiority of the
number of Gentiles in the Church. It is not, however, probable, that after
Paul had been removed, and the destruction of the holy city seemed like a
divine judgment against Judaism, any churches composed of persons bom
and educated as Greeks or Romans would be persuaded to observe the Jew-
ish law, although attempts were not wanting even long after the conmience-
ment of the second century to form associations, and exclude members on
this ground. Accordingly, when we find that Hegesippus called the Church,
which had existed prior to the death of the apostles, a pure virgin, and on
his way to Rome found what he called the true doctrine with the bishops, we
conclude that he must have belonged to that class of Jewish Christians, which,
after the example of the prophets, and of our Lord himself, was not op-
posed to a Gentile Christianity, (e) The church at Corinth, soon after its or-
ganization, presents a picture of the parties formed especially on these con-
flicting views. One party, which assumed the name of Peter^ may have re-
garded at least some parts of the Mosaic law as still in force, while another,
called after the name of Faul^ looked upon the doctrines advocated by him
as exclusively Christian. A third party could flnd true Christianity nowhere
80 well presented^ as in the method of instruction adopted by the learned
Alexandrian, Apolloa. A fourth, if it was not a mere branch of the Petrine
party, mdntained that Paul had never enjoyed the apostolic privilege of a
direct intercourse with Christ, and appropriated to itself exclusively the name
of Christy because it r^ected all apostolic traditions, and relied entirely upon
its immediate union with Chrbt. (/) Paul did indeed defend his apostolical
authority against these various parties, by whom the unity of the Corinthian
Church was not destroyed, but he did so only on the ground that he had re-
ceived it from Christ himself. He did not deny, that every church had a
right to use, for its own edification, the various gifts of its religious teachers,
but he warned them that every thing which was not built upon Christ was
perishable. He insisted that the Christian was a new man, after the image
c) C. Buobt de abrog. legls Mob. ex Petri, Jml et Jo. itemqne Eoc ab ilsdem coDStitntanun
Bententia. Monte- A^lbano, 1342 ; O, X, ScharUng^ de Paolo ^luqixe adTenariia, Haun. 1886. d) Svtub,
H. ecc. IT, 5 ; Stdp. ^. H. aacr. II, 81.
e) £ufieb. H. ecc III, 83. IT, 22. /) 1 Cor. 1, llsa. oomp. 2 Cor. 10, 7 ;—Baur^ fl. d. Chri»>
taspartei In d. Cor. Qemeinde (T&b. Zeltacbr. 1881. P. 4. comp. 1886. p. 4), a. Paolua, p. 860ml ;
J>an. Schenkely de Ecc Corintfala primaeva fkcUonlbiu torbata, Baa. 1888; J)r. J. B. Goidkom^ d.
CHAP. IL APOST. CnURCH. $ 88. PARTIES. $ S6. JOHN'. 33
of God, and was no longer a Greek, or a Jew, or a Barbarian, bnt Christ was all
in alL (g) A new tendency, having its origin among Jewish Christians, made
its 2^)pearance at Colosse, which promised its votaries a mysterious kind of
knowledge, and a power over the spiritual world, on condition that certain
unnatural austerities were undergone, (h) On the other hand, Paul main-
tained, that the highest wisdom was to be found in the simple gospel of
Ohrist, and that a Christian had a rational freedom allowed him with respect
to earthly things.
§ 86. John,
rtete, Yen. e. YoIlBt Einl. in d. Offienb. Job. u. in d. apokal. Lit Bonn. 1882. n. Com. vl Q Et.
Job. Bonn. ed. 8. 1S40l toL L Elnleitang ; BaumgarUn-Crtudus, Theol. Ausl. d. Job. Schr. Jen.
1848. ToL L Einldtang;— JT. Frammann^ d. Ja Lebrbegr. Li>9. 1889 : K. R. Kdsdtn^ Lebrbegr. d.
£t. XL d. Briefe Jo. BrL 1848;— (?. C.J. LutzeWerger^ d. KircbL Tradition 0. d. A[k Juh. in ihrer
Onindloeigkitt Lpa. 1840; Baur, tL d. Composition a. d. Cbarakter d. Job. £v. {Mler's Jalirb. 1844
P. 1. St.); £ ZeUsr, A. fiaMern Zeigniase 0. Dasein u. Unpr. d. 4 Ev. {Thid. 1845. P. A);— J. A. IT.
Ebrard^ de Ev. Job. a. dia neneate Hypotbene iL s. Entateb. Z&r. 1840;— ir Grimnk, Job. in Eracb.
a. Oraber'a Encykl sect IL vol XXII. ; comp. Jfate^ Leben Jesu. p. 60s. 112a. [A. HUgenfeld^ d.
Er. a. d. Brieft Jo. nacb ibr. Lebrbegr. dargeat Ilalle. 1S49.]
As far back as the recollection of the churches in Anterior Asia extended,
John appears as the central point of interest to all the congregations of Asia
Minor, and moving in the same scene of action which had previously been
under the care of Paul at Ephesus. He is represented as indignantly con-
tending ag(unst erroneous teachers, whether of the Jewish or Gentile parties,
or as reclaiming by love those that were lost^ and binding all together in uni-
ty, (fl) He is said, by the legends, to have been miraculously delivered from
martyrdom at Home, (b) A residence in Patmos, which, according to his own
narration (Rev. 1, 9), must have occurred in the time of Galba, was changed
by popular rumor in the Church, into a banishment under Domitian. All
traditions, however, agree in declaring, that he attained an age in which the
heart alone remains vigorous, {c) and that he finaUy fell asleep in the midst
of his disciples, in the reign of Trigan. His life and death were vividly re-
flected in many legendary accounts, the earliest of which were noticed by
himself in his gospel (John 21, 22s.) (il) Even in the middle of the centn-
ry, he was the third among the leaders of the Jewish Christians. The book
cH Revelations, whose authenticity is pretty well confirmed, which is evi-
dently conformed to Jewish types and imagery, and must have been com-
posed prior to the destruction of Jerusalem, manifestly corresponds to such
a pontlon. In that book, the chosen first-fruits around the throne of the
Lamb belonged ezcluavely to the twelve tribes, but beyond these were an
innumerable company from among the Gentiles, with palms and white robes,
priildiDg also the Lamb that had been slain, (e) The natural progress of a
thoughtftd man, as it is evident the author of the fourth gospel was, and as
Cbrlataipsrt (Illgan*S Zeitsohr. 1840. P. 2); Ddhfu, die Cbrlatuapart Ual. 1641; T, F. Knietcet>,
Eea Cor. Tetoat dtaaenstonaa Oedan. 1842. 4 cf) 1 Cor. 8 ; CoL 8, lOa. K) CoL 2 '.—Schiuckmihur'
0«r, fi. d. Irrlebrer ta Col (anbaog z. 8cbr. a. d. Proaelytentaofe. BrL 1828. n. Beitr. z. Einl. N. 14) ;
BkeinwalA, de paaadodoctorib. Coloaa. Yeron. Bben. 1884. 4
a) ^«M&. H. aoa Y« 24 III, 28. b) TertuL de praescr. 0. 86. c) HUron. in Ep. ad Oal. 6. d) Au^
ffwtUne^ de Trin. TI, 89; PMudo-UippolyL de conaommat mundi (Hipp. 0pp. e<L Fabr. Append.
pw 14) ; oomp. FabrieU^ Cod. Apoc. Tb. II. p. 088. a) Bw. 7, 4-10. comp. Jo. 4, 22.
8
34 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIV. L TILL A. D. 100.
one so specially beloved of the Lord mnst have been, daring a period exten-
sive as that of an ordinary generation, and spent among churches which had
eigoyed Greek cnltare and the labors of Panl, will snfficiently acconnt for
any apparent discrepancies, or tokens of advancement, which one may notice
in passing from the Revelations to the Gospel and the first epistle of John.
In these later prodactions, the same spiritual and comprehensive views of
Christianity prevail, which are so manifest in the epistles of Paul, but they
seem to indicate that the mental conflicts of the writer had passed away.
This gospel, moreover, seems to appeal not so much to a spirit conscious of
sin, (md specially feeling its need of salvation, as to something exalted in the
existing nature of man, and its aspirations after perfection. Christianity,
therefore, appears there to consist not so much in mere faith in the mercy of
God through Christ, as more immediately in love, and in the union of the
divine and human in the heart, which was complete in Christ, and is de-
signed for our race. The incarnate Logos is a borrowed symbol of this uni-
ty, partially indicated before in the epistles of Paul, (/) but presented in the
gospel in a dogmatic form. It there appears as a celestial being not belong-
ing to our race, but taking the place of beloved man, although, in conse-
quence of personal recollections of Jesus, it is pervaded by historical facts of
the most perfect human character. The love which John inculcated, is pow-
erful enough to conquer death, and penetrate through all obstacles up to God.
The most flourishing form of Christianity, in past or future times, is here
partially presented. It consists in a life, even on earth, of tranquil, unbro-
ken, and everlasting rest in God, in which all apparent schism between the
present and the future, the human and the divine, has been overcome.
§ 87. Parties in the Time of John.
The same subjects which were destined to agitate the Church in ftiture
ages, began already to be discassed among opposing parties. The various
views and sects which had formerly prevailed among the Jews, were certain-
ly carried forward in the very commencement, so as to produce similar vari-
eties among Jewish Christians. Even the different conceptions which were
then entertained of Jesus, had their origin in the national expectations of
the Jews respecting their Messiah. But as every account we have of them
belongs to a later age, it may be that the first power of Christian love, com-
bined with the external influence of Gentile Christians, was then sufficient to
hold together even opposing elements. The feehngs of bitterness which, ac-
cording to the prominent recollections of the Church in the next century, the
apostle John entertained toward Cerinthusy were too peculiar to have been
awakened by the existence oiT any thing in the latter of a merely Jewish
f) The paM^e in 1 Cor. 8, d 15, 47. cannot bo explained away ; hence the more distinct and prominent
references to a Son of Ood who existed before the world, and created it, which are found in the Epp. to
the Cola^tflans, Epbesians and Philippians, form no ground for suspecting the genuinenesa of those
writings. Although all views not merely accidental mnst have their appropriate time of develop-
ment, the Jewish notions of the Meielah and the Alexandrian doctrine of the Logos were so pre-
a4Juste<1 to one another, that they might ttuily be supposed to have been all combined together
in a single night
CHAP. IL APOST. CUUUCH. $ 87. CEPJNTHUS. ( 88. TRADITIONS. 35
cliaracter. (a) On tlie supposition that this Cerinthos taught, as lie is said,
especially in Roman and Alexandrian accounts, to have done, that a millen-
nial kingdom of the most sensnons nature was to be expected, that the ob-
servance of the law was indispensable to salvation, and that the origin of
Jesus was merely human, (b) such views were at that time by no means un-
common. If, as Ironaeus declares, he regarded the Creator of the world as
an inferior being, so that the Most High God was not revealed until he ap-
peared through Christ as a superior being, in connection with the man
Jesus, from the time of the baptism till the crucifixion, (r) he must, like John
himself, have meant that the law was only intended for the development of
the kingdom, and that the sensuous glory of that kingdom was merely alle-
goricaL (d) In conformity with his Alexandrian education, he regarded the
Creator of the world as an intermediate divine being, in the service of the
supreme celestial Deity, (e) Those who looked upon matter as essentially
evil, in accordance with a doctrine springing from an overwrought Platon-
ism, or from Hindoo speculations, and certainly prevalent in Alexandria, must
bAve been offended at the idea of a revelation of Deity through sensible ob-
jects. Accordingly, the various forms of Docetism agreed in declaring, that
every thing corporeal in Christ was only in appearance, and for the manifes-
tation of the Spirit, and that his life was merely a continual Theophany. It
was against the subtilizing process which this view rendered necessary with
respect to the evangelical history, that testimony was borne probably even in
the epistles of John, and certainly in those which bear the name of Igna-
tius. (/) The Nieolaitans^ whose name was doubtless symbolical, and founded
upon traditional recollections, were merely the first representatives of a large
class of thinkers in subsequent times, who abused the spiritual superiority of
Christianity to all corporeal objects, to give countenance to the Greek frivol-
ity with respect to the relations of the sexes, {g)
% 88. Traditions respecting the Apostles.
The stories which have been related with regard to a division of the
world by lot among the apostles, of the composition of a creed in Jerusalem
at the time of their separation twelve years after the Ascension, of their
oelibaoy or continence, and of their martyrdom, belong to the legends of the
fourth and fifth centuries. According to earlier traditions, which, however,
present no individuality of character, Thomas went to Parthia, Andrew to
Scythia, («) Bartholomew to India, Qi) and Philip died at Hierapolis, in Phry-
gia. In one of the most copious, a story is told, and highly embellished, of
a mission of Thuddeus to Abgarus, prince of Edessa, in consequence of an
earlier correspondence between Jesus and that prince, (c)
a) Iritn. Ill, S;—8ehmidt^ Cerinth e. Jndals. Christ. In a Bibl. f. Krltik. n. Ex. vol L p. ISlas.;
Paulus, nist Cer. (Introd. in N. T. cap. Beloctlora. Jen. 1799); comp. Bdur^ Cbr. Gnods. T&b. 1885.
p. 117. 40888. b) Eu9eb. H. ecc III, 2S ; Bpiph. haer. 2a c) Iren. I, 26. d) Iren, V, S3, e) The-
odortt HacreL fkbb. II, 8; Iren. I, 26. /) 1 tAo. 1, 1-8 ; 4, 2& ; 2 Jo. 7; Ignatius ad Ephea. c. 7. 18.
■d Sroyrn. c 1-8 ;—A. H. Niemeytr^ de Docetis. IlaL 192& 4. g) Rev. 2, 6. 1488. ; 2 Pet. 2, 15 ; Jud. 11,
yuror rhv \a6¥f C9 3?lba , oomp. Iren. I, 26 ; Clem. Strom. IL p. 4908. ; IIL p. 9229L \—Miin-
§eker, Yermuth. fl'd. Nlkolalten (Oablcr'8 Journ. t Theol. Lit. 1608. voL V. p. 1788.); Etcald^ in
ApoeaL Jo. p. 110 ; Gfrbrer^ GiMcb. d. Urehr. I, 2. p. 402s«.
a) Eu^eh. H. eoe. Ill, 1. h) Ibid. V, la c) Ibid. I, 18; K. Uase, Leben J«8a. p. llai
36 ANCIENT CHURCH HI8T0BT. PEE. L DIV. L TILL A. D. 100.
§ 39. Apostolical Fathers of the First Century.
Patrnm qui temporibns apostolonim flornerant, 0pp. ed. Ooteleriutu Pir. 1672. rep. ClericHt^
AmsL (1698.) 1724 2 Th. f ; Patrnm appi 0pp. ed. RwHa^ Lond. 1796. 2 Th. ; Patniin app. Opp. ed.
m/de. Tub. (18$9. 184a) 1847. {A. ButUr, Lives of the Fatben, Martyrs, dc«. Lond. 1888. 2 Tola. 8;
JE BickergtetK, The Chr. Fathers of the First and Second Centariea. Lond. 1845. 12 ; Ahp. Wak^^
Ap. Fathers. Lond. 1817. 8.]— /r«yn«, Jimiu^tivan GiUe^ Commentt de Patrnm qip. doctrina mo-
rali. Lngd. 1838. 4. [ffUffer/M, d. Erforschnngen 1L d. Scbrr. Ap. Titer. Berl. 1854. a]
When the contemporaries and disciples of the apostles left behind them
any writings, they were distinguished by the ancient Chnrch as apostolic
fathers. The genuineness of their writings cannot be perfectly maintained,
especially against the suspicion of having been revised in later times. They
resemble the writings of the apostles not so much in their distinct and intel-
lectual peculiarities, as in their general conception of Christianity, without
doctrinal precision or references to Grecian learning. The epistle of Bama-
has treats of the relation of Christianity to Judaism, in the manner of the
epistle to the Hebrews, with an allusion to the temple of Jerusalem as if it
were already destroyed. In spite of the powerful historical proofe we pos-
sess of the genuineness of the epistle, the insipid spirit and the stupid arbi-
trariness of its allegorical explanations, continually suggest doubts whether it
could be the production of a man once regarded as the equal of Paul, (a)
The epistle of Clemens Romanus (Phil. 4, 3) to the Corinthians, was intend-
ed to effect a reconciliation between the parties which had been organized
among them. It inculcates the doctrine of justification by faith, but, in the
spirit of Paul, it exhorts all to adorn themselves also with good works. The se-
cond epistle which bears the name of the same writer, is generally of a devo-
tional character, but it is a mere fragment, and of a very doubtftil authenticity.
The Shepherd of ffermas is a strenuous exhortation to morality, enforced by
the prospect of the second advent of Christ. It is in the form of direct rev-
elations from God, and visions of angels. In the manner of Jewish Chris-
tians, it displays great confidence in the holiness of good works, but contains
evidence that baptism had already taken the place of circumcision. The in-
dividual whose composition it professes to be, is unknown, but the general
use made of it in the churches of the second century, for devotional reading,
indicates that he must have been an apostolical personage, (b)
§ 40. Political Overthrow of Judaism,
Jo-phi de bello Jnd. L TIL; TwsiU, HIsL Y, 1-18.
The obstinacy of the Jewish nation may have required unusual severity
on the part of the Romans, but the extreme violence of the procurator (7e»-
o) In favor of its genuineness : E. BmkOt de Epistolae qnae Bam. tribnitor, authentia. Jen. 1827 ;
JRdrdam, de aath. Ep. B. Hafh. 1828 ; Hatterkom can Bysewyk^ de B. Ambem. 1885. On the
other side: UUmann^ in d. Stad. a. Krit 182& P. 2 ; Zug. in d. Zeitscbr. t d. Erzblsth. Freyb. P.
98b ; /r</Wd, d. Sendschr. d. Ap. B nntersocht, Qbersetxtn. erkliirt Tub. 1840 ;~2>. Sehenka (Stud,
u. Krlt 1887. EL 8.) contends for the interpolation of c. 7-12. 15. 16. by some Therapeutic Jewish
Christians; EeberUt in d. Stud. d. GeistL WOrtemb. 1846. P. 1. Chap. 16 seems to refer to the
Temple of Aella Capitolina. h) Bom. 16^ 14 'O rroiyAiv, Pastor. Lai translation and Greek Frsg-
ments \-~QraU, Disqq. in Pastorem Ilermaek P. L Bonn. 1820. 4 ; Jaehmann^ d. Hltte dea Hermafc
Kunigsb. 188B.
CHAP. n. APOST. CHUBCH. | 4a JEBUSALEIL S 41. KHPEItOBS. 37
Biui FhrvM (after 64), could find no palliation except in the insurrections to
which he had driven the people. Thej had entered upon the war (66), not
so much in the hope of victory, as in despair of all earthly peace. Legions
had fallen in the mountains of Judea, when Vespasian (after 67), and after
his elevation to the imperial throne, the Cassar Titus (70), arrayed the whole
power of the empire against Jerusalem. The Christian churches, remember-
ing the prophecy which Jesus had left them, abandoned their native land,
and betook themselves to Pella, on the other side of Jordan. Though famine
and civil war raged in Jeruaalem, every offer of mercy connected with the
condition of renewed servitude was scornfully rejected, and the holy city
was at last destroyed in a sublime death-struggle against the whole power of
the Boman world.
§ 41. The Soman Civil Power.
[T. Arnold^ Later Bonun Commonwealth. New York. 1846. 8 toU 8.]
It was the policy of the Boman government to permit all nations under
its yoke to retain their own gods, but some very ancient laws, forbidding any
Boman citizen to worship divinities not recognized by the State, and any
conqnered nation to propagate their religion in other parts of the Empire,
were still In existence, (a) Hence, the more Ohristianity disconnected itself
from Judaism, the more it lost the right of toleration conceded to every
national religion, and by its efforts to make spiritual conquests it became ob-
noxious to the laws. In the time of the Caesars, however, so strong were
the indinations of the people toward foreign religions, and so numerous the
admissions of foreigners to the rights of citizenship, that these laws had be-
come nearly obsolete, and could be restored to their authority only by special
acts of power, (h) There is no other authority for believing that Tiberius
ever adopted Christ as one of his household gods, but the legends of the
second century, (c) Under Claudius^ Christians were expelled from Borne (58)
merely as Jews, {d) Nero (64) transferred to the Christians the guilt of his own
incendiary conduct, and caused all who could be found in the city to be put
to death, for although they were generally regarded as innocent of the crime
imputed to them, they were condemned as enemies of the human race, {e)
Under Domitian (81-9G) the charge of Christianity was used as a pretext, by
which persons might be convicted of a kind of high treason, that so their
property might be confiscated, and themselves banished or executed. Flatius
Clemens^ a man of consular dignity, and belonging to the imperial family, was
pot to death, and his wife Domitilla was banished to an island, according to
Boman accounts for contempt of the gods, and giving themselves up to Jew-
ish practices, but according to Christian views as martyrs for the truth. (/)
Some persons arraigned betbre the emperor, on account of their connection,
by birth, with Jesus, were dismissed without molestation, as harmless peos-
a) Cieero de leglb. II, 8. h) Fr. Walch^ do Romanorum In tolerandli divorsls reltsrionibns dfH*
dpllna puUiciL (Nov. Commcntt Boo. Beg. Ooett 1788. vol. III.) o) Tertul. Apolof^'t c. fi. 21.
Id bvor oi it; Braun^ de Tiberii Cbrlstam In deorum namenun referendi conMlio, Bonn. 1S84.
d) SutUm. Claud, c. 26; Ammon, Pg. In Suet Claud, c. 25. Erl. 19ia 4 e) ThcUi .\nn. XV, 44*
^iMCon. Nero, 0. 16^ /) SuOon. Dona. c. 15; i>to Cawius (Epit XIpbllini), LXVII« 14; Eanett.
38 ANCIENT CHUBCn HISTORY. PER. L DIV. L TILL A. D. lOa
ants, ig) Kerta (96-98) forbade that any one should be accused for being a
Christian. In the midst of these persecutions, Christians made no resistance
farther than individually to assert their innocence, and then silently reagn
themselves to their fate. (A) Near the close of the first century churches
were to be found in all the principal cities of the Eastern empire, but in the
West there are no distinct traces of them, out of Italy. The first converts
were principally slaves, laborers, and women, but so numerous were they,
that even then it is said, the temples of Asia Minor were deserted, and flesh
which had been offered to idols could find no sale.
§ 42. Constitution of the Local Churches,
C M. PfiMff, de originlb. juris ecc. Tub. 1719. e<l 4. Ulm. 1759. 4. {Greiling) UrverC d. »p«st
Chiistengem. Halbnt 1819; £rei9chnfiderf die Veil z. Zl d. App. reprMflentaliv-dcmokr. a ariiito-
krmtlBch? (A. K. Zeitwig. 1S38. N. KiS:^ u. Kirchl. \to\\L Zeitfragen. Lpz. 1S17. p. ^\s».)\ R. Rothe,
die Anfunge d. cbr. K. u. Ihrcr Yert Witt 1887. 1 vol : A. PeUrsen, die Idee. d. cbr. K. Lpz. 1S89-
46. 8Th.; [J.E. Riddle, Manual of Cbr. Antt Lon«l l^K 8; J. R WUion, Prim. Gov. of Cbr.
Churches. ThllatL 1888. 12; A. A'eatuler, Planting A, Training; transl. from Germ, bj J. £. Ryland.
Philad. 1844w 8. JL Coleman, The Ai>ostol. & Prim. Church, &c, PhllaiL 1S45. 12; A. Btimen, Id-
qalry into the Orli?. ic Gov. of Ap. Church. Philad. 1848. 12 ; R. Whntely, The Kingdom of Cbrbt
New Torlc. 1842. \%\ J. L. Mokhelm, Commcntt on the AfTuIrs ot Christians before Const transl.
fhran Germ, by Vldal. Lend. 1818. 8 vols. 8: J. Bingham^ Ori^ines Ecck'5la^ticae, transl. from Lat.
Lend. 1S52. 8 vols. 8; P. King, Const of Prim. Church, I^nd. 1719. 8; W. Sciater, Orig. Draught of
Prim. Church. Lond. 1727. 8; X. Banga^ Orig. Church of Christ New York. 1S5J7. 2 ed. &]
The separate existence of the Christian Church was effected quite as much
by the daily religious assemblies of the disciples at Jerusalem, as by their
partial exclusion from the synagogues. The Twelce Apostles at first regarded
themselves as a perfected or exclusive College for the establishment of Chris-
tianity in the world. They had been the special companions of the Lord,
and were now the principal vouchers for the evangelical traditions. They
therefore exercised an undisputed authority over the Church, shared however
in a short time with others, who became distinguished for their spiritual gifts
as apostles and founders of churches. Next to them in rank were the Evan"
gelists, a class of traveUing preachers, sometimes also called, in the more ex-
tensive sense of the term, apostles. The Prophetic was the gift granted to
many persons at that time, by which they were enabled to speak in an in-
spired, enraptured manner of discourse. In the case of Agabas, however,
we have a specimen of a class of soothsayers who only faintly resembled an-
other, then for ever gone, {a) The actual officers of the local churches were
chosen as circumstances called for them, after the model of the s^niagogue.
Elders (irptafiimpoiy ^''?h?) ''^cre appointed to preside, and preserve order in
the church, and Deacons (dtaicoi/ot), to take charge of the poor, and to assist
in every effort for the common good, (b) The Elders were sometimes caUed
by the unassuming name of Oterseers (iiria-Konoi)^ an appellation more con-
sonant with Grecian customs, and first adopted in Grecian congregations.
Chron. II. ad Olymp. 218 ; Hieron. ep. 86. (aL 27.) ct Phil. 4, 22. ff) I^u^eb. Hist. ecc. Ill, !& h) On
the other hand : Kettner, die Agape o. d. geheime Woltband der Christen von Kleme&s in Bomi
enter Domitian gestiflet Jena. 1819.
a) AcU 11, 2a 21, 10& h) Acts 6, 1-10.
CHAP. IL APOST. CUUBCH. | 42. GONSTTnTTIOK. | 4& LIFE. 39
Both titles were as yet used indiscriminately^ althongb in consequence of the
personal influence of some who presided in the churches, especially of Jeru-
salem, the way may have been prepared even then, for the distinction which
became so decided and general in the first ten years of the next century, (e)
The officers of each church were chosen by the people, or with the consent
of the people were installed over them by those who organized them into a
church. Although the office of a public teacher must have seemed most im-
portant, and the necessity of well qualified instructors must have been
urgent, (d) it does not appear that any persons were at first set apart, exclu-
sively for that duty, («) and every thing like a hierarchy was excluded by
the universal acknowledgment that all believers were members of a general
priesthood. (/) It was looked upon as a matter of conscience, that all civil
salts should be settled by arbitrators selected from the church itself. (^) After
the excitement of the first establishment of the church had subsided, women
once more returned to a silent submission to the word of God, and to the
performance of their proper duties in the domestic circle. But in addition
to the Deaeonenes^ who were employed in charitable offices among the women,
there were* probably, even then, some female presbyters or widows^ for the
supervision and instruction of the younger persons of their own sex. (h)
Every one who applied for admission to the Ohurch was immediately re-
ceived, but those who were subsequently found guilty of gross offences were
excluded by the action of the congregation. In the management of its pub-
lic affairs each congregation was an independent society, but by spiritual fel-
lowship, and the influence of distinguished travelling teachers, all the con-
gregations were so connected together, as collectively to form one great king-
dom of God, of which even in the time of Paul, Jerusalem was regarded as
the centre. The supreme law was love, and the sovereign power was exer-
cised by the Holy Ghost.
§ 48. EcclesuMtical Life,
Arnold^ erate Liebe d. L wahre Abbildang d. ereten Christen. Frnkf. 169<S. £ «& oft ; Stick f I et
Bogenhard, Biga oommontt de moroU primAevorom Cbristianorum conditlone, Xcost ad 0. lS2d.
As the Church at Jerusalem grew up out of the original company of the
apostles, the common fund which had existed in the latter, suggested the
bold thought of a community of gooda Although such a project was much
fiusilitated by the enthusiastic brotherly love then prevalent, and an expecta-
tion that all existing relations were soon to be overthrown, it was never com-
pletely carried out, and this congregation was soon in need of the charities
of Christians in foreign countries, (a) A hypocritical vanity which occurred
in a form not very uncommon in religious circles, was visited with a terrible
c) dc »d Attic VII, 11; Acta 20, 17. 23; Phil, 1, 1; 1 Pet. 6, Is.; Ofwi. Jiom. ad Cor.
c 42. 44; Etrmae Past L 2. A\~-BU>nd€ly Apologia pro eententia Hier. de Episc. Amst 1616. 4;
GdbUr, de Episoopta primae ecc Jen. 1805. 4. d) Acts 6, 2 ;— /. Tim. 8, 2. 6, IT; // Tim. 2. 24
e) FarMger^ Da. de munerib. ecc tempore A pp. Lpa. 1776. 4; Gabler, examlnatur Forbl-
geri sent de Proeb. Jen. 1812. 4. 2 Pgg. /) I. Pet. 2, 9. 5, 8, cf. Rom. 12» 1. g) J. Oor. 6, 1-&
cC Matt 18, ISea. A) Acta 2. 17. 21, 9.— Rom. 16, 1.-7% 2, 8; /. Tim. 6, 9; Cone. Laod. can. 11 ;
(JTaiMi, Th. IL p. 666;.— ira««, Streitechrr. P. 2, p. 858a.
a) AeU 4, 82hl cC IS, 18.— JfoaAtfim, de vera natnra oommanionis bonorum in Ecc. Hier. (Daa.
40 AKCIENT CnURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIV. I TILL A. D. 100.
divine retribntion. (h) The ordinary mode of life in each congregation pre-
sented many points of comparison with that which existed among the
Eseenes. (c) Christians regarded themselves, in contrast with the world, as
the consecrated people of God. Every intellectual faculty, according to its
peculiar nature, was enlisted in the service of the kingdom of Gk)d, and when
exalted by the common spirit of the Church, was looked upon as a gracious
gift of the Holy Ghost. Hence, while there were many gifts, there was but
one Spirit. The most remarkable of these gifts was the power of miracu-
lously healing the sick, at first more especially exercised by Peter, but after-
wards supposed to be a permanent possession of the Church. The Holy
Ghost was regarded as the common spirit of the whole Church, proceeding
directly from Christ, awakening and appropriating to its use the sacred en-
thusiasm of each individual. The external manifestations of this spirit were
sometimes genuine exhibitions of divine power, but were sometimes con-
founded with the fanatical irruptions of a high religious excitement, and in
all cases were regarded as fulfilments of a prophetic metaphor of Messianic
prophecy, (d) The sincere piety which generally prevailed, however, did not
always prevent the pride which flatters itself on account of its external ser-
vices, nor did the extraordinary brotherly love which the great body of
Christians exhibited, entirely suppress some manifestations of envy and party
spirit. When persecution was expected, it was not uncommon for some
among the Jewish Christians to save themselves by apostacy, and among the
Gentile portion of the Church sins were sometimes committed which were
regarded as unpardonable, (e) Even when Christian morality had been in-
fluenced by Jewish views of personal purity, it had much to contend with in
the sensuality of the Greeks. Fastings and abstinences, which had been re-
garded from a period of great antiquity, as conducive to a pious disposition,
together with some festivals, were very soon introduced into the Christian
Church. Paul, it is true, rejected them when any attempted to enforce them
as a matter of legal obligation, or of personal merit, but he looked upon vir-
ginity as a very desirable condition, and expressed an inferior regard for the
married state. (/) No change was required in the social relations of life, but
they were exalted by higher motives and principles. (^) All hope of an
earthly theocracy was apparently destroyed by the death of Jesus, but Chris-
tians generally believed that Christ was to return to the world a second time,
and many indulged the hope that they would live to witness his advent. This
faith gave birth to the boldest expectations, partaking generally of a sensuous
character, and while it seemed a national necessity, and a religious consola-
tion to the Jewish, it was a source of anxiety and perplexity to the Grecian
congregations, (h)
§ 44. Mode of Worship,
The devotional exercises of the Christian assemblies, like those of the
Jewish synagogues, consisted principally of prayers, singing of hymns, and
ad It ecc Alton. 1743. Tb. IL) I) Acts S, 1-11. e) Comp. Ofrbrm', Geacb. d Urchr. IIL p. SSSh.
d) Acts 2, 16-18; /. Cor. 13, 4. 14, Iss. e) Utb. «, 4aa. 10, 25a8.~/. Jo. fi, 1«. /) /. Oor. 7, 1«. 88m.
g) Ei>. ad Philemon, h) After the Apocalypse, MaUh. 18, 28 ; /. Oor, 15, 62 ; Phil 4» 6 ; Btlb, 10, 87 ;
/. c^. 8, 18; Jam^ 6, 8 ; /. Pet 4, 6.—//. Thet$. 8.
CHAP. IL APOST. OHUSGH. | 44. WOBSHIP. | 40. DOCTRINES. 41
sacred disconrses, founded upon portions of the Old Testament. Apostolio
epistles were read in the congregation, to which they had been originally di-
rected, bnt after a single reading they were generally laid aside. Every one
who had the power and the inclination to speak in public, was allowed to do
80 with freedom. Baptism as an initiatory rite was performed simply in the
name of Jesns. (a) The love-feast, in which were combined the ordinary
meal and the religions service of the primitive Christians, was originally cele-
brated in Jerusalem every day. At its condui^on the broken bread and the
consecrated cup was passed around to every one at the table, (b) In the Jew-
ish Christian congregations the Jewish Sabbath and festivals were observed.
Paul denied that any one was bound by positive law to show a preference of
one sacred day above another, (e) Only in congregations composed princi-
pally of Greeks, oould the members be Induced to observe Sunday in oom-
memoradon of our Lord^s resurrection, (d) and among them no interest could
be awakened in those Jewish festivals, which were not connected with some
event of the Christian history, to give them additional importance. It is,
however, not easy to explain why even Paul and John should have discon-
tinoed in such congregations the eating of the paschal kmb, according to the
usage of their forefinthers. (e)
i 45. Doctrines of the Church,
No public sentiment upon definite articles of Christian faith had yet been
formed, bnt in addition to those generally received maxims of piety, which
in some instances had been handed down from the lips of Jesus, and in others
had been gradually developed in the course of free discussion, the whole sys-
tem of Jewish faith passed over into the Christian Church, and was received
as divine. The only condition of admission to the Church, was a promise to
live a new life, and an acknowledgment of Jesus as the Messiah. In this ac-
knowledgment free scope was given to all those views of the nature of the
Keisiah, which prevailed among the people, from a simple recognition of him
as the Son of David, and a man filled with the Spirit of God, to a belief in
him as an angel, and an impersonation of some one of the attributes of
Jehovah. In the view of the Greeks the Messianic ofiSoe had no special sig-
nificance, and Christ was to them simply the Lord, and the Son of God. As
fur as the reception of the doctrine of the Holy Ghost may be regarded as an
indication of the development of Christianity at this period, the views of the
Church may be inferred from the baptismal formula, which was a simple ex-
prearion of faith in the divine Father, Son, and Spirit (Matth. 28, 19). This
whole transaction was a thoroughly practical matter, and admitted of a great
variety of views.
a) Act» 8, 88. 8, 18. 10, 48 ; Rom, 8, 8. b)J,T.F. Drtseher^ de vett ChrirtlADoram Agapia. Ofeas.
18S1 e) OaL 4, 9m. ; a>2L i, 16; Bom, 14, 5; oomp. / Oor, 5, 6st. ; Comp. Jattin. a Tryph. c 10,
11 d) ^<3te 20, 7; /. Cor. 18, 3; Rev. 1, 10; Bamab. c 15.— C'. C. L. Franke, de die! domlnioi
•pad vett Christ Mlebratione, HtL 1826; (Commtt teL ed. VoU>eding. 1S16. Tb. L P. I.) e) Acta
tfl^fin; ^uMft. H. eoe. y, 24.
42 ANCIENT CnUECH HISTORY. PKB. L DIY. IL A. D. 100-612.
DIVISION II.-FORMATION OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
CHAP. L— STRUGGLE OF THE CHURCH FOR ITS OWN EXIST-
ENCE.
LactanthiM^ de mortlb. persecutorum, ed. Bavldri^ TraJ. ad. Bh. 1698. and often. [This work
is transl by Bp. Snrnft. Lend. 1718. 8.]— C KortKoU, de peraeqaatlonib. eoc piimaeyae (Jen. 1660),
Kllon. 16S9. 4; Transl into Germ. ; Beschr. d. 10 grossen Yerfolgg. Hamb. 1698; Gibbon^ Dedlne
and Fall of tlie Koni. Emp. I»nd. 17766S. 6 vola. 4, and often. [With notea bj MUman and
Gui*(tt. New York. 1S4S. 4 vula. 8.] Transl. into Ocrm. by Wenk^ and others. Lps. 178868. 10 vob.;
the 16th chap. rof>pecting the prop, of Chr. by natural cansea, transL by A. F. «. Walterstem, Ilamb.
178S; G. A. Ottiander, Ausbreit d. Chrlstenth. (Sti&udlin's n. Tzschlmer's Arch, vol 4. sect 2); /T.
G. 7k«cA<m«r, dcr Fall des Ilcidenth. Lps. 1829. 1 voL ; A. Beugnot^ Hist de U destmctlon du pa-
ganismo en Occident Tor. 1S8& 2 vols. {A. NiUchl^ d. Entsteh. der Altkath. K. Bonn. 1850.]
§ 46. The Jem.
Zunz^ die Gottesdienstl Yortr. d. Jad. hist entwickelt BrL 1832. comp. ( 40.
Uninstructcd by the past, and nnhnmbled by defeats, the Jews contended
against their fate (after 115), and from Western Africa to Asia Minor, insarrec-
tions rolled over the land, always to be quelled in Jewish blood. That he
might not be compelled to pnt the whole nation to death, Hadrian resolved
to destroy its nationality. The people were forbidden to observe their Sab-
baths, and circumcision was punished as a crime probably as emasculation, {a)
and on the ruins of Jerusalem a city consecrated to Jupiter was built, and in
honor of that divinity and of the emperor was called Aelia Capitolina,
When reduced to extremity, the nation was called to arms (182) by Bar
Coehha^ L e, the Son of a Star, (h) who professed to be the promised Messiah^
and was acknowledged to be such by the distinguished Rabbi Akiba. He
succeeded in conquering Jerusalem, and in consequence of his heroic but
sanguinary exploits, Palestine became once more free. But after all the hor-
rors and vicissitudes of a three years' war, Julius Seterus got possession, by
storm, of Bethar^ the last fortress of this Messiah's kingdom. The impostor
himself fell in the battle. The whole of Palestine had become a desert
Every Jew was forbidden, under penalty of death, to set foot within the holy
city. Those Christians who remained in Palestine suffered much during this
struggle, not only from the Romans, by whom they were frequently treated
as Jews, but still more from the followers of the false Messiah, because they
refused to follow him in his efforts to save their conmion country, (r) These
national misfortunes were regarded by the Jews as divine judgments for their
indifference to the law of their fathers, and had no influence in diminishing
their assurance of future success. Schools of learning were established, to
serve as spiritual courts, and centres of influence for the nation in its general
dispersion. Genuine Babhinism was formed on the ruins of the older sects
a) SpaHlanU Hadr. a 14. conap. Digeti. XLVIIL Ut 8. fir. 11 ; Nor. Jost 142. e. 1. h) Num.
24, 17. After his failure he was called: K2'«ti3 "13 , fillus mendaolL c) I. Dio Com. LXVIII,
82; LXIX, 12s8.; Eweb. II. ecc IV, 2. 6; Ju^tini, Ap. L c 81.— IL Deyling, Aeliae Capu Oil-
gines et Uist Lps. 1743 ; M&nUr. der JGd. Kricg nnter Tn^KCi n. Iladr. Altona a. Lpa 1821.
CHAP. L STBUGGLE OF CHBISTIANITT. | 4A. JUDAISM. | 47. B0MAN9. 43
at Tiberias^ in the school of Hillel, in which the Mosaic law, in its utmost
extent, though partially acconunodated to the times, was taught hj a class
of teachers permanently set apart to this work. The traditions of the scrihes
here reduced to writing {Mithnay ahout 220), with explanations (Gemara^ in
the 4th cent.), constituted, in subsequent times, the principal book for in-
struction and religious law (Talmud), A still greater influence was after-
wards acquired by the schools on the Euphrates, in which the Babylonian
Talmud was composed of the same general materials (430 till 621), and be-
came more generally esteemed, on the ground that it was a more distinct
form of modem Judaism. The Jews, who were the sources of all the calum-
nies heaped upon Christ and the Church, knew very well how to excite the
same hatred against the Christians of which they were themselves the vie-
tims. (d) The feelings of Christians with respect to the Jews still remained
of a contradictory character. In a dialogue of Justin^ in which the author
replies to the objections of a candid Jew against the vocation of Jesus, and
the transitory nature of the divine law, the position is assumed, that the Mo-
saic precepts and institutions were only prefigurations and symbols either of
what Christ did, or of what happened to him and his followers, (e) It was
even then asserted, that Christianity had been rejected by the people among
whom it originated, and that the few who had embraced it were by no means
the most faithful and consistent Christians. (/) The proo£i adduced by
Cyprian are a collection of pertinent and impertinent passages of Scripture,
to show that the Jews were to be cast off, and that all the prophecies either
had been or would be fulfilled by Christ. (^)
§ 47. ne Roman People and Empire,
KifHhoU, PagBDiu obtrecUtor, Kilon. 1693. A\J.J. Jlulderici, Q«Dtlli8 obtr«etator, Tlgnr. 1744;
Pap$t, do culpa Christianor. in roxatt motis a Bom. ErL 1789. 8 Pgg. 4 ; N&nter, die Cbristin &n
hetdnischen Hause Tor Constantin, Kopenh. 182S.
From the time of Trajan, the Roman people had been accustomed in a
tumultuous manner to demand that Christians should be put to death. This
proceeded originally from persons who either derived their support from some
connection with idolatry, or found their principal honor or pleasure in the
cultivation of pagan literature. But internally decayed, as heathenism then
was, it could never have awakened such a powerful opposition, and, in the
course of the struggle, have won for itself once more a high degree of attach-
ment, merely by appeals in behalf of the old idolatry. The whole common
feeling of the ancient world, and the chief glory of the present life, was as-
sailed by Christianity, and the people saw nothing proposed in return but a
severe and cheerless system of virtue, in which the world was rendered a
desert, that an uncertain heaven might be won. The hatred thus awakened
endeavored to jostify itself by suspicions. The spiritual worship of an in-
visible God was denounced as atheism ; participation in the sacred body of
d) JutUn. c. Trypb. o. Ite. ; TnrM. ad nation. I, 14 «) AtcUoyor irphs Tpv<pwya 'IovScuok
Ed. Jdtb, Lond. 1719; 0pp. recJ. a T. Otto, Jen. 1S428. Th. IL ;— Jrfin«cA<r, an Dial a Trjrph.
Jnatino mete adacribatar? (Oommentt tbeol. ed. Bosenmaeller, Lpa. 1S20. Tb. L P. 2, p. 18481.)
/) JuBtinif ApoL L e. 58. g) TesUmoniomm adv. Jadaeoa, L IIL
44 ANCIENT CnUBCH HI8T0BT. PER. L DIY. II. A. D. 100-31&
Christ was represented as a Thyestean feast ; the privacy of the Christian
semblies was looked upon as a doak for conspiracy, and for secret crimes ;
and the fraternal fellowship which generally prevailed among Christians, was
suspected as the result and the occasion of unnatural lasciviousness. The re-
proaches heaped upon each other by the Church and the various Christiaa
sects, (a) and the confessions wrung by torture from heathen slaves, with re-
spect to their Christian masters, (h) appeared to confirm the suspicions of
those who were anxious to find evidences of guilt. The public misfortunea
in which that age abounded, were all regarded as divine judgments for the
dishonor done to the offended gods. But to persons of distinction, and to
those who had been educated in the spirit of the times, Christianity appeared
to be a dark superstition of an infatuated rabble. The magistrates were, in-
deed, frequently induced to persecute Christians, by the clamors of the mul-
titude, and by their own passions ; but the true reason for it was to be found
in motives of state policy. Christians looked upon it as dangerous to take
the oath of allegiance which the soldiers were obliged to receive, or to per-
form the duties of any public or civil office, (r) although many overcame
their religious scruples from a regard to personal advantages or feelings of
duty. Although they generally submitted to every outrage infiicted upon
them by the magistrates, whom they regarded as appointed by God, their
vast number and mutual fellowship rendered them formidable to the civil
authorities. Indeed, this consciousness of their own power, and their con*
viction that the empire was destined to a speedy overthrow were so openly
expressed, (d) that their assurances of fidelity and loyalty appeared quite sus-
picious. At all events, the State was torn by dissensions, and as long as
any hope remained of overcoming Christians by terror, sanguinary measures
were looked upon as likely to result in good. The fate of Christians was, it
is true, determined by the imperial edicts in every part of the empire, but it
was rendered mild or severe according to the popular sentiment in each pro-
vince and the personal feelings of the local magistrate.
§ 48. Conduct of the Individual Emperors during (he Second and Third Cen^
turies.
Franc Balduini, Commtr. ad edlota vett prince Rom. de Chrtstianls, HaL ITST. 4 ; C. J>. A,
Martini^ PeneeatioDeB Chrlstianoram sub Impp. Rom. Roetoch. 1802b. 8 Comm. 4; Sdmmatm
fr. ManMQg^ die Verfolgungen d. enten obriaa Kirche. Vlen. ISSl ; O. & Xdpt^, de atatn at ooodit.
CbriAtianoram aub Impp. Rom. altariua port Chr. &b6C Bar. 1628.
1. A noble race of emperors, in whom the Greek and Roman spirit waa
once more revived, were, in the old Roman style, either indifferent or severe
in their treatment of Christianity. A rescript of Tn^An (98-117), in reply
to some inquiries of Plinius (about 110) respecting the conduct to be pursued
towards Christians, directed that they should not be sought after by the civil
authorities, but that all legally arraigned by accusers before the courts, were
a) Tartal. da jejun. a IT ; OUm. Strom. IIL p. 511 ; JTiMak H. aoa I V, T. h) Euseb. II. aoa VI,
1. c) Tertul de oor. c 11; Apologet o. 88; de Palllo, o. 5; BtHnart, Aote Martjr. od. 2. p. 2Ma
<f) Tfrtul, Apolofret c. 8T. Tba Apocalj-pae of John, and maoy tbinga In tbe Sibylline botik^ bad
already announced tbeae.
CHAP. L BTBUGGLES OF CHBIBTIAinTT. | 48. SOMAN EMPEBOES. 45
either to be pardoned if thej denied the charge or repented, or ^ven over
to death if they continued obstinate. He however allowed, that no uniform
mle conld be prescribed in this matter. So many of them in Bithynia and
Pontns were induced to inyoke the gods, to anathematize Christ, and to honor
the statue of the emperor with offerings of wine and incense, that Pliny in-
dulged the hope that, by a skilftd combination of mildness and severity, he
would soon be able to put an end to this superstition, (a) The aged Symeon^
the son of Cleopas, and the successor of James at Jerusalem, being accused
before Atticua, the governor of the city, of being a Oliristian, and of the
fiunily of David, was crucified (107), (b) and Ignativs^ Bishop of Antioch,
alter a personal audience with the emperor, was torn to pieces by lions in
the Odiseum, for tiie amusement of the Boman people (116). (e) About
this time, the people began at their festivals, or in time of public calamity,
to demand the blood of Ohristians. Hadrian (117-188) and Antoninus Pitts
(ldS-161) therefore checked these tumultuous proceedings, by directing that
the strict forms of law belonging to the usual trials should be observed, (d)
The stoical repugnance which Marcus Aurelius (161-180) felt toward the en-
thusiasm of the Christians, induced him to allow the popular hatred in south-
ern Gaul and Asia Minor to have its fhll career of blood, {e) Polycarpy
]^8hop of Smyrna, the kst living relic of Apostolic days, died (169) at the
stake, because he refused to curse the Lord whom he had faithfully served
for 86 years. (/) The miracle of the Legio /ulminatrix (174) was either not
important enough, or not sufficiently authenticated, to turn the philosophic
emperor from his course, (g) 2. Until some time in the middle of the third
oentury, the emperors were either indifferent or favorable to Christianity ;
but as the ancient laws still remained unrepealed, its adherents were depend-
ent npom the caprice of the municipal governors. The wanton cruelty of
Commodus (180-192) was softened to mildness with respect to Christians,
by the influence of his paramour Marcia^ and yet Apollonius was put to
death, principally, however, on account of his eloquent apology for Christian-
ity before the Senate. His accuser was executed at an earlier period, per-
haps as his slave. (A) Septimius Severus (192-211) merely prohibited the
furtiier propagation of Christianity, (t) The enmity which GaracaUa
(211-217) bore toward the whole human race, amounted only to indifference
wHh respect to the Church. (Jc) The effeminate pleasure which Heliogabalus
(218-222) took in oriental systems of religion, operated favorably in behalf
of Christianity. {T) With a nobler appreciation of its spiritual nature, Aleo
a) FUnii, Epp. X. p. 96e. (al 97s.); TertuL Apologet c. 2; Euaeb. TL. ecc. Ill, \Z\— Hater-
taat, Yeitheldlgiing der Plln. Briefe a. d. Cbrlsten, G5tt 178a h) Eu§d>. H. oca III, 82, oomp. 11.
iAer Heg8slppti& c) EuMb, H. eoc. Ill, 26 ; Acta martyril Ignat in Buinart, p. Sas. d) Jwtini^
ApoL L c 68; Btf^n, H. eco. lY, 9; EitMb. H. ecc. IV, 26; comp. S^xxrtiani^ Hadr. a 22. On the
flpnriotumees of the Edlctnm od CkHnmano Aslae in Euaeb. IT, 18, and JmL L c consolt Uaffnery
de fidicto Aatonini pro Christ Argent 1781. 4. «) Marcut Atir, irphs iavT6w XI, 8 ; Euseh. H.
«ML Y, 1-a. /) Ecdesiae SntTmensls de xnartyrio Polycorpi Ep. EnoycL in Eu§eb. H. ecc IV, 15.
A fbHar reoenaioci In Suiiutrty p. 81s& g) TertiU, Apologet c 6 ; Eueeb. H. eoa Y, 6. For the
▼towB eBtertalned by heathen, see Dio Com. Epit XiphlUni LXXI, 8; Suidas^ verb. ^lovXiavhs,
JM. OaptMin. Mare. Anr. c 24 A) Eweb. H. eoc. Y, 21 ; ffi^ron. eatal. c. 42. 0 SpaHiatU, Se-
'. & 17. oompi TertuL ad BcapoL c 4. k) Tertxd, ad ScapnL & 4 Q Lantprid, Heliog; c. &
46 ANCIENT CHURCH HI8T0BT. PEE. L DIY. IL A. D. 100-811
ander Setenis (222-285) placed tho statue of Christ among his household
gods, and practically recognized the Christian congregation at Rome as a
civil corporation. His mother, Jnlia Mammaea, while at Antioch, took de-
light in the learning of Origen. (m) In the view of Maximinua the Thracian
(285-288), the murderer of Alexander, such favor was a sufficient reason for
persecuting him who had received it Among those who followed him in
rapid succession in the imperial throne, Philip the Arabian (244-249) was so
favorable to Christianity, that the report became almost universal, that he
was himself a Christian, (n) 8. The Church finally became so powerful,
that it became necessary either to acknowledge its legality, or to persecute it
with all the power of the empire. Decius (249-251) raised the first general
persecution, by requiring the magistrates to institute inquisitorial proceed-
ings. Those who sustained office in the Church directly met death, or if
they fled, they purchased life with the loss of property and home. (<?) To
this distressing period, popular tradition has assigned the commencement of
the slumber of the seven children of Ephesus, who did not awake until the
time of Theodosius II. (447), and were then astonished to find the persecuted
sign of the cross ruling over the imperial city and the world, {p) Galltu
(251-263) was prevented only by the pohtical commotions of his reign from
completing the sanguinary work of his predecessor. Valerianus (258-260),
after a brief period of favor toward the Church, sought systematically to de-
stroy it by exterminating its officers, {q) But Gallienus (260-268) gave peace
to the whole Church, by an edict in which he recognized it as a civil corpo-
ration, (r) Avrelianus (270-275), who at one time had consented to act as an
umpire between contending bishops, determined afterwards, from heathenish
scruples, to persecute the Christians. His death was effected by a military
conspiracy before the execution of his purpose, (s) and during a long period of
rest, the government appeared to have abandoned for ever the unequal con-
test of mere force in opposition to spiritual principles.
§ 49. Internal History of Paganism
After the middle of the first century, in consequence of intercourse with
the east, and of the pressure of internal elements, the intellectual world made
considerable progress. On the one hand, with a high-wrought religious fer-
vor, it overpassed the proper limits of heathenism, and connected itself some-
times with a particular phase of Platonism, and sometimes with the pure
and self-denying mode of life which tradition assigned to the Pythagorean
system. On the other hand, when it was only partially aroused, it carried
the spiritual element into the world of sense, that it might obtain a control
over the latter by magical arts, and penetrate the mysteries of the world of
spirits. We therefore find, in the very midst of great moral corruption,
and the dissolution of all social and natural ties, initiations into wonderful
vn) Lamprid. Alex. 8ever. c 89. 49. comp. 28. 48. 45; Eu9eh. H. ecc VI, 21. 88. n) Ew^h. H. ee&
VI, 84; nUron. Chron. ad ann. 248. o) Euteb. H. ecc VI, 40-tt; CypHan^ de la(Mti^ and bis epia*
ties written at this time ; Ladani, de mortib. e. 4. j>) Ortgor. Turon^ de gloria Mart Par. 1640.
pL 215e.; RHneccim de 7 donnlentib. Lps. 1702. Banctor. 7 dormientlam Hist Bom. 1742L 4
q) Eu4eb. H. ecc VII, lOii ; Cipriani Ep. 82. r) Eunb. H. ecc VII, 18. •) Eu90b. H. eoa
YII, 80; Laetant de mortib. c «.
CHAP. L BTBUGGLES OP OHEISTIANITT. { 60. NEW PLATONISM. 47
mysteries, a capricious confidence in miracles, extreme self-denials, and san-
goinarj expiations, (a) In the attempted union of Polytheism and Mono-
theism, the gods were regarded only as different names of the one Gbd, or as
the organs through which he revealed himself to his creatures. Even the
Stoa, by the influence of EpieUtus (about 100), received a character which
no longer sought virtue in perpetual struggles, but in patient endurance.
The literature of that period, generally a forced after-growth of a mighty
nature then extinct, gradually developed the characteristics of credulity and
guperstition. Even as early as the time of Plutarch (60-120), with aJl his
enthunasm for the exalted models of antiquity, his writings abound in much
-which is fantastic. Aelian (about 222) is full of pious legends about the
manifestations of the Deity in nature and in common life. The spirit of the
age is well reflected in the animated but extravagant writings of the African
rhetorician Apuleitta (about 170), in which are sensual thoughts side by side
with pious fanaticism, and satires upon superstition mingled with supersti-
tious dreamings. (b) This tendency, when it first came in contact with
Christianity, appropriated to itself many Christian elements, merely that it
might become a better match for its opponent. The real Apollanius of 7V~
ana (8796) travelled about in the character of a reformer of heathenism,
striving to give to it the character of unlimited faith which we have de-
seribed) and deceived many by the strange revelations which he probably ac-
oomplished by some magnetic clairvoyance, so that he became honored as a
prophet, and sometimes even as God. But in a rhetorical work, in which
Philo9tratu$ (about 280) professed to give his life, and attempted to present
him before the world as the Christ of heathenism, he became the ideal of a holy
sage wonderftilly honored by the gods, {c) On the other hand, there were
some who attempted to represent the mighty world-spirit of the ancient
Greek philosophy, but they uniformly found, that while aiming to personate
such a character in one respect, they were inconsistent with it in another.
§ 50. New Platonism,
L PIMni^ Opp. omnU; PorphyriilSbet de ylUPIotlnl, ed. Oremer, Oxon. 1836. 8 vola 4;
Tlop^vpiov pt\o<r6^ov vphs MopK^AAoy, invcnit notlsqae ill Ang. Mqfu*^ Medlol 1816.— IL
Among the HIstt of Phil especially, Tennmnann^ vol Y L [His Manual is tnoBl Oxf. 1882. &]
BUUr^ ToL IT. [tnnsL by Morriaon, Oxfl 1888. 4 vols. 8; Henry's Hist, of Phil 2 vols. N. Y. 1841.]
Cremer^ Preptmtio ad Plotini lib. de palcbritad. Heidelb. 1814; comp. Stud. u. Krit 1S34. P. 2. p.
BSTaft.; /mm. FichU^ de Phil. noTae Platonicae orlglne, Berl. 1818; F. BoutertMk^ Phlloeophorum
Alexaadr. to Noo-PIatonlooram reoensio, (Commentt Soc. Bcient Goett 1828. Tb. Y.) ; C. Stein-
Kart, de dialeeticA Plotini ratione, Numb, et Hal 1829; Ejwtd, MeleteinaU Plotiniana, Hal 1S40. 4;
J^ Vogi, Heo-PL a. CbriBtenth. Berl 1886. 1 Th. {Levofy Biogr. Hist of Phil Lond. 4 vols. 18mo.
vtPIot]
The tendency of Paganism on the side of faith, and the attempt to com-
bine in one system all the sources of truth, reached its utmost limit in what
a) P. B. JPUUr^ de bierarcbla et studio vitae asceticae In sacris et mysteriis Oraecc Romano-
nuoqae latentib. Havn. 1808, transl into Germ, in the Neacn Bibl d. schonen Wiss. vol LXX.
I) Sekiou^r^ Gesch. d. alten Welt a. ibrer Cnltur. vol III. Abth. 8 (1S81.) p. 188ss. 196s& c) Ff^ivii
HdUMtraU quae supersant, ed. Kayeer^ Tur. 1844&. 2 Tb. [The two first books relating to the life
«f ApolL Tyan. transL into £n^ by C. Blount, fol Lond. 1680.] Baur^ Apoll v. Tyana u. Chris-
tafl,T&b.l88S.
48 ANCIENT CHUBCH HISTOBY. FEB. L DIT. IL A. D. 100-811
was called New Platonism. This sjetem had its origin in the disoonrses of
AmmoniuB Saceas^ of Alexandria, near the commencement of the third c«i-
tnry, hut is presented in its most attractive form in the Enneades of Plotinui
(205-270), and Was best represented hy JarMkhm in the fourth, and by Pr#-
clus in the fifth century. The masters of this school were regarded as seen
and saints, who had broken the bonds of a life of sense, and even on earth
were honored with the privUege of an immediate intuition of the Deity.
What Philo had undertaken, they now completed, though in a wider sense,
in behalf of paganism. While New-PIatonism took part in the higher discus-
sions and conclusions of philosophy, it nevertheless stood opposed to all phi-
losophy, since it did not profess to rest upon careftd inquiries into the eternal
laws of the spirit, but claimed to be a revelation from God. Thus exalting
itself above all such investigations, it became the poetry as well as the reli-
gion of philosophy. It attached itself more especially to the system of Plato,
and professed to be an explanation and a development of his views, but it
aimed to bring together the fundamental principles of all philosophical
schools, and the ideas which constitute the basis of all popular religionai
Even Christianity, therefore, was acknowledged by those who advocated this
system, but only as it originally came from the inspired soul of its founder.
It did not at first originate in a spirit hostile to Christianity, and it is even
doubtful to what extent Ammonius and Porphyry were at one time connect-
ed with the Church. It is, however, certain, that it was profoundly affected
by the peculiarities of Christianity, even while it was struggling with that
system, during the third century, for the empire of the world.* The divinity
which it presents is exalted above all human apprehension, and was called
simply the Self-sufiicient One {ro cV). From his overfiowing fulness proceed-
ed the Divine Intelligence, and from this the World-Soul, by which the mate-
rial universe is pervaded with divine life. Evil is only that which is imper-
fect, and is the most distant reflection of Deity upon matter. The human
soul which had been produced by the Divine Intelligence, fell, in consequence
of its lon^ng after earthly things, from its original divine life to its present
temporal existence. It therefore belongs to the sensual as well as to tho
intellectual world. But the souls of the good and wise, even in this world,
are in their happiest moments reunited with the Deity, and death is to such
a complete restoration to their home. From a pious veneration for an an-
cestry far back in antiquity, the Grecian gods especially were regarded as
the personal manifestations of the divine life in nature. Some of them were
celestial beings, and some ruled here on earth. These earthly powers were
the national gods Oxcptieot, edydpKat), subordinate to the Deity, and exalted
above all passion. The myths were therefore, of course, to be explmned al-
legorically. The arts of Divination and Magic were justified on the ground
of the necessary connection of all phenomena by virtue of the unity of the
world-principle. While, therefore, New-Platonism was a new power, it was
• EuMh, H. ecc. YI, 19, and Pnep. evang. XI, 19; Soorat H. eoc. Ill, ^—Motheim^ de studio
Etbnicor. Christianoe imiUmdi (Das. ad Hist eco. Alton. 1738) ; UUmanny Einflass d. Cbrtstantb.
anf Porphyr. (Stad. a. Krit 1832. H. %.)^Keil, de eansis alien! Platonicor. rec. a rel chr. animi Lpi.
1785. i. (0pp. ed. Goldhom. Lpa. 1821. toL 1.)
CHAP. L STRUGGLES OF CHRISTIANITY. J 61. LITERARY CONTROVERSIES. 49
Devertbcless a reformation of the old faith. Thougli it extended itself over
the whole Roman empire, it embraced within itself contradictory elements,
and could maintain its existence only long enough to witness and embellish
the downfall of heathenism.
§ 51. Literary Contratersm of Christianity,
DeOatu C. G. Baumgarien-Cruaitu^ de scriptoribos 8ae& II. qai novain reL Impngnarant, tcI
Impugnasae credantur. Misn. 1345. 4.
It was not until the age of the Antoninos that Christianity appeared im-
portant enough to be the object of literary discussion, or sought to defend
itself by literary weapons. The last discourse in which Fronto made an
attack upon Christians, appears to have been merely a legal defence of the
proceedings against them under Marcus Anrelius. There can be no doubt
that the negative spirit exhibited in the writings of Lucian exerted a favorable
influence upon Christianity, since his mockeries, like a death-warning, com-
pletely undermined all confidence in the ancient gods ; but he has occasionally
derided the Christians also as fanatical simpletons, even while he involuntarily
supplies evidence in favor of their brotherly love, and fortitude in death, (a)
A genuine discourse of CeJsus^ written during the persecution under Marcus
Anrelius, has been preserved in the extracts of Origen. (^) The author was
an intelligent man, but full of pride and contempt for Christianity. While
endeavoring to throw suspicion upon its origin and opposing the Church of
his ow^n times, he frequently confounds it with the vagaries of its different
sects, and collects nearly every thing which Judaism with its unfulfilled ideas
of the Messiah and its calumnious traditions, together with all that pagan
refinement with its philosophy, especially the Platonic, could produce against
it. We have also a Dialogue written by Minucim Felix (§ 52), in which
Caeeilivs brings forward the arguments generally urged by the heathen of
that period against Christianity. In behalf of the Olympic deities, it was al-
leged that history showed that the gods had protected and avenged their
worshippers ; that miracles had been wrought, and predictions by divination
had been announced by their votaries, and that a Supreme Deity had always
been worshipped in connection w^ith many gods. Against Christianity was
urged ; its foreign and barbarous origin, to which all that was national must
be sacrificed, and its recent origin, to which all that was established must
give way ; all that was true or good in Christianity belonged still more an-
ciently to Philosophy, so that the only novelty which it possessed was a most
repulsive outward form ; its sacred Scriptures were of doubtful origin, and
frequently had been altered ; Jesus was said to have been the ofi&pring of
adultery, instructed by magicians in Egypt, and surrounded only by wretched
fishermen and abandoned publicans, to have died in the expression of unman-
a) 'AAc^aySpos ^ i/'cvSJ/iorrxT, c.25.8-<; TltplrrislifptyplvovrtKtvrriSf c 11-16; *AAt}^r
ItrroplOf I, 22. 30. II, 4. 11. — A. Eich^adii, Pg. Lacianns nom scripUfl suIb a^Jnvare religionem
elirtot Toluerit? Jen. 1820. 4; A". O. Jacobs Cbaracteristik Luclans. Ilamb. 1S32; Kikhr^ Luc. ft
crlmioe librornm sacr. Irrisoram llberatnr. P. I. Orimae, 1844. 4 h) *AAt}i^f K6yoi.—Feng6r^ de
Oebo, Epicurea Havn. 1828 ; C R. Jachmann^ de Celso disserait et fragmenU libri c Cbristianoa
eoQeglt Regiom. ISSd. A\ F.A. Philippic de Celai philoeopbondi genere. BeroL 1886; Sindemann^
4
50 ANCIENT CIirRCII HISTORY. PER. L DIV. II. A. D. lOO-Mt.
ly sorrows, and finally to have given no proof of his resurrection except what
was derived from his own followers. Against Christians it was urged : that
they had deified a publicly executed malefactor ; that they demanded a blind
faith ; that they invited to their society those who were sinners and criminals,
while in the heathen mysteries, none were initiated but those who were pure
in heart ; that the various Christian sects were intolerant towards each oth-
er ; that they were remarkably unfortunate ; and finally, that if they were not
secret criminals, they shunned publicity, and were enemies to the eternal
city of Rome. The opposition which the New-Platonic school made to Chris-
tianity, may be considered as represented by Porphyry (28ft-805). (c) From
all that can be learned by means of a few rather inconsiderable remains, he
appears to have applied his censures principally to the difficult portions of
the Old Testament, and the deceptive character of the allegorical method of
interpreting them, to the composition of the prophecies of Daniel after the
events to which they relate had taken place, to the contradiction implied in
the abolition of the divine law by one who came from God, to the disagree-
ment between Peter and Paul, to the death of Ananias, and to the misfortune
of Jesus, in being so misunderstood by a company of pitiable fanatics. Hiero-
eles (about 800) contrasted the life of ApoUonius with that of Jesus, though
in the latter ho seems to have mingled incidents in the history of other Mes-
siahs of whom he had heard. He was an orator concerned in stirring up the
persecution under Diocletian, and had permitted Christians to be put to
death, and Christian virgins to be violated, (d) All the controversial writ-
ings of that period, so far as they were opposed to Christianity, were subse-
quently destroyed by the pious barbarism of the Christian emperors, (e)
§ 62. TTie Christian Apologists.
L Apologg. Christ 0pp. (e<L Pntdentlvs Jfaranus.) Par. 1742. t
II. Fahriciu^ delectna argamentorum et syllabus scrlptoram, qui veritatom rel. chr. assememnt
Hamb. 1725. 4; T^9chim$r^ Oewh. d. Apologetik. Lpa. 1805; only 1 toI.; CUttuett, Apologetae £c-
ole»iae chr. ante Theodosianl, Platonis cjosqne philusophiae arbitrL Ilafh. 1817; G. H. ^nan Senden
Oesch. (L ApologeUk. XJebeni (from the Datch PraeC dated 1831) v. W. Quack u. B. Binder. Stnttg.
1846. 1 Th.
'When the emperor Hadrian was at Athens (about 180) two defences of
Christianity were presented to him, one by the philosopher Aristides^ and
another by the Bishop Quadratus, The latter boasted that there were some
among his acquaintance who had been healed, and indeed some who had
been raised from the dead by Jesus, (a) The most flourishing period of
apologetic writings was during the sway of the Antonines, when the Church
was quite as much under the influence of Ifope, as of fear with respect to its
external condition, and when every opinion was allowed to be publicly ex-
pressed. The Apologies of Justin Martyr^ (b) written at Flavia Neapolis
fL Cel& u. B. Schr. (Illgen's Zeitachr. 1842. P. 2.) c) Karcb Xpiffriayciv A^yot.— Fragments may
beftmnd in IMHenii Ds. de vita et serlptis Porph. Rom. 1680; (FabrMi BIbl. Or. Th. lY. p.
2078A.) [Select Works of Porph. transL by Taylor. Lond. 1828. 8.] d) A^ot 9cAaA^;^e4r irp^t
Xpia-Ttarovs. Fragments in the polemical writings of Kuub. contra HierocL liber.— £acfa«i& de
mortib. c 16. e) Codae JutUn. L L tit 1. const 8w
a) £u4eb. H. eoa IV, 8. comp. Uieron, cataL c. 198l V) Apologia I. et II. ed. ThaUmann, Lpt.
1755; 0pp. ree. OUo. Th. l.—Arendt, Krit Unten. IL d. Schrr. Just (Tab. Qnartalsobr. 1884.
CHAP. L 8TBU0GLES OF CHRISTIANITY. | GL APOLOGISTd. 51
under a sense of nnjust oppression, are yalnablo rather for the spirit, than for
the talent or caution displayed in them. Even after he had become an evan-
gelist, he still retained his philosopher's cloak, and having wandered through
all the existing schools of philosophy, ho had fonnd peace at last in the gos-
pel of Christ. Although he disparages Greek learning by maintaining that
it had been borrowed from Hebrew sources, he acknowledged that what was
a perfect light in Christianity may have been essentially the same with the
dim revelations of the divine Spirit in the Grecian systems. In this way he
fonnd a point of accommodation by which he could unite both systems to-
gether. Occupying essentially the same ground with that which had been
taken by the apostle Paul, he seems either totally unconscious of the fact, or
to have regarded it with the prejudices of a Jewish Christian, (r) The only
answer which the philosophical emperor, and perhaps also the cynical phi-
losopher Crescens, who was attacked in the second Apology, condescended
to give, was the execution of the Christian philosopher at Rome (161-8). (d)
His disciple Tatianvs from Assyria, wrote intelligently, but with passionate
errors respecting Greek customs and philosophy, (e) The author of the epis-
tle to DicgnetnB shows that he had enjoyed a Greek education, and that he
was animated by a Christianity which was entirely a now religion. (/) Athe-
nagoroAf by mild and judicious appeals to Marcus Anrelius, attempted to
prove that Christians were innocent of the crimes imputed to them and were
worthy of the imperial favor, (j/) Melito^ Bishop of Sardis, especially skilled
in the literature of the Old Testament^ a eunuch fbr the kingdom of heav-
en's sake, and esteemed by his people as a prophet full of the Holy Ghost,
songht justice from the same prince in behalf of a philosophy which had in-
deed originated among barbarians, but had risen under Augustus as a propi-
tious star for the Boman empire, and had advanced simultaneously with
it. (K) The three books of Theophilus of Antioch (170-180), addressed to
Antolycus, contain a carefully written but narrowly conceived defence of the
Christian party ; (/) and the mockeries heaped upon the philosophers of that
period by Hermias^ present a superficial but witty caricature of the paradoxi-
eal questions which engrossed their attention. (Jc) The Octavius, a colloquy
written by the African rhetorician and Roman advocate, Minucius Felix, in
the style of Cicero, is a clear and concise statement of the real questions gen-
f SSMIm.); C SetnUcK, J. d. Mfirt Brsl. 1S40b. 2 vols.; Otto^ de Jn»t. Mart Kfiptls et dnctrina. Jen.
ISil; /: a BoU, Q. d. Yerh<Dlss der beiden ApoL (lllgen's Zeitachr. 1S4S. P. 8). [Art in Kitto's
Jonnud of Bibl. Lit vol. V.] c) Comp. howevor, Otto, in IllgenV Z«itschr. 1S41. P. 2. 1S42. P. 2.
lS4a P. 1. d) C. Semiwh, u. d. Tode^. Just (Stud. u. Krit 1885. P. 4) ; A. Stieren, fi. d. T«xle»j.
Jnrt. (nigen'6 Zeitachr. 1S42. P. 1,) «) A<{70f Tpbf "EAAijvat. ed. Worth, Oxon. 1700.— JZ A.
DanMy Tatltn der Apologet Hal. 1887. /) *Ziri<rroX.^ xph$ Ai6yviiTov. ed. Bohl, in Opp. Patrnm
Ml. Ber. 182(L P. L; Otto^ In Opp. Just Th. II.— C D. a Orotuhfim, Comm. de Epist ad DIo^.
Lp& 1SSS. 4; Otto, de Epist ad Diogn. Justin! nomen prae se fercnto. Jen. 1844. ff) nptafifla
«-rp2 Xpitrrtaymtf. ed. Lindner. Longro»L lTtA.—Clari69f^ de Athenagorae %i(a, scriptia, doctr.
LofiL 1819. 4L [Athenagoraa, tranaL into Eng. with notes by Humphreys. Lond. 1714. 8.] A) Ao-
oordinff to the Fragments in Eu9eb. H. ece. IV, 2d, comp. V, 24 ; Ilieron. cataL c 24 ; Piper, Mo-
litoi (Stnd. a. Krit 188& P. 1.) i) Utpl rris rw XpttrriayAy wlerrws, t± J. C Wolf, Ilsmk
17S4; UeberiL mit Aam. r. Thtencmmiin. Ipi. 1881 V) Auunpfths r&p f^v ^iXotri^v. ed.
52 ANCIENT CHUBCn HISTORY. PER. L DIV. IL A. D. 10(K-812.
erally discussed in his day. (0 TertuUian^ especially in his Apologeticus, not
only demonstrated the perfect right of the Church to civil protection, hut in-
veighed with hitter eloquence against the vile amouis of the ancient gods in
the shape of fishes, birds, and beasts. Origen^ whose philosophical views
were fundamentally similar to those of his opponent, with an untiring indus-
try met all the objections which Celsus had urged, and while doing so, pre-
sented a doctrinal defence of Cliristianity, with very little ciire or success in
the discussion of the political question. These works of Origen and Tertul-
lian indicate that their authors fully believed that Christianity had already
reached a point which rendered its future progress inevitable. Arnohias of
Sicca endeavored, in a controversial work (about 808), to obtain the confi-
dence of the Christians, whom he had before persecuted ; and though it con-
tained many needless speculations, it defended also the more profound doc-
trines of the Church, and exposed the errors of heathenism with much
rhetorical skill, (w) The object of the apologists was : 1) To answer the ob-
jections made against Christians. They met the charge of atheism by point-
ing to the well-known piety of Christians and showing the true nature of a
spiritual worship. To the imputation of unnatural crimes they opposed the
strictness of their morality, and in refutation of the charge of treason, they
appealed to the submission shown by Christians in time of persecution, and
to the prayers which they offered up in behalf of the emperor. Tlie suffer-
ings of Christians were ascribed to demoniac agency ; the death of the mar-
tyrs was shown to be no real evil ; the representation of a Deity enduring
sufferings but glorified even in death, they proved was not unknown even in
Grecian mythology ; public calamities were attributed to the divine displeasure
on account of the persecution of Christians ; and although they did not con-
cede that the recent introduction of a religion was a proper argument against
its truth, they traced the radical principles of Christianity back to a time be-
fore Moses and Abraham — ^a period prior to the existence of any of the Gre-
cian systems of philosophy. 2) To contend against the Hellenistic systems.
By appeals to facts and to reason, they showed the utter insufiSciency and the
immorality of polytheism ; tliey objected to the spiritual explanations given
of the myths as uncandid ; and while they acknowledged all that was true
and consistent with the gospel in philosophy, they proved that this was quite
unsatisfactory as the basis of a national religion. 8) To prove the truth and
divine authority of Christianity. Among the arguments used for this pur-
pose, were, the moral power and divine wisdom exhibited even by poor and
uneducated people, the religious peace conferred by Christianity, its perfect
reasonableness and its rapid and irresistible progress, the triumph with which
the martyrs met their fate, and the historical proofs of divine assistance.
Dommerich. IlaL 1764. t) Ed. Lindner. Longosal (1760) 1778; Uebere. m. Anm. v. JRuMicurm,
Hamb. 1824 4; Neu brsg. erklart u. ubi-ra. v. Lubkert. Lps. 1886 ; Ad fidem cod. Rt>gii et Brnx. rec.
JSJuard. d« MuraUo, pracfatus est Orflti. Tur. 1886.—//: Meier, Comm. de Mln. FeL Tur. ISM.—
Doubtful whether It was written In the age of the Antoninea, or after Tertullian. Probably in tbo
former, m) Disputationes adv. gentos. L VII. e<l J. C Orelli^ Lps. 1816 ; Additamentum. Lps.
1817 : ox nova cod. Paris collat roc. G. F. Hildehrand^ Hal. 1844 ; Uebers. u. eriiut ▼. J?. A. V,
SMnard. Landah. 1842.— P. K. Mayer^ de ratione et ai^gumento apologeUcl ArnoblanL Uavd. ISlSi
CHAP. L 8TEUGGLE8 OP CHKISTIANITY. | 58. BARBAROUS NATIONS. 53
Among the lost, a superior place was gllren to fulfilled prophecies, bat next
to them stood the miracles which had been wrought by Jesus and his fol-
lowers in the different periods of the Church.
§ 58. Religion of Barbarous Nation»,
Roman power and Greek culture had either broken up, renovated, or
adopted into the Roman Pantheon the religions of all conquered nations. In
the East, ever since the time of the Grecian conquests, nothing remained in
^#if7, with the exception of the established local worship of some fovorite
gods, but a sensuous glow of devotion, or occasionally in Egypt a gloomy,
pensive and mysterious form. In Western Europe, the religion of the Celtic
nations was evidently declining. In Gaul^ the Druuls^ as priests, judges,
sages, and physicians, had monopolized all intellectual pursuits, and estab-
lished a powerful hierarchy. In contrast with them existed a nobility, whose
sole occupation was war. To these two classes the common people gradual-
ly became completely enslaved. But when the common people sunk into
this state of insignificance, the priesthood lost their principal support in op-
position to the nobility, and it was on account of the discord which prevailed
between these states, that the Romans were invited into their country.
Cssar came, and saw, and conquered. The national religion was then re-
stricted within certain limits by the Roman law. Augustus required that no
Roman citizen should take any part in its rites, and Claudius finnlly prohib-
ited all human sacrifices. It was not, however, so much by the direct power
of their conquerors that the Druids were overthrown, as by the new social
relations -then introduced. As early as near the close of the first century,
the Order of the Druids was an independent and learned association, and the
old popular faith was mingled with the Roman mythology, {a) In Britain^ the
power of the Druids, which was continually exerted to arouse the people to
renewed efforts for freedom, could only be destroyed by violence (G2). Un-
der the conciliatory administration of Agricola, Roman habits and arts of
life acquired ascendency even to the foot of the Highlands, (h) Hence, no
province of the empire opposed Christianity with any remarkable or long-
oontinued energy, and the West presented but little more resistance to its
progress than had been awakened in its own eastern home.
§ 64. Spread of Christ ianity,
Near the middle of the second century, the gospel had, in the East,
passed beyond the limits of the Roman empire. In Edessa especially it
gained possession of the throne, and a few churches were collected in Par-
thia, Persia, and India. Proceeding from Rome, it obtained an established
position in Carthage and in the western provinces of Africa. In Western
a) Cae$ar,' de bello gall I, 81. VI, 12-16.— •;: G. FHck, de DnildK ed. A. FHck, nm, 1744. 4;
DucioK^ M6nL 8iir lea Drnidea (Mem. de Tacad. des Insoript Th. XIX.) ; Mone^ Gcsch. d. Heldcnth.
1m nurdl. Eur. Lps. tt Darmrt. 18229. vol. II. p. 858-426. h) E, Davie*, Celtic Researches on Um
Origin and Traditions of the Ancient Britons. Lend. 1804. [Id^m. Eites of the BriHsh Dmlda. Ix>nd. ;
G. niggint. The Celtic Dmids. Lond. 1927. 4.] Tdamf, lHst of the Druids, with wMlllons by
JTwddUtiUm, Montrose, 1914; Mone, vol. II. p. 426-M8. [Litt^^Wa Rcl. Mag. vol. II. 1829. pp. 81-40.
119-122. 400-606; Inddants of the ApoetoUo Age in Britain. Lond. 1841 IS.]
54 ANCIENT CHUBCH HISTOBT. PER. L DIY. IL A. D. 100-M2.
Europe it pressed onward to Spain ai|i even gained some possessions in Bri-
tain. Flourishing churches from Asia Minor were planted in Lyons, Vienne,
and Paris, from which Christianity was extended to barbarous nations whose
language had never been reduced to writing, (^i) Near the close of the third
century, churches were established in Armenia, and a few bislioprics were
formed on the Rhine and in Britain. The manner in which religion was pro-
pagated was, commencing generally with the large cities, it was carried for-
ward not so much by organized missions as by ordinary social intercourse.
It had become powerful as a popular element, prevailing most among the
lower classes, but by means of slaves and women it had penetrated, as early
as near the end of the second century, every order of society. Abont that
time the Apologists speak of the number of Christians with skilful and en-
thusiastic declamation ; (//) and though even in the commencement of the
fourth century they were far from being a majority of the population, their
intimate fellowship and zeal gave them a predominant influence in society.
The barbarous Jewish origin and the strict and self-denying morality of the%
religion, the suspicion of ])o]itical disaffection under which they rested, and
their simple, lowly character at first, were powerful difficulties in the way
of its propagation. But to be weighed against these, as secondary causes of
its victory, must be noticed the advantage which it enjoyed on account of
the unity of the Eoman empire and the general prevalence of Greek cul-
ture, its miraculous powers, and the benefits which it offered to the poor, the
sick, travellers, and those who were in any way destitute. Even the perse-
cutions through which it passed were beneficial, since they were severe
enough to arouse in its followers an heroic courage, and in those who observed
them an admiring wonder, and yet were not protracted or general enough to
destroy the Church. Next to the vital decline of heathenism, however, the
essential reason of its success was the real truth and power of Christianity
presenting itself in the happiest of all forms — a religion adapted to the masses
of the people.
§ 55. The LaH Perseeutian,
ladanl de mortib. e. 7-ia Euseb. H. ecc YIIL IX.
In the enjoyment of forty years of peace Christianity had time to per-
fect its victories. It was then that Bioeletmn (284-305) by his protracted
course of real success, was induced to hope he might restore the empire to
its former glory. He regarded the restoration of the established religion to
its former ascendency as a primary condition on which such a result de-
pended. His son-in-law the Caesar Galeriun, in consequence of his low dis-
positi6n and heathenish superstition, became the instrument of a party in the
court, which demanded the subversion of Christianity as indispensable to the
stability of their power. The heathen government, conscious that it was
sinking in its proper cliaracter before the spiritual power of the Churoh, com-
menced another struggle, on the issue of which was staked its life or death.
Galerius first removed all Christians from his army (298). Diocletian stiD
a) Irw, III, 1 I) Tertitl. Apdogettcoflk c 87. e. Jod. & T.
CHAP. L 8TBU00LES OF CHRISTIANITY. | 58. HABTTB& 65
shrank from the contest, for he well knew it would be terrible. UnaUy,
when counsel had been sought fVom gods and men, the destruction of the
Church of Nicomedia (Feb. 28, 303) proclaimed that the persecution of the
Christians had commenced. The imperial edict which immediately followed
that event, commanded that all Christian temples should be destroyed, and
the books belonging to them burned ; that all civil officers professing Chris-
tianity should forfeit their dignities ; that Christian citizens should be deprived
of their civil privileges, and that even slaves who avowed faith in Christ
should lose all prospect of freedom, (a) The indignation such a proceeding
provoked against the emperor, and the real or imaginary perils which now
threatened him, required that the whole power of the empire should be ar-
rayed against the Christians. After two other edicts had been put forth, each
more rigorous than that which preceded it, a fourth (804) required that all
Christians should be compelled to offer sacrifice by every practicable means, (h)
The persecution raged in nearly every part of the empire. The spirit of the
Church was divided by the most heroic courage and base cowardice. Monu*
ments were erected in honor of the emperor, implying that he had utterly
abolished the name of Christian. But in Gaul, Spain, and Britain, the suf-
ferings of the Christians were much mitigated by the conduct of the Caesar
C(nutantius Chlortts. His son, Constantine (after 306), inherited his father's
spirit in a still higher degree. In the East, Galerius, tired of the useless effu-
sion of blood, on his deathbed (311) suspended the progress of the persecu-
tion, (e) but it was immediately renewed in Ana by Maximinus. When Con-
stantine, however, had overthrown Maxentius, he, in conjunction with Lici-
nius, the Augustus of Eastern Europe, was induced by his regard for Chris-
tians to proclaim (312) a universal toleration for all religions, (d)
§ 50. T/if M,trti/rs,
There are commonly reckoned ten |)ersecntion'-\ ;is tlint nnmber is conve-
nient for popular recollection, and accordant with certain allegorical rela-
tions, (a) but some of them scarcely deserve the name. Those who were
disposed to fly from the danger usually found the way of escape unobstructed ;
when any actually suffered they were generally those whose lives were re-
garded as of no value, those whose death appeared needful, on account of
tiieir superior guilt, as a warning to others, and those who occupied promi-
nent stations in the Church, or slaves. Accordingly, even in the time of
Origen, the number of those who liad died as martyrs was very small, and
easily reckoned, (h) We read of a blind fury, in the times of Dec ius and Dio-
cletian, which no longer regarded individuals, but vented itself in the sacrifice
of whole masses of people at once ; but in general, the first notices we have
respecting it are in the exaggerated accounts which have come down to us in
a) Lact c. IS. Eu9tib. Till, 2. h) BuMi>. de martyribos Palaest c. 8.
«) Laet c M. Fuseb. YIII, 17.
d) Its contents mnj be inferred from the edict of 818 : LacL e. 48. Eoaeb. X, fi.
a) Apoc 17, 12m. Exod. 7b0.
b) Qrig. c. Ce1& IIL (Th. L p. 452.) Yet eompi Iren. IV, 88, i.^DodtcOl^ do peaeltate maitTram.
In hti Vm. Cjprianleia. On the other hand, Ruinarti PtmI ad Acta martymm.
56 ANCIENT CIIUBCH HISTORY. PER. L DIY. IL A. D. 100-812.
legends. Thas we find that eleven thousand virgins are said to have perished
with St, Ursula. The most credible evidence on which tliis story was built,
consists in a false construction of an ancient manuscript, and a revelation from
heaven to a company of monks first in the year 11 G8, which ])ointed out
their bones. The story of the massacre of the Theban legion (2G8) appears
in a fluctuating state even in the sixth century, (c) The executions generally
took place in strict conformity with the demands of the penal law, but when
the feelings of the populace were especially embittered, or when it seemed
desirable to terrify survivors, the most dreadful illegal torments were de-
vised, {d) Many saved themselves by denying Christ, and offering sacrifice
to the gods (thurificati, sacrificati), some by bribing the magistrates to grant
them certificates that they had sacrificed (libellatici), and others by surren-
dering the sacred books (traditores). But so great was the Joy of the Conn
/essora and the Martyrs, that they were sometimes reproved by judicious
pastors for pressing too eagerly forward to death. The virtues of Greek and
Roman antiquity were revived, as the people surrendered tliemselves that
they might obtain a home beyond the skies, (e) The power of faith was
triumphant even over the feelings of our common nature, and over the shud-
dering horror which persons of a delicate habit and of refinement are apt to
feel on such occasions. Even children took pleasure in death, and noble
maidens endured what was far worse. (/) Although many encountered
death cheerfully, because they preferred it to the disgrace which must have
been the lot of the apostate and the traitor, and because they longed for the
honor and glory which the martyrs attained even on earth in the admiration
of their friends and expected immediately after in Paradise, there was be-
yond all this a genuine delight in following Jesus, which gave to the Churdi
a consciousness that it was invincible.
OHAP. n.— fiOOIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH.
J. n. Bdhm«r^ Entwickl d. KStaats d. ereten 8 Jfthrh. Ilal (1716) 1733. W. K. L ZUgler^ Vm e.
pn^. Qesch. d. kirchl Oesellschaftaformen In d. erston 6 Jalirh. LpA. 1799. Jfofder, die Einh. in d.
K. o. d. Princip. d. Kath. 1m Oeisto d. KYerf. d. 8 orsten Jalirh. T&b. 1S25. //<ri«^, de Jure ec»
Coinintr. hist Lps. 1S3S. V.L J. If. M. Ernetti, KStaat d 8 ereten Jahrh. XQrnb. 1S30. W. SuA-
mer^ die eoclalcn Verb. d. K. alter Zeit (Alterthumsw. vol. I.) BresL 1336. JT. Rothe^ die AnfSng*
d. K. u. Ihrer Verf. Witt 1837. vol. L {RiddU» Manual of Cliristlan AntlquIUea, Lond. BinghanCs
Origlnes Ecdesiasticae, Lond. 1S45. L, CoUman, Primitive Cbristianity EzompUaed, Pbilad. 1853.
2toUl&]
§ 57. Original Documents on Ecclesiastical Law.
The usages and laws which prevailed in particular provinces were not es-
sentially different from each other, since the general relations of society were
c) Vita RonumL (Acta Sanctor. Feb. Th. III. p. T40.) Trilh^mii Ann. Hire. Th. I. p. 4.10. G. Ifa-
ffmt Reimcbmnik d. Stadt Colin. Edited by GrooU, Coll 1834 Comp. Rheinwald's Rep. ISSfi. vol.
IX. p. 201s&— Z>M Bourdiev^ i«ur le martTte de la legion th6b6enno. Amst 1705. 12. Jo». d'UU^ d6-
fense de la verity de la legion tb6boenne. Par. 1741. 12.— Seapeeting Massa Candida ; in Prudent
Hymn. 18«. aec TUlftnont, Tb. IV. p. 175ea.
d) Saffittariiu de mart excruciatib. Frofl et Lps. (1678) 1CD6. 4 f) Suteb. H. ecc. V, 1.
/) Lad. Inatt V, la
CHAP. IL CONSTITUTION. { 67. LEGISLATION. | 68. CLEBGY. 67
every where the same, and a continual intercourse was carried on between
the several parts of the empire. They may bo learned partly from the wri-
ting!) of the contemporaneous fathers, in which individual facts are referred
to, and partly from later enactments, which, without hesitation, refer to primi-
tive usage. The ApoBtolical Constitutions which bear the name of Clemens
Bomann^v, in the first six books contain the oldest usages and laws prevalent
among the Jewish Christians of the Oriental Church of the third century.
In the fourth century, when the seventh and eighth books were added, this
work received some interpolations with respect to ecclesiastical usages, though
not in the sense charged by the Arians. As a collection they have never at-
tained any legal authority, (a) The Apostolical Canons are a compilation
gradnally formed of the constitutions and enactments of Synods during the
fourth oentnry, and therefore are supposed to embrace the traditions respect-
ing law, which had come down from the Apostles. The Roman Church hav-
ing once rejected this collection as a whole, decided (after 500) to receive the
first fifty canons, (h) John Scholasticus (middle of the 6th century) found all
the eighty-five canons already in the books of laws used in the Greek Church, (e)
Xo proof therefore in favor of a regular system of legal relations in the
ehurches of the second and third centuries can be drawn merely from this
collection, because it bears the apostolic name.
§ 58. The Clergy and the Laity,
The ofiBces of the Church at this period presented very little to excite the
cupidity of ordinary men, and even the honor attending them was counter-
balanced by the dangers. And yet it seemed desirable to increase the venera-
tion which necessarily attends the virtues and a faithful performance of offi-
cial duty in the Church, by mysterious forms of ordination, by connecting
tbem through various associations with the Old Testament priesthood, and
by external tokens of peculiar sanctity. The result was, that even in the
•eoond century the priests (icXJjpor, ordo) were represented as the official me-
diators between Christ and the congregation (}.a6s^ plebs). To speak in the
church, and to administer holy rites, were conceded to be the special prero-
gatives of the clergy, although learned laymen were sometimes heard in the
pablic assembly, with the consent of tlie bishop, {a) In all things relatmg
to the business of the congregation, the principal care and authority devolved
opon the clergy, But this power was generally exercised mildly and with a
true regard for the pablic good, since those who possessed it could use no ex-
ternal means of coercion, and the clergy, being generally without fixed sala-
<0 Aiarcryal rmv ay. *Air(Hrr6\vy, prlnUnl in Cotelerias' Edit of the Patres Ai>p. Th. I. p. 199,
[/Wtetn htf pobL A D«w edit of th« Ap. Conttt Lpi^ 1S54. 12.]->0. Krabbe, Q. Ur$iprung u. Inhalt
itr qinat Conitltt Hamb. 1S29. J. S. v. Drey^ neue Untem. Q. d. ConsUtt u. Kanones der App.
T6kisai.
^) GHoHi^ D«er»tain i. 491 {OrtUtan : c. & D. XV. 1 04.) DionyHi Praeftitloi {Man^i. Th. L p. &)
^) Kor^ff 4icK\ii^iaiirriKo\ rity ay. *ATo<rr6\wy, printed in most of the ecdee. collections of laws
nd la CotfUHus, I. p. 487.— Jf R RegmhrecKt, de canonib. App. Yrat 1828. Krabhe de cod.
•BQonm, qai App. nomine drcamferantar. Qott 1820. 4.
a) EH»gh, If. •oe. YI, 19. Con^ app. Till, 82. oomp. Cone. Oitih. IV. a. 419. can. 98. {MantU
Tk IIL p^ 999.) iO&ne, CartK an. 89& can. 82. In Landon'a Manual of ConndlA.]
68 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIV. IL A. D. IW-ZVL
lies, were dependent upon the voluntary contribntions of the people. (5)
Their autliortty was often mnch straitened by the inflaence of the oonfessora,
and the idea wns not yet romoved of a priesthood embracing all tme Chris-
tians, (e) The congregation still possessed the undisputed, though often the
violated right, to decide upon the exclusion and the restoration of its own
members, to confirm the choice of its presbyters, to be heard upon every im-
portant matter, and to elect its own bishop. This last mentioned public pri-
vilege, near the close of the third century, was much curtailed by the inter-
ference of the clergy who presided over the congregation, and of the neigh-
boring bishops, ((t) As many presbyters were elected as appeared necessary
at the time, until in each congregation such a number was gradually settled
upon as its circumstances seemed to require. In Ae African churches the
Elders (seniores) do not seem to have been devoted to the business of in-
struction, nor to have belonged to the clerical order. Their office did not
then imply a clearly recognized distinction between lay and clerical presby-
ters, and they were probably relics of the original equality of the clergy and
all (rod^s people in the primitive Church, when all the presbyters were not
fitted for the work of instruction and private members of the Church were
not excluded from it. (e) Beacons were not regarded as belonging to the
proper priesthood (sacerdotium), but as ecclesiastical servants (ministree). As
the number seven originally connected with the deacon^s office was not will-
ingly exceeded, the larger churches in the third century were supplied with
sub-deacons. To the appropriate duties of the deacon's office were added li-
turgical exercises, and sometimes also preaching. As they were elected by
the bishop alone, they were sometimes through his influence exalted above
the presbyters. The inferior services pertaining to the Church were per-
formed by laymen, from whom were gradually formed four gradations of a
semi-clergy, called Ostiarii, Lectores, Exorcistae, and AcoluthL The clergy
became more and more separated from all secular employments, but as they
were generally obliged to pass through the inferior offices, they obtained a
practical education, and many of them in the catechetical schools of the
Church or in the philosophical schools of the heathen, acquired considerable
learning. The rule that no one should be advanced to the higher stations in
the Church until he had performed for a certain period the functions of each
inferior office, was frequently dispensed with by the favor of the bishop or
of the people, and laymen and even catechumens were sometimes inmie-
diately elevated to the episcopal office.
h) ZiegUr, die Eink&nfte des Cleriu in d. enten 8 Jabrh. (Henke's N. Mag. toL IV. p, lias.)
c) Tren. IV, 20. Tertuk de bapt c 17. Exhort ad caat o. 7. Oriff. in Jo. torn. 1, & (Tb. IV. p. &)
de orat c. 2a
d) Cypr. Ep. 81. J fl. Ep. 69. { L— iFuw6. H. ecc VI, 4S.~-Cypr. Ep. 6. $ 6.—Cypr. Ep. 6& ( &
Ep.68. (6.
e) Catcini Inst. IV, 8, S. Corrected bj TitHnga^ de syn. yet II, 2.
CHAP. IL CONSTITUTION. { 59. BISHOPS. 59
§ 59. Bishops.
Wahnis Uf—aUni (Sitlnuuif) Da. d« Eplsoopb et Presbb. c Petavum. L. B. 1641. 2>. Blondd^
ApoL pro sententU Uier. de Episc et Prr. AmBt 1616. 4^ On the other side: H. nanvmotid^ Das. 4.
quibua Eptacopetaa Jura ex Sc S. et antlquitate adstruuntar. Lond. 1651. 4.—LiU'te^ Ece. app. p.
106RK.— A^M, (L d. Urspr. d. btoch. Oewalt (Ill^n'a Zeitachr. 1S82. vol. IL aect 2.)—Rothe die Anfl d.
ehr. Klrcbe. p. 171m. On tbe other aide: Baur 0. d. Urspr. des Eplaoopata. (T&b. Zeltschr. 1S83. P.
8.) Comp. S 42. note c. [Jamiesottf Cyprianna laotinioa. Lond. 1705.]
In the Epistles which bear the name of Ignatius^ the episcopate is repre-
sented OS the divinely appointed pillar which sustains the whole ecclesiastical
fabric, and yet much needing the writer^s most earnest commendations. So
general and so thorongh a change as that which in any view of the case it
must have passed through after the middle of the second century, could then
have been effected by Ifo personal influence, nor by general consent, but only
by the concurrent power of circumstance.*?. Wherever there was more
th.an one presbyter, some individual on account of his personal influence
would be called to preside, or all would do so in rotation. When diflferent
portions of the larger congregations met, as they sometimes did, in different
places of worship at the same time, each congregation would naturally be
anxious to preserve as much as possible its existing unity, in spite of its acci-
dental separation. This was accomplished by retaining a common oonnec-
tion with the presbyter who had previously presided over them. But by
this means his jurisdiction became much enlarged and strengthened. The
name Overseer was especially applied to the peculiar office which such a
presbyter filled, (a) As soon as this name became thus appropriated to de-
signate a superior dignity in the larger cities, those presbyters who stood
alone in the smaller towns would naturally prefer the original Greek appella-
tion which was common to them all. Hence Irenaens continued to use
both names interchangeably, and this memento of the original equality of
presbyters and bishops remained firmly in the Church for a long time after
new relations entirely inconsistent with it had become established, (b) At
the same time also those Elders of the former age who had been distingaished
for their personal character were always spoken of under the name of Bish-
ops. The complete realization of the Episcopate may be seen in the Epistles
of Cyprian. The Bishop, as the successor of the apostles, there appears as
the representative of his Church, and at the same time to the Church itself
he is the vicar of Christ; he is espoused to the local congregation, and also
to the general Church ; he is responsible to God alone, and yet is an indi-
vidual organ of the whole episcopate, (e) He possessed supreme power in
the Church, and yet in important matters was to do nothing without the
counsel of his presbyters, {d) All ordinations proceeded from him. At first
a) In Jnatin (ApoL L o. 66l) atUl called irofMirrAr.
5) JTienm. ad Tit I, 7. Ep. lol. (al. 66.) ad Eyaogelam. AmbroHaifst. (ffUariut Diae.) ad Eph.
IT, II. ad L Tim. Ill, 10. CAryatL Horn, in PblL 1, 1. (Tb. XL p. 195.) Both paasagea of Jerome
In Oratian : c. 6. D. XCV. and 24. D. XCIIL [alao in OUaeUr Ecc. Ilbt toI L p. 106. note 2.] Bat
Urban IL in (Jane. BmuterU. can. 1. {MantL Th. XX p. TSS.) can be appealed to on tbla aabjcct
ctHj when the context la dlaregarded.
c) Cypr. OraUo ad Cone. Garth, (p. 448.) Ep. 72. { a ad Btepban. Epi 67. $ & De nnitato Ecc c 4.
(f) Citpr. de aleator c. 1. Ep. 69. S 7. Ep. & $ 5. Ep. 23. 1 2. comp. Chne. Carthtig. IV. a. 419. can.
U,9&. (JTanei, Th. IIL p. 951)
60 ' ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. I. DIV. IL A. D. 100-«1«.
he was himself ordained hy the imposition of the hands of the presbyters,
but afterwards by the neighboring bishops. Every translation of a bishop
appeared of doubtful propriety, although it was often necessarily conceded to
the demands of ambition and of higher powers, as well as to the common
welfare. Many of the bishops of the country congregations (xo>p(ni<rKonoi)
continued from the very commencement of their existence dependent upon
those bishoprics in the city from which they sprung, and others originally
independent gradually submitted to the influence of the neighboring city
bishop. In Africa alone no distinction between the names ever appears. The
bishops of the larger cities in like manner became exalted in power and au-
thority above the others. But all bishops possessed the right of perfect
equality among themselves since their prerogatives depended not upon the
transitory possessions of this world, but upon the common investiture which
they had all received from Christ.
§ 60. Synods.
ZiegUr^ pragm. Dant dee Urepmngs d. Synoden a. d. Anabildung d. STnodalveiC (Henke^e N.
Mag. vul. L p. 125e8.
Ever since the latter part of the second century a number of assemblies,
composed of bishops residing near each other, had been held to obtain the
highest possible authority for a decision of the controversies which had
sprung up. (a) But in the commencement of the third century the provin-
cial synods, at first in Greece, (6) and soon afterwards in the whole Eastern
world, became the formal basis of an ecclesiastical constitution, as the su-
preme courts of legislation, administration and jurisdiction. Tlieir meetings
were held either annually or semi-annually, and every bishop in the province
had a seat and a voice in them, and as exceptions to the rule, even presbyters
and confessors. The bishops were heard not as ropresentativea of their
churches but in their own name, in consequence of a right received from the
Holy Ghost, (c) The meetings however were public, and the people who
were present made their infiuence felt. The possession of infallibility was
never thought of, and their decisions had no authority beyond their respec-
tive provinces, {d) The ecclesiastical provinces which in this way appear as
communities, to which all individual bishops were amenable, generally cor-
responded with the provinces of the empire.
§ 61. Metropolitans,
The natural presidents of the ecclesiastical provinces were the bishops
of the principal cities (/xi^rpoTrdXcir). The grounds on which their pre-emi-
nence was founded were generally the apostolical origin of their churches,
the wealth of their congregations, and their frequent opportunities of a&tist-
ing those who resided in the provinces. The Metropolitans therefore, as the
first among their equals, soon obtained the right of convening and conduct-
a) EuMb. H. ©cc. V. 16. 2a ^) Tertul de J^an. c 18.
c) Cypr. Ep. M. § ft. Coinp Cane, Arelat. a. 814. (JTaful, Th. II. p. 489.)
d) (VP'-.Sp-l^f 2.Ep-&i|fi.Ep.79.|a
CHAP. IL CONSTITUTION. { 61. METROPOLITANS. { 62. GREAT BISHOPS. 6 1
ing the proceedings of the Synods, and of confirming and ordaining the pro-
vincial bishops. Bat it was only in the East that this Metropolitan system
was completely carried oat. The Bishop of Carthage sometimes claimed the
right of a Metropolitan over the chnrches in Mauritania and Numidia, where
there was no great city naturally possessing the right of precedence, but the
presidency in their synods was always given to the oldest bishop (Senex).
§ 62. The Three Great Bishops.
The same causes which produced the elevation of the metropolitans, op*
erated in a still higher degree to give the largest metropolitan diocese to the
bishops of the three principal cities of the empire, liome^ Alexandria^ and
Antioeh, Rome obtafled Middle and Lower Italy with uncertain limits,
and by means of a colony of bishops sent into Southern Gaul (about 250) an
indefinite influence was secured in the affairs of that region, (a) Alexandria
obtained possession of Egypt, and Antioch of Syria. The successor of St.
Peter received an honorable rank above all other bishops, on account of the
majesty of the eternal city, and the vast and skilfully used wealth at his dis-
posal even when Laurentius could present to the avaricious magistrate the
poor of the city as the treasure of the Roman Church, {b) Roman bishops
of that period have since been canonized, who were great only in their
deaths. No extraordinary individuals were concerned in laying the founda-
tions of her subsequent empire. The first presage of its future position was
ifibrded in two attempts which it made to impose its usages upon other
churches. These were sternly repelled by the Asiatic and African bishops, (c)
The thought of a Bishop of bishops was first advanced in favor of James,
about the middle of the second century, by a Jewish party in Rome, and was
regarded in Africa as equivalent to an ecclesiastical tyranny, {d) The first
voluntary recognition of Roman authority in matters of faith, was occa-
sioned by the report that the apostolical traditions had been preserved with
especial purity in the West, {e) Cyprian saw in the pre-eminence of Peter a
symbol of the unity of the Church. (/) Even when Marcellinus ofiered in-
cen£e to the gods (302), the very infirmity of a Roman bishop has been made
a) Cypr. Ep. 67. comp. Gregor. Turon* IL Francor. I, 2S.
h) The prooft are collected by TilUmont Th. IV. p. 41. c) | 69. 84
d) Epi CUftutMs id Jac in ClenL Hornil. (P. app. e<1. Goteler. Th. I. p. 605). Cypr. In Cone Car-
titto^ {RvutK, Beliq. Bac III. pw 91) oonfl Tcrtul. de padic c. 1.
«> Iren. Ill, 8, 2 : ** A<1 banc Ecclesiam propter potiorem (potcntlorero) prlnclpalitatcm nccesM
tf\ omnem convenfre Ecclesiam, boc est eos qal sunt nndique fldelcs, in qua semper ab hi% qui sunt
oadlqiie, coDaervata est ea qnae est ab Apostolis traditio. (Uphs raxnj)v iKK\riaiav iih. r^y
\miB9mripa» opx^'' hyirfia\ iruo-oy ffvfifiaiudv r^v iKKKtiiriaVy rovr* iari robs vayrax^^fv
vicrwSf iv ^ a«l w»k twv iratrrax^^^y ffvm'tr'fjprjrcu 17 airh ruv *A.iroar6\<i>tf Tapd^oais.)
C<ymp TertuL de praescr. c. 86. 208.— (7 W«a&acA, de potentloro Eccl. Rom. principalitate. Jen. 1778.
(0pp. ed. GaUer^ Th. II. p 186fia.). Paulus in the Sophronizon. 1819. P. 8. On the other side : AVf-
ietiamp^ CL d. Prlmat Manst 1820. p. SOss. Jioakavany, de primata R. Pontif. Aug. Y. 1534. p.
Vim.—'Jkier§ch, in d. Stud. a. Krit 1S42. P. 2. oomp. Keander^ [Church Hist vol. I. pp. 20.'j-205.]
/) De unit Ecc. c 8. Here, even in Uie genuine text, and often in the epistles (52. 55), he ac-
biotrledges "Eome aa the eocUtia principcUU, without, however, conceding to it a supremacy in-
couistent with the parity of all bishops (Ep. 71). Antirom. interpretation of Matt 16, IS. in Orig.
ti ML torn. 18. 1 10a. 14
62 • ANCIENT CnrUCH HISTORY. PEE. L DIV. IL A. D. 100-Sli
to wear such an aspect in popular reports, as to promote the glory of the Ro-
man see. (<g)
§ 63. The Catholic Chvrch and its Variotu Branches.
The internal and essential nnity of the Church as the kingdom of God on
earth, suggested tlie idea of an external unity also. The effort to attain this
was much favored by the political unity of the whole civilized world. The
religious consciousness which prevailed in the Christian Church with more or
less distinctness, when assailed by theological or moral elements inconsistent
with itself, was accustomed to appeal to the apostolical traditions which re-
mained in the churches founded by the apostles. From this sprung up the
Great or Catholic Churchy (a) in distinction from th* heretics who defended
these foreign elements, and who were disunited among themselves. By the
former term was meant the great body in which all the congregations found*
ed by the apostles, and such as were connected with them, had hitherto felt
conscious of a unity through faith and love, and which was the only source
of true Christianity, of grace, and of salvation. The first hint of this repre-
sentation was given by Ignatius, but it was further developed by Irenaena,
and was completed by Cyprian, {h) This unity was realized in many transao-
tions in which the bishops and churches held intercourse with each other.
But without detracting from it, a Church of the Fast and a Church of
the West began to be distinguished from each other with respect to lan-
guage, customs, and theological tendencies. Peculiar usages, in fact, some-
times became permanent even in different parts of the same metropolitan
diocese, especially in those ecclesiastical provinces whose boundaries corre-
spond with old national limits. Accordingly, in addition to the dioceses
of the three great bishops, the first outlines of national churches were formed
in correspondence with local attachments and interests. Thus the African
Churchy connected with Rome by feelings of fVee mutual sympathy, and ex-
hibiting its peculiar spirit in the writings of Tertullian, sprung up, and com-
pleted an appropriate code of laws after the middle of the third century, in
the provincial synods of Carthage, (r) Thus, also, the Armenian Church was
originated, on which Gregory (he Enlightcner^ who by his family connec-
tions had been deeply involved in the political disorders of his country, and
when Christianity triumphed had been brought out of a long night of im-
prisonment to be made a metropolitan (302), so deeply imprinted his own
spirit, that for a long time the superior bishop or Catholicus was selected
from his family. (</)
0) /larduin. Acta Concill. vol I. p. 217m. Baron^ ad a. 802. N. SSssl
o) The former term may be found in Celsus {Orig. c Cels. Y. 59) and ConstUt app. 11. 25, and
the latter occurs In IgnaL ad Smym. c. 8. and in the Epistle- to the Church of Smyrna respecting the
death of Polycarp, in Euaeb. II. ecc. IV, 15.
^) ('UP''- ^^ unltate Ecc. especially c 4, 5, 21. Ep. 47. { 2.
r) SchflMratffi^ Ecc afHc sub primatn Carthag. Par. 1679. 4 M. Leydicker^ Hist Eccl alHc,
Utn\J. 1694. 4. MorceUl Afrtca christ Brix. 1816. 8 Th. MSnter, Prlmordia Ecc. afric. Uafii. 1S29. 4.
(T) AgatkangeU (revised), Acte 8. Qregor. (Acta Sanctor. 8ept Th. YIII. p. 821iss.) Motts
Choronennin (about 440), Hist Armen. I. IIL ed. WhUtton. Lond. 1786. 4. Mai. Samueljan^ Be-
kehr. Armcn. durch den h. Greg. Ill Wien. \^m.— Saint Martin^ Mt^motres snr TArmdnie. Par.
ISia 2 Th. CAamic'A, Ulstory of Armenia, tiansL by AndalL Calcutta. 1827. 8 Th.
CHAP. UL EGCLES. LIFR S U. CHBISTIAN MORALS. • 63
CHAP, in.— ECCLESIASnOAL LIFE.
§ 64. Christian Morals.
Those gifts which the Spirit of God had bestowed as first-fruits in the
early periods of the Church, had now been expended, although Irenaens tes-
tifies that the power of prophesying, of speaking with tongues, of healing
diseases, and even of raising the dead, remained in his time. Neither of
these, however, were common, except that method of healing the sick which
consisted in the expulsion of demons, (a) Abstinence from blood and from
things strangled may have been occasioned by the decree of the apostles, as
it obtained prevalence with the writings of Luke, (b) The private life of
Christians was regulated by principles directly opposed not only to the sen-
SQons, but to the intellectual pleasures of heathenism, (c) In their estimation,
the earth was a vale of tears, and the predominant feeling of the noblest
nunds was an ardent longing for their home in another world. Joy in death
and love toward his brethren continued still to be the distinguishing badge
of a follower of Christ, (d) This spirit became peculiarly powerful in times
of persecntion, but in the longer periods of tranquillity, envy and strife, oov-
etoosness and love of pleasure gained the ascendency. The more earnest of
the public teachers, therefore, regarded the persecutions in the reigns of De-
diiB and Diocletian as divine judgments to arouse a slumbering Church, (e)
A pions abandonment even of the innocent enjoyments of the world
(iiaicrffris) became a prevalent characteristic of the times, but among some
individoals in the Church it was regarded as the ultimate object of all gene-
ral effort. Although marriage had been exalted by Christianity to its true
q;>iritual meaning, (/) vows of perpetual chastity were looked upon as mer-
itorious, (g) and many virgins (o-vveiVaicroi, sorores) undertook the often un-
fortunate, and therefore gradually discountenanced task, of exhibiting the
IK>wer of a holy will as brides of the Lord in most intimate companionship
with the clergy, {h) These vows were not absolutely irrevocable, but the re-
cantation of them was threatened with the severest penances. An entrance
into the marriage state after consecration as a Deacon, was regarded as of
doubtful propriety, and was limited by special restrictions. (0 In the ex-
treme West, one Synod had already forbidden the clergy to enter the mar-
riage state, and even the lower clergy were prohibited all connubial inter-
course during seasons of public duty. (X) On the other hand, all attempts to
a) Trem, IT, 57. Y, 6. {Eu*eb. H. eoc V, 7.) Tertul ad ScapaL c 8. Apolog. a 28. OHg. c CeK
I, T. VII, 4 (Th. I. p. M5. 16ML)
h) TtrM. Apok^ e. 9. Only tbo Greek Church however has actually adhered to it
e) EL O. Tertul. de Bpectacniia, c. 28. de cultn femm. II. ^.—Hefelet iL d. Kigorism d. alten Chris-
tro (Tfih. Qnartalflchr. 1S41. P. 8.)
d) Minuc FeL c 8. Euseb. H. mc YII, 22.
4) Oypr. de Inpa. (Oppi AmsteL 700. p. 68.) Eiueb. H. eco. YIII, 1.
/) TtUiL ad uxor. II, %. comp. OHo. In Num. hooL 6 (Th. II. pw 289.)
g) For heathen testimony, Galen In Abul/eda, U\st Anteislam. ed. FlMsoher. p. 109.
h) The first trace oocnzs as early as In Hermas Tastor IIL Bim. ft, 11.— Cf^pr. £p. 83. (kmc
Afiteyr. e. 19. Nic c Z.
<) Cbnatltt. app. YL 17. <7onc Ancyr. c. la UTtoeaet. c. 1.
k) Cone, IlUb^rU. (805-809.) c 8& comp. c. 65.
64 ANCIENT CUUECH HISTORY. PEE. L DIV. II. A. D. 10(V-81i
impose a rigid system of asceticism as a matter of universal obligation, were
discountenanced by the Church. In consequence of this, the Church frequent-
ly came into collision with the various classes of Encratites^ some of whom
rejected the use of wine even in the Lord's Supper {IbponapaoTarai, aquarii.)
§ 65. St. Anthony,
Athana*iiu, Vita S. Antonii. (Th. II. p. 45<)fi8.) Scmom. H. eoc. I. la Jlieron. caUL c SS. Oth-
er things: Tillemonl, Th. TIL p. lOlaa. [//. Ri^ner^ The Fathers of the Desert. New York.
1850. 2 vote. 12.]
The more rigid ascetics in Egypt lived as hermits, although, during the
third century, most of them continued near their own homes. Ellas and
John were their predecessors, and the Therapeutae their countrymen. A
complete withdrawal from the world seemed the necessary consequence of
the rupture between Christianity and the world. This philosophical mode of
life received its permanent form through the influence of Anthony, When
a mere youth, he had become independent and wealthy by the early death of
his parents. On one occasion he stepped into the temple, and heard read
from the gospels the word of the Lord to the rich young man. Tliis, like the
voic« of God to him personally, decided his future course of life. Ho dis-
tributed his goods among the i)Oor (about 270), and betook himself first to a
tomb, and then to a dilapidated castle in the mountain, there to wage a fear-
ful conflict with himself under the idea of an encounter with Satan. The
visible form in which his adversary assailed him, was sometimes tliat of a
beautiful woman, and at other times that of wild beasts and monsters. His
friends, who brought him bread once in six months, heard his wild shrieks, or
found him powerless and prostrate on the ground. The report of a persecu-
tion of the Christians (311) allured him from his solitude. The Alexandri-
ans gazed upon this man of the desert with amazement. In the very courts of
justice, he encouraged the confessors and waited upon the prisoners, but found
not a martyr^s death. From that time his fame spread abroad, the desert
became peopled with his disciples, whom he directed to engage in prayer,
and manual labor for their own support and for the relief of the poor. He
himself would watch through many nights in succession ; bread and salt was
his only food, and of this he partook only once in three days, ashamed that
an immortal spirit should need even that. He was without human learning,
but endowed with eminent natural abilities, and in the service of the Xing
of kings was exalted above the fear, as he was afterwards above the favor of
earthly monarchs. His word healed the sick and cast out devils. "When his
prayers were answered, as they not unfrequently were, he boasted not of hifl
power, nor did he murmur when they were unheard, but in both cases he
gave praise to God. No angry person went from his presence unreconciled
with his adversary, and no mourner uncomforted. He seemed to have been
provided by God to be a physician in bodily and spiritual things for the
whole land of Egypt. In the blissful enjoyment of this earthly poverty, it
was revealed to him that there .was one man more perfect than himself.
Since the Decian persecution, Paul of Thebes had resided in a cave of the
desert, with a single palm-tree to give him provision, shelter, and clothing.
CHAP. IIL ECCLE& LIFE. $ 65. ANTUONT. S «& DISCIPLINE. 65
Ninety years had passed away since tidings of him had reached a human ear.
Anthony visited him in season to witness his death (340).'^ In the evening
of his life, and annoyed hy the honors and interruptione of men, Anthony
withdrew still further into the desert, where he cultivated the fruit needful
for his food, and presenting himself only occasionally among men, to contend
for the true fedth, or to protect the oppressed. He finally attained the age
of a hundred and ^vq years, when he expired (866). Ilis glory sprung
from no hooks, worldly wisdom, or work of art, but only from his piety ; and
he departed childless indeed, hut the father of an innumerable spiritual family.
§ 66. Ecclesiastical Discipline.
L Ttrtul, de poenitentia. Cifpr, de lapsis. Eppi eanonicM Dionysii AUaoandrini (about 262),
Orefforii Tkaumatwffi^ P^ri AletMndrini (8(i6X Canones Cone. lUSberitani,
IL 7b&. jyannsr^ de catecbomeDls aotlqnae Eoe. FrancoH 1688. — lo. Morini^ Commentr. hist de
dIadpllDa in admlnistr. sacram poenltentJae XIIL primls 8a«c Par. 1651. Antv. 1681. Yen. 1702. t
FiHagSt Bcitr. a. Oeech. d. TbeoL n. BeL 179& toL IL
Candidates for admission to the Ohurch (Karrjxovfj^voi) were first careful-
ly instructed, and rigidly examined in all the studies of the several stages of
their education. They were then admitted by baptism and confirmation to
all the rights and privileges of a Christian citizen. Such a process was re-
garded as important, because real goodness of heart and a good character were
then of &r greater value than numbers. A high degree of public morality
was upheld by a rigid discipline. Only public scandals, or offences voluntari-
ly confessed, were subjected to its penalties. All who appeared unworthy of
Christian fellowship on account of adultery, murder, or apostasy from Chris-
tianity, were immediately excommunicated. These could be restored to their
former position in the Church only after a series of penances adjusted to the
nature of the offence by the various codes of discipline, and sometimes pro-
tracted to the end of Ufe. The power of a disturbed conscience, and the
terrors of an exclusion from the Church, in which alone salvation was
thought to be attainable, induced many to undergo the most fearful penances.
At that time, few could perceive a distinction between an abandonment by
God and an exclusion from his Church. The power to relax the severity of
the penitential laws in particular instances, was indispensable in times of per-
secution, on account of the multitude of those who fell away and subsequent-
ly returned with sorrow. It was usually exercised by the churches and the
bishops with scrupulous restrictions, but by the confessors and martyrs with
80 much indiscretion, that the discipline of the Church was in danger of be-
coming ineffectual. In general the principle was conceded, that every actu-
al penitent, at least in the hour of death, should be admitted to reconciliation
for ail his offences. As a mere outward form in connection with excommu-
nication, particular bishops or synods withdrew ecclesiastical fellowship
from whole churches or parties, on account of what was regarded as un-
christian sentiments.
* Bisron, Tlta Paali Eremitaa. Instanoea more like that of the Bhoemaker at Alexandria, in
FMm JPair. P. IL | lit eomp. Apologia Oonf, Aug. p. 286,
66 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIV. XL A. D. 100-«12.
§ 67. The MontanUts,
L JBfuseb. H. eco. Y, 8. 14-19. Kplphan, haer. 48& Kindred matten, and » treatment of tiia
subject which goce much beyond ordinary views of it in all the writings of TertuUian^ IL G.
Wlemsdor/^ de Montanistla. Gedani. 1751. 4. F. MUnter^ Effata et orac Montanistar. Ham. 1829.
C. M. Kirckner^ de Montantst Ds. L Jen. 1832. F. C. A. SchitegUr^ d. Montanlsmns, n. d.
Kirehe des 2 Jahrh. TQb. 1841. See also his Nachapoet Zeltalt vol. II. p. 2599&
In an excitement which originated in Phrygia, and extended over all the
churches of Asia Minor, not only the rigor of ecclesiastical morals and disci-
pline, hot the extraordinary zeal which prevailed in the apostolic Church,
was revived and even exceeded. It was there maintained, that the life of a
true Christian was a continual self-denial, that he should find pleasure in
nothing hut God and a martyr^s death, and that all earthly delights, even
those which science affords, are sinful. Murder, lewdness, and apostasy sub-
jected those who were guilty of them to a hopeless exclusion from the
Church. No church was regarded as genuine which would not carry out
this rigid system of morals, or which allowed of second marriages, and re-
admitted those who had once been excluded as offenders. Such churches
they denominated carnal (the ^vxtxo/), superior to which stood the Church
of the Spirit (the iri^rv/iarifeoO) since the Spirit was to be looked for in the
Church, and not exclusively in the assembly of the bishops. An ecstasy
which proceeded ftom within themselves, or a divine frenzy, they looked
upon as the most exalted condition in which a Christian could be found. A
prophet in this state was far superior to a bishop. The peculiar form of
apostolic Christianity exhibited in the Apocalypse, while struggling with
Gnosticism, and pressing forward after a still higher development of reli^on,
might possibly have become gradually perverted into this Montanwn^ but its
assertion respecting higher revelations of truth to be expected in the Church,
indicates a consciousness of innovation. Montanva of Mysia is designated by
some contemporary writers at a diftance ftom him, as the author of this
movement. He had probably been a priest of Cybele, and was at this time
attended by two prophetic women. With the imaginative, enthusiastic spirit
which characterized his fellow-countrymen, he announced himself as the in-
dividual in whom the promised Paraclete had completely revealed himself,
that the Church might be carried forward to its perfection just before the
introduction of the millennial kingdom. The heavenly Jerusalem, the me-
tropolis of that kingdom, was to descend to earth at Pepuza. The Montanists
(o2 Karh <^pvyasy Pepuziaui) were expelled fh>m the Church by the Asiatic
bishops (about 170), not, however, without great hesitation, since their new
prophecies were not absolutely inconsistent with the doctrines of the Church
of that period, and it was therefore difficult to determine whether they were
of divine or demoniac origin. In Asia, they continued to exist under an ec-
clesiastical constitution of their own, until some time in the sixth century.
In the West, their moral principles obtained an influence which seemed
almost a complete victory. What Montanus had announced in a fanatical
spirit, Tertullian, with his polished and liberal views, presented to the appre-
hensions of men with a kind of twilight distinctness. All that either of
these men did was boldly to complete what nearly the whole Church of that
CHAP. IIL EOCLES. LIFE. S 6& NOVATIAN& S 69. HOLY BEASONa 67
age was striTing for, and merely to demand of every one what was admired
in individnal saints, but which, if it had generally prevailed, wonld either
have destroyed the Ohnrch or the natare of man.
§ 68. The NoDatians.
Cypr. Epjx 41-52. EuMb. H. ecc VI, 43-45. VIII, 8. Oono. yic can. «. Cod. Theod, XVL
tH & lex. S. Soorat H. eco. I, la IV, 28. V, 21.
In Opposition to Cornelius^ the newly elected bishop, Koratian^ his pres-
byter, violently opposed the readmission of those who had once fallen. This
man was a philosopher who had embraced Christianity in the midst of sickness
and severe spiritnal conflicts, and after his conversion had become an ascetic,
and a prndent advocate of the £uth generally embraced in the Church.* By
his own party, strengthened by some persons from the African Church, he
was elected a rival bishop (251). The Novations excluded from the Church
all those who had been guilty of deadly sins, and taught, that while
soch should be exhorted to repentance and hope of the divine mercy,
no prospect fihould be held out to them that they would ever be readmitted
to a Church which should consist only of saints and purified persons {Ka^apoi),
They withdrew all fellowship from the Catholic Church, and re-baptized all
who came from it to them. Their party was sometimes treated with re-
elect, generally with forbearance, and by the emperor himself, at Nicaea,
with good-humored raillery, but it was overwhelmed by the authority of the
Gatholic Church. Its adherents continued without a visible organization for
some centuries, though in Phrygia they were sometimes confounded with the
Montanists. In other countries also a similar uncertainty with respect to
the true idea of the Church, and strict discipline, produced similar divisions,
but all these necessarily ceased when heathenism was overthrown, and mild-
er views gained the ascendency.
§ 69. Holy Seasons^ and the Controversy about Baster,
Mfotpinianus^ Feste chrtot (Tlgnr. 1598.) Geuev. 1674. AuffuHi, die Feste der «Iten Chritten.
Lpn 1S17-9QL 8 Tola. UUnumn^ Zosainmenst des chr. Festcyclus mit vorchiistl Festen. Appendix
to Cre*uMr''9 Symbolik. vuL IV. separately printed from the third ed. Darmst 1S43. Staudfnmaier^
d. GelM d. Chrtetenth. in d. heil. Zeiten, HandL n. d. heil. Kanst Matnz. (U^.) 1888. 2 voIr.
The three hours of the day observed by the Jews as seasons for prayer,
were recommended to those whose secular employments were likely to with-
draw their thoughts from God, as an excellent moans of I'eminding them of
their duty. The dawn of the day, and in times of persecution the night,
was preferred for public assemblies. That they might give special solemnity
to their higher festivals, the preceding night was made a part of them
(vigilia). In determining what days should be observed as holy, they paid
attention to the critical seasons of Joy or grief which occurred in the course
of our Saviour^B life. Wednesday^ and especially Frid^iy (dies stationum,
/eria quarta et sexta), were consecrated as partial fast-days (till 8 p. m.) in
eonmiemoration of his sufferings. The Roman Church regarded Saturday as
« De Trtnitate, OppL ed. Jacikton, Lond. 1728L {OaUand, Th. lY.) Cknnp. ITirnvn. eaUL c. 7a
68 ANaENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIV. IL A. D. 100-81i.
a fast-day, in direct opposition to those who regarded it as a Sabbath. Sun^
day remained a joyful festival, in which all fasting and worldly business was
avoided as mnch as possible, but the original commandment of tlie Deca-
logne respecting the Sabbath was not then applied to that day. {a) A sea-
son of fasting of greater or less lengtli in different places (afterwards called
Quadrigesima), was observed just before the passover. In Asia Minor, the
paschal supper was eaten as a type of Christ^s sacrifice on the night of the
fourteenth day of the month Kisan. But in other parts of the Chorch, the
Jewish festival was altogether set aside. The Resurrection of onr Lord was
celebrated on the Sunday after the full moon in the spring, and the day of
his death on the Friday preceding. When Polycarp visited Home (about
160), this difference in reckoning was discussed, though without injury to
Christian unity. But the Roman bishop Victor threatened to withdraw ec-
clesiastical fellowship from the Asiatic bishops, on acconnt of their course in
this matter (196). Public opinion was in favor of the usage in the Roouin
Church with respect to this festival, but the violent measures pursued by the
Roman bishop were decidedly condemned by all distinguished teachers, (fi)
The fifty days which immediately followed Easter (Pentecost), formed a sea-
son of festivity for the commemoration of the glorification of Christ, and the
last day of that period was kept as the proper Pentecost ^ in honor of the effu-
sion of the Holy Spirit. According to the oldest authorities, heretics were
baptized on the Feait of the Epiphany^ w^hich was celebrated in conformity
with the views of the heretics, in commemoration of the Manifestation
(JnK^vfia) of the Messiah. In this festival the Church had reference to the
revelation of Christ in the flesh, and hence in the oriental churches, after the
close of the third century, the sixth of January appears to have been ob-
served in the double sense of a baptismal and a birth-day festival, (c) Some
churches annually celebrated the days on which the martyrdom of some of
their number took place, as if they were birth-days (natalia), when Assem-
blies were held around their graves ; and abont the close of the third centu-
ry some amusements were allowed on such occasions. Instead of the heathen
festivities formerly enjoyed, (d) As these martyrs were looked upon as the best
representatives of Jesus Christ on earth, the relation of the Church to them
was that of an affectionate fellowship. Even then we find some indications
of a confidence in their power to aid men either in the present life or at the
final judgment. In accordance with the ancient doctrine of the saving efiS-
cacy of an expiatory death, a degree of influence was ascribed to their death
as well as to that of Jesus. («)
a) F. LiebHrut, d. Tag d. Herrn. BcrL 1887. F. W. Ji&cksr^ t. Tage d. Herrn. ErL 1S89.
I) Emeb. H. eoc Y, 88-26. Yita Constant III, 18. Socrat H. eec Y, 21. Chionioon pMcb. ed.
Dt^fresne, Par. 1683. Add. N. li.—Neand€r, 0. Yeraulass. u. Beschaffenh. d. &It PasaahstrelUgkelten.
(KHist Archiv. 182& St 2.) R^Uberg, d. Paachastreit (Illgen's Zeitschr. 1882. B. IL St 2.) Giateler
in d. Stud. a. Krit 1883. P. 4
c) Cl&ment Strom. L p. 407b. eom^ Ca»Hani Collat X, ^.—Jahlonsky^ de orlg. festi natiY.
Chrlsti, Da. L S 7. (Opp. Th. IIL p. 838fl&) Gieteler in d. HalL Lit Z. 1828. p. 88«.
d) Greg. Thaumaturgi 0pp. ed. Vom. Mog. 1604 p. 812. coznp. Attguat Ep. 29. § 9. ad
AlTplum.
«) Fp. BccL Smynu {Su$*b. H. eoc lY, 16.) CVp^** d« I*P^ c- 1^* i"^ ^^) Orig, exhort ad
mart c.60.
CHAP. m. SOCLES. LIFE. 1 70. FESTIYALB. 1 71. LOBD^S SUPPER. 69
§ 70. Sacred Places and their Deccration,
CUtmpini, Tett nMnnmenta. Rome. 1748. 8 Tola. £ JaeuUi cbr. anUqultatam speclmina. Rome.
179S. 4. MUtnier^ Sinnbilder a. KonstTont d. alton Chrtsteo, Alton. 1S2S. 2 puts. 4. OHknMnen^ ▼.
d. Unecb«n n. Orilnzeo d. KiiDSthanee in d. ersten 8 Jabrh. (Knnstblatt 1881. N. SSaa.) [Jfir«. Jam^
•on, Sacred and Lcgendarj Art Lend. 1848L 3 Yola. & Lord Lindsay^ Sketches of the Hiat of Chris-
UMMi Art Load. 1S47. 8 vula. &]
The halk in which the Christians were accostomed to assemble, were fur-
nished for public speaking with an elevated platform, and for the administra-
tion of the Lord^s Snpper with a table which, near the end of the second
eentnrj, was called an altar. Chnrches began to be constructed after the
dose of the third century, and during the reign of Diocletian some were
built of considerable size. When the people very generally adopted the sen-
timent, that God was present in some peculiar sense in the house of worship,
their more intelligent public teachers reminded them that the world was his
temple, (a) Christians were fond of holding their religious assemblies over
the graves of the dead, and sometimes they even descended into the vaults
of the catacombs to find a place for prayer. Such places, however, at least
in Rome, were never fitted to accommodate their larger assemblies, (h) The
imitative arts had flourished principally in the service of the ancient gods,
and hence the same hatred which had prevailed against them among the
Jews, was continued in the Christian Church. None but heathen who re-
vered Jesus, as eitiier a sage or a Son of God, or heretics, who mingled to-
gether pagan and Christian principles, ever possessed images of him. In
place of these, however, and with the direct object of excluding heathen
images, were introduced various Christian emblems, sach as the cross, the
good shepherd, the ram and the lambs, the fisherman and the fishes (IX9YS),
the ship, the dove, the palm, the lyre, the phoenix, and the cock and anchor.
At first, these were used only in private dwellings, but gradually they were
introduced as ornaments of tombs, and as works of art in fresco or mosaic,
to decorate their churches. But even as late as the fourth century, they
were censured as innovations, (c)
§ 71. Sacred Services.
The worship of the Temple described in the Old Testament, was the
model to which was conformed as much as possible the public services of the
Christian assemblies. In compliance with the spirit of the times, though it
was originally a matter of necessity, the Lord's Supper was administered near
the dose of the second century as a Christian mystery, with the view of in-
vesting it with an increased sanctity by its seclusion and secresy. By this
means, a mysterious character was imparted to a number of the usages and
a) Tertmi. de orat e. 84.
b) Comp. nUron, In Ezocb. o. 40. After the works of BoHo^ Arringhi, BUdetti^ and BattaH,
%ttRo9lMt Boms Katakomben. (Bescbretbnng der Btadt Rom, von Ptakt^r^ Butnt^n^ and oth.
Stott^ ISSOsa. vol L pi». 854-416.) C F. BelUrmann, Q. d. filtesten cbr. BegrftbnlsMtfitten u. be«.
d. Katakomben zn Neapel m. lliren Wandegemfihlden. Ilamb. 1889. 4 [C. Maitland^ The Church
ia tba Cataoomba, or a Description of the Prim. Chorch of Rome, new ed. Lond. 1S50. 8.]
e) Oonc JUib&Hl can. 8flu Epiphan, Ep. ad Ja Hleroa. (voL IL pb 817.)
70 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIY. IL A. D. 100-818.
forms of the Church, (a) The LoTd^% Supper was celebrated at the close of
every solemn assembly, but the much-abused and more infrequent Lotc-Feast
was generally held apart from the public services, and in the evening. The
bread and the wine were in some instances regarded as the symbols of the
body and blood of Christ, and in others as pervaded by the Logos. This
sacred ordinance was supposed to be a thank-offering, and to have some spe-
ciftl influence upon the resurrection of the body. The consecrated bread was
sent to those who were absent, or taken home for subsequent use, and sometimes
bottles of the wine, labelled with some pious toasts, were even placed on the
coffins of the dead, {h) Origen found Infant Baptitm an old ancestral usage
in the region where he resided, but others advised that, as a matter of poli-
cy, the baptism of even adults should be deferred as long as possible (pro-
crastinatio). (r) The solemn act by which the worship of the gods was ab-
jured, taken in connection with the Jewish notion of the expulsion of demons,
gave occasion to the practice of uniting Exorcism with the ordinance of bap-
tism. The principle that baptism was to bo administered but once to the
same person, was universally acknowledged. But the African, and even
some of the Asiatic churches, baptized those who came to them from any of
the heretical sects, because they denied the Christian character of baptism
when administered among those sects. The Roman Church, however, re-
cognized the validity of all baptisms in which the subject formed a fuH pur-
pose to enter into fellowship with Christ, (d) Those catechumens who suf-
fered martyrdom before baptism, were looked upon as haptized in blood.
The reception or addition of a name in baptism, had reference to apostolic
example, and a cycle of Christian names, of Jewish or heathen origin, was in
this way formed. Sponsors (dvdboxoi. sponsores) were introduced in the ad-
ministration of baptism, that they might be sureties for the good intentions
of adult candidates, and for the future education of infants, and as witnesses in
all cases. The seasons in which baptism was ordinarily administered, were
Easter, Pentecost, and Epiphany. During the performance of the rite, the
candidates were clothed in white garments (vestis alba). Tlie imposition of
hands for the communication of the Holy Ghost (xftpoSfo-ta), was originally
connected with and immediately followed by the rite of baptism. But when,
in the West, the imparting of the gift of the Spirit was looked upon as the pre-
rogative of the bishops, the ceremony of contirmation was performed as a dis-
tinct rite. The intention of those who were about to enter the marriage rela^
tiofi^ was previously made known to the assembled congregation. The betrothed
parties, after partaking of the Lord^s Supper, received the benediction of the
priest. There was much contention between the respective advocates of the
a) These were not called disciplina arcani antil after the Reformation, and in the Oatholie Charch
they were then referred as apoetoUo to religioos doctrines. Controversial writings of SeheUtrate
and T&tiUel. IGTSss. C. Frommann^ de disc. arc. Jen. 1S83. B. Rotht^ d« di£C ara Heid^lk ISIl.
comp. OrossmantL, de Judaeor. disc, arc Lpa. 18888. 2 P. 4.
b) EtM«biM jRomantu (MabiUonX de cnltn aanctoram ignotor. Par. 1688. (ed. 2. 1705.) i. Beacbr.
d. Stadt Horn. vol. I. p. 40088. BelUrmann^ p. 60a.
c) Orig. in Rom. Y, 9. (vol IV. p. 566.) On the other band : TnfmL de bapt c. la
d) TaHnk de bapL o. lA. Cypr, Epp. 60-75. Cone. Garth. III. {Oypr, Opp. pw IfiSaa.)— (Mar-
cbetU) Eaercitazioni Ciprianlcbe droa U battesluo degU eretloi. Boxna. 1787.
CHAP. UL ECCLE8. LIFE. |n. CULTUB. CHAP. IT. $72. CANON. 71
Jewish and the Roman law, regarding what ought to be considered legal im-
pedimenti to marriage. The different moral principles of the parties, and the
precepts of the Old Testament^ were looked upon as valid objections to all
intermarriages with the heathen, (e) Divorces were seldom recognized bj the
Chnrch for any other cause than adnltery. All who had died in the Lord
were committed to the grave with ecclesiastical solemnities. The mode of
bnrial was generaUj conformed to the usages of the ancient Jews, or to oth-
er customs not InconsiBtent with the habits of the ancient Romans. On an-
niversaries of the decease of beloved friends, alms were distributed in their
name among the poor, or gifts were presented in their behalf at the altar, by
which means their names continued to be remembered and mentioned in the
prayers of the Church.
CHAP. IV.— DOCTRINES OF THE CHURCH, AND OPINIONS OP-
POSED TO THEM.
§ 72. Sources from which the Church derived its System of Faith.
The books of the Old Testament were at first the only books which the
Church regarded as sacred. Although Paulas views respecting them avoided
an extremes, public opinion generally agreed with him, and the clergy
did not hesitate to appeal to them as authority for what they wished to
prove. Melito visited Palestine for the express purpose of ascertaining what
books belonged to the canon of the Old Testament, and finally settled upon
those recognized by the Jews of that region. To these, Origen subsequent-
ly added the book of the Maccabees, (a) and as the Alexandrian version
(LXX.) was in general use in the Greek congregations, all the books em-
braced in it (since the time of Jerome, so far as not contained in the original
Hebrew, called the Apocrypha of the Old Testament) were esteemed as of
nearly equal authority. But the necessity of the case, and a consciousness
that Christianity had much peculiar to itself, produced during the second cen-
tury, from the writings of its founders, a body of Sacred Scriptures exclu-
uvely its own. Justin made use of an indefinite multitude of apostolic me-
moirs, among which we find mentioned a gospel of the Hebrews, (b) The
nnity of the Church, however, rendered it indispensable that there should be
an agreement in all its parts respecting the canon of its Holy Scriptures.
Mareion was probably not merely the first witness, but in accordance with
his peculiar views of the nature of Christianity, the first author of such a
canon. He testifies to one gospel and the ten epistles of Paul, but those who,
in a short time, were opposed to him, mention four gospels, the Acts of the
Apostles, thirteen epistles of Paul, one epistle of Peter, and one of John.
Respecting the remaining portions of the New Testament, the views of the
tf) TertuL do monog. c. 7. 11. Cypr. de lapsiB. c d.
a) EuMib. H. ecc. IV, 2fi. OHg. in P& 1. (voL II. p. 529.)
h) Wlnsr^ JoBt EvY. cfto. osam ftiisM oetenditnr. Lpa. 1819. 4. On the other band : Crsdner^
Btitr. I. EinL in d. BibL Schrr. toL I. p. Hies. Comp. Bindemann in d. Stud n. Krit 1S48. P. 2.
Franek in d. Btnd. d. G«iatUehk. Wortemb. 1846. P. 1.
72 ANCIENT CHUKCH DISTORT. PER. L DIV. IL A. D. 100^2.
Chnrch were not then qnite settled, (e) In deciding whether any book was
canonical, they were determined on the one hand by the apostolic character
of the anthor, and on the other by the Christian popular character of the
book itself. In conformity with the views of the Jews respecting the Old
Testament, the writings of the Neto Testament were regarded as inspired by
the Holy Ghost, bnt this inspiration was looked upon only as the higfaesi
state of religions fervor. The Holy Scriptures, in the ordinary language of
the people, were made the basis of all public devotional exercises, and aD
were frequently urged to peruse them in private ; but copies of them were
very expensive, and only a few among the people were capable of reading
them, {d) In opposition to worldly wisdom, and the esoteric doctrines of the
heretics, the Church appealed to the literal meaning of the sacred writ-
ings, {e) But the only way in which it seemed possible satisfactorily to con-
ftite heretics, was by appealing to Tradition^ (/) by which was meant the
doctrines of the Church orally communicated by the apostles to the first
bishops, and propagated by them in an unadulterated form among their suc-
cessors. It was, in fact, an abstract of every thing which the Christian con-
sciousness of each age had uttered through public opinion, against views
inconsistent with it. As a summary of these traditionary doctrines, the Apo%'
tM Creed {g) was gradually formed out of the confessions of faith used in
baptism. As these were intended to be opposed to the heretical opinions of
the day, this creed possessed a tolerably uniform character, though some of
its particular expressions were still undetermined. The Rule of Faith to
which some ecclesiastical fathers alluded, was only a free amplification of this
creed, adapted to the wants of the period in which it was composed, (fi) In
this way a scale was in practice formed, according to which tradition was
placed in a station superior to that of the Scriptures as a rule of interpreta-
tion and a necessary complement to the system of faith ; and the Creed was
looked upon as superior to tradition, on the ground of its being an author-
ized abstract of it ; but in principle all three were regarded as equally safe
and necessarily harmonious sources of Christian truth.
§ 78. Apostolic Fathers of the Second Century. Contfrom § 89.
A few Asiatic bishops who had beheld the face of the apostle John, were
numbered among the apostolic Fathers. Their writings belong to a period
anterior to the cultivation of Greek literature and the principal contest with
heathenism, and they had access only to particular books of the New Testa-
ment. The Seven Epistles of Ignatius^ written while their author was on
his journey to his place of martyrdom, have been altered, certainly in their
c) J. Kirchhofer^ Qaellensamml. z. Oeeeh. x. neatest Cftn. bis Hieron. Zftr. 1841.
d) F. Walchy T. Oebrauch d. H. Scbr. in d. eraten 4 Jabrb. Lpi. 1799. (On the other band :
LeaHng^ SftmmtL Scbrr. BerL 1340. vol. XL p. Miss.) L. v. Em^ AoszGge (L d. notbw. a. nQtzI. Bibel-
les. a. d. KV. Lpe. (1808.) 181<L See also Lis Chryoost a SUmmen der KV. £ Blbellea. Darmst. 18S1
e) Iren. I, 8. 1. Ill, 2. TertiU. de resurrect cam. c 8.
/) Iren. Ill, 8s. TertnL de prescript c 18-37. de o(m>na o. 8.
g) Ri^flni Expoeltio in Sfrob. Ap^—Sir Peter King^ Hist Symb. of the Ape Creed. Lond. 1708. a
A) Iren, 1, 10. Tertul. d. virgg. vel. c 1. De praesor. c 18. Adv. Prax. c. 8. Orig, de prlno.
Prooem. { Abb.— A. /AiAn, BibL d. S/mb. n. OBegeln d. Ap. Kath. Kirche. BreaL 1848.
OHAP. IT. DOOTBINES. | 78. IGNATIUS, POLTCABP, PAPIAS. 73
more extended, and probably in their most abridged form. But oven the
kUer more authentic portions, thongh regarded as a fabrication of the mid-
dle of the second century, give ns an authentic representation of the high-
wrought feelings of a martyr, and of a general desire to secure the Christian
uiity of the congregations to which they were addressed, by bringing them
together under the jurisdiction of the bishop. Its general characteristics
are, a ^irit formed under the combined influence of Paul and John, a prac-
tiesl opposition to the system of the Docetae, and a conception of Christian-
ty as something wholly internal, and independent of historical evidence, (a)
The recently discovered Syriao version of his epistles, and especially of his
epistle to tlie Ephesians, presents us with a much more concise, but a no less
hierarchieal text (b) The epistle of Polycarp to the church of Philippi,
written soon after the martyrdom of Ignatius, with reference to that event
and to various circumstances connected with that church, is a modest and
iplritiial w(n'k, which refers to Paul, and in some passages reminds us of the
&8t epistle of John, (e) Papias (d. about 168), bishop of Hierapolis, in his
iooount of the &ots in the life of our Saviour, has recorded those things
which be had learned from the lips of such as had had intercourse with the
qiostleB. Having been in early youth a pupil of John, he took a peculiar plea-
sore in the living word ; and it was only when he was judged by an age
whose spirit had become essentially different, that he was accused of pos-
rassing a very contracted mind, {d)
§ 74. Eecle^iastieal Literature and Heresy,
J. G. RoaenmiuUer^ de chr. TbeoL orig. Lpe. 178& Marheinecke^ Ursprnng u. EntwickL d.
Ortbod. - j|~> ' In d. eisten 8 Jahrh. (Daub. a. Crenzer, Studlen. 1S08. vol III.) B. J. UHqw^
bit. Dant d. IlirMen il d. Ortbod. Hauptrlcht v. SUndp. d. Kath. aa& Bonn. 188T. Ist vol
The solo object of the gospel was to awaken and to satisfy the religious
ipirit of man, by an exhibition of a true religious spirit. But when it came
tmong a people highly educated in science, and was pressed by opponents,
this spirit was obliged to seek for a more definite consciousness of its princi-
ples. Its opponents consisted principally of those who attempted to form
a) PUy^. Epi e. 18. Irtn, V, 28. OHg. In Luc Iloro. 6. (voL HI. p. 98S.) Eu%tib. II. eoo. Ill,
81 M. J. Woohtr^ die Br. d. b. Ign. ttbera n. erklort T&b. 1329.— lA Daliaem, de acriptts, quae Bub
Dton. et Ignatil nomm. circnmferantur. Oon. 16Sd. i.—Baur, tn d. T&b. Zeitschr. 1SH8. P. 3. p. 14S68.
/. K CJC Schmidt, d. doppelte Rec. d. Br. d. Ign. (Henke's Mag. vol. III. p. 91 ss. abbreviated In bli
KGeach. Tli. L p. «KK) G. C. NsU, Vera. 0. d. Br. d. Ign. an Polyk. (Stud. u. Krit. 1SS5. P. 4.)—
£ M0Ur, d. dopp. Bee. d. Br. d. Ign. (Stud. u. Krit 1888. P. %y-J. rmrson, Vlndioiae Epp. S. Ign.
aec /. Votni, Epp. CaoUbr. 1872. 4 {CoUUr. PP. app. Th. IL P. II. p. 23<fe«.) Jioth^, Anfango d.
Kifche. vol L pw 713mi Uuther In Illgen'a Zeitachr. 1841. P. 4.— CA. D&«Urdltck, quae de Ignalla-
aaram epp. aatbentia, dncrnmque textunm ratlone bucusque prolatae aunt cententiae enarrantur.
OotLlM8L4.
I) The aodent Sjrlac Tersion of the epistles of 8. Ign. to S. Polyc. tbe Epbeslans and Bomans,
eullected from tbe wriUngs of Sevema of Antlocb, Timotb. of Alexandria, and otbers. by William
Curttim, Lond. 184Bl
e) Irtm, III, & XuMib. H. ace. Ill, 8S. Y, Sa WocKsr, Br. d. apost Yftter Clem. u. Polyc. Cibert.
■L Com. T&bu 1830. Beasona in Opposition to ita Genuineness : SchtcegU^, Nacbapost Zetta. vol
ILpLlMflu
tf) Soyl^p Kvptaic^ ^{^Tiyo'if. Lost except an inconsiderable fhigment Tren. Y, 83. Stueb.
&eec III, as. oomp. 86u Chroo. ad Olymp. 290. Grabe, Spidl Patr. P. IL p. S4aB. M&nter, Fragmm.
Ptt. graae. Halta. 178& tuc L p. IHml Oomp. iTatc, BlbL d. bail Oescb. voL L p. 897as.
74 ANCIENT CnUBCn HISTORY. PBB. L DIY. IL A. IX 100^811.
such a historical embodiment of its nature as would afford no room for the
religion of the spirit, and of those who aimed at saoh a speculative refine^
ment as threatened to destroy every historical element in Christianity. The
former proceeded from the schools of Judaism, and the latter from those of
heathenism. Tlie principles which finally obtained the asoendenoy, and for
that reason only became those of the Catholic Church, moved on with oon-
scions security between both these extremes, although theological science was
at different periods attracted more to the one side than to the other. Chria-
tionity was at first regarded as embracing so wide a range, that Justin did
not hesitate (Ap. I. c. 46.) to consider Socrates, and all those who had lived
up to the light of reason, as Christians. But the more the Church, during
its severe conflicts, became conscious of its true nature, the more decidedly
was every thing opposed to it separated from it as a Hereay^ i. e, as what
ought to have been and claimed to be Christian, and yet really was not. In
this way it may have happened, that instead of an unchristian party, only a
vanquished minority was sometimes excluded. The literature of this period
was sophistical, and neither creative in its essential character, nor attractive
in its style. The energy of faith which theological science then exhibited,
was sufficient to supply the place of both these qualities, but oould not call
them into existence.
§ 75. Ehionism, ConU from § 35.
GieneUr^ Naz. u. Ebion. (Stuudlin's u. Tzscliirner's Arch. vol. IV. Part 2.) I£a»e, IL d. EmpfSng-
er d. Br. an d. Hebracr. (Winer's u. Engelh. Joum. vol. IL P. 3.) L. Lange^ B«itrr. z. Ut. KGeseb.
Lps. 1926. vol. \.—JUntr and Ikhicegler (before § 20.) On the other hand : A. SohlUmann^ die
Clementincn nebst den verwandten Bchrlften o. der Eblonitlsmus. Ilamb. ISiL
As the whole power and development of the Church was established
among nations subject to Greek refinement and civilization, the Jewish por-
tion of the Christian community, in its seclusion, began to be regarded as a
mere sect, and the old name of NazareneSy by which Christians in Palestine
had been distinguished, as well as that of Ebionites^ (a) which was probably
quite as ancient, and had been applied to the congregations at Jerusalem and
Pella, became simply designations of particular sects. Justin (h) made a dis-
tinction between those Jewish Christians who were satisfied with their own
observance of the Mosaic law, and those who demanded that converts tram
heathenism should observe the same law as a necessary condition of salva-
tion. The former he recognized as brethren, though even at that early pe-
riod such a recognition had ceased to be universal among his fellow-Chris-
tians ; but the latter he looked upon as incapable of salvation. Origen (e)
found a type of the Ebionites in the blind man who prayed to the son of Da-
vid, Eusebius (d) looked upon them as persons who were deluded, but not
wholly estranged from Christ, and Epiphanius was the first to pour upon them
the vials of that wrath which all heresies provoked from him. Even at this
early period, however, there were not many Jewish Christians beyond the
borders of Syria and Palestine. It is not impossible that a congregation at
a) Bpiphan. haer. 80, 17. On the other band : TertuL de praescr. a 88.
I) Q. l>7pb. a 47. e) In llottb. torn. 16. (Tb. IIL p. 7888a.) (Q H. eoe. Ill, S7.
CUAP. IV. DOCTTiUNKS. 1 7& EBIONISM. { 76w GNOSTICISM. 75
Borne was the only one composed exclusively of them. Bat many even of
these had renounced circmncision and all that was essential to their pontion,
and retained nothing bat an empty protest against the apostolic authority of
PAoI. Attempts at an accommodation with this party on the side of the
great Church, would not therefore seem probable, nor have we any accounts
of such attempts from contemporary writers. Even the Christianity of Paul
had an acknowledged basis in the Jewish system, and not only were some
fragments of the Mosaic law unintentionally preserved in the habits and
customs especially of the churches of Asia Minor, but others were restored in
order to promote certain hierarchical ends. The second epistle of Peter, and
the union of the names of Peter and Paul in the watchword used at Rome, may
have been occasioned by those Jewish Christians who needed such a recon-
dUation with the general Church, (e) Irenaeus was the first who reckoned
the Ebionites indiscriminately among heretics. Their doctrine respecting
Jesus was the same with that taught by Cerinthus ; they adhered to the Mo-
saic law, used only one gospel, which was that according to Matthew, and
rejected the authority of Paul as an apostate. (/) Origen and Eusebius dis-
tinguish between two different classes of Ebionites, which were agreed in
their opposition to the progressive creed of the Church, but differed from
each other in their Jewish representations of the Messiah. The one regard-
ed Christ as the son of Mary and Joseph ; the other looked upon him as bom
of the virgin through the Holy Ghost, and acknowledged him to be a super-
human, but not a divine being. (<f) Jerome was the first who appropriated
the name of Nazarenes exclusively to that party which held to the higher
view of the nature of Christ, and were most tolerant toward the Gentile
Christians, and he declares that they were united together in the most de-
lightful fraternal affection, (h) When he wrote, they still maintained their
synagogues, in which were found Elders and Overseers ; but in the seventh
century they had completely dwindled away, unable to maintain their posi-
tion between the parties then contending for supremacy, and to both of
which they professed adherence.
§ 76. I. Gnosticism.
L Iren. ady. baeresee^ TertuL de praescriptloDibns haereticornm. Epiph. adr. haeroaes, and
7%eodorett baeretioorum fabb. articlea relating to the mibject. All the ecclesiastical writers of this
period, especially Clement and Origen in particnlar passages. — PMir.wt, wpos rohs ytfutrriKovt.
CEnnead. IL lib. 9.) ed. G. IT. Heigl Ratisb. 1882. Comp. Stud, xl Krit 1834. P. 2.
II. Maetuet^ Dsa. pre viae to his edit of Irenaeus. Moehemii de rob. Christ ante Const p. 88868.
[traoalAted into English by R. & VidaL Lond. 1818. 2 vols. 8. and by Dr, Murdoch. New York.
1350.] (JrfifUtfr,) Vers. Xl d. kirchL Alterth&mer d. Onostiker. Ansb. 1790. E. A. Lewald^ de doctr.
gnosticm. Heidelb. 1818. Neander^ genet Entw. d. gnoat Systeme. BrL 1818. See also his Uist of
It
e) Schwegler^ nachapost Zeita. vol I. p. 490ss.
^) I, 8S. (The difficulty of the passage is to be removed not by correction, bat by panctnation) :
Conaentiunt quidem raundnm a Deo fihctoro, ea aatem, quae sunt erga Dominom, non similiter: at
Geslnthas et Carpocrates opinantar.
g) Orig. c. Ceta. V, 61. 65. Euatib. H. eco. Ill, 27.
h) In JesaL VIII, 9. 18. XXIX, 20. XXXL 686. comp. Ep. ad Aug. 112. (al. 89.) Epiph. haer.
S9, 7!«. On the other hand: AttgutL c. Faost XIX, 1& with reference to the Nazarenea says:
In ea perversitate manseront, ut et gentes oogtrent jadainra.
76 ANCIENT CnURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIV. IL A. D. 100-81i
the Cbr. R«L [Torrey's Trand. toL L ppi 866-476.] Zfidbtf, 0. d. Onost Sjstoine n. was neaflrlieli
dafOr gethan 1st (Tbeol. Zeitscbr. Brl 1819. vol L sect 2.) Gieuler^ Church Hist [Davidson'a
TransL Edlnb. 1846. vol L f ^] uid in Halle Lit Zelt 1828. X. 104n>. J. Matter, Hist crlt da
gnoettcisme. Par. (1828.) lS4a 2 Th. J. J. Schmidt, 0. d. Yerwandtsch. d. gnost theoa. Lehnui m.
d. ReltgiuDftsystamen d. Orients, tots, des Boddbaism. Lpa. 1828. (Cumpi Gie«eUr in d. Stnd. a. Krit
168a vol I. p. 87dM.) MohUr, Vers. IL d. Urspr. d. Gnostic. T&b. 1381. 4 Baur, d. cbristl. Onosli
in gescbicbtL Entw. T&b. 1S85. and Stud n. Krit 1687. P. & Baumgarten-CniHut, Comp. d.
DOescb. ToL I. p. 8l8& Ritter, Ge«ch. d. chr. Phil Hamb. 1841. vol. L p. 10988. [K. Burton, Inq.
into the Heresies of the Apoet Age. Bampt Loctt Ox£ 1S29. An Epitome of the Hist of PhO.
transL fh>in the French by C. 8. Henry. New TorlL 1841. 2 vols. 12. Per. IIL % 1. Tennemann^%
Manual of the II. of PbiL transL bjr A. Johntan. Oxt 1882. 6. J. P. PoUer, in Kitto*s Cycl of BibL
Lit art Gnosticism. J, D. Maurice, Hist of Philosophy, during the first six oeDtnriea Lond. 1854,]
No sooner had Oriental become mingled with Hellenistic, and especiallj
with Platonic speculations, than the old problem of speculative philosophy
respecting the derivation of the finite ftom the infinite, became, in conse-
quence of the profound consciousness which the age then possessed of its in-
ternal distractions and longings, the object of an extensively ramified system.
The name Gfw»i$ was applied to an extraordinary insight into divine things,
beyond the system of faith which the people commonly received on author-
ity. The commencement of Gnosticism may be discovered even in the time
of the apostles, (a) but its influence never became sufficiently developed to
appear dangerous, until since the reign of Tr^an. (h) Its usual fundamental
principles were : a God with no connection whatever with our world, and a
matter entirely underived from and independent of the Deity ; a revelation of
the unknown deity by means of an intermediate divine being, whose contact
with matter gave existence to our world, and all its series of events ; a re-
demption of whatever is divine but confined in the material world, in conse-
quence of the personal interference of a divine being in the affairs of the
world. Wherever the peculiar principles of Gnosticism gained the ascend-
ency, the intermediate divine being became individualized in a descending
series of celestial natures (aiuvc r), (e) from the lowest class of which proceeded
the Creator of the world (firjfuovpyoi)^ and from the highest the Redeemer.
Gnosticism, like New-Platonism, was obliged to enter deeply into the popu-
lar religion of that period, and to become a philosophy of the three great
forms of religions then in conflict. It even went still further, and aimed to
become a particular form of religion itself. Its oriental element was derived
from Persia, and was a dreamy blending of sense and allegory. Simon and
Cerinthus had already shown how it could be brought into alliance with Ju-
daism, but where no feelings of piety prevented, its advocates very naturally
recognized their Demiurge in the representations of Jehovah in tlie Old Tes-
tament. On becoming involved in the powerful movements of Christianity,
its principles were in some measure accommodated to those of the gospel,
and never, indeed, found full development until it became connected with
a) I 82. 87. jet oomp. C C. TiUmann, de vestlgiis Onosticor. in N. T. fimstra qoacaitis. Lpf. 177&
[transL and pobL In Contrlbb. to For. TheoL Lit New York. 1827. 8.] J. Horn, Bibl. Gnosisw Hann.
1805.— PawZtM, die drey Lehrbriefb ▼. Jo. Hetdelb. 1629. Baur, die sogen. Pastoralbrr. d. Ap. Pan-
Ina. Stuttg. 1^5. On the other hand: Jf. Baumgarten, di» Aecthelt d. Pastoralbrr. vertbeidigt
BerL 1887.
b) HegeMpp. in Etueb. H. eoa III, 82. IT, 22. CUm, Strom. YII, 17. (p. 89a)
e) In aoourdanc* with the system of Aristotle, de ooelo I, 9.
CnAP. IT. DOCTRINBS. 1 7& ON03TICISBL | H. 8ATUSNINUS. 77
that faith. In the God of the Christian system, its votaries recognized their
own perfect God, in Ghrbt their redeeming Aeon, in the Christianity which
he really preached their secret traditions, and in the faith proclaimed hy the
Church, the natural mode of representation in which these became adapted
to the popular mind. Its ethical system, in which the greatest contempt for
the world was expressed, harmom'zed with the most rigid requirements of the
Church, and only a few of its parties were so demoralized as to justify licen-
tiousness, on the ground of an exaltation above the terreetrial law of the
Demiurge. The founders of the different Gnostic parties have been made
known to us in history, but we are nowhere informed of him who originated
the great system common to them all. The predominance of the Oriental,
the Hellenistio, the Christian, or the Jewish element, presents us with a con-
venient principle in accordance with which these Gnostic systems may natu-
rally be classified.
§ 77, II. Syrian Gnoaties,
1) Satuminus, who lived at Antioch in the time of Trajan, taught that
there was opposed to the good Deity (rrar^p Syv<o(rros) a wild, tempestuous
kingdom of evil, under the dominion of Satan. From the former emanated
the ^iritual world of Aeons. At its lower confines were placed the seven
phinetary spirits (rfyycXot KoatioKparopti), Far away from their divine source,
but battling with the kingdom of darkness, these formed the world of sense,
and made man according to their obscure recollections of the image of God.
But the work which they had thus formed, helplessly collapsed, and could
not stand erect until the unknown Father, pitying them, sent into it a spark
of divine life. In opposition to this new race, Satan formed another after his
own image. To redeem the more exalted race from the power of Satan and
of the planetary spirits, one of the highest Aeons {yovi\ as Christ, assumed
the semblance of a body. That men may be redeemed, they must, on their
part, abstain fVom every thing which brings them under the power of matter.
The followers of Satuminus, for this reason, abstained from marriage, and
many of them even from fiesh. (a) After a brief period, nothing is known
respecting them. 2) The DUciplea of John^ in the second century, looked
upon John the Baptist as the true Messiah, though others regarded him as an
angel in human form. Among the Simonians, he was supposed to have been
the teacher of Simon. Though nothing was known of the Nazoraeans (Men-
daeans, Zabians) until they were discovered by missionaries in Persia in the
seventeenth century, their peculiar Johannic system of Gnosticism could only
have originated when a particular party professed adherence to John, and
when Gnosticism was in its forming state. They believed in a kingdom of
darkness as well as of light, in a formation of the world and a struggle
with the powers of darkness by an ambiguous intermediate being (Fetahil) ;
that Judaism was the work of gloomy planetary spirits ; that the redeeming
Aeon appeared to John, and that Jesus was a false prophet, anointed by the
planetary spirits. Baptism they regarded as an act of consecration to be an-
nually repeated, and daily ablations were practised as a religious duty. (J>)
a) Jren. 1, 84 Eptph. baer. sa
») L Aek 18» SB. 19, S-7. OUmeiU. B«cogn. 1, 54 60. and HomiL II, S8bb. Mieron, in Aggeum.
78 ANCIENT CHTRCn HISTORY. P£R. L DIY. IL A. D. 100-411
§ 78. m. Hellmutu Gnotties.
1) Basilides^ who lived at Alexandria in the time of Hadrian, belleyed
that from the ineffiible Ood (dcor apprfroi) proceeded certain images of him-
self according to the numeral relations of astronomy. The first of these
were seven celestial powers (dvvafictr), who, with the being from whom they
sprang, constituted the first spiritual kingdom {ovpav6i). From this, in a
gradnally descending series, proceeded three hundred and sixty-four other
spiritual kingdoms. The mystical watchword Abraxas^ represents the God
revealed in these three hundred and sixty-five spiritual kingdoms, in distinc-
tion from him who is the Ineffable, (a) The seven angels belonging to the
lowest of these spiritual kingdoms, the first among whom is the Grod of the
Jews (Spx<op\ created this world out of matter, and bestowed upon the hu-
man race inhabiting it all earthly endowments, together with all the spirit-
ual powers which they themselves possessed. To effect the deliverance of
this spiritual power from its bondage to matter, the first-begotten celestial
power (vovs) united himself with Jesus at his baptism. Though this Jesus
was a perfect man, he needed an expiation for his own sake, and it was he
alone who suffered and died. The Archon was from the first only an uncon-
scious agent of divine providence, and he no sooner discovers, from the words
of Jesus, the actual design of God, than he submitted himself to it with de-
vout reverence. An entrance into the kingdom of the Redeemer, is effected
by a spiritual surrender of the soul to him (niarts), and is by no means in-
compatible with a denial of him who was cracified. The Basilideans^ who
existed late in the fourth century, appear only to have embraced this doc-
trine of spiritual freedom in a still more decided form, and to have claimed
an elevation above all positive religious rites. Q>) 2) Valentine^ who went
from Alexandria to Rome about 140, and died in Gyprus about 160, has
given us a most ingenious representation of Platonic ideas, in his fancifrd
scheme of the universe. In the depths of the Great Urst Gause 03v3or,
irpon-oTcdp), existed Self-consciousness (Jlwoia) and Silence (aiyrj). This con-
cealed God reveals himself in three series of Aeons, in the names of the In-
effable, in certain images of God, and in the original types of all spiritual
life, which emanate from him in pairs ((rvfvyot), and, in contrast with empty
chaos (Kivatfia), collectively represent the fulness of the revealed divine life
(nkrjpuifia). Every thing in the Pleroma has its individual properties assigned
to it by Measure and Limitation (opos). But Sophia, the Aeon most remote
frt>m the great Original, languished on account of its passionate longings to
0. 1. Part 6.—IffnaUi a Je9u narratlo originls, litanm et erroram Chrlstlanoniiii B. Jo«nni& Bom.
1652. Codex Kazanens, liber Adaml appellatoi, syrlaoe transorfptiu, let reddltua a Mai. Norberg,
Ltind. 1S15B. 8 vol& 4.— II. Tyeh»eny in the Deatsoh. Mns. 1784. toL IL p. 414. (?M0nt'iM, Art Zft-
bier, in the prooflibeets of the Encyelop. 1817. X. E. Burckhardt^ les Nazordenfl oa Mandai-Jahfa.
Btrasb. 1840.
a) BMermann^ die Oemmen der Alten mit d. Abrazas-Bilde. BerL 1817aB. P. 8. Gieul€r, in d.
Btnd. u. Krlt 1880. P. 2. p. 408a8.
h) The original la scattered tbroughoat Clement's Btromm. and in the ZtlavKoXia dyaroAun)
ascribed to him. The flgorative and fknd/hl side and its degenerate state in Irtn, I, ai, daa. II, Itf*
9. Epiph.\ma.%L
CHAP. IT. DOCTKDfSB. §78. VALENT1NIAN8. 79
be rennited with its Source. This THsdom, the Aehcmot\ (e) agitated bj the
intensity of its desires and wandering awaj from the Pleroma, communica-
ted life to matter and gave birth to the Deminrge. The latter formed the
world out of chaos in such a way that the divine idea, though correctly, is
iDAdeqnately and feebly represented in its actoal scenes and events. To re-
store harmony to the Fleroma, a new emanation of a pair of Aeons (Xpitrrof
and Jlyfvfia Syiov) takes place, and from all the Aeons proceeded the Aeon
Jemis (Smt^p), by whom the universe was to be properly formed and re-
deemed. It was by this Jesus that the Demiurge was unconsciously inspired,
80 as gradually to form the world according to the type of the divine Plero-
ma. Hence the Demiurge was often astonished at his own work, and his
oreatnree shrunk from and adored those very things which the higher spirit
created in them. For although heathenism was the kingdom of matter and
Judaism of the Demiurge, individuals were raised up by the Soter in both,
who, under the excitement of divine powers, and but half understood by
themselves or their age, pointed forward to the future. Conscious of the un-
satisfactory nature of his present system, the Deminrge, under the impression
that he was himself the supreme Deity, and under the influence of an obscure
presentiment, promised his beloved people that he would send them a Messiah.
This Messiah he furnished, according to his ability, with psychical powers.
At the baptism of this Messiah, the Soter became united with him. Miracles
and prophecies were needful to induce psychical men to confide in the psychi-
cal Messiah, but the simple power of truth was sufficient to collect all men
of a pneumatic nature around the true Saviour. The end of the world is to
be a still higher restoration (airo/caraoracrtr)) ^or then the Soter will introduce
the Achamoth as his bride, together with all pneumatic Ohristians, into the
Fleroma, the Demiurge, in peace and joy as the friend of the bridegroom,
will rule in the midst of all psychical Ohristians on the confines of the Fle-
roma, and all matter will return to its original nothingness. The Valentinian
was the most influential of all the Gnostic parties, and with various modifica-
tions, continued in existence, especially in Rome, until some time in the
fourth century, (d) It is said that the school of Ftolemaeus, (e) a flourishing
branch of the same party, represented the Aeons, which Valentine had in
fitct only described as the forms by which the Deity was developed, more
definitely as real persons. (/) In his epistle to Flora, (jf) (of whose unity and
Gnostic genuineness we need not yet despair), (h) he attempts to vindicate
the creation, and the Testament of the Demiurge, who is regarded as a be-
ing of mere justice, from either of the extremes by which they had been as-
cribed to the supreme God or to the Devil. "With an evident attempt to
bring his views into nearer correspondence with the Catholic system, he ac-
cordingly finds in this fact a reason for a partial abolition and a partial pre-
* " V
d) They are the principal subject of Irenaena. Some particalars may be found in Clement Ta^
tul adv. Valentinianoa. Epiph. haer. 81. MUnter, Odae gnosUcae, thebalce et laL Hafta. 1812.
«) fren. praef. ad lib. I. j 2. /) Tertul. adv. VaL c 4. g) Commonlcated by Epiph, baur. 88.
A) A. Stiertn^ de Ptolemael ad Floram ep. P. L Jen. 1848. On the other hand, in apology : K
Romd, in tb« Append, to the 9d roL of the 2d edit of Neand«^ Hist of the Chr. BeL
80 ANCIENT CHUBCH HI8T0BY. FEB. L DIT. IL A. D. 10(^811
serration of the Mosaic law in consequence of its fulfilment by Christ
8) The Ophites^ whose origin may perhaps be discovered in a Jewish sect
living in Egypt before the time of Christ, professed to believe that the Son
of man was an emanation from the Original Source of all existence, and that
from both of these proceeded the Mother of life (nvfifia &yiov). This being
having espoused the former original type of mankind, gave birth to Sophia
and Christ, i. e. the principle of Creation and of Redemption. When Sophia,
the imperfect, adventitious of&pring of this connection, aspired to be like
God, she was hurled into the great abyss, and there gave birth to Jaldabaoth,
i, e, the Son of Chaos, (i) the Creator of the world and the God of the Jews.
With the assistance of his planetary spirits, the latter now made, after his
own image, man, whom he indued with life and invested with authority to
rule over divine things in his spirit But by this very act he had divested
himself of hb most important power, and soon saw with dismay that his
creature had become superior to himself. To prevent man at least from at-
taining the consciousness of divinity, he commanded the latter not to eat of
the tree of knowledge, and then, filled with wrath, threw himself into the
abyss, where he produced another image, the Serpent-Spirit {d<f>i6fiop<l}os)»
But Sophia, now delivered from her faUen state in consequence of the birth
of the Creator, sought once more to attract to herself and to purify the spirit-
ual power in the world. She availed herself of the enmity of the Serpent-
Spirit against its parent, to induce man to transgress the commandment
which had been given him. According to this, what is related in the Jewish
books as a Fall, was in fact a transition to a higher mental state. In great
wratli the Creator now threw men down to the lowest material world, and
harassed them with all the temptations and pains incident to matter. Indi-
vidual persons endowed with high intellectual powers, are raised up by So-
phia, but she struggles in vain to break the bonds which confine men, until
the Aeon Christ unites himself with the psychical Messiah, and in conse-
quence of the Creator's enmity, was crucified. Finally, Sophia, with all her
spiritual followers among men, will be received back into the Pleroma, and
the God of the Jews, gradually deprived of all his spiritual powers, will be
swallowed up in the empty abyss of matter. The Serpent, who had been
the means of man's first exaltation and therefore had been cursed by the
Creator, was, in accordance with his two natures, both honored and feared.
One Ophitic party went so far in their hostility to the Jews, that they paid
honor to the most abandoned characters mentioned in sacred history as their
highest examples, and were therefore called Cainites, Others, on account
of their disapprobation of such extravagance, were called Sethites. The pe-
nal code of Justinian shows that the Ophites were not extinct even in the
sixth century, (i)
4) Carpoerates and his son Bpiphanes, Platonists of Alexandria and con-
temporaries with Valentine, described the Primal Being as the great Unity
{Movds) toward which all finite things are striving to return. But the
k) Iren. 1, 80. Orig. c Cels. YI, Mas. FpipK hMr. ffl.—MMMm, Oeflch. d Sehlangenlinider.
(Yen. e. uopMib. KetMrgwch. Helmst 1748. 1748. 4) O. R. F, JhOdnm', de Ophltlfli Bint 1881 4
CHAP.it. DOCTRHfES. | 7a VALENTIN! AKS. |7». MARCION. 81
eftrthly spirits (ayyfXoi Koa-fionotoi) who have fallen away from this unity
are continually obstructing this effort by religious enactments, the most per-
feet specimen of which is the Jewish law. A few wise men like Plato and
Pythagoras, by means of some reminiscences of a lost state of blessedness,
have sunk back into the divine unity. The same was true of Jesus, who
overthrew the Jewish law. His image was therefore honored by the side of
the statues of other great sages, in the temple of the deified youth Epiphanes,
in the island of Cephalonia. The justification advocated by Oarpocrates is
not to be attained by works, but by love and faith, i. e. by a complete sur-
render to the attraction of the great Unity, in the presence of which aU
self-interest, and even all separate existence must disappear. In this state
the mind is exalted above all need of precepts or moral rules. (Q
§ 79. IV. Gnostics^ in an especial sense^ Christian,
1) Tr€n, I, 27. TeriuL adr. Mareloa. L V. ^idXoyos irtpX rrtt fit bthv hp^s irfffTfwf,
(4Ui cent) ed. WfUUn. Ba& 1674. 4 & Orlg. 0pp. Th. L p. SOSss. EpipK baer. 42. Emig. (ftth cent)
Dant d. marc SysL A. d. Armen. ▼. Keumann. (Zeltochr. f. hist Theol. lS84w vol. IV. Sect 1.)—
A. Bahn^ Antfthesea Harcionl.<s Hber deperdltas, qnoad fieri potnit restltatos. Reglom. 182a— ZTaAn,
d« gDod llardonls antinomL Regiom. 1880a. 2 P. 4 Rhode, Prolegg. ad. quaest de £v. Apostoloqne
>iarc denao inaUtnendam. Vrat 1884. P. L
2) /rm. I, 28. Clem. Strom. IIL p^ 547s. 558. EpipK baer. 4«.
8) Eumib. IL ccc IV» 80. Praep. Ev. VI, 10. EpipK ha«jr. tA,—Augtutin. baer. 85.— i*! Strunz,
nbL Bard, et Bardeaaniatar. Vlt 1710. 4 I/ahn^ Bard, gnosdcua Byroram primus bymnologna. LpA.
1819. C. Kuehner, Bard, numina astralia. Hildborgh. 1S88.
1) Mareion made his appearance at Rome as early as before 139, (a) filled
with exalted views of the glory of Christianity, and fresh from a contest
with the remnants of Judaism in the churches of Asia Minor. He had been
excommunicated (h) by his own father, the bishop of Sinope, perhaps in con-
sequence of the conflict of his youthful passion with an inexorable ecclesias-
tical discipline. He availed himself of a connection with Oerdo, a Syrian
Gnostic^ to form a theoretical system, in which a strong contrast was pre-
sented between the law and the gospel, and between the period before, and
that after Christ. He made a distinction between three great powers (apxat),
viz., the holy original Being (3ros dyaHos), the righteous Creator (drjfiiovpyos
dijcacof), and the material world (vKr/) with its wicked ruler (7roi^/>dr, dcdjSoXor.)
The celestial relations of these principles to each other were not carried out
in his theory. With the limited power in his possession, the Demiurge
created a world like himself, and from its inhabitants the Jewish nation were
selected as the objects of his peculiar favor. To them he gave a law, by
which Justification was to be obtained by works alone, and in connection with
them maintained an impotent struggle with the empire of evil. Prompted
by infinite love to man the good God then had compassion, and by the spirit-
ual manifestation of Christ revealed his own nature, which had before been
entirely concealed. All this occurred on a sudden, and with no preparation.
0 CUrrK Stroa "*^ p. 511s«. /r«k I, 25. Euseb. II. ecc IV, l.—OewnUuty de Inscrlptione Phoc*
aido-Graeca in Cyrew^lca nnper reperta ad Carpocratianomm haeresin portincnte. Ilal. 1825. 4 As
to tbeir spnriousness comp. Kopp. Ep. criL (Stad. u. KrlL 1883. P. 2.) Gesenim In d. Hall. L. Z. 1885.
pk 4ISi.—FtUdn^^ do Carpocratianla. (lUgensS Denk-scbr. d. bist tbcol. Oescllficb. Lpa. 1824 p. 180ea.)
a) Jiut ApoL I. a U, h) EpipK baer. 42. 28.
6
82 AXCIENT CnURCn HISTOKT. per. L DIV. IL a. D. 100-812.
Those who believe in Christy and from a voluntary love to God live a holy life,
shall receive perfect blessedness in his celestial kingdom, while all others be-
long to the kingdom of the Demiurge, and by his righteous sentence, accord-
ing to their works, shall find a limited degree of blessedness or perdition.
That the ages before might be placed on an equal footing with those after
Christ, our Lord was supposed, during his sojourn in the world of the dead,
to have offered salvation to the heathen and to all who had been lost under
the Old Testament, on condition that they would believe on him ; while all
the truly pious of the ancient dispensation, like the people of that nation on
earth, were so habituated to the administration of the Demiurge, that they
were kept back from faith in him. (e) Marcion thought he found evidence
of the character of the Creator from the condition of the world, from the
sensuous nature of the whole representation given of Jehovah in the Old
Testament, and from the obvious distinction between the real Christ and the
Mcasiah held forth in prophecy. He professed to form his scheme of Chris-
tianity upon a literal interpretation of the sacred Scriptures, and he would
acknowledge nothing as Scripture except a collection of the epistles of Paul
(6 dirofrrdXoi) and a gospel of our Lord similar to that of Luke. Ecclesiasti-
cal tradition since the time of IrenaeuB, accuses Marcion of having expunged
from his text of even these sacred writings whatever was supposed to be
inconsistent with his theological views, (d) but on the other hand it concedes
that he suffered enough to remain to render those Scriptures irreconcilable
with his system, without the most violent process of interpretation. The
question therefore has necessarily been raised, whether he did not use an older
gospel tlian any which we now have, and one of which Luke's is only a re-
vision ? (e) It must however be confessed that the authorities in favor of the
superior originality of Marcion^s gospel are as yet, when taken in detail, of
very doubtful validity, and that those ecclesiastical fathers who assert that
he, in like manner, corrupted the epistles of Paul, (/) in forming such an opinion
must certainly have had the authentic documents before them. Besides, if
Marcion in his extravagant view of the dissension at Antioch (Gal. 2, lias.)
could look upon the other apostles as Jewish perverters of the gospel of
Christ, he may have felt justified by omissions, or by explanations, in Chris-
tianizing, according to his view of the phrase, every gospel belonging to the
Scriptures, inasmuch as no documents in the possession of the Apostolio
Church, without some alteration, would correspond with his ultra-Panline
notions. His ethical doctrines constituted a vigorous system of asceticism
which he enforced by his own example, and if any one felt unable to comply
with its requisitions, the alternative was to remain a catechumen, (g) He
c) Trtn. I, 27. 8.
d) A. Tfahn, d. £v. Marc In 8. unpr. GestalL Kunlgsb. 1828. {lldlo. God. apocr. Th. I. p. 4018&)
E^u»d. de canone Mare. lb. 1824 — CK K Becker^ Examen crlt de rSvaog. de Maro. Strasb. 1887.
P. L 4.
«) Rit^H'JiI, d. £y. Marc u. d. kan. Ev. des Lac. TQb. 184«. Baur in Zellers tbeoL Jahrb. 184& P. 4
/) On the utber band : Llijler^ Marcfonem PauU Epp. et Lucae Ev. adalterasse dabitainr. Tn^ et
Yiadr. 17^ (CommtL theol ed. VeUhuaen Ac Th. I. p. ISOas,) ScAriling^ do Marc Paullnaram Epp.
emendatore. Tub. 1795. 4 Against Tertnllian^s aasertlon that Marcion omitted tbe chief doctrine* in
Col 1, 15-17. we certainly have no other alternative than to soppoee that that fktber invented them.
g) JIi9r. ad Gal. 8, 8. Epiph. 42, 4 Comp. Tertuk de praescr. 41.
CHAP. IV. DOCTRINES. % T9. TATIAN, BABDESANES. % SO, CLEMENTINES. 83
rejected all mysteries, and allowed women to administer baptism. Ilis life
was spent in efforts to establish a congregation of those whom he was accns-
tomed to call his companions in hatred and in persecution. The Marcionites
continaed as an ecclesiastically organized party until some time in the sixth
centnry. Many divisions however existed among them, since the speculadve
tenets which he left in an incomplete form were perfected in various ways
by additions from the different Gnostic systems, and many among the Gnos-
tics endeavored to get nearer to the Ohurch by joining their communion.
2) Tatian also seems to have found no way to justify his gloomy views
of the world, but by a dualistio theory. His Demiurge Jehovah had obscure
impressions by which he became conscious of a dependence upon the ori^-
nal source of light. He gave offence to his brethren of the Ohurch by main-
taining that Adam must have been finally lost. He prescribed a system of
abstinence as the best means of disengaging ourselves trora the world, after
the example of our Saviour. A party of Encratites, calling itself by the
name of Tatian, or by that of his pupil, Severus, existed as late as in the
fourth century.
8) Bardeaanes (Bar daizon), who resided at Edessa (about 170), would
seem from his place of residence, as well as from some of his Gnostic formu-
lae, which strongly remind us of Valentine, to have properly belonged to the
number of the Syrian Gnostics. But the story of his change of faith at an
earlier or later period is not as well authenticated as the general opinion that
he was not prevented by his Gnosticism from denouncing in a very practical
manner certain extravagances of the Gnostic schools, from asserting man's
internal freedom in opposition to all necessary control of fate, (A) and from
being a strenuous defender of Christianity, and a distinguished instructor of
the Syrian Churches.
§ 80. V. Judaizing Gnostics, Comp. § 85. 75.
Credne^\ (L Eesicr n. Eblonltcn. (Wlncre Zeitachr. f. wlaa. Theol. 1827. P. 2s.) Idem. <He Ett. d.
Jadenchr. (B«itrr. z. ElnL In d. bibl. Schrr. Hal. 1S32. Vol I. p. 20898.) ScJinedtenburger, Q. e. dber-
•ehaen Punkt la d. L. d. Ebion. v. d. Person Josu. (Tub. Zeitschr. 1880. P. L p. 114s8.) Bnur^ d.
EbioolUr. orig. et doctr. ad EsRcnis reiKtenda. Tub. 1881. 4 Idem, in d. T&b. Zeitschr. 1881. P. 4.
1836. P. & 1S88. P. 8. & cUr. Qno&iA. p. SOOas. Schliemann ({ 75.) Comp. Baur In Zcller'stbeol Jabrb.
18U. P. 8. Schicegler^ nachap. Zeita. vol. I. p. 86888. [A. BUgenfeld^ krit Untcrs. G. d. Evv. Just d.
Oem. nom. n. MardoDS. Ualle. 1850. a]
In the Clementine Homilies an attempt is made to reconcile the Ebionite
form of Christianity with that maintained by Paul, by showing that Judaism
and Christianity were essentially alike. These Homilies were written in a
lively and impressive style, and profess to present us with the doctrinal
and polemical discourses of the apostle Peter, addressed principally to Simon
Magus, but interwoven with the romantic history of Clement, the ostensible
author, {a) The doctrine inculcated in them respecting God, is rigidly mono-
tlieistic, but all created existences are developed in contrasted forms, which
A) UtpX unapfitirris. Fragments in Orelli^ de &ta Tnr. 1824. p. 20286.
a) T3t KXrifiiyria, three prologues and nineteen (originally twenty) Ilomilfes. In CoUl^r. P. appc
Th. L p. 097ia. Comp. D. v. Cdtln^ Clementina in Ersch. o. Gmbers EncycL YoL XYIIL p. 868iL
84 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIV. IL A. D. 100-«12.
however arc not absolute, and in tbcir eartMj state are related as male and
female (crvCvylai.) The Original Being has made a division of the world, and
assigned it to two principles which proceeded from himself. To one of the^^e
called Satan, he has committed the present dispensation of things, and to
Christ (also called a-o<^id, nv€vfia &yiov, vVis SKoj)) the fatare beyond it, al-
though Satan even now, as an avenging power, advances the cause of good-
ness, and the world has never been destitute of some men of the future age.
Moreover Christ became incarnate in Adam, and revealed the primitive re-
ligion which had been corrupted by Satan through the woman. To restore
it, Christ, whose influence pervades all human affairs, appears again in the
persons of the patriarchs and Moses, changing merely his form with the
name. The revelations thus given, however, were much obscured by the Old
Testament prophets, who having been bom of women (Matth. 11, 11.), pro-
claimed partial error. Once more Christ appeared in the person of Jesus, to
re-establish the primitive religion and make it universal. Of course the
genuine religion of Moses which had been perpetuated as an esoteric doc-
trine, and genuine Christianity, could not be opposed to each other. To es-
cape from the power of Satan^s kingdom, men must live an ascetic life, and
receive from the earth nothing but the bare necessaries of existence. The
use of flesh and wine was prohibited, but marriage was recommended. The
Homilies were composed or revised about the middle of the second century,
at Rome, with the view of reconciling Jewish Christianity, then declining in
that city, with the general Church, by means of an Essenic-Gnostic theory,
and of vindicating that form of Christianity, not only from the Gnostic ha-
tred of the Jews, but from the prophetic system of Montanism. While Peter
is exalted as the true apostle to the Grentiles, the careful silence which they
maintain with respect to Paul, renders it probable that in the person of Si-
mon Magus, not only Marcion bat Paul himself may be aimed at in some re-
proaches which would admit of such a reference, (b) They presuppose the
existence of a sacerdotal system, of a chair of St. Peter at Rome, and of a
patriarchate of James at Jerusalem. The adaptation of the Homilies to the
promotion of ecclesiastical interests probably occasioned a revision of them,
to make them conform to the views of the Catholics, and to meet the altera-
tions which the heretics were supposed to have previously made in one of
the sacred books, (c) It is impossible now to determine whether the Homi-
lies were the literary composition of a single individual, or contain an expres-
sion of a distinct form of Ebionism then in Rome. But the Ebionites whom
Epiphanius describes (d) as existing in his times, with their synagogues in the
h) Horn. XVn, 19. II, 17. Even In the Epistle of Peter prefixed as a Prologue : rtriy rSov awi
idy&y rh 8t* 4nov ySfiifiow ixtHoKlfiairay K^ipvyfiOj rod ix^P^^ kvbp^rrov avopiSy riya iral
(f>\vap6liri irpoffriKdfifyot liiliacrKaXiay. Bnt in opposition to this reference first proposed by
Bsnr, comp. NUdner^ KOesch. p. 242.
o) Preserved in the Trans, of Rafinos: EL dementis Recognitiones {kvKyvJKrtit of the first
quarter of the third cent) cd. Colder. Th. L p^ 485s8. R O. Gendorf, Lps. 1S8S. The original Title
perhaps also of the Homilies was irep^oSoi (ir/>a|eis) Tltrpov or KAtj/icrror. The latest revision
and compilation of the psendo^Iementine writings: wtpl rSov irpd^twy iiritriiunciy re rod Uirpov
iniTOfi^t ed. CcMer, Th. L p. 749as. d) Hacr. 80. comp^ 19, 1.
CHAP. IT. DOCTBINES. 1 80. CLEMENTINES. EBIONITES. 85
ancient abodes of the Essenes, and in Oyprns, maintained the same principles
respecting the division of the worlds the varioos transmigrations of the prin-
ciple which they call Christ, with the semi-Gnostic pecnliarity, according to
which this principle had no connection with the son of Mary and Joseph
until his baptism, the corruption of the Old Testament by a series of spnrions
propbetsi, and the necessity of a similar asceticism. Although they still re-
quired circnmcision and the observance of the Jewish Sabbath, while the
Homilies demanded only baptism, their national separation does not neces-
sarily imply that they did not tolerate Gentile Ohristians, and even the Homi-
lies allow a special pre-eminence to circumcised believers, (e) The only thing
indicating the ancient grudge felt by Jewish Christians, appears in their idle
legend respecting Paul. (/) The gospel commonly received by the Ebionites
was used both among them and in the Homilies, and many things indicate that
the work of Clement, with regard to the travels of Peter, which they pos-
aeesed, was of a kindred origin with that of the Homilies. Epiphanius
thought that this phase of Ebionism, which he looked upon as best exhibited
in the persons of Ebion and Elzai, originated in the time of Tr^an, from a
eombination of the Ebionites with the Elkesaites and Sampsaeans. He says
the Elkesaites sprung originally from a branch of the Essenes (^OvarjuoC)^ and
according to their own explanation, their name was given them because they
bctieved that the divine power was concealed in the bodies of its human sub-
jects, (g) The name of Sampsaeans was given because those who were so
caUed turned their faces in prayer, not toward Jerusalem, but toward the
rising sun. (h) The Elkesaites are mentioned by Origen as a Jewish sect,
even in his time, (i) The ascetic system of the Ebionites, taken in connection
with the fact that they believed that the mission of Christ was merely to
abolish the sacrifices, has very much the appearance of I^ssenism. But if at
an early period they extravagantiy extolled celibacy, (k) their subsequent en-
oonragement of early marriages shows that those views of life which ordina-
rily previuled among the Jews had finally gained the ascendency over rigid
Easeniam. The independent position however which the latter maintained
with respect to the Old Testament, gave it a much better prospect of con-
Cinnance as a Jewish system, than that which ordinarily was received among
the Jews.
§ 81. YI. Influence of Gn&sticUm vpon the Church,
It was principally through the influence of the Gnostics, that the arts and
fioienees were introduced into the Church, that the Church itself became con-
scious of its true character, that the Jewish clement in Christianity was re-
pressed, and that its vast importance in the affairs of the world, and of God^s
kingdom, became appreciated. It is, however, difficult to estimate their
tf) In the CorUMtatlo prefixed. (CotOsr. Th. L p. 60&) /) Epiph, b«er. 80, IS.
g) Haer, If, 2: 8td rh I^X. (b*^!! or ^K) KoXovff^ai ivyafitw^ Sa2 (*^9?) 'f^fft^vfifi^yov. —
R^dep^nning, Q. d. Urspr. d. Elkeaftiten. (Append. 1. to his Origen. Vol. IL {RiUchl^ in Niedner*8
Zeitaebrift for Bept 1808.]
A) Hfter. 08,8: Sa/uif^aioi ipfirivM^oyrai 'H\iaKol (trom^TyO\
f) In Easeb. H. eo& VI, 88. k) EpipK baar. 80, %
86 ANCIENT CHUKCH HISTORY. PEE. L DIV. IL A. D. 100-«18.
number or their inflnence. 'We do not often find evidence that in any par-
ticular locality their number was suporiot to that of the orthodox, and yet
some of them were to be found in almost every place, and in animation and
spirit their writers excelled those of the Church. The minds of the Greeks
were attracted by their striking opposition to Judaism, the intellect of all
men was gratified by their promise of a dominion over matter and their inde-
pendent development in the direction of a perfect knowledge, the fancy was
stimulated by the boldness of their heaven-storming systems and by the op-
portunity of contributing something without much trouble to the formation
of them, and even the Church could not but admire the contempt which
they inculcated for the world. But the teachers of the Catholic Church were
impressed with the conviction that it was essential to the very nature of
Christianity that it should be a religion for the people, that all true religion
was something more than a speculation, and that piety itself required that
the revelation which God had made in Judaism and in Christianity, and indeed
in all human history, should be one in its principles. They therefore placed
themselves in direct hostility to the exorbitant pretensions and the allure-
ments of the Gnostics. The arbitrary forms which the fancies of the Gnos-
tics had constructed, could not long resist this united opposition, especially
when the additional power of the New Platonists was brought against them.
Even in the third century Goosticism had lost all creative energy, in the
fourth it was completely powerless, and in the sixth only a few vestiges of it
remained.
§ 82. Manuhaeism,
L 1) An accoantA given in the Greek Church refer back to: Archelai (Btokop of Cteear, tAxfot
27S.) Acta dispatationis cam Manete. {Zacagni^ CoIL monameDt vet Eccl. gr. et lat Bom. 1698. 4.
and Jfansl Th. L p. 1129sa.) The Oriental acconnta, later indeed, bat derived from OTiginal ancient
documents, are in : Iferbeloi, BIbL oriental Par. 169T. t art. Man! & Sltv. (U Sncy^ Momolrea snr di-
verses antiquitea de la Pene. Par. 1798. 4. p. 4280. Fragments of Mani's writings, especially £pist(*Ia
fundamenti, in : Fdbricii Bibl. gr. Th. Y. p. 2S4fls. 2) Titus BostrentU (about 860), Korii Mavixaibfy.
{Oanitii Lection, ed. Basnag. Th. I.) Epiph. baer. 66. Augustinus : Contra Epi Manichaei. C Forta-
natnm, C. Adimantom, C. Faustnm L 88. De actts c Felice Man. 1. 2. De nature boni. (Th. TIIL) De
gen. c. Man. De'morlb. £cc oath, et morih. Man. (Th. L)
II. Beauwbre^ Hist de Manich6e et da Manlch^isme. Amst ITSisa. 2 vols. i. A. A. Georgii Al>
phabetum Thlbetannm. Bom. 1762. 4. Reichlin-Meldegg. Tlieol. d. Manes. Frk£ 1825. A. V. de Weg^
nsm^ Manichaeor. indulgentiae c brcvi Manichaeismi adumbrat Lps. 1827. GUttteter^ &. Bcicblin>
Moldegg, Wegnem de Neonder. (Stad. u. Krlt 182S. P. 8.) Baur, d. man. BSyst T&b. 1881. (Compw
Schncckenburger in d. Stud. n. Krlt ISSa P. & and ZlngerU in d. Tab. Quartalschr. IMl. p. 574bs.)
F, C. Tr«eh»el^ IL Eanon, Kritik u. Exeg. d. Manich. Bern. 1882.
The reli^ous oonfiicts which took place on the confines of the Eastern
world finally gave birth to Manichacism. The history of its origin is founded
upon traditions and uncertain documents. On the re-establishment of the
Persian empire (after 227) under the Sassanides, the Magusaean sect, which
had defended the doctrine of absolute Dualism, and various foreign systems
were driven from the kingdom. Mani^ a Magian of this sect, having dis-
covered many points of agreement between the doctrines of Mithraism, of Bud-
daism, of Gnostic Christianity, and the principles of his own paternal faith,
beheved himself called to combine these popular religions, especially Parsism
and Christianity, into one universal religion. He presented himself before
CHAP. IT. D0CTBINE8. fSS- MANICHAEISM. 87
the Ghristiaiis as the Paraclete and an apostle of Christ. Rejected hy them
and persecnted hy the Magians, he is said to have heen flayed alive under
Baharam (272-6). — Manichaeism, as it existed in the fourth and fifth centu-
ries, accounted for all events which have taken place in the world on dualistic
principles. God in his kingdom of light, and the Demon with his kingdom
of darkness, were directly opposed to each other — good and evil heing in
their nature identical with light and darkness. After long internal conflicts
among themselves, the different powers of the demoniac kingdom became
united in their opposition to the kingdom of light. The primitive man, who
was the first-bom of God, and who, in connection with the four pure elements
contended for the kingdom of light, was overthrown, and was afterwards de-
livered, but a portion of his light was wrested from him and borne down to
the abodes of darkness. God then brought into existence through the agency
of the Mother of life ({av nvtvfia^ the present universe, tliat it might be a
new receptacle of this lost light. The vital power of this universe is the
fight retained in the bonds of darkness. Two new heavenly powers, Christ
and the Holy Ghost, then proceeded from Gbd, that they might redeem it
from its imprisonment. The first is the Sun and Moon, and the other is the
Air, which attract toward themselves all the powers of light in the earth.
To retain these in his possession, the Demon formed man after the image of
the primitive man, combining in him as in a microcosm the clearest light
with his own darkness. From him descended the race of man, into whose
souls the light penetrated. But although they were endowed with an inhe-
rent liberty to continue as they were, in spite of the necessity of evil in na-
ture, they soon fell under the temptations of matter and the illusions of the
Demon (Judaism and Heathenism). Christ himself then appeared on earth,
and merely endured the semblance of suffering, and is regarded in this system
ts the type of all imprisoned light (Jesus passibilis). By his doctrine and his
attractive power he commenced the process of liberating the light from its
bondage, but even the apostles misinterpreted his instructions by giving them
a Jewish sense. The Scriptures possessed by the Church have been partially
corrupted by the Demon, and partially composed by unknown writers.
Ifani came to reveal tlie secret relations of the universe, and to secure the
means of human freedom. Complete truth can therefore be found nowhere
except in his writings. In the end there will be a complete separation be-
tween the light and the darkness, when the powers of darkness will have be-
come conscious of their inability to contend with the light, and will resume
their strife with each other. The Manichacons assumed the name of a Church,
whidi possessed a hierarchical form of government, and consisted of two
great classes. The first was composed of the perfect (electi, perfecti), who
alone possessed a knowledge of the mysteries ; and the second was made up
of the Catechumens (auditores), who were instructed principally in mythical
allegories relating to the philosophy of religion and of nature, and were al-
lowed to hope for pardon for their participation in the business and pleasures
o( life, in consequence of the intercessions of the perfect, for none but the
perfect undertook the duties of self-mortification (signaculum sinus, oris et
nanuaX ai^d were sustained by the others principally on olives. Their pecu-
88 ANaENT CBUSCB DISTOBY. PEK. L DIT. IL A. D. VM-nS.
liar views of nature demanded that baptism should be performed in ml, aad
in some oongregationB they gave oooasion to an abominable mingling of tbs
elements in the Lord's Sapper. The forms of worshi[> praclised ■■
Auditors were simple, Sunday wos observed as a day of fasting:,*
anniTersary of Uani's death waa celebrated as tbe great foatival n'
name of the Feast of the pnlpit (/S^fo). The Manichaeiin^ were
oreasing in nnmber in the foorth centnry, and were then sc^atlcn-d
part of the Oriental world, and in Africa, Sicily, and Ituly. Mam
of noble minda were attracted by the promise which tlieir svsteiu )
tliat it could solve all mysteriea, and exalt man above ilie varloii
which then distracted the world. Even then, however, th.y v
with fira and sword by the heathen emperors, on the grouttil of tlie*
Porsian sect. For this reason, as well aa on aocanot of tboir debivM'
oormpt indifference, by a pretended exaltation above all oiitvviti d tb
sank in the sixth oentnry beneatli the eqnal hatred of the Magiui
bishops. Still we find some vestiges of a secret and solitary Mt..
even in the Uiddle Ages.
S 88. HUIorko-Eedttlaitical Thtotogy,
The ecclesiastical lileratnro of the second centnry wns pi
tional character, and partly con^tcd of conlrovcrsuil writings bj
and Gnostics. Especially in the conflicts with the latter, a C
gy was formed, in which an attempt was made to hold f^t tl
sis of Christianity as the common property of all, and to npprohet
tiosl relations in a scientiflc manner, Hence all philosophy v
declined, and tme Christianity was thought to consist whuljj in
traditions and doonmenta, and those obvions tmths whloli en
comprehended by the people. The representatives of this tendency i
Irenaeoa and TertulUon, who also indolged in the expectation of a mOlannial
kingdom nigh at hand, (a) Irenaeia was a disciple, and perhaps also a oom-
panion of Polycarp, during the Journey of that martyr to Home, and was a
bishop of Lyons (177-202). He was a perspicnons, jndicious, and philosopb-
ioally edooated instructor, with youthful recollections reaching baolf to apos-
tolic times, and now came forward as tiie opponent of the Gnoetic speonla-
tions. Ae hia writings were regarded almost in the light of foreign prodoc-
tions in the country where he resided, they soon became littie known, and
were at an early period lost, (b) The only literature which the Latin Chnrch
possessed, oonusted entirely of translations, until the appearauoe of Qaintns
Scptimins Florens TtrtvUianvt, lie was at first a heathen rhetorician, and
an advocate in Rome (abont 190), but afterwards a presbyter in Carthage,
his native city (d. 220), His character waa severe, gloomy and fiery, but by
great exertions he achieved for Christianity, In the Panic-Latin dialect, a
literature in which an animated rhetoric, a sonnd and vivid conception of tha
a) Im V. as. Ten^l. idj. Mtro. Ill, S8.
I) Wltb thi i-Kvpllon of ■ rew spiitlH ud fri(iDCPh notlibig mnMlm bnl bli D bonti ■■■littt
Uu On»U«, (Xi-rx"! «<■' i'aTpawii ttii ^tnSariiioa yviatui, \a u old Lulu tnuulttloii. tb*
t« Book ud ■ ttv ftagmcnii In the otlglDil. 0pp. ad. ffmKA Oiod. 1T01. tla—utl, P«r. ITIA Vn.
CHAP. lY. DOCTBnr£& i 68. TERTULUANUS. i 81 CYPBIANUa 89
Idoal, profbimd feelings, and legal intelligence contended for the snpremaoj.
He placed a high estimate upon that consciousness of God which he contend-
ed might be found in the depths of every soul, but he was fond of contrasting
with proud irony the foolishness of the gospel with the worldly wisdom of
his ccmtemporaries, and the incredibility of the divine miracles with the or-
dinary understanding of the world, (c) His writings are partly controver-
flial, and in these he exhibits the utmost confidence in the catholic views, in
<^yposition to those of Pagans, Jews, and Heretics, and partly devotional.
They are, however, so written, that the devotional element constantly ap-
pears in the former, and the polemic in the latter, in behalf of a strict mord-
itj and discipline, (d) The Montanistic views are perceptible in them all,
but they become prominent and hostile to the Romish Church in proportion
to the degree in which the latter withdrew its countenance from Montanism,
for the Roman Church, rather than Tertullian, experienced a change of sen-
timent on that subject, (e) And yet the western portion of the Church con-
tinned so tolerant toward Montanism, that some female martyrs adhering to
that system in the African Church have always continued to be acknowledged
as saints, (/) and Tertullian finally became so prominent, that he is regarded
AS the actual type of the Latin theology. That theology was then dbindined
to any philosophical theories respecting divine things, and was entirely occu-
pied with questions relating to the condition of the Church, and matters in-
dispensable to salvation.
§ 84. Thtueius Caecilianvs Cyprianua,
L Opp. Cipriani ed RlgaHitu. Pftr. 1S4& t FeU. Oxt 1692. C ed. 8. addlUe »ant Das. Cjpr.
J>94wlH, (Oz£ 1684.) Amst 1700. f. Baloz. Par. 1726. t Goldhom. Lpa. 1888& 2 P. YIU Cypr. per
^gmiium^ ejas Di*ooDiim (Cypr. 0pp.) Among the aetli xnartTril the two older bot^nnlng, Cma
Cjf€. and Imper. Yaleriana— IL Pearwn^ Annales CyprfanicI before Fell's edit IT. F. ScAmiedm',
IL Qypr. Behr. ▼. d. Elnb. d. Klrohe. Lpii 1822. F. W. ReUberg^ Cypr. nacb i. Leben n. Wlrkeo.
G«tt.l88L
The Church of his times is well represented in the life of Cyprian. Hav-
ing enjoyed as a rhetorician, and perhaps also as an advocate in Carthage, all
the pleasures of heathenism, he became impressed with a consciousness of the
vanity of his life, and sought deliverance in the Church (246). Although, in
the excitement of a new birth by baptism, he had sold his possessions, and
distribnted them among the poor, a sufficient amount of real estate and reve-
1781 2 P. f I* IIL c 1-4. In graecnm term, restituta \na H. G. J. Thiersch. (Stud. n. Krlt 1842.
P. 2.) Iren. fVa|rmin. anecdota ed. C. M. P/aff, Hag. Com. 1716. (Bynt d«. Btnttg. 172a) Oomp.
gua«^. IL eec V, 4aL 20. 26.-/7: Dodwell, Das. In Ir. Ox. 1689. Mawuet, Dss. praeviae In Ir. Ubroa.
A. SUeren, de Ir. adr. baereMS operto fontlbua, Indole, doctr. et dignltate. Oott 1S36. 4. Idem, Iren.
fa Ersch. u. Oniber'k EncycL p. IL vol. XXIIL J. M. Prat, Hist de 8. Iren^e. Lyon et Par. 1848.
e) Apologet c 17. De poenitent c. 1. De vlrgg. yel c. 1. Do resurr. c 8. C. Mara I, 10b.— Do
came Cb. e. S. De praeacript c. 7. Adv. Hermog. o. 8.
tf) Opp. ed. RiffolUwi. Par. (1685. 1641.) 1664. t Semler et SchlUi. Hal 1770s«. 6 Tb. Leopold,
Lpc 1889^ 4 P.— il. Neander, AntignoaUcaa, Qelst dea Tert a. ElnL In dess. Scbrr. BerL 1820.
(Han. L. Zw 1S2S. N. 271m.) [Antlgnoatloua, ibd. tranal. by J. E. Ryland. Lond. 1851. vol II, 8.]
«) Tertul adv. Prazean. a 1. De vligg. vel. c. Ifc De pndio. a 1. Comp. Hieron. cataL c 68.— i^
G. a^ant^ TertoL omnia in roonUnlsmo acrlpta vlderL Ylt 1788w 4 J. A. IfdauU^ <1« ▼«» aetato
•eriptur. Tert Hal. (1757.) 1768. (Opp. Fase. IIL Hal. 1S17 )
/) VaUtiuB, AcU BS. Perpetnae et FeUclt Par. 1664.
90 ANCIENT CUUECn HISTORY. PEE. L DIV. IL A. IX 10(^812.
nnes remained in his possession to enable him to perform splendid acts of be-
neficence in the accomplishment of his plans. He enjoyed the instmctioiifl,
bnt his heart never became imbned with the profound sentiments of Tertol-
lian, and his zeal was wholly expended in the administration of the affairs
of the Church. All his writings were drawn forth by passing events, and
by their simple and ardent eloquence they exerted a considerable influence
on those events. The leading thought in all his writings is, that the Church,
being one in Christ, should be governed as a single kingdom by the bishops
appointed by Christ. He refused the bishopric of Carthage to which he had
been elected, until, in spite of an opposing party of presbyters, he recognized
in the tumultuous expressions of the popular will the mandate of God (248).
His plans for the enforcement of ecclesiastical discipline were suddenly inter-
rupted by the persecution under Decius. He fled (250), but from his place
of refuge he continued arbitrarily to govern his church by means of rescripts
and vicars, and apologized for the little attention he paid to the counsel of
his co-presbyters and the will of the people, by referring to the necessitieB
of the times. A great multitude of those who had fallen in time of persecu-
tion afterwards begged that they might be readmitted to the Church.
Cyprian at first refused to do this with extreme Montanistio severity. But
the power of pardon in such cases was generally conceded to the confessors,
who in the present instance exercised it without regard to his views. A
power thus abused he refused to acknowledge. The hostile presbyters, led
on by Felicissimui^ whom they had ordained a deacon, now stirred up the
offended confessors and those who had formerly relapsed, until an insurrec-
tion against his authority was efiected. They represented that it ill became
one who had himself fled like a hireling, to exalt himself above those who, in
times of persecution, had exhibited some signs of human infirmity, and least
of all those who had then heroically maintained their constancy. They de-
posed Cyprian, and chose Fortunatus, one of their own number, in his place.
Cyprian apologized for his flight, by pleading that he was led to it by a divine
revelation, and declared that every one who resisted his authority was a
rebel against Christ. After Easter, in the year 251, he returned to his
charge, and at a synod of the African bishops represented his own cause as
the common cause of the episcopacy. With this view, the synod put down
the opposition of the presbyters. With respect to those who had relapsed,
he obtained a moderate decision, which ei\joined that they should not be
given over to despair, nor admitted to pardon, except in immediate danger
of death, or after a long and thorough repentance. Accordingly, when a
pestilence was prevalent, and during the incursions of the barbarians, he
freely administered to them consolation and assistance. The intimate con-
nection which he had ordinarily maintained with the Roman Church, and
which had been strengthened by a common interest in opposition to the No-
vatians, was interrupted (after 253) by the controversy respecting the bap-
tism of heretics. In opposition to the Roman bishop, Cyprian contended,
that truth was to be ascertained, not by an appeal to usage, but to reason ;
that each bishop was equal in authority to every other ; that the laws of no
province were a uniform model for those of another, and that a diversity of
CHAP. lY. DOCTBINES. {84 CTPBIANUa $85. CLEMENS ALEX. 91
usages was not inconsistent with the general unity of the Church. Stephen
refused to receive the African messengers whom he sent to Home. Cyprian
appealed to the Asiatic bishops, in whose name Firmilian^ bishop of Caesa-
rea, wrote an epistle fuU of bitter derision of the arrogant pretensions of
the Roman bishop. In a synod convened at Carthage, the African bishops
unanimously protested against Rome (§ 71). While these things were tran-
spiring, Valerian published his edict against the Christians. Cyprian had
now become too conspicuous to find safety in another flight. Having ac-
knowledged himself a Christian and a bishop, he was banished by the pro-
consul to Curbi, but he was afterwards permitted to return to his garden at
Carthage. After a year's respite, sentence of death was pronounced against
him as an enemy to the Roman gods, and the chief of a criminal association.
He was accordingly beheaded on the fourteenth of Sept. 258. No obstruc-
tion, however, was offered to his admiring friends, as they performed the
last offices of affection to him in his death, and as they did honor to his life-
lees remains.
§ 85. I. The School of Alexandria.
E. E. F. Gu€rik0, de schoU qaa« Alexandrlae floruit, catoebetlca. Hal 18248. 2 P. C F. G.
OauMacK, de scbola, quae Alex, floroit, cat Stettin. 1826. P. L ootnp. Matter^ de Tdcole d'Alexan-
drkL Par. (lS2a) 1810. 2 Th. SttUr, Geach. do chriatl. Pbll. vol. L p.42l8ii. [Epitome of the Ilist
•r PbiL transl. from the French by C, 8. JJunry. yoL L pp. 207-220. ITeander, Hiet of the Chr.
SeL tniid. by J. Torrey. toL L pp. 52(M)67.]
About the middle of the second century arose in Alexandria an ecclesias-
tieal school, under the superintendence of the bishop, after the model of the
Khools of philosophy. Sooner or later, it was unavoidable that the science
and literature of Greece should become enlisted in the service of the cause
of Christ, (a) This had already been unintentionally commenced by the
Apologists, but it was now consummated from a direct purpose and prefer-
ence in the Alexandrian school. Among those who presided over this school,
was Pantaenus (about 180), previously a Stoic, and since immortalized by
bis pupils, (h) Titus Flavins Clemens^ probably fh)m Athens, did not embrace
Christianity until mature years, and after exhausting all the advantages of
Greek and Christian culture, he professed to have found in Pantaenus a cor-
rect interpreter of the Scriptures. He first became the assistant and then
the successor of his chosen teacher in the management of the school (about
191-202), until just before the persecution under Severus, when he betook
himself to the house of one of his pupils. The last trace we have of him
was at Jerusalem, in the year 211. In a work which he divided into three
parts, according to the successive steps of Conversion, Discipline, and Free
longfat, he has collected in a motley form, principally from the trea-
lores of Grecian wisdom, whatever is favorable to Christianity, contended
against every thing hos^e to the gospel in Gnosticism, determined with
a) {S(m€€raiH) Le Platontame d^Toil^. Colog. (Amaterd.) ITOa Mothem, de tnrbata per reo. Pla-
te. Eec Helmat 1729. On the other hand : BaltuSy defense des S. P6rca, accnsds de Platonlstne.
ht. 1711. 4 Eeil de doctoribaa vet £co. cnlpa oormptae per Plat sententiaa Theoli^lae llberandiaw
IfL ITMoL 22 Cmmt 4. (0pp. ed. Ooldhom. Lp& 1821. Tb. IL)
I) JTMab. H. eec Y, 10.
92 ANCIENT CHUBCH HISTORY. FEB. L DIY. XL A. D. 100-811
much liberality and moderation many controversial questions in ecclesiastioal
ethics, and in an animated and snggestive form has ventured only to hint at
his peculiar views, (c) Origen^ bom at Alexandria (185), was the son of
Leonides, whose martyrdom (202) he was prevented from sharing by the
gentle violence of his mother, who controlled his passions, and educated him
with pious care. With a soaring spirit, a firm character, and an iron dili-
gence (^Adapidvnor, XaXfccn-fpor), he soon made himself master of the Alex-
andrian learning, and a scribe well instructed unto the kingdom of heaven.
The youth of eighteen years was raised to the dignity of President of the
School, and continued to live in poverty, refusing all compensation from his
pupils, and practising the utmost abstemiousness. Before he renounced his
early views of the literal interpretation of the Scriptures, in a moment of
bold enthusiasm, he yielded a literal obedience to one of their supposed re-
quirements, {d) His superior development appears to have received as much
assistance from the lectures of Ammonius Saccas {e) as from the writings of
Clement. The instruction of the children of his scliool he committed to an
assistant, while he conducted the more advanced pupils through the whole
range of Grecian studies, to the intellectual comprehension of the Scriptures,
and to the philosophy of Christianity. His irregular ordination as a presby-
ter at Caesarea (228), afforded a pretext for the manifestation of the aver-
sion which his bishop, Demetrius^ entertained toward him, and he was ac-
cordingly thrust out of the Church (281). This episcopal violence, however,
was respected only by those who took no interest in scientific investiga-
tions. Origen continued to live sometimes in learned leisure at Caesarea,
and sometimes in foreign countries on business connected with the Church.
He died at Tyre (254), having previously confessed his faith with unshaken
constancy during the Decian persecution. By his employment of the Alex-
andrian Philology in the criticism and interpretation of the Scriptures, he
became the acknowledged master of a scientific method of scriptural investi-
gation, by the grammatical as well as the allegorical style of explanation.
His work on the Principles, is the first attempt to comprise the principles of
Christianity in a single scientific work. Only a part of his writings have
c) A^TOf irporpc TTiK^f wpht "EWrjyas, UauZay^^^* "Hrpttfiarus. Homily : Tls 6 fft^^
fitrot vKoiffios ; ed. (7. Begaar^ Tn^. 1610. More candid and bolder are the Gloaeea npon tba
Bcrlptnres, 6irorinrfitf(rctf, which are lost with the exception of a crippled explanation of tha Cath.
Eplstlee, under the titie of Adambrationa. Perhaps, also, the in r&¥ wpof^TiriK&y iKKoyai
belonged to this work. HymnasinC. Salvatorom, ed. F. Piper^ Oott 1S85. 0pp. ed. SyJhurg^
Heidelb. li»2. f and often. PoUer, Ox. 1716. 1 Yen. 1767. 2 Th. f Pocket edition in the 8d part of
the BlbL aacra, ed. R. Klolt, Lp«L 1881-S4. 4 Th.^Ho/stede ds Groct^ de Clem. 6. do vl, qnani PhiL
gr. inpr. platonica habnit ad Clem, informandam. Oron. 1826w CGUtty Clem, in Erech. u. Gruber^
Eneyd. vol XVIIL p. isa. 2>aMfi«, de yvweu^ Clem, et de vestigits neoplatonicae pbil. In ea ob-
▼Ua. Lps. IflSl. F. R. EyUrt, Oem. al& Pbil. d. Dichter. Lps. 1682. Baur, Chr. Onoeia. p. 002ia.
Kling, Bedeutang dee Clem, t d. Entat d. ohr. Theol. (Stud. u. Krit 1S41. P. 4.) [Art Clem, (n W.
Bmith*8 Diet of Blog. and Mythol. New York. 1862. 2 vols.]
d) Matt. 19, 12. oomp. 6, 29a. EMth. II. ooo. VI, 8. oomp. 2ft. Orig. in Matth. tom. 16. (Th. IlL p.
(1618&) comp. SohniUer, OHg. 1L d. Orundlehren d. Olanbenswiia. StuUf. 1886. pi XXXIIIsai On
the other hand: Engtlhnrdt, in d. Stud. n. Krit 1888. P. 1. p. 167sa.
e) n. A. JMgl, der Bericht d. Porphyr. ft. Orig. Uegonab. 1886. Redepennlng^ App. 9. to toL I.
Z. KrUg^r, 0. daa Verb. d. Orig. in Amm. 9aoe. (Illgen's Zeitachr. 184a P. 1.)
CHAP. IT. DOCTRIUES. % S6. ALEXANDRIAN THEOLOGY. { 87. ORIOEN. 93
come down to modem times, some of them in a Latin translation by Evjlnus^
and others in extracts by the orthodox writers of his age. (/) Clement
reached Christianity through philosophy, Origen reached philosophy through
Christianity. The former proceeded in the style of an eclectic philosopher,
in whose conception of a complete gnostic the Stoical ideal predominated,
with its calm tranquillity derived not from the hnman but from the divine
^>irit ; the latter showed a more decided predilection for Plato. Both grasped
alter a knowledge which should comprehend the universe, but their efforts
were characterized more by a literary fondness for philosophy, than by philo-
sophical depth, as they developed the religious ideas involved in the facts of
Christianity, smoothed away the difficulties which must attend a one-sided
and purely historical conception of it, and elevated it above the extremes of
Judaism and of Gnosticism, even though its truths were received in a limited
form. Taken together, their doctrines constituted one comprehensive whole,
whose form was a philosophy of Christianity, whose substance was the free-
dom of the mind in its everlasting activity, and whose source was the Deity
himself.
8 86. II. Characteristics of the Alexandrian Theology.
1. Philosophy was to the Greek what the law was to the Jew, an in-
structor showing the need of Christ, and proposing a proper pattern of
righteousness. God has revealed his true nature in appropriate methods,
through the Logos to all nations, (a) The highest revelation he has ever
made of himself is in Christianity, by means of which many a retired vil-
lage has become an Athens. The position of the faith of the common people
is that in which a merely historical Christianity is received on the authority
of others (n-tWis), but the higher position of the perfect Christian is that in
which truth is contemplated with a free insight, and a full consent of the
mind (ywo-if). The doctrines of the Gnosis were described as those secret
traditions which originally proceeded from Christ, but they were in fact the
free scientific speculations respecting well established ecclesiastical tradi-
tions, (b) The Scriptures were looked upon as the result of divine inspira-
tion, though in different degrees, and it was thought that every part of them
should receive a signification worthy of God. Where such a meaning was
not supplied by the mere words, the hidden sense was developed from the
/) 1) For the restonitlon of the Septnaglnt Bcvlslon of the tf:xt of tho O. T. and \ta translations:
ri i^avXa, Hexaplor. qiue raperaant ed. B. de Mon^auQoru Par. 1718. 3 Th. f C. F. Rihrdi^
IfiL ITtts. 2 Tb. 2) Schollao arifi«n&<rtt$j commentaries r6fxot^ and practical expositIon^ 6fii\tai
ca most of the sacred books, only a few less Important parts of which are preserved in Ruflnus and Je-
nne. 8) Tltpl ipx&^t ^ ^^* ^'^^ ^ ^^^ ^ ^^^ ^^^ greater part of the 4th vol. are extant in the Greek,
tke raoaioder Is in Rafla's Lit version, ed. K B. Redepenning. Lp«. 18S8. 4) Kar^ KcAirou. —
Oppi ed. C et r. V. Dtlarus, Par. 1T38<«. 4 Th. f LommatzMch, Ber. 1881-44 17 Th.— //m^iw*,
Ortwiiana, prefixed to bis edit, of the Commentaries, (Par. 1679.) and In the 4th vol. of the edit of
MarM. G. ThomaHu*^ Orig. Nnmb. 1987. K R. Rfdfj)enning, Grig. Lcben a Lchre. Bonn.
19I1-4l 2 pts. [Article from the British Quart. Bev. in Eclectic Mog. of January, 1S46. pp. Sl-101.]
a) Clem. Strom. L p. 281. VL pi 761. On the other side : V. p. 620. VL p. 757.
ft) iTMiider, de fldei gnoseotqae Idea seo. Clem. Ileidlb. 1811.
94 ANCIENT Cni'KCn HISTORY. PER. L DIV. IL A. D. 100-812.
letter by means of allegorical interpretations, (e) 2. God is limited only by
bis own will, and is inscrutable to bis creatures, yet bo bas revealed bimselr
not only by means of tbe Logos, wbicb be voluntarily and from all eternity
sent fortb, and wbicb is at tbe same time Qod. and tbe all pervading reason,
but also by means of tbe Holy Spirit, tbe personal source of all sanctification.
Botb of tbose are developments of tbe divine essence, and altbougb essentially
subordinate to tbe absolute Deity, tbey constitute a unity with bim. By the
agency of tbe Logos, who must therefore have existed before it, God
created tbe world of spirits, all of whom were originally equal in dignity and
power, but as God is eternally active, tbe series of worlds by which be is
developed can have neither beginning nor end. 8. The spirit alone is worthy
of confidence, matter is tbe form in which evil is manifested, and yet it is tbe
vessel in which tbe spirit must be purified. Each world-sphere is adapted to
that peculiar state of tbe spirits inhabiting it, which bas been produced by
tbe exercise of their moral freedom. Even the present condition of man
must have been produced by something voluntarily done, involving him in
guilt. The Fall of man spoken of by Moses, is an allegorical representation
of a fall anterior to man's present earthly existence, in wbicb he is doing
penance for what be then did, and passing through a process of purification.
Moral freedom continues an inalienable attribute of fallen man, unimpaired
even in death.. 4. The Logos, that ho might fnlly reveal himself in Christ
assumed an ethereal body, by means of a human soul (^xi)- '^^ P^^ o^
Christianity being tbe same with that of the moral universe in general, of
course embraces all intellectual beings in all worlds. To those who are in an
inferior stage of moral improvement, Christianity is a redemption, but to
those who are perfect it is a free fellowship, (d) 6. There is to be no resur-
rection of tbe flesh, but a development of higher organs, (e) not an earthly
but a celestial kingdom of Christy not an everlasting punishment in bell, but
on the other hand every thing which has fallen from Gk>d shall at some period
be restored to its original source (airoKaTairraais rav Trdjrrav).
§ 87. III. Influence of Origen,
The doctrines of the Church were defended by Origen in a variety of
ways. It was through his influence that the expectation which then prevaUed
with respect to a near approach of Christ's second advent, and a millennial
kingdom, began to be regarded as heretical, or at least fanatical. For centu-
ries his influence upon the whole Church was powerful, by means of bis writ-
ings and a circle of followers which gathered around him, and formed a
seminary of eminent teachers and bishops for tbe Church. He was himself,
however, well aware that his doctrines were not suitable for the common
mind, and his views of Christian science allowed him intentionally so to write
that bis language was unintelligible, and even conveyed error, to all but the
c) J. A. EmMtl, de Grig. interpretationlB gnunm. anctore. (0pp. crit Lngd. 1704 p. 288s8l) (X JZL
Hagenhach, Obss. ctrca dig. methodam interpret S. So. Bui 182S. Ck)mpu (/TifneQ in Winen kxlt
Joarn. 1825. vol. IIL part 4.
d) Oriff. in Jo. torn. I. (Th. IV. p. 22.) e) Orig, 0pp. Th. L p Ste.
CHAP. IV. DOCTBINES. { 8T. DI0NYSIU9. { 88. AFEICANUS, niPP0I«TTU8. 95
initiated, (a) His ideal tendency to go beyond historical traditions and those
pocnliarities which so strongly contrasted with what was common in the
Church, were sare, sooner or later, to call forth opp^tion. The first objec-
tions urged against him were of the vagnest character, and generally of a per-
sonal natnro, or founded on gross exaggerations. Methadiu^^ Bishop of Tyre
(d. 811X finally attacked his doctrines respecting the development of worlds,
the resurrection and the freedom of the will, {b) Ilis disciples made every
eflbrt to vindicate the honor and orthodoxy of their illustrious master. The
orthodoxy of some of his views was shown by comparing them with the in-
definite creeds of that day, and others were excused on the ground that they
were advanced only as hypotheses. Even when in prison the learned Pam'
phUua of Caesarea wrote an apology, which was afterwards sealed, as it were,
with his own blood (809), and was completed by Evulius, (c) Among Lis
Immediate pupils, IHonyHus, his successor in the office of instructor after 288)
and Bishop of Alexandria after 248, has represented especially the depart-
ment of ecclesiastical learning, with great zeal for the Church, but with much
fiberality with respect to genuine science, (d) and O^regoriuSj after 244, Bishop
of Neo-Caesarea, and sumamed Thaumaturgui by the orthodox of subsequent
timas, represented Origen^s practical ascetic tendency, (e)
§ 88. Appendix to the Literary History,
A pions v^eration for Christian antiquity has usually preserved with
much care the names of some writers who are not fairly entitled to a place
hi history by their character or influence. Athenagoras^ according to some
imcertain accounts, the predecessor of Pantacnus in Alexandria, wrote with
eonsiderable philosophical talent a defence of the doctrine of tlio resurreo-
tion (about 180). (a) Julius Afrieanus, a presbyter at Nicopolis (Emmaus) and
t fiiend of Origen, though more advanced in age (d. about 232), was a learned
annalist, and by some extant letters appears to have been a judicious critic of
the Scriptures, (b) Hippolytus^ a bishop, and a contemporary of Origen, was
nid by Eusebius and Jerome to have left valuable writings in explanation of
the Scriptures, and in refutation of heretics, (c) The titles and fragments of
a) Orig. t. Oela. Ill, T9. Stromm. YL in ffieron. ApoL L adv. Rnf. o. 18.
h) n«p( &»a4rr<£<rc«fff, vcpl r&r yfrrirAvt wtpl avrt^uvtrlov. Fragm. in Epiph. hacr. 61
PM. eod. tH, S8S. comp. Soemt H. eec YI, la.
e) ApologlM pro Ori^ 111). YL Greek Frag, in Phot ood. 118. Tho first book is in Rnfln's trans-
<) Fngmeats: Bom. 1797. t OaUand, Bibl PP. Tb. III. p. 48l8a
«) Elf 'a^Tfirriw vpoa^wirririKha koI wayriyvptKhs \6yos. 'EiricrroA^ KuKoiiK'fi. Ills life
by OrifDrhia Vjm. from narratiTOS aapplied by his grandmother. 0pp. c. vita ed. G. Votshu^ Mog.
IIM. 4 Fr^rroents of bis writings In Anff. Mali N. Coll Th. YII. P. I. p. ITOss. Comp. £u6eb. U.
MeLVI,aO.YII,14.
•) Titpl hmffrdffttts rw ptKp&Wt ed. Redienberg^ Lpa. 1685.
I) Upcvaypwpmv w4rrt ewovida'fAaTcu ^E-rioT. wtpl r^s xarii iZovo'dyyuy ivroplas
vilttcD to Origen, with the reply of the latter,— *Eiri(rr. wphs *Apt<rrfliriVt a harmony of the ge-
utk^ of JcMUL iioutht Bellq. aacr. toL IL
e) ItMb. H. eeo. YI, SO, iS, 41 HUran, caUl c. 61. PkoL ood. 121. EUd^etu in Anemani BlbL
«twLULP. L
96 ANCIENT CHUBCH HISTORY. FES. L DIY. II. A. D. 100-811
his works are thought by many to indicate an oriental character, and a de-
gree of edacation somewhere between that of Origen and that of Irenaeus. {d)
But his statue, found in the Ager Veranus^ near Home (1551), with the Eas-
ter cycle engraved upon his cathedra and a catalogue of his writings^ imply
that he must have resided in the vicinity of Rome, and that the Portua Ro-
manus mentioned as his bishopric, must have been the port near Ostia. (e)
Yet, as Prudentius had sung the martyrdom of a highly esteemed Novatian
presbyter, who, in view of death, returned to the Catholic Church, and after
his execution near the mouths of the Tiber, had been conveyed to the Roman
catacombs, (/) and in the time of that poet had been honored with a mag-
nificent martyrium, and a great annual festival at Rome, the discoverers of
this statue came to the conclusion that the martyr was the same person as the
ecclesiastical writer, (g) Later martyrologies, however, indicate that the mar-
tyr came to Rome from Antioch, where a lively interest existed in favor of
Novatianism. (h) Lactantivs Firmianus, an Italian preceptor to the prince
Crispus, in whose misfortunes he was probably involved (d. about 830), com-
menced, during his residence as a rhetorician at Nicomedia, in the midst of
the last persecution, his treatise on the nature and achievements of Chris-
tianity, in contrast with those of Heathenism. In this work he has shed all
the rhetorical splendor of his age upon the gospel, and has acquired the ap-
pellation of a Christian Cicero. His belief in a principle of evil appointed
by God, and of equal rank with Christ, and in a millennial kingdom, may be
regarded as a lingering shadow of the preceding century, (i)
§ 89. Apocryphal Literature.
Among the Jews, the heathen, and the Christians of this period, it was
thought that the truth might, without impropriety, be defended by means of
what was untrue. The lives of their heroes and saints especially might be
embellished as much as they pleased, and the credit of such compositions
might be aided by attaching to them some celebrated name. In this way was
produced, within the Church as well as beyond its pale an apocryphal litera-
ture, composed partially of harmless fictions and popular legends, and partially
d) HippoL Opp. ed. Fabricios. Hamb. 17166flw 8 volflb t
e) E. J. Kimmel, dc Ilip. vita et 8cripti& P. I. Jen. 1S89. L. F. W. Seinecke^ Leben n. Schir. d.
Hipp. (Illgen*s Zeitflchr. 1342. P. 8.) On the other side: C. G. JlaeneU, de Uipp. Oott ISSa 4. M
Bishop of Boatra.
/) Porlsteph. hym. 11.
g) According to Winkdmann^ Werke, cd. hj VLejet & Schnlzc, toI XVII. p. 834 the at^oe be-
longed to the time of Alex. Scverus — certainly too early— according to PUiUifr^ in d. Beacreib. d.
Stadt Bom. by Platner, Bansen, & otb. toI 2. p. 829. the latest period vras that of the 6th cent [See
BunterCt Hipp. & his Age. Lond. 1S58. C Wbrdsworth^ H. & the Church of Kome, 4. Lond. 1858. and
articles in the Jan'y Nos. of the Edinb. & English Beviewa for lvS58.]
h) The combined evidence thus obtained may be seen In GieaeUr^ [Eccles. Hist transl. by Da*
vid^oriy Edinb. vol. I. p. 249. note 9.]
i) Institationam div. 1. YII. De mortibns perseoutomm. De ira DcL De opiflcio Dei, vel de forma-
tlonehomini& Opp. ed. B&nemann, Lps. 1789. Lebrun el LengUi Dxtfretnoyy Par. 1748. 2 Th. 4
O. F. FritMche^ Lps. 1842.--1 2 T.—F. O. Ph. Amnion^ Lact opiniones de rel. in systema redacCae,
d8& IL Erl. 1820. //. J. Spyker^ do prctio Institationibos Lact tiibaondo. Lngd. 1S26. L, IfaiMtn&eht,
£tndes Bur Lact Strassb. 1887.
CUAP. IV. DOGTBINEd. f 8»- APOCRYPHAL WRITINGS. 97
of intentional forgeries, (a) Writings of the former kind have been so tho-
ronghlj revised by the Gnostics and Manichacans, that their origin and pri-
marj design can no longer be determined with any certainty, and even their
dogmatic character is for the most part indeterminate and contradictory. In
this respect they are a fair exemplification of the age which gave them birth.
Even in those rare instances in which the deception was discovered and cen-
tared by the Church, as in the case of the Acts of Paul and Theckla, written
under the impnlse of a warm affection for Pan], and an almost poetical sen-
timent in behalf of the daty of self-sacrifice, the work remained for a long
time in circulation among the Ohnrches. (b) 1) Among those called Acts of
the ApoBtUt may be noticed a cycle of histories pretending to give an account
of the miracles wrought by the apostles, collected and revised so as to favor
the interests of Manichaeism, by some one under the name of Leucius Cha^
rinys, (e) 2) Jewish imitations of earlier prophetic visions were sometimes
used by Chri^fitlans with their own interpretation, and sometimes counterfeited
hy Jewish Christians, to show the completion of the Messianic prophecies by
ftcts taken from the life of Jesus, (d) 8) Some lost prophecies, ascribed to
H}f4ta*pe^ an ancient Persian seer, gave to the Asiatic Christians a prophet
of the Messiah, from their own native region, {e) 4) The Syhilline Oracles
were written by many different authors in the course of several centuries, {f)
The oldest of them were composed by heathen and Jewish writers to sub-
serve their own peculiar, views, and- in many instances probably as a poetical
amosement. But the principal part of them consisting of reproaches against
heathenism, and predictions of its approaching overthrow, were written by
Christians, probably not so mucli to oppose and alarm their enemies, as to en-
oourage their friends. By those apologists, however, who were conversant
with pagan literature, they were made use of as divinely inspired writings.
a) Jren, t, 2&— J/b<A«im, de caosfs suppceltt libror. inter Cbrist (Das. ad H. ecc pert Th.
k) Tertul. de bapt e. 17. Acta S. Paall et Theeklae, ed. Orctbe^ Splcileg. Th. I. p. Sim. [Apoer.
StvT«tLoDd.l821.]
c) T«r 'Aw0(rr6kt»w %fpi6iou Pbot ood. 114 Acta 8. Tboowct, 9(L J. 0. Thilo, Lpe. 1828w
ipokr. EvT. &. Leben Jesu. p. 18s.
i) FabriHut, Codex paeodcplgr. V. T. ed. 3. Hatnb. 1712a. 2 Th.— The book of Enoch the Pro-
pbct. tran. fh>m an Ethioplc M9. by R. Laurenee^Oxi. (1S21.) 18^ A. O. Hoffman^ das Buch He-
Mckla Ueben. mit Gommentar. Jena. 1888-& 2 Abth. [Lond. Christ Observer, (in Littoll's Rel. Mag.
Ittl.) Book of Enoch. M. Stuart, in BibL Uepoe. for Jan. 1840. pp. 86-ld6.]-£zrae L lY. (Fabric Th.
llTtn.^ Verelo Aethioplca, lat angllceqae reddltaa Ji. Laurence, Oxf. 1820.— Ai Hia^^Kai rHv
SvSfca Uarpiapx^^* ^ Grahf, Spicil. Th. L p. 145sft. Corop. C. I. XiUsck^ de testam. XII. Pair.
^ ISld 4 — Ascensio {iyafiariK6y) Isalae vatis, oposc apnd. Acthiopas compertam, c. vers, lat
■BflleuiaqQe ed. R. Laurence, Oxon. 1819. GiewUr, retos translstio lat vlsionls Jcsalae ed. praef.
AMtis iH Qott 1888. 4 compu Nituch to d. Bind. a. Krit 1830. P. 2. LOck^ Einl. z. Apok. p. 12."^
Offwr^ (}e«cb. d. Urcbr. vol L 1. p^ 6Se«.
«) Fr. Watek, de Hfstaspe. (Comm. 8oc Reg. Oott Th. I. p. Sss.)
/) SlbjIHnorQm Oracalonim L VIIL ed. Servatius Oallaeus, Anist 16S9. 4 On tliis, see also L
A-XIV. in An^M Maji Serlptorani vett nova oollectia Rom. 1828. 4 Th. III. p. Z.—BUek, Tl Entst.
^ZottinmensL d. Sib. Orak. (TheoL Zeitschr. BrL 1S19. P. 1. 2.) {David BlondtU, Treatise of the
^Ui Lond. 16«1. C]
98 A^XIENT CnUECII niSTOET. PER. I. DIV. ir. A. D. 100-«12.
§ 90. Sulfordifiationists and Moruirchians,
I. AH acconnts of tho Monarcliians are derived from the party boetile to and finally viciorfons
over tbem, as e. g. TeriuUlan, who hated them as opponents of Montantsm : Epiphanhm and 7%«o>
dorei^ who regarded them with the prejadfces of the Athanasian party; and Euaeliusy the mort fm-
partial* but not Dnaffecte<l by the spirit and views of the age.
IL Martini^ Pragm. Gcsch. d. dogma v. d. Ooith. Ch. In d. ersten 4 •Tahrh. Rost. ISOO. vol. I.
St'hUUrmachfr^ 0. d. Gegens. zw. d. Sabell. n. Athan. VorsL v. d. TrlnltAt (Theol. Zt-ltwhr. Brl. 1S22.
P. 8. p. 295SS.) Jfeinichent de Alogls, Theodotlanls, Artemonitls. Lpe. 1S20. L, Lange^ Gesch. n.
Lehrbegr. d. Unltarler vor d. Nlc. Synode. (Beltr. z. KGesch. vol. II.) Liiz. 1881. /c/^ni. Abb. in
Illgen's Zcltschr. 1882. vol. IL Pt 2. p. ITpa) 188a vol. III. Pt 1. p. Cftss. PL 2. p. ITSss. Com|i.
GieteUr In d. Stnd. u. KrlL 1888. P. 4. p. 121.'te. B(mr, d. chr. Ix^hre v. d. DrclHnlgkolt n. Mensch-
werd. In geech. Entw. Tub. 1841. Tb. L p. 18288. O. A. MHer^ d. Lehro ▼. d. Trln. In hl$t Eotw.
Hamb. u. 0. 1S44. vol 1. p. 740a.
Tho whole effort made hy the Church of this period to rise above the
religion of mere feeling to tlie possession of clear ideas, was now concen-
trated in the inquiry, Who was Christ ? The answer of the Jews, declaring
that he was the Son of God, reminded the Greeks of the sons of deities in
their mythology, {a) As, however, the doctrine of the divine unity was
considered indispensable, and as Christians could not feel that the essential
glory of Christ was adequately expressed, when it was said in Jewish phrase,
that he was anointed and filled with the Holy Ghost, the attention of all was
turned to tho philosophic theory of the Logan^ regarded as tliat by which
God contemplated his own nature, and revealed himself in the universe as
far as it is an image of the divine lifel Two parties sprung up after the
middle of the second century, neither of which hesitated to call Christ, in a
Ilellenistic sense, not only a Son of God, but God himself. One of these be-
lieved that the Logos had an existence before our world, and was an exact
image of the Deity, but a subordinate person. The popular expression with
respect to the generation of this Logos, must have been understood as im-
plying either with the Gnostics, that it was an emanation from the divine
essence, or with the Alexandrians, that it was an eternal procession from it
by an exercise of the divine will. According to this view, the Holy Spirit
was regarded as an actual person, but one so subordinate and so little regard-
ed, that many who looked upon the Son as a person, held that the Spirit
was merely a power of God, or a mode of his operation. This relation of
the divine economy has been denominated, since the time of Tertullian, the
Trinity. The other party, either from its regard to the doctrine of the divine
unity (fxovapxia\ held that Christ was a mere man, but bom of the virgin by
the power of the divine Spirit, and exalted to be the Lord of the whole
Church, or from a regard to Christ's dignity, believed that he was a revela-
tion and manifestation of God on eartti. (h) Those who held to this last
view, wore, by their opponents, culled Patripassiani, Justin informs us,
that even in his day it was not regarded as inconsistent with Christianity to
hold that Christ was a mere man, and Tertullian reluctantly testifies, that in
his vicinity this was the common sentiment, (c) The first kind of Monarch-
a) Ju8tin. Apol. L c. 21. a Tryph. c. 69. Comp. PUnii Ep. X, 96.
V) Athenag. Legat c. 10. In Justin, c. Trjrph. c. 12S. The distinction between the two Undi
of Monarchlanlsm : OtHg. In Jo. torn. 2, 2.
c) Juntin. c. Tryph. c 4S. TertuL adv. Prax. c. 8.
CHAP. lY. DOCTBINES. % 90. SUBOBDIKATIONISTS & MOXARGIUANS. 99
ianism has always, since that time, been rejected as often as it has made its
appearance, inasmuch as no one would then presume to think of Christ in
less exalted terms than those in which the Gnostic heretics represented him.
But eren where no such a rejection took place, it naturally followed that no
one had any great timidity in denying a mere man. On the other hand, the
Mooarchians of the second class were regarded in many parts of the Church
as orthodox, and were not generally very seriously opposed, until an assault
was made upon them by persons at a distance, which was repelled by
an appeal to apostolical traditions, and to the Holy Scriptures. But the
Snbordinationists, whose views were more conformable to those of the com-
mon people, gradually gained upon public sentiment, and by various means
at the command of the hierarchy, utterly destroyed even the second kind of
Monarchianism, which had been rendered suspicious by the ease with which
it was confounded with the first. By ingenious references to reason and
revelation, the views of the triumphant party respecting the Logos were
made to correspond with the philosophy of that period.
1) Epiphanius speaks of a party in Asia Minor (about 170) whom he wit-
tily calls Alogi^ because they rejected the doctrine of the Logos and the gos-
pd by John, together with the doctrine of the Millennium and the book of
Bevdationa. They were probably the same persons as those mentioned by
Irenaeus as having rejected the gospel by John, and the idea of the pro-
phetic gifts of the Spirit. It is evident that they were opposed to the Mon-
tanista, bat we are left in doubt whether they took offence at the word Lo-
gos merely as a learned expression, or whether they were really Monarchians,
as they were regarded by Epiphanius. {d) 2) Fraxeas^ distinguished as a
eonfessor in the time of Marcus Aurelius, and sent from Asia Minor to
Rome to induce the churches in the latter city to refuse all fellowship
with the Montanists, taught without molestation the second kind of Mo-
aarchianism, respecting the incarnation of one divine Spirit in Christ. In
Outhoge, however, he was accused of heresy by Tertullian. (^) But The^
•i/>tu9^ the Tanner, who came about the same time from Byzantium to Rome,
md began to propagate the first kind of Monarchianism, was driven from
the Church by Victor^ Bishop of Rome. His party was distinguished for
secular learning, made use of the Scriptures as of a merely human produc-
tion, and was at one time powerful enough to elevate one of their own num-
ber to the See of Rome itself. It was not long, however, before their bishop
WIS attacked by persons sent by God, or by episcopal influence, and com-
piled to abdicate. From this party proceeded another Theodotns, a money-
Vroker, who became the head of the Melchizedecians^ who are said to have
honored Melchizedek as a heavenly Redeemer, superior to the earthly. Ar^
ffln<m was also excluded fVom the Church of Rome, for maintaining that the
established doctrine of the Church had always been, that the Redeemer was
BO more than a man, and that this had never been perverted or changed untH
(0 Epiph. baer. 51. 54. 8. Jren, III, 11. comp. Euth. 11. ecc. YII, 25.— iT. MerM, bist krit
AifUir. d. Streltlgk. d. Aloger. fi. d. Apok. FrkC n. Lpa. 17S2.
0 Teriid «dT. PnzMo.
100 AKCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PERL DIV. IL A. D. 100-812.
the time of Zepbyrinus, who then occopied the episcopal chair (201-218). (/)
8) NbetvH, of Smyrna, and probably a presbyter in Ephesus, was excluded
(aboQt 280) from his church as a Patripassian. That he should have repelled
this accusation in such decided terms, is only to be explained on the ground
that he held to the second kind of Monarchianism. (g) To this also, BeryU
2t/«, of Bostra, professed adherence. He denied that our Saviour had any
personal existence prior to the incarnation, or that there was in Christ a di-
vine nature distinct from that of the Father. He, however, conceded that
the Godhead of the Father dwelt in the person of Jesus. Under the instruc-
tion of Origen, he finally renounced these views, and embraced another sys-
tem of faith. (Ji) SahelUus^ a presbyter of Ptolemais (250-260), expressed
the same doctrine in terms still nearer those commonly used in the Church.
According to him, the Father, the Son, and the Spirit, were only the differ-
ent forms in which the supreme Unity, which unfolds itself in human affairs
as a Triad, reveals himself to men. In the Pentapolis, his doctrine was re-
garded as orthodox, until Dionysim^ of Alexandria, brought against him the
prelatical authority, and the stores of learning. But when the latter, in the
course of the controversy, carried the doctrine of Origen so far as to assert
that the Logos was created by the Father, was unequal to him in nature, and
began to exist in time, I>iony$iu8^ Bishop of Rome, maintained against him
a doctrine which the Alexandrian bishop would not have denied, that the
Son had an eternal existence in the Father. (0 4) Paul of Samosata, afler
260 Bishop of Antioch, appears to have effected a union of the two kinds of
Monarchianism, although the first was decidedly predominant in his system.
He maintained that Jesus, as a man, was begotten by the Holy Ghost, and
that the divine Logos which then began personally to exist, had a peculiar
connection with him. The Syrian bishops were violently opposed to their
Metropolitan, conspired against him at three different Synods, and at An*
tioch, in the year 269, proclaimed his deposition. Their enmity seems to
have been much excited by his political position and worldly honors, (k) and
it was not until the year 272, when the imperial power co-operated with
them, that their act of deposition was carried into effect. The fall of this
powerf\d bishop decided the fate of the Monarchians, who are henceforth
mentioned only as isolated individuals, and as heretics already condemned
(Sabelliani, Samosateniani.) In the public acts of this Synod, the Sabellian
form of expression, according to which the Son is of a nature similar to that
of the Father (6fioov<nos r^ frarpi), was also condemned, (l)
/) Teriul do praescr. append, c 68. JSum^, H. ec& Y, 2a EpipK- bacr. &4 OS. Theodord.
Haeret fkbl). II« 4as.
g) nippolyt. (IS r^r aXptfftv No^ov riroj. (Ed. Fabric. Th. II. p. Cm.) SpipK haer. BT.
TheodoraL III, &
A) Eiueb. IL ecc YI, 88. comp. 20. JTUron, cataL o. 60. comp. Ori{j. 0pp. Th. lY. pi S9&—
UUmann^ de Beryllo Boetreno. Ilamb. 1885. 4. comp. Stud. a. Krit 1836. P. 4 p. lOTSss.
0 Suseb. H. ecc YII, 6. Athana«. £p. de sententia DlonyslL (Th. L p. 51dsflw) GaUandii Bib.
PP. Th. III. p. 495. vol. XIY. App. p. 118. Battil Ep. 210. Epiph, haer. 62. ThtodoreL II, 9.
[SchUiermacher^ trand. by M. Stuart, in BlbL Repos. vol Y. p. 265-85& VI. p. 1-80.]
*) EuUb. U. eoc VII, 27-^. EpipK haer. 65. A. M<^i N. Coll. Th- VII. P. 1. ^ 68. 2»»b8.—
EhrlicK, de orroriboa Paoli Sam. Lpa. 1745. 4. J. R JSchtoab, de P. Sam. vita atqne doetr.
Herbip. 1889.
t) AlKofiOi. d« synod. Arim. et Stieao. & 48. (Th. L p. 917.) ffUar, d« Bynod. & 86b
SECOND PERIOD,
FBOH C0N8TANTINE TO CHABLE8 THE 6BEAT.
§ 91. General View,
Heatbenism was now destroyed and Christianity became the religion of
the State. The effort to attain a more perfect intelleotnal apprehension of
the doctrinea of the Ohristian system, produced a great agitation both of the
Church and of the empire. The Church and the State exerted a reciprocal
and mutnaDy perrading influence upon each other, and by blending together
the politieal and dogmatic interest, an unfavorable result was produced in
both. The rights of the congregations wore still enforced in almost all in-
itanoci by popular insurrections and intrigues at court. The unity of tlie
Chnroh was carried out by sacrificing the independence of its several parts,
tud the whole became subject to the two great bu^hops residing at old and
new Rome. The power of the monks nearly equalled that of the clergy.
Grecian and Christian usages and morals were blended together, and mu-
tislly corrapted one another. From the midst of these doctrinal conflicts,
and from the fanaticism of the Desert, a class of characters was produced, in
wMeh the Holy Ghost allowed the spirit of the times to attain, on a grand
mle, the end for which it indefinitely longed. At the close of this struggle,
the State was distracted by another relating to images. Christianity gave a
inal ^ry, an internal life and a consolation in misfortune to the Roman
•mplref bat eould not prevent its overthrow. A now and simple faith ob-
tdned a victory over Christianity by means of the sword, and closed against
it its own native East. Greece alone continued Roman, and gradually sunk
with its Church into a long apparent death. The German nations broke
into the Western Empire, but soon bowed themselves before the croes, and
gtrre to the Church a new life. The period naturally falls into two divisions
cf nearly equal length : the Church of the Roman empire, to which the ad-
jacent cnriental countries belong, and the Church among the Germanic na-
tions, to which the Roman bishopric, from the time of Stephen II., was
tnoiCerred.
DIVISION L-THE IMPERIAL CHURCH,
I 92. Original Authorities,
I) Am6. (I li.) Ets rhy $low Kvwarturrlyov. L IV. Vita Constant, et FanesyrtcnB, ed. /TWn-
UUi. L|«. 188a HUtoriae eee. EoaeblL 1. IX Bnflno interprete ao IL fpsios RuJIni, «<!. Cacci-
*i Bom. 1741c 9 Tta. 4. Ulatoria eoa Soriptoret graacl, a notis VaUsii ed. O, Reading, Cantahr.
KNl t Tk. £ yio&pkonu CkOlUaut, UicKne, laropia, ed. Fronton U Due, Par. ICSO. 2 Tb. f
102 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOBY. PER. IL DIV. L A. D. 812-800.
2) SiUpicii Seteriy Hist sacnK ed. Hqfmeitter^ Tip. 170a (Oppi cd. Hleron, n Prato^ Veron. 1741fc
2 Th. f. TlacrxcUfoy s. Chronicon paschale, <kL (7ar. d u Frenne Dom, du Cange. P*r. IftSS. £ ZtKf.
DiN^foi:/^ Bonn. 1S82. 2 Tb. Thtoj)hane9 Confeitior^ Xpovtyypa^ioL, c mAlsJroari et Cbmb^Jltiu
Par. 165.\ Yen. 1729. f. 8) Ammianut MareeUinua, Reram geet L XXXI. cd. Emetti. Lpa. 1773w
1885. Zonimus, iaropia via, ed. ReiUmeier. Lps. 1764. /tTt. Bekker, Bonn. 1S37. [Tbe Greek
Ecclea. Histories by Eoseb. Tbeod. Socrat Sozoin. and Evagrius, bave beeo newlj translated and pnb-
lisbed, witb lives of tbe aatbors, in 6 vols. 8va Lond. 1842-6.]
Most of the public original documents are contained in the acts of conn-
cils and tbe imperial codes. Eutebivs was influenced in tbe bistory of bis
own times at least by gratitude, {a) His Ecclesiastical History was freely
translated, and continued to tbe time of tbe translator by Itvjinxts (395). (bi)
Among tbe Greeks it was continued by tbe advocate, Socrates SchoJastieus
(806-489), and Hermias Sozorneuva (828-428). The former was a candid and
plain writer ; the latter was full of monastic notions, and wrote in a florid
style. Both were completed by Theodorelvs, bishop of Cyrus, with a great
abundance of theological learning (325-427). (c) All of these were com-
posed in the spirit of tbe ascendant party in the Church. The Ecclesiastical
History of Philost^yrgius (300-426), is a panegyric upon the Tanquished par-
ty, and is preserved only in tbe extracts made by Photius. Etagrius^ a dis-
tinguished advocato of Antioch, continued tbe history of tbe Catholic Church
(481-^94) with special attention to political circumstances, and an extreme
passion for orthodoxy. Extracts from Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret,
are preserved in a manuscript work of Theodorua Lector^ and fragments of
bis continuation of Socrates (until 618) have been preserved by Kioepborus.
Tbe history of Nicephorus CallUtius (which at first consisted of twenty-three
books, and reached to the year 911, but now consists of only eighteen books,
extending to the year 610), was compiled in the fourteenth century from
older historical writings and original documents in the church of St. Sophia.
It was written in an elegant style, and its sentiments are honestly expressed,
but it is characterized by servility and superstition. Sulpicius Sec&nta^ at
first a lawyer, and afterwards a presbyter in Gaul, wrote a concise simimaiy
of universal history (until 400) with a strong ecclesiastical spirit, but it is
important only for what relates to bis own times, and to events occurring in
bis own vicinity. The Easter- Chronicle (written until 864, under Constan-
tius, but with later additions until 628, under Ileraclius) is principally a cal-
culation of tbe passovers from the beginning of the world, but it is enlivened
by a chronicle in which many singular documents and accounts are communi-
cated in a simple style, and in an ecclesiastical spirit. Tkeophanes Confessor
^yrote a continuation of an older chronicle down to bis own time (285-818X
and with much learning made use of original documents which would other-
wise bave been lost. His work is pervaded by the spirit of a monk and of
a martyr to bis zeal for image worship. Among the last of the heathen his-
torians, Ammianus Marcellimis^ in those portions of bis history of the em-
pire which are extant (libb. 14-81. 858-878), has recorded the ecclesiastical
events of that period with the impartiality and sound common sense of a sol-
d) Socrat II. ecc 1, 1.
b) F. J. Kimmelj de Rof., Eua. intcrprete L II. Qer. 1888.
c) F. A. JToUhausin, de fontibQ^ qulbos Socr. Soz. et Tbeod. osl sont Qoett 189Sc 4
CHAP. L YICIOBT OF CHBISTIANITY. S^a CONSTANTINE & HIS SONa 103
dier, and Zo$imuA, a court officer under Theodosius II., has described (in de-
tail 2&1-410) with minute art the dark shades in the character of the Chris-
tian emperors.
CHAP. I.— VICTORY AJND DEFEAT OF CHRISTIANITY.
J. G. Bitfmann, niii» supentltionis pagaoML Yit 1788. i, S. T, JNkdiger, de statu paganomm
Mb. Imp. ebrist post Const Ynt 182& BeugnoL (before $ 4t)
§ 98. Canstantine and his Sons,
L Wbaterer relates to them In Etueb. and Zo9lmus.—lL Martini^ d. £1nf&hr. d. cbr. BeL als
BlaataeL dnrch Constant Manch. ISia i. Matuo, Leben Const BresL 1817. Ki*t, do conimata-
tkMM, qnam Const aactore socletas cbr. sublit Tn\). ad Bh. 1818. 4 {Hug) Denkscbr. s. Ehrcnrett
Coast (Zeltscbr. t d. Oelstllcbk. d. Erzb. Freybarg. 1829. P. 8.) Arendt, Q. Const u. s. Yorb. z.
Cfaristentb. (T&b. Qnartabcbr. 1884. P. a) [Euub, PamphUus, Life of Const in 4 books. Nev
LoDd. 1845^ 8.]
As fast as he conld wisely do so, and by all the means which an absolate
monarch can bring to bear npon his faYorite plans, Constantine gradually be-
stowed upon the Church security, wealth, privileges, and every thing which
oonld make it attractive. By the arts of state policy, the contest be-
tween the rulers of the Eastern and Western division of the empire had
been identified with that between the ancient gods and the crucified Re-
deemer. No sooner had this been decided by the complete destruction of
Lkinius (828), than Canstantine openly expressed a desire to see the whole
Roman world once more united in one common religion. He, however, free-
ly acknowledged the right of all those who desired, to persevere in their ad-
herence to the obsolete superstition. Only a few temples in the East were
deq»oiled, that their ornaments might be used to adorn the new Christian
Rome ; some others were destroyed on account of the immoralities practised
in them, (a) and a law against sacrifices (/;) was probably directed merely
against such immoralities, or was never executed. The emperor still re-
mained Pont if ex MaximuSj and some of his enactments indicate that he hon-
ored^ or at least feared the magical arts of the old paganism, (c) Political
interests seemed imperatively to require that ChristiaiHty should be estab-
Bshed as the religion of the State, that those religious questions which were
then producing innumerable divisions might bo decided. That Constantine,
bowerer, acted in these measures from a sincere attachment to Christianity,
k evident from what he did before the chivalrous emperor had degenerated
mto the tyrant, and from his interest in those ecclesiastical matters with
which the mere policy of the ruler could have had no connection. The
Kme sign which had originally given him the victory (Labarum, 812), (d)
bad also conducted him to universal dominion, and he therefore regarded
lumseif as the favorite of Heaven, called to secure an equal dominion for the
a) AiMfr. YiU Const II, 6&-60.
h) According to a reference wbicb Constans made to It (e) and Euwb. Vita Const II, 45.
e) Coostit de hanupldnae nso. a. 821. L. 1. Cod. Theod. de pagan. (XVI, 10.) Zoaim. lU 29.
d) Eu90b. YIU Const I, 27-81. Laetant de mortib. c 44. Soaom. I, a Rujtn, I, 9. Comp.
Uaarii, FtnegjT, Const c li.—ireinich&n^ Excarai L ad Yltam Const
104 ANCIENT CHUBCH HISTORY. PER II. IMPERIAL OHUBOR. A. D. 81»-«0dL
orosB of Christ. And yet he was not restrained from desecrating that very
oroas by hands deeply imbraed in blood, in the blood of his own son (826).
That he remained among the catechumens, and never received baptism nntil
the year in which he died (887), is accounted for by a reference to a super-
stitions opinion then prevalent among many Christians. Not only has the
Church from gratitude conferred upon him the title of the Great, but even
heathenism has given him a place among its divinities. While acquiring and
maintaining his authority, he won many battles, formed a system of govern-
ment which acted with all the regularity of an artificial machine, built a
metropolis for the world in a position the most admirable of any on earth,
and lived to experience and to deserve many misfortunes. In one respect he
was certainly great or fortunate, for when seated in the highest position then
attainable, he seems to have understood what the necesedties of his age re-
quired. His sons followed out and even extended the political system and
favorite plans he had bequeathed to them. The temples were closed, and
those who should venture to sacrifice were threatened with death, (e) In
Rome alone an asylum for the ancestral gods was allowed to remain, as a
special favor solemnly conceded to the m^esty of the Roman people. (/)
§ 94. Juliantu Apoatata,
L Juliani 0pp. (Miaopogon, Caeearea, Oratlonea, £ppw) et CyrilU Alea. e. Jnlian. L X cd. ^^pam-
hwi. Lpa. 160«. 2 Tb. £ Jul. Epp. Aceednnt flragm. breTiora, ed. Heeler, Mof. 1898. Tlie aeriea of
Christian lampoons begins with Grtgorii Jfa*. in Julian, apost invectivae daae. The pagan pane-
gyrics with Lihaniut^ especially with his Oratio parentalis. A true and fair aeeonnt In Ammian,
Marc, XXL-XXV» a
II. //. P. a Ifenk^, de TheoL Jul. Helmst 1777. i. (0pp. 1802. ^ dOSss.) A. Keander, JnL XL s.
Zeitaltor. Lpa. 1812. (ScMoMer's Rec in d. Jen. L. Z. Jan. 1818. p. 1218«l) Idem, [H. of the Chr.
ReL and Church. toI. II. pp. 86-<17.] C If. van Ilencerden^ de Jul. rel. chr. hoste eodemqne Tin-
dice. Lugd. 1827. O. F. Wiggert, Jul. d. Abtr. (Elgen's Zeltschr. 1S87. vol VII. p. 1.) II. Sehube^
de phll. et morib. Jul. Btrals 1889. 4 V. 8i Tevffiel^ de Jul Imp. christianlsmi eontemtore et oior*i
Tub. 1644. [A short acoonnt of the Life of JuL the Ap. Lond. 1689. 19. Life of Jul Lend. 1688. &
Two Orations of J. transL Lond. 1798. 8.]
Julian had heen educated for the Christian priesthood, hut he had learned
to regard Christianity as a tissue of suhtle formulas, and as a religion of sla«
very. The victory it had acquired over the religion of his ancestors he as-
cribed to the violent measures of him who had heen the murderer of his
father^s family. By an acquaintance with the poets of antiquity and the
philosophers of heathenism, which he had acquired in secret, he found what
seemed to him a higher life. Having attained the throne by a bold use of
favorable circumstances (8G1), he looked upon himself as destined by the
gods to bring back the delightftil times of antiquity. His religious views
were of the New-Platonic school, and in his restoration of paganism, he in-
tended to ingraft upon it all the excellencies of Christianity. Christians
were removed fh>m civil offices, condemned to rebuild the temples which had
been destroyed, and excluded from all professorships in which the national
e) Constantis Lex adr. aacrit a. 841. L. IL Cod, Thsod. de pagan. (XVI, la) OmeftinfM Bcaer.
ad Taurum. a. 808. ibid. L. 4.
/) L. 8. Cod. Tfisod, de pagan. (XYI, 10.)
OBAP. L TIOTOBT OF CBBI8TIANITY. | M. JULIAN. % Vk PAGANISM. 105
Bteratnre was taag^t. (a) Even the claims of jnstice were coDoeded in inch
a wj at to &vor his hostile design ; all sects were tolerated, all banished
Uahopa were reoaned, and the Jews were invited to rebuild their sanctnary.
Those who had remained heathen now began to lift np their heads, and the
6Ttr Tenal moltitade retnmed to their deserted temples. These very efforts,
howerer, merely showed how well Constantine had understood the age in
which he lived. The ridicule and hatred of the Christians Julian met with the
weapons of a philosopher rather than with those of a universal ruler. In
his oontroversies with the Galileans, he endeavored especially to show that
they were condemned by their own sacred books when they deified a de-
Jew, complied with the new custom of honoring other deceased per-
and renounced Judaism, (b) The virtues he exhibited in his official duties
procured peace and esteem even from those who personally disliked him, and
those difiTerenoes which existed between him and his people did not make
him 8 tyrant. The more beautiful traits of the Greek national spirit could
DoC be developed in him, but he was nevertheless a hero and a philosopher
on the throne, and a pioos and virtuous man in private life. Even his de-
clamatory vanity was connected with his high regard for the free judgment
of his people. After a busy reign of twenty months as sole emperor, and
liter a restless but fhxitless life, he fell while yet a youth in a battle with the
Ptesiaiis (863). Though he passed away like a fljdng doud, he was, with the
•loeption of Athanasius, the greatest man of his century.
§ 95. Fall of Paganiiin.
After Julian, the empire was governed by Ohristian emperors, but hea-
tbeidsm continued undisturbed in its civil relations until the reign of Theo-
Imus I. This monarch having conquered the Gotha and suppressed the
beretica, felt bound also to persecute the pagans (381). It was at this time
dao that Gratianus had the altar.of Victory removed from the hall of the
Boman senate. It was in vain that Symmachus, in the name of the senators,
implored that an altar with which the early and happy recollections of so
many venerable fathers were connected, and already so dear even to the ten-
dcrast youth, might be spared. In vain did he plead in the name of the
eternal city itself, that in the present uncertain condition of things, the usages
cf their ancestors might be respected, and a religion under which they had
eoDquered the world might not be exterminated, (a) In the exercise of his
power as sole ruler (892), Theodosius prpclaimed every form of idolatry a
crime, and every attempt to learn the secrets of the future by animal sacri-
fioea, high treason. (5) Those enthusiastic teachers who relied wholly upon
tbe q)iritual power of the gospel to overcome all its opponents, were out-
unnbered by the zealots who urged the emperor, as a matter of conscience,
«)/ULE|ii 4flL Ammian. Marc XXII, 10. OroHi, Illit YII, 80. The mtoundentanding In
^^m. V, ia Soerai. III« 13. Theodoret Hlat eoo. Ill, 8.
>)lfvfila # J fVMU, IMfeoM da piiguiiane pw I'Emp. JaliAn. B«r. 1764 ed. & 1TS9.
•< Sfmmaeki L X Kp. «1. (Ed. /VirMM, Neoet. Nem. 1628.)
^)L 11 Cod. Th0Od. de pagan. (XYI, \(i,)^atv^fk4n, da Theododl M. in rem cbr. moritU.
106 ANCIENT CUUBCH HISTOBY. FEB. IL IMPEBIAL CHUBOH. A. D. 819-aOO.
to destroy paganism by fire and sword. The popnlaoe were excited by tIo-
lent monks to rise against the temples. It was to no purpose that Libanitu
eloquently interceded for those edifices which he had jnst assisted Julian to
embellish, (r) A few of the more beaatifhl ancient temples were saved, to be
converted into churches. When the mysterious Serapion at Alexandria was
destroyed, and the statue of the god was broken to pieoes, the Egyptians
expected, according to an ancient prophecy, that the world would sink back
into its original chaos, (d) Philosophy sought consolation in magical arts,
and hopes were entertained that the power of Christianity was destined to
extinction during the year 899. (e) The heathen orades withheld their re-
sponses, and the Sibylline books were consumed in the flames. Before the
middle of the fifth century, idolatry was completely exterminated in every
part of the Eastern empire. In the West, where the continual incursions
of the barbarians rendered the emperor's authority less effective, it was found
impossible wholly to put down the worship of the gods, to whose vengeance
the devastation of the empire was ascribed. Hence, after Rome had been
plundered by the barbarians, Augustine (426) and Oronus (417) found it ne-
cessary, by labored apologies, to prove that Christianity was not responsible
for the calamities of the times, the former taking the ground that the whole
history of the world was only a development of the kingdom of Christ, con-
ditioned by the opposition of men. (/) The great multitude indeed followed
where fortune and power led the way, but Augustine found by experience,
as Libanius had intimated, that it was easier to exclude the gods from the
temples, than from the hearts of the people, and that Jesus was not often
sought for from disinterested motives, (g) Heathenism maintained its ground
only here and there in some remote districts (paganismus, 868), where it was
protected by the rustic simplicity and honesty of its votaries, in particular
indi\iduals or families of an exalted character, and in the schools of philoso-
phy. A few philosophers fell a sacrifice to the frantic zeal of the Christian
populace. The learned and amiable Hypatia^ who presided over the New-
Platonic school of Alexandria, was horribly murdered in a church, not with-
out guilt on the part of Cyril the bishop. (A) Heathenism, however, from
its very nature, could never attain ascendency by its martyrdoms. Ju§»
tinian L destroyed its last intellectual hold, by abolishing the schools of phi-
losophy, and he annihilated even those secret vestiges of it in Rome which
had become concealed under an indifference to all external forms of wor-
ship, {i) Photius alone preferred a voluntary baptism of blood in defence
c) Drat ad Tbeodos. {nt\p rwv Upcov. 0pp. ed. Beiske, Tb. II. More complete: Noyos 8. Pa-
tratn Qraec Saec lY. delectaa, rec Z. de Sinner. Par. 1848.
d) Ri/^ni, n. eoo. II, 22-8a Hocrat Y, 16.
«) Sotom. YI, 8S. Augu*Hn, de Civ. Dei. XYIII, 68.
f) Augtui. de Civitate Del L XXIL c oomment Jo. L. Vivis et Coquaei^ Hamb. 166S. STh.
J. van Goms, de Aug. Apoli^eta sec. IL de Cir. Del Amst 183S. Pauli OroHi ady. Paganna bti-
toriar. L. YII. (Ilonnceda moodi, Moeetltia) rec Siff. Baverkamp^ Lugd. 1788b 4 Th, de Mommer,
de Oroe. vita ejusqae Uist. Iibri& Ber. 1844
0) Uban. 0pp. vol II. p. 177. Attg. Serm. 82. in £v. Jo. tr. 25, 10. A) Soorat. YII, lQi-*-ir«rfi«-
dorf, de Hyp. phlloeopba Dsa. lY. Yit 174a 4. Miknch^ Hjpatia. (Yerm. Scbriften. Ladwigsb.
1828. vol. I.)
i) Procopil^ Hist arcana c. 11. Theophan, Chronogr. ad ann. 522. Comp. Agathku Hiit II, 8QL
CHAP. L TICTORT OF CHRISTIAKITT. f 95. MAINOTTES. { 96. MA3SALIANS. 107
of freedom, to a constrained baptism in behalf of Christianity ; and the
Mainotte$^ in their mountain homes, defended at the same time their own
fiberties and the ancient gods of Spart^ So many religions phrases and fes-
tiyals connected with idolatry were preserved at Home, that it may more
properly be said to have been incorporated into the life of the Church than
abolished. The last adherents of the ancient faith were fonnd in the seventh
oentnry, inhabiting some remote valleys of the Italian islands.
§ 96. Massalians and Ilypaiaiarians.
L Epiph, loner. 80. CtfrilL AUat. de adoratione in spirltu et verit L III. (Par. Th. I. p. 92.)
Grtifor. Xas. Orat. XVIII. f 5. (0pp. p. 888.) Greffor. A>m. adv. Eanom. 1. II. (Th. II. p. 440.)
IL UUmann, de HfpsisUriifl. Ueidelb. 1828. 4. On the other side: Boekmer^ de Uype. Praefii-
tm ert Neaodcr. BeroL 18S4. together with various replloe.
Many persons had no confidence in the ancient gods, who nevertheless
had no faith in Christ. These were indifferent about what might be the re-
iult of the great struggle for religion, or without professing adherence to any
particolar Deity, they contented themselves with the most general forms of
|»ety. The more sincere portion of this class longed for some religions fel-
lowahip, and therefore associated themselves together. Accordingly, the
MamaUan9 of Syria and Palestine (Euchites, Enphemites, ^toaf^tU, and in
Africa Coelicolae), conceded, indeed, that there might be many gods, but
ictually worshipped, in their splendidly illuminated oratories, at morning
tnd evening twilight, only One universal Ruler. The Hypsistarians {vyltiaT<^
Uf vpocKvpovyrts) of Cappadocia can be reckoned in the same class with
them, only on the ground that both were worshippers of but one God, for
tlieir peculiar sentiments respecting the eating of meats and the Sabbath in-
dicate that they must have been a kind of proselytes of the gate. That they
e?er had any connection with Parsism, is very doubtful. The indifierence
of the former class and these latter sects of the fourth century must have
disappeared, after a few generations, before the internal and external power
of Christianity.
§ 97. Christianity under the Persians,
Christianity made no very great progress in Persia, on account of the
newly awakened national spirit, the volatile character of the people, and the
nptfficial knowledge then possessed by Christians of the Persian system of
fdigion. In the fourth century, however, Christian congregations existed
in every part of that country under the Metropolitan of Seleucia. But in
ooQseqnence of the hatred felt against them by the priestly caste, who were
boond together by the closest bonds, and some suspicions of a political na-
ture awakened against them, they became victims of a persecution, after 848,
which raged almost without interruption for a whole century, and nearly an-
nihilated the Church, (a) No parties bearing the. name of Christian could
^ an asylum there, except those which had been expelled from the Roman
ttipire. Cho9roe4t IL conquered Jerusalem (614) and put to death all Chris-
^ whom he fonnd in Palestine. Jleradius restored the holy city to free-
•)fM06. VIU Const IV, »-ia Somm. II, 9-14 8ocr. VII, 19-21. TheodoreU V, 88. Acto
Ibi^ Orient et Oodd. tA&K Atmnanvt, Boxn. 174S. t P. L
108 ANCIENT CUUBCH HI8T0BT. PEU. IL IMPEBIAL CHUBCH. A. D. 812-80a
dom, and triamphantly reinstated the cross in its former glory (621-628).
Armenia fell at last beneath the power of the Persians (429), bat its Chri**
tianity was more heroically defended |han its freedom, (b)
§ 98. Ahymnia and the Dia$pora,
The preservation of two yonng men belonging to the murdered crew of a
Grecian vessel, was the occasion of the conversion of the Abyssinians. One
of these, named Frumentius, obtained inflnence at conrt, received episcopal
ordination from the hands of Athanasins (827), and lived to see the whole
nation professing the Christian faith, (a) Oosmaa, the Indian traveller, fonnd
(before 535) Christian congregations at three different points along the coast
of the Eagt Indies. Thomas was honored by them as their apostle, but they
mnst have been originally composed of mercantile colonies from Persia, {h)
The existence of a chnrch at Chnmdan, in China (after 686), with all that is
related of it, is proved only by a record discovered by the Jesuits, (e) Ara-
bia was furnished with an apostle with many rich gifts by the Emperor Con-
stantius. But wherever Christianity became prevalent in that country, it
was violently assailed by the Jews. Whole nomadic tribes received baptism
at once from the hermits of the desert, but probably without much inquiry
into the nature of Christianity, or further practice of its precepts.
§ 99. Mohammed,
L Tb« Koran : anb. et Uit ed. Maraecim. PaUv. 1698. £ Petanb. 1787. 4. FltigtL, L^ml (18S1)
1841. 4 Ahul/eda^ (14th cent) Iltot anteUUmlca, arab. et lat ed. FUUcher, Lpei 1881. Derita
Mahamedia, arab. et lat ed. Oagnier, Oxon. 1728. f. (The 1st Part of Abnlfeda's Ann. MoalemH
anb. et lat ed. BeUke^ Ilavn. 17898a. 5 Th. 4.) Comp. J. r. Hammer in the Wiener Jabrb. 188&
▼oL 68. Janoary, Ac [The Koran; transL from the Arab, into EngL by O. SaU. Lond. 1889. 1841
S Tola. 8. Belectiona from the K. with an interwoven oomm. transL ttam the Arab, with notee, etc.
by JST. W. Lans. Load. 1844. &]
IL J. Gaffni^, U vie de Mah. Amst 1789. S Th. G. Buth, Life of Mob. New York. 1882. 1%
{W. Irring^ Mob. and bia Bocceflaors. New York. 1853. 2 voIil & & OckUy, Hist of the Saraoem,
comprising tlie Uvea of M. and hia snooessora, &c 4 ed. Lond. 1847. 8. A. Sprenger^ Life of Mob.
Allahabad. 12.]— ^arc/n cU ToMy, Doctrine et devoirs de la rel. musulmane. Par. 1828. Ch. Fot--
gter, Mahometanisme unveiled. Lond. 1629. 2 vols. & Dettinger, z. TheoL dee Korans. (TQb. Zelt-
echr. 1881. P. 2.) J. t>. Hammer- Pur gtUiU, Mob. d. Prophet Lpa. 1887. Comp. Umbreit, in d.
Stad. 0. Krit 1841. P. 1. O. Weil, Mob. de Proph. Stuttg. 184& [ W. H. Xwle, The Moham. Sys-
tem of Theology. Lond. 1823. 8.]— 7VcA««fi, quatenos M. aliamm relL sectatores toleraveritf
(Cmmtt Soc. Goett Class. Hist Th. XV. p. 152ss.) Mdhler, Verb, in welchem nach d. Koran J. CL
xn M. steht (T&b. Quartalschr. 1880. P. 1.) A. Geiger, was hat M. ans dem Jodenth. aaf^nommanf
Bonn. 1888. C. F. Geroct, Cbristologle d. Koran. Hamb. 1889. [IT. Pridmua^ Nature of Impoatart
in the Life of M. Lond. 8va H. Martyn^ Controv. Tracts on Chr. and MahommedanisoL ed. &
Lee. Lond. 1824 ^ J. R White, Comparison of Moham. and Chr. Bampton Lectt Lond. Sw W. T.
Thompton, Pract Phil, of the Mohammedans, transL from the Per. of Jany MuK Aedad, Lond.
1889. a Art in BUtto's Jonmal of BibL Lit vol L]
The Arabians were a free, warlike, and imaj^native people, sub«sting
h) Elieaeue, Htatory of Vartan, transl. by Veumann. Lond. 188a 4 p. 12sa. Saint MarUtk
(I 68. note d.) Th. L p. SOftasi Th. IL p. 472sa.
a) Rti/tn. I, 9,^JoH Ludoljt Hist Aethiopica. Fro£ 1881. t III, S. and Cmtr. ad H. Aeth. IK
1891. t p. 588aa.
h) Coemas, Toiroyptupia xp^aricufiK'h. iMm^faueon^ Colleetio nova PP. graaa Par. 17(Hk £ Th,
IL) L. IIL p. 173. L XL p. 886. comp^ PhUoetcrg. Ill, 14,
c) KiroheH China illustrata. Bum. 1687. f. p. 4imk
CHAP. L YIGTOBT OF OHRISTIANITT. f 90. MOHAMMED. 109
iqKm their flocks, and with only a few oommercial towns. With no literary
oaltiTatlon, they took great delight in a poetic language. From the most
ancient times, the Caaha at Mecca, originally consecrated to the worship of
the one God, had heen the national sanctuary, bnt more recently each tribe had
posMssed a deity for itself. Judaism, Christianity, and Parsism, had severally
fimnd entrance into Arabia, and it was not nncommon for them to be com-
bined or exchanged the one for the other. Mohamjned (b. 571) belonged to
the race of Ishmael, the tribe of the Eoreish, and the family of Hashem,
whose bosiness it was by inheritance to take charge of the Caaba. He was
originally a merchant and a herdsman, of a qniet temperament, with very
Bttle indication of his fntnre character, though frequently lost in religious
rsTeries. All at once he began (611) to proclaim : ^^ There is no God but
God, and Mohammed is his prophet.'' On this fundamental principle was
eoDStmcted a system of faith and morals, which combined together the four
forms of religion prevalent among his people. Mohammed was acquainted
with these only as he had found them in his intercourse with men — Judaism
ia its Talmudic, and the life of Jesus in its apocryphal form. His professed
elject was to re-establish the religion of Abraham, the great ancestor of his
aition ; and as he regarded Judaism and Christianity as divine revelations,
he in the Koran honored their founders with legends of their miracles. His
opinion respecting what he called tlie later corruptions of these systems, be-
eune gradually more intolerant, and was aggravated with respect to the
Jews by motives of personal hatred. It became still more developed, as he
advanced beyond the idea of a national toward that of a universal religion —
IB Idam^ without which there was no salvation. His system of religious
etibics demanded stated seasons and forms of prayer, fastings and ablutions,
alfl^giTing, a pilgrimage to Mecca, an earnest contention for the faith, and a
wiDingness to die in its behalf. A confidence in the doctrine of an absolute
Iiredestination, raised the courage of a brave people by inducing them joy-
foHy to surrender themselves to the will of the Almighty. He prohibited
Im followers the use of wine, but indemnified them by an unrestrained
«Dowanoe of sexual pleasures. The prospect of sensual enjoyments in an-
tUier world gave the finishing stroke to this system, and adapted it solely to
Bum's sensuous and intellectual nature. He then presented it to his fellow-
men with all the peremptoriness of a direct revelation from heaven, and in
lU the fSmcifVil richness of the popular poetry. Few in his native city were
disposed to put confidence in his messages, and he was even obliged to escape
tlM swords of his fellow-citizens by flying (July 15th, 622, Hedschra) to Me-
fina. By bold predatory expeditions from this place, he conquered a part
of Arabia, and the remaining portion was convinced by his success that he
Vtt indeed an apostle of God. His personal appearance was remarkably pre-
ponenng ; he was eloquent, enthusiastic in piety, as well as artful in policy,
lobold in his measures that he even resorted to assassination to effect them,
T^ ordinarily just and magnanimous enough to be esteemed by an adoring
P^ple as a messenger fi*om God. In his private life he was faithful, sincere,
nd temperate, though addicted to women. When first called of God to his
v<>k, he could neither read nor write ; his travels could have given no great
110 ANCIENT CHURCH III9T0EY. PER. IL IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 8l8-80a
information, and most of what he knew he had acquired at Mecca, to which
pilgrims resorted from the whole oriental world. He professed to receive his
revelations, as occasion called for them, from the lips of the angel Gahriel,
in inspired language, though in the day of his prosperity they were not with-
out a remarkable adaptation to his desires. They were preserved sometimes
in popular tradition, and sometimes in detached manuscript fragments, until
two years after his death, when they were collected as holy scriptures (Al-
koran) by Ahuhehr, This prophet, poet, priest and king of Arabia, died (682)
in the midst of his plans of conquest, from the effects of a slow poison given
him to test his prophetic powers.
§ 100. Victories of Islam,
OeUner, des effeta de la rel. de Moh. pendant les trois prem. b16c1m. Pit. 1810. Hit Zna. dM
Vert ▼. R D. M. FrkC 1810. J. J. Dmingtr, Mab. Rel nach ihrer EniwlckL n. ihrom EinfluML
MOnch. 1888.
To his successors the Caliphs^ Mohammed left the assurance that God had
given them the world to be conquered for Islam. This system had even then,
in its various sects, been developed in some splendid forms of life. The Ro-
man empire had become debased by effeminacy, and the oriental Church was
split up into factions. But a religious enthusiasm which has seized the
sword, cannot be overcome, at least by ordinary armies, and Christianity had
hitherto been far from cultivating the military virtues. The Arabians suc-
cessively conquered Egypt and Syria before 640, Persia before C51, and the
African provinces before 707. With extreme difficulty Constantinople with-
stood the storm. The conditions on which the patriarch Sophronius had sur-
rendered Jerusalem (687), were generally complied with by the Saracens, so
far as they referred to the Christian population. Christians were tolerated
in the exercise of their religion on the payment of a poll-tax, but many of
them renounced their faith, and followed the fortune of their conquerora.
Mohammed defended Jesus from the attempts of Christians to deify him, and,
according to a prevalent tradition, Christ is at his second advent to become
the last Caliph. The efforts of the Christian apologists were confined princi-
pally to a defence of the divinity of Christ, and of the doctrine that God
could not be the author of evil. The only reply of the Mussulmen was with
their swords.
CHAP. II.— THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE.
§ 101. Conflicts ajid Sources of Ecclesiastical Life,
As the various parties became developed within the Church, the latter
was necessarily urged to a more precise determination of the essential arti-
cles of its faith. The unity of the Church, which had been externally estab-
lished, operated unfavorably to an unrestrained diversity of opinions. No
sooner had the common external enemies of the Church been overcome, than
its consciousness of essential unity became so obscured by the rancor of indi-
vidual parties, that not only elements foreign to Chrisdanity, but some of
CHAP. IL DOCTRINE, f 101. CONFLICTS, SOURCES. 1 1 1
the mere modes in which real Christianitj was received, wore rejected bj the
Church. Indeed it was for a long time uncertain which of the parties in
this contest would prove to be the Catholic Church. The passions of the
people and of the government were enlisted in the conflict. The natural de-
vdopment of the ecclesiastical spirit was determined by mechanical minori-
ties and imperial decisions. The Oriental Church endeavored to fathom the
mystery of the divine, while the Western attempted rather to explore the
abyss of the human nature. The whole literature of the Church was in-
vdved in these theological disputes, which became, especially in the East,
central objects in the history not merely of the Church, but of the empire.
Tradition and the Scriptures were as usual regarded as the standard of au-
thority, but while individuals sought salvation only in the word of God, the
firing voice and opinion of the Church became in practice more and more in-
ihiential. Vineentius of Lirinum (d. about 450) proposed that the tradition
which oonld plead in its behalf the established usage of the primitive Church
and nniversal consent as the conditions of its proper organic progress, in op-
position to all heretical innovations and ecclesiastical rigidity, should be
ngarded as the warrant and the standard of the true faith, (a) Those por-
tioDs of the sacred writings which had been subjects of suspicion at an early
period, were still opposed by many in the time of Eusebius. (b) But the
nity of the Church rendered it indispensable that all portions should
be agreed respecting its sacred writings, and accordingly near the close of the
loorih century the disputed books were almost universally received. We
have, however, no well authenticated law on the subject of the canon, with
the exception of a decree passed by an African synod, which seems to have
been adopted in other countries as a part of the common law of the Church.
Yarions translations were in use among the Latin portions of the Church ;
one of these, the Itala^ used at Rome, was, at the request of the Bishop Da-
iDisna, amended by Jerome^ and in connection with a version of the received
text of the Old Testament, maintained its position and found acceptance in
ipite of much opposition.
L TuE Asian Controvebst.
L 1> Rcapecting some fhigiiiQnts of the writings of AHm : Fabricii Bibl gr. Th. Y III p. 8(HK
«p^ Epi ad Eoaebi. Nlcom. (in Epiph. haer. 69, 6. Theodoret, II. ecc. I, &.) £p. tu\ Alexandr. A
fricin. from the 0cL\«ia (In Athan. d. Synod. Arim. et Selene 0pp. Tb. I. p. 885.^) PMU>at4irffiut
({K.) FnemenU Arlanor. abont SSd. (Anff. Mn)i N. Coll Rom. 1S28. Th. III.) 2) Partaking the
leatof a p«rtiaan character: AfkanaHvu, EumMus^ and Socrates. A partisan troatisc: EpipK.
htcr. ». 7S. 73&
IL Walek, HM. d. Ketzereien. vol. II. III. Dravasa, Storla critlca della vita di Aria Von. 1746.
{Stork) Yen. e. Oeseh. d. Arianlsm. BrL 1733. Mohler^ Athan. d. Oroese u. d. Kirche seiner Zeit
M^Bi Vm. « Tolst L. Lanff^. In Hlgens Zeltschr. 19S4». vol. IV. pt «. vol. V. pt 1.— Wets^r, Resti-
Mo Tfne cbrooolofp. remm ex oontrov. ArJanls inde ab a. 825 osqne ad a. 850 exortarum. Frcf. 1827.
^/. 6. Baur, d. chr. L. v. d. Dreieinigk. u. Menschw. Oottcs. Tub. 1841. Th. L p. 8068& G. A.
^% L V. d. Trin. voL L pi. lS4aSw J. A. Domer^ Entwicklungsgesch. d. L. v. d. PcrH)n Chr. in d.
■) Commonitorlam pro cath. fldei antiqaitato et aniversitate adv. pro&nas omnium hacr. novi-
^ I>ni«o ed. HlBraoff. Yrat 1889.
i)R.MCL III, a. VI, S5: SfioXoyo^fitra, irriKtySfitpa, y6^
1 12 ANCIENT CHUBCn HI5T0BY. PER. IL IMPERIAL CnUBCH. A. D. 81S-80a
enten 4 Jahrh. ISIS. Part IL [J. IT. yrtoman^ The ArUms of the 4th cent Lond. 1S8S. & J. TF^tt-
aker^ H\tX. of Arianlsm disclosed. Lond. 1791. 8. W. Berrlmann^ Aa hist Account of controveniM
on the Trinity, in 8 sonnons. Lend. 172.\]
§102. The Synod of Xieaea. 826. Cant, from i 90.
I. EuMfK V\Ul Const III, 6«. The Creed : TTieodoret, L 12. Socrat I, & Respecting its oom-
position : Eiuteh, Caesar. Ep. sd Caenriensea. Atkanat, Ep. de decretis sjm. Nlc. Jk Ep. ad Afroa
G^laHi Cyzioeni (about 476) 'X(>¥Ta'yfia rSav Karh, r^t^ iv Kiicaiq. aylaif <rv¥otov irpaxBtyrmw,
{ManH Th. II. p. 750sa.) [Landon^ Manual of councils. Xicaea. pp. 480-33.]
XL F. G. Ifntt^encamp^ Hist Arianae controv. ab initio usque ad syn. Nicacnam. Marb. 1SI& —
Ittig. Hist Cone Nic. Lpe. 1712L A.—M&n»cher, Q. d. Sinn d. nic. Olaubensformel. (Ilenkes N. Mag.
ToL VI. p. 88488.) EiMMchmidty d. Unfcblbark. d. Cone, zn Nicfia. Neust 1S80. [J. Kay^ Atban*-
sius & the Council of Nice. Lond. 1S58. 8. W. A. Ifammond, Definitions of faith 4e oaaons of DIml
of the 6 oecumenical councils, & eode of the nniver. Church, and apost oanonn Lond. 1848L Ne«r
Tork. 1844. 12.]
The contradiction involved in the idea of a Grod existing at the same time
with another, or of a God pubordinate to another, was yet to be declared and
overcome. Arius^ a presbyter of Alexandria, maintained that the Son was
at some period created out of nothing by the divine will, that he was the
first of all creatures, and the Creator of the world, that he was endowed with
the highest natural gifts in the highest state of development, and that he wai
not truly God, though he might be so called. Arius had been educated at
Antioch, was eloquent in prose and verse, a skilfid logician, though not biased
by any predominant intellectual tendency, and a rigid ascetic in his habits of
life. Proceeding from the ground of the ordinary doctrine of the Church,
he attempted to find some clear idea which should at once be consistent with
Monotheism, and opposed to Sabellianism. His Bishop Alexander^ produced
in opposition to his views (after 818) the other side of Origen's doctrine, ao-
cording to which the Logos was from eternity begotten fi'om the essence of
the Father, and was consequently equal to the Father. At a synod held at
Alexandria (321), Arius was deposed and excommunicated. But the pe(^)le
and many of the oriental bishops attached themselves to his party ; mAiij
perhaps, like Eusebius of Nicomedia, not so much because they shared in hit
sentiments, as because they looked upon them as harmless, and others, like
Eusebias of Caesarea, because they regarded such subjects as lying beyond
the bounds of human knowledge or of divine revelation. The emperor Con-
itantine^ having made many fruitless efibrts to induce the parties to give up
what then seemed to him a useless controversy, summoned a general assem-
bly of bishops at Nicaea, principally for the settlement of this question*
Hore than 250 bishops, almost exclusively from the East, came together.
Both Arius and Alexander were in a minority, since most of the bishops
dreaded in the former an exaggerated system of subordination, and in the
latter a covert Sabellianism, or an open Tritheism. But Alexander's friemdfli
through the influence of the court bishop, Jffosiui of Cord<kta^ induced the
emperor to embrace their cause, and dictated the decision on matters of faith.
The only embarrassment which they experienced arose A*om the readmess
with which the Arians subscribed all their articles, until the expression as-
serting that the Son was of the same essence with the Father (t^ varpi Sfiocv
<rios) was proposed and Fleeted, and became henceforth the watchword of the
CnAP. IL D0CTB1N£. f 102. ABIAKISM, NICA£A. f 108. ATHANASIU& 113
new orthodoxy. Most of the opposing hishops, out of reverence for the
imperial authority, or for the sake of peace, on finding that it could he inter-
preted so as to harmonize with their views, gave in their suhscription to this
creed. Arius was hanished to lUyria, and was accompanied hy only two
Egyptian hishops. Three months afterwards, Eusehius of Nicomedia^ who
bad promptly snhecrihed not only the creed hut the condemnation of Arius,
was compelled to share his fate. The Emperor commanded that all the writ-
ings of Arius should he humed ; all who would not surrender his works were
threatened with death, and his followers were to he regarded as the enemies
of Christianity. It was for this reason that the latter were sometimes called
Pitrphyrians.
§ 103. Athananus and Arius,
A controversy thus decided hy the mere authority of an incompetent and
unstable sovereign was sure speedily to be renewed. Athancudus five months
afterwards was made Metropolitan of Alexandria, and became the leader of
tite Nicaean party, which even when a deacon he had completely governed at
Hkaea. By his enemies he has been described as a tyrant ; by the emperors
he was sometimes persecuted, sometimes honored, and always feared ; and by
the Egyptians he was beloved as a friend of the people, and venerated as a
wdL Daring twenty of the forty-six years which he spent in the episcopal
office he was a fugitive for his life, or in banishment. His life was often pre-
MTved through the fidelity of his friends, who were ready to die for him. The
great object of his life was to contend for the divine dignity of Ohrist, and
in this for all that was essential to Christianity, in opposition to a new hea-
thenism, (a) The Arians regarded themselves as the special advocates of the
dirine unity, and an intelligible form of thought. Constantine finally recurred
to his earlier view of the uselessness of this controversy, and was satisfied
with a creed drawn up by Arius in the most general terms (828). At a synod
convened at Tyre (335) Athanosius was deposed and banished to Gaul. Arius
died on the very day in which he went in solemn procession from the impe-
rial palace to the church of the apostles (336), according to his enemies the
Tiethn of a divine judgment, but according to his friends poisoned by magical
tits, (b) Eusehius of Nicomedia^ after 338 Bishop of Con8tantino[)le, again
hecame the leader of the party which had been the true minority at Nicuca,
nd taught that the Logos was from eternity begotten of the substance of the
Ftther, and was similar in nature {6yioiovai,oi) but subordinate to the Father.
Ting party, then called the Eusehian^ and at a later period the Semiurian^
embraced those who had been known as Arians, and had the complete ascend-
ency in the East, {e) but the West had been gained over by the personal
energy and presence of Athanasius. An attempt was made to reconcile both
portions of the imperial Church at a synod convened at Sardica (347), but so
•) CoUeetlons fbr a blographj of Athanaslns may be found in the edit of his works by Mon^u-
OM»nd in TUUnumt, Tb. YIII. MIMUr (b«f. % 102.)
)) StaraL I, 8S. Soaotn, I, S9a. Honorable k trae ; A1hana9, £p. ad Scrap. (0pp. Th. I. p. 670sfl.)
^I|>iMc.Aeg.eCLSbiS19.
e) £ipc at the Sjmods of Antlocb, 841, and Ancjra, 85S. Athan. de 8}'nodi8 $ 22as. Soerat II,
^ fyipk.hux.n.
8
I
114 ANCIENT CHUBCU HI8T0BY. PER. IL IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 8ia-90a
nnsQccessfhl was it that the two parties came to a complete rnptnre with each
other, and the oriental held distinct sessions in the neighboring city of Philips
popolis. Comtantius was compelled to restore Athanasins to the see of Alex-
andria by a threat of war from his brother, bnt as soon as he became the
sole ruler of the empire (358) he had the cathedral of Alexandria taken by
storm, and endeavored also to eradicate the Nicaenn faith ft'om the Western
portions of the Ohnrch. The occidental churches were compelled to condenm
Athanasins and accept of a Semiarian creed at synods held at Arelate (858),
at Mediolanum (855), and at Ariminum (859). After these triumphs a
schism in the dominant party became developed subsequently tcnthe second
synod of Sirmium (357), in the contentions between the Eusebians and the
decided Arians. Among the leaders whose names they bore, Acacius^ Bishop
of Caesarea endeavored at first to conceal this schism, by refusing to ac-
knowledge any of the controverted articles, on the ground that they were
unscriptural, (d) but Aetiiis and Eunomius^ in accordance with the assertion
that the divine nature could be as easily understood as the human, carried
out the views of Arius with greater acuteness and logical consistency, and
denied that Christ possessed any divine nature (aM$fio(or, 'Ami/ioioi). {e) Afteit
the death of Constantius (361) the Athanasian party attained once more its
natural strength in the West. In the £ast Valens (364-78) was so fnrions
agiunst it that ho spared not even the Semiarians. The result was that the
latter adopted views much nearer those of the Athanasian party (after 866.)
The struggles of these various parties were maintained quite as much by the
weapons of court intrigue and insurrection as by proofs derived from the
Scriptures, from tradition, and from logic. Synods were arrayed against
synods, and force was opposed to force. Athanasins, whose last years had
been spent in peace among his own people, died about 873, while the conflict
was yet unabated.
§ 104. Minor Controter$ies.
1. MarceUtis^ Bishop of Ancyra, and a leader of the Nicaean party, repre-
sented the Logos as the eternal wisdom of God, which became the only begotten
Son of God first at the Incarnation, and after the day of judgment will onoe
more become one with the Deity. Fhotinus^ Bishop of Sirmium, regarded the
man Jesus as the Son of God, only as far as he was ordained to bring the di-
vine kingdom to its complete realization, and as he was filled by the Spirit
and was a power of God. The deposition of Marcellus (336) was regarded
in the West as a martyrdom for the Athanasian cause. The doctrine of Pho-
tinus was condemned by the Eusebians at Antieeh (after 845), and he was
himself deposed at Sirmium (about 851), but even the Athanasian party
hastened to relieve themselves of the reproach of his opinions by a r^eotion
of them at the Synod of Mediolanum (847). (a)
d) PMlostorff. IV, 12. Soerat II, 40. Sotom. IV, 88.
0) PhiXontorg. HI, 16-17. EpipK baer. IfL—Philoelorg. VI, 1-4. VaUHut tA SoeraL Y, 10.
Jfabricii Bibl. gr. Th. YIII. p. 2688&— C B, W. Klo9€j Qesch. o. Lehre des Eonom. Kiel 168a.
a) Fragtnenta, esp. ircpl 6iroTayqt. Marcelllmiui ed. Jl, O. Rettberg^ OoeCt 1794. Agidml bkn:
Ku9^. Ccus. Karh. Mopx^XAov and ircpl Trjs iKK\iiataffruais ^coX. (both after Mtutib, JH*
CHAP. IL DOCTRINE, f 104 MACEDONIANS, f 105. Ist 8YN. OF C0N8TPLR 115
2. The doctrine of the Holy Spirit from its very nature necessarily par-
ticipated in the fortune of that of the Logos, bnt as no ecclesiastical party
was formed with the special object of developing it, it remained in an indefi-
nite state. When the Ensebians changed their ground, bat retained the 8e-
miarian doctrine respecting the Spirit, Athananus perceived the necessity of
midntaining his equality with the Son, and gave to those who opposed his views
the appellation of (after 862) fighters agiunst the Holy Ghost (7rv€viiaT6fiaxoi) ;
but when Macedonius of Constantinople became a leader of the Semiarians,
they were called Macedonians, The views of the Church however still re-
mained unsettled, and many learned men looked upon the Spirit as an opera-
tioD of €k>d, others as a creature, others as God, while others still from defe-
rence for the Scriptures, formed no conclusion on the subject, (b)
8. The more distinctly the divine nature of Christ was recognized, the
lets were men willing to regard the humanity in connection with it as pro-
perly represented by a sensuousr nature. When therefore Apollinaris^ Bishop
of Laodicea, a philosopher who had been classically educated, and was
ttien a friend of Athanasius, distinctly proposed (after 862) the opinion which
had extensively prevailed in the primitive Church, but which was then prin-
dpaDy favored by the Arians, that the Logos connected himself only with a
human body and an animal soul, with which he sustained the same relation
as was ordinarily borne by the human spirit (vovr)) he met with opposition in
many ways, (e)
§ 105. The Synod of Constantinople and the Holy Trinity,
The Emperor Theodositte /., who had been educated in the Nicaean creed,
daring bis protracted and powerful reign triumphantly accomplished what
had long been the consistent effort of the Church. He first proclaimed that
Done but those who received the Nicaean creed should bear the name of
Catholic Christians, and denounced their opponents as deluded and base here-
ticB, who must ultimately endure the divine as they would speedily the im-
perial indignation, (a) But when he entered Constantinople (880) he found
Gregory of Ifazianzen^ the bishop of the Nicaean party, preaching in a con-
Tcntide belonging to the suburbs of the city. This bishop he brought at the
head of his legions into the Church of the Apostles, and drove the Arians out
<€ all the churches of the East. To legalize these violent proceedings a coun-
dl was called together atConetantinople (881.) {b) This second genend synod
•▼. Vnr. Ua. t) CyHlU ITierot. Cat. XV, 27-88. For him : AtAaiu ApoL c Arian, f 21-«5.
i: Epiph, bMT. 72—AtAan. do BynodL% { 268. Soerat 11,19. Ifleron. catal c. 107.— ATose,
Qach. 0. Lehra d. lUre. n. Phot Uamb. 1S87.
h) Ba$H, Ep. 118. Athan. : ad Pallad. (Th. L p. 952.) ad Serapioa. (Th. I. p. 166^8.) Fpipk. haer.
*V Grtffor. JfoM. (8S0) Orat 87. Oomp. UUmann^ Greg. p. 878sa.
«) FngoMots of ApolUnaris In : Gregor. JfyM. ; Theodortt haer. &bb. IV, 8. &, iMmtitts BijtanL
^' ftm/La, AponoDarlatarum L IL (Oallandll BlbL Th. XII, p. 70688.) Principal work in oppcK^i-
^: Or^ffor, Jfi/m. K6yQt iurrifprrriKhs wphs rk 'AwoWtyaplov. {OaUandii Bibl Th.
^pc517«.)
•) L 1 Cod, ThMd, de fide cath. (XVI, 1.)
h) MomH Th. IIL p. G818& Rii^tu II, 20. Soerat, Y, 6fi8. Thsodoret» Y, Ta^.—UUmann, Oregor.
^•»^L^lftfc>.Sh#fc^l^Th0od.p.l4^8^.
116 ANCIENT CUUBCn HISTORY. PER. IL IMPERIAL CHUROH. A. D. 813-800.
having been diminished by the withdrawal of the Macedonians, consisted of
150 bishops chosen under the arbitrary dictation of the emperor. The Ni-
caean creed was revised and clothed in such terms as had become established
during the more recent controversies, and in this new form was confirme<l by
them. The Eunomians, Macedonians and Apollinarians were condemned as
heretics, (c) The Arians were tolerated in the West under Valentinian II.,
until TheodosiuB obtained their suppression as the price of his assistance
against the usurper Maximus (888). With the fifth century they completely
disappeared in all parts of the Roman empire. The synodal edicts of the vic-
torious party declared that the Son and Spirit were co-equal with the Father
in the divine Unity. In the tlieological discussions held from the time of
Athanasius to that of Augustine, the views of all parties were gradually so
accommodated and carried out, that the contents of the apostolic creed were
exalted to the speculative idea of the Trinity consisting of three divine per-
sons in the unity of the divine nature. In this form the doctrine was pro-
claimed as a theological mystery. The article which declared that the Spirit
proceeded also from the Son (filioquc), was generally adopted in the Western
Church, and at a synod of Toledo (589) it was incorporated in the confession
of faith. It was not very diflfercnt from what had been vaguely taught by
the Greek ecclesiastical writers of the fourth century, but it did not awaken
attention and opposition among the Greek churches as an interpolation in the
Nicaean creed, until some time in the eighth century, (d) In the creed bear-
ing the name of Athanasius, which has generally been received in the West
since the seventh century, and has evident marks of the character of the Latin
Church of the fifth century, the doctrine of the Trinity is expressly set forth,
and its reception is made a condition of salvation, {e)
§ 106. Ecclesiastical Literature,
With the exception of the cloister and the desert the most celebrated
sehool for the education of the teachers of the Church was at Athens, (a)
A few of these might have taken a high rank among sophists and rhetoricians,
but in consequence of the serious character of Christianity they became ec-
clesiastical fathers. They regarded their classical attainments generally with
mingled sentiments. The twilight of ancient poesy even then cast a lingering
radiance over the Church. When Julian excluded all Christians from the
schools of ancient literature, the two Apollinarii hastened to resolve the con-
tents of the Scriptures into a series of epics, tragedies, and Platonic dia-
logues, {b) Prudentius (d. about 405) in the evening of his political life,
that he might do something for eternity, wrote some songs adapted to his
times and to the conflicts and triumphs of the Church, but exhibiting less
c) Suioeri Symb. Nioaeno-Gonst ezpoBitam. Tri^' ad Rh. 171& 4.
d) Augustin. de Trin. lY, SO. Cone ToUi, symb. h can. 2. {yfanM Th. IX. p. 981.) EusA.
de eoc. TbeoL III, 4. EpipK Ancor. § 9. (Th. IL p. 14>— JT O. WalcK, Uist controy. de prooeaia Sp.
B. Jen. 1761. Ziegler, Geschichtsentw. t. dogma v. IL G. (Th<K>L Abh. Gott 179L toL L p. S04i8.)
«) Waterland, Grit Uist of the Athan. creed. Camb. (1724.) 1723.
a) Archly, t Oesch. by ScMosser 4* Berchi^ 183S. vol L p. 2178s.
b) Soerat III, 1^ So&am, Y, 18. probably thence Xpiffr6t ird<rx«y«
CHAP. IL DOCTBINE. S106l BCHOOUS OF ALEXANDRIA k ANTIOGU. 1 17
poetical than rhetorical character, (c) Two schools, sitDated the one at Alex-
andria and the other at Antioch, were especially remarkahle for the different
manner in which they treated the Scriptures. In the former prevailed an al-
legorical system of interpretation and a hold spirit of speculation, hoth of
which had heen exemplified in Origen, though his peculiarities were in some
instances exchanged for what was common in the Church, and in others were
abandoned. In the latter, the simple signification of the words vas more par-
ticularly investigated, the circumstances of the original writers and speakers
were hetter appreciated, the divine was more carefully distinguislied from
the human, and a merely formal use was made of philosophy, and this more
after the method of Aristotle, (d) I. From the Alexandrian school proceeded
thoee who represented the theology of their century : Athanasius, a didactic
rather than an exegetical writer, who ingeniously and enthusiastically reduced
an Christianity to the simple doctrine of the divinity of Christ ; (e) and the
three Cappadocians, Gregory of KysM (d. ahout 894), who, next to Origen,
was most distinguished for his scientific profundity and originality, (/) his
brother, Basil the Great^ Metropolitan of Caesarea (d. 379), equally zealous
for science and monasticism, hut more remarkable for his talents in the ad-
nunistration of ecclesiastical affairs, {g) and the abused friend of his youth,
Gregory of Naziamin (6 3f oXoyor, d. 890), by inclination and fortune so tossed
between the tranquillity of a contemplative life and the storms of ecclesiasti-
cal government, that he had no satisfaction in either, neither a profound
thinker nor a poet, hut according to the aspirations of his youth an orator,
frequently pompous and dry, but laboring as powerfully for the triumph of
orthodoxy as for genuine practical Christianity. (A) Next to those were Eu-
iebiiu of Caesarea (d. 840), whose simple but not artless style was like that
of one whose knowledge was abundant, who was fond of peace, and disin-
e) Opp. ed. HeintiuM. AmsteL 1667. 12. Oellarius^ Hal. n(i3.—.Vid(Uldorp/, do Prud. et Theo-
W^ Pnid. ISSSsB. 2 P. (lUgcns Zeitschr. 1832. toI IL part 2. Abb. &) For otber references see
JKt«i'« Leben Jeso. p. SSw
i) M^nUr^ d. Antloch. Scbale. (Stiadlins a. Tzwhlmcrs Arch. vol. I. P. 1.)
«) lib writliifs were oeeai^oned by his circumstances. Ttiey were partly controversial in behalf
flf Cbrlstlviltj', the Niceno faith and himself personally, and partly dnvotional for the promotion of
smitftldsin. Opp. td. R d4 Montfnuc<m^ Par. 16S9sflL 8 Tti. t Giwttiniani, Patav. et Lps. 1777.
iTh. 1 [HIa select treatises afainst the Arlans in two voI\ and his Historical Tracts In one vol. have
been pabL in the " Lib. of the Fathers anterior to the division of the East & West" transl. by mcm-
btnef the EogL Church. O.xon. ISdO.— His orations were transl. by Parker. Lond 1718. 8.]
fS A^09 KarTix'n'''*f^f ^ fx^yas. Polemical writings against Eanomius & ApoIIinariss Homilies
ft Aic«tic tracts. Opp. ed. JforelliuA, Par. 1615. 2 Th. Append, add. Gretser, Par. 16IS. Benedic-
Um ed. (Par. 1780. Th. I.) interrupted by the Revolution. Lately found and relating to the Arians A
3U«4 in A. Maji Sen. yett. ColL Bom. 1S84. Th. VIIL— .SL P. Ueyns, de Or. Nyssw Lugd. K
1U3l 1 /. Supp. Greg. v. N. Leben u. Mcinungen. Lps. 1934.
g) Apdnst Eunomlna, on the Holy Spirit, Homilies & Letters. Opp. ed. Fronto DucaeuM, Par.
Wli JTh. £ Gamitr, Par. 1721s8. rep. L. de Sinner, Par. 1889at 8 Th.-J. E. FeUaer, de vita Hasw
^raolBf. 192& AToM*, Baa. d. G. Strals. 1885. A. Jahniu*^ Baa. M plotinizans. Bern. 1833 4. Ani-
>adrr. In Baa. opp. Bern. 1S49. Fasc L [On Solitude, transL by BarktdaU, Lond. 1675. 8. A Scl.
fmt^trom BadL Lond. 1810. 9.]
A> ApolofclM for his offlc'al errors, Eccles. discourses of all kinds, Epistle^ Poem\ Opp. ed. Morel-
t'wc Pit. 1«0. « Th. t CUmencft^ Par. 177S. Th. I. CaUlaii, Par. 1940. 2 Th. t [His Panegyric on
^(Mnbees is transL by Collier. Lond. 1716. B.]^UUmann^ Greg. v. Naz. DnrmsL 1825. [Transl. into
^ by 0. V. Coac^ Lond. 1851.]
1 18 ANCIENT CHURCH lUSTOBT. P£B. IL IMPEBIAL CHURCH. A. D. Zl^^Ofk
dined to tlie new formulae of orthodoxy, {{) and the blind Didymus (d. 895),
in spirit and in fact the last faithfnl follower of Origen. Qc) In the Latin
Ohnrch were : Hilarius^ Bishop of Pcnctiers (PictaTium, d. 868), in his ac-
tions, sufferings and writings, the Athanasios of the West ; (Q Amhro&ius,
Archbishop of Milan (374-97), a zealous praefect eyen in the Church, for
whose freedom and orthodoxy he contended, fearing the Lord of all more
than the sovereign of this world, and more influential by his simplifying imi-
tations of Greek models than by any thing original in his works, (rn) 11. Zu-
eianus, a presbyter of Antioch, whose Scriptural learning acquired additional
honor by his death (311), is generally regarded as the founder of the Antioch-
ian school. Eusehius^ Bishop of Emisa (d. 860), whose classical attainments
and eloquence were acknowledged even by his opponents, was a Semiarian
only so for as he defended the indefinite terms of the primitive creed as more
scriptural in doctrine than the later speculations, (n) Cyrilliu^ with various
changes of fortune (850-86), was Bishop of Jerusalem and a Eusebian, but he
obtained the honor of canonization in consequence of his acknowledgment of
the Nieaean creed, though he never used it in his popular instructions, (p)
Ephrem (d. at Edessa about 378) became the principal instructor of the Sy-
rian Church (propheta Syrorum), by transplanting into it the Greek learn-
ing, (p) JDiodorus, Bishop of Tarsus (878 — about 94), and Theodonis, Bishop
of Mopsuestia (893-i28), both of whom had been at an earlier period pres-
byters at Antioch, developed the peculiarities of their school in the most de-
t) Tlatrro^av^ IffTopioy Chronicon ed. Iforua. Amst 1659w t completed firom the Armenian ; ed.
by Aucher, Ven. 1818. 2 Th. 4. in Greek A Lat ed. A. MaJM. (Scrr. veterum. Col. Th. VIIL) Ilpoira*
paaictv^ fvayy(\iK'fif 1- XV, cd. Vlg^rus, Par. 162a t ITeinieKen^ Lps. 18428. 2 Th. OaUford^
Oxon. 1843. 4 vols. *AT<{8ci{ir tvayy, I XX. (I.-X.) c n. Montacutii, Par. 1828. C (The parts de-
fective in the 1st & liHh B. are completed in FahricH Deleetns ai|r. et sjllabus Mrlptt) CommenL
on the Psnlms &, I&aiah. Comp. FahricH Bibl. Gr. Th. VII. p. 8866a. J. RiUer^ Eos. de dlvinltate a
placita. Bon. 1828.
k) L. de Spiritu S. in the transL of Jerome. (0pp. Th. IV. P. I.) L. adv. ManlchaeoSw (Comb*:fUii
Auctuar. gr. I'P. Tli. II.) L. III. de Trinltate. (ed. MingareUi, Bonon. 1769. £) Exposltio YIL eanooi-
caram £pp. ; the transL of which was procured by Cawiodoru^ through Epiphaniut ScholatL and
the orig. text of whicl^ LQcke has partially restored by means of Matthaei's Scboliae : Quaeationea ao
vindioiae Didymianae. GOtt 1629-82. 4 P. comp. Com. 0. Br. d. Job. p. 2999& D. «. CMn^ Did. to
Ersch. u. Grub. £nc vol. XXIV.
t) De Trinltate 1. XII. L. ad Ck>nstantinara. De synodls adv. Arlanoe. De synodts Arimtneasi at
Seleucensi. Comment on Psalms dc Matth. Opp. ed. Bonedictt (Constant) Par. 169& Afq^W, Veron.
1780. 2 Th. t OberthUr, Wire 1785sfl. 4 Th. A. Maji Scrr. veterum CoL Th. VL
m) Hexaemeron. De oflicito 1. IIL De fide L V. De S. Spirita L III, 92. Episties. Opp. ed. B«i«-
dictt Par. 1686-9^1 2 Th. t Gilbert, Lp& 18898. 2 V.—F. Bokringer, die K. a. ibreSSeogen o. KGesch.
in Biograpbien. Zur. 1845. vol I. pt 8. [Ambrose's Christian 0£Bces have been transL by Homphrayi^
Lond. 1687. 4]
n) riieron. cataL c. 91. comp. 119. Soorat. II, 9. Soaam, III, ^^Euseb. Opnscc (8 Discoorsea
A exeget & dngni. foments) ed. Auffutti, Elbert 1829. Evidence that the Dteconrses belmig to a
certain Kiiscb. of Alex, of the 4th or 6th cent A Information req;>ecting the genuine writings: 7%Ua.
(L d. Schrr. d. Eus. v. Alex. n. des Eus. v. Em. Hal 1882.
o) Catecheses (about 847.) Opp. rec Tbuttee, Par. 172a Ven. 1768s.— Cdtfn, Cyr. in Ersch. xl Gro-
bers Encykl. vol. XXII. p. 1483& J. J, f>an VoUenhoven, de Cyr. Hier. catecbesib. AmaL 1887. [SL
Cyril '« Lectures, 8 cd. In Lib. of the Fathers. See note e.]
p) Comment on the O. T., Devotional treatises, Homilies, Hymns. Opp. td.J.& Afeman. Som.
178238. 6 Th. f. Auserw. Schrr. uebcrs. v. P. Zingerl^ Insbr. 18808& 5 vols.— <Z a L&ngsrke: d«
Ephroemo So. S. interprete. Hal. 1823. 4 Do Ephr. arte hermeneatica. Begiom. 1881. [Ji AtuUben,
Lib. d. Eph. Syr. Lpa. 1868. 8.]
CHAP. IL DOCTRINEL |106L THEODORE OF MOPS. {107. BTNE8. EPIPH. 119
cided fonn. The first was destitnte of olassioal edacation, and the last inter-
preted the Old Testament withont an acqoaintanoe with the Hebrew ; bnt by
his bold separation of the human element in the writings of inspired men,
in oipposition to the common views of the Ohurch, he incurred the suspicion
and finally the oondenmation of the Greek Ohorch, though in the more re-
mote East he has always been honored as the Interpreter, (q) Arius was a
pupil of Luoianus, and indeed most of the Eusebians were educated in the
Antiochian school. But as even this school could not have sprung up with-
out the influence of Origen, to whom the Arians no leas than tbo Athanasians
ippealed, the opposition of the two schools was principally of a scientific
diaracter, and produced no suspicion in the Church until the dose of the
firarth century. It was a conflict between the allegorical and the historical
method of interpretation, between ecclesiastical philosophy and ecclesiastical
biblical theology.
IT. Thb Obigenistio Gontbovbbst.
§ 107. Synedus^ Epiphanius and Eieronymu%.
Those doctrines which had been left undetermined by the Apostles' Creed
tod the various ecclesiastical controversies, were freely agitated in many ways
ts late as the close of the fourth oentury. (a) Synesius^ a faithful disciple of
Hypatia, was made Bishop of Ptolemais (410*81), notwithstanding the reluc-
tance with which he resigned the leisure of a private life, and his open avowal
that his philosophical opinions were inconsistent with tlie popular faith, (b)
In consequence, however, of the exclusive respect then paid to ecclesiastical
orthodoxy and an ascetic life, a strong party was gradually formed in oppo-
•itkm to OrigOD, or rather to the free theological investigation occasioned by
the cultivation of Grecian learning. At the head of this party stood Epipha-
fut/« of Palestine, the perfect model of a monkish saint. In the year 867 ho
was mode Bishop of Constantia in the island of Cyprus, where he died in
408. {e) In a not altogether pure narrative of events which he professes to have
taken place in his day, and in his work against the heretics, he has brought a
confused mass of historical knowledge into the service of a passionate but
pioas zeaL {d) Having in these works placed Origen in the list of heretics, {e)
he demanded of the leaders of the Alexandrian school in Palestine, John,
i) Hltnm. eaUL e. 119. Bocrat YI, 8. A catalogne of the writings of DiodoniA (principally lost
nytt): Amaiuini BibL orient Tb. IIL P. L p. 2S.—A. Mnjo: N. Coll. Rom. 1833. vol. YI. p. las.
SpfeB. BoouD. Eom. 1840. Th. lY. p. 499bs. Tbeodori quae snpersunt omnia e^ A. F. a Wegn^rn^
TK L Ownmtr. in proph«tM YII. Ber. 1884.—/*. X. Si^eri, Thcod. Mop.^ VeteriA T. «(obrie interpre-
tea fiadez. B«gloiii. 1827. 0. FridoL FritMche, de Tb. M. viU et scriptis. UaL 1880.
a) Compu JTitron, prooem, in L XYIIL in Esaiam.
() 0pp. cd. PetatiuM, Par. (1612) 1640. t C. Thilo, Ck>mmtr. In &yn. hymnnm IL v. 1-24. IlaL
IStti [Select Pooma of Sfn. transl. by IT. S. Boyd. Lond. 1814. S]— Je/n. 77k Clausen, de Syn.
PUIciopha Llbja« pentapi MetropoUta. Uarn. 1831.
e) JBpipK hMT. 51, 80.
^ IlcD^ior, adv. ba«reaea, prefixed to the 'AyicvpunSst de fido scrmo. 0pp. ed. Pctavias. Par.
UAIHl £ Camp, ffisron, cataL c. lU SoeraL YI, 10. 18. Sotom. M, 82. YII. 27. VIII, 14s.
<) Haer. 44. Of ft almUar character: (7. If. £, LommatMch, de origine et progressu hacrusLs Orl-
mvm. Lpa. 1846L P. L 4
120 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOET. PER. IL IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 81S-800L
Bishop of Jerusalem, Hieronymns, and Rnfinns, that they should snstain his
opinion (894). Eieronymus (Jerome) of Stridon (about 831-420), after many
conflicts in the world and in the desert, presided over a company of hermits
and pions Roman ladies at Bethlehem. In a dream he was once jvermitted
to choose whether he would become a Ciceronian or a Christian. He then
abjured all worldly literature, though he never seems to have taken the vow
in a very rigid sense. His spirit was active, his knowledge extensive, his
policy worldly, and his enthusiasm intense for all that was then esteemed for
sanctity. Though destitute of profound thought or feeling, he was the means
of introducing Greek-ecclesiastical and Hebrew learning into the Western
portion of the Church. In his exposition of the Scriptures, the Alexandrian
tendency was predominant, but the Antiochian interpreters were consulted,
and all kinds of sentiments are rapidly and cautiously, learnedly and conve-
niently thrown together. (/) At one time Origen was extolled above all
human authors, and the suspicions which many entertained respecting him
were imputed to a malignant jealousy of his reputation, {g) but it was charac-
teristic of a nature like that of Ilieronymus, afterwards to abandon him.
This produced a rupture between Ilieronymus and Kufinus, in consequence
of which their characters are utterly blackened in each other's writings. (A)
Rvfinus withdrew to Aquileia (d. 410), where he endeavored to spread the
fame of Origen in the West by translations from his works, and to save these
from imputations of heresy by alterations of them, (i)
§ 108. Chrysastom,
I. 0pp. ed. A d0 Mon^auc<m ; Par. ITIS-^ 18 Th. f. rep. Par. 1884-^. 18 Tb. 4. Comp. Fabrictt
Bibl. Th. YIIL p. 454AS. [Most of the Ilomillos on the N. T. aro trans]. & pobl. in the Lib. of the
Fathprs, see $ 100, note «. His treatise on Compunction Is transl. h publ. by Ven^r. Lond. ITSS. 8L
and that on the Prlcnthood, by Bunee, Lond. 1759. B.'\—PaU<idii Kpisc. Ilclenopollt Dial de Tlta
Ja Chrys. ed. Bigot, Par. 1680. 4. and In Mon^aucon, Th. XIII. Socrat VI, 8-18. SoKom. VIII,
7-20. Writings of Hieron. ^ Theophil. In IHer. 0pp. VaUaraty Th. I. Ep. 86aa.
IL Stilting, de 8. Chrya (Acta Sanct Sept Th. IV. p. iOlss.) A. Ketmder, d. h. Joh. ChrysL «.
d. Klrche bes. des Orientea In dossen Zeftn BrL (18218.) 18828& 2 toIs. [Joh. Chrys. & the Oriental
Church In his times, fh>m the Germ, of Ncander, by StapMon^ Lond. 1588. 8.] Bokring«r, d. K. n.
Ihre Zeogen. vol. L Abth. 8. [Art In Kitto's Journal of BibL Lit vol I.]
Most of the Egyptian monks in their controversies with the followers of
Origen residing among them, described God as a pure spirit, and could form
no conception of Him who made man after his own image except in a hn-
/) Coromentarie^ Literary history, Chronolo(;y, Histories of saints, Satires, EplsUes, &ol 0pp. ad.
ErasmuM, Has. 15168a. » Th. f & oft Mttrtianay, Par. 1698s8. 6 Th. f. TdUarti, Ver. 1784ss. 11 Th.
4 Yen. 176668. 11 Th. 4. [Sel Epp. of Jerome, transl Into Engl Lond. 1680. 4. Epistle to Nepotian
transl Lond. 1715. 8.]— For him. Martlanay, la viode 8. Jerome. Par. 1706. 4 Stilting, de 8. Hler.
(Acta Sanct Sept Tb. VIIL p. 4188s.) Against him: deriens, Quaestt Uieronymianae. Amst 1700.
Of hJm : EngeUtofi, Uieron. llavn. 1797. D. v. C6Un, Hler. in Ersch. n. Qmb. Encykl Sect IL
vol vni.
g) Jlieron. 0pp. vol IV. Th. II. p. 68. 480.— Ep. 67. ad Theopli.
h) Jlieron, E[)p. 8S-41. Rujin, Praet ad Orig. de princ & Apol S. Invectivamm In Iller. I IL
nitron. Apol adv. KuC I IL dc (a rejoinder to Rnfln's lost answer) Responsio n Apol I III.
0 Tf/rannii Rufini 0pp. ed. VaUarai, Ver. 1745. f. Th. I.— Mar. de RuhtU, Monument* Boo.
Aqnil<^en8is. Argent 1740. £ pi SOss. h de Ru/lno. Yen. 17U. K. J, U. MamttUni, de Turannii Buf.
fide ot rcl Patr. 1835. Cacciari Ac KimtneL ($ 92. note b.)
CHAP. U. DOCTRINE. |10& THE0PHILU8. CHRT80ST0B1 121
man form (anthropomorphites). Theophilus^ the crafty and violent Bishop
of Alexandria (885-412), who had heen an admirer of Origen, suddenly
became convinced that he was a heretic in consequence of some offences
received ft-om the followers of that teacher, and some throats from the An-
thropomorphites, whose fanaticism he wished to render subservient to his
purposes. He passed sentence of condemnation upon the memory of Origen
(899), and was sustained in his decision by the Roman Church, (a) Those of
the monks who favored Origen were much abused by him, but found a pro-
tector In John, Bishop of Constantinople, called in subsequent ages Chryaos-
(am. Contrary to the wishes of Theophilus, as well as his own, he was taken
from Antioch, and (after 898) presided over the church at Constantinople.
Theophilus was summoned by the Emperor to the capital, where, after be-
eoming thoroughly acquainted with the state of affairs, he contrived to ob-
tun the position of judge instead of defendant. Chrysastom, with sincere
Christian earnestness, had carried out the intelligent method of Scriptural
interpretation pursued in the school of Antioch, and the rhetorical principles
of libanins, and had exemplified in his own life, as far as was possible for
any man, the ideal of the priesthood, which in his youthful fervor ho had de-
nribed. (b) His habits were strictly monastic, he was poor with respect to
himself, but rich in his benefhctions to the poor, and mild in disposition, but
terribly eloquent in opposition to all courtly extravagances. By the Empress
Eodoxia and her dependants such a man was soon doomed to destruction.
At the synod of 77ie Oah (408), after many confused and absurd accusations,
Theophilos pronounced against him a sentence of deposition and banish-
ment. The lamentations and threats of the people wore powerful enough to
effect his speedy recall, but the Empress, like a modem Herodias, finally suc-
ceeded in having him banished to Pontus. (404) Innocent I. pleaded his in-
nocence in vain. (<;) Praising God for all that had taken place, he died in
extreme distress (Sept. 14, 407). The body of the saint was brought back to
Constantinople (488) in a triumphal procession, {d) The goodness of Chry-
eostom was highly honored by an age which forgot and misunderstood the
ip^did talents of Origen.
III. The Pelagian Controvebsy.
L 1) Tht polemical writings of Augu*tiM: 0pp. Tb. X. e<ld. BcnedictL JTieron. Epp. 48. ad
CtatpbonUm. Dlall. adr. Peltgianm 1. III. (Th. IV. P. II.) Oroaii AiK)lopetIcus contra. Pel. Ao-
coaat<tf th« eontroveray in Pa]e9tine. 415. (0pp. cd. Ilaverkamp, Lupd. 173vS. 4.) Jfurius Jferattor^
C«iiaMDitorla. 429. 431. (0pp. ed. BaluM. Par. 16S4.) 2) Frn^mente of Pelagim &, CoeUttius may
W fiNDid in tbeM polemical writings, and some treatiaes of Pelnglus havo been prcwrved becaoso
^ were mistaken tor works of Ifieronymns. Before the controversy : Expo^ltt, in Epp. Paullnaa
iHlff. OpfK Th. V. pi 9iSm.) In the time of the controversy: Ep. ad Demetriadem (cd. Semler, Hal.
^"1.) 4 UbelL fldei ad Innoe. I. (Hler. Opp. Th. V. p. IHm.) Fragmonfc^ of the iK)lem. treatises of
JiHanmM of Eclanum in Aogustine & Mercator. 8) Original documents in Augugt, Opp. Th, X.
Jli»«<Th.IV.
IL G. J. VonH IS. de controversil^ qaas Pel. (^jasqae reliquiae movcrnnt Lugd. 1613. 4. auci cd.
■^JToMiTh. III. p. 979881
^) n«pl lepwtf^f L VL ed. ./: il. Bengel, Stuttg. 1729. Lw, Leipa. 1884. [transl. into Engl, by
*«Mt Lood. 1739. 9.] Uebers. ▼. Haaselbach, Strals. 1820. v. Ritter. BrL 1821.
«)Jraiu<Th.IILi».1099« d) SoeralYll^U. liiesph. XIY, 4S,
122 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOBT. PER II. IMPEBIAL CHUBCH. A. D. 819-8(X)L
Q, VoM, Amst 1655. 4 NoHtii H. PcUglana. Pat 167& C (Opix Yeron. 17S9L Th. L) Oamerii Dm,
YII. qaibus Integra continetnr Polagianor. Uldt (lo bis edit of Morcator. Par. 167& Th. I.) O. F,
WlggetK, pragui. DantelL des Aogustinlnnaa n. Pelagiantam. Bri. 1821. vol L HamU 1888. toL IL
[An Hist Presentation of Aufaftintsm it Pel. from tbe Germ, of O. F. Wtg^en by O. B, EmsrtoiL
Andover. 1S40. & Art in Cbrist Spect on Early H. of Thad. vol lY. p. S91ia for tba year 188ft.
PrinocUm Tlieol. Essays, vol. L p. SOss. An able Hist of AugosUnism baa been written in French
in Paris, by ^f. Poi^aloL] J. G. Voigt^ de thooria Angnstinlano, SemipoL et Sjmerglat Goett 1899.
LenUen^ de Pelagianor. doctr. prinoipiia. Colon. 188& J. L, Jaeobi, d. Lehr* <L Pielagla& Lpc 184&
§ 109. PelagianUm and Augttstinism.
The freedom of man is identical with his dependence upon God, bat when
we reflect upon the subject both these relations appear Yery different. In
their controversies with the Montanists and Manichaeans the Ghreek fathers
gave special prominence to the doctrine of hnman freedom. The Latin
Church, which had been much affected by TertuUian's Montanistio qurit|
gave greater prominence to the doctrine of man^s dependence, and its writersi
without denying the innocence of children or the freedom of adults, demon*
strated the necessity of diviue grace in opposition to human freedom, by
proving that ever since Adam^s fall the nature of man has been oontmnally
depraved. PeUigiu* and Coelettixu, pious monks, driven by the incursions of
the barbarians from Britain (Bretogne ?), their native country, first to Rome
(409), and afterwards to Africa (411), that they might promote the interests
of morality, were especially zealous for the freedom of the will. In oppo-
sition to the views then prevalent in Africa, they maintained that man's na-
ture was not corrupted by the fall of Adam, and that even whore Christian-
ity was not known men might render themselves by the power of their own
wills proper subjects of divine grace. They acknowledged, however, that
men received much assistance from the Church, where it could be obtained,
and that those who were subjects of the kingdom of Christ participated in
more exalted blessings. Augustine perceived that if this doctrine were o(»i*
sistently carried out, men's confidence in redemption and in the Church, as
indispensable to solvation, would be seriously endangered. In behalf of
these, therefore, he maintained his theories of OrigincU Sin and Pred^stina*
tion^ alleging that, " in consequence of Adam's fall man's nature has been
burdened with an infinite guilt, and is incapable of good by its own power.
By divine grace, therefore, without man's co-operation, and through the in-
strumentality of the Church, a new life is imparted to some, while others are
abandoned by divine justice to their own corruption, and from all eternity
were ordained to condemnation."
§ 110. Augustinut,
L Opp. odd. Benedictini, Par. 1679-1 70a 11 Tb. t (reca& & app. CUricu^) Anto. 1700k li Th. £
(Yen. 1729sa. 12 Th. f. 17568a. 18 Tb. 4) Par. 188&-9. 11 Tb. i,—Potidiua, TiU Aug. & Indieolw Op*-
rum (about 432) in the editt of bis work& Tbe life of Aog. by an anon, writer (ed. Cramer^ KIL ISH.)
was compiled fh>m tbe Confessions Jc Poaaidlna. (7ennaJ<iM, de viria iUnstr. o. 88.
II. C. Bindemann^ d. b. Ang. Brl 1S41. vol. I. Bdhringer^ d. K. n. Ihre Zengen. toL I. Abth. t,
K. Branny, Monnika n. Angustin. Orcmma. 1846. [Angnstlne'a City of God, tranal. Lond. 1680. t
Meditations by SUinhope, Lond. 1745. dc Confessions by WatU, Lond. 1681. 12. Ilia Confteslona, 8 fld.
revised by Puney (Jc republisbcd In Boston, 1S42. 12.\ in vol. L Sermons in vola. 16 A 90, & Oom«
nient on Ptialms in voli. 24 & 25, and on John in vol 26 of the Lib. o# the Fathers. See g 106^ note A
P. Schaff, Life A Labors of St Aug. from tbe Oenn. by T. C. Porter. New York. 18M. 12.]
Aurdius Augustinus was bom at Tagaste in Nnmidia, Nor. 18, 8M. Hifi
chap.il dogtbese. s 107- auqustixe. 123
mind had been deeply imbaed daring childhood with the principles of Ghris-
tianitj, throngb the instructions of his mother Monica, Bnt when only a
yonth of seventeen years he studied the Roman classics, and gave himself np
to worldly pleasures. Cioero^s eloquent pleadings for the value of Phi-
loaophy re-awakened his desire for something more certain and eternal.
The Scriptnres were too simple for his glowing fancy. Seduced by the prom-
ise of the Manichaeans that complete truth would be revealed to all whose
ranon independently investigated its own depth?, he continued for nine years
uider their instruction, when he became satisfied that he had been deceived,
tnd doubted whether any truth could be known. But on his acquaintance
with New-Platonism another life seemed open to his pursuit. As an in-
Mmctor in eloquence he visited Rome in 888 and Milan in 885, still devoting
himself to the enjoyment of sensual pleasures. Prompted by some rccolleo-
tioDs of early childhood he was induced to listen to Ambrose simply as an
ontcHT, that he might compare the Platonic wisdom with the gospeL Then
oommenoed in his heart, principally through the influence of the writings of
Plud, a severe struggle between the temporal and the eternal, the progress of
wliieh was much assisted by the prayers and tears of his mother. In a sud-
ioL transport of his feelings he became satisfied of his own miraculous con-
fWilon, and on Easter^night, 887, he, with his natural son, was baptized by
Ambrose. He immediately resigned his professorship of rhetoric and re-
paired to his native city, where, with a company of devout associates, he lived
in retirement from the world until he was ordained in Hippo Regius (Bona),
ftfBt a presibyter (891), afterwards an assistant bishop (895). Then commenced
Ui ecclesiastical life, and the AiVican churches were subsequently governed
bj his intellectnal energies. His infiuence became predominant in every
pirt of the West, and his fame had extended through the whole Church,
when he was for three months besieged in his own city by the Vandals, and
fied Angnst 28, 480, singing the Penitential Psalms. — His earlier writings
treat of Rhetoric and Philosophy, and are for the most part lost. His theo-
logical writings, consisting of devotional, doctrinal, and especially controver-
i^ treatises, are diffuse, full of repetitions, artificial, and often insipid by
nere plays upon words. His interpretations of Scripture exhibit no extensive
knowledge of languages, or historical accuracy, {a) And yet all his works
tre characterized by an exuberance of intellectual life, a profound knowledge
of the human heart, and an all-controlling love to God breaking forth in the
most impassioned forms of speech. He never shrunk from a thought, how-
ever startling, and in his writings he has freely expressed the most liberal, as
weQ as the most tremendous conceptions which ever rose in an inquiring
^lirit, according to the exigencies of his train of reasoning. In his Confes-
Mii (tbout 400), with the proud self-abasement of a saint, as it were in a
amftifffi^ynal before God, he has freely described himself in his intellectual
MksdaesB. Qi) His Retractations (about 429) contain indeed a severe criti-
«) R K. Ganmm^ AngasUnQi 8. Scr. Interprea. Hafti. lS2a
i) CoBfeviooam L XIIL praeC Neandsr^ Bor. 1S28. ed. Bruder, LpA. 1S37. Trand. as an excel-
^ vmk. of dtTotion Into the variooa laDgnages of Europe. [Revised fh>m a fonner Engl. tranaL \>j
124 ANCIENT CnUSCH OISTOBT. PER. IL IMPERIAL CHURCO. A. D. 81»-60a
r
cism on his writings by his own hand ; bat it is evident, also, that they were
intended to recall or mitigate whatever in his earlier works was favorable to
the Pelagians. In his writings against the Manichaeans he had given promi-
nence to some sentiments favorable to the freedom and goodness of the hu-
man wUl. In his controversy with the Donatists the idea every where pre-
vailing is, that of a Church which is the only source of truth and certainty.
In his own life there had been the most direct contrast between the opera-
tions of sin and of grace, and his exalted piety took pleasure in uncondition-
ally rejecting himself that he might live wholly upon Grod's grace in Christ
§111. Victory of Auguitinism,
The controversy commenced with personal reproaches against Coelestius,
At a synod held at Carthage (412) he was expelled from the Church, when
he betook himself to Ephesus, and was there ordained a presbyter. Pelagiu$
had previously gone to Palestine, where he was opposed by Eieronymtts on
the ground of his being a follower of Origen. Augustine, at first, in a veiy
respectful manner, by writing, and through Orosim^ his messenger, opened a
controversy with him. At a synod convened at Dioapolis in Palestine (415),
he was accused of maintaining that men could live without sin, but his con-
demnation was prevented by JohUy Bishop of Jerusalem, The African
Church, however, convinced by Augustine of the danger which threatened
the cause of truth through him, condemned him at the Synods of Milete and
Carthage (416), and was sustained in its decision by the concurrence of InfUh-
cent I, Zonmue^ the successor of Innocent, entirely mistaking the impor-
tance of this controversy, at first gave protection to the Pelagians (417), but
afterwards, when the African Church and the imperial court demanded their
condemnation, with a similar ignorance he denounced them in his Epistola
tractatoria (418). Julianus of Eclanxtm and eighteen other bishops were de-
posed and driven from Italy as Pelagians. These generally took refuge at
Constantinople, where Nestorius, in accordance with the general spirit of the
Oriental Church, received them. This gave occasion for a connection of their
cause with that of the heresy of Nestorius, in consequence of which the Pe-
lagians were condenmed with the Nestorians at the general Synod of Ephe-
sus (481).
§ 112. Semipelagianism,
Jo. Gefi'ten^ Hist Semfpela^anlsmi Antlqntoslma (till 4M) Ooett 1820. 4. Wiggern^ AufOBdnli-
mus XX. PelagUnismaa, toI. II. (till 029.) [Bee bcC g 109. Also an Eauy of ProC Wiffgert In Nled-
ner'B ZeltBchr. for Jan. 1854.]
The Greek Church had never taken any real interest in this controversy,
and even at a later period it simply taught that human nature had been ren-
dered infirm in consequence of Adam^s iall. But even in the Western
churches the whole system of Angustinism had never been sincerely and
openly accepted by the public mind. Augustine himself received informa-
tion that an intermediate opinion had been propagated among the monks of
K R Pu»€y, A publ. In the Lib. of the Fathers (sec $ 106, note e.) vol I. Oxf. 1840. A repobL
ton. 1842.]
chap.il DOGTBINE. S 112. bemipelaoianb. cassian. faubtus. 125
XngHilift^ principally throagh the iaflaence of John Cassianus {a\ a disciple of
the Desert and of ChrysoBtom. According to this view (afterwards called
SemipelagianUm)^ the moral power of man has indeed been enfeebled, bat
not destroyed, in consequence of Adams^ fall, and hence divine grace and Im-
man freedom conspired together, and acted in concert with each other in the
work of man's salvation. This doctrine, which conceded as much to the
Church as to the free moral natnre of man, and without which there seemed
to be no special advantage in a monastic life, obtained great favor. The
Church, however, had too decidedly committed itself on the side of Angus-
tine, the authority of this father was then too great, and the reasoning by
which his doctrines were sustained was too irresistible, to permit a general
and open departure from his principles. In the West, therefore, there was
always an obscurity and instability of sentiment on this subject. In Gaul
Semipelagianism was decidedly in the ascendant. Acting under the direc-
tion of the Synod of Arelate (472), Faustus^ Bishop of Khegium, but pre-
Tiomsly Abbot of Levins, drew up a Semipelagian confession, which was sub-
Nribed by all the bishops at the Synod of Lyons (475). {h) From policy and
a pious regard for Augustine, the sacred name of that father was not men-
tioned, but this was only to assail with greater recklessness the character of
btt followers. A sect of Predestinarians, distinctively so called, never ex-
isted except in the ima^nations of their opponents, and an extreme defence
of predestination professing to have been put forth at that time, is, if not a
Jcsoitica], at least a Pelagian work, (e) In Africa and Home a tendency to
Angnstiniam prevailed, and through Komish influence at the Synods of Arau-
m (Orange) and Valentia (529) a decision was obtained in favor of the ex-
dorive operation of divine grace, {d) although predestination, which must
Bceessarily be inferred from this, was evidently evaded. As both parties
therefore shnrnk from extreme views the controversy never produced an ac-
tual schism in the Church, although sometimes a monk or a presbyter was op-
prciBed by his bishop, now in the name of Augustine, and again in defence
of human freedom. But just as Augustine has been regarded as a saint by
the whole Church, Cassian and Faustus have always been honored as saints
in tbdr own country.
•) De ixutltntis coenobioram L XIL Collationes Patrum XX IV. De tncarn. ChrisU adr. Noator.
I VILOpik ed. Alardus Gaaaeus, DuacL 161 6w 8 Th. auct AtrebatL 162S. f.— Wiggera, do Jo. Caas.
HarfBcsM cmm. IIL Sost 1S24& 4.
I) De gratia Dei et bamanao mentia liboro arbitrlo. (Bibl. PP. Lngd. Th. YIII.) Itanai Th. TIL
^UOT■.
c) b tba 8d toL of the Predeatlnatiu. Ed. Sirmond, Par. 164a A Gallandii Tb. X p. 8578B.—
^VOfn, ToL IL pu 829aa. [yearuUr^ Hist vol II. p. 841ss.]
i) M<md Tb. TllL p. Tllfis. [LaudotCa Man. of Cotmcils. p. 447.]
126 ANCIENT CHUBCH IIISTOST. PER. IL IMPERIAL OHUBCH. A. D. n9-80a
IV. GONTBOTBB8IE8 RESPBOTIKa THE TwO NaTUBIS OF CHBIflT.
I. Liherati (Arcbldiao. Carth. about 058) Brevlarium oaaM^ Nestorianoram et Entjohlan. Ed.
Oamerius. Par. 1675. and in Mantd Th. IX. p. eS9m. {OOcuitu I. T) BreTlcolaa Hist Entyehian*
Istarum a. geata do nomine AcacIL (J/afi«(, Th. VIL p. 106*^) LeonUu* BffanHnu9: de Metis
actio 5-10. Contra Eutychianoa et Neatorian. {GaUandii Th. XXL p. 6218a. 658b8.)— IL Walok^
Ketzerhiet Th. V.-VIIL JSaur, L. t. d. Dreielnlgk. toI. I. p. eOSta. toL II. Domer, Entwiok-
longs'reseh. d. L. t. d. Person Chr. Stnttg. 1689. p. OOaa. [JK. J. WUberforof^ On the Incamatkm of
J. C. 2 ed. Lond. 1849. Philad. 1849. p. ISlsa.]
§ 113. The Kestorian Controversy.
L Orig. DocQinenta in ManH Th. lY. p. 567v. Th. Y. YIL p. S4lBa. JToHim Mereator^ d«
haeresi Nest (0pp. vol. II.) Socrat YII, 2988. Evagr. I, 7ba.
II. Jahlovtkij I>o Nestorianismo. Ber. 17M. 4. Ofngl^^ ft. d. Yerdammnng d. Neat (TftU
Qnartalschr. 1S85. P. 2.)— /Sa/I(7, da Eatychianiamo ante Eutyoben. Wolfenk t72& 4.
The doctrine of a divine nature in Christ had now forced its waj to a
general acceptance, and that of his human nature had always been taken for
granted ; but when men reflected upon the relation which these sustained
toward each other, they were in danger of either asserting their unity so
strictly that the human nature was wholly lost in the Deity, or, to secure the
existence of the human nature, of maintaining its separation so rigidly
that the unity of Christ^s person would be destroyed. The natural tendency
of each school induced the Alexandrian to adopt the former, and the An-
tiochian the latter extreme. Accordingly, when Nestorive^ originally a pres-
byter at Antioch, but after 428 the Metropolitan of Ck>nstantinople, full of
zeal for orthodoxy, and according to the customary language of his school,
carefully distinguished in opposition to Apollinarb between the two natures
of Christ (Mary being called xp^^^^^i^^^t i^^t 3(or($ieor, and the relation of the
natures, awd^tia and iPoUrfait), so that the qualities (Ibivfiara) co-operated
in the accomplishment of man's redemption, Cyril of Alexandria (412-444),
the nephew, and in every respect the successor of Theophilus, advocated a
union of natures ((pvaiKrf iviaan) so complete, that the peculiarities of eadi
were predicable of the other. These opposite views, sustained respectively
by the two great eastern bishoprics, and by the schools of Alexandria and
Antioch, from their peculiar nature, aflTorded ample occasion for misunder-
standings and unhappy inferences. Both parties were charged with having
destroyed all faith in man's redemption ; Nestorius by his assertion of the
doctrine of two independent natures, and Cyril by his denial of the human
nature of Christ. Cyril succeeded in arraying the Roman Church against
Nestorius, by connecting the controversy with the Pelagian. Nestorius was
condemned at the Synods of Alexandria and Eome (480), and Cyril pub-
lished his jioctrines in twelve Anathemas, to which Nestorius opposed twdve
others, (a) A general assembly of the Church was convened by Theodoiius
IL at Ephesus (431), in which Cyril and his bishops pronounced condemna-
tion upon Nestorius before the Syrian and Greek bishops had arrived. On
the arrival of these bishops they chose John of Antioch for their president,
and deposed Cyril. The latter, however, well knew how to gain the fiivor
a) JTofMi, Tb. lY. p. 1067bb. pc 109988. Mumieh^r, CdUn^ DGewb. toL L pi
OHAP.il DOCTRINS. S 118^ 3!^^T0BIAN181L fll^ BUTYCHIANI81L 127
of the emperor, and to produce dissension among the bishops of the opposite
psrtj. He even became reconciled to John of Antioch, having finally con-
tented to snbBcribe (488) the articles of faith which that prelate had induced
his party to adopt at Ephesos, (h) in which the two natures of Christ were
especially distinguished. In such a strife of mere intrigues, Kestorius, with
his monastic learning and want of practical tact, was no match for his op-
poDoitB. He was soon deserted by all parties, and died in wretchedness
(aboot 440), with his character misunderstood and his doctrine misrepresent-
ed. The only advocate of his opinions by which the conflict was continued,
was the theological school of Edetaa^ a branch of the Antiochian, and this
gradually withdrew to Persia. Under its influence, the Persian churches
penerered in their opposition to the Synod of Ephesus, and undef the name
of Chaldean Christiana, or Christiana of St, Thomas, as they were called in
India, or Neatoriana, as they were called by their opponents, they became
aumeroiiB, and carried far into Asia the principles of Christian beneficence
md Grecian refinement. But even in the imperial Church, a disposition
friendly to Neatorianism was continued, especially under the influence of
Ihaa^ Bi8hq> of Edeesa (486-457), and the learned Theodoret. (e)
§ 114. The Eutychian Controteray,
Aeto In ManH Tb. YL TIL Evagr, I, 9«i II, 9.
The controversy which had been thus violently and deceptively settled
temed faintly still, with Alexandria and Palestine on the one side, and Con-
tUnUinople and Asia on the other. When, therefore, Eutyehes, an archiman-
drite of Constantinople, obstinate in his disposition, but well versed in the
Beriptures, taught, in direct opposition to Nestorianism, that every thing hu-
BtD in the nature of Christ was absorbed by his divinity, and became one
Btture with it, Flatianus, Bishop of Constantinople, had him condemned at
Aiynod of hia diocese (448). (a) Leo the Great approved of this decision in
n epistle in which, though ho maintained that the two natures of Christ acted
ii perfect harmony, he clearly distinguished between what was divine and
ivliat was human in the life of Jesus, (h) Dioscurus of Alexandria (111 51),
liio, in defending Eatyches, felt that he was equally defending his predecessor
Gjril, succeeded at the general synod of EpJiesm (449), through the influ-
nee of an excited populace, in justifying Eutyches and deposing Flavian.
We are assured by the emperor Theodosius II., that the decision was obtained
ia a perfectly legal manner, on tlie basis of the prior decrees of Ephesus and
KietM. But on the sudden death of the emperor (450), the general feeling
<f diipleasore at the violent proceedings of Dioscurus found a public ex-
pMnoD. The empress Pulcheria and her husband Mareianvs convoked a
Gciwral Council at Chalcedon (451), whose decision was secured by the mi'>de
i) JbM< Th. IV. p. 878. oomp. 781& SOSsi.
t)A9ttmaml De Byrto Nettorianii. (BlbL Orient Som. 172a £ Th. III. P. II.) Ehedjem L.
*iqirilie<l«T«rit lldeL {A, Maji N. CoIL Th. 2L P. IL) [if. Grant, Hist, of the Nestori«xiii
■*!«*. Itoa]
^Tbe Aeto in tlM Aetto L id Oudoedon. ManH Th. YL p. M9a& [Land<m, p. 16788.]
^)EMdFliTfmiiii. X«(m. Oppc edd. JSSdUdrtoi. Ep. S&
128 ANCIENT CUUBCH HISTOBY. FEB. IL IMPEBIAL CHUBCIL A. D. 81S-80a
in which it was constituted. Dioscuras was deposed, Eatjches was con*
demned, not only Ibos and Theodoret, but even Cyril were declared or-
thodox, and the doctrine of the Church was established on the basis of the
Boman epistle : Two natures are without confusion but inseparably united in
the one person of Christ The Synod of Ephesus has ever since been regard-
ed as the Robber-Synod (avuodos Xi/orpix^). (c)
§ 115. The Monaphy$ite8, The Content respecting Chalcedon.
Acts in ManH Th. YII. p. 4S1-IX. p. 70a LeonUut Byu, de scctto liber, actio 6-10. and Contm
Eutychianoe et Ne«tnrian. 1. IIL (Gallandiiy BibL Th. XII.) Writings and Fragments of the
Party Leaders in A. Maji N. ColL ISSa Th. VIL P. L and SpiciL Bom. Th. III. X, Etagr. II, bm.
The Alexandrians, who gave special prominence to the divine nature in
Christ, and yet were unwilling to connect themselves with the Eutychian
party, felt much aggrieved by the action of the Council of Chalcedon. They
were called by their opponents JJonophysites, and these opponents were
called by them Nestorians and Dyophysites. The controversy was at first
conducted by insurrections of monks and of people, and in Palestine was
attended with bloodshed, but in Alexandria and Antioch each party set up
its rival bishops. The emperor Leo I. (457-474) sustained the decisions of
Chalcedon, though with a judicious moderation. Peter Fullo (yva<f)fvs) hav-
ing assumed the office of Bishop of Antioch, and introduced into the liturgy
a Monophysite formula, which asserted that God had been crucified (thence
called Theopaschites), was expelled by the emperor. In the revolutions
which then took place so frequently in the imperial palace, ecclesiastical con-
troversies were made subservient to political intrigues. When the emperor
Zeno Isauricus was overthrown by Baniluem (476), the latter strengthened
his party by gaining over the Monophysites, and published a circular in
which he condemned the Synod of Chalcedon. (a) The insurrection in Con-
stantinople by which Zeno was restored to his throne (477), was under the
direction of the Catholic patriarch Aeaeius. The Monophysites, however,
had exhibited so much power under the usurper, that the emperor, by the
advice of the patriarch, endeavored to reconcile them by publisliing a creed
called the Uenoticon (h) (482), in which the disputed articles were entirely
avoided. Felix 11.^ the Roman bishop, placed himself at the head of those
zealots who were opposed to this fellowship with the Monophysites, and
excommunicated Acacius (484). But even the more rigid portion of the
Monophysites in Egypt withdrew from their own patriarch, who had been
so easily pacified (thence called 'Akc<^oi). Though both parties equally
reviled the Uenoticon, it was the means of external peace in the Oriental
Church, and Anastasitis (401-^18), who attempted to free the state from
both parties, was equally hated, threatened and calumniated by both. Jmtm
L (518-527) decided against the Monophysites and expelled their bishops,
but in Egypt, where their cause was popular, he was politic enough not to
assail them. In Alexandria, however, they fell out among themselves, for
c) Leicaldy die sogen. Biubersynode. (Illgen's Zeitachr. toI YIII. P. 1.) [London, p. 8t& 11&]
o) JSvoffr. Ill, 4. b) Ibid. Ill, 14 Btrger, Hanotica Orient Tit 1T98. 4.
GHAP.il DOCTBINE. 1 116. 8EVEKIAN3. J 11«l JUSTINIAN L 129
the Seteriatu^ so called from Severos their leader, the expelled Patriarch of
Antioch, who was rather iDclined to confound the divine with the hnman
nature, and acknowledged that the principal attribute of the latter was the
eorrnptibility of the body of Christ (therefore reproached as *3apToXaTpat),
were opposed to the Julianists (A(l)^apTodoKrJTai\ the followers of Julian of
Ealieamasgus^ who taught that there was such an absorption of the human
nature into the divinitj that nothing mortal remained, (c)
§ 116. Justinian,
Procopiua (d. about 552X espedallj bis military history, and bis bfst of the court : 'AvckSoto,
mat areana, cd. OreOL Lpe. 1827. Contin. of the Imi). Illst 552-^9. by Affalhias^ cd. Kiebvhr.
Ban. 19S8L (Corpoa Serr. Byzant P. IIL 1829-44.
Justinian /., in the course of his long and frequently brilliant reign
(527-565), by the successful weapons of his generals restored the Roman
dominion in Africa and Italy to its former splendor. Dutiful toward the
Church, temperate even to monastic strictness, covetous and yet prodigal,
active in many departments of business, and untiring in his diligence, though
moderate in natural talents, he was eager to acquire the reputation of a mas-
ter in every kind of human knowledge. Even while burdened with the
cares of bis despotic reign, he digested from the treasures of Roman juris-
prudence a code of civil law which has been ever since the source of legal
inence for all civilized nations. lie then attempted in like manner, as a
theologian, to annihilate all heresies, reconcile all parties, and establish a
trae system of orthodoxy for all future time. But while he loaded the
Church with gifts, he increased the distractions of both Church and State by
bia creeds, and efforts to establish uniformity. In all these he doubtless be-
fieved that he was guided by his own sagacity, while he was really the mere
tool of court divines and eunuchs. He was disposed to favor the Council
o( Chalcedon, but Theodora well knew how to direct his edicts so that they
generally were favorable to the Monophysites. This woman, having sharae-
My spent her youthful beauty amid all the dissipations of Constantinople,
▼•8 exalted, by the favor of the emperor, to be the sharer of his power over
^ empire, and the sole mistress of himself. On the tlirone she was tyran-
idcal, but her disposition was lofty and her morals were irreproachable.
1. On finding that the diECUssions w^hich he had ordered between the Catho-
Btt And the Monophysites were of no avail, (a) the emperor hoped to win
the Utter by allowing them to use their formula asserting simply that one of
the stcred Trinity was crucified (588). But while this only embittered the
Mings of the Catholics, it was not enough for the Monophysites. Anfhi-
ftw (585), the Monophysitic patriarch, who had been appointed through
^^wdora's influence, was removed the next year by the Catholic party, and
n^tTftff, who had been assisted in his attainment of the Roman see (588)
^ the secret understanding that he would favor the Monophysites, found
0 GUteler^ Monopbysitamm vett variac de Chr. persona opiniones inpr. ex Ipeomm effaUa reeend
*^10Mtr. Oott 188Su 8a 2 P.
•)CQQalio CathoUoor. c SeveriaDis a. 581. {Manti Tb. YIIL p^ 817v.)
9
130 ANCIENT CnUKCU HISTORT. PER. II. IMPEKIAL CHURCH. A. D. 819-80a
no difficulty in absolving himself fW>m his oath, (b) 2. The name of Origin
was dear to a monastic party in the East, not so mnch for his scientific char-
acter as for the relation of his system to the Monophysites. This party
gained great influence at conrt by means of Theodorits Ascida^, Metropolitan
of Cacsarea in Cappadooia. The Catholic party, however, found means
through MennaSy the Patriarch of Constantinople, to procure from the empe-
ror a condemnation of Origon. 8. Thcodorus soon revenged himself by con-
vincing the emperor that the Monophysites would be reconciled to the
Church by a sentence of condemnation upon Theodore of Mopsuestia^ the
instructor of Nestorius, Theodoret of Cyrus and Ihas of Edessa^ tlie princi-
pals of the Antiochian school. The errors of these teachers having been
collected (about 644) into three chapters (tria capitula), were accordingly
condemned by Justinian, {c) Though the Monophysites were much delighted
with this act, they were on that ac<iount no more partial to the Council of
Chalcedon. The Catholics, on the other hand, looked upon it as a direct
assault upon that council. To quell these discussions, Justinian convoked
the fifth (Ecumenical Council at Constantinople (558), which, in compliance
with the imperial theology, condemned the three Antiochian teachers, (d)
Vigilius^ who at first led the West in its opposition to this proceeding, lost
the glory of his martyrdom by frequent vacillations and concessions. Pda-
gius became his successor in consequence of his acknowledgment of the
imperial synod (555). A large portion of the Western bishops now broke
off connection -with Rome as well as Constantinople, and the liberty of the
Church found some bold champions not only against the despotism of the
emperor, but the pliant disposition of the Roman bishop, (e) 4. The last
attempt of Justinian to draw over the Monophysites, was made when he had
(564) the doctrine of the IncorrvptihiUty of Christ's body adopted as an
article of the authorized creed. He had just commenced the work of ex-
pelling those Catholic bishops who resisted him, when the Church was deliv-
ered from the confusion produced by his zeal for the faith by his death. (/)
§ 117. The Edict of Peace and the Monophysite Church,
Xo sooner had Justin II. reach the throne, than he issued an edict
(565), (n) in which he admonished all Christians to unite with him to pro-
mote the glory of the Redeemer, and to contend no more about words and
persons. Tlie apostolic Catholic Church, however, was at the same time
assured that its present position would be maintained. Tlie arbitrary man-
ner in which the imperial laws for the regulation of faith had for some time
been enforced, rendered such a request from an emperor peculiarly grateftil
to the public mind. The successors of Yigilius were now more zealous in
h) Llberati Breviar. c S2. rigilii Epc ad Jiutin. {JfanH Th. IX p. 85.) ad MeBnam.
{Ibid. p. as.)
c) JtmUn, ad Mennam adr. Impiam Orig. {ManH Th. IX. p. 487v. eompc 895fl&)
d) Acta in Manai Th. IX. p. 15788.
e) Eap. Faeundu* Bfrmiatuntis (aboat 548) pro defensione trinm oapltt L XIL (Oppu ad. J[
aimwnd.V9i.\m9. OcUandiiTYi. yiL)
f) Euigr, IV, 89-40. WaUX, Ketxergeach. toL X. p. 578a&
a)X9agr,Y^i. A'ieepk. XYll,9S»
CSAP.il DOCTHimS. {117. MONOPHY8ITE8. { 118- MONOTHBLITES. 131
enfordng the ftothority of the fifth oecnmenioal council in the West, than
he had formerly heen in opposing it It was not^ however, generally
acknowledged until enhflequent centuries, when it was not opposed, hecause
tiie auhjects in dispute were nearly forgotten. In the East, each party
retained possession of all that it had obtained. In opposition to the Catholic
patriareb of Alexandria, who was sustained entirely by the emperor's power,
the Mbnophysites possessed a patriarch of their own (after 586), and consti-
tated the Egyptian national Ohurch of the CopU^ with which was connected
the Etbiopic Church, (h) The Armenians avaOed themselves of the occa-
■on when the Henoticon was enacted, to renounce the authority of the S}niod
of Chalcedon, and thus in the sixth century, when they were subject to the
Fenian yoke, they entirely renounced all connection with the Church of the
empire, (e) The apostolic zeal of Jacob Baradai (641-678) gave the Mono-
phyatee of Syria and ^Mesopotamia a permanent ecclesiastical constitution,
ind the name of Jacobites, (d) These disruptions from the imperial Catholic
Church were gradually confirmed by the peculiar customs of the provinces
where they took place, until by the conquests of Islam, to which they con-
tributed, they- became irreparable. In the conquered provinces, the Catho-
Kea, <m account of their connection with the empire (hence called Mekhit^
from T\^Xi\ were even more oppressed than the Monophysites, and their
patriarch generally resided at Constantinople.
§ 118. The Monothelite Controversy.
L Orlf. 1>ocaroeiit«In JfrifMi Tb. X. pw 869-1 ISA. Th. XL p. 190-1023. Anastasll Bibliotheearfi (about
fliV CoIIeetaBM d« U^ quae specUot ad Htst MonotheL ed. Strvmrndy Par. 1620. and GaUandii Th.
XUL JTUMpkori (Patriarch of Constant d. 888), Breviarium Hist (602-769.) ed. Petavlus, Par. 1616.
IL /*. OorUnyitiiy Hist baer. Monothelitarum. In hU Anctoar. PP. Par. 164& U, 8.
While the emperor fferaelivs (after 622) was re-establishing the power
of the empire in Syria and Armenia, he endeavored to reconcile the Mono-
physites with the imperial Church, by conceding that although there were
two natures in Christ, there was but one manifestation of will (cWpycca dcar-
Vk^)- CyruAf who had been appointed by the emperor patriarch of Alex-
tadria, succeeded by this expedient in gaining over the Severians of his
fiooese (688). But when Sophronius^ a monk of Palestine, and after 684 Patri-
u^ (rf Jerusalem, who happened then to be in Alexandria, excited a violent
on^ositionto it, the emperor published a creed ("E/cSfo-cr, 688) (a) composed by
S^ius^ Patriarch of Constantinople, and approved by Honorivs^ the Roman
Uop,(() whioh aseumed that there was but one Christ and onevnW (tu
^fu). In this he had more regard to the final adjustment of tlie contro-
^wsT, than to the victory of the imperial party. But in such an age, a dis-
pBto thus awakened was not easily set to rest. The Roman bishops after
0 TaH-tddini Makrimii (d. 1441X Hist Coptorom obrUt arab. et Ut ed. WeUer. Solisb. 182&
Jfiei I«7itira, Oriens In IT Patriarabatns digestn^ (Par. 1740. 8 Th. t) Th. II. p. SSTsk.
^Sainl-MarUn^ JAkm. rar PArman. Th. I. pu 829flB. £ooL Anneniacae canones selectl. (ii.
*(K5.CoILTh.XP. II.)
') iMmani, BibL orient Th. IL LequUn L c Th. IL
<)il:lnl•<Th.X.^99Sa.
^BamorWEi^ ad Serginm. {Mcnui Th. XL pc 687. oomp. 079.)
132 ANCIENT CHUECn HISTORY. PER. U. IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 81S-8(M.
John IV, (689), with a stricter reference to the troe faith or the injury of
their rivals than to the orthodoxy of their predecessors, placed tjieraselves at
the head of the opposition to the Monothelites, and excluded the patriarch
of Constantinople from the communion of the Church. A law {rvnot) (e)
enacted by Constans II, (648) was intended to enforce peace by an arbitrary
prohibition of the controversy. But Martin I, of Rome, at the first Synod
of Lateran (649), condemned the Monothelites and both the imperial laws.
He was consequently first imprisoned, then condemned at Constantinople for
treason, and finally ho died in great distress, (d) To allay the strife which
now threatened the precarious power of the empire in Italy, the emperor
Constantine Pogonatus convoliod the sixth OQcnmenical synod at Constanti-
nople (680). This assembly, under the influence of Agatho, the Roman
bishop, besides condemning Honorius, (e) recognized in Christ consistently
with the doctrine of two nature.**, and certain "passages of Scripture inter-
preted so as to conform to it, two wills made one by the moral subordination
of the human. The Monothelites, however, obtained one more transient
victory in the Greek Church under Philip Bardanes (711-713). But after
the elevation of Anastasius II, to the throne, they were generally rejected,
and only a small remnant sustained themselves in the convent of St. Maro on
Mount Lebanon, under a patriarch of their own. (/)
§ 119. Ecclesiastical Literature.
Chrysostom and Augustine were still peerless models for the churches in
which their languages were respectively spoken. The energies of the Alex-
andrian and Antiochian schools were exhausted in party strifes. Cyril (d.
444), whose natural acuteness was under the guidance of his passions, ex-
ceeded the characteristic limits of the Alexandrian spirit, {a) and Theodoret^
Bishop of Cyrvs (d. 457), the last of the Antiochian school, though a judi-
cious expounder and a devout historian, could not escape the malediction of
the Church. (&) The qualities of both schools appear to have been onoe
more combined in the collection of the Epistles of Ind<yre of Pelusium (d.
about 440), who, though a resident in Alexandria, was the friend of Chrysos-
tom, and found among the monastic virtues liberty to be mild in science and
fearless in his opposition to the powerful both in the world and in the
Church, {c) The writings which assumed the name of Dionysius Areopagita^
indicate that the Athenian New-Platonism had become Christianized near
the commencement of the sixth century, and they have ever since been the
model of those dispositions which strive to die to themselves, and are wait-
c) AfanH Th. X. p. 102»8. d) Manti Th. 3L p. 851&
6) ManH Th. XI. p. 656. 622. 781.
f) Lequien^ Orlens Chr. Th. IIL p. Isa. Walch, vol. IX. p. 474m.
a) CommoDtaries, Polem. Treatises, Uomllios, and Letters. 0pp. ed. J. Av^erit Par. 168S. 7 Th. £
On Mattb., Hebrews, and 7 dogm. Essays io A. Maji Col. Th. YIIL
&) Commentariea, History of the Church, Hist, of IIcreeieA, Lives of Saints, and Polem. Treat-
iacs. 0pp. edd. Sirmond ct GamUr, Par. 1742-84. 0 Th. £ SchuUe et NoeswU, HaL 1769-74. 0 Th.—
Richter, de Theor. £pp. Panllnar. interprete. Lps. 1822.
c) Epp. 1. IV. cd. RiUerhwt, ITdlb. 1605. £ Epp. ineditae, ed. SchotL Anto. 1623. £ All together:
Par. 1638. Yen. 1745. t—IT. A. Niemeyer^ de Isid. Pelosiotae vita, scriptia et doctr. HaL 182S. eompk
Arch. £ KQesch. 1826. P. 8. pc 197bb.
CHAP.il DOCTBINR S 119. PHILOPONITS. BOETHIUS. CASSIODOBUd. 133
ing patiently for a complete nnion with the Deity, (d) The Aristotelian sys-
tem of logio waa used in all theological controversies. JoJin Philoponvs
(middle of the 6th century), the acnte expounder of Aristotle, and the inde-
pendent Christian philosopher, hat an adherent of the Monophysites, declared
Iiimself in the Greek Chnrch decidedly partial to this tendency, thongh not
imfriendly to many doctrines of Platonism. He was accused of Tritheism,
because the ideas entertained hy the Church on the suhject of the divine
nature and personality were not satisfactory to him, and he took offence at
the doctrine of the resurrection, which he descrihed as a new creation, since
with the form he maintained that the matter of the hody was gone, (c) The
Roman Church hecame acquainted with Aristotle through the labors of
A» M. T. S^ Boetliiu9, In the writings which hear his name, Aristotelian
formulae are used to defend the doctrines of the Incarnation and the Trinity.
But in prison his mind had been raised above the fear of death by the conso-
lations of a pious heathen philosophy. He died (524) in defence of the
interests of his native land, and the Church has invested him with the glory
of martyrdom. By birth, merit, and success he resembled the nobler Ro-
mans of the Augustan age, and indeed he may be regarded as the last speci-
men of the race. (/) The sciences which had been created by the peculiar
character of the Greeks and the Romans, necessarily shared in the declining
fortunes of those nations. The last signs of Uellenic refinement disappeared
io the sixth century from every portion of the empire except Rome and Con-
stantinople with the ravages of the Barbarians, of the Pestilence, and of the
Cfhurch itself. A meagre collection of traditions was all that now remained,
because it had been appropriated to her own use by the Church. Even
Ounodorus (a consul and a monk, d. about 562) attempted to preserve only
those fragments of science which he thought might be serviceable to the
Charch. (^) Scriptural exegesis consisted entirely of such compilations from
the treasures of former times as had been commenced in the East by Froco-
piut Gazaeus (about 520), and in the West by Frimasius of Adrymetvm
(about 550). (h) A system of doctrines had likewise been formed for the
tf)nc/»2 T^t Upapx^f*-^- n€p2 T^s iKKKtciaarriKTii itpapx^cis- Tltpl dtlvy ovoixdrwy. Utpl
MWTiK^f btoXoylaf. Epp. XII.— 0pp. ed. Corderius, (Antu. 16a4.) Par. 1644. 2 Tti. I Constantini,
V«B.17S60w i Th. t Uebere. m. Abhh. v. Engelhardt^ Sulzb. 1S28.— J! Dalleua^ de scrlptis, quae sub
If*, flt Dion. A. Domm. circamfer. Qen. 1660. 4. Engeihardt : De Dion. PIotinlzAnte. £rl. 1S20. De
«%. icripUir. Araop. ErL 1822. A. Ilelffhrich^ d. chr. Mystik in ihrer EntwickL n. ihrcn Denkinalen.
^ISH 2 ro\&.^BaumgarUn-CrvHu9^ do Dion. A. Jon. 1823. Bevised in 0pp. tbeul. Jen. 1836.
P^ttSm. On the otber side: liittery Ocsch. d. chr. Pliil. vol. II. p. M9.
•) Scipeetlcg bim : Jo. Damatc. de hai>re<>. c 88. Pbot. c. 21-23. K. 7S. Niceph, XVIII, 45-49.
^^»^'By. de sectis, act b.~-Schar/enburg^ do Jo. Phil. Trithclsmi defensore. Lps. 176S. (Conini.
ttfoled. VtUktt9en^ etc Th. I.) Trech«el, Jo. Pliil. (Stud. u. KrlU 1&85. P. 1.)
/) Commentaries and translations of Aristotle — De duabus nat et una persona. Quod Trinitas
'ttuasDens, etc — De consulatione pbilo«opbiae, ed. IM/recht, Curiae 1797. and often. Ucbers. v.
fnHag, Rtipa. 1794.— Opp. ed. Rota^ Bas. 1570s.— (Gervaisc) Hist de Bouce. Par. 1715. 2 Tli.
B«9%», Ceniora Bo£tbiL (Opoacc Th. VI. pi 148s8.)— f*. Iland^ Boeth. (Erscb. u. 6rubor*s EncykL
v<^ XL p. S88M.) Ou9L Amr, de Boctbio. DarmsL 1841.
9) Ds arUbns ao diaciplinis liberalinm titt Institutlo ad dir. lectiones. Ulst Eccledae tripartita.
^«W Eppt— Oppt ed. Garet. Botbomag. 1679. Ven. 1729. 2 Th. t—Htdudlin, ft. Cassiod. (Archlv. f.
KOweh. 182Si p. 25998. SSlsa.)
*)/#'. & Auffu^Un, de catenli PP. graecia in N. T. Hal. 1762. (^NoeucHi Gommentt ad U
«t HsL 181T.
134 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. II. IMPERIAL CHUBCH. A. D. 81»-600.
Latin Chnrch (i) fh)m sentences taken fh>m the more ancient fathers by Isido-
ru8, Bishop of HispalU (d. 636), and another more complete, and on account
of its application of Aristotelian formnlae more scientific, was compiled for
the Greek Church by the monk John Damase^nvs (d. 754). The latter
also collected togetlier the various decisions which had been given by the
Ohurch in its earlier religious controversies, and thus settled these disputes
for his Ghnrch for a thousand years after him. (k) A Roman catalogue of
apocryphal and rejected works, which had been gradually enlarging from the
time of Ilorraisdas (514-528), and had finally become essentially fixed about
the middle of the sixth century, exhibits the contracted spirit as well as the
state of criticism at that time, for even some of the more ancient fathers are
rejected as apocryphal because they were inconsistent with some Roman
assertions, or did not correspond with the later orthodoxy. (T)
ClIAP. ni.— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE OnURCH.
Bibliotlicca )uri8 can. vetori^ op. Guil et Ilenr. JuntfUi, Par. 1661. 2. Th. f. Sitittler, Geech. il.
can- Rechts bis a. d. falsch. Iridor. Hal. 1T7S. (Works, ed. by Wdchter, Stuttg. 1927, vol. I.)— />/<mcl%
Oescb. d. kirchl. Gesellschafts-Verf. vol. I. p. 276n. na»e^ de Jure ecc P. I. p. 828s. P. IL C
Riffel, Gcsch. DanL d. Verb. zw. K. n. Staat Mainz. 1886. vol I. p. 11488.
§ 120. Legislation and Books of Lau>,
Ecclesiastical laws were enacted sometimes by synods and sometimes by
the emperors. The first idea of general laws for the whole Church seems to
have been derived from the General Councils, with whose decisions were
soon united those of the inferior synods and the canonical institutes of a few
fathers, which individual bishops had collected for their private direction,
but which passed into general use. Such collections are first noticed in the
Syuod of Chalcedon, where, however, they possessed no general authority. (<i)
But even then it had become customary, at least in the Greek Church, to
regard the canons of certain synods as possessing the authority of general
laws. This agreement seems to have become complete in the sixth century,
but it was not until the second canon of the Trullan Synod (Quinisexta 692)
that the constituent parts of the Greek canon law which had long been in
use, were recognized as legally binding, {h) The African Church at the
Council of Carthage, 419, gave its sanction to a collection of its own domes-
tic canons, {e) which was gradually accepted as a part of the general eccleai-
t) Sententiarum & de summo bono L III. comp. % 167. note a.
1c) ni77^ yvuKrfOii ■ a) ra ^iXo(ro^i«r(i, /3) ittpX alpcVcwv, y) tkioffii iiKpifi^s T^t opi^
Z6lov iriirrtooT. 0pp. ed. Mich. lAq^Un^ Par. 1712. 8. Th. C
/) Threefold text in Manti Tb. YIII. p. ISSas. Since nincmar of Bheims it Is eommonly ^oted
as Pccrctum Oola»it (494), tbns by Qratlan: e. 8. Dtot XV. comp. Oieaeler, KGesch. yoL L Abttu
II. p. 8S8S. [Davidnoti'a transl. vol. II. p. 110. $ 114 note 2.]
a) Kespccting collectiona called apostolic : See $ 67. oomp. J. W, BUkdL, Geach. Oea KlrcbeA-
rechta. Gless. laia vol. L
V) Acta and 102 canons : Manti Th. XI. p. 927-1008.
c) JutteUi Bibl. Tb. I. 808bs. Manti Tb. III. p. 69388.
OHAP. Ill GOHSTrrunoN. s isa theodobuh a justinian coDsa 135
Mtical ]*w. Of the Roman Chnroh of the time of the Coancil of Chalcedon,
we only know that in its collection the Nicaean canons were mingled with
those of Sardica. The dvil laws, so far as they relate to ecclesiastical affiiirs,
may generally be fomid under their appropriate titles in the two collections
of imperial laws called Codex Theodonanus^ 438, and Codex Justinianeus^
684, and the Novels attached to each. The efforts of Justinian to give a
scientific form to political and civil law, must have had a considerable infln-^
ence npon ecclesiastical law. John SeholiiHticui^ successively an advocate, a
presbyter at Antioch, and the Patriarch of Constantinople (d. 578), arranged
the canons which he found in the ordinary collections, together with the
Beoond and third epistles of Basil relating to the canons, under fifty titles
aooording to their subjects, (d) This digest, on account of its adaptation to
general use, as well as the reputation of its author, soon became a standard
aothority in the Greek Church. A collection of civil laws relating to the
Church, prepared by this some John, contains extracts from the ten Novels
ii Justinian, arranged under eighty-seven chapters, {e) Another collection,
embracing the whole ecclesiastical legislation of Justinian, sometimes in full
and sometimes abridged, together with an appendix containing the four
Novels of Ileraclins, has been erroneously attributed to Theodore Balsamon,
hot really belongs to the seventh century. (/) The practical wants of the
Church called forth a work in which tlie civil laws relating to the Church
(luftoc) were arranged in harmony with the ecclesiastical laws {Kav6¥fs\ and
which has since been called the Komocanon, Under the fifty titles of the
collection of canons by Scholasticus, the corresponding civil laws were intro-
duced, and even these were principally derived from his book, {ff) The peni-
tential laws were systematized, and their severity was accommodated to the
mSdness of his age, and of his own disposition, by John the Fatter (i/?;(rrcvT^f),
Patriarch of Constantinople (585-595). (A) The old code of the Roman
Church, ij) called by Dionysius Trahslatio prisen, was gradually increased
md strengthened in authority after the Council of Chalcedon, by translations
from the Greek books of laws. The incompleteness and want of arrange-
ment which characterized this work, induced Dionysius Exiguus, a Scythian
iDd a Roman monk, to revise it, and to form a now code (498-514). (X) The
first part contains a faithful translation of the principal articles of the Greek
ijnodal laws, tlie canons of Sardica, and the African collection. The second
ptrt contains all the decretals which could then be found at Rome, by eight
popes, firom Siricius (d. 898) to Anastosius II. (d. 498). This Codex Dionysii
i) /ntuai BlbL Tb. IL p. 499^402.
^Imnymy^ rtap&y 9iard^t9ty. tJnprinted.
f) Twr iucX. 9tard^*tnf ffv?i\oy/i, JuMeUi BibL Th. II. p. 1217-1478.—/*. /?. BUner, de
(•OMttoBlbfiif caoonnm Ece. gnecM. Bor. 1827.
iDJudelU BibL Th. II. p. 60»-672.
A)'AKoXoud(a Ktd rd^it M 4^ofio\oyovfi4ywv. The exUtlng EcconMon foroiod from later
ft^Him b in Morini Comm. hist de diflciplina in adininistr. Bacr. poenitcntiac. (Par. 1^1. f) Von.
i7nLr.p. ei6M.
i) In leon. Oppi Th. III. p. 4786& and ManH Th. TI. p. 1105s8.
t) Ed. Fr. Pilhoeui, Par. 1«S7. t JutteUi BlbL Th. I. p. »78a. coixip. BulUrin. D». in Loocl
0nkTh.IILp.l74flt.
136 ANCIXBTT CHXTECH BISTORT. PXB. IL IMPERIAL CHURCa A. D. 81ft-«ML
was mnoh ftyored by the popes, and became a standard legal authority not
only in the Roman Ghoroh, whose domestic laws were found in it, but in
almost all the West Later decretals were therefore gradually appended to
it. The book of laws for the Spanish Ohorch originated in the first half of
the sixth century, and wto probably revised by Isidore of Hispnlis^ whose
name it bears, but continual additions have been made to it since his time. (2)
It contains in the first part not only the greater part of the Greek synodal
laws, but the canons of the Spanish and GaUican councils, and in the second
part, besides the decretals of the Dionysian code, a few letters from tbe
popes to the Spanish and Galilean bishops. Other systematic compilations
made during this period are of less importance. They are the Breviarivm
of Fulgentiu8 Ferrandus, a deacon of Carthage (about 547), a work which
had no dependence upon the Dionysian code, (w) and the Concordia of
CrcsconitUy an African (about 600), which was an analysis of that code
according to its contents, (n)
§ 121. The Roman Empire,
The cultivation of the fine arts had entirely ceased from the time of Oon-
stontine, and no ornaments could be found for his new city and his trium-
phal arch in the very forum of Kome, but by spoiling the ancient monuments.
Nearly the whole intellectual energy of the age was enlisted in the service
of the Church, so that the only science which seemed to flourish without
ecclesiastical influence was jurisprudence. In consequence of the founding
of Constantinople, the whole power of the empire was directed to the East,
and after the division made by Theodosius (895) the East and the West re-
mained permanently separated. But so perfectly had the various nations
conquered by the Komans been made to feel as one people, that both these
divisions regarded themselves as only different parts of the one great empire-
While the Germanic nations stormed at the portals of the West, and even
when they broke through them in the fifth century, the civil constitution and
the habits of the people remained Roman under the long dominion of the
Goths in Italy. The East was governed by a lifeless and rigid mechanism,
the moving spring of which was at Constantinople. The extinction of the
reigning families and the ascendency of the army, rendered abortive the fre-
quent efforts to establisli a popular hereditary monarchy, but the want of this
was in some degree supplied by the imperial nomination of colleagues and
successors. But the m^esty of the Roman people and the confidence that
they wore destined to universal dominion had been transferred to their rulers.
In this form it wu3 now consecrated by the Church, and systematically de-
fended by arguments supplied by jurisprudence. Amid all the agitations pro-
duced by dynastic changes, this idea of an imperial government appointed by
Grod for supreme dominion on earth became profoundly fixed in the hearts
of the people.
/) Collectlo canonnm Eccl UlttpanUe. Matrit 1808. t Epistolae decretales ao rescr. Rom. PoottH*
cam. Mstr. 1821. f. (od. A. OoruMlm.)
m) JuHtUi BibL Th. L p. 456m. n) JutUUi BlbL Tb. L Append, p. 886a.
CHAF.UL CONSTITUTION. 1 182. BELiLTIONB OF CHIIBCH Jb BTATK 137
§ 122. Power of the Emperor oter the Church,
The emperors, accustomed to exercise the power, not only of an absolute
soTereign bat of a supreme pontiff, endeavored to sell their favor to the
Church at the price of its ancient liberties. A decisive influence was gained
hj them in the right of nominating the bishops, especially the metropolitan.
The CSmroh on the other hand was anxious to compel all its members to ob-
terre the well defined and slow process of a regular advancement from the
inferior to the superior stations, and disapproved of all translations of a
bishop from one diocese to another, as nothing less than spiritual adultery.
The emperor frequently entertained the appeals of those who considered
themselyea aggrieved by the bishops. A regular system of punishments was
then appointed by the Ohnrch for all who should thus appeal from its deci-
aons to the emperor, (a) The emperors called together the general councils
ci the Church, presided in them through their envoys, and published their
decrees as laws of the empire, (b) As none but the Catholic Church was en-
titled to civil privileges, when different bishops were opposed to each other,
the emperor himself was obliged to decide which of them belonged to the
orthodox church. Hence many laws, even on matters of doctrine, were
enacted by them, and those who obtained their ends by court favor en-
ooorsged them in this and commended them for it. The imperial edicts were
ibo pnblished by being read in the churches, (c) Many bishops who longed
for the imperial favor were pliant tools in the hands of ambitious rulers, and
the Italian clergy had some reason to suspect that a Greek bishop, for his
own emolument, could be induced to grant, without fear or shame, any
request which might be made of him. (d) The emperors, however, were fre-
({oently the mere tools of an ecclesiastical party, and their laws for the regu-
lation of doctrines, when not confirmed by the authority of the Church, sel-
dom survived their authors. The freedom of the Church never wanted bold
umI sDoceasfnl advocates, and though it was practically violated in every pos-
«We way, its legality was always acknowledged by the emperors themselves, (e)
The people generally regarded it as the highest principle of law, that God
ba> bestowed all power on earth upon the monarchy and the priesthood, but
thii he had assigned to each of these certain immovable boundaries which
neither could transgress withont guilt and peril. (/)
§ 123. Power of the Church oter the State,
The severity of the ancient Roman laws was much mitigated by the influ-
wce of Christianity whenever they did not fall in with the prejudices of
^ Chittch, and thus a way was prepared for an acknowledgment of the
•) Omc AfUiodL cftD. 12. {Land4>n^ ]>. 88. can. 12.] Conntant, I. can. 6.
() Omt, CoMtant L Ep. ad Tbeodoa. {ManH Th. IIL p. 66T.)
e) L Ml Ood. ThMtd. da rebna eocL (XVI, 2.) et Oothofredna ad h. I.
')lfellM<Th,IX.p.l58w
<) Ob tb« other band Constantfne^ eplsoopaey (Euseb. vita Const. IV, 24.) was referred to with
^ inM leiDblaiio* of argoment aa was used for the sovereignty of the blshopa : Soeom. I, IT.
/) Q«l«las L ad AnaiUrinin a. 4M. (MdnH Th. VIIL p. 81.)
138 ANCIENT CHUBCH HISTORY. P£S. IL DCPESIAI. CHUBCH. A. D. 812-800.
general rights of man. (a) Some bishops went so far as to oppose even capital
pnnisliments, on the ground that their barbarity was inconsistent with reason
and humanity, (b) The right of asylnm which had formerly been conceded
to a few of the ancient temples was extended to all Christian churches, and
proved a serious detriment to the administration of Justice. But Chrytostom
lived to enjoy the triumph of seeing the very minister whose exorbitant
power once threatened to abolish this privilege, clinging to the altar for his
oitn protection, (e) Great political power was acquired by the bishops in
consequence of their personal influence among the people, and the devotion
of the emperors to theological controversies. The law gave them a certain
right to superintend the affairs of the congregations both in town and
country ; they also possessed a certain right, frequently usurped but finally
regulated by law, of acting as intercessors for those who were unfortunate or
criminal, and a certain kind of patronage was conceded to them for all per^
Bonae mUerdhiles. (d) The Church undertook the censorship of the morals
of civil ftmctionaries, and summoned to their bar those who were above hu-
man enactments, (e) No one dared to meet the fury of a Governor of the
Pentapolis but Syncsius the bishop. When a whole city had fallen a sacii-
fice to the wrath of Theodositis /., Ambrose ventured to give utterance to
the monarch's conscience, and the royal offender was excluded from the
Church. (/) When an unlimited power was exercised by the civil mien,
the Church thus became a safe retreat for popular freedom, and saints played
the part of tribunes of the people. Sometimes even royal honors were be-
stowed upon bishops, and what was at first accorded by pious humility,
pious arrogance took care to demand and retain. From the truth that heavenly
things were superior to earthly, the inference was drawn that the hierarchy
should be greater than the monarchy, and should have precedence in earthly
dignity, (g) In his City of God, the secular power is described by Augustine
as an irrational despotism which commenced with a fratricide, and tends to
subversion that it may give place to the celestial kingdom.
§ 124. Eeclesiastieal Jurisdiction,
Strydt, de orig. ct ura Jnrisdictlonis ecc. HaL 1710. 4 (Opnsec Tb. XIV.) IT. M. nAemOtM
Hist Jurisd. eec. Dss. III. ITTSas. 4. Bruno Schilling^ de orig. jarisd. eoc Id caiuis civil. Lpa. 182&. 4.
C. F. A. Jungk^ de Orig. et jirogressu episcopaliajad. in caosis civiL Uiconun nsqae od Juadiilan.
Ber. 1882.
Although the sentence of the episcopal court, in its capacity of a court of
a) EM€b. YiU Const IV, 26. L. S. Cod. Theod. de poen. (IX. 40.)— C O. de Rhoer^ Dtaert d«
elfectu rol chr. in Jarispr. Bom. Gron. 177& IT. 0. d€ Meywnburg^ de chr. reL vl et effeota in jot
civile (itpeclatim Institt L L) Ootting. 182a 4. Troplong^ de I'lnflaence da Christ snr le droit elTfl
des Roniains. Par. l&4a
h) Ambrag. £p. 29. 26. (al 61. 02.) AufftuHn, Ep. 188. 184. 15&— I. 15 et 16. Cbd. Thsod, d«
pocn. (IX. 40.)
c) Cod. Tfisod. de his, qui ad Ecc. conniglnat (IX, 45.) Soerat YI, 6. Soaom. Till, 7.
d) Cone. Sardic. can. 7. Ambroe. de Offic II, 29. QmsL 22. 24 87iw 80s. C. d« Epiaa
andientia. (I, 4.)
e) Cone Areial a. 814 o. 7. Oregor. Nai. Orat 17. (Th. L p. 271.)
/) Synesii Epc 578. 72. 89.— i^H^ XI, 13. ThaodoreL V, 17. ^^moim. YII, 24 L. 18. Cod, Tkttd.
de pocn. (IX, 40.) Comp. T. L. F. Ta/tl^ de Thessalonica. Ber. 1889. p. XLYIIss.
g) ConstUt aposL II, 84 Chrytotik de Saoerd. Ill, 1.— i9m(p. So9§ri YiU liarttnL a Sa
CDAP. IIL CONSTITUTION. 1 184. ECCLES. JUBISDICTION. S 129. PBOPEBTT. 1 39
arbitration poesessed a certain legal anihority, (a) its voluntary jurisdiction
was not mneh needed under a Christian government, and after tLo sixth
eentoiy it was lees resorted to. The claim that all causes relating to mar-
riage and to wills (causae roixtae) should be decided there, was generally
nsKted by the secular tribunals, but the obstacles to marriage laid down in
the Mosaic law were recognized by the civil code, and were sometimes ex-
tended even to spiritual relationships. Divorces very rarely, and the marriage
ci divorced persons still less frequently, were permitted by the episcopal
ooorts. These first became the ordinary tribunals for the clergy in civil causes
about the time of Justinian I., (b) but the municipal courts continued to exer-
cise jurisdiction as at first in criminal causes until Valentin ian III. gave (452)
the plaintiff the privilege of choosing before which of these courts his cause
ahoold be tried, (e) Justinian I. assigned particular parts of every such
criminal cause to each of these courts, (d) and Heraclius (623) entirely ex-
dnded them from the municipal courts, (e) According to ecclesiastical usage
it was thought unbecoming for a clergyman to appear in his own cause cither
as plaintiff or defendant before a civil tribunal. (/) When cited before the
emperor the bishops would indeed make their appearance, but a sentence of
eondemnation was not readily acknowledged except where a synod concurred
in it In all matters purely ecclesiastical the episcopal courts and synods were
regarded as the only competent tribunals, (g)
§ 125. Church Property,
ihwae a CosU (Richard Simon.) Hist de rorigine et da progr^s den revenos ecc Frcf. 1684. 21.
flumatiin. ($ 9. note b.)
The clergy were supported, especially under the first Christian emperors,
bj revenues supplied by the government, by a portion of the property they
inherited from the old temples, and by ecclesiastical possessions falling to
them from heretics. Though they often preached to the people that they had
i divine right to the first-fruits and the tithes, their preaching was not much
ngarded. (a) But when Gonstantine confirmed (821) to the people a com-
plete right to devise property at pleasure to the Church, such bequests be-
cune an inexhaustible source of wealth, (h) It was not long before one
eoold scarcely die without being reminded of his duty to the Church, and a
law become necessary in which the clergy were forbidden to solicit such be-
laeftd (870). (e) As this wealth, however, was possessed by the Church in
tnut for the poor, it was looked upon with much affection. All institutions
of benevolence originated in the Church, (d) Its wealth contributed to its
power and freedom. The management of the funds was generally in the
•) StaoM. 1, 9. Tb« legal passages in Base, d« Jore ecc P. L p. SSa.
>) AW. 83c Praet et S 1. yov. 128. c. 21.
c) L 47. Cod. Tfuod. de Episc (XVI, 2.) N<yto. 1. de Episc Jadlclo In Aniani CoIlecUone.
tf) ^Mi 188. e. 21. 1 1. «) JuUMi Blbl. Th. IL p. 1861a.
f) Oime. Carth. III. a 897. can. 9. IV. a. 419. can. 19. Chalc. can. 9.
f ) L L OnI. Theod. de reL (XYI, IL) JuiUni N<^t. 128. c 21. f 2.
•) B^ngkam^ Orlgg. eocL Y, 6. &) L. 4. Cod, Theod. de Epbc (XVI, 2.)
c) L SOl Cod. Theod. de EpIsc Comp. nUron. £p. ai (a1. 2.) ad NepoUan.
'iLiCbr/. 77Wa<i.deEpiiG.(XVI,2.) CMatii^lSL.%Vl,
] 40 ANCIENT CnURCH HISTOBY. PER. IL IMPEBIAL CUUBCH. A. D. 911-900,
hands of the hishop, the distrihotion of them was regulated hy certain pre-
cise forms, and the alienation of the property was controlled hy prescrihed
conditions. Every church was the legal heir of all the property which its
intestate clergyman had accumulated from ecclesiastical revenues. Whatever
the Church possessed was scoured hy an investment in real estate. This was
variously taxed according to the disposition and wants of the different gov-
ernments, hut it was usually exempted fr6m extraordinary, personal, and im-
proper hurdens. («)
§ 126. The CortQregation and the Cltrgy,
As the clergy were generally independent of the favor of the people by
their ecclesiastical possessions, the congregations were entirely shut out from
all participation in the government of the Church. Sometimes the people
still gave effect to their wishes in a tumultuous manner, when a bishop was
chosen, and a certain influence was exercised on such occasions by distinguished
citizens, and was legalized by Justinian I., but it was disapproved of by the
second Synod of Nicaea (787). (a) In the West, however, and especiaDy in
Home, the people asserted their right to participate in elections, and the power
of the clergy was too dependent upon popular opinion to allow of many im-
portant privileges being withheld from the congregations. Even then some
voices continued to be raised in favor of a priesthood of all Christians before
God. (6) The clergy succeeded in throwing off the burdens which the State
had imposed upon it, and a series of civil enactments became necessary to
prevent the entrance of too many persons into ecclesiastical offices. These
required that no person should be ordained except to supply the place of a
deceased clergyman, and none who owed any service to a master or to the
state without the consent of those to whom it was due. An unsuccessful at-
tempt was made to procure a law by which none but indigent persons on
whom the state had no claim should be ordained to the sacred office. On the
other hand the spiritual power was frequently strengthened by the ordination
of distinguished philosophers, advocates, and high civil officers. In such
cases the law required that all landed property burdened with obligations to
the state should be surrendered to the municipal authorities. The clergy
were principally supported from the ftmds of the Church, but even as late as
the fifth century some ecclesiastical laws recommended that they should sus-
tain themselves by agricultural or other pursuits, (c) In the fourth century
the ordination of deaconesses was looked upon as a Montanistio custom, and
after the fifth their office was in the West entirely abolished, (d) The choice
of all his clergy came into the hands of the bishop, although the presbyters
once more augmented their authority by their attempts in some instances to
become independent pastors both in town and country. In this way they
€) L 1. Cod. Tkeod. de annoDa. (XL, 1.) L. 15. 19^ 21fl8. Cbd. Theod, de oxtraord. (XI, 16^) I* tm,
ISea. Ood. Tkeod. de Epbo.
a) Justin. Nov. 123. c 1. JTotJ. 187. c 2. Gone Nlc IT. can. 8.
V) AugwU de Olv. Dei. XX, 10. AmbroHiut^ ad Ephea. 4, 11.
e) Cone, Oarth. a. 419. can. 52. 58.
d) AmbrotioHer In I. Tim. 8, 11. Cone. JSpaonmiM, can. 2L
CHAP. IIL CONSTITUTION. § 126- CLERGY. § 127. PATRIARCHS. 141
hoped to attain the position of the conntiy bishops who had been supplanted
ever since the fonrth centnry, and that the episcopal name might become less
commcm and more important. Other presbyters, together with the deacons
as the clergy of the bishop's chnroh (cathedralis), constituted the bishop's
priyy oonncil. One of these was chosen an Archpresbyter, to preside over
the pnblio worship, and another was appointed an Archdeacon, to preside
orer the eoisoopal conrt. (e)
§ 127. The Patriarchs.
J>. Blond^ traits hist de la Primaat^ en Tdgl. Oen. 164t. t J. Morini Exercitt ecc ct bibl. (Ds.
L de Patriarch, et PrlnuU. origg.) Par. 1669. t Janu9y de origg. Patriarch, chr. Dgb. IL Vit 1713. 4
Thomuutini I, 7-INl
The great dioceses and prerogatives of the Bishops of Eome, Alexandria ^
and Antioch were recognized at Nicaea, on the ground of their being estab-
lished npon usage, (a) At the Synod of Constantinople (881) the Bishop of
Few Rome was associated with these, in rank next to the Roman bishop, (b)
His diocese was continually increasing, but at Chalccdon (451) it was consti-
tuted of Thrace, perhaps already a part of it, (c) the more distant part of
Pontus, and Asia Minor. To him also was granted the privilege of receiving
oomplaints against the metropolitans of other dioceses, {d) since the foreign
bisbopa who were continually going to and from the imperial court formed
around him an almost perpetual council, (e) As by this arrangement the
Metropolitans of Ephesus, Heraclea and New-Caesarea were subjected to his
Jonsdiction, to save their dignities from detriment, a new ecclesiastical office
was introduced, to which the name of archbishop or exarch was applied. In
the fifth century, however, the name of Patriarch which had before com-
monly been applied to all bishops was exclusively used to designate them.
To the patriarchs belonged the duty of ordaining the metropolitans, con-
vening synods of their whole dioceses, bringing to an issue causes of more
Uitn ordinary importance (causae majores), and deciding finally all cases of
ippeal which might be submitted to them. These four great dioceses which
b the East alone corresponded tolerably well with the great provinces of the
empire were gradually made to include every part of the Church. Some
huhops, however, especially in the West, and in the East all in the island of
Cyprus, preserved their independence. The Bishop of Jemsalem was reck-
oned at Nicaea, as a mark of honorable respect, among the great bishops, and
tfter a long struggle he succeeded in throwing off the jurisdiction of the
Metropolitan of Caesarea, and at Chalcedon received Palestine as an inde-
pendent diocese. (/) The exorbitant and much abused power of the Alex-
indrian bishop was broken at Chalcedon. The two Eastern patriarchates
▼ere tlso stripped of their power in consequence of the Monophysites and
«) /Vrtert, T. ITnpr. d. Archldiac Hildesh. 1743.
•) Cbne. Nic can. 6. \>) Cone CorutanL L can. 8. c) Thus according to Socrat II. ecc V, &
^ C(me. Chalcedon^ can. 88. et 9.
«) JwroaoT iw^fiovffa. Cone. Chalc Actio. IV. {Manti Th. VII. p. n%.y-J. & VaUr, t. d.
•^^r8. (KHtet Arehlv. 1828. P. a)
/) Omc jrSe. can. 7. Otmc Chalc Actio TIL i3fansi Th. VIL p. 181a».)
142 ANCIENT CUUBCH UISTOBY. FEB. IL IMPEBIAL CHUBCH. A. D. 812-80a
Arabians. The Bishops of Old and New Rome alone stood as the representi^
tives of the Eastern and Western divisions of the empire, and watched etch
other with a jealous eye. The Patriarch of Constantinople was generallj
powerful on account of the favor of the emperor, bat he was also the subject
of the imperial caprice, while the Roman bishop was much more indepen-
dent, in consequence of his political position, and hence often became the
champion of ecclesiastical freedom and the prevailing orthodoxy. When John
the Faster (after 587) assumed the title of an cecumenical bishop, Gregory the
Great pronounced such a name unchristian, and in opposition to it took for him-
self the more Christian designation of a servant of the servants of Ood ; Greg-
ory's successors, with more sincerity, soon after assumed the name of a Uni-
versal Bishop, {g) Neither title was at that time entirely unknown. In the
edict of the usurper, Phocas, an acknowledgment was made, simply from
political and personal considerations, that the Roman Church was entitled to
the first rank. (A) Both these patriarchs were successful in their own peca-
lior spheres, but the same political events which reduced the territories of the
one proportionally enlarged those of the other.
§ 128. The Roman BUhoprie he/ore Leo.
Epp. Bom. Pontiflcum a S. Clemente nsqae ad Innoc IIL ed. ConMant Par. 1721. rep. Behomk^'
mann, Gott 1796. Th. L (until 482.)— C^ SalmatU, Libror. d« Primatu Papae P. I. c apparata. I*
B. 1645. 4.
The Roman bishop exercised a metropolitan jurisdiction over the ten
suburbicarian provinces, which was as far as the political district of Rome
extended, (a) while the metropolitanates of the diocese of Italia^ especially
Milan, under Ambrosius and his successors, claimed to be fully equal to him
within their respective dioceses. But Rome was the only see which could
claim to be apostolic, and was almost the only medium of ecclesiastical connec-
tion with the East. The high reputation which it possessed with respect to
apostolical traditions, was so successfully and dispassionately used in the con-
troversies of the East, tliat the party which had the favor of Rome mi^t
generally be sure of ultimate victory. Uence, her opinion and her decision
as a mediator was continually sought for and as readily given. And even
when her interference was disregarded, as in the case of Chrysostom, it was
always in behalf of humanity and the people. In consequence of its attach-
ment to the Nicaean creed when the whole Eastern Church was Arian, East
Jllyria sought a connection with the Roman Church, and the Bishop of
Thessalonica was regarded as a Roman vicar. This same state of aflSun
made the Roman court at the Council of Sardica (847) a Court of Cassation,
for the reception of appeals in the case of bishops, (b) The Eastern
churches, when they were so disposed, and when united among themsdves,
g) Oregor. I. Y. Ep. ISss. YII, 838S.— (7. M. I^df^ d« titolo Patr. oecamenlci, porno oridla, 1788. L
{Tempe I/elc. Th. IV. Sect I. p. 9988.)
k) Anutias. In Vita Bonlfacti IIL PatUua Dlac gestaLongob. IV, 87.
a) KorthoU, <1e Ecc suburblcariis. Lpa. 17808. 4. Dtoeceals Eomae : Campania, ThnacJi at Urn-
brla, Plccnum Buborblcarlam, SlcUla, Apalla et Calabria, Bnittii et Lacania, Samnlom, Saidiai^ Car-
alca, Valeria.
^) Cone, Sard. can. 8 et fi.
CHAP. IIL OONSTTTUTION. | tSS. BOMAN SEE. S 129- L^O THE GREAT. 143
y.i
nerer hesitated to disregard the interference of the Roman bishop, and the
Bynodi of Nicaea and Constantinople were entirely independent of liis influ-
ence; bat when the patriarchs contended with each other, or with the impe-
rial court, his powerftd friendship was generally sought by both parties, and
was often purchased by concessions. From observing these facts, Innocent I,
became coaiTinced that even in his day, nothing in the whole Christian world
could be brought to a dedsion without the cognizance of the Roman see, and
that, especially in matters of faith, all bishops were under the necessity of
St. Peter, (c) The position of the Roman bishops in the state,
that of powerful subjects who could be judged only by the emperor him-
sdlf^ (df but who, as in the case of Liberius for his defence of the Nicaean
creed, might sometimes be abused by him. (e) But, although the glory sur-
rounding the apostolic chair had already become y attractive, that those who
contended for it sometimes pressed toward it over the bodies of their com-
petitors, it was still the subject of derision and complaint among the hea-
then. (/) The recollection that this worldly glory commenced only in the
time of Constantine, gave occasion to the remark, that Sylvester (314-886)
lived long enough to do and witness what was suitable for a Roman bishop,
according to more modern views.
§ 129. Leo the Great, 440-461.
L LtomU Jf. Opp. ad. Patch. Quemtel, Logd 1700. 2 Tb. £ P.etK BaUerirU, Yen. 1T58-67.
tTh.£
IL W. A. Arendt^ Leo d. Or. a. & Zeit Mainz. 1886. O. PerihA, P. Leo*B I. Leben n. Lehren.
Jn. 184S. — Grie^Mck, Da. locos commones theoL collectoA ex Leone li. sistena. IlaL 1768. (Oposcc
«d. GabUr, Tb. L ^ 4Saa.)
Leo /., justly called the Great, whether reference is had to his character
18 a prince, or as a teacher of the Church in his day, was the real founder of
the subsequent greatness of the Roman see. Hitherto it had owed more to
its peculiar circumstances than to the power and sagacity of its bishops.
What he now did was fW>m a well-defined aim, and a clear presage of a more
future. Regarding the Roman Church as in possession of the true
from the Apostle Peter, he looked upon it as the rock on which
tibe Catholic Church was built, and upon the Roman bishop as appointed by
God to be the head of the whole Church, and to have the care of its inter-
ests. Humbly conscious of his personal unworthiness for such an office, he
proudly trusted that Peter himself acted through him. He retained a firm
bold 1^>on the opposing Illyrian Church, by the protection he gave to its
loihope against the archiepiscopal see of Thessalonica, which was reminded
tttt if be had shared with it some of his cares and duties, he had by no
BWHtt resigned any of hb plenary powers, (a) The disturbed state of the
Afiricaa Church on account of the Arian Vandals, supplied him with an occa-
M ftnr drawing Africa within the jurisdiction of the Roman patriarch,
^■der the plea of the necessity of the case. Some complaints against the
e) CbfuCmUL p^ SSa 8M.
'» I^ CoDdlll Rom. ad Grattan. a. 878. {Oonttant p. 629.) s) Theodortt. H. eco. II, 16m.
/)inlrM.S^•L•dPimflMdl. .^nuMan. Jfare. XXVII, 8. 9.
i)X«al iMliriai TbMMloB. (Oppi Tb. L pw 684)
144 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. P£B. IL IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 8t8-«0a
severity of Hilarios, the Metropolitan of Arelate (Aries), supplied him with
a pretext for interfering with the affairs of Gaul. Uilarius, who was really
no severer toward others than toward himself, was ohliged to atone for the
indifference with which he heard of the sensitiveness with which Rome had
heard of these complaints, and for his refusal to acknowledge any trihunal
for him heyond the Alps. Valentinian III, enacted a law which declared
the apostolic see the supreme legislative and judicial authority for the whole
Church. Qi) Leo had dictated this law, and had satisfied the emperor that it
would be wise to unite the already crumbling provinces with the capital by
an ecclesiastical bond. It was originally intended only for the West, but
even there it was ineffectual against Ililarius, (c) and in consequence of the
decay of the empire beyond the Alps, it became an empty legal title, to take
effect only in subsequent times. It was even then uncommon for a Roman
bishop to preach, but Leo declared that this was to be one of his ordinary
duties. As a proof that this was not neglected, he left ninety-six sermons
for various festivals, distinguished for their ecclesiastical spirit, their rhythmi-
cal harmony, and their grandiloquence, but without very strict logical con-
nection. K the work on the Call of all nations was written by him in his
early years, {(T) ho proposed in it an accommodation of the controversial
questions then agitated in the West. His epistle to Flavianus presents a
decision upon the theological disputes of the East. The tyranny of Dioscu-
rus, and the atrocities of the Robber-Synod, were a scandal to the whole
Cburch. Leo spared neither tears nor bold reproofs to prevent the evil con-
sequences which might follow that synod. The death of Theodosius II.
occurred in good time for his wishes, as no authority was superior to his with
the imperial pair who then ascended the throne of the East. His legates pre-
sided at Chalcedon, and every acquittal or condemnation which took place
there was in Leo^s name. When Attila had crossed the Alps, and Rome lay
helpless before the scourge of God (452), Leo, in his pontifical robes, went to
meet him, and the pagan conqueror of the world turned his hosts another way.
Attila may have seen good reasons for listening to the prayers and warnings
of the priest, but so miraculous seemed this deliverance of Italy, that in the
popular account of it, Peter himself stood by the side of his successor with
a brandished sword, {e)
§ 180. The Papacy after Leo, Gregory the Great^ 590-604.
Liher diumus Rom. Pontijtcum^ (Legal Usages of the Rom. 8e^ collected about 716.) e<L ITol'
8ten, Rom. 1658. Gamer. Par. 1680. 4. (Iloffmanni, nova Scrr. ac Monum. Collectio. LjWw 1788L L
Th. II.) Ana9ta%ii Bibliothecaril (about 870), liber pontifiealls 8. vitae Rom. Pontif. a Petro Api
usque ad Nicol. I. (with the orig. docc. only from the time of Constantine, 708.) ed. Manchiidt
Rom. 1718-35. 4 Th. t {Muratori, Rcr. Ital. Scrr. Th. III. P. I.)
I. Greg. M. Expositio in Jobnni a. Moralinm L XXXV. Liber pastoralia cnrae. (Ingolat 1690k)
Dialogorum de vita ct miracc Patrum ItaL et de aetemit animar. 1. IV. Epp. L XIV. 0pp. ed Btn^
li) Leon. 0pp. Th. I. p. 642. and Theodosii Nov. tit 24.
c) Perthel, Leo's Strelt mit d. B. v. Arlesk (Illgen's Zeltachr. 1848. P. 2.)
d) De vocatione omnium gentium. Quesnel has, however, merely shown that it was poasible for
Leo to be the author of this treatise. Gomp. Perthel (as above), p. 1S788.
«) ffeynsy de Leone Attilae et Oenserico sappUce Ikota (0pp. aoad. Ooett 1T68L Th. UL p^ tB4m.)
CHAP. IIL CONSTITUTION. S 130. GREGORY TUE GREAT. 1 45
didL Par. 1T<V& 4 Th. C GaUiceioli, Ven. ITGSas. 17 Th. 4. Paulm WurMfridl (about 775), de
▼itaS. OrecoriL JoannU Eee. Horn. Diaconi (about 875), de vita S. Greg. 1. IV. Both in the 4tb
ToL of I be Benedictine od.
IL Maimbourg^ Illst dn Pontlflcat de S. Greg. Par. 16S6. 4. G. K \n0ger8, de G. M. ejnsq.
ptarids aothropoL Boat 1S39. P. I. E. W. Marggn^f, de G. M. tIU Ber. 1S45.
The Roman bishops, who after the sixth century were called Popes,
as the Alexandrian bishops especially had before been designated, acknow-
ledged that they, above all others, were bonnd to execute the edicts which
the Chnrch sent forth from her councils, (a) but the historical basis on which
their power was claimed was derived from the divine right of St. Peter.
Sometimes a vogue and inconsiderate reference was made with the same
object even to Paul as the supreme head of the Gentile Church, (ft) As the
imperial government was frequently powerless in Rome, the popes, by their
patrimonial rights as great proprietors, and by their episcopal court*?, were
able sometimes to supply its place. More than once they delivered Rome
and the surrounding country from the hands of the barbarians. When,
therefore, the last shadow of the Western Empire had disappeared (476), and
Arian monarchs had set up a German kingdom in Italy, the popes were
regarded by the Roman people as their native lords, and with the exception
of some instances in which they were abused by their conquerors, they were
the actual masters of the country. The Roman clergy of that day were pow-
erful enough to proclaim, that every interference of a layman in the affairs
of the Chnrch, was by its own nature invalid, and that the successors of St.
Peter could be judged by none but God. (c) But when Justinian I. recon-
qoered Italy, they again became dependent upon Constantinople, and even
their ancient reputation for orthodoxy was thus endangered. This continued
until the time of Gregory /., who saw that the only condition on which
ecelenastical power could be eigoyed, was that they should throw off this
political dependence. In the midst of the embarrassments produced by the
settlement of the Longobards in Italy (after 568), he contrived so to use that
event that it prepared the way for their independence. He was, however,
compeDed himself to publish a law of the emperor which he regarded as
iDOonnstent with the law of God, {d) and to congratulate a regicide on his
teoenon to the throne, {e) He was originally of a patrician family, and on
the road to the highest civil offices, when he suddenly renounced the world,
and tamed the palace of his ancestors into a convent. From this he was
called to the government of the Church, but in the midst of pontifical splen-
dor bis monastic severity became intense. Toward his dependants he was
more and more imperious in his demands of duty to the Church, but lavish
in hifl expenditures upon the poor and the idle. By means of his school for
nn»c, he effected considerable improvements in psalmody, (/) and to the
Public worship of Rome he imparted that mysterious pomp for which it has
«) fi4a%n Ep. 18. (JTanti Th. VIII. p. 51.) h) Gregor. Jf. In I. Reg. B. (Th. III. P. II. p. 250.)
OCoM: fiom. IIL Bub 87ramacho a. 502. {.Vansi Th. YIIL p. 2608.) Ennodii, L. apolog. pro
^ IT. Bom. n palmari {ManH Th. YIII. p. 234s8.)
'iL IIL Efk 6& ad Maaric. e) L. XIII. £p. 81. ad Phocam.
fS Gerbfrt, de caotn et masica sacra. Bamb. et Frlb. 1774. Th. L p. 24706. />. Atdony^ arcbaeoL
'^ 1 Gregurtan KOenDg& ll&iut 1829. i,
10
146 ANCIENT CHUECn HISTORY. PER. II. IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 819-800.
since been distinguished. To the sacrament of the Lord's Snpper especially,
he gave the essential character of a sacrifice of the Mass^ (rf) and thoroughly im-
bued the popular mind with the notion of a Pvrgatory, If he did not authorize
the burning of the Palatine library, ho certainly had a great contempt for
worldly science and literature, and thought it a shame for the word of God
to be restrained by the rules of Donatus. (h) In his practical works he has
done quite as much to promote in the whole Western Church a blind eccle-
siastical credulity as an intense zeal in behalf of the Church. He was full of
passionate ardor to promote the kingdom of Christ, but that kingdom was
identical with that of the Pope. His successors sometimes acknowledged
their allegiance to the emperor, but it was only when they were compelled
to do so. When contending for the faith, and about images, they never
hesitated to exclude even the monarch and the patriarchs of his court from
the communion of the Church.
§ 181. General CouneiU and the Catholic Church.
The Synods of the Patriarchal and Metropolitan dioceses continued to be
the regular authorities for legislation and superior jurisdiction. The efforts
of the Church to attain general unity rendered it indispensable, that as far
as political circumstances would allow, deputies of the whole Church should
be asscTnbled for deciding theological controversies. These general assem-
blies of the Church were in fact composed only of bishops residing within the
Roman empire, and their organization was much influenced by the caprice
of the emperor and the patriarchs ; but as the main body of the Catholic
Church was found within the empire, and bishops from countries called bar-
barian were admitted to scats, these assemblies were looked upon as the
projier representatives of the Catholic Church, (a) Near the close of the
fourth century they therefore received the name of (Ecumenical Synods,
although it was sometimes difiScult to distinguish them from other orthodox
synods. Seven of these synods, in fact, gradually attained the authority of
oecumenical assemblies, and to these in the West was added the Synod of
Sardica, and in the Greek Church the Second TruUan Synod. The primary
object for which they were assembled was to determine theological questions,
but they also formed canons upon various legal subjects, and when occasion
called for it, they were the highest judicatories of the Church. Legal ques-
tions were decided by a majority of votes, but in matters of faith, unanimity
was secured by an exclusion of the dissenting minority. The ultimate de-
cisions were disregarded by those whose consciences were violated by them.
No one could pretend that all of them were true, as in the fourth century
synods were arrayed against each other. A celebrated bishop entirely de-
spaired of them, (li) and even less passionate teachers acknowledged, that
when the spirit of the Church should become more perfectly developed, a
g) Oreg. L. Micramentornm de drcalo annl si Bacramentftriam. Ordo et canon misaae Grego-
rianua in tlie Codex litorg. Ecc Rom. cur. IT. A. DaniA, Lps. IMl.-^LUientkal, de eaoone
Qregorlnno. Lugd. 1740.
A) Kp. ad. Loandr. prefixed to the Exposltio In Jobom.
a) Ev$fh. Yita Const III, 7. I) Greg. Kom. Ep. &K. ad. Proeop. (Tb. L p. 814.)
CBAP. IIL CONSTITUTION. 1 181. CECUM. SYNODS. CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIFE. 147
better expreasion of it might be expected from the Synods, (c) But even
at Chaloedon the decisions of the Nicaean Fathers were looked upon as an
immutable law, expressed by the divine Spirit himself, (d) Past ages were
not sopposed to possess any authority greater than the present. Hence, from
aboat the time of the fifth oecumenical council, it was generally supposed
that every such oecumenical council, in matters of faith, declared the truth
in an in&llible form in consequence of the Iloly Spirit especially bestowed
upon the bishops. In these general assemblies the Catholic Church felt itself
to be what it was so anxious to be, viz. : The divine kingdom of Christ on
earth, the only source of truth and salvation, pervading, indeed, the whole
earth, but constituting a single external community, independent of all civil
power, and directed according to ecclesiastical laws by the Holy Ghost
through the bishops.
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
§ 182. Religions Spirit of the People and Ecclesiastical Discipline,
An earnest struggle was for some time kept up between primitive abste-
nuoasnefls and hostility to the world on the one hand, and the worldly-mind-
edneas which had now entered the Church and those means by which it
loogfat gratification on the other. Plays, dances, oaths, and loans upon usury,
were declared to be sinful. But as a complete renunciation of the world was
found to be impossible in the new circumstances of the Church, a higher sys-
tem of morality was devised for those who would be perfect, and were will-
ing to imictise unnatural self-denials, and another of a lower nature, in which
many indulgences were allowed, was formed for ordinary Christians. The
former system ran great risks in consequence of the pride and hypocrisy
which were soon found to be incidental to it. From a nobler spirit of dis-
■mnlation, some persons of an eccentric character quietly submitted, or some-
times gave occasion to evil reports, {n) The practical wisdom tolerated by
the lower system was debased by the consciousness of its own imperfection.
Etch marriage was looked upon as belonging to this lower condition. There
was some doubt whether it should be regarded as a necessary evil in general,
or M an inviolable sacrament^ but second marriages were condemned, and in
the West, after the fifth century, the marriage of a divorced person was pun-
idked as adultery. (&) External forms, such as fasting, almsgiving, and
^yera, without reference to the internal spirit which produced them, were
n^vded as meritorious and expiatory. The object of education was the
•ttainment of the most humble submission to authority, and the ideal of all
cxoeQenee was the mortifications and conflicts of the saints. The means of
pioe were often used as mere charms, and heathenish superstitions of every
<1ittaiuM.de fjnod. Arim. et 8«leuc. c 48. (Th. I. p. 917.) Auguttin^ Aehh^i. c Donati.st.
n.i (Grotfdift; c^ a D. X.) c Maximin. Arian. 11, 14, 8.
'0 (Vnc. Chaleed, actio 1. (ManH Tb. VI. p. 672.) Kespectlng NIcaea, ConstanUne in So-
^L9. /tidor. iWM L. IV. Ep. 99.
')ingr. H. m& lY, 88. 2t) Jnnoe«nt /. Ep. 6, c 6. Comp. Oono. MOeviL a. 416. a 17.
148 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. II. IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 81S-«00.
kind remained in full force. We already find traces of the belief that men
could form a compact with the devil, from which no penitence could obtain
deliverance but through the goodness of the holy Virgin, (c) But even in this
time of general helplessness the world was fbll of miracles. Christianity
was frequently a mere subject of controversy and of entertainments, and yet
people took part in ecclesiastical affairs with an earnestness and activity
which amounted to absurdity. (</) Brotherly love was no longer the peculiar
badge of the Christian community, and an observing pagan remarks, that
even wild beasts were not more furious against each other than were the
Christians of his day. (e) The Church had no remedy for this general cor-
ruption of social life, and for the luxury and extreme refinement which were
side by side with popular misery and universal servility. Indeed, it was
itself rapidly becoming swallowed up in the general abyss of the Roman
empire. Many were raised by it above the feeling of this relaxation of all
public relations, and made to participate in the liberty of the kingdom of the
Spirit. The severity of the ancient discipline was gradually made to yield
to new circumstances by numerous dispensations, but a multitude of minor
penances were introduced and regulated by a well-arranged penal code. In
the East the confession of secret sins was left to the option of each individ-
ual, and public opinion became inflexibly opposed to auricular confession, on
account of certain flagrant crimes known to have been connected with
it. (/) In the TVest, confession was more and more regarded as indispensa-
ble to forgiveness, but after Leo's time this might be made in the ear of a
priest bound to secresy. (jg)
m
§ 133. Celibacy and Moral Condition of the Clergy,
Theiner^ toI. 1. ($ 9. note h.) Carotf^ Bctracht d. Coel. part 1. Samml. d. Coelibatsgvcetze.
part 2. Frkf. 18S2. f. [/. Taylor^ Ancient ChrisUanlty. Philad. 1840. 8.]
A larger number of synodal enactments were published against the mar«
riage of priests after their ordination, but in the East, when oven bishops had
been married before ordination, they were generally unmolested. When a
new law on this subject was proposed at Nicaea, Faphnutixis^ an aged con-
fessor and a rigid ascetic who had never touched a woman, so powerfully de-
fended the chastity and sanctity of the marriage state, that the liberty which
had always been customary in this matter was confirmed, {a) and the Orien-
tal Church even anathematized those who rejected a married priest. Qi) The
right of a clergyman to live with a wife whom he had married before hiB
ordination, and who had been a free and spotless virgin before her marriage,
was also recognized and confirmed by the Trullan Synod, but the bishops
were required to separate themselves from their wives, (c) In the West,
e) AemU, Sommer^ de Tbeophlli cum diab. foedere. Ber. 1S44.
d) Grtg. Ny&9, Or. de Dcitate Filii. (Th. I. p. 46Ca.) e) Ammian, MarceU. XXII, 5.
/) Socrat n. ecc V, 19.
g) Leon. £p. 168. c 2. (0pp. p. 14808.)— Z>a2Za«u«, de sacramcntall «. aoricnlarl Latinor. eoofea-
Bione. Gen. 1061. 4. BolUau, Hist conC auria Par. 16S1 Xlee^ d. Beichte. Frk( 182a
a) Sooral H. eoo. 1, 11. Sotom. H. ecc I, 23.
b) Socrat II, 48. Syru Gangr. a. 862^70. c. 4. (J/anH Th. II. p. 109&) oompw Can, opotL &
c) ayn, T^rvU, eta, 8. ft. ia-12.
CHAP. IT. ECCLE8. LIFE. 1 18& OELIBACT. S lU. ORIENTAL MON AS. LIFE. 1 49
ftft^r the time of Siricios, Bishop of Rome (385), tlie provincial synods de-
dared that none but subdeacons should be allowed to have wives, {d) and
gradaallj the celibacy of the clergy was universally demanded. Human
lawH, however, were comparatively ineffectual when opposed to the very
nature of man. Although persons of an elevated spirit among the clergy
maintained the same contempt of the world which had formerly prevailed,
and were rewarded and prompted to do so by the honor of their order, many
low-minded men were attracted by the wealth and honors of the Church,
and lived in hypocrisy, or in open devotion to worldly pleasure. These
looked upon the performance of outward worship as the sole business of the
priesthood, and changed their creed according to the imperial mandate. iSiri^-
Hanvs wrote a satire against the covetousness of such priests, in which he
exhorted every one to purchase salvation in this easy way by a proper payment
for his sins, (e) But dark as was the picture of this corruption, painted by the
ecdesiasdcal teachers themselves, the very indignation which these express
against it, the ideal of the true priesthood which they held up, and the
icknowledgment which these received among their contemporaries, prove
that even exalted virtues were esteemed and found among the clergy. (/)
When the barbarians overran the country, the priests were not only ready
to administer consolation and deliverance to their people in the performance
of their official dnties, but to surrender their lives for their religion, (g)
§ 184. ManaBtie Life in the EoMt. Cont. from § 65.
PaOadU <d. about 420% Hist LAasUea. Theodoreti, ^tX^cof loropia ^ cunrnrifd) ToXirtla,
Sierat lY, tSmk Stmom. I, lS-14. lU, U. YI, 28-^ Lives of the monutie aaints, and manjr let-
kit Vj HitfTooymna. Cawiamts. ($ 12.) [S. P. Day^ Monastic Institutions, tbeir Origin, Progress.
4e:Sed.LoDd.lSMu 112.]
From the ethical system which required a renunciation of the world, was
prodnced monasticism. The necessity of having some society induced the
beimits to assemble in cloisters {koivo^wv^ tiavhpay claustrum), and the bishops
irve favorable to an institution by means of which order and supervision
beetme practicable. Paehomius^ a disciple of Anthony, first established
mooasteries for each sex on the island of Tabenna in the Nile (about 840),
tad the same thing was subsequently done by Amun in the desert of Nitra,
Vy EUarion in the desert of Gaza, and by Basil the Great near New Caesa-
wt. Every convent was governed by. rules imposed upon it by its founder,
Vrt most of these required unconditional submission to the will of the supe-
rior {jffoviiMvotj dpxifiav^pi'njst a/3)3a(), a complete surrender of all private
^ ind possesions, a mortification of the sensual nature, and a life entirely
^oted to (3od and to divine things. Their time was wholly taken up with
I*»» exercises and easy manual employments. Tlie tortures which they
ufficted on themselves when battling with the temptations of an excited
') ArM<, Ep. ad nimerlnm c. 7-9. {Conatant p. 6805S.)
<) A4t. araritiain L I V. (about 4fiO.) 0pp. ed. BaluM. Yen. 172a
/) GrtQor. JfoM, cIs loirr^r iral Tfpl iwtffKSirwv. Conip. UUmann^ Grep. v. Naz. p. 521ss.
t^SooroL YI, 6L Somotn, YIII, 4 Thsodoret Y, 88. Victor VU. et Vig. TupM. Opp. ina. 4.
^i ir^pA.xin,6w
150 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IL IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 818-mOL
fancjf frequently exceeded the requirements of their rule, and sometimes
terminated in suicide or insanity. From the suppression of the natural, pro-
ceeded unnatural passions. A return to the world was not impossible, but it
was threatened with ecclesiastical penances. After the time of Basil, the
opinion generally prevailed, that the marriage of a virgin espoused to God
was not only adulterous, but void. Some eminent teachers were opposed to
this view, (a) and there were even some married monks. (6) None but the
abbots were usually ordained as priests, and in some instances these took
rank by the side of the bishops, their monasteries being looked upon as con-
gregations of laymen. But after a brief resistance on the part of the rigid
class, (r) the convents became the ordinary seminaries of tho clergy. This
divine philosophy was so generally received, that cities became solitary and
deserts full of people. The burden of the declining state was not felt within
the cloister^s walls, noble minds were attracted by the magnanimity of a bold
renunciation of the world, and what was then regarded as the most exalted
state could not be found in the world. In the hands of the more violent
bishops, the monks became an easily excited host, which in tlieir contests
with pagans and heretics often controlled the hearts and clubs of the popu-
lace, and feared neither the imperial despotism, nor the laws, nor human
nature itself.
§ 185. ITermits, Simeon Stylites,
Sonom. YI, 2R-34 Hujtni YItoe Patrnm s. HiBt eremitic*. In the 2d vol. of the Yitae Patrnm,
ed. RwttDeidiu*^ Antn. (1615.) 162S. f. In the ProtestAnt selection : Yltae P. repurgatae p. G. Jfajo-
rem c. praef. LuVitri^ Vlt \fM,—TheodorHi, Hist religioe. c 2«. Eragr. H. ecc 1, 18. lift of
Simeon, by his piipll AnUmitu (Acta Sanctor. Jan. voL I. p. 26l8iL) and his cootemporary CVmumm
{A98emani Acta Mart P. IL p. 2688S.)
' Not only might tho nuns reside in the cloister, but they were sometimes
allowed even to remain in their father^s house, or in the dwelling of a priest
(§ 64). The ordinary home of the monks was in the desert. The Anachoreta
either entered into some fellowship with a neighboring monastery, or re-
mained solitary until some of them became half savages. In the lives of
those primitive fathers who were the idols of popular tradition, we meet
with exalted virtues and heroic self-tortures carried to such an extreme, that
human dignity and propriety were annihilated. We sometimes find a wis-
dom which seems almost supernatural, and sometimes the pious simplicity of
an ecclesiastical mountebank like Paul the Simple.'*' Simeon, a Syrian, either
invented a new kind of life, or imitated that which prevailed among the
Indian penitents. When a boy, he forsook his flock, and more than onoe
was saved from a fanatical suicide in the convent. For thirty years, on a
pillar near Antioch (after 420), as a mediator between heaven and earth, he
preached repentance to the astonished multitudes that gathered around him.
He became an umpire and an apostle to the wild Arab tnbes, and gave coun-
sel, and even dictated laws to an emperor. lie had imitators as late as the
a) KpipK haer. 61, 7. AugwL de bono vldalt c. 10. Comp. Cypr, Ep. 02.
h) Angutt de haer. c. 4a e) Oaaaiaru de instlt coenobb. XI, 17.
* General view of the acoonnta in TUUmont, Tb. YIL p. lilBa.
(SAP. IT. EOCLES. LIFE. 1 18fi. SIMEON 8TYLITES. S 186. BENEDICTINES. 151
twelfth century, but while many endured his tortures, few attained the spirit
or the reputation of his life.
§ 186. Monasticism in the West, Benedictines,
BUron, and Ca—ian, (| 184.) Dacherii et MabiUonii AcU Sanctor. Ord. S. Bcncd. (till
lioa) ie«»-1701. 9 Th. £ Jfabillonii Annates Ord. 8. Bened. (till 1187. Par. 1708-89.) Luc
17MM5. 6 Tb. t In the PraeC Saec I. p. T: Obsa. de monackis in Occld. ante Benedictnm.—
6«9ch. d. Benedictinerord. A. SpUtler't Yorlea v. Gnrlltt Hamb. l$2a 4. [Article in Edinburgh
Ser. for Jan. 1849, in Eclectic Magazine for April, 1849.]
Monasticism became known in the West through the followers of Atha-
naaus. At first it was looked upon with astonishment, ridiculed or abhorred,
but in a short time it was extensively propagated through the influence of
Martin of Tours and Cassian in Gaul, of Ambrose and Jerome in Italy, and
of Augustine in Africa. Afartintts^ Bishop of Turonum (873-400), was the
sunt of his people, was able to recognize Satan even in the form of the
Saviour, and according to his disciples, possessed power to suspend or confirm
the laws of the universe. He was carried to his grave by two thousand
monks, {a) At first, those rules were adopted which had been devised in
the East, but it was soon found that the privations of the desert were not
snited to a Gallican stomach and winter, (h) Benedict of Nvrgia^ who had
dreamed away his youth in the grotto of Subiaco, and had been looked upon
as a saint by the mountain shepherds, established in the wilderness of
Monte Casftino (529) a society of monks, whose mild but well- arranged rules
and inviolable vows soon united most of the Western monasteries into a per-
fectly organized community, and bound them to a useful course of life, (e)
Already, in Martin's establishment, the disciples had been employed in the
labor of copying books. («i) So when Cassiodorus escaped from the storms
of his political life, and found refuge (588) in his convent of Vivarium, he
Erected the attention of the monks to literary pusuits. {e) The Benedictines
preserved the monuments of antiquity for a more cultivated age, made the
deserts fertile, and became the instructors of the people. The convents were
placed under the supervision of the bishops within whose diocese they were,
bat these had no power to violate the constitution of the order. A few
monasteries attempted to escape the jurisdiction or the oppression of their
Irifihop, by putting themselves under the care of some distinguished bishop
at a distance.
§ 187. Veneration for Saints.
In an age when people quietly enjoyed all that they possessed, those cen-
turies in which painful struggles had been endured were looked upon as
beroic, and those heroes who had purchased victory with their blood were
i&Tested with a growing splendor in the grateful recollections of subsequent
gmeratioDs. The pious respect which all felt for their earthly remains, in
tbe course of time, and through the influence of Egyptian customs and hea-
a) SulpicH Set. de vita B. Martini L. et Epp. Greg. Tur, de miracc S. Mart
I) Sulpicii 8w. Dial I, 8. CaatUxn. de Instit coen. 1, 11.
e) Legends : Grtgorii M. Dialog. 1. IL Rale : BoUten. Th. L p. lllaa.
4) S^ Vita Mart e. la «) loatttt ad div. lect (S 119. note g.)
152 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PBR. XL IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. S19-aoa
thenish saperstitioiui, became exaggerated into a veneration for their bones,
many of which were discovered by special miracles and revelations. So
lucrative finally became the traflSc in these relics, that various laws were
formed against it. People took delight in other and strange relics which had
been in any way connected with the daily lives of former saints. Public
prayers for the martyrs were gradually changed into prayers to them as inter-
cessors with Grod. The same feeling which had induced their heathen ances-
tors to deify men, now led them to regard the saints as subordinate deities.
Some were honored only in those localities in which they had lived, or in
which their relics were preserved, but others in much krger circles. Whole
orders and nations attached themselves to particular saints, and others were
made to preside over certain kinds of assistance. The heathen had some
occasion for ridiculing Christians on the ground that their religion had be-
come paganized. Agnppa's cheerful Pantheon, once dedicated to Jupiter
and all the gods, was now consecrated to the Mother of God and all the mar-
tyrs (608). As soon as the Nestorian controversy had decided that the Vir-
gin had given birth to God, she was placed at the head of the saintly host.
Epiphanius, on the one hand, points out those as heretics (^AvTi^iKOfiaptayirai)
who believed that Mary had been the mother of several children after the
birth of our Saviour, and on the other colls a female sect (KoWvpidiapoC)
which bestowed divine honors upon her by the offering of a cake, the priest-
esses of the Mother of God. (a) Though all were not agreed upon the sub-
ject, it was generally believed that her virginity was unimpaired even wheo
she brought forth offspring. Prayers were also addressed to angels^ espe-
cially as it seemed unsuitable that they should be regarded as inferior to the
saints, {h) Some persons who had been objects of devout admiration during
their lives, on account of their exalted or at least singular piety, were placed
by their contemporaries on an equality with the martyrs. In acknowledging
these as saints, the bishops only expressed the popular will. Such a venera-
tion, often amounting even to adoration, did indeed put imperiect mediators,
with their generally overwrought virtues, in the place of Christ, but it pre-
served in its freshness a poetic recollection of the illustrious examples of bet-
ter times. From the very nature of these recollections, they could never
attain their complete significance until they had been reproduced in popular
legends and stories. Thus St. Agnes with her lamb became the type of pious
virginity, (c) just as Christopher had become the type of a dauntless man-
hood, when he made diligent search among all the great men of the earth,
that he might serve only the greatest, and finally found what he desired in
the child Jesus. (</) Even the soil which our Lord once trod became an
object of devotion on account of recollections of him. Beneath a temple of
Venus was discovered the grave of the risen Saviour, and over the spot Oon-
stantine erected the Church of the Resurrection, (e) J1\b mother Helena
a) EpipK. haer. 78 et 79.— IHlnitfr, de CoIIjrld. fluiftticls saec lY. (MlsoelL Hafh. 181& Th. L
FaBC.2.)
h) Ambros. de vlduls 9, 65. comp. JuMln. ApoL I. c. 6.
c) TiUemonL Th. Y. p. 8448a </) Review of the Legends : Annalen d. TbeoU 1684 Not.
e) EmA, Ylta Conit III, 85-40.
CHAP.IY. SOCLS&LIFE. $187. SAINTS. $ ISa PUB. WORSHIP. FESTIYALA. 153
hftd herself baptized in the Jordan (826), and it was near the close of this
oentnry that the legends first delighted the hearts of men by revealing the
tacred cross, which has nnce been preserved unimpaired in spite of the
removal from it of innumerable pieces. (/) Annually, at Easter, pilgrims
aaembled oat of all countries around the sacred sepulchre.
S 188. Fuhlie Warahip.
The outward forms of religion became gradually more and more imposing.
Tnm the ancient temples the incense and many ancient customs of heathenism
were transferred to the churches, (a) By the use of tapers and perpetual lamps,
the solemnity of nocturnal festivals was combined with the light of day. In
some places a piece of metal was struck by a hammer to call the people
together, but in the seventh century bells were used for that purpose. Soon
after, in face of continual opposition to all instrumental music, the organ
{opya9oy)j worthy of being the invention of a saint who had listened to the
minstrelsj of angels, was brought to Italy from Greece, (h) Church music in
flttemate parts had been extended in every direction from Antioch, and had
been much improved, especially in the West, after the time of Ambrosius. (c)
In the Greek Church the principal part of public service consisted in the
lermon, though it was often only a rhetorical amusement rewarded by clap-
ping of hands. From looking upon the Lord's Supper as a encharist, men
gradoallj passed to regard it as an expiatory sacrifice, and we find in some
ucertain figures of speech, intimations of a change of the bread and wine
into the body and blood of Christ. Love-feasts long survived the renuncia-
tion of the ecclesiastical family life which had first given occasion for them,
and now took the form of repasts for the poor, prepared by the whole
Church, but with only a few local exceptions they were regarded, even in the
eommencement of the fifth century, as an antiquated custom. As baptism
was generaUy administered to infants, and in a public assembly, and as Chris-
tianity had now become universal, every thing like Christian mysteries had
been gradually laid aside, although some expressions (missa catechumenorum
et fidelium) derived from them still remained. A monkish custom, in imita-
tion of the priests of Isis, who tried to assume the appearance of slaves by
dttving their heads, was so far adopted by the clergy of the fifth century in
tbe Roman Church, that they merely made bare the crown of the head (ton-
sora Petri). Particular kinds of vestments were also adopted by the clergy for
thdr various orders and dififerent sacred services. A white woollen cloak, like
the holiday costume of the Greek bishops (u)fio<t>6piov, pallium), was sent, after
the Bxth century, by the popes to the individual bishops of tbe West as a
token of special honor and of connection with the apostolic see. In the sev-
/) AeeonUng to different Mooanti : Sotom. II, 1. (coanteif^it letter of Cyril to Ck)nstantiiu.)
'^n&fofc Or. de obita Tbeododl. Paulini JMani Ep. 81. (al 11.) oomp. J. Dallaeu»y adv. Latino-
nm d« enltna reL objeeto tradittonem. Gen. 16M. i. p. 704b.
0) Aerording to JiuMard and MiddMon : Blunt, Yeatlfea of Ane. Mannert and Cnstoma dlicov-
"^I^isia Mod. Italf and Bieilj. Lond. 1888.
^) Chytandfr, blet Nachr. v. KOrgeln. Bint 175S. J. Antony, Oeacb. Darrt. d. Entat n. Yer-
^■i^iOrieLManatlSaa. 0)| 180. note/
154 ANCIENT CHUKCH HISTORY. FEB. IL IMPEBIAL CHUBCH. A. D. 81»-800l
enth century, Western bishops carried with them the ring and staff, (d) On
Sunday^ Constant ine ordered that all worldly employments should cease, except
works of necessity in the field, and the manumission of slaves. The Roman
festival of the birth of Jesus, on the twenty-fifth of December, was adopted
also in the East in the time of Ghrysostom. (e) Epiphany was then observed
as a celebration of Ghrist^s baptism, and in the West had a reference to the
Magi as the first fruits of the heathen world. The judaizing Passover having
been condemned at Nicaea, those who observed it in Asia Minor were
regarded as heretics (Tca-a-apcdcatdricarcrac, Qnartodecimani.) (/) The time
for the festival of Easter was announced at Alexandria, though sometimes
different days were observed in different provinces. The great Fast before
Easter was prescribed by the Church, and even the civil law required that
it should be regarded as a time for quiet reflection, though the number of
days included in it was not uniform. (^) Some traces of a pious preparation
for Christmas (adventus) appear in the seventh century. The fortieth day
of Pentecost was selected in the fourth century for the commemoration of
the Ascension of Christ (toprfj rrjs dvakrjyfrtat.) (h) In the other festivals was
exhibited the new spirit which had become prevalent in that age : Lady-
days, including the feast of the English Annunciation (^ tov (vwyytXiafiov,
annuntiationis, March 25th), and that of the churching of women (purifica-
tionis, Feb. 2d); (i) a festival of All Martyrs, which occurs in the Greek
Church on the Sunday after Pentecost, and of All Saints, which is observed
in the Roman Church on the Ist of November, the celebration of the Hrst
Martyrs (Dec. 26th), and a festival for martyrs and children referring to the
massacre of the children of Bethlehem (Dec. 28th). The heavenly birth-
days (deaths) of Peter and Paul (June 29th) were observed with peculiar
Bolenmity, especially in Rome. With similar pomp was observed there a fes-
tival in honor of St, Peter's chair (Feb. 22d), which originally commemorated
the establishment of the Roman see, but being connected with the ancient
Roman feast for the dead (Feb. 19th), finally degenerated into a sacrificial
fbast for the dead. The only festival yet observed in honor of the natural
birth of any saints, was that of John the Baptist, on the day of the year in
which the days began to shorten. (X) The yearly festival of the recovered
cross (Sept. 14th), called the Elevation of the Cross, was not sufficient to
inspire men with courage to defend the holy sepulchre. In contrast with
the heathenish festivities practised at the commencement of the secular year,
the Church at first set apart that time for fasting; but in the seventh century,
Kew Yeafs day was in some places connected with Christmas, and celebra-
ted as the Feast of the Circumcision. The Church usually commenced the
year with Easter, though in some instances at a later period it was dated
d) J. du Tour^ de orlgine, antiqalt et sanctit vestlnm sacerdotallum. Far. 1662. 4 PerUck, de
orig., tun et aactorit pallli. Ulmst. 1754. A. J. A. Schmidt de annulo pastoralL HImst 170&. i.
e) Planck^ variar. de orig. festi nat Chr. sententt eplcrisia. Oott 1796. 4.
/) Eu9eb. Vita Const III, 18. oomp. 14 Soerat I, 9. Cdne. Antioch, can. 1. 7.
g) DaUaew, de jejanlls et quadragesima. Daventr. 1654 18.
h) Horn. Alter d. H. F. Feste& ( WagnitM, lit Journ. 1806. vol. V. sect 8.)
i) Schmidt^ prolofls. Mariaoae c pradl MokhemiL Hlmat 1788. 4. Lawhertini, de J. C. Ma-
trisqae feetifi Patav. 176t Bonn. 1766. £ k) AugusUni Horn. 287. oomp. Jo. 8, 80.
CHAP. lY. ECCLE& LIFE. $189. CHUKCH AKCniTECTUBE & DECOBATION. 155
from Advent. Every chnrch celebrated the day of its original consecration,
and the days on which their patron saints died.
§ 189. Ecclesiastical Architecture and Works of Sacred Art,
J^mfK &im€iU, antics Bafcilicografla. Neap. 168& 4. J. Fahricii^ Or. de templis vet. Chrlstt
nimsL 1704. 4 GuU&ntihn e Knupp^ Monam. di reL christ ossia raccolta dello antiche cliiese dl
Soma dal quarto Sec Bom. 1S2255. 8 vols. f. PUttner u. RMUll^ Boms Basillkcn. (Be&chr. d. 8tadt
BiiDL TuL I. p. 41788.) (BunMn) Die Baslliken d. christl. Bom. M&ncli. 1S43. t—3furatoH, do tcm-
pUir. apad vet chrisU. omatn. (Anecdota. Th. I. p. nSAS.) «/. G. MuUer^ bildl. Darst Im Sanctua-
riani d. Kirchen v. 5. b. 14. Jahrh. Lintz. lSi)6.— A ugunti, Beltrage z. chr. KunstOescb. 1841. vol. I.
ISMt vol II. [If. G. Knight, Ecclea. Arcb. of Italy from ConstL to 15tb cent 2 vols. Lond. 1M4.
Brmcn^ Sacred Architcctare, Its rise, prog. &e, Lond. 1S46. 4. F. Clo9e, Cburcb Arcb. from tbo ear
llest ages to tlic present time. Lond. ISSO. 12.]
Immediately after the time of Constantine sprung up in all parts of the
empire a desire as well as a necessity of building churches. They were gen-
craHy erected over the graves of the martyrs, in the form and with the name
of the Bwfilica. This was an oblong parallelogram divided lengthwise by
double or qnadruple rows of pillars, and terminating in a semicircular hall
i^rjfia, Sanctuarium). Immediately upon these pillars rested a beam, which
in wealthy churches was overlaid with brass, or a second row of pillars with
arcades (S. Agneso), and above these a rather flat gable-roof. Before the
entrance was a quadrangular court (atrium, paradisns), surrounded with
colonnades, and with a fountain in the centre, (a) The division of the main
body of the church by a partition into an exterior and interior apartment
(tnpOrii and va6i\ was probably common only while the penitents were kept
apart from the congregation, and the catechumens were numerous. In some
cborcbes, at a later period, the exterior hall became properly a porch. In
the sanctuary, separated from the other parts by lattice-work and curtains,
stood the main altar, behind which were the seats for the priests, with the
episcopal throne in the centre. Before the altar was an elevated choir for
the angers, by the side of which was a pulpit (afxfiav) or two. Smaller
churches, and in general baptisteries, were in the Roman temple-form of the
Rotunda, surrounded by pillars in the interior, and on the outside by a gable-
screen open pillars. When architecture had attained a more perfect Chris-
tian character, the foundation of the Basilica gradually assumed the form of
the cross (S. Paolo, 386.) This was either the Latin cross, when the longest
arm formed the nave, or the Greek cross, when all the arms were equal, and
by connection with the rotunda, a cupola spanned the intersection in a hemi-
spherical vault, so as to be an image of the heavens. The church of St.
Sophia in Constantinople, as it was built by Justinian after the conflagration
(538), is the principal monument of this style. Pillars and other ornaments
were frequently taken from the heathen temples. The walls especially of
the sanctuary were adorned with figures in mosaic. These were for a short
time opposed, but they finally triumphed, not so much on account of any
enthusiasm for the arts, as from the general tendency of men^s minds in pub-
lic worship. Statues, however, were always excluded from the oriental
churches. Modem art still retained some of the skill which belonged to
a) Euttb. H. ecc X, 4.
156 ANCIENT OHUBCH HISTORT. FEB. IL IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 9i%-m(L
antiquity. But a pious Teneration at an early period produced an inyariable
tradition, that our Lord should be represented as Saltator^ and the apostlee
with a serious and dignified aspect, in ancient Roman costume. The Mother
with her child was painted after the Nestorian controversy. Crucifixes ap-
pear in the seventh century. Subjects for the arts were generally taken from
sacred histor}^ but sometimes the lives and sufferings of the saints, and even
of living persons, were chosen. (Jb) In opposition to all representations of
the Father, it was alleged that he was visible only in the Son. {c) The Tml-
lan Council decided against the ancient representation of Christ as a lamb, {d)
It was, however, a fundamental principle of all Christian art, that the visible
was to be only a type of the invisible. Pictures or images were to be a sub-
stitute for books to those who could not read. But before tliis, Augustine
had complained of some who adored the image itself, and women excused *
their splendid garments by the plea that they were embroidered with scenes
from sacred history.
§ 140. Iconoclast ie C<mtroter»y,
I. Imperlalia decreta de caltn imaginnm, eolL et lllnstr. ft Af. ffaiminnfeldio Goldatto, Frcf. IdOS.
Jo. DamascMii A6yoi i.xo\oyriTiKo\ Tphs roht ^lafidXKovras rks aylat uK6yas. (0pp. Th. L
p. SOSas.) XicepKoH Breviar. IIU*. (UU TdQ.) ed. PeUirivs, Par. 1616. Tfuophanea. (§ 92.)
II. Dallaeus^ de Imaglnib. Lugd. 1642. Mainibourg^ Hist de lli^rteie des Iconoclante^ Par.
1679. and 16S8. 8 Th. 12. Sj>anhemU Hist imaglnnm refltituta. Lujid. 1686. (0pp. Th. II. I.) WaM^
Ketzergeach. yol X XL F. L. SchloMer, Gesch. d. Bllderstilnn. Kaiser des ostrozn. Keicha. Frk£
1812.-V. Jiarx, d. BUderstroit d. bjt. Kaiser. Trier. 1S89.
A worship of certain persons was very intimately connected with a wor-
ship of their images. Some of these had been painted, as people generally
believed, by apostolic hands, or had been miraculously sent down from
heaven, and were therefore supposed to be worthy of adoration (fiKovdXarpfia),
But the spirit of primitive Christianity which had always been so averse to
artificial representations, and the spiritual view of it which had recently
been revived by the reproaches of the votaries of Islam, soon took ofifence at
what seemed a new form of heatlienism. Leo III., the Isaurian, had all
images used for worship removed from the churches (726), and becoming
irritated by opposition, he proceeded to destroy them (730). The pious sen-
sibilities of the people were violently wounded by this proceeding (ciVovo-
«cXa<r/i<$r). But while some, during the conflict^ became possessed of an idol-
atrous and absurd regard for images, others had their hatred to them so much
inflamed, that the persons represented by them became objects of contempt.
It is not difficult, therefore, to perceive in this controversy a secret struggle
between the friends of progress and the advocates of a sensuous devotion,
between the Protestant and the Catholic principle. Political malcontents
took advantage of these dissensions, and a military despotism was arrayed
against the hierarchy. Constantimis Copronymvs had a synod convened at
Constantinople (754), which claimed to be oecumenical, and in obedience to
the imperial requirement, rejected the use of images, (a) But the monks, in
b) PauUn. Xolaru NaUL Felicia carm. 9 et 10. ^md. Ep. 82.
c) OrHnMsen, a. bildL Darst d. Ootth. Btatti;. 1829. d) Can. 82.
a) The decrees maybe learned firom the Acts of tlie Second Nloaean CJoonciL [Landan''§ Maaaal
of Councils, p. 187.]
CHAP. IT. ECCLES. LIFE. % IM. ICONOCLAST& .CHAP. Y. OPPOSITION. 1 57
whose convents they were manofactnred, placed themselves at the head of
the popular party, and after some encouragements from the Roman bisliop,
raised an insurrection. A series of emperors, in fearfbl hostility to the feel-
ings of the people, continued the struggle against images. Two empresses
decided in favor of them : Irene^ by whose direction the seventh cecnmenicol
synod at Nicaea (787) recognized the propriety of image-worship, (h) and
Theodora^ who, after many vicissitudes in the struggle, proclaimed the vic-
tory of the image-worshippers (842), by appointing an annual festival in
which the triumph of orthodoxy (7 Kvpuucfj rrjs opdodo^iar) should be com-
memorated.
CHAP, v.— OPPONENTS OF THE ORDINARY EOCLESIASTICiVL
SYSTEM.
§ 141. General View,
As Catholicism became more and more developed, individual protests
were heard against every departure of the Church from the simplicity of
tpostolical Christianity. This protesting spirit was shown sometimes by
teachers of high standing, when they boldly reproved crimes committed in
the Church, and advocated a spiritual worship instead of one which was
merely external, and sometimes by men in inferior stations, but w^ith a more
decided and hostile opposition to the Church of their age. Among these we
should distinguish between those parties which were striving to exceed the
ordinary Church in strictness and purity, but which came down from earlier
times, and those which had recently sprung up in opposition to the now ten-
dency of the ecclesiastical spirit.
§ 142. The DonatisU.
L Optatua MUevUanu§ (about 86S), de scbiflmate DonatiMtarum, also, Monumenta vett. ad Do-
latSst Hist pertlnentia, t± L. K Du Pin, Par. 1700s. Augustine's Controv. Writing. 0pp. Th. IX.
IL VoUmIum, d« schism. Donatist (following his edit of Euseb.) Hist Donatlat ex. KorUdanU
Mbedis exoerpta. {NarUii 0pp. eddL BulUrini^ Yeron. 1729aflL t Th. IV.) WalcK, Kotzergesch. vol
IT. A. Bowty de Angoat adTeraarlo Donatlrt. Lugd. B. 1S88.
The schism of the Donatists was produced by those who favored a rigid
ind inexorable ecclesiastical discipline, in opposition to the lenient and pru-
dent policy of the later Church, and those who longed for martyrdom. When
Ctecilianus, who as an archdeacon had been unfriendly to the confessors, was
chosen Bishop of Carthnge, and was ordained by a traditor (311), those who
were opposed to him set up Ifajorinvs as a rival bishop. The latter was
mcceeded by Donatus^ called by his adherents the Great, who with his friend
Donatui of Casae-nigra gave name to his party. In their views of the
Church, and in the ezclusiveness with w:hich they administered baptism, this
Kct only adhered to the primitive African traditions. On their application
to Constantine, a commission was appointed at Rome (813), and a synod was
assembled at Arelate (314), to investigate their cause. In conformity with
() CVmc Nlea«n, IL Acts In ManH Th. XIL p. 951.-XIIL p. 820. [Summary of them Id Lan-
158 ANCIENT CHURCH IIISTOBT. PER. IL IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 81S<«0a
the decision of these bodies, severe laws were proclaimed by the emperor
against them. Bat the peasants and some wandering tribes of Numidia and
Mauritania (Agonistici, Circnmcelliones), who had never really been subject
to the Roman dominion, seized their clubs to avenge the conflagration of
their churches, and the blood of some of their priests. With a wild love of
slaughter, they maintained during the fourth century a predatory war with
tlie Catholic Church and the Roman empire. Augustine endeavored to con-
ciliate or to confute the milder portion of this party (411), but with little
success. They were finally overcome by the Roman laws and legions, but
not until individuals had struggled and suffered on till some time in the sev-
enth century, and had shown the prodigious power which even a mistaken
faith may exert over sincere, vigorous and gloomy dispositions.
§ 143. Audians, Massalians,
Audius broke off from the Church in Mesopotamia, because it paid no
attention to his formal reproofs, and he finally established monastic commu-
nities in Soythia (about 840), which observed the passover according to the
Jewish mode, and are said to have believed that (xod possesses a human
form, {a) The Christian Massalians ("p^SQ , Evxtraiy in Armenia and Syria,
after 860) held, that to overcome the evil disposition of the natural heart, it
was necessary to pray internally without intermission ; that all other means
of grace were indifferent, and that labor waa sinful. They wandered about
and begged, refusing to hold any property of their own on earth. All traces
of them disappear in the seventh century, (b)
§ 144. PrUeillianvis,
Svlpic Sit. U. racr. II. 46-51. Ill, ll!«. Oronii Commonltorlam ad. Aug. de errore PrisdlliaiH
IsUr. (Aug. Oi)p. Th. \\\\.)^Walch, Ketzerhlst vol III. p. 87888. & ran Vries^ de PriscilllAnbtls.
Tri^. 1745. 4. «/. //. & LUhkert, de haerei»i PriscilUanlstar. Uaon. 184a
Under Manichaean influence a Gnostic party more rigid than the Church
was formed under Priscillianus (379), the object of which was, by unusual
self-denials and efforts, to release the spirit from its natural life. At the
Synod of Caemr Augmtta (380), ItaciuSy a bishop, procured their condemna-
tion, and obtained from the emperor Gratian a decree, according to which
they were no longer to be tolerated on earth. But having gained the favor
of the court, they began to think of persecuting their opponents, when Gra-
tian was hurled from his throne by his general Maximus. The usurper gave
his countenance to the party of Itacius, and Priscillian was summoned to
Treves, where he was put to death by the sword (885). This was the first
time in which the blood of a heretic was shed by the solemn forms of law.
The Church was struck with horror at the act. The Priscillianists, roused to
enthusiasm by the blood of their martyr, survived the persecution until some
time in the sixth century.
a) Epiph. haer. 70. Tkeodoret haer. fabb. IV, 10. H. ecc IV, 9.
h) Epiph. haer. 80. Theodoret haer. fltbb. IV, 11. H. ecc IV, 10. Photii cod. 58.
CSAP. y. OPPOSITION. |145lAERIU9. J0VINIANU8. $ 146. PAULICIAN8. 159
§ 146. Protesting Ecclesiastical Teachers.
AerivSy a presbyter in Sebaste, in opposition to his former iriend and
bishop Eusiathivs^ taught that there was no essential distinction between
bishops and presbyters; that fasts ordained by the authority of the Church
were Jewish compulsory forms, and that prayers and alms were of no avail
for the dead. This schism at Sebaste appears to have become extinct prin-
cipally because the monastic ethics of Eustathius were rejected at the Synod
of Gangra (between 862 and 870). {a) Jovinianus^ a Koman ascetic, maintained
that there was no difference before God between fasting and a pious enjoy-
ment of food, nor between a state of celibacy and an honorable wedlock, and
that a difference in good works presents no reason for expecting different
degrees of reward. For these opinions he was expelled from the Church,
first by his bishop Sirtcivs^ and then on the report of that prelate, by Ambro-
ntu of Milan, to whom he had applied for redress (about 888). (h) VigHan-
(tut, a native of Oaul and a presbyter in Barcelona, in an eloquent treatise
denouioed the ecclesiastical superstition of honoring deceased persons as idol-
itry, vi^ls as occasions for licentiousness, and vows of chastity as tempta-
tiona to unnatural lusts, and maintained that it was far more Christian to
use in a wise and beneficent way the property which had been inherited,
than to cast it away as a burden. He was favored by his bishop and some
nogfaboring prelates, but Hieronymus defended against him the customs of
the Church with all his accustomed asperity, (c)
§ 146. History of the Faulieians, Sect, I.
L Pttm* 8ictd»t (about 870) l<rropia wtpl r^r alp4a'fuf Mavixa^»y Twy kou HavXtKiap&p
krfpJvmv, gr. et Ut ed. RaderM, Ingolat 1604. 4. Gietdsr, Oott 1840. 4. PhoUw, wtpi r^t
Uanxaimw kyafiKcurrfifftcts, ( Wdjii Anecdot gr. Hunb. 1722. Th. I. If. &, GaUandii BibL Th.
MIL) Jo, Danuue, AidXoyos Kark Moofixtii^^' (Opp. Th. L p. 429a».) Jo. Omientit^ Armo-
ifonun Catfaollcl, Or. c Paullciiinofl, aft^r 718. (0pp. ed. Aucher^ Ven. 1884. Conip. Windiachmann
lid.T&b. Qoartabchr. 18S5i P. 1. Formula reccptlonis Manich. ( ToZZ/J loMgnia Itin. ItalicL p. 144aft.)
IL Frid. Sckmid, Hlat PauUctanorum orlentallam. Hafta. 1826. {Engelhardf) Die Paullc. (WI-
Mn XL Engelb. Jootd. 1827. vol VII. Part 1. 2.) GiueUr^ Q. d. Paalic. (Stud. u. Krit 1829. vol. II.
P.L)
Constantiney from the neighborhood of Samosata, and connected with a
Gnostic congregation at Cibossa in Armenia, found in the perusal of the New
Testament a world unknown, and became animated with the hope (about 660),
of bringing back a state of things like that which had prevailed in the Apos-
tolic Church. He assumed the name of Sylvanus, and called those commu-
iritieg which acknowledged him as a Reformer, Pauline congregations. By
their opponents they were called Paulicians (at first according to I. Cor. 1, 12);
o)Splph. baer. 75. Gangra: ManH Tb. II. p. lOdSas. comp. JSocrat II, 43. [Art In Kltto*s
*»"Ml or BIbL Lit Tol. IV.]
i)8tHcHEp. ad dWereos Episc. adv. Jorln. (Corutanl p. 668sb.) Ambroaii Kosoript ad Slric
(^- ^JI70M.) ffUron. L IL adv. Jovln. (892.) Augustin. : De bacr. c 82. De bono conjugall. De
lTll|lBit
«) Bitron. Ep. 87. ad Kipnarlnm a. 404 and Liber adv. Yigll. a. 406. (Th. lY.) Gfnnadii de vlr.
fiutr. e. SCl-V. G. Watch, de Ylg. baeretlco-orthodoxo. Jen. 1756. {PottH SylL Cmtt tbeoL Th.
^) Q. B. Lindner^ d« Jovln. At YlglL porlorls doctr. anteslgnanii. Lpa. 1840.
160 ANCIENT CUUBCn UISTOBY. PER. IL OEBMANIC CHURCH. A. D. 81»-aoa
bnt they themselves acknowledged no name bnt that of Christians, and ap-
plied the title of Romans to the Catholics. They adhered to the Gnostic doc-
trines which maintained that the history of the worid exhibits only the strug-
gle between the good and the evil principles, that Judaism was the work of
an inferior spirit, that the Old Testament was no part of the holy Scriptures
(Jo. 10, 8), and that the conflict of the flesh with the spirit was in conse-
quence of their creation by two different creators. Their principal attention
however, was directed to a revival of apostolic and spiritual Christianity.
On every subject they appealed to the New Testament as a sacred book for
the people in the text used by the Church, but with the exclusion of the
Epistles of Peter. They rejected all the external forms then in use, as the
ecclesiastical system, fasts and monasticism, worship of saints and of Mary,
crosses and relicts, and regarded baptism and the Lord's supper as only
spiritual acts. Constantine was killed (about 684) by a traitor, but at the in-
stigation of an imperial ofiicer. The community always had a chief like him,
and called after one of the companions of Paul, but neither he nor any of his
fellow-pilgrims (ovveK^rj^i) and scribes (pordpioi) exercised any hierarchical
powers. As they were joined by some Manichaean congregations and were
favored by the iconoclasts, the Paulicians spread over the extreme provinces
of Asia, in spite of bloody persecutions from without, and their own internal
divisions. Their principal city was Phanaroea in Helenopontns. Some of
them considered it right to adopt the doctrines of the Church with an alle-
gorical signification, and to submit to the external forms of the Catholic wor-
ship, on the ground that these might be beneficial to the body. The death
of Constantine was so heroic that the very judge who condemned him, after
some years, left the capital of that region to take his place. The reproach
of unnatural licentiousness which was cast upon them may have been occa-
sioned by their entire disregard of the Mosaic prohibitions with respect to
consanguinity. It is, however, possible that their opposition to the law near
the end of the eighth century, may have given occasion to a moral degene-
racy, of which their overseer, Baanes (6 pvTrap6s% may have been the most
prominent specimen.
DIVISION II.-THE GERMANIC CHDECH.
§ 147. Original Authoritiu,
I. SemUr^ Yen. den Gebr. d. Qaellen in d. Staats-u. KOesch. d. mltU. Zeiten zu erleicbtern. HaL
1761. RdtUr^ de annalium medii aevi condit &, do arte crit in ann. Tub. ITSSs. 4 Dahlmann^
Qncllcnknnde d. deutschen Gcscb. Gott (1S80.) ^^^.—Mfibomii rcr. Germ. 8criptore& Himst 1888hl
8 Th. t LeibniU, Scrr. rer. Bransvic. illostrationi inserviontea. Han. ITOTss. 8 Th. t I*reheri nr.
Oorm. 8crr. ed Struve, Argent ITUsa 8 Tb. f. UarzhenM Concilia Germ. (Ull 1747.) CoL 1759a>.
11 Th. t Ussermanni Monuuienta res Alcmonnicas illu5tr. Typis S. Blasian. 1790. 2 vol& 4 Perta,
Mon. Genu, biatorica. Han. lS26s& 8 Tb. t—Du Oheme^ ITist Francor. Scrr. Tar. 16S6ea. 5 Tb. £
Souqu^Dom Brlal, rer. Gallicar. ot Franc Scrr. Par. 178S-1833. 19 Tb. t--Muratori, rer. ItaL
Scrr. Medlol 1723m. 21 Tb. t—Eccard, Corpus blst mcdli aevi. Lpst 1728. 2 Tb. f. 1) Gregor, TV-
rofuns. Hist eceL Francor. L X. till 594, selected from iSs cont by Fredegar Ull 641. cd. Ruinar%
Par. 1699. £ {Bouquet^ Tb. IL p. 75.) Beda VenerabUU, Hi!»t eccl. gentis Angler. L V. till 78L
Ed. Jo. Smith, Cantabr. 1722. £ Siavensan^ Lend. 1838. [Bede'a Ecclea. Ubt with the Sax. Cbron.
DIF. U. OEEMANIC CHUBCII. $ 147. OKIGINAL AUTMORITIEa. 161
trnisL Into EdrL tritb notes, m«p9, &c bj J^ ^. t7^/«t, Lond. 1845.] 2) Jomandes, de reb. Oeticls
tin 5401 Kd. Fabric Hwnb. 170«. t {Muratorl Th. I. P. L p. 187.) Mdor. Hisp. Hist Gothorom.
TandaloniiD, Suevoram till 625. Ed. RdtUr, Tub. ISOa. 4. Jsidor. Paeen*. (about 754.) Chronlcon.
{Bmrigue FtoreM^ £sp«&a sagrada. Madr. 174'^ Th. VIII. Dw Ch^9ne Th. I.) Paulua Warne-
fridi, Di^icoHus, de gestis Longobard. I. VL till 744. {Maratori Th. I. P. I. p. 895.) 8) Annalos rer.
Fraodcaram : LaurU»mw9 741-S29, rerlsed Jb cont since 78S by Einhard. {Pertz Th. I. p. 124.)
XL J?fiA«, Oeacb. d. Mittelalt BrL 1816. Jlallam, [SUte of Europe daring the Middle Ages.
Lond. 1$4«. 8 vols. & New York, 1817. 8.] Luden^ Gcsch. d. M^V. Jen. 182U 2 vol& Rehm^ Gesch.
d MA. BlAfb. 1831-S5i 8 tola. Leo, Gescb. d. MA. HaL 1830. 2 vols. MoelUr, Procls de Tllist. du
omjco &ge. Lout. 1S41. Gibbon & Schlotser in their larger works.— Wdch^mvtJiy earop. Sitten-
pteh. LpaL lS31-8a 2 vols Charpentier, Hist Htt^raire du moyen fige. Par. 188-S.— /?. r. Pawner,
die Einwirk. d. Christenth. a. d. Altbochdeutsche Bprache. Stuttg. 1S45. F. W. ReUberg, KGesch.
DeotKblands. Oott 1846. vol. I. [F. Koklratuch Hist of Germ, transl. by J. D, Ilaae. New York.
1817. %. J. J. Matcon, Hist of the Ancient Germans, transl. by Lediard, Lond. 1833. 2 vols. 4. T.
Gntnwocd^ First Book of the Hist ct the Germans: Barbaric Period. Lond. 1836. 4 S. A. Jhin-
ham, H. of Enr. daring the Mid. Agesw Lond. 4 vols. 12. W. Meruel, H. of Germ. transL by O. Uor-
Lond. 1848. 8 voLei 12. GviMOi, H. of Civilization. New York. 1810. 4 vol& 12.]
A picture of this age is especially to be fonnd in some contemporary bio-
graphies {a) and letters (5) of persons prominent in the Church or State of
that day. A vivid representation of Gterman affairs, as they would appear to
a Roman, is given by Frocopius. (e) The German historical writers were ex-
doflively clergymen, and confine their attention to their ovn respective na-
tbns, with only occasional glances at the affairs of others in the vicinity.
Gregory of Tojurs (d. 595) and the Venerable Bede (d. 735) wrote ecclesiasti-
cal histories. The former, with an honest simplicity and an excessive faith,
described a rude age as a warning to all who might be tempted to treat the
Church with violence, {d) The latter collected together the original documents
and traditions relating to the history of the English Church, as they existed
among the clergy, and presented them in a learned style and in the spirit of
the Anglo-Saxon Church, for the instruction of subsequent ages. Jornande^
(Jordanis, about 550), a monk, possibly a bishop, but at an earlier period a
private secretary, an Ostrogoth but not an Arian, wrote a history of hig na-
tkm both in the East and in the West. His was the first German voice heard
in the midst of the national migrations. Ilis materials were principally de-
rived from Roman authorities, and his notices of ecclesiastical affairs are not
▼ery abundant. Paul (d. 799), the son of Wamefrid^ a monk of Montecassino,
belonging to the literary circle around Charles the Great, collected and incor
pwated in his history of the Longobards, the lively traditions preserved among
the people. Ecclesiastical subjects always seemed interesting to him, but he
W introduced them but sparingly into his narrative. In the Annals of the
WDTent of Lorseh^ as well as in those of Bginhard, the exploits of the Frank-
iib kings, and their relations to the Church, are recorded in a simple and con-
^ityle, but with respect to the principal facts in the animated language
^ interested witnesses.
•) Qtoerally In PsrU. Th. I. IL b) Especially Epp. Bonif. & Codes Oarolinut,
^ De beOo Tandalico. De bello Oothica Ed. G. Dindorf, Bonn. 1888. 2 vols.
*) UbtO, Gregor. v. Toura u. a. Zeit Lpi. 1885. C. G. KrUe, de Greg. Tur. ViU et Scriptls.
11
162 ANCIENT CHUBCn HISTORY. PER. IL OEBMANIC CnUBOlL A. D. 812-800.
OHAP. I.— ESTABLISHMENT OF CHRISTIANITY.
§ 148. Religion of the Germans,
L 1) TnciH Gena c 2. 9. 11. 27. 89. 4a 4a 40l Annal XIII, 57. Hist lY, 64 2) Abronnntiatio
dfaboll A Indicolos saporetitlonnm et papmUrnm, c a. 748. (Epp. Boni/btc ed. Wurdtto. p. 12te&
Parta Th. III. p. 198.) Gapitalatlo de parttb. Sax. ( WalUr^ Corp. Jur. Oenn. Tb. II. p. 104ss.)
IL jtfbn^, Gesch. d. Heidenth. im nordl. Earopa. Lpa. n. Darmst 1822a. vol II. p. 1-822. Jac
Grimm, Deatache Mythologle. Gutt (1S8A.) 1S40. Z. VTdand^ d. Mythns v. Tbor. Stuttg. 1888. O.
Klemm, Handb. d. germ. Altertbamskando. Dread. 1886. [Z>. MalUt^ Nortbem AnUqultka^
Lond. lS4a &)
When the Gennans first began to have intercourse with the Roman Em-
pire, either as allies or as enemies, they were trained, not for civilization,
but for military freedom. They were a bdd, faithful, and chaste people, high-
spirited whether in life or death, living by agriculture or by the sword, and
addicted to no excesses but those of the table. Their women were admitted
to equal privileges with themselves, and indeed were supposed to possess a
peculiarly holy and prophetic character. Their history was preserved in oral
traditions and poems. Their religion, as described by Tacitus, was a respect-
ful awe in the presence of a mysterious power, which ruled over all things
and was worshipped by all who spoke a common language, however variously
apprehended by different tribes. In the ancient songs, Thuisto^ a deity which
sprung from the earth, and his son Mannus^ the man, are extolled as the an-
cestors of the nation. The Semnones boasted that they were in possession
of the most ancient sanctuary. There a divinity who ruled over all was wor-
shipped in a forest so sacred that none could enter it but in fetters. The
deputies of all the tribes belonging to the same race assembled there to cele-
brate a festival for the whole confederacy. On such an occasion a hnman
being was offered up in sacrifice, as none but the most exalted being of earth
appeared to them worthy of the Deity. Captives taken in war were gene-
rally the victims, and in extreme circumstances a whole hostile army was de-
voted to death. On an island of the ocean was a grove sacred to Bertha
(Northns). At times her veiled chariot was drawn forth dispendng joy and
peace among the people. On her return the goddess and her chariot were
plunged into a mysterious sea, and all the slaves who had attended her were
swallowed up in the waves. Other gods are mentioned by Tacitus, but with
Roman names. There was a god of wisdom, another of power, another of
war, and two youthful brothers like Castor and Pollux, but natives of the
country, and served by a priest in a woman^s appareL Victory in battle was
the gift of the gods. These were supposed to have their home beyond the
great ocean from which their forms were sometimes seen to emerge and iUa>
minate all around them by the beams which streamed from their heads. Per-
sons praying turned their eyes toward the heavens. The Germans thought
it inconsistent with the greatness of celestial beings to be confined by walls,
or to be represented by a human form. Groves and forests were their saored
places, and they applied the name of God to that mystery which they oould
reverently contemplate only in the inner spirit. Unlike the Gauls (a) in these
o) CoMar, de bello OalL YI, 21.
CHAP. L E8TABL. OF ens. f 14$). OERMANIO BELI6I0N. 163
respects, they had no priestly caste, nor splendid sacrificial rites, but priests
presided oyer their sacred things and in the religious assemblies of the people,
and corporeal punishments could be inflicted on ireemen only in the name of
the godsL The military weapons of a deceased person were buried with his
body in the grave. Such was the religion which the first Christian mission-
aries called the worship of the devil. The Irminml was then regarded
among the Saxons with especial veneration, because it was supposed to be the
pillar which sustained the universe. This was only a vestige of the imageless
▼orahip of the one God, and was connected with recollections of nermann
the national hero, (b) The gods worsliipped, though with different degrees
of honor among different tribes, were : Wuotan^ the arbiter of worlds and of
battles, and the father of heroes and of kings ; Thunar^ the god of war and
of thunder, to whom were dedicated the most ancient oaks ; Fro^ who dis-
pensed peace and fertility ; Freyja^ the lovely consort of Wuotan, and Fostra^
the goddess of Spring, (c) Later traditions give us slight notices of Fran
Bolla in Lower Germany, and of Frau Bertha in Upper Germany, beautiful
goddesses of the earth who preside over the affairs of the household and of
hoabandry. The gods were supposed to look down upon men through the
▼indowB of heaven, and to direct human destiny, {d) Though the old sane-
toaries under the canopy of the lofty forest were sometimes seen at the period
of which we are writing, sometimes too might be found temples and images
of the gods. Offerings were also presented at fountains and rocks, and in
times of peculiar joy or necessity, human sacrifices were ofibred. In some in-
itances in which men could not determine what was right, the judgment was
nbmitted to God, and the method most preferred was the duel. So strong
was the hope of meeting friends in another world, that the Friesan king, Rad-
bot, scorned the Christianas heaven, from which his predecessors were ex-
dnded. (e)
S 149. Religian of the Northern Germanic Nations,
L The older Edda collected by Saemund SifffuMon (d. 1188.) lu Ireland: Edda Saemundar
MiM FrSda, Edda rhythtnica, Saemnndina dicta, ed. Tliorlaciut^ Finn Magnusen, etc. Hafh.
17Si-18Sa. a Tb. 4 Miniature ed. e. rca limkii cur. A/kelitt«, Holm. 1813. Translations of most of
tb«9uogi (in Germ.) by nav«n^ Brl. 1812. BresL 18U. Grimm, Brl. 1816. LeQi», Lps. 18299S. 8 toU.
Tbe pnse Kdda, was commenced by Snorre Slurleton (d. 1241), and was completed In the 14th cent :
^^trv-Eida faamt Skildu af Rtuk. Stock. 1818. Uebers. v. R&ha. Brl. 1812. Mu^pilli, hreg. v.
SdmtOtr, (Buchner's Beitrige, Mun. 1882. vol. L P. 2.) Auxiliary sources : For the northern heroic
^H. M» MUUr, Sagabibliothek. KJob. 1817. 8 Th. Uebern. d. 1. a Lachmann, BrL 1816. Baxo
Onnnatieas and Adam Bremensia.
U. After the investigations of JSuhm^ Thorlaciua and Finn MagnuMn, Gen. reviews : Grundt-
*<f, Senlcna Mytology. Kj >b. (1808.) 1882. Stuhr, Glanb. Wiss. n. Diet dor alt Skandinavier.
Kopnh. 1&8& jr<m«, vol. L p. 216-479. Munter, KGesch. v. Dunem. u. Norw. Lpz. 1828. vol. I. p.
1-^ Dtrctink'Holm/eldy nord. Vorzeit Kopenb. 1S28& 2 P. (Petersen u. Thomsen) LeitC z.
^'^ AkMtbnmsknnde hrrg. v. d. konigl. Gcsellsch. £ nord. Alterth. Uebera. v. PauUen, Kopenb.
% [MaiUL (S 147.) JT. F. Wiborg, Die Mythol. des Nordens a. d. Danlsch. v. Anton r. Ettel,
M L Aril, Th. L p. 228. Th. IL p. 676.— IL J. Grimm, Irmenstraase n. Irmensilule. Wien. 1315.
^^ Innta. BreaL 1817.
<) Bfda, De temper, rat c. 18.
<) P9mL Diae. I, & GHmm, MythoL Edit 1. p. 968&
<) Jmu yitM & Walfrunl e. 9. (JfoMMon, Acta 89. Benedict Saea IIL P. 1.) Comp. AppiatU
*^««iIV,ia.
164 ANCIENT CHUBCn UISTORY. VKH II. GERMANIC CIirRCU. A. D. 818-800.
BerL 1847. G. PigotU Manna) of Scand. Myth. Lond. 1S89. a A. Crlchton, ScandiiiAvia, Anc. and
Mod. Edinb. 1839. 2 vcls. 12. WhMtotr$ lliflt of the Northmen. 2 ed. New York. 1847. If. ChrM-
mat^ Universal Myth. p. 27S-815. Lond. 1838.]
The Scandinavian is a special branch of the common German mythology,
but its general character was more fanciful and gloomy, and it penetrated
deeper into the grotesque and monstrous forms of nature. Neither the
purely historical view of it, according to which' Odhinn was a mortal king or
even an impostor, nor the purely symbolical, according to which the doctrine
of the Am is only a figurative representation of the origin, the redemption,
and the regeneration of the world, corresponds with the character of this
people. The fact that the worship of Odhinn was brought to the North by
a nomadic tribe from the Caucasus, and that the original inhabitants with
their gods were overcome, is clearly indicated in the tradition that the Aser
themselves came from that region, and maintained a perpetual war with the
conquered race of giants and dwarfs. The world was created by Odhinn out
of the dead body of the giant Ynicr whom he had slain, a. <?., out of the
organic powers which had been brought into subjection. Creation therefore
commenced with a murder, and a bloody feud sprung up between the gods
who formed the world and the race of the giant who wished to revenge his
death. OJhinn is in nature the sun which gives life to all things, and in his-
tory he is royal wisdom ; Thor is the god of thunder, and the honest but
wild prince of war ; Freyr^ with his lovely sister Freyja, represent the gene-
rative and conceptive powers of nature. Among men the latter represents
love, but was originally different from Frigg^ the beautiful wife of Odhinn.
In the popular legends, however, all these gods are looked upon as personal
beings, and their divine life and adventures while warring with the giants and
magicians, is a picture of the military life of the people in their struggles
with the powers of nature, with heroes, and with enchanters. Tlie charac-
ter of the goddesses is the only point which is strange, and indicates an
Asiatic origin ; for although in other respects they well represent the attrao-
tions of the German women, they do not generally exhibit a very high
regard for chastity. The gods presided over the fortunes of men ; Odhinn
was the bestower of victory, of fame, and of the power of song, and Freyja
is the giver of the pleasures and pains of love. The Nomas descry, weave,
and announce the destinies of heroes. The deceitful and the cowardly are
tormented in Niflheim^ and such as die without renown wander as ghosts in
the kingdom of Hela ; but the Valh/rias hover over the field of battle, and
select their favorite heroes for the slaughter. Those who fall glorioualj
ascend to the VaUialla^ where they continue to spend a life of heroic activ-
ity with the gods. Thus love, death, and a higher life were united in the
same moment, and hence, notwithstanding their joy in life, their delight in
a heroes death was always great. Sacrifices were offered to the gods, and in
circumstances of extremity a nation once offered up its own king. Ordi-
narily, however, the only offerings were such as were found on the tables of
their cheerful feasts. This national faith knew nothing of self-inflicted tor-
tures, but a gloomy sadness pervades the Edda, since pain and death are con-
nected with all life, and spare not even the gods. Indeed, the very gods are
aware of a prophecy which predicts their death. Locke, who represents the
CHAP. L ESTAB. OF CHB. $149. EDDA-BELIOION. $160. ABIANI3M. 165
aD-devoaring fire and tlie principle of evil in opposition to tbe new world of
the gods, contrives to intrude himself among the Aser. Already, by his
subtle artifices, Balder^ the noblest of all the gods, has fallen. By stratagem
and power the Aser are yet able to ward off their own destruction. Bat a
time is coming called the Twilight of the gods, when all the powers of the
abyss will break their bonds, and all the Aser and tbe heroes of the Val-
balla will contend against them. As in the Niebelnngen Noth, all the gods,
tiie heroes, and the powers of the abyss will be slain together. In the
mighty death-struggle, the world itself will become a confnsed mass, and bo
ooDsnmed by fire. Then a new earth will be produced, and be inhabited by
an innocent human pair nourished by the morning dew, by a few sons of the
&llen gods who will survive the ruin, and by Balder, who will then return
from the lower world. They will spend their time in relating to each other
the conflicts of the former world. But far above all this strife and change
exists an unknown power which has been called, perhaps from some hint
taken from Christianity, the Universal Father (Alfadur).
§ 150. Arianism,
Near the close of the fourth century, the Western provinces of the Ro-
DAn empire, partly through conquest and partly through the increasing influ-
ence of German generals and mercenaries, came into the possession of the
Germans. This people then had either become Christian, or were inclined
to be so. Tlie Goths had received the gospel by means of prisoners taken in
war, and a Gothic metropolitan had a seat in the Synod of Nicaea. Among
the West Gothic princes, Fritigern was fevorable to Christianity, but Athan-
ttrich persecuted all who embraced it. When the Western Goths fled before
tbe Huns, and sought the hospitality of the Roman empire (376), their bap-
tism was the condition of their settlement on the further side of the Dan-
ube, (a) The form of Christianity which they then received from the em-
peror VaUns was Arian, and to this they adhered with a Gorman fidelity,
eten when another creed was announced to them by imperial edicts. Their
bishop, Ulphilas^ by natural disposition and by education well fitted to be a
mediator, translated the Scriptures into their native language, (h) and after
performing the duties of his office for forty years, died at Constantinople
(588), deeply affected on account of the subversion of his faith, (c) But in
eoDBequence of the victories achieved by this nation, and the general recep-
tion of bis German gospel, the other German conquerors embraced the
Arian faith. It was carried by the Western Goths into Spain, by the Fast-
(r% Goths into Italy, and by the Vandals into Africa. The greater part of
4e Burgundians^ after a brief period of partial sympathy with Catholicism,
a) J. A^chJbaeK, Oesch. der Wettgothen. Frkf 1827.
^) VlpldUu pArtiom Inedit Bpec ed. A. Majut et CatitlUmeus^ Med. 1819. 4. Cont from the
^ cT Pul : 1829. 1884 188S. 4 Ulfilas. V. et N. Test vereionlB goth. fragmm. edd. C. de Gaht-
'"k at / Lo^bt^ Altenb. et Lpa. 1886-47. 9 Th. 4-^keirein8 Alvaftg^IjAns Johannen, brsg. v.
JI^MMum, Mnnfch. 1S8S. 4 oomp. Lo€h€^ Beitr. z. Textberleht n. Erkl. d. Skelreina. Altenb.
M- [All lo Kitto't Joanud of BlbL Lit vol III.]
Oi^wrat IV. 9& &«>i».VI. 87. Tkfodoret, lY, 9Si. P/iilattorff. 11, S. Jomand.o.2^ Q
^ ft. Lab«D n. Lrtm d. Ult lUn. 184a
166 ANCIENT CUUKCH HISTOKY. P£R. IL OEKMANIO CHUBCH. A.D.81»-«WL
finally followed this example. Many, however, who professed to be Arians,
were only Semiarians, or altogether ignorant of the diflference between the
two. (d) The Catholic Church to which the native Romans belonged re-
mained unmolested, for the German kings held that religion coold not bo
enforced by authority, and that as God tolerated various forms of it, no par-
ticular form should be forced upon all persons, (e) The Vandal kings in
Africa (after 431) were the only sovereigns who by a violent persecution
gave new martyrs and mbracles to the Catholic Church, (/) and thereby pre-
pared the way for their own overthrow, and for the victories of Belisarius,
by whom the Roman empire was once more established there (588).
§ 151. Victory of Catholicism.
GrtQor. Tur. H. Franc II, 27m.— JffeA«M', H. de France Par. 1888. toL L
Clovis^ of the Merovingian family, united the Franks under one monarchy,
and subdued the various tribes of Gaul and of the provinces on the confines of
Germany (481-511). His Catliolic wife Clotilda, a Burgundian princess,
endeavored to turn his mind from the gods whom his fatliers had wor-
8hi])ped. In the battle of Z.ilpich (Tolbiacum, 496) against the Allemanni,
when he saw his ranks give way, he raised his hands in supplication to the
God of the Christians. After his baptism on Christmas by St. Remigiui, in
the Cathedral at Rheims, the victor was anointed as a Christian king, (a) and
saluted as another Constantine. He obtained considerable reputation for his
military exploits, his sanguinary selfishness, and his zeal for the Catholic
faith. As he was then the only orthodox king, he professed to feel bound in
conscience to obtain possession of the beautiful territories of the Arian
princes, and in his attempts to do so, he received much assistance from their
Catholic subjects. With a precipitate faith the Franks and AUemanni fol-
lowed the example of their victorious monarch. In consequence of the suc-
cess of the Franks, and the mental superiority of the native Catholic inhab-
itants, Arianism began to decline, and in the eighth century, when the
Longobard kingdom (6) was overthrown, its independence as a national reli-
gion was entirely lost.
§ 152. British and Anglo-Saxon Church,
I. Wilkin*^ Concilia Brit et Ulbem. Lond. 1787. 4 volt, fl Btda Ven, H. ecc
II. Usaerii Britannicar. Ecd. antlquitt (Dabl. 1G89. 4.) Lond. 1GS7. C Lingard, Antiqaltiea of
the Anglo-Saxon Charch. Newcaatlc. 1806. 8 vols. Stditdlin^ KOeflch. r. Oroasbrit Oott 1319L S
vols. J. Lttnigan, Eccl. Utot of Ireland. Dubl. ed. 2. 1829. 8 vola. Munter, di« altbrit K. (Stud. v.
Krit ISdd. P. Isl) K. Schrofdl, d. 1. Jobrb. d. engl. K. Pass. 1840. [StiUina/UMy Orig. Britaimicaeu
>vitb notes b7 Pauiin, Oxon. 1842. 2 vols. & G. Smithy Keliglon of Anc Britain, biatorlcaDy con-
sidcrod. Lond. 2 ed. 8. // Soames, The Anglo-Saxon Church, its hist Ac Lond. 8 ed. 8. Wm.
d) Th^odoreU II. ecc. lY, 8& Procop. Hist Goth. c. 4.
e) Cassiodor. variar. 1. II. Ep. 27. L X. Ep. 2<l
/) Victor, Episc. Vitensb (4<ii7), IliAt perseontionis AfH& (BuinarU Hist peraeoationis Tan-
dalicae. Par. 1694. Yen. 1782. ^)—Papencordt, Oeech. d. Yand. Herrsch. in Afr. BrL 1887.
a) Tlio popular account : JTincmar, Vita S. Bemigii c 8.— (7. O, «. Mwr^ d. b. AmpoU* iq
Bheiou^ NQrnb. 1801.
h) Koch-SUrnbtrg^ Reich, d. Longobarden. M&ncb. 1S80.
CHAP. L ESTAB. OF CHB. $ 152. BRITISH A ANGLO-SAXON CHUBOHES. 167
JKkIm, Origin of fh6 Prim. Gharch of the Brit Isles. Lond. 8. F. Thackeray^ Besearrhee Into
tbe Eod. «nd Polit SUte of Anc Brit Lend. 184a 2 Tola. & & Turner^ U. of the Anglo-Sazona
5 ed. S To]& & Lond. 16S& F. Palgravf, H. of the Anglo-SaxonA. Lond. 1S8T. 12. ArMr. and
JW. Ckr. Union, vol IL (1851.) p. 8668. 71a& LitUlTs Bel. Mag. vol III. (1829.) p. 815es. C. An-
itfot^ Hist Sketches of the Ancient Irish. Edlnb. 1828. 8.]
The Church in Ireland was founded (after 430) by Patrick, a Briton, who
labored there with the zeal.of a sincere and recent convert, and with the
power of one who was believed not only by others bnt by himself to work
miracles, (a) The convents he established were, until some time in the sev-
enth century, the centres of a fervent ecclesiastical activity for the island,
and Ireland was called the Isle of Saints. From it proceeded Columha (after
665), by whom the Picts in the Highlands of Scotland were brought over to
the Christian faith. Adopting some remnants of Druidical customs, he
established on the island of Ily (St. Jona) a sacerdotal order, to which, in
various records after the ninth century the name of CuMees (Kele-Dc) was
probably exdudvely applied, (b) The bishops of the surrounding country
tdmowledged this presbyter-abbot as their superior, {c) Britain is men-
tioned as a Christian country in the fourth century. But when the Anglo-
Saxons^ who had been invited to enter it as allies (after 449), became its con-
qoerors, the British Church continued only in Wales and in the mountains
of Northumberland. The national hatred of the tribes was too intense to
dlow the Saxons to receive the gospel from the Britons. Gregory the Great^
who for a long time took a deep interest in this people, availed himself of
the marriage of Ethelbert^ king of Kent, with a Prankish princess, to send a
solemn embassy of forty Benedictines to proclaim himself and Christ among
the Anglo-Saxons. The king was baptized, and Augustine^ the principal per-
Km belonging to the embassy, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury
(597). From Kent, Roman Catholicism was propagated, in spite of many
rieisntades during the succeeding century, among the other Saxon kingdoms,
more by covert concessions and gradual changes than by an open conflict
with heathenism. For Gregory had instructed those whom he had sent not
to destroy the temples of the gods, but to consecrate them to the true Deity ;
to allow the people to bring the oxen which they had been accustomed to
sacrifice at their heathen festivals, and on days devoted to the dedication of
a church, or to the commemoration of some saint, to slay them in honor of
flie true God, and to hold joyful feasts for them under green arbors near the
ehnrches. By retaining such customary pleasures, he hoped gradually to
make these obstinate dispositions form a relish for the spiritual enjoyments
of Christianity, {d) It soon became evident, however, from the eftbrts to
unite the Saxon and British churches, that the latter would acknowledge no
other subjection to the Roman bishop than that which was due to any other
Christian, (e) But they tolerated each other with greater or less degrees of
a) Pairicii Contemio. (Opuscc. ed. Wdraetu^ Lond. 1858. and In W. BeViam^ Irish Antiquarian
Bottrcbes. DnbL 18268i P. IL App. p. 49.) Popular accounts: Jocelini (12th cent) Vita B. Patric.
(Adi9S. Mart. roL IL p. 640.) [Amer. and Far. Chr. Union, vol. L (1S50.) p. 4S9!v\ 585sa.]
h) Ja^ Smith, Life of St Col Edlnb. 1798.— t/I Jamiemn, Illst Account of tbe Anc. Culdees of
^fltt. Edinb. 181L i.—J. O. J. Branny de Cnldeia Bonn. 1840. 4 c) Beda^ IL ecc. Ill, 4.
tf) Grsffor. Ep. id Mellitum. (0pp. toL IL p. 11T6«. and Becla I, 30.)
«) WOHns, Cone toL I. p. M. Beda, Hist, ecc II, 2.
168 ANCIENT CHUKCH HIBTOBT. FEB. IL OEBMANIC CHUSCn. A. D. 81t-80a
hostility nntil the final nnion of the two nations, when the Ohorch of the
most numerous people gained the victory.
§ 168. Irruption of Islam in the West.
J, Atchbach, Oesch. d. OmmaUaden In Spanicn. Frkf. ISSOa. [Piucual cU Gayangot^ H. of tb«
Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain, from the text of Al Makkari, Lond. 1840-48. % vols. I. J, C
Murphyy II. of the Moh. Empire in Spain, Lond. 1816. 4]
In consequence of a dispute ahout the succession to the throne, Spain was
opened to the Arabians, the conquerors of Africa. The kingdom of tlie West-
em Goths was speedily overthrown by J/t/«a, the general of the Caliphate, and
Spain was subjected to the Arabian prophet (711). Through this country
Abderrhaman was preparing to pass for the conquest of the entire West,
that he might unite it with his Eastern empire. He had already obtained
possession of France as far as the Loire, when the power of the Arabians on
the north of the Pyrenees was broken for ever, by Charles Martely at the
battle of Poictiers (782). In Spain the Christians received toleration from
the Arabians (Mozarabes) as a distinct sect, and from their mountains in the
North commenced against the Arabian government a chivalrous contest for
their national independence and for Christianity.
§ 164. Germany, Boni facias^ 680-765.
I. BonifacH: EplstoUc, ed. Whrdtu>ein, Mog. 17S9. t Vita, scr. Willibald about 760. (PerCi,
Th. II. p. 881.)
II. OtfihnuM (about 1066), YIU S. Bon. (AcU SS. Jnn. Tb. I. p. 452.) Serarius, Mofrantlaft
rerum ]. V. Mofi;. CiM. 4. ed. Johannes, Fret 1722. t Th. L Sttgittarius^ Antlquitt gontiliamlet
chriKtianijimi ThuringicL Jen. 1685. 4. Oudenii, Da. de Bon. Ilclmst 1720. 4 LoJUr, Bon. Qotha.
1812. Suiters, Bon. Mainz. 1845.
Bishoprics had been established during the fourth century in Germany,
along the Rliine and the Danube, as far as the Roman dominion extended,
but in the fifth, Christianity was partially driven back by the national mi-
grations. Under the influence of the Franks in the beginning of the eighth
century, it pressed forward as far as the Saale and the Elbe, but it was under
no ecclesiastical regulations, and was much corrupted by paganism. The
gospel was also carried by British monks as far as the Main and among the
Allcmanni, but had no connection with Rome. Thus Columban (d. 616),
who had been driven from the Yosgcs as far as the Apennines, established
some convents as seminaries of Christianity, and his disciple Gall (d. about
660), who had been left at the lake of Constance, and had become a hermit
on the Steinach, made a lasting and beneficial impression on the minds of the
people, by destroying their idols, by casting out demons in a remarkable
manner, and by refusing to accept the bishopric of Constance, (a) But Wii^
fred^ an Anglo-Saxon monk, originally from Kirton in Devonshire, better
known by his Roman name of Boni/a^^e^ was sent from Rome to undertake
the conversion of Germany (718), and finally became the apostle of the Ger^
a) I. YiU S. Cohimbani by hia pupil Jonas, Yita S. Oalli hj WalqfHd Stralo in MahOoii
AcU Ord. S. Betied. 8aec II. p. 1. 228. The older sources of the laUer in PerU, Th. L p. 1.— C J
UefeU, Gesch. d. EinfTilir. d. Clirifttenth. im sQdwcetl. Dcutechl. TQb. 1S87. O, (X KnotUnb^ di
Columbano. Lugd. lSd9. F. O. Rtttlmv, Obaa. ad vltam 8. Galli spectantea. Mart). 1841 4.
CnAP. L BSTAB.OFCHB. $ 154. BONIFACE. $109. SAXONS. 169
mans. This title, however, belongs to him not so mnch becanse he first pro-
daimed the gospel to the people, as becanse lie effected the complete over-
throw of paganism, announced by the destraction of the sacred oak at Gels-
mar, (b) and because he was the founder of the German Chnrch. He was
Buperatitioos in his views, rigid in his habits, narrow-minded with respect to
external forms, and arrogant towards inferiors,, but Bubmlssive to popes,
except when he thought they protected abuses, (c) In conformity with his
oath, (d) he made the German Church dependent upon the pope, but with-
•at the authority of the Roman bishop and of the Frankish monarch, he
would have found the enforcement of his strict rules in opposition to the
general resistance almost impossible. In consequence of the plenary powers
given him by the Roman see, he was looked upon (after 732) as the general
bishop of Germany, and by a decree of the Grerman diet (747), the old epis-
eopal city of Mentz was given him as a permanent see. When too old to
ptfform the duties of ecclesiastical government, he requested that his disci-
ple LuUuM might be appointed his successor, and resumed a task which had
been unsuccessful in his youth — the conversion of the Frieslanders. His
tent was pitched on the bank of the Borne, when he was suddenly attacked
by a band of heathen robbers. He allowed his followers to moke no resist-
ance, and all were slain. His body, in compliance with his last will, was
buried in his favorite convent of Fulda.
§ 156. Th4i Saxons.
Xelnd4r§^ Tr. de sUta rel. et relp. snb Carolo M. et Lud. P. Id Sax. Lemira 1711. 4. Juaf. Jfoe9sr,
Ouubr. Gesch. BrL 1780. vol I. Funk, &. d Unterwerfung d. Sachsen anter K. d. O. (Scl)lomer*s
Affh. t Ooch. VL Lit 1888. vol. IV. p. 2988flL) O. Zimmtrmann^ da matata Saxonam vetenim reL
Dmit 1S39. 4 P. L Oaanam ($ 14S.)
•
The Saxons defended their national independence and the religion of their
ancestors (after 772) against the butcher Charles, {a) until a series of battles
and violated treaties made them desperate, and they finally resolved (804)
to unite with the Franks as one nation and pay tithes. The Westphalian
bishoprics were erected to servo as a kind of ecclesiastical fortresses. Laws
^tten in blood forbade all return to the customs of heathenism, {h) and it
▼as Dot until the Saxons had been completely subdued by the sword and the
croM, that Charles the Great saw his plans accomplished.
§ 156. Overthrow of German Paganism,
Iff Hdurl^ Gcaeh. d. dentacb. BUdung In d. Per. d. Uebergangcs ITeldenth. in Chr. BitI ISM. 12.]
Aa the Germans were in the habit of acknowledging gods besides their
^"^ they readily conceded to their guests that Christ might be divine. But
iltboQgfa the doctrine of a crucified God was not altogether strange to their
*) PMk, Th. IL p. 848. <i) WUrdtw. p. 108.
tf) ITknttw. Pl ISiL [Tb6 oath Itaelf : OUuUr, niat vol IL ^ 214 at a]
<) Mibd«f Uneertain as an orlg. doc but often printed from the Goslar Archives, e. g. HannOr*
>l>»P.Slp4Sa.
i) CkpUolatlo de partlb. Bazonlae. il 789. {Walisr, Corpus juris Qerin. Th. IL p. lOlsa. with
ta MHndm% p, 28aa.)
1 70 ANCIENT CnUBCH HISTORY. PER. XL GERMANIC CHURCH. A. D. 8U-80a
minds, Christ, his apostles, and the monks, seemed to them a faint-hearted
kind of people, until the clergy acquired military hahits and legends of chi-
valrous saints were circulated among them. The bold assumption of supe-
riority to the gods of their country, and the exclusive reliance upon their own
power, which the northern heroes especially expressed without hesitation or
reproof, was not directly favorable to Christianity, but proved that a living
faith in the old religion was already much impaired. They had no powerM
sacerdotal caste, and the opposition which Christianity encountered was not
produced by a priestly nobility among any of Odhinn's worshippers, but by
the various political circumstances in which it was introduced to the several
tribes, (a) The religion of their ancestors had no support but the public sen-
timent of a free people. For the whole intellectual fabric of the Roman em*
piro, and consequently for its church, they entertained the profoundest reve-
rence. They were convinced by the example of the Western Goths that
the Christians' God could bestow power and victory. The twilight of the
gods which their mythology taught them to expect, seemed to them realieed
by Christianity, but in a milder and more beautiful form. Christianity was
always foreign to the Greek and Roman national character, and could never
be received by those nations without destroying their peculiar spirit. The
disposition of the German nation on the other hand never found its proper
development except in connection with Christianity. Hence, wherever the
Germans were independent or victorious the gospel always had free scope.
But it was not without many touching lamentations that the ancient system
of paganism was renounced, (h)
CHAP. II.— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH.
Planck^ Gesch. d. kIrchL GeflellacbaftsrerC vol II. Sichhom, dentache Staate-n. Recbtsgeich. 5 ed.
Gott 1848. vol. L J. Grimjn^ doutscbe Recbtsaltherth&nier. Gdtt 1828. mUlmann^ Unpr. d. KVer£
d. MA. Bonn. \^\.Sllendor/, d. Karolinger u. d. Hierarchie Ibrer Zeit Easen 1689.
§ 1 67. Original Records of the Canon Law.
By the principles of the German law, the Church and all ecclesiastics re-
tained the same privileges as they had enjoyed under the Roman empire, (a)
and in consequence of the new relations in which these were possessed, a new
legal state was developed. The Spanish collection and the Dionysian Codex
were therefore continually appealed to as records af the Roman law. Any
new ecclesiastical usages and laws were either incorporated with the popular
code or published as decrees of synods or of the diet, (b)
a) On the other hand : Leo^ Geacb. d. ital Staaten. Hmb. 1829. vol L p. 559a.
h) Grimm. MythoL p. 4. Uhland, Thor. p. 228.
a) Cane Aurtlian, L a. 611. can. 1. {ManH Tb. TIIL p. 8608.) Lea RipuaHor. tU. 6S. & 1.
{Walter Tluh p. ISO.)
b) Walter, Corpus Juris Germ, antiqoi. Ber. 182488. 8 Tb. PertM, Monum. Germ. Tb. IIIi. L«-
gnm Tb. I. II. Comp. Regesta Carolonun. All the orlg. dooe. of the Caitdingiaii kings In the Eztnets
(762-918) by Boehmer, Frk£ 1884 4
CHAP. U. ECCLES. LAW. ilBS. GHUBCII A STATE. {159. PROPEBTT. 171
§ 158. Relation of the Church to the State.
Bunda^ r. Unpr. d. Beicbastandfloh. d. Bisob. n. Aebte. Oott: 1774. 4 «. Both^ v. d. Einflosse d.
Gtbdkhlc. unter d. Iferowingern. NQrnb. 1830. 4.
The bisbope, wbo were equally respected by tbe conquering and tbe con-
quered nations, were generally employed as mediators wben terms of peace
were to be settled. No sooner bad the kings, wbo were originally merely tbe
leaders of tbeir companions in arms, tasted the sweets of regal power as en-
joyed under tbe Roman law, ^an they became anxious to attach the bishops
to tbeir interests. By conferring upon them offices at court and certain feu-
dal estates, an ecclesiastical vassalage was created (a) which made it their
policy to restrain any conquering hordes, or to conciliate any conquered
tribes. Tbe power of tbe kings over the Church, or of the bishops over the
state, may be inferred from the feudal laws gradually developed during the
conquest. Tbe kings either directly appointed the bishops, or nominated
those whom they wished to be chosen by the clergy or the people ; (h) but
the bishops themselves, along with the other great vassals, either elected the
king or confirmed bis hereditary successor, (c) The bishops were required
to swear fealty to the king and to seek justice before tbe royal court, but they
could be judged only by their peers, (d) Whoever felt aggrieved by any pro-
ceedings in a spiritual court could apply for redress, or at least for grace, from
the king as his lord paramount. («) Bishops sat in the diet with all other
crown vassals, and it was on this ground that after the seventh century eccle-
nsstical causes were so much mingled with civil affiiirs in the transactions of
that iMxly. (/) Subsequently the power of legislation resided in the states and in
tbe king. (</) By such a system the Church seemed almost blended with the
itate, but its power and its consequent independence was well represented by
that hierarchical aristocracy whose authority the kings always found it best
to maintain, as a counterpoise to that of an hereditary and military nobility.
§ 169. Property of the Church and the Clergy.
Many bishops and abbots received royal grants of land and of people. These
eodesiastical possessions, like all other royal fie&, had immunities and juris-
dictions of their own. They were only bound to furnish a cerUun quota of
men for a general war (the lleerbann), and the counts exercised jurisdiction
in cases of life and death. The divine institution of tithes was more zealously
I^rodaimed than the gospel itself, and under Charles tbe Great, wbo paid
a) FrtfUgarii Cbron. c 41. 78. SangaUemi. I, la (P«rto Th. II. p. 78S.)
&) Cone, AureL V. a. M9, can. 10. Cone. ToUtan, XIL a 681. can. 6. Altboogh Cone Paris. Y.
1 n& can. 1. jet ooznpL Walter Th. II. p. 18.
c) OfRc. Tol€taiu VIII. a. 65-3. can. 10. WUkiiu Cone. Brit vol L p. 14Ss. liespecUng France:
Piandt, ToL II- p. 44&W.
tf) Grtg, Tur. II. Franc Y, 19. 29. Cone. AquUgr, a. 789. c. 87. {Walter Th. IL p. 84)
«) Cone. I*(tris. V. a. 615. can. 8. [Landonj Paria. p. 461.] with Clotaire*s enlarged confirmation*
{Walter Th. II. p. U) CapiL Franco/, a. 794. c 1 ( Walter Th. IL p. 116.)
/) E«ttction in Spain : Omc. ToM. XVII. a. 694. o. 1. {Manei Th. XIL pi 196.) Courts in
Fnaee: Hlnemar. de ord. palatii c 29. comp. Manai Th. XIY. p^ 64.
9) Cone Arvernenee a. 585. Pfa«l!&tio, (JfaiMi Th. YIIL p. 859.) Cone. Aurd. L £p. ad Clo-
d9T. {ManH Tb. YIIL p. 850.)
1 72 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IL GERMANIC CHURCH. A. D. SlS-Ml
tithes of all his possessions, it heoame the general law for the whole Frankish
empire, (a) It was, however, much easier for the Church to acquire immense
wealth from the scruples of the people than to defend it against the universal
robherj and violence which then prevailed. Chilperic complained that the
wealth of the kings had fallen into the hands of the Church, (b) but Charlet
Mattel distributed the ecclesiastical wealth among his soldiers, and left to the
Church the consolation of thinking that the deliverer of Christendom had
gone down to hell, (e) The dergj preserved their privilege of being Judged
in civil causes only before the bishop^s court ; ffiough in criminal cases, if the
offence was proved, they might be arraigned in what was called a mixed
court. Between the counts and the bishops of each district (Gau) sprung up
mutual jealousies and encroachments, which the kings often found it easy to
increase. The rights of the ipetropolitans were on various occasions con-
firmed, but they could not be sustained in opposition to the political power
of individual bishops.
§ 160. Ecclmastieal Power of the Pope.
The authority of the pope in countries beyond the Alps had its origin in
the necessity which the Catholics and Romans felt of a general centre of
onion in their conflicts with the Arians and Barbarians. The legates of
Gregory the Great were therefore called upon to exercise supreme jurisdic-
tion in Spain, But when the Western Goths went over to the Catholio
party that necessity was no longer felt, and the bishops, becoming conscious
of their political importance, freely opposed the papal claims. Witiza
(701-10), who was anxious to recover the royal prerogatives from the no-
bility and the Church, went so far as to forbid all appeals to the Roman
bishop, (a) But the overthrow of his throne and the subversion of the
Gothic kingdom was generally regarded as a divine judgment on the impious
attempt. The Anglo-Saxon Church gradually prevailed upon the neighbor-
ing churches to place themselves under the guardianship of Rome, for the
people seemed to think it rather hazardous to prefer Columba to Peter, when
the latter held the keys of heaven, (ft) The pope was regarded with the
highest veneration among the Franks^ but his power was conflned to remon-
strances and intercessions except when the kings found it for their interest to
make it appear greater, (e) But when Pipin grasped after the imperial
authority, he knew of no better way to silence the scruples of the Franks
respecting the oath which they had sworn to their legitimate king, than to
obtain a declaration from Pope Zacharias that whoever possessed the power
should have also the name of the king (750). (d) From that time all the
a) CftpU. Franco/, a. TM. c 28. ( WalUr Th. IL p. lia)
V) Gregor. Tur. H. Franc VI, 46.
c) Bonif. Ep. 72. {WUrdtw. p. 194.) JTlncmar. Rem. ad Lndov. German. (TTottw, Th. ni.]x85.)
a) SehoUi lIUp. Ulnrtrata. FrcC 1608. f. Th. IL p. 62. Th. IV. p. 69.
h) Beda, II. ooc. Ill, 25.
o) Ortg. Tur. H. Franc V, 21. cC VII, 89.
d) Fredeg. Chron. appendix. {BovquHTh. II. p. 460. comp. Th. V. p. 9.) AnnaL Laurim. ad
a. 749. {Perta Th. L p. 186.)— «/: O. LoeheU^ de CAQsia regni Francor. a MeroYlngis ad CaroUngot
translatL Bou. 18U 4.
CHAP.il ECCLES.LAW. fieaCLEBOT. iUL TAP AL TOWER. 173
Garolingians thought it host to exalt the dignity of those on whom the law-
fnlness and sacredness of their own crown depended. The German Church
was from its very origin in a state of dependence upon Rome, and in its first
eynod (743) all its hishops swore ohedience to the pope, (e) Boniface endea-
vored to bring the Oallican Church under the same regulation, hut as its
bishops possessed not much zeal for the general Ohurch and great political
power, his success was by no means complete. Great efforts were made to
convince the metropolitans that the pallium was indispensable to the com-
pleteness of their power. But when Boniface complained that it was con-
ferred at Rome for money, Zacharias called it a calumny to say that the Ro-
man see would sell what had been bestowed upon it as a gift by the Holy
Ghost. (/)
§ 161. Secular Power of the Pope.
Codex Carolinut. {Cenni^ Monn. domlnatlonis roDtlficiac. Bom. ITGOsi 2 Th. 4.)— II. Orti dell*
crifine del dominio e della 8overaDlt& degll rom. Pont Bom. 1754. SabbathUr^BnrYoiif^ne do la puia-
MMe temporelle dea Papea. Ilaye. 1765. J. R. Becker ^ &. d. Zeitp. der VerfiDdr. in der Oberh. &. Bom*
]M. 17€9. Compi J. v. MaUer, Werke. 188& Th. 20.
As late as the middle of the eighth century a governor was placed by the
emperor over the exarchate and the city of Rome. But in the latter the
ictual power was in the hands of the pope as the head of an aristocratic mu-
nicipal government. The Longobards conquered the exarchate and threat-
ened an attack upon Rome. In vain was protection sought from Constanti-
nople, and Stephen IL in the name of St. Peter culled upon the King of the
Franks, whom he had anointed, for aid. In two campaigns (754-5) Pipin
repelled the Longobards, and as the Roman Patricius he committed to the
pope the provinces which the exarch had governed, (a) alleging that the
Franks had shed their blood not for the Greeks but for St. Peter, and for the
good of their own souls. Charles the Great having by systematic measures de-
stroyed the kingdom of the Longobards (after 778), confirmed and enlarged
the donation which his father had made, and on Pec. 25, 800, laid the deed
▼hich secured the whole on the tomb of the apostles. By this means the
Ung effected his purpose, which was to gain a powerful ally in Italy, and the
pope became a ruler over a considerable territory and its inhabitants. Ho
▼as however obliged to acknowledge a lord paramount with indefinite
powers above himself, (h) and was so much harassed by the factious strifes
of the more i>owerful families, that he became continually dependent upon
the protection of the King of the Franks.
§ 162. Charles the Great. 768-814.
I Aonala, Capitularies (before $ 147) & Letteia in the Codex CarolInoBL Elnhard^ Tita KarolL
{.hru Th. IL pi 42d. 4( Ilan. 1880. 0pp. ed. A. Teulet, Tar. lS40-a 2 Th.) Leben a. Wandel Karls
^ 0. T. Eiohard. EinL Urscbr. ErluoL Urkondensamml s. J. L. Ideler. Hamb. 1889. Manachtie
SngaUeHtU, (Anecdotes) degeatis Karoli {PerU Th. IL p. 726.) Poetae Saxoni^ AnnaL de gcbtls
«) Boni/: EpL 78. ( Witrdtw. p. 179.) /) Zaeh, ad BoniC ( WUrdhe. p. 148&)
a) ShrpA. ad. Pip. a. 7ML (C^n^Th. L p.70.) b) Sinhard, Ann. k 796.
174 ANCIENT CnUBClI IIISTORT. PER IL OEBMANIC CHUECU. A. D. 81»-80a
Oar. (Mhnim Scrr. ran BnuiBT. Th. L p. 120.) ffdptriei (Angllberti) CatoL H. et Leo Fapa» ed.
OrMt^ Tor. 1832.
II. K. Dippold, Leben K Karls. Tab. 18ia Bredow, K. Karl. Altona. 1914. Capefigne^ Cbari*-
magne. Par. 1&42. 2 Th.-^ O. Walch, Hist canonisatlonis Car. M. Jen. ll^.^PHUter, de instaorat
Imp. Kom. GutL 1766flw 10 P. 4. [O. P. H. Janus, life of C Lond. 1847. A New York. 1848.]
The grand objects to which Charles the Great devoted his life were, the
union of all the German nations under his sway, and the establishment of
civilization among them. He favored and governed tlie Church because it
was a school for the improvement of his people. He was careful to main*
tain the same respect for the popes which his father had shown, and he even
increased their power, but kept them in a state of dependence upon himself.
For Hadrian /. he entertained a strong personal attachment. Leo III (after
705) sought refuge in his court from the ill treatment inf icted by a Koman
faction, cleared himself by an oath from the crimes imputed to him, and was
reinstated by the power of the king. In gratitude for this kindness, and pro*
fessing to act under divine inspiration, the pope, on Christmas day 800, placed
the imperial crown of Home upon the king's head, while the people ex-
claimed, " Health and victory to Carolus Augustus, crowned of God I " By
this ceremony, no actual increase of power was directly acquired, but the
monarch became invested with an augmented dignity in the eyes of the peo-
ple, and his authority in the West became sacred. It was only a thought,
but the world is governed more by thoughts than by swords. By this re-
newal of the empire in the West the pope recognized a master, but all men
saw that this master was of his own creation.
CHAP. III. — ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
§ 1C3. Religious Spirit of the People,
The innocence of a rude and powerful nation was soon corrupted by Ro-
man vices, the new pleasures soon became necessities of life, and to obtain
them the energies of the people were employed in violence. The lives of the
Merovingian princes were filled with murders, adulteries, and incests. But
just as these children of nature were suddenly made acquainted with a cor-
rupt civilization, Christianity was fdso introduced among them, and preserved
in the minds of the people a love for more exalted objects, but accelerated
the period in which the national advancement was interrupted. It pervaded
even the German language, not merely by the naturalization of Greek and
Latin ecclesiastical terms, but by giving a Christian signification to original
Gennan expressions, (a) The relation of the people to Christ was conceived
of by them as that of faithful vassals to a mighty leader (Gefolgsherrn). If
the mysterious spectacles, miracles, and legends of the Church did not always
reform the people, they at least produced some regreta for the past and some
anxiety for the future. But superstition soon supplied them with arts bj
which they could cunningly escape her own guardianship. The peijurer
a) JZl «. Baumer ($ 147) eapeclallf in tbe 8 booka, pu STSbb.
CHAP. IIL SOCLES. LIFE. iieS, COMMON LIFE. $161 DISCIPLINE. 175
cored himself by relios against the Tengeanoe of heaven, and the hired assas-
nn consoled himself with the reflection that whatever might occur in his
bloody coarse, he would have means to purchase the masses needfol for his
nlvation. The virtnes on which the Church most insisted were liberality,
hospitality, fidelity in the pajrment of tithes and offerings, and an accurate
knowledge of the creed and the Lord's prayer. The liberty which the Grer-
mans had always exercised of divorcing themselves from their wives on the
repayment of dower was abolished, and marriage was regarded as indissolu-
Me, except by mutual consent for sacred purposes, or on account of adultery,
oon^iracy against life, banishment, or bodily infirmity on the part of the
wife, (h) The Church and the new government contended against those
remnants of heathenism which still adhered to the &ith or practice of the
people, as : the exposure of children, the burning of corpses, the old sanctu-
iries by fountains, in the lofty forest and in the stone circle, wooden repre-
wntations of bodily organs as votive offerings, images of gods dried in ovens
or highly ornamented, the use of horseflesh, haunted places, watch-fires, rain-
makiDg, sacred lots, death-charms, love potions, the use of wooden images to
effect the death of those they represent, magical predictions, and witchcraft
of aU kinds, (e) The less objectionable portions of the ancient were gradu-
ally incorporated with the Christian faith, legends of the gods were trans-
formed into legends of saints, recollections of the former deities were so
changed as to become a basis for a belief in magic, in leagues with the devil,
and in violent assaults from him. A pleasant recollection was also retained
for the silent people of the elves, and the wonderful gifts of the fairies. Or-
deals were at first tolerated by the Church, then opposed, and finally used for
its own purposes. A presentiment of the approach of the last day which
lometimes comes up before us in this period, was suggested merely by those
Bomans who thought that the overthrow of the empire and the terrible na-
tkmal migrations were signals of that event, (d)
§ 164. Feehsiastieal DUeipline,
The discipline of the Church was much opposed by the German people on
the ground that it was inconsistent with their liberties. It was finally en-
fwoed in the eighth century, at least among the conmion people, by the Sy-
iMdal courts^ which were accommodated to the popular feelings of private
rights. In the course of each year the bishop or his arch-deacon held his
oout in every important place within his jurisdiction, in which honorable
niea chosen from the congregation acted as a jury to decide upon the case of
those who were accused. This inquisitorial process, which took cognizance
Bot only of ecclesiastical but of many civil offences, was an indispensable
addition to the easy proceedings of former times, when every offence was
it<iDed for by a legal fine adapted to the simple manners of the people. The
Polities now inflicted were scourging, fasting, prohibition of marriage, and
») CapUuL a. 752. c. 0. 9. iWalUr Th. IL p. 88as.) Greg. IL ad BonlC o. S. {Manti Th. XIL
c) IfeiaJlj iDdlenloa BapetBtitionain (g 14a)
^ Grtfcrii M. L XL Epi M. Grtg, Twr, TL FnuM. Prologon
176 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOBT. FEB. IL GERMANIC CHURCH. A. D. 8M-«)QL
an imprisonment, which for the heavier offences was severe and sometimes
for life, (a) None but private offences voluntarily disclosed in the confes-
sional were allowed to be atoned for according to the former custom by &
fine. In such cases the money belonged to the poor, and the Ohurch always
suffered under the imputation that she allowed the rich to sin freely and yet
gave them the hope of heaven, (b) Confession to a priest was looked upon
as beneficial but not indispensable to salvation, (e) Excommunication was
not common, and was therefore the more dreaded. Although the bishops
had obtained a law which connected civil death with excommunication, it
was understood that such a result would not take place without the consent
of the king. By this means the bishops were obliged to pay great respect to
the intercession of the king or of persons of distinction, (d)
§ 165. Morals of the Clergy^ and Cananieal Life,
As the bishops were generally selected irom the royal retinue, and the
clergy were sometimes oven slaves and servilely dependent upon their supe-
riors, bishoprics were often obtained by purchase or by fiattery, (a) and the
clergy were in continual danger of becoming quite secularized or degraded in
ignorance. Tlie laws against the marriage of clergymen were frequently re-
newed, but marriage was as common amoug them as adultery and lewdness.
What was called mere fondling was expressly declared to be innocent, (h)
For every act and degree of drunkenness a precise form of punishment was
carefully prescribed, (c) The laws forbade the servants of God to bear the
sword, but neither law nor shame could prevent what custom and feudal duty
required. Many a valiant bishop never knew peace till he slept on the battle
field. The authority of the Church was sufficient to make a clergyman hon-
orable on account of the sacredness of his office, but many a layman was
clever enough to take advantage of the solemn dulness of his bishop, (d) In
a series of synods (after 742) Boniface endeavored to rectify the underical
manners and the misgovernment which prevailed in the Frankish Church, by
demanding of the clergy a peculiar ecclesiastical character and monastio
habits, and that he might secure these he revived the old institution of pro-
vincial synods. Chrodegang of Me& gave to the clergy of his episcopal
church the conventual rule which required a life in common (about 760). (e)
Augustine was held up as an example, and the founder of this kind of life,
a) Capit a. 769. c 7. {Walter Th. IL p. 548.) a. 818. c. 1. {Ibid. p. 261.) This amngement
of an older date. For information respecting the proceedings, see Sittenspiegel der Zeit, flrat in J2#-
gino^ de disc eco. II, 2s8. {Hanhem. Th. IL p. Wla.)
b) Cone Clovtahovian, a. 747. c. 26& {ManH Th. XIL p. 4088.) Comp. Homiliade haerettdapoo*
cata Tcndentlbus. {MabiUon^ Mnseum Italicum, Th. I. P. II. p. 27.)
c) Capit. Theodiiifi Aurelianens. c 80. {Jifansi Th. XIIL p. 1001.) Comp. Cone. CdbUonenm^
818. can. 88. {ManH Th. XIV. p. 100.)
d) Cone Paria. a. 615. c 8. {Walter Th. IL p. 14.)
a) Oregor. Tur. Yitae patram. c 6. $ 8. Hist Frana IV, 85. A multitude of hiatorlea in Vbit
Monachiu SangalUnsU.
h) Gregorii IIL can. 6. {Mansi Th. XIL p. 290.) e) Ibid. can. 8.
</) E. 6. the \rag in SangaU. L 20. {PerU Th. IL p. 789.)
e) Ckrodtg. KeguU in ManH Th. XIY. p. 81888. Paulua ZHae. Gest Episc. Meteosliim. (.
Th. IL p. 2678.) Comp. ThomoMini yet et nova eoa diao. P. L L IIL c. 2-9.
CHAP. m. BOCLSa. LIFEL {lA^ CANONIOL flM. WOBSHIP. 177
wMdi wu called oanonioal, because it was regulated by sacred laws. The
mm^niei Hved, eat and slept in common, under the direct supervision of the
bishop. Their derotions commenced long before day, and were regulated by
a peculiar system of canonical hours. They were not prohibited the posses-
non of prlYate property, but their support was provided for \fy the bishop,
ovt of the ecclesiastical reyenues. Under the fiavor of the Garolingian kings
fluB system was adopted in most of the Grerman churches.
§ 166. Publie Wanhip.
Ordo Enauuias de dtr. oflleiis (Sth cent) Amalarli^ Choreplsc Motensf^ <le div. oflldlfl I. IV.
0tf-ST.) Sabani Mauri da derioonun InsUt et cereinoniis eoc. 1. IIL (619) & de saciis ordlnibi
fwinwtfte dir. at rettimentU Moerd. GollcotlTeljr in: De div. oath. £oe. officlls varii vett Pfttram
ae £>crr. libri, ed. HUtorpiw. (Col 1568l) Par. 1610. t
As the Church had been formed under the Roman empire, it retained
many Roman usages. Its services were in Latin, though preachiug was al«
ways in the language of the people. The British Church protested against
the peculiarities introduced by the Roman clergy. They defended their own
practice of shaving only the front part of the head, in opposition to the Ro-
man tonsure, by appealing to the example of Paul (tonsura Pauli). Columba,
when contending with Gregory the Great, defended a mode of reckoning
Easter which was different from that used at Rome, {a) Charles the Great
mtrodooed the Gregorian liturgy into the new churches fonned in the em*
pire, and invited singers from Rome, to whom the sacred music of the Ger-
mans seemed like the bowlings of wild beasts. The organ, however, was
miieh improved in Germany, (b) The solemn pomp of such a worship was the
most impressive way of addressing the robust feelings of an uneducated people.
The propensity of the age for magical arts was gratified and strengthened by
tbe numerous miracles performed by dead and living saints, the various ao-
coonts of which originated more frequently in the fancies of the people than
in the cunning policy of the priests. A new festival caUed the Assumption
•f the Virgin Mary was introduced, and was celebrated on the fifteenth of
Angast (e) An appearance of the archangel Michael was, after Gregory ^s
time, celebrated in Rome, but the decided preference shown for this festival
by tl»e Germanic churches was owing to the chivalrous character usuolly as-
cribed to this celestial prince, (d) In France St, Martin was honored as a Saviour
nd an Aesculapius, until the writings ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite
▼ere tent to Pipin, and revived the memory of a Dionysius who had been
Bcntioned as a bishop of Paris among the martyrs in the time of Decius. As
tbis litter Dionysius was confounded with him who was contemporary with
?«1, 8t, Denyi became henceforth the war-cry of France. (< ) The Spaniards
<) Grtgcr. JT L IX. Ep. 187. comp. Beda^ H. eec III, 4
&) AnmaL JMen*. ad. a. 757. Joan. YIII. Ep. a. 872. ad Annonem. (Man$i Th. XVII. p. 845.)
^ IMr«, doaM, and final confidence: KpijA. baer. 7& 11. Gelaaii Deeret {Oratian : P. L D.
^^- 1 i 1 8fii) Gregor. Tur. de gloria Martyr. I, 4
<) Batb^rUn, BeleeU de Mleh. Archangelo. Ulmtt 1759. 4.
*) Both Mdnts are alreadj oonftnnded in : Acta DionTiil (beginning of the 9th eent Acta BB. m.
^ IK IV. p. 79SML) and HUduini (abbot of St Denya about 884.) Vita et paasio Dionys. (Areop«-
HUei. Id. JK OaUnu*, CoL 1568.)
12
178 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOBY. PEE. IL GEEMANIC CHUBCH. A. D. 819-aoa
mado a knightly saint of the elder James^ who, after his body had been found
at Oompostella (791-842), was extolled as the apostle of Spain, and the patron
of its armies against the Saracens. The surest proof of the power and sanc-
tity of these patron saints was yietory. The Frankish empire became slightly
involved in the controversy respecting images. The dear judgment of Charlei
the Great soon decided against all image- worship, and a treatise, published
under his own name, (/) set forth in opposition to the decrees of the second
sjmod of Nicaea that God could be worshipped only in spirit. The same
view was expressed at the Synod of Frarikfort (794) and of Faru (825) with
an open censure of Adrian's treatise in favor of image-worship. But as this
opposition did not extend to the destruction of the images, a hope was enter-
tained and expressed in these acts that a reconcfliation might yet be effected
between the Greek and Roman churches, (g) The popes found it convenient
to treat this heresy among the Franks more mildly than the same sentiments
among the Greeks.
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL SCIENCJE.
§ 167. Fresertation of Literature.
Every thing in the primitive church had a primary reference to some type
in the Old Testament. The Gothic version of the Bible does not seem to have
found its way into other German tribes, but fragments of translations of dif-
ferent books of the Bible existed in several German languages, and even in
the Anglo-Saxon. Remnants of Roman literature were preserved among the
clergy as a kind of literary acquisition even to the age of Augustine, but the
classic authors were enjoyed only by stealth. In the stormy period of the
popular migrations, literary education was continued in Spain and in the
British islands. In the former country there was a literary rivalry between
the Catholics and the Western Goths, who had now become interested in the
study of Grecian learning. Among these Goths, Isidore^ Archbishop of
Hispalis (Seville, 595-686), was particularly influential in behalf of the politi-
cal power of the Church, a moderate monastic life, and Christian kindnen
toward the Jews, and was an eminent example of that ecclesiastical learning
which was not only mistress of all secular knowledge, but^ by collecting the
works of ancient authors, secured the inheritance of antiquity, (a) The pre-
dominance of the Roman element renders it difficult to trace the prooen
by which a transition was made to that which was more decidedly Germanio.
In the Islands a degree of learning was maintained in consequence of the
rivalry between the British and the Anglo-Saxon churches, and the intimate
/) Lihri Carolini, a. 790. od. Eli. PhilL 1549. Ileumann^ Han. 1781. (Golda$t Imper. Deer. p. 67.)
g) Cone. Franco/, can. 2. (JfanH Th. XIIL p. 909.) Cane, Paris, ad Ludov. (lb. Th. XIV.
p. 415s.) [Landon, p. 252flw & 4Cls.]
a) Eccles. Literature, Liturgy, Explanations of laws and treatises, General history, history of Ger-
manic nations and etymological encyclopedia. 0pp. ed.J.du SretU^ Par. 1601. t F. Grial^ Matrit 1778L
2 Th. t F. Arevalwu Rom. 17978S. 7 Th. 4 Cknnp. BraulionU Praenotatio libronun & laldori Ib
Oudin^ Commtr. de Scrr. eoc Th. L p. 158i.
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. SCIENCE. $ 167. BEDR S 16S. ALCUIN. 179
coQDection which the latfer kept np with Rome. Theodore^ a native of Tar-
itif and Archbishop of Canterbury (668-90), diffused in England a knowledge
of the Greek language and literatare. From this school proceeded the Vene-
mble Jkde^ a monk of Tarrow, who was honored as the representative of all
the knowledge possessed in his time, and was a faithful teacher as well as
kamer to the lost moment of his life (785). {h)
§ 168. Scientific Education under the CaroUngians.
C n. tan Herutrden^ de lis, qnae a Car. M. tnm ad pro)>ag. rel chr. turn ad emendandain ejas-
dem ducendi ratlonem acta sunt L. B. 1.S25. A. F. Lortnia^ Alculns Lebcn. Hal. 1S29. J. C. F. Aieftr^
Gctcb. d. rum. Literntuiim karoling. Zeltalter. Carlar. 1S40.
In the Frankish Church some interest was created by Boniface in the lite-
rature of his uativo land, and he appears to have taken ])ains to improve the
Jargon in which the Latin baptismal formula was uttered by the ignorant Ba-
varian priests. But even he regarded the belief in the antipodes as a
heresy, (a) Charles the Great conversed in Latin, understood the Greek, and
in the circle of his learned friends laid aside his crown ; but his hand was
more accustomed to the sword, and began to form written characters late in
life with extreme difficulty. Even the tales and heroic songs then current
imong the people, but which being neglected by the Church were passing
into oblivion, he vainly attempted to preserve. His own education had been
derived from Itidy, and the few men of learning to whom he could intrust
his plan of popular education were either from the same country or from Eng-
land. Among these was Alcnin, (h) at an earlier period a canon and a su-
perintendent of the convent-school of York and an abbot at Tours (d. 804)^
t pious, intelligent, and active man, but possessed of only ordinary natural
tilents. He conducted a school in the palace itself (schola palatina), and by
its means established other schools of learning for the seven liberal arts (tri-
liom and qnadrivium) in the cathedrals and convents throughout the em-
pire. (<r) Popular schools were also founded in his own diocese by l^eodulf,
Kihop of Orleans (d. 821). A collection of sermons selected from the writ-
fcgs of the fathers was formed under the direction of the emperor by Paul
the Deacon for an example to the clergy rather than for ordinary reading, (d)
Bat all this literary improvement was not a direct growth of the popular life,
hot ft foreign importation. Hence even the writings of the first men of the
age seldom exhibit the fresh living spirit of the people. On the other hand
^Sbai prose and verse are written in an unnatural, clumsy style, indicating
that the whole was only a remnant of a decayed civilization, except where it
inmediately reflected the purely practical life and struggles of society in let-
I) Cocnoie&tarj, Ilomiliea, Letters, Hifltories, Onunmar, Aatronomy. Opi>. Baa. 8 Th. t Col 16^
4TkC «L <rtfe«, Lond. 1848. 5 Tb. [Ilto eccL Illftt A the Sax. ChroiL are transL by Oilft, Lond.
UA U] CuUterti Vlu Bedae Yen. (prefixed to 0pp.) If. Oehle^ de Bedae V. vita et scrlptis. Lngd.
•) A«</. Epi 61 (W'irdftc. p.«4«.)-Ep.82. (/6.P.28S8.)
I) Commentaiy, Ilo^1iIle^ dogm., moral pblLf A astronom. treatlB^, Uvea of the saints, poems, di
■Pitt cpistlea. Opp. ed. Frob&nius, Batlsb. 1778b. 2 Tb. £
«) Conp Vtil. Schmidt, la notes to Petri AlfimH Discipl. derlcalla. Bcr. 1S27. 1 p. lOtaw
^ Homlllarlom. Spir. 14S2. Ba& 1498. £ h often.
180 ANCIENT GUUBCH HISTORY. PER. IL GERliANIO OHUBCH. A. D. nS^WK
ten of businefls and in laws. Such foreign nngraoefol forms in whioh the
newly awakened spirit attempted to clothe itself, seemed like the tattered
garments of the European on the stately son of the forest.
§ 169. AdaptionisU,
L Elipandi Ep. ad Fidelem. a. 785. BeaU^AEIheHi adv. Elfjx L IL {GaUand. Tb. XIIL) AU
culntts : adv. Elip. 1. L £p. ad F^licem A adv. Fel I. YIL (principally in Froben.)—
II Fr. Walch, Ilist Adoptiaaor. Ooett 1735. Frobmii Da. do haer. Elip. et Felic (0pp. Alcaini
Th. I. p. 928.)
Blipandtis, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, Bishop of Urgel, carried out
the Nestorion doctrine to its extreme results, and maintained that Christ was
the Son of God in his human nature, only by adoption, and consequently
that there could be no proper union of his divine and human attributes.
Though this Adoptionism was condemned at the Synod of Frankfort (794) it
exalted itself against the authority of the Church ; but at the Synod of Aix-
la-Chapelle (799) Felix, whose diocese was in the Spanish March, and there-
fore subject to Charles the Great, was persuaded by Aleuin to recant his
opinions. Although this retraction was insincere, or at least not adhered to,
and Elipandus, who lived under the protection of the Saracens, was especially
violent in his opposition, the controversy was too little consonant with the •
spirit of the times to survive its original authors.
MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY.
THIRD PERIOD.
FEOM CHABLES TO INNOCENT III.
-•-^^
§ 170. General View and Authorities,
L $ 147 A S US. 1) CanUii Lectlones antiqaao (Injrolst 1601.) Ed. Bamage, Antn. 1725. 4 ▼. £
l^Ackery^ yett. Scrr. Spicllegium. Par. (1658) Ed. de la Barre, 1728. 8 t. C Balutii Mlsccllaoea.
(Pv. 1^&) Ed. Man9t Lnc. 1761. 4 Tb. £ MabiUon^ vett Analecta. Par. 1728. t Marine et Durand :
TbM. Dorns Anecdotor. Par. 1717. 6 t. C Jc vett. Scrr. et MonQin. Ck>L ampllm. Par. 17248&. 9 v. f.
ite,Thc&. Aneodotor. Aug. Vind. 1721. 6 v. C— Regesta regam atqae Impp. Rom. Orlg. Docc of the
£oman Emperors from 911 to 1818 In extracts, with References, by Boehmtr. FrkC 1831. 4. Boeh-
twr, sbowing the Imperial laws firom 900 to 1400. FrkC 1S32. 4—3) Ann<iUif FuldensM by contem-
pmrles 88S-901. {PtrU Th. L p. 861.) BeHiniani 885-6S2 by Prudentiua of Troyes dc Ulncmar
of Bhelmflw {PerU Th. L p^ 419.) Bfffino, Abbot of Pruom, d. 915, Ghronicon, documentary S70-907.
cont till 967. {Peris Th. L p. 537.) Flodoard^ canon at Rhelms d. 966. AnnaIe^ 919-66. {PerU Th.
v. p. 868.) Lindprtmd^ Bp. at Cremona, d. 972, Antapodoeis I. Y L Jc de rebus geatls Otton M. (PerU
Th. V. p. 264.) WiducMnd^ monk of Corvey, d. about 1000, Annalee de reb. Saxonum gestia. ( Wei-
^om. Tb. L p. 629. oomp. LeihnU, Th. 1. p. 20S.) Thietmar^ Bp. of Mersebarg. d. 1018. Ghronicon,
Ust rf the Sax. Empp. (ed. J. A. Wagner^ Nor. 1807. 4. Lappenherg In P«rto Th. V. p. 723.) Her'
■MaAM Coniractwt^ monk of Relchenan, d. 1054, Chron. fh>m Christ, but esp. 1000-^ cont by Ber-
AoMm of Relchenaa till 1080, extracts & continuation by Bemoldua of & Blaise till 1100. (Perti
Th. YII, 67. 26L) Lamberttu Scka/naburgensis, a monk of Ilersfeld, do rob. gcstis Germ. 1039-77.
iVrbTh. TIL p. 134.) MarHanu9 Scotus, a monk of Cologne, Fnlda & Mentz, d. 1086, Chronia till
lAS2,cont by Abbot Z>ocf0cA^ntf« till 1200. {Peris Th. VII. p. 481.) Sigehertue GemblacenHs, d.
1111, COOL hy ffieronymi Chronicon, 881-1111. (PerUTh. VIII. p. 26a) Otto FHHngeru. d. 1168,
Oma. remm ab initio mundi ad ann. 1146 gestar. L VIII. cont. by Otto ds K Blasio UII 1209!
rMermann Th. IL p. 449.) Chronicon Urspergense^ till 1126 by a monk of Bamberg, cont by Bur-
cbard k Conrad of Lichtenau, Abbots of Urspcrg, till 1229. (Argentor. 537. 609. f ) Chronica regia
& & Pantaleoni* by monks of the conrent of 8. Pantaleon at Cologne, 1000, 1106, iSc 1162. (Eccard
Th. L pL 6S8.) cont by Godefridu^ a monk of the same place till 1237. {Freh^r Th. L p. 835.—
3) Adamnt Brementia^ after 1067 a canon of Bremen, Oesta Hammenburgensis Ecc Pontificum, till
WT4 (Ed. Lappenberg in Pert» Th. IX. p. 267. Uebera. m. Anm. t. Carsten Jfieeegaea. Brm. 1S25.)
OieHcut VUaUe, a monk of St Eyroul, d. after 1142. Blst ecc. 1. XIII. till 1142.) [The Eoclea.
BM. of Eogl by Od. Vit has been transl. and puM. by Bohn. Lond. 1854] l>u Chctn^ ScripU.
KonnaBQ. Par. 1619. t p. 819. According to the more correct French text by Dubois, Par. lS25ss.
^^) 4) Continaators of Theophanes : Joanna Skylitxa 811-1037 & lOSl. Jo8. (r^M^tM 818-47,
^ Diaconus till 975, Simeon Logotheta till 967, Leo Orammatieus UU 1018, Geo. Cedrenus till 1067.
l^tdiAttaUota,Ut)m 1066 to 1078] Jo. Zemnrn^ till lllS, iV7c«to« Acominatut till 1206, Geo. Aero-
P^^ tin 1261. (Uiat Byzant Scrr. Par. 164580. 42 Th. t Corpus Scrr. Uist Byzant Bonn. lS28sa.)-
n. pi 1147.
The plans which Oharles the Great had began to execute with so much
Ti(dence and hope were -apparently quite abandoned by his saccessors. But
182 MEDIAEVAL CnUBCH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-m«.
the Church, though externally shaken, secretly nourished its higher life and
imparted Roman civilization to Germanic energy and profundity. Accord-
ingly in the tenth century when both the hierarchy and ^q feudal m&narchy
became strong, and when men no longer relied upon mere physical force, but
contended with a youthful and romantic enthusiasm for honor, love, and
faith, the church naturally became the supreme power of the age, because it
was the educator of the people, and held in its hands all the treasures of spi-
ritual grace for earth and heaven. Whenever it entered the lists against mere
brute force it was of course defeated, but it always held the first place in the
hearts of the people. Under these circumstances the power of the pope so
much increased that he was looked upon as the head of the Church, and the
representative of its spiritual power, in contrast with the imperial govern-
ment. Evejy pope who understood his position must have felt that he was
the protector of political freedom and the deliverer of all who were op-
pressed. The Germanic people became divided into different nations, and
indeed every estate, every city, and every corporation endeavored to become
independent. But the common connection of all nations and orders with the
papacy united them together as one great Christian family, in whose general
enterprises all distinctions were forgotten and national peculiarities were dis-
regarded. The prominent thing, therefore, in the history of this period, is the
development of the papacy until its influence extends to every thing elSe, and
around it are grouped all the ecclesiastical relations of the Western world.
The north-eastern part of Europe was now generally converted to Christian-
ity. In the East, the great conflict with the West between the hosts of Islam
and those of the Cross was just enkindled, but the Oriental Church was only
passively involved in it, and the only reason we recollect her sluggish exist-
ence was her dependence upon more active agents. — Almost every generation
of this period is represented by its own chroniclers, who wrote a history of
the world from a position more or less of an ecclesiastical character. Many
of them commence with the creation of man, or at least with the birth of
Christ ; but the ages preceding their own were described by writers like them-
selves, and every chronicle and every section of it is an original authority
only where it contains some earlier documents, or records some contempora-
neous event. Few of them were written by a single individual, but most of
them were the common property of a whole convent, on which several gene-
rations were employed as original authors or revisers. Those most worthy
of our notice are : Liudprand, who gives a dark coloring even to dark pas-
sages of history, and although his bitterest expressions are no calumnies, he is
sometimes not very exact, and with reference to Italian aflfairs he displays too
much passion, (a) The German history of Lambert of Ilersfeld is just such
a picture of society as might be expected from a pious monk who had
made a pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre, and looked out upon the world and
his nation from the small stained window of his cell. Sighert of Gembloun^
though a monk and enthusiastic for ecclesiastical sanctity, represents the em-
peror's cause against the pope, and indicates the approach of a time when
a) Martini, Denkschr. d. Akad. z. Manohen. 1809. Hist Claase. p. Sob, R A. Ko^pke^ de Tlta M
BcripUs Uadp. Ber. 1843.
CHAI». I. PAPACY. S 172. DONATION OF C0N8TANTINB. 183
sacb conflicts of piety and patriotism were common, (b) Otho of Freisingen^
the unde and the historian of the emperor Frederic, in the spirit of an eccle-
fliastioal prince, familiar with the world in its highest stations, and mediating
between the sword and the crosier, wrote a history of the world and of his
times, as if it were a tragedy ending with the final Judgment. Adam of
Bremen^ living at the centre of the great northern bishopric over which he
presided, with considerahle historical skill relates the history of the Northern
Chnrch at its establishment, according to original records, traditions, and per-
sonal recollections, (e) If in these contemporary writers the sentiments and
snperstition of the age is clearly reflected, we have in the Byzantine histo-
rians a more elegant and learned picture of their own court, and some occa-
sional notices of the Western Barharians, like faint yistas of another age.
CHAP. I.— GENERAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAPACY.
L AnattaHtu (S ISa) Martinv PoUmui (d. 1278), Chronioon. CoL 1618. £— IL a Hl^fUr^ d.
dMitsehen Pftpste. Segensb. 1889. Sd ptft
§ 171. General View.
Until the time of Gregory^ the papacy contended for dominion over the
Cbnreh, not so mnch because the popes themselves were amhitiotis to acquire
it, as because the necessities of the times and of those who understood them
compelled them to do so. The vicegerent of God on earth, in the midst of
the distractions which took place in Italy, often had not where he could
securely lay his head ; and even when the party which sustained him was
victorious, his office as the successor of St. Peter was little more than a good
benefice. But after Gregory's time, the struggle for the freedom and ascend-
ency of the Church was in many respects changed. The power of the
Chnrch was then estahlished on the hroad hasis of a territorial possession,
and by that very process it had entered the territory and intruded upon the
province of the state. Hence the stmggle hetween the imperial and the
papal power now became inevitahle, and could not be hrought to an issue
Tvithont a sacrifice. From its more perfect x>ower over the higher nature of
man, the papacy was triumphant, but the Church gained nothing hy the vic-
tory, the vital interests of the state were seriously injured, and accordingly
the conflict between the two was not terminated.
§ 172. Donation of ConsUntine in the Ninth Century.
Although the pope was the emperor's vassal, and chosen under the impe-
rial dictation, (a) he was nevertheless honored hy each emperor as a spiritual
5) 5. JIir$chj de Sig. Oemb. vita et scriptis. Ber. 1341.
e) Jac. AMmuMen^ de fontibns Adami Brem. Kilon. 1834. 4 Lappenhurg in Portz Archiy. voL
VLP.Ca.
a) £ g. YiU Lnd. Pii per Attronomum c. 85s. (Pert» Th. II. p. 619a.) Leo IV. Lotbaria {Ora^
Uan, : P. L Dist X. c. 9.) The spurioosness of the constitution in wbicli Lonla the Pioos resumes
tlM right of enflfirage to the Romans (817) : F. Walch^ Censnra dlplomati^ quod Lad. Plus Paschall
eoDoetsliie fiertar. Lpa. 1749. {PiAtU Bylloge, Th. YI. p. S7a) Marino Marini, naoTo esame dell'aa-
tentldtA de dlplomi di Lad. P., Ottone L e. Arrigo II. Bom. 1828.
184 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCH UISTOBY. PER. IIL A. D. SOO-ISIA.
&ther, from whose hand the crown was received. But during the reign of
the weak-minded Louis the Pions, and the contentions of his sons for the
throne, the popes gradually withdrew from nnder the authority of the empe-
rors, and the hestowal of the crown appeared rather as an act of special
favor. Gregory /F., however (827-44), gave such offence by his interfere
ence in these disputes, that the Frankish bishops threatened to depose
him. (P) As the recollection that the secular power of the pope was the gift
of the German princes became rather inconvenient, the story was started
that Omstantine the Great had given Rome and Italy to Pope Syhetter^ and
that this was the reason that the imperial capital had been removed to Con-
stantinople. The political power of the pope had unquestionably been occa-
sioned by that removal, and by merely substituting a direct intention of the
emperor for what was the gradual result of circumstances, the story acquired
considerable plausibility, and finally was confirmed by the fortunate discov-
ery of what claimed to be the original deed of gift by Ck>nstantine. (c) AH
this, however, did not prevent the emperor who appointed the pope and the
bishops, from prescribing laws for the Church, and governing it according to
his own views rather than theirs, whenever the empire was free from inter-
nal distractions. Even the relaxation of political power which took place
while the Carolingian princes contended with each other, was the occasion of
licentiousness rather than of liberty among the clergy, and exposed them to
the oppression of their secular masters.
§ 173. Pseudo'Isidare.
Cou*tantf de antiq. cann. Coll (Epp. Pontif. Bom. p. LYI. $ la) Ballerini (Oppi Leon. Th. m.
p. CCXVsa.) Bland Com. de Col cann. Isld. Merc. Neap. 1760. 4. {GallandU Syll Mog. 1790. TIl
n. p. I.) J. A. Ttuiner, de P. Isid. cann. Col. Yrat 1S27. F. IT. Knutt, de fontib. ot consilio pten-
doisldoriajiae. Col Ooett 1882. 4.
The collection bearing the name of Isidore came to light at intervahi
much mutilated, and besides some later portions with nearly one hundred
spurious decretab professing to have been put forth by different popes from
the time of Clement I. (91) to that of Damasus I. (884). (a) In these enaot-
monts is presented a legal condition, in which the clergy were entirely dit-
connected with the state, and by the dissolution of the metropolitan and
synodal courts, the supreme legislative, supervisory and judicial powers be-
came united in the pope. The moral influence and strict discipline of the
clergy were represented as dependent upon their complete separation from
the state. Many irrelevant and trivial matters are taken from the literature
of former times and mingled with the body of the work. It professes in its
preface, and from its singleness of aim it would seem really to be, the wofk
h) Paschaaius ex vita Walae. (Perta Th. IL p. 6«2.)
c) Edictnm Dom. Coostantlni in P9«ud<hTHdor€^ and in the extracts of Oration : Dist XCVL e.
18. Tlie first appeal to it is in IHncmar^ Epp. Ill, 18. In the missives of Hadrian to ChariaB the
Oreat (Codex Carol Ep. 49.) is the flnt genn. MQneK, fL d. Schenk. Const (EniaiiKed HIat 8eb&
Lndw. 1828. toI IL)
a) An imperfect edition by Merlin: Tomns prlmas qnataor ooncllioram, etc Taldoio Mictovfc
Par. 1524. f. (Col 15da Par. 153&) Contributions to a crit edit by Cam«« and Kooh la : N«tie««t
extraits des manuscrits do la bibl naUonale. Tb. YL p. 2S6. Th. YIL P. IL p^ 178«.
CHAP. L PAPACY. | lia PSEUDO-ISIDOBE. 185
of an individoal who is called IMorua (Peccator, Mercator). Most of the
q»iirioii8 decretals must have been in existence when Benedict Levita compiled
bis book of laws (845), and thongh it may be doubtful whether they were
quoted in the Synod of Paris (829), they were certainly referred to in the
Synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (836). Nicholas I., in the year 864, first used a
certain collection unknown to him only the year before, and it may be that
many things were afterwards added. It is difficult to form any definite
opinion respecting the author, as many things indicate that he was a Roman,
sad still more that he was an eastern Frank. Qi) The skill with which it was
composed was not greater than was practicable and even necessary for that age.
Some opponents of the papacy since the fourteenth century have suspected
the deception, and Protestants have clearly proved it by pointing out refer-
ences to the Codex Dionysii, a constant use of the barbarous Latinity of the
ninth century, citations of laws of a later date, and numerous anachronisms, (e)
After a brief contest, the advocates of the papacy merely attempted to show
that sneb a deception was not criminal or of much consequence. ((Q And it
must be conceded that the spurious decretals contain very little which had not
been actnally asserted by some pope at one time or another. But that which had
been only lately conceded or claimed under peculiarly favorable circum-
ftances, and with many conditions and protests, was here announced under
the racred authority of Christian antiquity as an undoubted, generally con-
ceded, and divine right. A forged document is indeed no very good founda-
tion on which to build a claim for universal dominion, but as Isidore only
expressed in a decisive manner what was the general object of effort during
that age, he gave a definite direction to the fluctuating views of right which
then prevailed, and filled even the minds of tlie popes and clergy with the
nioral power of a faith in their own right to what was claimed. Men are
much more inclined to judge of rights from facts than from theories, and
bence this fiction respecting former times certainly anticipated a future real-
ity, and gave considerable support to the pretensions of the priesthood. The
object of it was to promote the independence of the Church, which the
■me antlior, or some contemporary whose sympathies were remurkabl}'
rimHar to his, endeavored to sustain in an earlier plan, by increasing tlie diffi-
culties in the way of sustaining charges against bishops, and by allowing them
to be tried only in the provincial synods, (e) It was thought, however, that
this ooold be secured against the threatening and overwltelming power of the
emperor in no other way than by uniting the whole Church under one
h) Leo IV. a. 860. ad Eplsoc Brltan. {Gratian: P. I. DIst XX. a 1.)
e)CentiU'. Magdeburg. Th. II. c 7. Tb. III. e. 7. (TarHanu%^ adv. Magtl. Cont pro cann. app. et
<f1k dccretallbua Pontt appu Par. 15T8. 4.) Dav. Blondel^ Pseado-Isid. et Tarr. vapalante«. Gen.
169,4
tf) WalUr, KK«eht 8 ed. Bonn. 1$39. p. 155fl& M^hler^ ans a. &ber P. I^Id. (Tub. Qaartalschr.
US. H. K 1S32. H. 1. and miscelL writings, vol. I.) Only MarchetH has undertoken &tiU to qnestion
t^fparioiunew of the Decretals. (Sa^o crit aopra la storia di Fleuri. Rom. 17S1.)
t) Capitula Angilramni: Mansi Th. XII. p. 904s8. According to some Codd. these were a
MQeetkm of TS5 laws respecUng legal proceedings against bishope presented by Ansrilram, Bp. of Metz
md irch-cbaplain to Charles the Great, to Pope Adrian, bat, according to othcn prej<ented by Adrian to
iBgnnm. For its aathenticity : W(ts*er9chUben^ Beitrr. z. Gescb. d. falschen DecjetaL BrsL 1844.
ipiast it: Rettberg^ KOesch. DeutscbL vol. I. p. 501. 646ml
186 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTOBY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-1218.
earthly head. It is hardly possible that he who thns attempted to deceive the
whole Chnrch and the world had in view any direct personal advantage
which he expected to derive from it.
§ 174. The Female Pope Joanna,
In the chronicles composed near the commencement of the thirteenth
century, it is recorded that between Leo IV, (d. July 17, 856) who hoped to
free himself from the influence of France by another connection with the
Greek empire, and Bated let IIL, a disguised female who had been highly
educated at Athens, was elevated to the apostolic chair under the name of
John VIII. (Anglicus), and met with a tragical end while paying the penalty
of her sex. (a) It was on this account that John XX. (1276) assumed the
appellation of John XXI., and this Joanna Papism retained her place on
the list of the successors of St. Peter. But th^ silence of all antiquity with
respect to the matter, awakened doubts in the fifteenth century, and when
proofs were brought forward that Benedict apparently succeeded Leo imme-
diately in the papal chair, (b) with only a contest with an antipope named Anas-
tasius, (c) a Roman presbyter who had before been excommunicated by Leo,
and when the unlucky affair was at least boldly denied by the popes of the elev-
enth century, (d) even the Protestants abandoned the account, (e) It does not
wear the appearance of a calumnious story, or of a satirical allegory, but rather
of one of those popular tales in which the highest power of the age was
treated with innocent poetic raillery, and after a German style, a deep sor-
row was concealed under a playful semblance. It is, however, possible that
a Church which has often made realities out of what never existed, may also
possess magic power enough to annihilate what has really taken place, when-
ever the knowledge of it may have seemed injurious to the still tottering
papacy. (/)
■
a) SUphanu« de Borhons (1220 in Lyons) L. de YIL donls Sp. S. {Blaaeu^ do ColL cann. Ldd.
c. 16. { 11. n. 2.) Martini P6L Chronic, (comp. MuratoH ad Anastas. p. 2i7.) The passage relating
to the subjecl is interpolatcKl oat of Martlnus in a feir manuscripts of Ana»tasias. The mention of
the papal mother in the editlo prlnceps of Sigebtrt Oemhlac ad a. 855 is wanting in the HSS.
hitherto known. {Ptrta Th. VIII. 840. 470.)
h) 1) Uincmari Ep. 2d. ad Nlc I. a. 867. (0pp. ed. Sirmond. Th. II. p. 298.) according to which
his messenger received the news of the death of Loo while on bis way to Bomo, and when he arrived
at Rome his petition was granted by Bene<1ict 2) A diploma of the monastery of Corbey (i/clW^
lon^ de re diplom. p. 486.) ; and 8) A Roman denarios {KOhUr's M&nzbelost vol. XX. p. 805.) bay*
each the name of Benedict in connection with that of Lothaire. The Emperor Lotbaire died Sept
23,855.
o) Jtiff, Rcgesta p. 285a. ITincmari Annal. (Periz, vol. L p. 477R8.)
d) i>o IX. ad Michael Constant Patriarch, a. 1054. (ifan«i Th. XIX p. 649.) c 28.
e) B/ondfl, Joanna Papissa. Amst 1657. O. Q. Leibnitii florcs sparsi in tumulnm Papiasae.
(Bibl. blt*t Ooett 1758. Th. L p. 29788.) OabUr, kirchl theoL Bchriflen. vol L N. 29.— W. Smeis, d.
Mahrchen v. d. P. Joh. Colin. 1S29.
/) SpanheniU Da. deJo. P. (Oppc Th. IL p. 6778S.) Luden, Gescb. d. teatschen Volkea. 1S81.
vol. VI. p. 512. K C. KUi, d. Papetin Job. fh>m tlie Dutch. (NederL Archiof voor kerk. Oeechied-
cnis III, 1. V, 461.) revised by L. Trow, (Iligen'a Zeitschr. 1844. part 2.)
CHAP. L PAPACY. § 175. NICHOLAS L HADRIAN IL JOHN VIIL 187
§ 175. Nicholas L 858-807, Ifadria/i IT, 807-872, and John VIIL 872-^82.
Jfanti Tb. XV. {>. 144i!«. Kegloo ad ann. f^SSss. Hincmar de dlvortio Illotbarii et Tcutbergae.
(0pp. e*\. Sirmond. Th. I. p. 657ss.>— Jfciw«i TIi. XV. p. 806ss. Th. XVI. p. 570«aL JUnc. Hem,
Opu5c 95 capitulor. adv. llincm. Laadunens. (Opp. Th. II. p. 87788.)
Xicholas /., a defender of the people, was gentle toward good men, but like an
arenging Elg ah toward those who were evil. lie formed but never quite accom-
plished the design of surrounding himself with a council of intelligent bishops
oQt of all nations. But perceiving the favorable disposition of the age, he raised
the privileges of the apostolic see so that they became a protection for the whole
Church, and under the sanction of public opinion a weapon against all kinds
of violence. In opposition to a lascivious king and a large number of servile
bishops, he appeared as the avenger of oppressed innocence, and as a defender
of episcopal rights against an imperious and powerful archbishop. King
Loihaire II, was obliged to humble himself, since the hostile princes of his
own family stood ready to execute the papal threats, and the Frankish bish-
ops did not object to have the spurious decretals applied for the first time
•gunst Hinemar of Rheims^ for they thought it better to obey a distant pope
than a threatening metropolitan at home. It was, however, still believed
eren at Rome, that a papal decision might very easily be annulled by a
Frankish synod, {a) But when, with no such advantage of jwlitical circum-
Btances, Hadrian H.^^tdter the death of Lothaire (809), defended the rights
uf the lawful heir U> the throne against Charles the Bald and Louis the Ger-
man, and endeavored to protect Hincmar of Laon^ a deposed bishop who had
ilao been persecuted by the king, from the rage of his uncle, Hincmar of
£AWm«, the latter gave, him to understand that in France a wide distinction
was made between spiritual and secular power ; that great disturbances of
pnblic tranquillity had been created by the pope, and that the bishops of
former times had independent privileges. The pope therefore found it need-
M to assuage the wounded feelings of the Frankish nation by some conces-
aoM, and expressions of a holy love which he declared hail always remained
eonstant in spite of some epistles that might have seemed severe because
written under the pressure of great infirmity, or forged in his name, (ft)
John Vm. bestowed (775) the imperial crown upon Charles the Bald in com-
pliaooe with what he declared to be a divine revelation to his predecessor
Nicholas, in spite of the superior hereditary claims of the German kingdom,
ind sustained the cause of that prince by every spiritual menace in his power.
It was then solemnly announced that this bestowal of the imperial dignity
▼IS in consequence of the intercessions of the apostles Peter and Paul,
through their vicegerent on earth. It corresponded with the political views
of the emperor to compel the French bishops to acknowledge Ansegisus,
Archbishop of Sens, as the primate and papal vicar for Graul and Germany ;
hot under the counsel of Hincmar they persisted in obeying the holy father
only as far as was consistent with the rights of all the metropolitans, and with
o) Anatttu. ad Adonom Yienn. {ManH Th. XV. p. 458.)— iT. RoMteu9cher^ do Sothado Eploa
SaociuQensL Marb. 1S45. 2 Pgg.
ft) Bhtcm, ad Badr. (Oppi Th. IL p. 689.) JIadr. ad Carol Calr. {Manti Tb. XV. p. 857.)
188 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-lim
the laws of the Churdi. (c) He gave his consent to the decrees of the Sy-
nod of Ratcnna (877), in which the papal approbation was declared indis-
pensable to the iuTestitare of the metropolitans, the bishops wore made inde-
pendent of all censures and claims on the part of the civil powers, and the
guardianship of widows and orphans was committed to their hands ; (d) bnt
the papal letters which interfered with the independence of the empire and
the jurisdiction of the bishops over their clergy, ho pronounced through
Hincmar to be spurious. («) The pope fell finally by the hand of an assassin. (/)
Ho continued to the lost inflexibly convinced of the imprescriptible rights of
his see, and of his position as a servant of God, contending against the pow-
ers and princes of the world (Eph. vi. 12). Sorely pressed by the Saracens
in Lower Italy, and wearied by tlic municipal and German factions in Rome,
he defended himself witl) extreme difficulty, and sometimes not without
treachery.
§ 176. F(ynno8U9, 891-896, and Stephen VL 897.
AuaeiiU I IL de ordlnationibiu Formoei (Bibl. PP. Lngd. Th. XVIL p. Iss.) and Dial super oanM
et neg. Form. {Jfabill. AnaL ed. 2. p. 2Saa.) MaMi Th. ^VIII. pi 99s8. 221bs. Liudprand 1, 8L
When Charles the Fat was deposed by the German people on account of
his incapacity (887), and when, soon after, the male line of the Emperor
Charles had become extinct in France, Germany and France became distinct
kingdoms. Both nations were rent into factions by the contentions of the
sons-in-law and the illegitimate children of the old royal family. Italy strug-
gled for its independence even with itself. The popes, it is true, were free
from foreign masters, but they were often obliged to make concessions in the
party contests of the Bomans and of the Italian nobles. Guido^ Duke of
Spoleto, and Berengar^ Duke of Friuli, contended with each other for the
crown of Italy, and placed their favorites in the papal chair according as
they were severally successful. Formoms^ after a life of great vicissitude,
was elevated to the apostolic throne, and though he was compelled to place
the imperial crown upon the head of Lambert^ the son of Guide, he immfr'
diately sununoned the German Arnu{f to Rome to free Italy frx>m the
tyranny of that prince. Amulf was then crowned, and the Romans were
made to take the oath of allegiance to him, with the understanding that their
duties to the pope were in no respect to be affected by such an act His suc-
cessor, Stephen F/., went over again to the party of Guido, and having dis-
interred the body of Formosus, subjected it to the mockery of a judicial
trial. Enraged at these proceedings, the opposite party had him soon after
strangled in prison.
c) Cone PonUgoneuM a. 876. IRnem. Tr. ad Episcc de Jure MetropoL (0pp. Tb. IL pb 719.)
Bincm. AnnaL {Perta Th. L p. 499aB.)
d) ManH Th. XYIL p. 887.
0) De PreabyteriB diffamatls ad Ja P. (Hinom. 0pp. Th. IL p. 76Sa.)
/) AnnaU Fuldent. (T'ertoTh. L p. 893.)
CHAP. L PAPACY. 1 177. SERGIUS IIL JOHN XL 189
§ 177. Pomocracy, 904-962.
L The principal Aatborlty Is Lladpnnd, bat when he writes of great ontragefl, he most be com-
pared with oUmt chronldwi, eq)eciallf Flodoardi Cbron. and his Fragm. de Fontifll Bom. (JTo-
bm<m, Aeta S8. O. Ben. & IIL P. IL) J(^^ Bvgesta pi 807-822.
IL Litieker, Hist des rdm. Tlurenreglmenta. Lpz. 1707. 4. (2. A. IIl»t der mittlem Zeiten als ein
liebt ana der Fbuternbai 1725. 4.)
While Italy bled under the fends of the nobility, the Tuscan party obtained
the victory at Rome, and made their tool, Sergius III.^ pope (904-911). At
the head of this faction stood Alheric, Marquis of Tuscany, with his paramour
Theodarct^ a widow of a noble family, and her daughter Maria (Marozia).
These last were exceedingly beautiful, crafty and bold Roman women, whose
love of power and of voluptuousness were so subservient to each other that
it was hard to tell which was the strongest passion. For half a century
their fiivorites, sons and grandsons, occupied the apostolic chair. Maria made
no secret of the parentage of her children, acknowledging that her husband
Alberic was the father of Alberie^ and Pope Sergius of John. On the
death of Sergius, the Archbishop of Ravenna, John X. (914-28), by the crimi-
nal favor of Theodora, became the successor of St. Peter. By him the
strength of Italy was united against the Saracens, who for forty years had
maintained a settlement on the borders of the States of the Church. At the
head of a Greek and Roman imperial army, he destroyed their citadel (916)
on the Carigliano (liris). After the deatli of Theodora, the pope, with the
aid of his brother Peter, endeavored to make himself independent. Maria
had the Fope^s brother killed before his eyes, and then caused him to be
smothered in the castle of St. Angclo (928). Her son, John JT/., ascended
the papal throne as though it were an inheritance from his father. She now
married Hugh, Count of ProFvcnce, who was regarded as the real king of
Italy. But her secular son Alberic^ in a nocturnal insurrection of the Ro-
mans, expelled his stepfather, and as a senator (932-954) exercised supreme
power in Rome. Under his administration the popes possessed nothing but a
spiritoal jurisdiction. His son Octavum^ after the death of Agapetus (966),
seized not only his fkther*s power, but the episcopal office, and was the first
among the popes who assumed an ecclesiastical name on attaining the papal
throne. As John XII, (955-63), he hoped to disconnect tbe excesses of his
seeohv life from his ecclesiastical name and office.
§ 178. The Popes under the Othos.
During the reign of Henry I. Germany became conscious of its power.
Otho L seized upon the first favorable opportunity for renewing the German
(lominion in Italy, (a) Since that time Germany and Italy have contrived to
aert a disastrous influence upon each other. The German king was invited
by John XII. himself to deliver the mother of churches from the violence
^Berengar 11.^ the new king of Italy, and when victorious, he was crowned
bj the pope at Rome (962), on his taking a solemn oath that he would pre-
Krve inviolate the person ci the pope, and all property belonging to the
a) W. D^nnige»t Jahrbaeher d. Deutschen Beichs onter Otto L BerL 1889.
190 MEDIAEVAL CIIUECn HISTORY. PER. TIL A. D. 800-1218.
Roman Charch,' and undertake nothing in Borne without the advice of the
pope. The pope and all the notables of the city, on the other hand, swore
on the precious body of St. Peter that they would henceforth abandon the
cause of Berengar for ever, (h) But Italy could at that time neither dispense
with nor endure the Germans. John soon formed an alliance with Berengar
to drive them from the country. Otho hastened back and had the pope
cited before a Synod at Iiome (968), which convicted him of murder, blas-
phemy, and all kinds of lewdness, deposed him, and elected Leo VIIL in his
stead. The Romans then swore to the emperor that no pope should be cho-
sen or consecrated without his consent. (^) On the emperor's departure,
John returned and took a most cruel vengeance on his enemies, but he was
soon after found dead in an adulterous bed, slain as was generally believed
by the devil. The succeeding popes were nominated and with groat difficulty
sustained by the emperor, against the hatred of the people and the doceitftil
policy of the Tuscan party. After Otho's death (978), Crescentiu*^ a grand-
son of Theodora, under the character of a Consul, armed the Roman people
against the foreign tyranny. Whenever the emperors had an army in Italy,
the popes were entirely subservient to their wDl, but at other times they
were the creatures of the Roman consul and people. Otho III,^ intending
to transfer the imperial residence to Rome, caused his young nephew Bnino
to be proclaimed pope, under the name of Gregory V, (996), (d) subdued the
fortress of St. Angelo, and had Crescentius beheaded, and a rival pope muti-
lated (998). Amulf\ Archbishop of Rheims, and a natural brother of the
Duke of Lorraine, had surrendered Rheims to this relative, and had after-
wards fallen into the hands of Ilugh Capet, his enraged king. He refused to
acknowledge any one but the pope as his Judge. But a national synod at
Rheims (991) compelled him to resign his office, and placed Gerbert in his
chair, (e) The pope issued sentence of excommunication against all who
acknowledged the validity of the acts of that synod. In vain did Gerbert
remind the people that it was not his own interest, but the welfare of the
general Church, which w^as to be sacrificed to the caprice of an individual;
he was shunned as an excommunicated man by all the inhabitants of Rheims,
and finally (996) he accepted the invitation of the emperor to become the impe-
rial tutor. The new French kingdom sought reconciliation with the pope.
Arnulf was reinstated in his former office by another synod held at Rheims
(996), and even Robert^ the king, submitted to a decision of a Roman synod
(998), by which he was separated from his wife Bertha on account of a spiritual
relationship and a natural consanguinity in the fourth degree. (/) Soon after,
however, on the premature death of Gregory, Otho had his beloved teacher
elected to the vacant chair, and from personal regard, while proudly denying
h) Oratian : P. I. Dlat LXIII. c 8a Liudp. VI, 6.
c) Liudp. VI, 6-11. PtrU Th. IV. p. 298a. The Omst Leonis VIIL as to ite essentUI matter Is
trastworthy, bat the form in which it has been known since the 11th cent is not beyond sosiiidon.
It may be found in PerU Th. IV. IL p. 167. as an extract in GraUan : P. I. DIst LXIII. c 88.—
C. F. ITtrtely de Ottonis M. Ecclesiao prospiciendi conatu. Mngd. ITSd. d) Jaffi, p. 889fla.
e) Gerbert's account of the tranMctions in Mansi Th. XIX. p. lOSsa.
/) Mami Th. XIX. p. 225. UelgaJdua Floriac. ViU Robcrti c. IT. (Bouquet Th. X. pw lOT.)
The view entertained in the next century may bo found in PeL Damiani L IL £p. 1&
CHAP. L PAPAOY. 1 17& BYL7ESTEB IL §179. CLEMENT IL 191
the T&liditj of all former grants, be presented to St. Peter eight conntios be-
longing to the States of the Church as if they were his own. (g) Sylvester
IL (999-1003) was of a yery bumble origin, and in early life bad been a
strenuous opponent of papal assumptions. Ilis elevation and his knowledge
seemed so extraordinary, that the reverence of the Germans and the aversion
of the Bomans produced a report that be had sold his soul to the devil as the
price of the papacy. But in the midst of the bighest youthful aspirations
the emperor suddenly died (1002), and the power of his favorite pope was
broken. (A)
§ 179. The Papacy until the Synod of Sutri,
L Ji^ Begceta p. 851-851 Glaber Radvl/ua, a monk of Clngnl (abont 1046), Hist snl tem-
psria. {Du Chstns Tb. IV. p. 1.) Amiao, Biahop of Satri and Piaccnza, d. 1089, L. ad amic. & de
pcneeatione Eoc. (Otfdii Scrr. rer. Bolcar. Tb. IL p. 794.) In and after the fifth book tliore is a
fafatorx (^ the Pop«a from Benedict IX. to Greg. VII. Detiderius ( Victor III.) de miracu]is a S.
Benedkto alUfqae Casinensib. gestis Diall. (BibL PP. Lugd. Tb. XYIII. p. 858.) Annolea Romani
from 1046. {Pert» Th. TIL p. 468.)
IL Xnffelhardt, Obea. de syn. Satrien»L Eriang. 1834. 4. Th. MitOer^ de scbism. in £cc Bom. sab
pootil Ben. IX Tar. 188S.— 6t4m««l, Qeach. DeutBcbL anter d. friink. Kaisem. Lpz. 1827.
In Rome the contest was still continued between a popular party and the
Count of Tusculum, in whose family the papacy had become hereditary after the
time of Benedict VIIL (1012.) Benedict IX. reached the sacred chair (1088)
when be was yet a boy, disgraced it by crimes whicb are usually impractica-
ble at such a youthful period of life, and finally was driven from it by the
people. Syhester IIL was put in his place, but Benedict was soon after
VroQgbt back between the swords of his party. Convinced, however, that
it would be impossible to sustain himself against the popular contempt, the
tiara was sold to Gregory YI. The latter regarded the disgrace of acquiring
the papal crown in this manner as a necessary sacrifice for the deliverance
of the Church. Benedict, however, soon repented of this transaction, and
three popes shared the Church between themselves. Ilenry III. now came
to restore the imperial power in Italy, and assembled, in the very midst of
lu8 army, tbe Synod of Sutri (1046), by whicb the papal chair was pro-
nonnoed vacant. Gregory having deposed himself, Suidger, Bishop of Bam-
berg, a serious and pious German belonging to the imperial retinue, was then
alnted as Pope in the Church of St. Peter, under the name of Clement II.
rrom the hands of the newly elected pope the Gorman king received the
crown of the Roman Emperor^ and was made the Patricius of the city,
md the Romans swore once more that no pope should be chosen contrary to
hiswilL
§ 180. The Popes under Hildebrand, 1048-1073.
L Amifo, D^ideriua^ and AnnaUs Rom, as referred to in tbe preceding section. Leo Ostien-
•^ Oudlnal Bishop of Ostia, 1101, Cbron. monasterii Cssinens. {Muratori Tb. IV. p. 151.) These
*ere tlM>roagh admirers of Gregory. Many notices may be found in tbe epistles of the Cardinal
Bbbop of Ostla, Damiani^ d. 1072, who essentially agreed with Ilildebrand, bat with all bis con-
9) Ottenii III. Diploma. (Baron, ail ann. 1191. Na 67.) comp. Liudpr. Hist OUon. c. 19.
*) Mrtiui Th. XIX p. 2408a.— <7. F. Uock, Oerbert o. 8ylv. II. u. si Jahrh. Vienna. 1837. WU-
■all JshrbHeber d. Deatseben Eeichs antor Otto IIL BerL ISIO. Jc^ Begesta p. 845i&
192 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCH HI8T0BT. FEB. OL A. B. 80a-1916i
tnMtad rlews was indcpendentif opfXMcd to wlut he called the bolj SaUn nod the whtrie papaej.
Annalea AUahen$eSy restored by W. Giesebrccbt Berl 1S41.
II. Joh. Voigt, Hildebr. als. Grog. YII. u. 8. Zelultcr. Weim. (1815.) 1848. G. CasMndtr, d.
Zeitalter Ulldebr. far a. gcgen ibn. DarineL 1848.-/7^^, duatsche Piipetc. % Abth.
The popes of this period were dependent upon the emperor, bnt they
were generally men selected for that station on acconnt of their ecclesiasti-
cal character, and from the fact that as general bishops of the empire, hon-
orably and secarely residing at Rome, they had attained a high degree of
ecclesiastical influence. The general voice of the people demanded of them the
deliverance of the Church from the simony and the licentiousness of the clergy.
The bishoprics were regularly and sometimes at auction set up for sale, and the
bishops sought remuneration for the expense of their purchase from the sale of
the inferior offices. The whole Church had become venal. What had been ob-
tained by worldly policy was administered and enjoyed in a worldly manner.
The power of Henry 111, was so great in Italy, that Roman messengers were
sent to him demanding that he would bestow on them some one for a pope.
At the Diet of Worms, Bruno, Bishop of Toul, a cousin of the emperor, was
elected to that office, and under the name of Leo IX, (1048-54) proved him-
self a pious man, but somewhat dependent upon those who surrounded him.
A Roman monk, whom he was desirous of making one of his retinue, re-
fused all connection with him because he had obtained his station in the
Church not in accordance with ecclesiastical laws, but by worldly power. In
compliance with the counsel of this man, the pope went to Rome in the
character of a pilgrim, and was there regularly elected by the clergy and
people of the city. The monk who had such an influence over him was
Uildehrand, lie was bom probably at Saona, the son of a mechanic, was
educated at Clugni, and had shared the exile of Gregory YI. in Germany.
Leo sought in the national councils of France and Germany to re-establish
discipline, and to remove all those priests who had purchased their offices
and would not perform penance for their sin. In a campaign against the
Normans who had conquered Apulia, his whole army was finally destroyed.
But when the imprisoned vicegerent of Christ beheld the conquerors at his
feet, he blessed their arms and confirmed their conquests, (a) When Leo
died, nildebrand, then a subdeacon, was commissioned by the Roman people
to select a successor, and chose Gebhard, Bishop of Eichstadt, Victor IL
(1055-57). iP) This man, on account of his wisdom and wealth as well SB
for his consanguinity and friondsliip with the emperor, was the most power-
ful bishop in the empire. The principal object aimed at in his election, was
to break up a party of which he had been the centi'e, but which had been
opposed to the papal power over the bishops, and to enlist his great personal
influence against those abuses which prevailed beyond the Alps. Against
these, Hildebrand, when Legate, had so efiectually contended, that the con-
trition of a peijured bishop before his piercing glance was regarded as a
miraculous influence upon the conscience, (c) The Emperor Ilenry, when
a) WibertuA, Bruno^s Arcbdeaoon at Toul, Vita Leon. (3furaU>ri Th. IIL P. L p. 2Ta)
Bishop of BefmU about 1100, Vita Leon. (lb. P. IL p. 84fi.)
b) VIU and Epp. in MctnH Tb. XIX. p. 83&
c) According to Damlani Baron, ad ann. 1003. Na ISml
CHAP. L PAPACY. S ISO. NICHOLAS II. ALEXANDER IL 1 93
dying, commended his son to tlio protection of the pope, and Victor pro-
mised that the empire should be given to the royal child, Henry IV. But a
new power had recently been established in Italy, by the marriage of God-
frey of Lorraine with Beatrice, the widow of the Marquis of Tuscany. God-
frey's brother, Stephen /X, was actuated by the very spirit of the Reforma-
tion. His phin of establishing a national empire in Italy, by investing his
brother with the royal dignity, was defeated by his want of decision or his early
death (Aug. 2, 1058.) (</) The Roman nobles, with a party of the clergy op-
posed to the Reformation, placed upon the throne the Bishop of Veletri, Bene-
dict X. Hildebrand, Vfith the concurrence of the imperial court, then procured
the election of Gebhard, Archbishop of Florence, XicJiuhu II. (10u8-Cl.) {c)
The duke Godfrey conducted him to Rome, and Benedict submitted. At a
Soman synod (1059), Nicholas committed almost exclusively to the college
of cardinals the power of choosing the pope, in order that the papal election
might not be disturbed by the factious interests of the nobles, or the storms
of popular elections. The right of King Henry and of his successors (which,
however, he would have obtained personaUy from the apostolic Fee) was
made the subject of special stipulation. (/) The Roman court perceived the
advantage of an alliance with the Normans in opposition to tlie (iermanj?, and
it a^eed with the piety and policy of Eohert Guiscanl to have his conquests
in Lower Italy and his designs upon Sicily pronounced lawful and holy by
tli« pope. He now became, accordingly, the vassal and protector of the Ro-
man Church. (jTf) By his assistance the offended nobility, and especially the
faction of the Count of Tusculum, was overthrown. On the death of Nicholas,
H'ddubrand, in connection with the cardinals, made choice of Anselm, Bishop
of Lucca, Alexander II, (1061-78). The imperial court regarded the alliance
with ihe Normans with much uneasiness, and therefore induced the Lombardic
bbhopa to proclaim Cadolaus, Bishop of Parma, Honorius II., as pope, whose
previous life gave suflScient assurance that the Church would be protected against
simony and concubinage. But Godfrey drew his sword, and the Normans were
tfrayed in defence of the pope chosen by Hildebrand, and when Ilanno,
Archhishop of Cologne, carried off" the person of the German king, then in
Iiii minority, that he might take upon himself the regency, Honorius was
generally abandoned. The work of reformation, however, produced but
Me result in the Church in consequence of the opposition of the bishops,
snpported by the king. Henry IV. was desirous of a divorce from his noble
but much-abused wife. The Cardinal Damiani, at a synod held at Mentz, so
frightened the bishops when they seemed disposed to favor the royal recjuest,
tliat they dared not comi)ly. When the Saxons sent messengers to Rome as
to a divine court, to complain of Henry IV. for his intolerable oppression of
^ subjects, and for exposing to sale all ecclesiastical offices to raise a revo-
Bue for the support of soldiers employed against his i)eople, Alexander sum-
D»ned the king to answer tlie charges at Rome. Henry's wrath at so strange
^ Leo orient. 11,100m.
<)TiUftnd Epp. in Jfanti Th. XIX. p. 867.
/) suttitam de electione Papae. Parts Tb. IV. 2. p. 176. A falsified text in Gratian : V. L
*«. IXIII. c -L—K CuniU de NIc. IL decreto. Argent 8S7. 4.
f) Both feodal oaths are to be seen in Baron, ad aon. 1069. No. 70s.
18
I
194 MEDIAEVAL CnURCn HISTORY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-121«.
a proceeding was soon after allayed by the sndden news of Alexander's death.
It was then that Ilildebrand felt that the time had come in which he might
enter npon the execution of the plan for which he had long been preparing,
and might assume the dignity of an independent sovereign. Even at the
funeral of Alexander, the people exclaimed, " Hildebrand is Pope, St. Peter
has elected him ! "
§ 181. Gregory VIL April 22, 1073— i/ay 26, 1085.
I. 1) Gregoril Rogristri & Epp. 1. XI. Tho lOtb book is wanting in all the ediit hitherto, m in
MnnH Th. XX. p. 60f«. According to tlic invcstigaUons of Giesebrecht on the basis of the Cod.
Vaticanns the Registrum is not the offlcUl record of Oregory^s writings, but the first seven books are
a collection which a contemporary f<>nned fh>m them corresponding to tho seven first years of hb
public administration. Tlie Sth book, which was not until a later period divide<1 according to the
years of his reign, contain.*) all his other writings afterwards found, compiled without a strict regard
to their chronological order. Thus, «A//??, Regesta p. 402-443. Acts of council A orlp. docc : ManH
Th. XX. p. 402sa. and in Uldarici Bahenherg. Codex Epist collected about 1125. {Eccard. Th. 11.
p. 1.) 2) Panegyrists: Bonizo and others referred to at the head of { 179s. Paultis Bemridtn
«t«, canon at Ratisbon, about 1130, de Vita Greg. {Jfuratori Th. III. P. I. p. 817.) Bmno^ a Saxon
clergyman. Hist belli Saxon. 1078-91. {Freher. Th. I. p. 171.) The biographies of Pundulph of Pi»a^
an<l yicolas of Aragon, for the sake of the original authorities preserved in them. {Jfitrtttori Th,
III. P. I. p. 804.) 8; Opponents: Benno, a Cardinal of the party of Clement III. the Antipope, de
vita et gcstis Hildebr. 1. IL Otbert, Bishop of Liege,* de vita et obitu Ilenr. lY. (Both are in Gol-
dntitVs Apologia pro Ilenr. IV. Han. 1611. 4.) Concerning fhigments of another adverse writer:
Peru Archiv. vol. V. p. 85. Among the Panegyrists the praise is unqualified, but although Paul of
Bemr. writes as an independent man, and Bruno passionately when in opposition to the emperor,
they express the sentiment of a whole nation. On the same side are also found some impartial
chroniclers, as Lambert, Marianus Scotus, Otto of Freysingen, and, respecting the character of Or^«
ory, even Sigbert On the other hand, Benno's work is nothing but a lampoon Aili of contradictions.
II. Gaah^ Apol. Greg. Tfib. 1792. Yoigt and Cassander referred to at the head of % IPO. A, d§
Vidaillin, Vie de Gr<:'goire VIL Par. 1887, %Th. J, W. Botoden, Life of Gregory VIL Lond. 18I0L
2 Th.— So//Z, Ileinrich IV. Munich. 1828. Verenet, de commutatione, quam subiit liierarchia Rom.
auctore Greg. Tr^j. ad Rh. 1882. \J. SUphent^ Ilildebrand, or Greg. VII. (in Ed. Review, Jan. lS45i
and Eclectic Mag. June, 1845).]
That he might not be embarrassed with an antipope, Gregor}- VII. asked
the consent of the king to his assumption of the tiara. Henry lY., deceived
by the humility and frankness exhibited in his letter, readily granted what
it would have been difficult to withhold. No doubt Gregory secretly desired the
possession of the papal crown, but the same feehng which even at a lat^r period,
in the midst of a stormy activity, made him sometimes tired of the hostility
of the world, and long for retirement, for ho was a sickly man, now made
him shrink from the struggle in which he foresaw he must engage in opposition
to the clergy, the bishops, and even thlb king, if be would radically heal the
maladies of the Church. The marriages of the clergy, contracted with a
consciousness of guilt, and generally of a dissolute character, were the most
universal cause of their corruption. It was necessary, therefore, that mar-
riage should be freely conceded to them, or be rendered utterly impracti-
cable. At a synod held at Rome (1074), Gregory re-established the ancient
law of celibacy. The largest portion of the inferior clergy in Lombardy and
beyond the Alps were indignant at this. It was, however, only by renounc-
ing the delights and cares of domestic life that the clergy could secure the
independence of the Church, and yet retain possession of her vast estates.
By exciting the common people against all married priests, the papal law pre-
vailed in spite of their desperate opposition. A second Roman synod (1075)
CHAP. L PAPACY. S 181- QBEGOBY VIL 195
pranonsoed the decisive sentence by whicli all simony was condemned, and
the freedom of the Church was declared, since every one was laid nnder ex-
eommanication who should give or receive an ecclesiastical office from the
hands of a layman. The kings, in opposition to this, defended a long estab-
lished prerogative which was a powerful support to their thrones. In the
mind of Gregory the idea of a universal theocracy had become ascendant, in
which a vicar of God in times of brute violence (faustrecht) might stand
between princes and their people, enforcing the law of divine right by his
spiritual power, and able either to humble the people or to depose i)rinces.
As the canse of the papacy was then believed to be identical with that of
general reformation, and all felt the necessity of a supi'eme moral power
when soch lawless violence prevailed, and of a legitimate dominion of the
spiritnal over the merely physical nature, of which the state was regarded
as the representative, tlie best portion of society were &vorable to this view.
Many, however, saw the necessary result of intrusting such unlimited power
to the hand of a man. (a) Gregory never lost an opportunity as a feudal
lord paramount, and as an umpire or lawgiver, to assert with greater or less
mecess his 8lSoe of a divine vicar among the nations of Europe. His princi-
ples he openly and boldly avowed, (b) however carefifl and reserved he
nnght be in expressing opinions of particular persons ; but in the accomplish-
ment of his porposes he never hesitated, if necessary, to make use of the
most terrible measures. He gathered around himself men of vigorous and
elevated minda, whom he raised often against their own wills from monastic
eoneealment to ftte highest dignities. Beatrice and her daughter Matilda,
Countess of Tuscany, always participated in his most secret counsels. The
mpieions which some attempted to throw upon his relations to the former
kdy, were too convenient for the purposes of the thousands whose inclina-
tioDs he opposed, to acquire any high degree of probability when opposed to
fte uniform character of the parties, (c) More credible evidences show that
tbe relation was that of an earnest father to his spiritual daughter, who did
boBuge to his lofty spirit, and was delighted when he intrusted to her his
ores, and allowed her to as^st him with her wealth and power. Gregory
VIS indeed hated by the clergy and the principal men of Italy, but on
ChriBtmas night in the year 1074, the people delivered him out of the hands
of the youth among the nobility, who had formed a conspiracy and threat-
ened his life. His ofHuion that Spain by an ancient legal title belonged to
fit Peter, and that Hungary had formerly been given to St. Peter by one of
iti kings, Just as Saxony was said to have been given by the Emperor Charles,
v^emained only as an idea founded upon a legendary tradition to be taken up
^ any one who mi^t afterwards have the power to act upon the sug-
<) ApolofU pro Henr. IT. 1098, wrttten probablf by Waltram^ Bishop of Naomborg, and a Tnct
^ iar«itftara Eplscc bf the same. Besides other Apologists in Goldast Theodorici. Ep. ad
^ a 1090. (^Martene Tb^anr. dot. Anecdot Th. L p. 214ss.) For Gregor. : Bemold, Constant
^9<iepi. pro decretis Orrg. (Jfanti Th. XX. p. 404) Letters and Pamphlets: Ut^ermann Tb. IL
^I^ Anitdmu*, Bp. of Lucca, contra Ouibertam Antipapam i. IL a. 1064 (BibL PP. Lagd. Th.
^UI pi 602.) Others In Oreiser, ApoL pro Greg. (0pp. Tb. VL)
^) ^ as a collection by another baod, oompL DtcUtna GregorH VIZ (L. IL Epu 6K. Matui Th.
1% MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTOEY. PEE. IH. A, D. 800-121«.
gestion. (//) If he sometimes made concessions when great power and tal-
ents were arrayed against him, as when Philip of France^ and still more,
wiien WdVuim the Conqueror of England resisted his measures, it was be-
cause his extraordinary knowledge of political affairs enabled him to judge
how far he might venture, and made him see the necessity of using worldly
means in worldly transactions. But even when yielding to necessity, he
openly avowed, that just as God had patience with the wickedne&s of man,
ho endured injustice only for the present in the hope of a future meliora-
tion. (<») The impetuous instability of the youthful Henry IV., who had been
invested with the purple even from his birth, hadjbeen educated without disci-
pline, and lived ever afterwards without affection, presented a fair mark for his
terrible and cool precision. In opposition to this prince, Gregory went forward
reforming the Church and exalting the papacy, and finally he beheld the
highest of all earthly powers humbled before it. When the trade in eccle-
siastical ofBces was persisted in at court, and those counsellors who had been
excommunicated on this account were reinstated ; when Henry's paramours
went about adorned with jewels taken from the sacred vessels, and the Sax-
ons endured the most horrible oppression, the pope demanded That the king
should answer for'these things at Rome, and threatened him with excommu-
nication on his disobedience. At a synod held at Worms (Jan. 24, 1076),
the king had the pope deposed as a tyrant who had laid unhallowed hands
upon the Lord's anointed. Gregory replied by hurling against him an anath-
ema which absolved all Christians from their oath of allegiance to him. By
his violent proceedings Henry had already fallen out with^ie princes of his
court, so that they hated him more than they valued the independence of the
empire. They therefore resolved, at an assembly held at Trihur (Oct. 1076),
that if the ban of excommunication were not removed from Henry within a
year, he should forfeit his throne. With a broken spirit the monarch ob-
tained absolution (Jan. 28, 1077), after he had brought disgrace upon himself
and his kingdom at Canossa. Finally he seized those weapons which had
long been offered him by the nobles of Lombardy. Again the sentence of
excommunication and deposition was issued against him, a rival pope and a
rival king were set up, and Italy and Germany were filled with blood.
Gregory had predicted that in that year a false king should die, (/) and ac-
cordingly Rudolph of Svvabia, whom he had himself made king, died (1080).
Henry besieged and took Rome (1084), but the pope in his castle of St.
Angelo would even then accept of nothing but the unconditional submis-
sion of the king, and was liberated by Robert Guiscard. But the Romanic
nations commended the king's cause, (g) and the Romans were tired of the
evils which the implacable spirit of the pope brought upon them. Gregory
withdrew himself from them with his Normans, and died at Salerno, with the feel-
ings of a martyr, though binding and loosing his fellow-men even in death, (h)
d) Kegtetr. IV, 28. II, 18. VIII, 28. Desgl. Corsica V, 4.
e) E. g. tho cnfeoflfment of Gal»card in Mansi Th. XX. p. 814.
/) Sigb. Gembl. ad ann. 1080. Bonlzo's attempt to jurtify this proceeding is therefore about as
absurd as Benno's accusation of witchcraft g) Registr. VII, 8.
h) The falsehood which fh>m fear of the power <rf the deceased pope was iiiTented, may be fbond in
CHAP. I. PAPACY. $ 182. VICTOR III. UP.BAN II. 197
§ 182. Gregory's Sucressors, 1085-1009.
Victor III 1(>S5-S7. JIunn Th. XX. p. 630ss. Lfo Ostienn. see at llie liead of § 180. Blogr. by
Fandulpkut Putan. and Bernard. Guidon^ written during the 18th c.nt. In MuratoH Th. Ill: P.
Lp. ^\.— Urban JL lOSS-W. Mami Th. XX. p. (A2»k t/i//<?, p. 44Ss5. Pandulph. and Ber-
nard, in Jifuratori I. c. After and along with the sources: Ruinart In MahiUon et Ruin. 0pp.
posth. Par. 1724. 4, Among the ch^onicle^^ especially Iao 0«iiena^ & Bernold^ monk of 9. Bla-
■kx Chron. 1065-1100. (Perta Th. VII. p. aS5.)
Gregory's principle were deeply impressed upon the age in which ho
lived, and the clergy hegan to understand the advantages they acquired by
sacrificing their domestic enjoyments. Those who had been selected by
Gregory as worthy to become his successors were one after another raised to
the apostolic chair. Desideritis^ the Abbot of Montecassino, Victor III.^
resolutely refused to leave the retirement of his convent, and thereby seri-
ously impaired his influence, but he rigidly followed out the course on which
his illustrioas Mend had entered. On his premature death, Otho^ who out
of disgust with the world had resigned his canonicate at Rheims and betaken
himself to Clugni, where he had been noticed by Gregory and madeJBishop
of Ostia, and afterwards as Legate had been the prisoner and the mortal
enemy of Henry, became pope under the name of Urhaii IT, When Gre-
gory was dead, the emperor, who had now attained maturity in the midst of
the storms through which he had passed, with his pope Clement III. exer-
dsed sovereignty over Upper and Central Italy. Renouncing her widowhood
that she might promote the interests of the Romish Church, Matild<i^ by her
upparent marrifi^e with Welf, Duke of Bavaria, gave for a brief period a
military leader to the papal party. The conduct of the emperor was far
more effectual than were all the solicitations of the pope to drive his son
Conrad into acts of treason (1093). Urban, at the great Council of Cler-
fM%t (1095), excommunicated Philip of France for his adulterous connec-
tion with the Countess Bertrade, and forbade all persons invested with
ecclesiastical offices taking an oath of allegiance to a layman. In conse-
quence of the crusades, the pope not only obtained an enthusiastic army
for the execution of his plans, but his moral influence was so much in-
creased that he became the head of all the popular movements of the West-
em world. Philip was compelled to give up his paramour, and Henry and
his pope lost all power in Itiily. Urban, however, purchased nothing but the
precious friendship of the Normans, and preserved nothing but the shadow
of his ecclesiastical claims in the aj)pointnient of Count Roger owiihh suc-
c^Bors to be the perpetual legates of the pope in Sicily (MonarcLia Siciliae).*
*J*. OembL ann. 1085. The troth may bo wen in PauL Bemrid. c lOSsa. Respecting Gregory's
ODOBlzatioo and the opposition made to it by the courts: L'avocat du Dlable, ou mumoires sor la
»<•« w U Idgende da P. Greg. VII. 1748. 8 Th.
• JlanH Th. XX. p. «5». Ganfredi Jfalaterra lllst Slcala IV, 29. (Afuratori Th. V. p. 601.)
^^I>»Piny Defence de la monarchie de Sicile contre ies entreprises de la Coar de Rome. Amst
198 MEDIAEYAL CIIUKCH lUSTOBT. FEB. IIL A. D. 800-1210.
"§ 183. The Crusades. Conquest of Jerusalem.
L Collections: J. £ongara, Oesta Dei per Francos Hanov. 1611. 2 Th. C SchUier, hist Memoir
Abtk 1. vol. 1-a J. Michaud, Bibliotheque des Croisadea. Par. 1S8Q. 4 Tb.
II. F. Wilken^ Gesch. d. Kreuzz. Lpz. 1807-82. 7 vols. Michaud, Hist des Crolsadey. Par. 1S12.
ed. & \hV)f%. 6 vols. [Jf*oAa«(r« II. of the C^a8ade^ transl. by Wm. Bobaon, Loud. 1S52. 8 vols, n.]
n. %. Sybel, Oesch. d. ereten Kreuzz. Doss. 1&41. [7! KeighUey, The Crufadera, Lend. 1S52. 12. C.
MiU, 11. of the Crusades. Pbilad. 1S15. G. P. S, Jamea, Chivalry and tbft Crusades. New York.
1837. Eclectic Mag. April, 1S4&]
The attraction toward the Holy Land which had formerly prerailed in
the Clmrch had never been interrupted, but in consequence of the ardent
and sensuous devotion which was almost universal in the eleventh century,
it then became especially powerful. German bishops with their soldiers
heroically defended themselves against a sudden attack of the Saracens which
took place on Easter, 1065. (a) Even before this (999), Sylvester II., in the
name of the desolate Holy City, had called upon the general Church for aid.
Cregory (1074) once entertained serious thoughts of becoming leader of a host
for the liberation of the Christian portion of the East. (&) When the Se\ju-
kian Turks had established their empire in Asia Minor, and had conquered
Syria (after 1078), the pilgrims and Christians in Palestijie made bitter com-
plaints of their intolerable ill-treatment there. Tho hermit Peter of Amiens
made known the prayers of the oriental Christians, and announced an imme-
diate commission from Christ for their deliverance. Urban 11.^ at a general
assembly of the Church at Clermont (1095), earnestly exhorted all to enter
upon this holy war under a leader who never wanted provisions, and on
whose side victory was certain, the reward was eternal, and death was mar-
tyrdom. All the people shouted, *^ God wills it ! " (c) A hundred thousand
men, chiefly Frenchmen, in tho first moments of exhilaration took upon
themselves the sign of the Cross, by which Christians were to be known as
true disciples. Secular embarrassments and passions, romantic pleasures and
superstitious hopes, doubtless had much to do in this, and yet it must be con-
ceded that the spirit which animated these masses for two hundred years
was something superior to that of this world; But it was not for a holy
sepulchre alone that these expeditions were undertaken. They had also in
view the honor of the Christian name, the triumph of oppressed Cliristianity
in the East, and the dominion of Europe over Asia. An undisciplined host
which followed the hermit's ass, was reduced to half its original number in
passing through Bulgaria, and finally was utterly destroyed by the Turks.
When the more disciplined army of the crusaders reached the plain of
Nicaea^ they found a high pyramid formed of the bones of their predecessors.
At Edessa, which voluntarily surrendered to Baldwin, and at Nicaea and
Antioch, which were soon conquered, the pilgrim princes erected prineipali-
ties for themselves. After indescribable sufferings, Jerusalem was stormed
on the fifteenth of July, 1099, and through blood and flames the army
marched singing holy songs to the Church of the Heeurrection. Godfrey of
a) Lambert Scha/n. ad. ann. 1065.
b) SylT€9tri £p. a<l. univ. £cc {Bouqnet Tb. X. p. 42«s.> Gregor. ad Ilemr. E. (Jfcmai Th.
XX pc 150.)
c) JfuMi Th. XX. p. Snsa. Bongar* Th. L p. S6. 81. SS^m.
CHAP. L PAPACY. § 184. PASCAL IL HENRY V. 199
Bauilhn was proclaimed the first king of Jerusalem, although the piety of
his heroic spirit refused to wear a royal crown where the Son of God had
worn a crown of thorns.
§ 184. Pascal IL, 1099-1118.
Letters and public documents in Manai Th. XX. p. 977. di5per»ed in Uldarici Cod. epistolaria.
Life by PandulphuM and tbe Cardinal of Aragon^ with original dl>cn^)ent^ may be found in 3/u-
ratori Th. IIL P. L p. 8M and 860.— £1 GertaU, pollc. Hist Deutscbl. nntcr Uein. Y. and Lothar.
IL L|is. 1S41. S Th.
Foicaly whom Gregory had taken from the monastery of Clugni and
made a cardinal, possessed the fiery spirit without the firmness, and the zeal
for the hierarchy without the knowledge of its proper limits, which had been
displayed by his patron. Philip of France, who had again been exconimu-
mcated on account of his illicit connection, received absolution on his taking
an oath that he would renounce Bertrade (1104). But when this oath was
violated the pope took no notice of the perjury. A violent contest sprung
np between Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, in behalf of tlie pope, and
Henry L of EngUtnd, in which the latter contended for his crown and the
former for his life. It was finally compromised (1106) by the king's renun-
dation of the right of investiture with respect to bishops, though ho retained
the power of exacting fi*om them the oath of allegiance, (ft) Henry TV.
abdicated in favor of his son who had rebelled against him, but died (1106)
under a sentence of excommunication which reached even his lifeless
corpse. But Henry V. had no sooner become settled in his throne, than he
laid claim to tbe ancient royal prerogative of investing bishops with the ring
and crosier, and to support his claim he crossed the Alps with a powerful
anny(lllO). In this extremity, the pope thought of purchasing the free-
dom of the Church by the sacrifice of its secular power, and accordingly he
proposed to restore to the king the imperial fiefs belonging to the bishops, on
condition that the episcopal elections might be free from the royal interfer-
ence. But the bishops and the princes were terrified at the idea of a con-
tract by which the power of the Church would have been temporarily anni-
bilated, and that of the king would have been rendered overwhelming*(J)
The execution of such a compact would have been practicable only by a
complete revolution. On the other hand, Henry had the pope imprisoned,
and compelled him by threats to place the imperial crown upon his head,
wlemnly to acknowledge the king's right of investiture, and to promise
WTerto issue against him a sentence of excommunication. (<r) The pope, how-
ever, could not act as a private person in this matter, since he stood as the
wpreeentative of a particular system of things. Pascal was therefore
<>l>liged to listen to the most bitter reproaches for his treasonable conduct
toward the Church, and at a synod held at the Latcran (1112), to retract all
^t he had done. On his refusal to excommunicato the emperor, the sen-
0) Letters of Anwlnif his Life by bia confessor Eadmer, and bis Historia novorum I. Y L are In
-^wrfwi Opp. Par. 1721. 2 Th. f F. R. Uaue^ Ans. t. C. Lolpz. 1843. Tli. 1.
h PfriM Th. IV. p. 68aa. Card. Aragatu Vita Paach. {JfuratoH p. 860.)
^) PertB Th.lY.^llm.
A*
200 MEDIAEVAL CnURCH HISTORY. PEE. IIL A. D. 800-1216L
tence was pronounced by his legates, {d) While Gregory was yet alive, Ma-
tilda^ for the good of her soul* had bequeathed to him all her possessions in
trust for the Romish Church, (e) At her death (1115) new materials were
added to the controversy, since the emperor claimed her estates as an impe-
rial fief, and on the ground that he was properly her heir at law, while the
pope claimed them as the inheritance of St. Peter. The people now began
to perceive that the papal ban was launched against the emperor for his do-
fence of the rights of the empire. Henry V. took violent possession of tho
forfeited fief, and drove the pope from Rome. The pontifi^, however, was
restored to the city by the Normans, and died while making active prepara-
tions for war.
§ 186. Caliztuall, 1119-24. Concordat of Worms.
The cause of the emperor in Rome was sustained principally by the pow-
erful family of the Frangipani. Gelaslus 11.^ whom the cardinals elected,
was suddenly attacked by persons belonging to that family, cruelly abused,
and obliged to fly to the friendly territory of France, where, after a
brief victory, he died as early as 1119. («) By his advice, Guido, Arch-
bishop of Vienna, a prince of the house of Burgundy, was chosen to be his
successor under the name of Calixtus II. (If) At a synod held at Rheims
this pontifl^ renewed the sentence of excommunication against the emperor,
whom he called a second Judas. The imperial party in Rome had made
choice of Burdinus, Archbishop of Braga, Gregory VIII., who was over-
powered by the Normans, was cruelly mocked by the Roman populace, and
finally died in the papal dungeon, {c) Adalbert, Archbishop of Mentz, for-
merly the imperial counsellor, and by whose advice all the violent and irregu-
lar proceedings against the pope had been conducted, was now seized by the
hierarchical spirit, and sought to renew the civil war in Germany. But the
people, tired of the evils which had been produced in the empire during a
period of fifty years' dissension among its rulers, were importunate in their
demands for peace. Finally a Concordat was agreed upon at an imperial
Diet at Worms (1122), on conditions similar to those previously acknow-
ledged in France and England. This was afterwards confirmed at the first
general council in the Later an (1123). "The emperor surrenders to God,
to St. Peter and Paul, and to the Catholic Church, all right of investiture by
ring and crosier. He grants that elections and ordinations in all churches
shall take place fr^ly in accordance with ecclesiastical laws. The pope
agrees that the election of German prelates shall be performed in the presence
of the emperor, provided it is without violence or simony. In case any elec-
tion is disputed, the emperor shall render assistance to the legal party with
d) Baron, ad. ann. 1111. Acta of Synod, Man»i Th. XXL p. 4988. Planck^ Acta Inter Ilenr.
V. et Pascb. II. Oott, 1785.
«) The conveyance of the allodial estate by will is certain, but the original document (Jfuratori
Th. V. p. 884.) of 1102, by which a legal gift waa attempted to be conveyed intor vlvoe Is doubtAiL
Tiraboachiy Memorie Modonese. Th. I. p. 1408a. L^o, Italien vol. I. p. 4778a.
a) Pandulphi Puani Vita Qelaa. {Murat Th. IIL P. I. p. 867s8.)
I) Jaffi^ p. 62788^ Biographies in Muratori Th. IIL P. L p. 41Saa.
c) BaluHuf, Vita BurdiuL (Miacell. Par. 1680. L IIL p. 471s8.)
CHAP. I. PAPACY. $186. AKNOLD OF BRESCIA. 201
the advice of the archbishop and the bishops. The person elected is invest-
ed with the imperial fiefs by the ro3al sceptre pledged for the execntion of
every thing required by law. Whoever is consecrated shall also receive in
like manner his investitures from other parts of the empire within six
months." (</) Although in this proceeding the pope had barely saved appear-
ances, and not the reality of his cause, and the strict hierarchical party com-
plained loudly of the concessions made, so overwhelming was the authority
of the papacy, that the influence which the emperor had hitherto exercised
in the elections was gradually transferred to the pope, in spite of the laws by
which their freedom was guaranteed.
§ 186. Arnold of Brescia and Bernard of Clairtaux.
J . D. Koler^ de Am. BrixionsL Ooeti 1742. 4. K. Beck^ Arnold v. Br. (Basl. Wisa. Zeitsch. 1824.
H. 1) m: Franke, Arnold v. Br. a. 9. Zelt Zarlch. 1825. Respecting Bernard, see § 207.
The Franconian imperial house became extinct on the death of Henry V.
(1125), and a king chosen by suffrages had to purchase his new sovereignty
from the states of the empire and from the pope. Lothaire II, having been
chosen, received the allodial estates of the Countess Matilda from the hands
of Innocent IL (1130-43), because she had been the pope's vassal, {a) The elec-
tion of bishops was no longer restrained by the presence of the emperor, and
the decisive question now began to be agitated whether the investiture of
bishops should take place before or after ];heir consecration. (U) During the
struggles between the imperial and papal governments a new power had
sprang up, first in the episcopal cities of Lombardy, from the remnants of the
Roman municipal constitution. In this was presented an omen of a now period,
io which independent cities were to enjoy their liberties, and constitute a third
estate in opposition to the pretensions of the secular and spiritual nobility, (c)
Arnold of Brescia embraced the extreme views connected with this tendency,
Mid regarded the condition of the apostolic Church as a law for all pe-
riods of the world. He was a pupil of Abelard, had been a clergyman in his
Dative city, was rigid and abstemious in his rules of conduct, and taught that
the clergy ought to possess no worldly property, and that such possessions
v«e the cause of all the abuses in the Church. The second Council of Eat-
ewn(1139) imposed silence upon this most dangerous heretic, and by papal
"iflaence he was driven from Italy, France, and Zurich, until in the city of
Rome itself he attained supreme power. For, falling in with his views, the
Romans (after 1143) confined the pope to the exercise of ecclesiastical gov-
^rwnent, and to the possession of tithes and voluntary offerings, appointed a
Senate, and wrote to the German king to come and re-establish the capital
of his dominions according to ancient imperial laws, within the walls of tho
«') I*erUTh. IV. p. 758. Manst Th. XXI. p. 2S78. Acta of the Latcran Synod. lb. p. 28158.—
''• <?• ffofmann, Dn. ad Concordat, Uenr. et CallxtL ViL 1T39. 4
«) ManH Th. XXL p. 892.
*) Olen%cM<tger^ Erleatr. der pQld. Bulle. Frkf. 1766. 4. Cartularies, p. 19. Oeata Archiep. Trevlr
b» EctQrd Th. IL p. 2197. Radinici de gest Frider. 1, 10. ^
') leo In his treatises aii Italy, samoaarily in the Oescb. d. MA. vol. I. p. MSss. JliiUmann, das
^*<^^eseo des MA. Bonn. 1827. 2 vol& Jager^ a. d. rel. Bewegg. in d. schwiib. 8tadten y. deren
'""Buoc&h. m. d. ideen Arnolds. {Klaiber'9 Btad. d. Qeisa Wdrt toL IV. H. 1.)
202 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. FEE. IIL A. D. 80(^1810.
eternal city, (d) Lucius II, (1144) led an army against the people, and while
his troops were storming the capital, he was killed by a paving-stone (1145).
Bu genius J II. fled to the quiet convent of his preceptor St. Bernard, by
whose counsel he was directed in the government of the Church, (e) Roger,
King of the Normans, having brought him back to Italy, Bernard wrote for
his illustrious pupil the " Contemplations on the Papacy." (/) In this work
the author regards the papacy in its ideal glory, as an office appointed by
God for maintaining justice and concord among the people; he examines the
difficult duties which such an office involves in relation to human infirmity,
and predicts that its worldly arrogance will bring it to an unhappy end. No
efforts, however, could give peace to Rome, where struggles for ascendency
continually alternated with efforts at accommodation with the popular party.
An English mendicant boy who had been promoted from one ecclesiastical
station to another, until he had become Bishop of Albano, succeeded Enge-
nius under the name of Hadrian IV, (1154). {g) He prohibited all public wor-
ship in Rome, until the senate from jealousy abandoned Arnold of Brescia.
The latter soon after fell into the hands of the emperor Frederic, who sacri-
ficed him either from a professed regard to the pope, or from a real hatred
to republican liberty. He was finally hung at Rome (1155), his body was
burned, and his ashes were thrown into the Tiber, {h)
187. The Crusade of St, Bernard,
Palestine had now become a European colony, receiving continual acces-
sions of people from the migrations of discontented persons hoping to im-
prove their condition by the change. The relations and parties which existed
in Europe were therefore repeated there in an exaggerated form. Accord-
ingly we find there a feudal sovereignty, in which the king was the chief and
simply the first baron of the realm. He was also in perpetual conflict with
the hierarchy, whose chief was the Patriarch of Jerusalem, and who attempt-
ed to re-enact the part of the pope, so far as his relations to the king were
concerned. Between these two personages sprung np independent municipal
associations, and companies of spiritual knights, (a) The Greek emperor was
always suspected and secretly hated, and the native Christians were regarded
as aliens and proper objects of oppression. The Mohammedans fought under
the conviction that it was for religion, honor and dominion. The Norman
kingdom of Edessa had been overthrown (1144), and it was evident that
deliverance could be expected only by new levies from the West. Bernard^
the great saint of that age, assumed the direction of this enterprise, promis-
ing, as the messenger of God, a certain victory. Eugenins went so far as to
d) MarUite ampl. CoL Th. II. p. 89Ss. Otto FHs. de reb. gest Frld. I, 2a
e) Jitffi p. 617a0.
/) De Conahleratlone I V. (Bernardi 0pp. Ven. Th. IL) (7. F. ScJifuider^ Bor. 1S51.
g) R. Ruby, Adrian IV. Lond 1849.
h) Geroh^ Provost of Keicbersperg, de investigatione AntlcbristL (jGrtUeri Col. Scrr. adr. "W«l-
dens. Proleejt. c 4.)
a) The laws enacted there are lost, but tbej may be inferred fW>m the code which Count Jtan
cTJMin established In Cyprua: Acaiflee et bona uaagea don royaame de Jeroaalem, etc p. IhaumoM
ds Thaumatire. Par. 1690.
CHAP. L PAPACY. $ ISS. FREDERIC L HADRIAN IV. 203 *
sacrifice the rights of creditors and feudal lords, that he might promote the
interests of this crusade, (b) Louis VII. of France took up the cross, that he
might atone for his crime of hnrning a church filled with human beings, and
Canrad of Germany was hurried into the same act against his inclinations
by the power of Bernard's eloquence. Each of these princes led across the
Hellespont an army of 70,000 men (1147). Most of these perished in conse-
quence of the deceitful poUcy of the Greeks, and the opposition of the ele-
ments, so that the princes returned with only the fragments of their
armies, (c) Bernard defended his veracity by appealing to the inscrutable
nature of the divine counsels, and by complaining of the crusaders them-
selves, whose crimes had rendered thorn unworthy of victory. The more
pious portion of his contemporaries were consoled with the reflection, that if
the undertaking had been injurious to their temporal interest, it had certainly
promoted the welfare of their souls, (d)
§ 188. Frederic /., Barharossa^ 1152-1190.
L Constltutiones in PerU P. IV. p. 89-185u 0(to FrUlng. de gestis Frltlerlci 1. II. till 1158, con
tinned by liaderieus tl!! 1160. {3furatoH Th. VI. p. 629.) Godo/redi YA^rhUnHiH Pantheon till
lt8& (Pittoriiu Tb. IL p. 8.) GnnVieri Ligurinns n<ar the end of the 12th cent ed. Dumgf,
Ileidelb. 1$12. The Italian Chruntclera hnd others in Jfuratori Th. VI. The contemporary poi>e9y
ami original docnments in Manti Tb. XXIsi. Jajfft^ p. 65S-S54. Biographies in JJuratori Tb.
IIL p. Is. Jttff, p. 658-854.
IL Xortum^ Fr. I. Aar. 1818. J. VoipU Oeecb. d. Lombarden-Bandes n. a. Kampfes. mit Fr.
Ki*nl}^b. IS IS. F. «. liaumer, Gesch. d. Ilohenst Lpz. (1828) 1841s. vol IL liingy Fr. L iou
Kimpfe g«'gen Alex. III. Stuttg. 1835. //. lieuter, Oesch. Alex. IIL u. d. Kirche seiner Zeit Berl.
1S15. ToL 1. W. Zimmerman^ die Ilohenst o. Kampf. d. Monarchle gegen Papst und repabl. Fieih.
Stattg. 1S38. S vola.
The heroic race of the HoTienstavfens almost succeeded in realizing the
idea of the empire. Frederic /., already renowned for his heroic exploits in
the East and in the West, ascended the throne with a determination to re-
establish, in spite of all opposition, the ancient power of the emperor Charles
on both sides of the Alps. He well knew, however, that the pope could be
of immense service to him in the attainment of his universal dominion, (a)
He therefore gave Uadrian assurances of his friendship when he entered upon
his Roman expedition (1155), and although some violations of good faith
then took place, they were easily overlooked when both parties were inclined
to peace. But the Roman people received iron instead of gold. First, Ila-
drian's one-sided treaty with the King of the Two Sicilies, and then an occa-
sional hint from him that the emperor held the empire as a feudal tenure
from the pope, {I) raised the indignation of the German nation. Under their
powerful leader this people had been awakened to a recollection of their
Mcieut independence. The emperor indulged the hope of putting an end to
the subjection paid to a foreign bishop, and of forming a great national Ger-
°^ Church, under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Treves, to whom
»
*) Bugen. Epi ad Ludov. (J/ti««i Th. XXL p. 6268.)
«) Otto FrU. de gest Frid. I, SSsa. Odo de Deogilo, de profectione Lud, in Or. (Chi/let, Ber-
Mrtl lliusire genus. Divione. 1660. 4.) WiL Tyr. XVI, ISss.
^ J^frn. de consider. II, 1. Otto Frising. 1. c. L 60.
") Joan, Saruber. cpi &9. h) ManH Th. XX p. 790.
204 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. III. A. D. 800-1216.
it was not altogether without significance that our Lord bequeathed his seam-
less coat, and Peter his staff. This plan, however, failed of accomplishment
on account of the jealousy which prevailed among the German princes, and the
contest with Italy, (c) The emperor wenc once more across the Alps (1158)
with a larger army than before, reduced Milan to submission, and at the Diet
of the Roncalian plains had his imperial rights explained out of the Roman
Code by the renowned doctors of civil law in Bologna. According to these,
his authority was that of an unlimited monarchy, such as was utterly for-
eign to the usages of the German people. But the power of science of which
the Italians were at that time proud, was by this decision added to that of
the imperial arms, (d) The bishops as well as the towns were referred to
long forgotten feudal obligations, and when the hierarchy beheld its rights
violated, it began to grasp after its spiritual powers, when Hadrian died
(1159). The hierarchical party elected in his stead Alexander III.^ while a
few cardinals in the imperial interest chose Victor III. Alexander, whose
cause was triumphant on nccount of its connection with that of popular free-
dom. A few cities of Upper Italy had sworn together (1164) that they
would rather suffer destruction than any longer endure the oppressions
which the imperial deputies had arbitrarily inflicted upon them. This League
of Verona was soon after gradually extended till it became the great Lorn-
bardie League^ at the head of which the pope appeared as the supreme dema-
gogue. A terrible war was now kindled, in which one party contended for
freedom and the other against rebels. Abandoned by the army of the
Guelphs, the emperor was defeated at Lcgnano (May 29, 11 70), but even
when defeated and excommunicated he was still an object of terror. He
concluded a treaty of peace and friendship with Alexander at Venice (Aug.
1, 1177), in which he renounced the rival pope, and entered into a truce of
fifteen years with the King of the Sicilies, and another of six years with the
Lombards. This last, after the death of Alexander (1181), was exchanged
for the peace of Constance (1183). {e) The basis of the treaty of peace Avith
the hierarchy was the Concordat of Wonns, while that of the peace with
the cities was the condition of Itajy before the second Roman expedition.
The cities were, as republics, to be equal in rank Avith the great vassals of
the crown, and the estates of the Countess Matilda were to remain in the
possession of the emperor for fifteen years, when they were to be disposed
of by a decision of arbitrators. The emperor then took signal vengeance
upon the Guelphic family, and thereby established his supremacy in Germa-
ny. By the marriage of his son Henry with Constantia, the heiress of the
two Sicilies (1186), he also acquired for his house a prospect of possessing
the whole of Italy.
c) Comp. J. Ficlrer, Reinald v. Dassel, Reichskanzler u. Erzb. v. Koln. KGln. 1S50.
d) S(if>iQ7iy, Oescb. des rom. Rechts Im Mlttelalter. Heldelb. 18158a. vol. IV. p. 151B8.
e) Convcntus Vcnetus ; Pertz Th. IV. p. 151m. Pax Constantlae: lb. p. I'Sss.
CUAP. L TAPACY. § 189. BECKET. 205
§ 189. Thomas Bechet.
I. Thorn. Bed'. Epp. 1. VI. cd. Ch. Lupm, Brux. 1682. 4. S. Thorn. Cant 0pp. (Patroa Ecc-
.\ngL ed. GUes^ Oxon. lS45ss. vols. I.-YIII. Biographies by fuur of his followers: Johannes Saris-
ber. Wilh. Stepbaiiidea, Alanus and Herbert dc Boeham, by the command of Greg. IX. collected
in the QuadrilogQS do vita ^. Thomae, froquenlly published, esiiecially In Lnpns' edition of the Letters.
IL Hist de demel6 de Henri II. avcc Becket Amst 1756. BataiUe, vie poUtiqae at civile de
Til. B«^k. Par. 1842. JlerheH de Botiehatn, Vita S. Thom. (Patres Ecc Angl. vol. VIII.) BrUehar^
Th. Beck. (Tub. Qnrt. 1852. H. \.)—Thierty, Illst de la conqnoto de I'Angl. par les Normands. Par.
1S25. vol. II. p. 876m. [transl. into Engl, by Wm. I/mlitt, with an App. Lond. 1847. 2 vol& S.]
lievUr^ Alexander III. vol. I. p. 2S$9s. {J. A. GUea^ Life and Letters of Th. i^ Becket, by contem-
porary historians. Lond. 1846. 2 vols. S. Eclectic Mag. Jane, 1846.]
During the reigns of William the Conqueror and his son, the English
dergy had been kept in the most rigorous subjection. But in the midst of
the party struggles which took place under the feeble government of Ste-
phen (1135-54), they broke loose from the State and established their free-
dom by connecting themselves intimately with the Roman court, as the only
tribunal of ultiniate appeal in all legal matters in which they were concerned.
Henry II. demanded that the rights of the crown over the clergy should be
restored, and caused an edict to be passed at the Diet of Clarendon (1164),
which declared, *' The election of prelates shall take place in the royal chapel
with the consent of the king. In all civil matters, and in cases of dispute
with laymen, the clergy shall be amenable to the royal court. Without the
consent of the king, no cause can be carried to any foreign jurisdiction, no
clergyman shall leave the kingdom, and no person belonging to the royal
council shall be excommunicated."* For the accomplishment of his plan
the king had appointed his Chancellor, Tliomaa Becl-et, Archbishop of Can-
terbury (11 02). But Becket was no sooner made the head of the Anglican
Church, than he became possessed of the spirit of his station. lie laid aside
all worldly pomp, and put on the simple habit of a monk. He publicly per-
formed penance for giving his assent to the Constitutions of Clarendon, and
received from Alexander III. absolution from the oath he had taken with
respect to them, lie was now obliged to fly before the king's wrath, which
fell upon his innocent kindred, and spared not even the child in the cradle.
Sustained by the power of the pope, ho maintained his cause, Avhile in France,
V spiritual weapons, until he compelled his king to enter into a compromise
^y which he was allowed to return to his diocese. He had no sooner done
^is than he issued sentence of excommunication against all who adhered to
^e Constitutions of Clarendon. A careless expression used by the king was
seized upon by his knights, and unfortunately carried into speedy execution,
JiDd on the 29 th of December, 1170, the archbishop was slain at the very
foot of the altar. Alexander canonized this bold martyr for his ecclesiastical
independence, and the king was generally looked upon by the people as
^ilty of the murder. As the opinions of the people were of great impor-
^ce to Henry in his contests with his rebellious son, he purchased absolution
from Rome by conceding to it the freedom of its judicial proceedings. He
^ became reconciled to his people by performing an humble penance at the
• Mansl Th. XXI. p. 1187. 1194m. {LandorCn Manual of Conncils, p. 182^8. ChurtoiC» Early
^L Church, chap. 18w WUkiru^ Ck)nc. vol J. pi 485.]
206 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORT. PER IIL A. D. 800-1216.
grave of his deadly enemy (1174). After this the papal legates exercised
complete control over the Church and the revennes of England.
§ 190. The Crumde against Salaheddin.
1) Tageno^ Decanas Ecc. Patav. Dcjscr. cxpeditionis AslaL FridericL {FreJier Th. I. p. 40B.)
Antberti, Clerid Austriaci, Hist de exjied. Fiid. ed. J. Dobrotctky, Prag. 1S27. 2) Galfiidi d4
Vino Salvo Itinenuiain Richardi. {Bongar^ Th. I. p. 1150. bat better, Gale^ Scrr. Hist AngL voL
II. p. 247.) Eigordi Gothi (royal phyalclan) Ann. de reb. a Phil. Aug. jrestK {Du Che»ne Th. V.
p. 1.) [G. P. R. James, Ili^t of Richard Coeor de Lion. Lond. 1S42. and Phtlad. 1645. 2 vols, a T.
KeigMUy, C. Mills, and J. Jfichaud, as referred to in § 188. Chronicles of the Crusaders (in Bohnli
Ant Lib.) Lond. 184S.]
Salaheddin united under his sword Anterior Asia and Egypt. Jerusalem
submitted to him after a sanguinary battle (Oct. 3, 1187). Overwhelmed
with the news, Europe heard the call of Gregory VIII. for a new crusade,
to prepare for which all who remained at home, even the Church, were
required to contribute Salaheddin's Tithe. Even Frederic I. did not consider
himself too old to resume the heroic life of his youth. He broke his way
through the Grecian empire and Asia Minor, and was finally drowned in the
Calycadnus, near Seleucia (1190). Hi« son and the strength of his host fell
before the plague. The same summer, the kings of France and England,
through the mediation of the Church, came to an ac^ustment of their differ-
ences, and transported their armies by sea to Palestine. Richard the Lion*
hearted, on his way thither, recovered Cyprus from the hands of a Grecian
rebel, and invested his knights with the fiefs of nearly half the island.
Akron also soon fell before them. But in vain were prodigies of valor per-
formed, since every advantage was rendered useless by the mutual jealousies
of the ditforent sovereigns and nations. After a few months Philip Augus-
tm was taken sick, returned to France, and equipped himself against the pos-
sessions of the English king. Richard, forsaken by all, and threatened at
home, concluded with his noble enemy a three years' truce, which secured
the coast as a Christian territory, and opened Jerusalem to the visits of the
pilgrims. On his return home the Lion-heart was imprisoned in Austria,
and sold to the emperor, from whom he was purchased by his own people.
The pope proved at least his good will by asserting the Christian law of nar
tions in behalf of a crusadeh.""
§ 191. Emry VI. Celestine IIL (1191-1198.)
Peru Th. IV. p. 186s8. Jaffi p. 6S6s8.— i?auin«r, Hohe&st vol XL p. 62888. O. Abel, K Phil
ipp d. Ilohenst BrL 1SS2. p. 188a.
Henry VL was on an expedition through Italy to take possession of the
Two Sicilies, which had fallen to him by inheritance (1189), when he received
from the East the news of his father's death. He immediately purchased an
imperial coronation from the Romans, by abandoning the faithful city of
Tusculum. The Sicilians, dreading a foreign government, had elevated to
the throne Count Tancred^ a natural son of their extinct royal family, whom
the pope hastened to invest as his vassal. But after Tancred's death (1194),
• Baron, ad ann. 119a Na Saa. MaUk. ParU ad ann. IIM.
CHAP. I. PAPACY. S IW. CELESTINE IIL $ IW- INNOCENT IIL 207
the Two Sicilies submitted themselves to Henry. This prince possessed the
powerful talents for government, but not the chivalrous spirit of his father,
and utterly regardless of the means which he used, he now held Italy and
the pope under the most galling slavery. He now made preparations to ren-
der the crown of the German empire hereditary in his family, to engage in
another crusade, and to conquer the Grecian empire. Pious prophecies
hailed him as the servant of the Lord to chastise the Church and to punish
the nations, (a) Celestine IJLy the aged pope who had placed the crown
upon his head, without venturing upon any decisive step, merely admonished
him that it would profit no one to gain the whole world to the injury of his
own souL (b) The youthful emperor beheld a vast Grerman empire extended
before him, when a superior power suddenly interposed, and he died at Mes-
eina (Sept. 28, 1197), leaving Frederic 11,^ a child of but three years of age,
in the midst of his enemies.
§ 192. Innocent IIL Jan. 8, 1198.-VwZy 16, 1216.
L EpUtoiar. Innoc 1. XIX. (1. 2. in parts 5. 10-lS. Yola. in Epp. Inn. ed. BaluHuHy V«c. 2 Th. f.
& 5-9tii y<A. in Diplomata etc ad res Francicas spectantia edd. Feudrix da Briquigny et la Porte du
TkeiL Par. 1791. 2 Th.) Regittrum Inn, III. sopv nogotlo Rom. Imp. {Baluz, Tb. I. p. 687.) J, F.
Boehmer, Begesta Imp. now ed. Stnttg. 1849. 4 p. 289s9.— (7««to Inn. IIL by a contemporary. (Bri^
fvigny Th. L) Richardi de & Germano Chronic ad a. 1189-1248. (MuratoH Th. VII. p. 963.) The
OBbTorable side in MattAaeut Paris, Hist rai^or. [MaiL Paris, Chronicle, Stc transl. by Giles.
Loud. 18ia 12.]
IL F. Hurler, Gesch. Innoc III. n. seiner Zeitgenosscn. H&mb. 1834-42. 4 vols. (18456. 8 ed.)
\AVb6 Jorry'9 Tlist of Innocent IIL (in French) is announced in Paris. 1858. Bohringer^ Church of
Ctolit sod its witnesses, in a new rol. publ. in Lpa. 1854. is a life of Innoc IIL]
Cardinal LotJiaire, of the noble Roman house of Gonti which possessed
landed estates in Anagni and Segni, educated in Rome, Paris, and Bologna,
and eminent not only as a theologian but as a jurist, was raised to the papal
chair in the full vigor of early manhood under the name of Innocent III.
The grand objects to which this richly endowed sacerdotal prince devoted his
thoughts were the fortification of the States of the Church, the deliverance
of Italy from the dominion of foreign princes, the separation of the Two
Sicilies from all connection with the German empire, the liberation of the
Oriental Church, the exercise of a guardianship over« the confederacy of the
States, the extermination of heretics from the Church, and the promotion of
ecclesiastical discipline. Immediately after his consecration he exacted an
oath of allegiance from the imperial prefect of the city, accustomed the no-
bility and people of Rome to obedience, although he found them often
deficient in this respect, took the Lombardic League under his protection, and
established a similar confederacy of cities in Tuscany, by the aid of which he
expelled the German governor whom Henry had made ruler of the territories
belonging to the Church. Even before his baptism Henry's son was acknowl-
edged as his father's successor in the empire. But Innocent was afraid to
aee bo many crowns united upon a single head, and the princes of the empy*e
thought the crown of Charles was too great and heavy for the head of a
child. Having renounced all the prerogatives of the Sicilian monarchy,
a) InterpreUtio praeclara AbbaUs Joachim in Hi^emiam. Yen. 15S6. Comp. Abel, Philippe
^tll b)Ja/i,p.WK
208 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH UISTORY. TER. IIL A. D. 800-1216.
Frederic II. was invested by Innocent with the feudal sovereignty of the
Sicilies. So highly was the power and uprightness of the pope esteemed
that Constantia on bor death-bed intrusted to him tlie guardianship of her
orphan child (Nov. 27, 1198). lie governed the Two Sicilies with firmness
and energy, so far at least as was possible under the difficulties of his situa-
tion, and in face of the opposition of the German and Sicilian nobles. Italy
was distracted by various factions, all of which, however, attached them-
selves to the one or the other of the two great parties, in favor of the CImrch
or of the empire, afterwards called Guelphs and Ghihellities. Innocent pre-
pared the way for the reconciliation of these parties, without which the
freedom of Italy could never bo secured, by taking Frederic II. the natural
head of the Ghibellines under his protection. Under his guardianship that
prince received a liberal and brilliant education. But the deliverance of
Italy was an event as yet far distant and beyond the power of the papacy.
In Germany, when Philip of Suabia perceived that the crown could not be
obtained for his nephew he resolved to acquire it for himself. The party of
the Guelphs, on the other hand, chose Otho IV., a son of Henry the Lion.
Both rival kings appealed to Innocent, who declared that it was the business
of the pope to decide in all cases of c(tnte>sted elections. With every appear-
ance of the utmost impartiality, and after a long and cautious delay, he decided
against the Ilohenstaufen (1201), but when victory seemed to decide in favor of
that prince he hesitated not to negotiate with him. {n) Philip, however, was
soon after assiissinated (1208; by Otho of Wittelsbach, one of his offended vassals.
This base deed was detested by Innocent, Otho, and all Germany. Otho was
then crowned at Rome (1209) ; not, however, till he had given security for
the freedom of ecclesiastical elections, the toleration of appeals to Rome,
and the legality of all the claims which the Church had instituted for pro-
perty against the empire, (h) But when he afterwards adhered to the impe-
rial oath, in which he had sworn that he would demand the restoration of all
fiefs which had been taken from the empire,' the whole political scheme of the
pope was endangered. Greatly dissatisfied. Innocent refused to acknowledge
him any farther. Still resolved in some way to accomplish his purposes he
made Frederic II. swe(^r that when he shoiUd attain the imperial crown he
would freely confer Sicily upon his son. This oath he regarded as a sufficient
pretext for so using Frederic as to allay the tlireatening danger. Armed with
the pope's gold and benediction, the Hohenstaufen now flew across tlie Alps
to take possession of his father's empire (1212). Even with the blessing of the
Church Otho seemed forsaken by fortune, and every one. hastened to con-
nect himself with the party of the youthful conqueror. In the very first
year of his reign Innocent proclaimed a crusade. Germany was prevented
by the civil war from enlisting in this service, and the kings of France and
England had fulfilled their vows by their achievements in the last crusade.
But Fulco of Neuilly who went forth preaching repentance, so stirred the
hearts of the French people that the nobility of France placed themselves at
a) WicJi^i. de Ottonis IV. et TbiL Saovj ccrtanilnibus atqae Inn. labore in sedandam Begum oozt-
tcntionem. Regiom. 1S35. 0. Abel^ Philipp. See § 135.
I) negUtrum Imp. Ep. TT. 186. 1S8. 1S9.
CHAP. I. PAPACY, i 192. INNOCENT III. PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 209
the head of the nndertaking, and the Venetians were hired to transport and
sost&in the army by a naval force. The dugo, Dandolo^ took advantage of
the embarrassments experienced in the payment of the price agreed upon,
and in spite of the remonstrances and anathemas of the pope he employed
the army of the crass in establishing the power of St. Mark in Dalmatia.
The crusaders were then involved by the arts of a fugitive prince in the wars
of the Greek imperial palace. In the course of these contests Constantinople
was token (April 12, 1204), a Latin empire was formed there, and Baldwin,
Count of Flanders, was proclaimed its first but powerless emperor. Innocent
condemned the whole transaction and the horrors connected with it, but did
not scruple to derive advantage from it, and the Patriarch of Constantinople
was appointed by him. (<?) But the strong point thus gained, by which a
land passage was opened to Palestine, ingulfed all the resources of men and
treasure which had been prepared for the undertaking. When men failed,
however, a vast host of children took the field. — By a dexterous use of the
paasions, the devotion, the dissensions, the interest, or the despotism of the
kings of Europe, Innocent contrived to exercise supreme control over them.
Fhilip Augustus had repudiated his wife Ingoburge, the sister of the Danish
king, Canute, and the French bishops had given their consent to his second
marriage. Innocent therefore deprived the whole kingdom of Friiuce of
every ecclesiastical privilege, with the exception of the baptism of children
lod absolution for the dying. The heart of the king was deei)ly wounded by
this proceeding, those who were utterly repugnant to each other were required
to become united, and those who truly loved were to be torn asunder. But
terrified at the commotion which prevailed among his people he was com-
pelled to acknowledge the inviolability of his former marriage (1201). (d)
Peter IL of Aragon regarded a coronation by the pope. of so great impor-
tance that he came to receive the cro>vn at St. Peter's altar, solemnly prom-
ising to be faithful, and to pay tribute to the Roman See (1204). Sancho /. of
Portvgal, after a stubborn denial of it, finally acknowledged the validity of
tbe document in which his father had made his kingdom tributary to St.
Peter. By the pope's mediation in Hungary the royal brothers were recon-
ciled, and the king's son was crowned by the states. A disputed election to
the archbishopric of Canterbury was submitted to his decision and pro-
wwnced invalid. This afforded him an opportunity of inducing the canons
^hcwere sent to him to choose his learned friend. Cardinal Stephen Lang-
^whom he immediately consecrated to that office (1207). King John,
* despot without power or judgment, refused to acknowledge I^angton,
ud seized upon the revenues of the clergy. Innocent then laid all £ng-
l«idnnder an interdict, and exconmiunicated the king (1209). John sought
^J violence to compel his clergy still to perform the services of religion,
<) Gtqfni ds VUU-Hardouin, Hist de la conqneete de ConsUnt 1193-1207. [transl into Engl.
^ tSiAiik. Load. 1829. 8.] (jC. du Freene^ Uist de Tempire de Const sous les £mp. fran^ola. Yen*
^t.) HUt of tiie empire bj Xioetat Aoominatu*. 1118-120S. ed. Fabroti. Par. 1647. t
^iBigordi de reb. PhiL Aug. {Du Chesne Th. V. p. 86.) Acta Cona DIvlon. et VIenn. {J^ansi
^ ^IL PL 70a) Soeasionens. {lb. p. 788.)— IL J. Schubt, Phil A. a. Ingeborg. KioL ISOl Cap^-
Mi^ Ujit de PhiL A. Briiz. 1880. Tb. IL p. 141 19lMi
14
210 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 80O-1216L
and to maintain the wavering fidelity of his vassals. But when he had
become utterly ruined in his own country, he was deposed by Innocent,
and his kingdom was bestowed upon Philip of France. Rejoiced at such an
opportunity the latter prepared an army and a fleet for taking possession of
his new kingdom. John then humbled himself before the pope and con-
sented to receive England as a fief from the Holy See (1213). But the bish-
ops and barons, finding themselves subjected to a king whom they abhorred,
and a pope who punished a whole people for the sins of their ruler, called to
mind their ancient privileges, and extorted from John the celebrated Magna
Charta (June 15, 1215), which has ever since been the fundamental law for
the legislative power of an aristocracy sustained by the people. When John
afterwards violated this engagement he was restrained by threats. Innocent
beheld a dependent kingdom wrested from his grasp by a people who were
becoming conscious of their power. In vain did he hurl his anathemas
against the estates and their charter ; the papal power, exalted as it then
was in its authority, had now found an antagonist before whom it was des-
tined to fall, (e) Just as he was on the threshold of great events and yet
conscious of his approaching end, (/) Innocent collected around him the
representatives of Christendom at the Fourth Synod of Lateran (1215), to
take measures for the reconquest of the Holy Land, the extermination of
heretics, and the reformation of the Church. A general Truce of God was
consecrated, that the whole power of the European nations might be directed
to the East. The most terrible measures were determined upon with respect
to heretics. Seventy Canons were ratified by the Council, in which were
specified the articles of the Christian faith, and the most important rules of
law and discipline in a modern form, but in their ancient severity. The pope
is represented as the head of the great Christian family of nations, (gr) With
the powers thus conferred Innocent was right in likening himself to the son
and the various civil governments to the moon, receiving their light from him
as from a feudal lord, (h) He who had often described in the darkest colors
the miseries of the human race, (i) regarded the earth as worthy of his care
only that he might subject it to the law of God. Feeling that he had be-
come too much estranged from himself by the press of public duties, and the
want of time for heavenly contemplations, he longed to eiyoy the privileges
of the pastoral ofiice, and preached as often as possible. His discourses, as
well as his judicial decisions, which were long regarded as models for' legal
documents of that kind, were highly figurative and composed in the style of
the Old Testament. But even in his most fanciftil and subtle allegories there
is always apparent a profound earnestness of spirit, with groat gravity of ex-
pression. With his analytical mind he doubtless sometimes perverted the
cause of justice, according to circumstances, from its strict course of recti-
e) MaUh. Par. ad. ann. 120tes. Original docaments in : Rymeri Foedera et Acta pobL tntsr
Reg. Angliae ot al. Prino. aacta ot om. a Clarke et Holbrooke^ Lend. 181 6ss. toL L P. L
/) Uui-ter, vol. IL p. 68& g) Acta in Mansi Th. XXII. p. 953-10S4 [Landcn^ p. 2988a.]
h) Innoo. 1. 1. Ep. 401. Geeta. e. 68.
t) De mlseria humanae oonditionib s. de oontemtn mundl 0pp. (Sermons A asoetle wrltiogi| in.
oompleto ) CoL 1675. Yen. 1578. 4
CHAP. IL ECCLES. LAW. §198. CANON LAW. 211
tode, and jet he bad a right to boast that even his intercepted letters wonid
be only an additional evidence of his perfect integrity, (l-) He was certainly
covetous of wealth, and his legates, in whom he confided too much, (/) were
still more so ; but no presents ever turned him from his course. His style
of living was as simple as that of Cincinnatas, and his wealth was always
enbservient to his purposes, and freely used in behalf of the crusades and
the poor. He was inflexible in his friendsliips, a father to widows and
orphansi, and when acting as the Vicar of the Supreme Prince of Peace, he
was frequently a peacemaker between princes and their subjects. Misfor-
tune never subjected him to those severe trials in which great characters
are proved, but he availed himself of fortunate circumstances with all the skill
of an ancient Roman. By his exertions Rome became once more the head of
the civilized world ; although his greatest plans were unsuccessful, or contained
the germs of future failure. The legend, according to which the soul of this
great vicar of God was delivered with extreme difSculty from the claims of
hell, (m) merely shows that no mortal can possess unlimited power without
injory, or that even the highest are amenable to a master in heaven, and to
public opinion upon earth.
CHAP. II.-^OOIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH.
§ 198. Gratian and his Predecessors,
BaUtrini do antlq. canonnm Coll. (Leon. 0pp. Tb. IIL p. 28988.) Savigny^ Oesch. d. RSm.
Seehte tm MA. toL IL p. VZia.— Anton, Jugtutini de emendatione Oral L IL Tarmcon. 1S87.
tad often. J". £^ J3^Am«r, de varla Deer. Grat fortana. (At the oommencementof his edit, of the
C J. Can.) SarU^ de Claris arcbigymnasil Bononiena. Professoril). Bon. 1769. t Th. L P. I. p. 24788b
RUggtr^ de Gimt (0pp. Frib. 1778.) and de Qrat Col., motliodo et mendis. (Oblect hist et jar. Ulm.
177&) SaTigoj ToL IIL p. 47588.
The Capitularies of Charles and Louis were collected in summaries and
separate pieces, and published by Ansegisus (827) in four books. The two
first relate to the affairs of the Church. To these wore added the collection
of Jknedietus Levita (845), in which were embraced not only the Capitola-
ries, bot the statutes derived from all the judicial authorities of the time, (a)
The traditions of the ancient ecclesiastical laws and the work of Isidore
formed a basis from that time forward, to which the compilers only added
the more recent laws which had been generally received. The chronological
order was not required in a systematic arrangement, and was also abandoned
for want of a knowledge of the original authorities. Begino, the abbot of
Pruem (d. 915), gave directions from older authorities respecting the visita-
tion of a diocese, and quoted the legal passages on that sulject. (h) Burchard^
k) Botkmtr^ Begesta, p. 290.
/) HurUr^ yoL IL p. W^, perfectly trostwortby in all which is hostile to Innocent
m) Tkamas CaniimprtUens. Vita Latgardts II, 7. {Raynald ad ann. 121d. No. 11.) differently
embellisbed near the elose of the 15th cent in the CompiL chronologica. (Pistor. Tb. L p. 109a)
a) Anteg. in Perta Tb. IIL p. 256. Bened, L&v. lb. Th. IV, 2. p. 17.
&) L. IL de ajaodaL caoais et disclplinis eeoL ed. {BaluM. Par. 1671.) WasaertcMeben^ Lpa. 1340L
Aadqoa etaa. CoL qua ami «t Begino Pramiana. e ood. Vat td.A,L, Biohtart Ber. 1S44.
212 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-1216.
Bishop of Worms (d. 1025), and 7ro, Bishop of Chartres (d. 1115), have col-
lected together the whole stock of genuine and spurious laws, though they
have arranged them in a very arbitrary manner, (r) But when the Roman
law began to receive much academical study, Gratian^ of the convent of St.
, Felix at Bologna, became desirous of enlisting a similar interest in behalf of
the canon law, and (about 1143) {d) wrote his Text Book and Manual, contain-
ing a system of ecclesiastical law on an historical basis. In this he incorpo-
rated all the laws then regarded as in force, deriving his materials principally
from the previous collections, which he sometimes compared with tlie origi-
nal autliorities, and even condescended to borrow some of the most liberal
statutes from the decrees of the Greek synods. The arrangement of the
work was logical, but to some extent dependent upon the historical matter,
and each division was prefaced by legal principles generally derived from
history, and connected by intermediate clauses composed by Gratian himself.
It consisted principally of historical documents, especially laws and legal
opinions of all kinds taken from ecclesiastical and secular authorities, and
grouped together in a fragmentary manner, but copied with verbal correct-
ness. Gratian generally adopted the historical errors of his predecessors, and
seldom reconciles the older with the more recent enactments. Although
this work never received the papal sanction, it possessed so high a character
for science and academic convenience, that ever since, so far as its historical
elements are concerned, it has been received as a manual of canonical law
for the whole Western Church. It has also served as the basis on which,
with the exception of some errors whicli historical criticism has discovered,
eocletjiastical jurisprudence has been principally developed, (e)
§ 194. The Church and the State,
Mondtag^ Qesch. d. deutschcn staat»b. Frcih. o. d. Recbte d. gemelncu Frelen, d. Adels n. d.
Etrcben. Bamb. u. Wurtzb. 1812. JluUmann^ Qescb. (L Urspr. d. Stuode in DeutBcbL 2 od. BerL
ISdO. vol L Suffenheim, StaaUlebcn d. Clerus im Mittelalt BerL 1589. toI. L
The process commenced during the migration of the northern nations
was completed during the stormy period of the ninth and tenth centuries.
This was the process by which the German republics of free warriors and
landed proprietors became merged into a feudal system of complicated sov-
ereignty and dependence. The silent power of the Church also gave its
sanction to the rights of man while claiming those of the Christian. When
the Homan empire had been revived in the German nation by the Othoti, the
emperor was regarded as the political head of Christendom in the West, and
the holy Homan empire as a divine institution. The emperor waa elected by
the German princes and bishops, but he was required to strengthen the
c) Burchardi Decretor. 1. XX Par. 1549. and often,— /po, Pannonnia, L VIIL ed. MeUih, d4
Votmediano^ Lor. 1567. Greater revisions by another band, in 17 vols. : Decretum in 0pp. ed.
FrontOy Par. 1W7. 2 Th. t—Avg. Theiner, tu Ivo's venneintl. Decret Mentz. 1S82. The opposite
view In F. Q. II. Wa^sfrschUben^ Beltr. z. Gesch. d. vorgratian. KKechtsqnellen. Lp*. 1889.
<f) Concordia discordantium canonnm, 1. III. ' Even in 1 ISO it is cited as: ^*in DecroUs,*" and
later generally as the " Decretum.'' Printed as the First Part of the Corpus J. canonicL
«) Guido Pancirdut^ de clavis leg. Interpretib. HI, & Lp& 1721. 4. Savigny, toL IIL p^ 619hi
CHAP. IL KCCLES. LAW. §194 STATE A CHURCH. - 213
power of the empire in Italy, and to obtain possession of the imperial crown
which the popes seldom conferred without requiring entangling oaths and a
subtle confession of faith, (a) But while the imperial power was destroyed
in Italy, and every effort to secure it as an hereditary possession was frus-
trated, the great vassals became firmly established as princes of the empire^
and their fiefs became hereditary. As long as the election, or at least
the investiture of the bishops depended upon the emperor, they were
bis natural allies in opposition to the secular princes. The result was,
that in all those towns in which episcopal sees existed, the imperial favor
to them was so great that the jurisdiction of the courts was superseded
by them, and episcopal immunities (corpora sancta) sprung up. Some of
the bishops were even invested with dukedoms. In other parts of Germany
the bishops were gradually deprived of their political influence, and some
even became dependent upon the higher crown vassals. Right struggled
every where with might, and the royal power with the great vassals.
The Church often found opportunity to mingle in these struggles, and some-
times it was compelled to do so, but not unfrequcntly the confusion was in
this way only increased. In particular instances it was repeatedly overpow-
ered, or compelled to resort to begging, in which it sometimes persevered
with an Indian's obstinacy, (h) Finally, by collecting together all its strength
io the single phalanx of the papacy, it became sp completely victorious that
it threatened to absorb all the prerogatives of the state. And yet the old
legal principle (§ 122), that God has divided all power on earth between the
fmperor and the pf^pe^ was received according to its German construction,
consistently with the later doctrine, that the emperor carried the secular
sword as a feudal Investiture from the pope. It was even conceded that
the civil power might be peculiar in its nature, and the world might be com-
mitted to the government of princes, (c) and that the pope, by virtue of the
sacerdotal and royal prerogatives which he had received from Christ, should
only interfere Avhen they exceeded their just powera. Against the scandals
of which the princes in those rude, times were not unfrequcntly guilty, the
provincial bishops were generally unable to oppose any effectual resistance.
Those, therefore, who acknowledged no law superior to themselves, the pope
gammoned in the name of God to answer at his bar. The temporal inherit-
ance of St. Peter was regarded as indispensable to the personal independence
of the pope, but it involved him in all the Italian convulsions, and was only
a precarious possession in opposition to the claims of the emperor, the great
lords, and the municipalities. The Romans, themselves straitened between
the pope and the emperor, never possessed any thing but a mere caricature
of freedom.
a) E. O. Perta Th. IV. p. 188.
b) Camp. Raumery HobeMtanf. vol VI. p. 167. with BohJen Indlon. vol. I. p. 285.
c)Tb« oldrlew: Sach»en*pifgely \o\. I, art I. The new: SchirnhenttfiifgH, Elnlelt (Frkt
154& rO P. II. oomp. Honor, HI, in Raumer^ toI VI. p. 6a Grimm, Bridiuites Bescheidenh. Oott
l^AL p. LYIL
214 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800^1216.
§ 195. Eeclesiasticnl Power of th^ Papacy,
The general belief that the bishopric of the pope was nniversal, fre-
quently gave a show of justice to the efforts that on every opportunity were
made to extend his power. Since the time of Gregory, the episcopal power
was also regarded as springing wholly from the papal. It was, however,
thonght that, like the emperor in the civil department, the pope should not
suspend the exercise of the subordinate ecclesiastical powers, but rather pro-
tect each of them in their peculiar duties, and the pope was reminded by St.
Bernard that the papal was not the only power which had been instituted
by the apostles. The bishops especially looked upon their pastoral office in
their own dioceses as absolutely inviolable, and they simply regarded ab£0-
lution as especially efficacious when obtained from Rome, (a) In important,
cases dispensations were with increasing eagerness sought for from Rome,
and in all judicial causes in the Church the Roman Curia was looked upon as
the court of ultimate appeal. The office of supreme judge, in which he was
responsible only to God, and the general reputation which he had obtained
of being the most perfect depositary of the pure faith, produced in some
instances a belief that the pope was infallible, (Luke 22, 32 was appealed
to.) Tliis view, however, was never entertained without limitations, or ad-
vanced without opposition. The popes always acknowledged the articles of
faith and the established laws of the Church as the guide and limit of their
powers. They were far from appealing to their own arbitrary authority, but
they looked to the law of God, or what was generally regarded as such, for
the sole rule of their conduct, (h) Tlie Pallium was considered indispensa-
ble to the performance of the archiepiscopal functions, and Gregory based
upon this a demand that all the archbishops should swear allegiance to him
from whom it was received. The same demand was gradually made of all
bishops whenever their elections were confirmed by the popes. At first this
confirmation was sought only when an election was disputed, but soon after
the time of Gregory it was considered essential to all elections, and supplied
occasions for innumerable interferences in the business of the dioceses. Gre-
gory himself still adhered to the freedom of the canonical choice, (p) New
dioceses were erected, and changes in the relations of the old Avere to be
made only with the consent of the pope. When appointments were made
to other benefices, the pope interfered only in particular instances, and by
way of recommendation, although such recommendations were nearly equiva-
lent to commands. The bishops were generally, by their political position,
beyond all danger from the violence of the popes, who had a right to exer-
cise jurisdiction over them only in cases of manifest crime, and with the co-
operation of the Synods. But as a membership in the principal councils
depended frequently upon the papal will, very few of them ever opposed or
thwarted what was known to be the desire of the pope, and most of them
a) Cona Salegnnsted. a. 1022. c la {Mansi Th. XIX- p. 898.) Greg. VII. L YL Epu 4. (7». Tb.
XX. p. 260.) Coinp. D« Marco, de Sacerd. et Imp. IV, 8, 2.
b) Gratlan : P. I. DL«t XL. c 6. and P. I L Cans. XXXII. Quest T. c. 18. /nnoc ///. d*
Pont Serm. 8. Comp. Ilase, StreiUcbr. II. 2. p. QOsa.
c) Greg. VIL 1. V. Ep. 11. L VL Ep. 14.
CHAP. IL ECCLEa LAW. 8195. PRIMACY. 8190. CABDINALS. 215
were assembled only to receive and perform it. The ascendency of the pope
above coimcils was claimed with great caution, and only in some occasional
instances. Ilis authority was much increased by the pilgrimages to the eter-
nal city, for even in the midst of her ruins, the glory of the ancient and the
SQorednesB of the modern world combined with her wonderful attractions to
render it a place of concourse for the people and princes of the West. The
first instance of the canonization of a person at a distance was that of
mricb, the holy Bishop of Augsburg (993), and was occasioned by peculiar
external circumstances. In the twelfth century, this privilege, which in
itself may be regarded as trifling, but became important on account of the
idea from which it sprung, and to whose realization it contributed, (</) was
claimed as exclusively belonging to the pope. A papal Coronation is no-
where met with until after the time of Nicolas I., and on the firpt occasion
of the kind on which they were both present, the emperor led the animal on
which the pope was carried. The kissing of the pope's foot sprung from an
Italian custom. In the estimation of the people it was not an idle display,
but very significant as the offering of pious humility to Him whom the pope
represented. By means of Legates^ the papal power became almost omni-
present. The rapacity of these legates, the venality of the ecclesiastical
oourts, and the illiberal Italian spirit of some of the popes, began to be mat-
ters of pnblic complaint and derision. But as a general thing, the affections
of the people were still firmly attached to the papacy, and the blessings
which it procured in the unity, freedom, and reformation of the Church
were generally acknowledged.
§ 196. The Cardinals,
TkomataifU ret et nov. Ecc disc P. I. 1. II. c IISas. Brtddeus ^t or\^. cnrdinalitiae dlga.
l»a. 12. Muratori, de Cardin. insUtuUone. (Antiqq. Ital. med. acvi. vol. IV. p. 15-2.)
In the primitive Church the cardinals were the ordinary spiritual officers
of the Church (incardinati). Even after the tenth century they were the
canons of a cathedral. But in the Komish sense of the term during the
eleventh century, the cardinals were the highest spiritual officers (i. e., the
deacons and presbyters) of the Church in Rome, and seven suburbican bishops
whose sees were then for the most part much reduced in size, (a) These car-
dinals, in opposition not only to the Roman people and the emperor, but gradu-
aUy even to the other clergy, maintained that it was their sole prerogative to elect
the pope (§ 180). Alexander III. ordained (1 179) that no one could be a legally
elected pope who had not received the votes of two thirds of the legally
assembled cardinals, (b) The cardinals were generally selected by the pope
from among the Italians, and constituted his ecclesiastical and civil council.
Thoogh they possessed no power to control any person of eminent talents in
d) Manti toL XIX. p. 1698a. Mabillan, AcU 8S. Ord. Ben. Sacc. V. Praef. N. 99.— Deer. Greg:
L IIL tit 45k c. l.—Lambertini^ de scrror. Dei canonizattone L IV. {Benedicti A'lV. 0pp. Rom.
1747. ToL L-IV. 4.) Heilmann^ Consecratio Sanctunim ad iivobiiaaus veterum Rom. efflcU.
HaL1754.4
a) Bunaen^ UlppoL {>. 152a.
h) Cone. Later. UL c. 1. {Manti toL XXIL p. 217.) lLand<m, p. 292.]
216 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. UL A. D. 800-1211
the papal chair, their influence was generally sufficient to insure a certain
uniformity of action in opposition to those sudden changes which individuals
would have introduced. In consequence of their rank above the archbishops,
the pope was surrounded with a courtly splendor, and an opportunity waa
afforded by which he could reward great services, and place men of eminent
talents under obligations to himself.
§ 197. The Bishops^ and the Bishops' Chapters,
So high did the pope stand in the estimation of the people, that the
bishops lost nothing in dignity by their subordination to him. On the other
hand, it was by his assistance that they were generally able to preserve their
independence in opposition to the princes of the various countries in which
they lived. There were a few great bishoprics whose Chorbishops had from
the most ancient times acted as the bishops' vicars in all spiritual affairs
with an authority which was uncertain and often usurped by the princes,
but never dangerous to the bishopric, (a) The right of the bishop to ap-
point all ecclesiastical officers in his diocese, was limited by the right of
patronage^ which even a layman could lawfully acquire by founding a
church or a prebend, (ft) The archhishojis^ besides the power of presiding
in the synods of their own dioceses, merely possessed that of confirm-
ing and ordaining the bishops, in which, however, they were obliged to have
the concurrence of the popes or their legates. They generally possessed
very extensive dioiceses, and on account of their rank they acquired special
political privileges. At the coronation of Otho I. the three Rhenish arch-
bishops for the first time took precedence of all the officers of the empire.
Some of the other archbishops acquired a kind of primacy over a whole
kingdom, as Adalbert of Bremen (d. 1072), a man of a brilliant mind, but
consistent only in his vanity, and ready to sacrifice the whole Church to the
promotion ot' the interests of his see, in which he hoped to become a patriarch
of the North, (c) In such instances, however, the popes always hastened to
form another archbishopric in the same country to guard against the
establishment of a national ^patriarchate. In many dioceses, when their
bishops were to be appointed, the nobility and people of the archbishopric con-
tended with the king and neighboring bishops for the right of choice, and not
unfreqiiently those who were appointed by the latter were most terribly re-
pulsed. (^7) After a gradual attainment of their exclusive rights in this matter,
the canons obtained by their prerogative and their prospect of the election, a
position more and more independent of the bishop, and secured to them by
treaties. The canonical life was generally abandoned during the tenth century,
but some zealous popes and bishops insisted upon its re-establishment. In the
midst of much contention two classes of canons were then formed (canonioi
saeculares and regulares), and even monks became possessors of some chap-
ters. The canons were not all clergymen, but they were required by the
T - ■ _ - ■— I I. ■ ■ -^^■— ^
a) BahtM. CapituL vol. L p. 827& 8S<K Against QRrfirer: W. B. Wenot, d. ftmnk. Reich, nach dem
Vertr. v. Venlun. Lpz. 1851. Append. 8.
h) n. L, Lippert, L. v. Patronat Glees. 1S29. J. Kaim, KPatronat Lps. 1845. vol. L
c) Adam. Brenu 1. III. comp. JaJJ^i p. 571. d)E.g. Lambert, iSehq/h. ad. ann. 1066^ .
chap.il kcclks. law. § 197. chapters. J 198. jurisdiction. 217
synodal regulations to have at least a subdeacon^s charge. Any vacancies
which occurred in the Chapter were supplied generally by a vote of its own
members, from whose number its various officers were chosen. A dean or
prior, sometimes both, presided over the whole. After tlio close of the
eighth century, it gradually became common to divide the largo dioceses into
archdeaconries, and these again into rural chapters. The archdeacons were the
regular and sometimes even then the troublesome deputies of the bishops, but
they were not regarded as indispensable to a complete chapter. When the ca-
nons were absent for a long period, they now began to hire vicars to officiate in
their places, and to mark the hours by singing. The livings connected with
the cathedrals were then sufficient to become objects of cupidity to the no-
bility, whose still increasing importance enabled them to take possession of
most of the benefices. Against the coteries foimed by a petty aristocracy,
wealthy proprietors, patronizing relatives, and provincial prejudices, the
popes endeavored to maintain the liberal principles of Christianity, which
asserted the derivation of all men from the same original ancestry, pro-
nounced the poor blessed, acknowledged no kindred but the children of God,
and recognized no birthright in the kingdom of God but that which is ac-
qnired in regeneration, {e) The domestic chaplains employed by the nobility
eibily made themselves independent of the bishops by a servile dependence
upon their employers. (/)
§ 198. Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction,
Or«g. Dtcr. II. de judictia. BUner^ Beitrage z. Oescb. dee Inqulsftlotuproa Lpz. 1827. 3t
IWet; de jarbdicUoni<i civ. por med. aevam com eccL conjanctae orig. et progressu. Monast 1882
1. The clergy could be tried only before the episcopal tribunal. Tlie
dril authorities were utterly unable to enforce their penal code in opposition
to the indulgence or partiality of this court, except in those instances in
^hich the wounded honor of the Church itself required the surrender of
tbft culprit. The highest ecclesiastical penalty was a hopeless banishment to
a convent, and sometimes a walling in of the culprit. 2. The ecclesiastical
court also claimed jurisdiction over all matters more or less intimately con-
noted with the Church, or with religion in general, such as marriages,
^Ife, oaths, usury, and all legal causes relating to the crusades. In cons^
'JQcnce of this confusion of moral and legal subjects, this court invaded very
conaderably the sanctuary of the family. Ecclesiastical laws were formed
■gainst nearly all public offences, and when might every where prevailed
•?*inst right, were powerful enough to extort respect from those who would
^ve despised every human authority. The cause of humanity and of
national rights formed also a powerful advocate in the Church by means of
^«e penal courts. 8. A few individuals only arrogated to themselves the
"g^t to interfere in every municipal cause when requested by one of the
*^/««oc. lit L VI. Ep. 12J. IX. 180. More namerons examples can be fonnd In the next
P^'H ci g:. Greg. Deer. III. tit 6. c 87. comp. Senfet% Qesdi. d. deatach. Adela In d. Domcapiteln.
^'»- Hurter, Innoc vol IIL p. 28flL
f) Agobcrdj de privUeg. et jure aaeerdotam. p. 128w
218 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. FEB. lU A. D. 80IMS1&
party, or when the offence charged was of a moral nature (denandatio evan-
gelica).* The ancient custom of the synodal courts was gradually restrained
by tlio introduction of the Homan law.
§ 199. Property of the Church
The property of the Church was continually augmented by donations, by
bequests, by profitable investments and loans for pawns especiaDy to cru-
saders, by royal fiefs, by free proprietors giving to the Church feudal lordship
over their possessions to secure them against oppression, and by the increased
value of property. On the other hand, it was diminished by the prodigality
of indiviilual prelates, which could not be checked till, after a dear-bought
experience, laws wore carefully formed against all pawning or alienation of
Church property ; by the claims and oppressions of Church wardens, by
transference of fiefs to those who could protect them and become their liege
lords, by expenses for the support of legates and princes, and by the claims
of feudal lords upon the property of deceased prelates, and upon the reve-
nues of vaciint Church offices (jus spolii et regaliae). This spoliation of the
Church was zealously resisted by the popes. Otho IV. in Germany was in-
duced to surrender his claims, but other sovereigns renounced them only
in particular instances. Even the patronage (advocatia) of ecclesiastical
foundations which had been originally intended for legal and military pro-
tection, and which had sometimes originated with the act of endowmoit, or
had been conferred upon a powerful neighbor, was frequently perverted, so
as to be an instrument of oppression and robbery, (a) The prindpal por-
tion of the Church property consisted of real estate and tithes. The legiA
titles by which the former was held were of various kinds, but the
latter were claimed by a natural law propounded by God himself, al-
though they were resisted in many ways when fully carried out, and
were in collision wiili various local customs. The revenues even of the
pope, in accordance with peculiar ancient usages, were paid in articles
of natural produce, varying in diflTerent places, (h) Surplice fees (jura
stolae) belonged chiefly to the lower clergy, but were only voluntary
offerings of the iHJople. Salaries from the state were indignantly rejected
by the Church as dangerous to its independence and dignity, (c) The clergy
claimed exemption from all taxes on persons or property, with the exception
of the feudal aids and voluntary contributions in cases of extraordinary state
necessity. A regular assessment was generally unknown in the fendal
monarchies, but as late as the twelfth century the Church was often com-
pelled to contribute for special objects, and in the free cities it had to bear
its share in all general taxes. Alexander III, proclaimed the great funda-
mental principle of the Church, which was, that the clergy might contribute
of their own free will when they perceived the utility and necessity of an
• Gr^g. Deer. II. tit 1. c. 18. comp. Raumer vol. TI. p. 198a.
a) P. GiiUitdc, do advocatis ecc. lloldlb. 176S. {A. Schmidt^ Thea. jar. ecc. vol. V.) Muratoriy
d«advv. ecc (Antiqq. ItaL voL V.) W. T. Kraut, die Vonnandach. Gott 188R. toL L
b) Cencii Cumerarii L. censaum Rom. Ecc. a 1192. Comp. Hurier. Innoo. toL IIL Pl 121ml
e) Dioinede* CroDica di Cypro, according to Eaamer toL YL p. 147.
CHAP. in. ECCLES. LIFE. § 200. POPULAR SPIRIT. TRUCE OF GOD. 219
assessmeiit. (d) The protection which the hishops received from the popes
Against the demands of their respective kings, gave occasion to the legal
maxim, that the Charch could never he taxed without the papal sanction. X«)
The natural right of the clergy to inherit property was finally legalized in
spite of the opposition of the laity. Every Church was regarded as the pro-
per heir of all ecclesiastics who died intestate in connection with it. There
were different opinions respecting the right of such persons to hoqueath their
possessions, but it was generally conceded that they might freely dispose of
all which had not been acquired from ecclesiastical revenues. At an early
period the attempt was frequently made to bequeath the property of the
Church to children, (/) by which it would soon have been either impover-
ished, or subjected to a sacerdotal caste. This was afterwards frustrated by
the law which required the celibacy of the clergy. In consequence of the
munificent donations which it bestowed upon the poor, the people were gene^
rally pleased to see the Church in the possession of the greatest Avealth.
CHAP. III.— ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE.
§ 200. The ReligiouB Spirit of the People.
This was a period in which violence, power, and artifice were enlisted in
the service of a rude sensuality. But a profound religions spirit ardently
engaged in the pursuit of everlasting life, was no less prevalent among the
people. These tendencies were sometimes in conflict with each other, and
sometimes they were reconciled by the most remarkable compromises. The
hierarchy, addressing itself to the religious spirit, but in a manner conformed
to the age, endeavored to establish the ascendency of the law and of an ele-
vated morality. A period in which brute force (Faust-recht) was the only
law, was interrupted by one in which the Truce of Ood was sustained by
ecclesiastical threatenings and miracles, {a) Women and children, defence-
less persons, and every thing constructed or planted for purposes of peace,
were in times of war under the protection of the Church. (5) It offered an
asylum to all who were persecuted, without inquiring whether they were
pnrsued by lawless violence or justice. Violent persons were terrified by
frightful representations of a present God, and by narratives of divine judg-
ments ; and when those who possessed great power became penitent, they
were compelled to undergo the most severe and eflfective penances. The
tenth century is remarkable for having been the most degraded of all these
periods for its reckless struggles and general rapacity. A vague presentiment
of death, a remnant of the pagan notion of the Twilight of the gods, (c) passed
d) Cone LaUr. III. c 19. {Manti Th. XXIL p. 22a)
t) Cane. iMUr. IV. c. 46. (5fanH Th. XXIL p. 1080.)
/) E. g. Bfned. VIII. about 1014 in Cone Tlcinensl. {Manai Th. XIX p. 843.)
a) Trcuga Dei, first proclaimed in 1041 in AquiUnia. Olaber Badulph. Y. 1. {Bouquet Th.-X.
y. 69.) Mansi Tli. XIX. p. 59a b) Jqff, p. 682.
e) Oompi Mu9piUL, edit by Bohmeller, Manlch. 1S82.
220 MEDIAEVAL CHUECU HISTOEY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-]91flL
•
through the yoathfal nations, and fixed upon the close of the first millennium
of the Christian era as the period for the end of the world, (d) But new
life was awakened hy the conflict with the Saracens in Spain, as well as
hy their heroic example. The struggle between the papacy and the mon-
archies of that period contributed also to the same result. The pleasures
of the world were principally eigoyed by the nobihty and clergy. An
independent estate of burghers, if it did not always contend for publio
freedom and justice, certainly strove to obtain special liberties and preroga-
tives for themselves. In accordance with both the tendencies above men-
tioned, the female sex was regarded with extravagant admiration, or as frail
and dangerous. The peculiar spirit of the age was fully developed in the
crusades. In them was displayed the absolute ascendency of the imagination
and the feelings. Human life became so corrupted that it degenerated into
a coarse sensual existence, or an ideal struggle for something beyond human
attainment. All the peculiarities of the European nations were amalgamated
with each other, or combined with the fanciful speculations of the East. The
contracted horizon to which the people had been accustomed became much
enlarged, and it was not without serious injury to themselves that many
walked beneath the lofty palm-trees, (e) This sensuous piety required and
put confidence in all kinds of miracles. The sepulchres of the East were
opened, and the sacred antiquity of the Church became realized once more
in the present, by means of peculiar relics, whose genuineness tlie understand-
ing would no more think of proving than it would venture to suspect the
miracles by which they were certified to the faithful. Many vessels and
emblems, gradually or accidentally invested with a sacred character, received
at that time a place in the primitive ecclesiastical usage by means of the
legends, or became connected with the old German popular traditions. {/)
Superstition was especially congenial with the spirit of the age, and the hier-
archy made it subservient to their purposes, increasing or diminishing it
according as their interests prompted them. As instances of the latter, may
be mentioned their opposition to the ordeals or judgments of God, especially
by duels, ((n) While God was brought down to the level of humanity, men
were invested with the attributes of God. Ancient saints were once more
discovered, and the present age felt competent even to create new saints.
The ardent feelings of the people prompted them to pray even to a dog, as a
martyr and a patron saint, because he had lost his life in behalf of his master's
child, (h) The Mother of God, however, was above all other saints the
object of chivalrous gallantry. But notwithstanding the profound veneration
d) Ahho AhbfU Fhriac Apologet {Galland. Blbl. PP. Th. XIV. p. 141.) In a variety of ways
in decKls of gift then madew Comp. Lucke^ Einl. in d. Offenb. Joh. Bonn. 1S82. p. 5148.
e) Comp. PUicidm Muth, Dlsq. In blgamiam Comlt de Glelchen. Erf. 1788. Thilow, Beachr. d.
Grabcs u. d. Gebelne d. Or. v. GL u. seiner bolden Wclber. Goth. u. Erf. 1S86.
/) Comp. G. Gerberon, Ilist de la robe sans couture da monast d'ArgenteuiL Par. 1«T7.
J. 3fanr, Qetch. d. h. Koclis. Treves. 1944 J. Gildemei*ter u. H. v. Sybel, d. h. Rock lu Trier n.
d. 20 andern h. ungenuliten Ruclie. Dusseld. (1R44.) 8. ed. 1S45.— Uer ungenohto grauo Rock
Christl. Altdentsches Gedicbt, edit by F. IT. r. d. Ilagen^ Berlin. 1S44
g) Cone. Valentinum III. a. 855. c 11. 12. {ManH Th. XV. p. 9.) Innoe. ITT. I XL Ep. 4«. I
XIV. Ep. 138, •
h) Steph. de Borhone^ in EcJuird^ Scrr. Praed. toI. L p. 198^ ■
CHAP. IIL ECCLK9. LIFE. § 201. CLEBQY. DUNBTAN. 221
in which the Church was held, the exuberant spirit of the age sometimes ex-
ceeded the limits of its own due reverence. Accordingly the devil, in spite
of all his dismal enchantments and temptations, generally appears in popular
traditions as a very poor and simple being. The wanton spirit of the trou-
badours sometimes ventured to treat with familiarity the sacred person of
the holy Virgin and even of God the Father. The priests themselves in an
innocent way sometimes made parodies of the holy mysteries and offices of
the Church at their festivals of fools and asses, (i)
§ 201. Manners of the Clergy,
According to the feudal law of Germany the bishops were bound to ap-
pear personally with their quota of men in the army of their liege lord. On
the other hr»nd they were carefully reminded by the popes that they sliould
devote themselves to the work of preaching, and to the care of souls, and
that the Church should abstain with horror from the shedding of blood in all
its forms, (a) We are therefore not surprised to find such a character as that
of Chris tian, Bishop of Mentz^ the heroic, learned, and rapacious general of
the emperor Frederic, who slew his enemies with a club, (h) But even those
bishops who were more spiritual in their dispositions were sometimes com-
pelled to become leaders of armies, and as soon as they had administered the
Holy Sacrament to their warriors they were called upon also to prepare them
for the battle, (c) What was called simony was in some instances only the cus-
tomary tribute given to the princes and to the popes soon after the time of
Gregory. Even the better portion of the clergy could not entirely abstain
from this, but as it was i)roscribed by the Church it was ensnaring to the
eoQscience. In England, Dunstan (d. about 990), an abbot and a triple
bishop, versed in all the knowledge prevalent in his day, so powerful that he
held even the devil in his tongs, and though personally devoted to his own
Tisions in worldly matters, so politic that he entirely controlled three succes-
fiive kings, and broke the heart of another who presumed to resist him,
attempted to reform the voluptuous lives of the priesthood by putting his
monks in the place of those clergymen who would not give up their wives, {d)
His efforts, however, were attended by no very la.«*ting results. Damiani^
who with Ilildebrand was a severe censor of the manners of his age and even
of the papacy, and who desired nothing from the world but a monastic cell in
which he could scourge himself, presents in his writings such a naked and vivid
picture of the excesses of the clergy, that Alexander II. prohibited the peru-
sal of them on the ground of their injurious influence upon the morals of the
0 Tbe hierarchy were at flnit zealous against these sports, bnt gradually they relaxed in their
W>ilUon, and at a later p«iod attempted to Improve them. Du FreVM^ Oloss. ad 8crr. med. et
''^ l4t y. Cervula. Calendae. TUiot, M^moiros pour senrir 4 Thlstoire de la f£te dea foux.
^1T5L
a) Damiani 1. IV. Epi 9. Cone. Turon. a. 1060. c 7.
*) Albert Stadens. p. 291a (Schllteri Scrr. Argent 1T02.)
«) & Vlricl Vita in JIalnllon Acta SS. 8aec IV. p. 440.
^ VlUcinM^ Cone. AngL vol. L p. 257ss. G. Malrntsbir. Qesta Reg. AngL L IL ViU 8. Ihinst,
^ Wortt ct O^bom : Acta 88. Mi\j. voL IV. p. 844. MabiUon, Ann. Ord. 8. Bcned. vol. IIL p.
«4«
t
222 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. lU. A. D. 800-18HL
recoders. (e) Man-iago was not declared unlawftil to the clergy in England
and Spain until the twelfth century, and in the Northern kingdoms till some
time in the thirteenth. Some even died because they could not endure this
separation from their wives and children. But although Gregory succeeded
in abolishing marriage, he could not prevent licentiousness among the clergy.
Before his time this had prevailed publicly, but in a less offensive form,
whereas after his enactments it was practised in secret, and frequently in the
most unnatural manner, so that many regarded the remedy as worse than the
evil. The clergy partook also of the faults peculiar to the times, and were
sometimes involved in the most shameless acts of violence. (/) But such in-
dividual instances of irregularity among the bishops, or of criminality among
the clergy, which were generally put down in the Church after the influence
of Hildebrand had been put forth, should not be regarded as specimens of the
general character of that period, (ff) The declamations which are sometimes
found in the writings of that day, respecting clerical depravity, in many
cases proceeded from monastic prejudices or secular antipathies. (A) The
clergy must also have participated in the virtues of that period, for withont
these their increasing influence among the people would appear incomprehen-
sible. This consciousness of control over the age in which they lived, and
the true conception which they possessed of what a clergyman should be,
contributed much to elevate even the inferior multitude of priests above their
ordinary position and made them share in the common spirit of their order.
§ 202. Church Diseipline. Comp. § 66. 182.
Eua, Amort de origfne, progressa ac flmcta indulgentiar. Ang. Vind. \lZb. t
By the great body of the people, the act of binding and loosing on the
part of the priest was regarded as equivalent to an admission to heaven, or an
exchision from it. Even death, which sunders all other ties, was supposed to
bring men more perfectly under this influence. Conscientious clergymen were
often distressed in the exercise o{ a power which extended even beyond the
grave, and eminent theologians arrayed themselves in opposition to this
error, (a) The synodal courts, when they had become corrupt, imposed fines
upon offenders, or consented that the ecclesiastical penance should be dis-
charged by the payment of alms, of which the Church was to be the dispen-
ser. Penitential books were formed in which a choice of penances was pro-
posed, and a kind of price current was kept for all kinds of crime. (6) The
popes were generally supposed to possess a peculiar power of absolving from
the guilt of the more heinous crimes, and they made use of this public con-
fidence very extensively when they sold complete absolution^ professing to
devote the proceeds to the relief of the crusaders. Particular sanctuaries
€) Liber Gomorrblanua. Epp. II, 6. 0pp. den. ed. Oaetani^ Par. 1T48. Life of Dam. by bis pupil
Jo. Monachita In 0pp. and AcU 8S. Febr. vol. IIL p. 406.— VIU S. Danu scr. J. LadercMo^ Rom.
1702. 8 voK 4.
/) E. g. Lambert Schajh. ad a. 1063. g) E. g. Hurter, Innoc vol IIL p. 8«7ss.
h) Wltb respect to the former, see Damian, and witb regard to tbe latter, the songB at the Trou-
badours and MInne«IngerflL
a) Fetrut Lonib, 8entt L. IV. Dlst 1& I) Regino, de dlao. eoc. n, 4888a.
CHAP. IIL KCCLES. LIFE. $ 202. DISCIPLINE. $ 208. WOESHIP. 223
also were invested with the privilege of bestowing absolution on condition
of a certain period of penance, to all who should visit them, either on some
festival or at any time, (e) A period of penance which might ordinarily ex-
ceed the limits of human life might be accomplished in a brief space of time
by means of the two kinds of absolution. Persons who were in a high
degree the victims of remorse were required to build a church, to go upon a
crosade, or to enter a convent. In all cases when services were performed,
or money was paid to obtain such a pardon for sin, a cordial repentance and
*tn amendment of life was made a prerequisite in the applicant. Intelligent
teachers, however, perceived that the Church was placing itself in a position
of extreme peril. (<f) According to an opinion which had now become es-
tablished, but was still opposed in some quarters, a mortal sin could be for-
given only in the confessional. The Church required that at least once in
each year every person should confess all the sins of which he was conscious, (e)
By this means the priests became possessed of all the hearts and secrets of
the people. The interdict which had been on several occasions attempted in
former times, but had been always regarded as an arbitrary exercise of an
unchristian power, became during the eleventh century a legitimate measure
in opposition to those who violated solenm treaties. It soon after became a
terrible weapon in the hands of the popes by which a nation was compelled
to atOtae for the crimes of its rulers, or was armed against those in authority
over it. When tlie Gharch possessed a powerful influence over the life of
every one, no people patiently endured a protracted discontinuance of eccle-
siastical services, and frequently they did not hesitate to compel their clergy
to open their churches for public worship. Innocent also obtained a promise
that every one whom he should excommunicate should be subjected in like
manner to the ban of the empire, but such an engagement it was found im-
possible always to fulfiL
§ 208. Public Warship.
Walafrid SUmbo^ died 849, de exordiis et Increm. rer. ecc /ro, died 1115, Micrologus de ecc. ob-
■crntt (Both fuand in HiU&rp. see $ 166.) J. BfUth, about 1182, div. officior. brevis expllc. ed.
Cbm. LauHmann. ADto. 1658. O. Durantt, dlod 1296, EaUonale div. officior. I Till. Mog. 1497. t
nd often.
The WeMohrunnen prayer, a monument of the ancient language and piety
of Germany, contains an exalted poetical representation of the antemundane
existence of God, and an humble supplication for spiritual blessings, (a)
Bat the sensuous disposition of the people was necessarily predominant.
In consequence of the sensuous tendency then so prevalent, public wor-
^ip appeared to be little else than a worship of the saints. Preaching was
^^^j an essential part of the service on public festivals, although several
•ynoda and popes endeavored to introduce into churches only those who were
»ble to instruct the people, and the popularity of those preachers who dis-
coarsed in an affecting style, proved that the multitude were susceptible of
«) Gompi Qmc LaUratL lY. c. 6S. {ManH Tli. XXII. p. 1050&)
<0 AMardi Etbica a 18. 80. (PetU Anecd. Tb. III. P. L p. 666Bai
•) Cone. Lateran. lY. a 21. {ManH Tb. XXII. p. IOOTssl)
a) Aceordinf to the eztnota hj Wackernigel CBrL 1827.) in B0ttberg, toL XL p. 818^
224 MEDIAEVAL CUUKCH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-12HL
benefit from the Word of God. (h) The use of the Roman Liturgy was re-
quired in all the churches as the visible bond of general unity. The GotMe
Liturgy, although it was protected by an affectionate people, and had even
passed the ordeal of fire, was gradually suppressed in Spain after the eleventh
century, (c) The Sabbath was especially devoted to the service of the Vir-
gin Mary, in whose honor a particular service was composed principally by
Damian (Officium S. Virginis) to be performed in the convents. When
Paschasius Eadbert^ a monk and (844-851) an abbot at Corvey (d. ^jyoxit
865), maintained that the virginity of Mary was unimpaired even by the
birth of the Son of God, the learned divines of his day shrunk from the
position as containing a Docetic sentiment, (d) That every thing might be
removed which could throw the slightest suspicion upon the vir^n purity of
the Queen of heaveti, the doctrine was finally set forth according to which
she also was conceived in a miraculous manner, and some canons of Lyons
(about 1140) solemnized this faith by fnstituting the festival of the ImmacUf
late Conception, St. Bernard, however, and all learned theologians of that
period were opposed to this innovation, {e) In popular traditions many
pleasant things which had been told of the goddess Freyja were transferred
to Mary. (/) A festival of All Souls (Nov. 2) for the deliverance of thoee
who were confined in purgatory was also established by the monks of Olagny
(1010), who obtained a hint from the popular tradition asserting that the
gate of purgatory was in one of the volcanoes of the Lipari islands, (y) Some
time after the ninth century the practice extended from Rome to the provinces^
of observing St. Gregory'^s day^ as a festival for schoolboys, derived from the
old Minervan festival. Qi) Among the sacred usages of the Church tlie Sa-
craments gradually became remarkably prominent, and the representation of
them as the signs and actual communications of divine grace, as well as their
number seven, so divided as to sanctify all the important relations of human
life, were especially defended and established by Peter Lombard and
Gratia n. (i) The baptism of infants could be postponed without giving of-
fence. (I) That abuses might be avoided, those children who had not been
confirmed were (12th century) kept back from participation in the Lord^s
Supper, and when many other attempts had been made to render the wastiDg
of the least particle of the divine blood impossible, the laity were entirely
debarred from participation in the sacred cup. The doctrine of the presence
of the entire Christ in the bread was defended, and the powerftd influence of
b) Cone Mogunt a. 847. c. 2. ( J/tifwf Th. XIV. p. 908.) Cone Latemn. IV. <x lOi. (/&. It,
XXIL p. 9988.) Jacobi a Vitriaco Ulst ocdd. c. 6s8.
c) RodeHco Tolet de reb. HIsp. VI, 2G.
d) Rairamni L. de eo, quod Cbr, e$ vlrglne natns est {D^Ac7i«ryy Splcileg. Th. I. p. 68.) Fr.
WalcAy II. controv. 8. IX. de parta Virginia. Goet 17&S. 4.
e) Ant. GravoUf de ortu ct progreasa cultua ao fesU Immaculati conceptaa Dei Geiictzld& IJBC
17C2. 4.
/) Orimm, Dentscbe MyUioL pp. 192, 417, 694. XX.
g) Jotsaldi ViU 8. Odilon. c. 14. {Mabillon, Acta 83. 8. VI. P. L p. 615.) Sigeb. OemU. ad a. 999L
A) A. Weber, Origo fcstl Or. HImst 1714. 4. Miru8y de Gr. M. et feato Qr. P. IL lUinst 1768. 4
Mucke, V, Urejir. d. Gr. Fester Guben. 179a.
€) PeU Loml. Sent IV. DIst 1-42.
k) Petri de Vineis, L UL £p. 21. BdUigw Ileinr. d. L5we. Amn. 68.
CHAP. IIL ECCLES. LIFE. § 208. MARRIAGE. S 204. MONASTIC LIFE. 225
the priesthood maiDtained this cnstom of withholding the cup against all sub-
seqaent opposition. (/) The solitary mass of the priest was at first decidedly
reprehended, (m) In the tenth century adultery continued to be regarded by
the popes as a sufficient ground for divorce, but the ecclesiastical view of the
marriage rite was completely carried out when it was soon after declared ab-
solutely inviolable, and Innocent III. insisted upon the reunion of husband
and wife, even after a double adultery had been proved. Human frailty,
however, was supplied with abundant opportunities for sundering this bond
by means of the prohibition of all marriages between relatives, even of the
seventh degree, since such a consanguinity was very generally proved when
it was desirable. Innocent limited the degrees of relationship within which
marriage was invalid, to four, and in fact regarded even these limits as pre-
scribed only by human and natural laws, (it)
§ 204. Monastic Life.
The convents were regarded in the ninth century as the hereditary fiefs
of the secular lords, under whose control they were more perfectly wasted
and mL^govemed, than by the irruptions of the Normans. («) But the ex-
alteil contempt of the world displayed in the monastic life corresponded with
the spirit of the times. Some who from their youth had never become
attached to the enjoyments of the world, felt the need of such a pious seclu-
sion and fellowship. Others felt the same necessity after the agitation of a
wdden conversion, or that they might make an atonement in this way for the
flnsof an irregular life. Sitnultmeously, therefore, with the newly awakened
energies of tte people, and the general movement of multitudes in favor of
corporations, a series of successful efforts were put forth fo attain the proper
objects of the convent by a renewal and completion of the Benedictine rule.
Tbe abbots, sustained by papal privileges and royal fiefs, were favorable to
the party of the bishops and princes. The popular element of the Church,
however, was especially maintained in the convents, and it was through these
that Gregory was enabled to obtain his victory. Monasticism, though fre-
q'lemly arrayed in opposition to particular individuals among the clergy, was
^Mj allied to the general body ; and on account of its exemption from epis-
copal supervision it was generally in the immediate service of the pope.
After the tenth century it was regarded as a peculiarly spiritual order (ordo
^ the religiosi), which, however, made use of lay brethren (conversi), to
attend to their secular affairs. In this way the larger Benedictine convents
'^ed on within themselves all the mechanical arts, at any time needed in
^ra, especially those connected with masonry. The seclusion necessary for
the convent was sometimes obtained even in the cities, but the spot best
'■■ / G. ds LitK, (le ailoratlone pants consocr. ct intcrdlctlono callcis. Suob. )7T8. Spittler^ Ocacb.
*• Ktlcbs Im Abendm. Leingo. 17S0.
■*) Cone Jtfgunt. a. Sia c 43.
•) Ifo yjL EpL ad Eberbard. {Arentini AnnaL Bojor. IV, 23.) Comp. G. W. Bohmer, Q. d. Ehe-
^■'•^ Im Zcltalt CarK d. Or. u. solnor nfichst Nachfolgor. OotL IS^Q.—Innoc I/I. L I. Ep, 143.
^ h T5. XI. Ep. 101. Cone. LaUran. IV. c. 50^2.
"• Epbcopor. Ep. ad Ludov. a. 363. c a ( WalUr Tb. IIL pt 86t) Cone Troslejan. a 909. c a
'*»«^Th.XVlII.i>.270a)
15
226 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-12101
adapted for it was generally found in some beautiful wilderness. It then fre-
quently became the central point for all the business of the surrounding
region. Sometimes convents were erected upon soil which had been stained
with blood, or some sentimental legends were connected with their gloomy
walls, (h) The uniform of the cloister which was at first nearly the same
with the ordinary dress of the peojile, was gradually changed, until it became
the peculiar habit of the order. The enlargement or diminution of the pro-
perty of convents was produced by the same causes as those which affected
Church property in general, but inheritance from the monks was tlu ordi-
nary, and the cultivation of the desert soil was the noblest method by which
wealth was acquired. In consequence of the rigidity of their rules and the
sanctity of their founders, many of these orders rapidly increased in numbers,
and became soon involved in the Inconsistency of having devoted themselves
to poverty, and yet being in the enjoyment of immense wealth. Monks and
nuns sometimes resided under the same roof (monasterium duplex.) The
secret sins or the public oflfences of individuals and of whole convents, are
only occasionally mentioned, and then only because they were brought before
the ecclesiastical courts. In the establishment of monasteries the Church
allowed the various dispositions of individuals to be gratified, and only pro-
vided by their legislation that these diversities should ail be confined withiu
the limits required by the general objects of the order. And when the
monastic life had assumed a great variety of individual forms, and appeared
to have taken every possible shape. Innocent III. prohibited the formation
of any new orders, (c)
§ 205. 7%tf Congregation of Clugny.
Bihliothtea Cluniacensis. In qua S9. Patram Abbatura Vitais miracula, scripta rec Parts. 1611 1
The Ordo Clun. was accarately dpscribed In the 11th cent by Bernard who Mun^cd to It (Vetoa
discipL monast ed. IlerrgoU, Par. 1726. 4. p. 133.) The Antiquiore^ Contu^U, Clun. 1. IIL by €1-
ricK, one of the order 1070, has preserved a good representation of affairs at Ilirsan. {D^Achsry^ Spt-
oil. vol. I. p. Ml.)—BemonU Vita. (JfubUlon, AcU S9. 8. V. p. 66.) Odonis VIU by his pupil Jo-
hannes, i/b. p. 150.) OdilonU Vita by his pupil JoUalduSy {lb. S. VL p. 597.)— & WUhslmi Constt.
Hicrsaugiens. {Uerrgoti, p. 875.)
The rule of Benedict had been re-established by Bemo, one of the family
of the Burgundian Counts, in two of the monasteries under his control.
Being invited by William^ Duke of Aquitania, to form a convent after the
same model, he founded that of Clugny (Cluniacum, 910), and placed it
under the immediate supervision of the pope. His successor, Odo (927-41),
who had been a monk in his habits even before taking the monastic vow, was
well acquainted with the true method of governing the minds of men. A
rule of discipline was formed under him, which, by severe, uninterrupted,
mechanical employments of a religious nature, so completely destroyed all
individuality of feeling, that the ecclesiastical and monastic spirit became
exclusively active in the hearts of the members. Under Odilo (994-1048),
who has been called the Archangel of the monks, and during the administra-
V) E. g. the priory of the deuao amoureuw at Rouen, see ITeiyot^ vol II. pw 471.
c) Cone. Lauran IV. c 181 {ManH Th. XXIL p. 1002a.)
CHAP. IIL ECCLES. LIFK. f 206. CLUGNY. $ 206. ORAMMONT. 227
tion of a series of abbots, whose inflexible good sense never Allowed them to
act inconsistently with their monastic sanctity, most of the convents in
France, carried away with the nniversal admiration, or compelled by their
princes or protectors, became subject to the rule and government of the con-
gregation of Clugny. This gave rise to a Congregation of Benedictines,
which iQ the middle of the twelfth century embraced about 2000 convents,
principally in France. At the head of these was placed the Abbot of Clugny,
always chosen by the monks of his own convent, from whose ranks also he
almost invariably selected the priors of. all the convents belonging to the
congregation. The legislative and su{>crvisory powers were vested in a
General Chapter which assembled annually at Clugny. The very heart of
the French nation was in the hands of the monks of Clugny, until about the
commencement of the 12th century, when the order withdrew from public
affairs and lived upon its own resources. An instance of a reformation in the
midst of extreme disorder was exhibited in Germany, when the congregation
ciHinau was established there (1069) by the Abbot William after the model
of that of Clugny.
§ 206. Minor Orders of the Uth Century.
1. In the wilderness of the Apennine mountains were established two or-
ders of monks, originally composed of hermits, but gradually connected with
convents. Tlie first of these was called the Order of Camaldvli, and was
founded (about 1018) by the pious zeal of Romuald^ one of the family of the
Doke of Kavenna. The second was called the Order of Vallomhrosa, and
originated (about 1038) in the rigid austerity of John Oualbert, a Florentine.
The membera of these orders vowed that they would abstain even from or-
<iinary intellectual enjoyments, and from all conversation with their fellow-
men. At a later period, however, they endeavored to reconcile this con-
tempt of the world, and self-mortification, with the enjoyment of tlic vast
posBessions acquired by the orders, (a) 2. Stephen of Tifjerno was unwilling to
be regarded either as a monk or a hennit, and acknowlcdj^ed no rule but that
of the gospel. With the sanction of Gre-rory (1073) he founded an order
mbsequently called by the name of Grammont. This determined to relin-
qniah its own beloved convent rather than to defend a just claim by a legal
proceo, and even sincerely declined the honor of the miracles imputed to its
illostrious founder, because it thought such a reputation would be prejudicial
to humility. After a rapid growth, however, it was powerfully agitated by
fisputee between its monks and those lay brethren, who, according to the
Rale, had the charge of its secidar affairs. The result was that in the 12th
eentury it entirely lost its indei>endence. (h) 3. Bruno of Cologne^ the rector
cf the cathedral school and a Chancellor at Rheims, disgusted with the dis-
•> RomtuaUi Vita, scr. Daminni. {3fabill. Acta SS. S. VI. P. I. p. 247.) Kule In HMten. Th.
ILf*. 19S. Archang. IlatftirnU RomnaMlna 8. Cainaldulensis O. Hist Par. \(!ii\.Vl.—Owilhf!rU
TitA(JiiihUl. Acta SS. a VI. P. IL p. 278.) BuUarlum VallumhroMnum, s. bullae Pontiflcum, qui
«ci)(l«m Ord. privllegils dccorarunt, a Fulg^ntio XanJio. Flot. 1729.
h) Vita K SUphani by Gerhard^ the 7th prior of Grammont. (Af<irt«n^^ ampHsa Col. Th. VI. p.
Wflft. JfahiUon^ Ann. Ord. 8. B«n. Th. V. p. 65.) Hist prolixlor Prior, Grandimont (Ifartfne. lb.
ILIS.)
228 MEDIAEVAL CHUltCII HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-1218.
graceful life of liis archbishop, renounced the world. There is ft melancholy
tale which assigns another cause for tliis act, but it waa not known until the
close of the thirteenth century, (c) He erected huts for himself and a few
companions (1048) in the wild mountain gorge of Chartreuse near Grenoble.
He was induced by his former pnpil, Urban IL, to visit Rome (1090), but he
soon became weary of a secular life in that city, and after refusing the bish-
opric of Reggio, he founded a new Carthusian monastery in Calabria, in
which ho ended his days (1101). The order was not organized into a society
until 1141 in the mother convent. For a long time the Carthusians perse-
vered in the practice of an abstinence so strict that they rejected all gifts
except necessary food and skins for parchments. The wealth they received
at a later period was expended in the embellishment of churches, (d)
4. When France was visited by a disorder called St. Anthony's fire, the order
of the Hospitallers of St. Anthony was founded for the relief of the sick by
Gaston^ a wealthy nobleman of Dauphin^, from gratitude for the recovery
of his son (1095). At first it consisted entirely of lay brethren, but aft:er-
wards it was composed of canons under the Rule of Augustine, (e) 5. Robert
of Arhrmcl^ at an early period a divine, then a superintendent of a diocese, and
subsequently a preacher of repentance and of the crusades, was the founder
of the Benedictine Congregation of Fontctrand^ for penitents, especially of
the female sex who had once fallen from virtue. For this class of persons
he seems to have felt a peculiar interest, and therefore fell under the re-
proaches of his contemporaries. In compliment to the Queen of Heaven the
supreme direction of the society was intrusted to female hands, {f)
§ 207. The Chtercians and St. Bernard.
1) Relatio qnaHter Inccplt Or«lo CIstcrdonsK (Auherti 3firaei Chron. CtoL OkL Colon. 1641. pt
888.) Ifeiniqii^, Regula, Constitt. et Privil. Ord. Cist Ant KWO. f.—JfanrU/us, Ann. Cist Lngd.
1642. 4 Th. f. rUrre U Xaitt, Hl.*t de TOrdrc de ClteAUX. Par. 16965S. 9 Th. 2) Btrmirdi Opp.
(Letters, Discours^es, Poem.s ascetic writings.) cd. MuhUlon^ Par. 1667. 1690. 6 Th. f. 1719, 2 Th. £
Ven. 1726. 2 Tli. £ Par. 1S89. 2 Th. Mwl. 1851.«^. 8 vols. 4. His llfb by contemponui^B : GnlUimuB,
Abbot of 8. Thierry, GaufredtM and AUinus de Insulia, Monks of Clairvaux. {MabiUon Th. L ud
VI.)— AVa;M/«r, d. h. Bernh. u. & Zeitalt Bcrl. <1818.) 1848. [Tr. into Engl, by Wrench^ Lond. ISlfii
12mo.] .;: ElUndorf, Bemb. u. d. Ilier. 18S9. 2 vob». liathbonne, Hist d. 8. Bern. Par. 1S43. 2 Th.
Robert., who had been dedicated to the Virgin by his mother before his
birth, became dissatisfied while yet an abbot with the comfortable life of the
wealthy monks, and founded a convent at Citeaux^ under regulations requir-
ing the most extreme poverty (1098). In the order which sprung from this^
the most rigid abstemiousness was demanded, all splendor in churches was
condemned, and its members promised absolutely to submit to the bishop of
the diocese, as well as to abstain from all the ordinary employments of life,
not excepting even the charge of souls. The internal a^rs of the society
were directed only by the law of love ; (a) the position of the Abbot of
c) Launoil do vera causa secessus 8. Brunonis in eremnm. Par. 1646. (0pp. Th, II. P, n. pt 8S1)
d) MahUl. Ann. Tli. V. p. 202s8. and Acta SS. S. VI. P. II. Prae£ p. 87flHL Legends respecting the
life of Bruno may be seen in Acta SS. Oct Th. III. p. 49188.
e) AcU SS. Jan. Th. II. p 160.— A'f//)/), de fhitrib. S. Ant Lpa. 1787. 4
/) MahiUon, Ann. Th. V. p. 814s9l AcU SS. Febr. Th. III. p. 098aB.
a) Charta Charltatis. i^Manrique Th. L p. 109sa.)
CHAP. UL ECGLES. LIFK S 807. CISTERCIANS. BEBNAKD. 229
Clteaax and the govoramont by annual General Cbaptcrs, were all modelled
after the Constitution of Clugny, although the abbots of the four oldest
affiliated convents gradually attained equality with the Abbot of Citeaux
(1119). The black dress of the Benedictines was exchanged for a white
oowL By the extreme veneration which the Cistercians acijuircd among
their contemporaries, who regarded them as perfect representatives of apos-
tolic simplicity, and by the splendor of St. Bernard's name, this now order
was able to vie successfully with the congregation of Clugny. The latter
was indeed considerably shaken by the excesses of its abbot, Pontius
(1109-25), who carried the staft* of the shepherd and of the pilgrim in the
same hand which bore the sword of the highway robber. It was, however,
enabled to close this controversv honorably to itself under the direction of
Peter the Venerable (1122-56). (h) Bernard was born at Fontaine, of a fami-
ly distingnished for monastic piety. Even during the struggles of his early
youth he showed that he was by natural temperament inclined to a monastic
life. Accordingly in the year 1113 he became a monk at Citeaux, and in
1115 the Abbot of Clairvaux, a convent founded by persons belonging to
that community. By his entire disengagement from the world, ho seemed
utterly independent of the rules, and was actually su[)erior to all those
laws by which men are usually governed. He was certainly highly endowed
by nature, and in popular estimation as well as in his own opinion he pos-
seased the power of working miracles. Educated beneath the foliage of a
mighty forest, his thoughts were continually directed toward heaven. In
spite of the general insipidity of the age, he was distinguished by an clo-
qnence which was irresistible even by those who could not fully comproliend
bis discoarfle. He was rather jealous of human learning, and so zealous in
bebalf of the Church that he engaged in a sanguinary persecution. IJe was
^thnsiastic in his eflfbrts to promote the power of the [wiesthood, and yet
candid and severe with respect to their irregularities. In almost every part
of Europe ho beheld those whose minds he had formed by his in>tructions
seated upon episcopal thrones, he himself acted as an umpire in nearly all
^ the quarrels which took place between ditterent princes and nations, and by
tbe diffusion of his highly theocratic spirit among the priesthood, he became
the most influential man of his age. By his influence his order became so
powerfdl, that soon after his death (1153) it endeavored to excel its rivals of
GogDj, not so much in humility and contempt of the world as in indepen-
dence and wealth.
§ 208. PraeinoTtstranU and Cannelitcs.
Etrmanni JfanacM de niirac ». Mariac laudc*. III, 2s8. {Guiherti^ 0pp. ed. (PAch^ry, p. 544.)
Aete P9. Jane. Th. T. p. 8a4s(«, Ckry9. ran der Sterre, Vita 8. Norb. Antu. 1C5(J. Hugo, Vie de %.
IflrtL Lozeoib. 17W. 4. BIbL Ord. Pra^monst, per Jo. le Puigf^ Pnr. 1633. f.
Jonn. PhocaA, compendlsrla descriptlo, etc {Uon. AWttii Symniicta. Ven. 17*^. f. p. 17.) Ja-
tMde tUHaco IliRt. llloro<». c. 62. {lUmgarH Th. I. p. 1075.) Kule In HolHUn. Th. HI. p. ISsat
AmM a Virg. MariOy Specalnm Cartnclitanum. Antu. lC6<i. 4 Tb. fl
Xorhcrt was originally a canon at Cologne, and as the chaplain to Henry
*■> Bernard!, Apol. ad Gull. {MnhilUm Tli. IV. p. 33.) Pi tH I>r». ad Bern. I. Kp. 3«i. IV. Ep.
17. VL Ep. 4 (BIbL PP. Max. Th. XXII.) Dialogtu Inter tlunlac. num. ct Cist do dlver>!!» utrins^iue
OwL obicrTT. ilfarteru, Tb«t. Tb. V. p. 1569.)
230 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCH UISTOET. PKB. lU. A. D. 800-1811
V. lived m the enjoyment of wealth, with the brightest prospects of promo-
tion in the priestliood. By an event which was supposed to bear a strong
resemblance to the conversion of Paul, he was induced to throw all these aside,
and enter upon the humble employment of a preacher of repentance. After
some ineffectual attempts to reform other canons, he founded an order of mo-
nastic canons in the unhealthy vale of Primontre (1120). When he appeared
preaching repentance at the Diet of Speyer, he was elected as if by a divine
inspiration to the vacant archbishopric of Magdeburg, and entered that city
in' the garb of a beggar. A powerful storm of opposition was raised against
him on account of his strenuous efforts to induce his wealthy retinue there
to practise the same abstemiousness which he showed. The people, how-
ever, before whose fury he was once obliged to save his life by flight, main-
tained possession of his body as though it were the sacred palladium of their
city, in opposition to the demands of the monks of Primontre. Before his
death (1134) Norbert witnessed the rapid increase of his order in the estab-
lishment of numerous chapters and convents for monks and nuns. — Berthold,
a crusader from Calabria, who with a few companions had resided for a time
in a cave of Mount Carmel, was the founder of the order of the Carmelitesi,
though his claims to that honor have been denied by his followers. On ac-
count of the hallowed recollections connected with the mountain where they
resided, and the similarity of the habits of their order with those of Eliaf,
they have always maintained that it was founded by that ancient prophet,
and continued until modern times by a series of successive prophets, (ff)
When, by the conquests of the Saracens, the Carmelites lost possession of
their original seat, they allege that the holy Virgin gave her scapular to
Simon Stocl', the general of the order, that it might become thenceforth the
habit of all its members, with the assurance that whoever should die in this
dress would never suffer in everlasting fire, (h) Kew possessions were ac-
quired by these Brethren of our Lady of Mount Carmel in every coantry of
Europe.
§ 209. The Trinitarians.
Bonai>mtura Baro, Annalcs Ord. S. Trin. Eom. 16S4. Bale in IloUtm. Th. IIL ik 8taL
The vague and visionary efforts of two hermits, John de Matha^ pre-
viously a Parisian divine, and Felix de Valois, appear to have been finally
directed to a definite object by Innocent III., and an Order of the Holy
Trinity was established for the redemption of Christian slaves (1198). The
first-fruits of its efforts were exhibited in the year 1200, when a multitude
of Christians purchased from slavery in Morocco returned to their homes.
The order of the Trinitarians (de redemptione captivorum, Mathurins, freres
aux fines) spread itself rapidly in all parts of Southern Europe. Femak
convents were also instituted, and through many vicissitudes the primary
object of the order has not been altogether abandoned even to a very recent
a) Papebroch (ActE SS. April Th. L p. 774a. and in some controvereial writings) has jrfren tbe
tnie history in oppo6ition to the prolix volumes of the CarmeIItc& [Afoaheim Hist Cent XIL Put
II. f 21. McLain*8 transL]
b) Launoii Dse. do Sim. StochU Tiso. Par. 1658. (0pp. Tb. IL P. 11.)
CHAP. UL ECGLES. LIFE, f SIO- HUMILIATES, f 311. BEUG. KNIGHTS. 231
period. The residence of its General (minister genoralis), and the place
where its general chapter, composed of all the superiors of its convents, con-
vened, was at Cerfroy, where the two original hermits were once visited hy
a white deer with the mark of a cross hetween its horns.
§ 210. The humiliates.
TXrahotehi, Teten Hamillatorum monaroenta. Mediol. 1766fl8. 8 Th. 4>.
Many felt that the religions should he hrought into more intimate connec-
tions with the secular life than the general Church at that time was able to
afford. The community of the HumiliaUn was therefore instituted in the
eleventh century, composed, at first, of an association of pious Milanese who
ha<l been exiled from their native city. Gradually it became extended over
all parts of Lombardy, and embraced principally mechanics, especially weav-
ers of woollen fabrics, connected together by the bond of a common employ-
ment, and a love of pious exercises. All their property was held in common.
At a later period even monks and priests united with them, and took part in
the labors, the business, and the trade of the Society. Their community was
t4)lerated by the hierarchy on the ground of its being a point of connection
between the convent and the world. Innocent III. endeavored to give it a
definite poation by imposing upon it the rule of Benedict, and it was sup-
plied with a grand master in 1246. Finally it became secularized, and was
abolished by Pius V. (1571).
§ 211. Ritahlishment of the Orders of Knighthood.
I TTi'. Tyr. L 10. XVIII, 4m. Jac. de Yitriaco c W. PM. Veltroniutt, StatuU Ord. hosp. 8.
Ja Rom. IKS. t HoUt^. Th. II. p. 4i4as.— II. ( Yertot) Hist, des Chevallere hospltallere de S. Jean.
Fw.lWl 4Th. 4. 1761. 7 Th. {yiethammer) Gcech. d. Malthescrord. nach Vcrtot Jen. 1792. 2 vote.
iWi, dHI'mlxIne o<l In.oUtuto del ord. dl S. Giovanni. Kom. 17S1. 4. Fiilk^nHt^ln, Gesch. d. Joh.
Onl Dre«d. lS8a 2 vols.
I Wil Tyr. XII, 7. Jac. de YUr. c 65. Bernard I Tract de nova militia ». adhortatlo ad inllites
tempH (0pp. Th. IV. p. 9S.) JToUten. Th. II. p. 429sa. MUntsr, Statntenbuch. Brl. 1794. 1 vol.—
II P.du Putf, n\st d« Templlers. Par. IMO. Brux. 1751. 4 Uebers. Frankf. 1C65. 4. irEtftivol,
Hilt CTit ct apol. den Chev. da Temple. Par. 1789. 2 Th. 4. An Epitome : Die Rltter des Temp, zii
Jeim Lpz. 1790. 2 vols. Wilcke^ Gesch. d. Temp. Onl Lpz. 18268. 2 vols. FnlkermUin, Gesch. d.
Tempi Onl. DresL 1883. 2 vols. [C. 6. AddUon, Hist, of tlie Knights Teraplars, Ac I»nd. 1843. 9
•4i$ed.l8.%4.8.]
L Sutaten des dent Ord. edited by E. ITfnntg, K«)ni^'*b. 1806. PMH d« Dinthurg (about 1826),
Chronic. Priwlae !<. Hist Ord. Tent ed. HartknocK Jen. 1679. 4. Codex diplomaticns Ord. Tent
UHtBiKlenbach z. Gesch. d. dent O. ed. by J. G. Ilenne. Montz. 1845.— II. Duslfii, lll.st Onl. Eqult
Tent Tlnd. 1727. t Joh. Yoifft^ Gesch. Prcnss. b. z. Untergangc d. Ilerrsch. d. deutsch. Ordens.
Kooipb. 182788. 4 vols.
The various orders of knighthood which sprung up during the tenth cen-
^, were the legitimate result of the feudal system and the military occupa-
tions of the youth. When regarded as an affair of past times, this system is
•foiled as the ideal toward which noble minds were induced to aspire, but
^ ^ts bitter reality it was the ascendency of a great corporation, whose
power was restrained by Christian customs, and embellished by the Princi-
pe of love and honor. Duels and tournaments were always zealously
^posed by popes and synods, but the system of knighthood itself was sanc-
^^^'^ by the Chnrch because it enlisted men in the service of God, and for
232 MEDIAEVAL CUITRCH HISTOBT. FEB. IIL A. D. 800-1918.
the defence of all who were oppressed. Tlie two most powerful tendenoiee
of the age were united daring the holy wars in forming a spiritual knight-
hood which comhined the three monastic vows with the solemn promise
never to desist from a conflict with unbelievers. 1. Some citizens of Amalfi,
while trading with Palestine, had (1048) founded a hospital for the reception
of pilgrims to Jerusalem. The fraternity which had the management of this
hospital, after the conquest of Jerusalem by the Christians, took the monas-
tic vow under the name of the Brethren of the Hospital^ dedicated to St,
John the Baptist^ in Jcrusiilem. Raymond du Puy^ the second principal of
the order, to their former duty of hospitality and attendance upon the sick,
added that of knighthood in opposition to infidels (about 1118), and this soon
became the principal object of the order. 2. Nine knights; with Huffo d4i
Payens as their master (inagister militiae), took from the hand of the Patri-
arch of Jerusalem the knightly monastic vow (1118), and from their location
in the royal palace, by the side of the former Temple of Jerusalem, they
assumed the name of '^mjylars (pauperes commilitoncs Ohristi templique
Salomonis). 8. During the siege of Aine (1190), some citizens of Bremen
and Lubeck founded a hospital which was favored by the Grerman princesi
and under Ileun/ of Walpot became the Order of tlie German Knights of the
Virgin Mary. Each of these orders embraced three estates, viz.. Knights,
Priests, and Serving Brethren. In this latter class were included not only
all who were engaged in manual labor, but squires. The whole was arranged
in accordance with an aristocratic constitution, under the government of a
Grand Master, Commanders, and Chapters of Knights. They formed the
standing army of the Church in the East, but as a general society of noble-
men they acquired vast possessions in every part of Europe. The Templars
especially soon became independent by their own power, and the privileges
granted to them by the pope. So highly was their spirit of devotion to the
order cultivated, that they became a military society of noblemen, combining
their hereditary powers with the privileges of the clergy. It was not long,
therefore, before they found themselves in a hostile position to both bishops
and kings. Wherever the Church in any way stood in need of worldly
weapons, especially in Spain while contending with the Moors, and in Germa-
ny in connection with the Cistercians, similar orders of knights were estab-
lished of a purely national character.
CHAP. IV.— STATE OF SCIENCE IN THE CHURCH.
§ 212. Scientific: Education of the Nirith Century,
Launoli Do. de scholia celebr. a Car. M. et post enndem instanratis. Par. 1672. HamK 1717. Hist
lltt6ralre de la France imw des rel. Benedlctlns. Par. VBHax Th. IV. V. Cramsr, Boasnet, Th. V. toL
IL Ilt'/el^, wi^ zust hn add west Deutschl. 9. 10. and 11. Jaliriih. (TQb. QoarUlachr. 1S8S. P. 2.)
Bdhr, Oeacli. d. rum. Lit im Carol. S^eita. Carlsr. 1S40.
The diffusion of education commenced by Charles the Great was con-
tinued under the Carolingians by the schools established in the cathedrals
and convents. The most ethcient agent in it, so far as related to Germany,
CHAP. lY. £C€LES. SCIENCE. $ ^^S. B. MAUBUS. CLAUDIUS. EBIOENA. 233
Babanut Ifaurus^ the pnpil of Alcoin, and the friend of the Emperor
Louis when that monarch was in distress. lie had travelled in Pnloi^tine, and
in 822 was called to preside over the convent of Fulda. Compelled to fly
from that place in 842, he soon after (847) became Archbishop of Mcntz, and
died in 856. With great humility he devoted himself to the lowly task of
collecting the various explanations of the Scriptures found in the writings
of the fathers, and gave a minute description of the universe, {(i) Tlie labors
of scientific men were principally directed to the consideration of the exter-
nal ionnB of the Church. In this kind of literature, as well as in his course
of life, Agohard, Archbishop of Lyons (died 841 ), may be reg:arded as the
representative of the moderate opposition raised in the French Church
against praying to images, and all kinds of superstition, (h) Claudius^
Bishop of Turin (d. about 840), a great admirer of Augustine, presents us
with a specimen of the stormy battle then waged against the worship of
images, popes, and saints, (r) ffinemar, Archbishop of Rhoims (died 882),
shows the position of an ecclesiastical statesman standing between kings,
popes, and bishops, sometimes in the character of a friend, and sometimes in
that of an opponent, frequently with great earnestness, but always with dex-
terity and dignity in times of extreme peril, defending the rights of the
utioDal Church and of his archbishopric, (d) Haytno^ Bishop of Ilalbcr-
Btadt (died 853), brought to the recollection of his contemporaries the views
of the primitive Church by means of a much-used epitome of the Latin
translation of Eusebius. {e) Jonas^ thb successor of Theodulf in the bishopric
of Orleans, in opposition to Claudius defended the customs of the Church of
thit period, so far, at least, as they proceeded from a pious disposition. The
adrioe he gave to laymen was superior to the prejudices of the Church, and
frequently attained the enlarged philanthropy required by tlie gosple. (/)
/(An SeotuM (or) Erigena (d. about 880), who resided at the court of Charles
the Bald, though he was originally educated in the British school, under the
iifltieDoe of the writings of Origen and the Areopagite, stood so isolated
from his contemporaries, and so far superior to his times, that his doctrines
were not suflBciently understood to be condemned by the Church until the
thirteenth century, (g) To his profound conceptions of the divine immen-
■
«)Oppt t*\. Colr^neriM, Col. 1627. 6Th. f. 3fionf. (Patrolofr. Par. 1W2. voK CVII.-XII.>—
^- ff. C. Sckte^in, dc Rhab. M. primo Gorm. praecepUire. Ileidelb. 1811. 4. Tfib. QaartalsKjhr. ISSS.
^'9^ F. KhriMtmann^ Hnban. Mcntz. 1S41.
ft) 0pp. od. Snlut. Par. 1666. 2 Th, {Oalland. Th. XIII. p. 405.) Ilund^tihagen, do Agob. vlt»
<tKripH\6iea8.1»)2. P. L
e) Frafm-ntoln Flaeii Catal. tout, vorlt p. 936. Bibl. PP. Max. Th. XIV. p. 197. 3fnhiUon,
Titt. AotL p. »0. RwIelbacK, Claad- Inedlt opp. spcclnilna. Ilofn. 1S24. C, Sihmh/, Claud. (Zrlt.soljr.
tWrt.Th.184S. H. 2.)
<0 Opp. ed. Sirmond, Par. 1645. 2 Th. f Flodoard, Hist ecc. Rem. Ill, 15-29. Hist lit de la
'*■»««. Th. V. p. 544«. (?**«, Merkwanllgk. a. Lebcn a Schrr. HIncm. Oott. 18<>6.
') De dirist remm meinorla a. Ilist ecc breviariutn, od. Boxhorn^ Lagd. 1650. Mader,
Hrinat 1671.
/) De culta Imajrfnum 1. TIL a. 840. (BIbL PP. Lngd. Th. XIV. p. 167. De Institat lalcall I III.
^^-(ITAch^ry, Spldl. ed. 2. Th. I. p. 25«.) De Institut repia. (76. pi 824.)
»» D« dirblone natnrae L V. od. GaU, Oxon. 16S1. t ScMut^r, Monant. 19a3.— P. //Jort. J. Scot
* '^^ Urppr. c chr. Phil Kopenh. 1828. FronmulUr, Lehre de.^ J. 8c r. Boson. (Tub. Zt'ltH'hr.
^ P. 1. &) StaitdenmaUr^ J. Sc u. d. Wiaaenach. sr. 2^1t Frkf. ISai vol. I. Ilock^ J. Sc (Bonn.
234 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. FER. IIL A. D. 80&-18ieL
sity, tho world was one vast Theophany in different forms of development,
the Incarnation was simply the reconciliation of the finite with the infinite,
tlie sacred Scriptures were the necessary terms in which the truth must be
expressed, in adaptation to human infirmity, and religion and philosophy
were tlic twofold form in which the same essential spirit was manifested. A
German poetic composition, (h) in which the evangelical history was repre-
sented with all the peculiarities of the Germanic popular life, was a dawn
without a day, since all literature continued to be written in Latin, and sci-
ence, even when laymen took part in it, was wholly of an ecclesiastical char^
acter (clergie). During the stormy period which followed the subversion of
the house of Charles the Great, the more eminent lights of literary culture
were either wholly extinguished, or were concealed behind the walls of con-
vents, where their beams were only occasionally visible. That portion of
Anglo-Saxon Christian literature which Alfred the Great (871-901) saved by
his sword, and animated with the antique traditions of ecclesiastical learning,
was apparently lost at his death. (/)
§ 218. First Eucharist ie Controversy,
While attempting to present the mysterious import of the Liturgy, Pat-
cliamis Ixadhert advanced the doctrine that the substance of the consecrated
bread and wine in the Eucharist was changed into the very body of Christ
which was bom of the virgin. This was declared to be an act of creation
by almighty power, though invisible to any but an eye of faith, (a) This
sentiment was opposed by the learned writers of that age, especially by
Rabanus Manrus^ by Ratramnus^ a monk of Corbie, who maintained the
indefinite view prevalent in the primitive Church, according to which there
was simply a communion of the earthly with the heavenly, and by Erigena,
to whom the sacrament of the Lord^s Supper could present nothing but a
sign of an omnipresent God. {b) The doctrine of Paschasius must have been
well adapted to the popular nnderstanding, from which, indeed, it may have
taken its rise, since even before this the consecrated bread had been changed
nnder the hands of Gregory the Great into a bleeding finger, (c)
Zeitacbr. t Phil. u. Th. 1S35. H. 16.) B. JIf4Ur, J. 80. Mainz. lS4i. A. ^or$trick, PhiL £i1«eDM
ex iprios princii)iis dclineata. Gott 1S44 P. I.
h) Coinp. {Uiue'n) Lebcn Je?u. p. 88.
€) AMerii IlisL de reb. Alfr. ed. B7«<?, Oxon. 1722. F, L. t>. Stoa>erg^ Leb. Alfr. Munst 181&
[Rob. PoiceU, Llle of A. tho Great Lond. 1684. 12. Reinhold Paidi^ King Alfred, Ac TraojO. Lond.
1S52. Life of A. by Spelifuin, Lond. 1S40. F. SU'lneU, The Mod. Mon. Ac In a Life of Alft«d Um
Or., from the Gorman of A. V. HolUr, Ac Lond. 1S49.] Weis^, Gei>ch. AMt. Schaffh. 1852.
a) De corpora ot sang. Domini s. de sacramentls, 881. the later edition, 844. dedicated to Cbarl«s
the Bald, i» in MarUtie, Col. ampl. Tb. IX. p. 867. Ep. ad Fradcgardam in BibL PP. Logd. Tk.
XIV. p. 7W'«.
b) Jiahani Kp. ad Ileribald. {MafHUon^ vett Analect ed. 2. p. 17.) Ratmmni do corp. et san^
I>om. L. ad Carol. CoL 582. ed. J. BoiUau, Par. (1686.) 1712. 12. Often attrlboted to ErigeiuL— Zati/!
0. d. verlorcn gchaltnc Schrift des Joh. 8c t. d. Eacbar. (Stud. a. Krit 1828. vol. I. U. i.)
c) Pauli DLac. Vita Greg. M. c 2& Joan, Diao, II, 41. Patch. Bad, c 14.
CHAR IV. ECCLKS. SCIENCR f 214. 00TT3CHALK. $ 315. IIEOSWITIIA. 235
§ 214. Gottschalk. Cont. from § 212.
O. XnuQuin^ vett auctoruin qui s. IX. de praed. scriiMorunt, opp. ct fhigm. Par. 1650. 2 Th. 4.
JfantiTh. XIV. XV. — J. CferiiiA, Gottesiclialcl ot praedt-stlnatlanac controv, HLsL (Dubl. IQiM. 4.)
Han. 1602. AeainM Gottschalk : L, CfUot, Hist Gottoso. VraiMlestinatiani. Par. 1655. f. [Biblical Ke-
pertorjr, voL XII. Xa II. p. 2255W. ttTeander, HUL of Clir. Evl. Transl. by Torr«y, vol. III. p. 472aa.]
The authority of Augustine had continued unimpaired till tlie middle
ogess though his peculiar doctrines were generally misunderstood, and almost
universally rejected. GotUchall- was a monk, of a noble Saxon family, who
even in his childhood had been devoted to a monastic life. At a svnod which
met at Mentz (829), he obtained a release from his monastic vow, but by the
influence of his abbot, JiahftitUH^ this decision was subsequently reversed.
His excited spirit now sought tranquillity in the perusal of the writings of
An;ru>iine, in a removal to the convent of Orbais, and in a pilgrimage to
Rome. In the most decided forms of expression he announced his doctrine
of a double predestination, founded upon the absolute foreknowledge of Ood,
according to which some were elected to life, and others were consigned to
destruction. Personal bitterness was combined with the aversion felt in the
Gallic4m Church towards Augustinism, and Gottschalk was condemned,
tbroagh the influence of Rabanus, at the second Synod of Mentz (848), and
delivered into the hands of his metropolitan, Ilincmar of Rheims. (a) The
cause of Gottschalk, or rather of Augustine, was sustained by all the learning
of Riitraniutw^ and the hierarchical authority of Remigkis^ Archbishop of
Lyons. On the other hand, Uincinar defended the Frankish doctrine that
man was indeed free and yet needed divine grace, and Erigena contended for
the perfect unity of the divine decrees, (li) The controversy remained ande-
cided, bnt Gottschalk, worn down by hierarchical violence, and absorbed in
private reveries by w^hich bis life was beguiled away, died excommunicated
but unsubdued in prison (868).
§ 215. Literary Interest during the Tenth Century^ vnJ^r the Othoe.
So strong were the recollections of classic antiquity awakened in the
court of the imperial house of Saxony by its connection with Constantinople,
that it began to indulge the dream of restoring the Roman empire to its
original form. The decisions pronounced by the various emperors with re-
gard to the popes, gave them an opportunity to speak freely respecting the
abuses then practised in the Church. The Arabians had ever since the eighth
century monopolized the natural sciences as the appropriate product of their
own civilization, together with every thing in Greek literature which related
to them. The school they had established at Cordova (after 980) excited the
attention of the neighboring Christian countries, (n) As an evidence of the
classic education w^hich existed in the imperial court, Hroswitha (Ilelena v.
a) De prfl«<l4»<t contra Gott«ch. Epp. IIL eU. Sirmond^ Par. 16(7. (The Letters of Kabanns are
alM in Jfituf/utn Tli. I. P. I. p. 86a.) Two unprintcd letters of Rab. re5pucting Gotlsch. (Tabu
(InartaliMrlir. lf>S6. 11. H.) Flodoard, H. ecc. Rem. Ill, 28. Manni Th. XIV. p. 919.
h) Ratmmni de prae<l. I. IL {Mauguin Th. I. P. I. p. 2T.) Jiemigii L. dr trib. epp. {Ih. Th.
IL P. I, p. 61.) I/inifnur, do praed. Del et lib. arb. (Ist sect lost Opp. vol. I.) De tribus epp. I*
(Oppt ToL I. J/ifW^. Th. II. P. IL p. 6T.) Erigena^ de prae<l. DeL {^Manguin Th. I. P. I. p. 108.)
a) MiddUdorpf, de institutia literarlis In llisp. quae Arabes aactores babavrant Q<iett ISIO. 4.
236 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. la A. D. 800-1218.
Rossow, (lied about 084), a nun of Ganderslicim, may be mentioned. She
recounted the exploits of Otho the Great in rhyme and in hexameter verse,
and expressed the parent ])rinciples of Christianity in the style of Terence, (b)
On the other hand, Xotker LubeOj superintendent of the school in the con-
vent of 8t. Gall (died 1022), availed himself of his knowledge of the ancient
languages to give tranahitions from them into the High Gennan. (r) J^atherivs,
Bisliop of Verona and Liege (d. 974), though sometimes a wanderer and even
a prisoner in consequence of the political commotions of Italy and his own
ardent tem|)orament, in bitter and pointed language held up before his cleri-
cid bretliren a picture of their own corruptions, and the duties required of
them by the ancient laws of the Church, (d) The Arabic influence was
represented by Gerhert. {e) In subsequent times he has been looked upon as
A nia;j:ician, and perhaps the spirit of his age rendered it necessary that astro-
nomy sliould i)artake in some degree of the character of astrology. But the
importance which the school of Rheims attained nnder his management, and
the estimation in which he was held both in France and Germany, proves
that he was not as isolated and unappreciated in his own day as the Italian
accounts imply. It is, however, certain that the clergy in general were by
no means in advance of the age in which they lived, and it required no great
skill on the part of any one to subject a bishop who should exhibit his know-
ledge of Latin in the sacred desk, to the most awkward imputations. (/")
§ 216. Acixdemical Studies in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries,
No sooner was there sufficient order secured in the state and in the
Church to afford opportunity for a tranquil elevation and communion of
spirit among men, than the exuberance of life which had long been concealed
broke forth in the cultivation of science. An appropriate instrument for the
intellectual energy then awakened was found in the recently discovered Latin
translation of the dialectic writings of Aristotle, (a) There were still pre-
served some remnants of a Roman empire and laws, and the condition of the
Lombiird cities rendered the development of these a matter of considerable
importance. Accordingly, about the close of the eleventh century, the Ro-
man law was reduced by Irnerius to a new scientiflc form, and applied to
new relations as a European Christian law. (h) For the cultivation of these
laws several universities were established. That of Bologna was at first
merely a school for the study of Law, while that of Paris was for the study
of Dialectics and Theology. In the former, the highest powers of the corpo-
ration (universitas) were vested in the pupils, but in the latter they were in
the hands of the Doctors. They owe their establishment not to the favor of
b) C»rmlna Ottonls I. Corned lae sacnw VL (0pp. ed. Sohur^/tei^ch^ Vlt 1707. 4.)
<.') CatHlogu<> In R. r. Raumer^ p. SSajs.
'/) l>c Contenitu canon um. Apologia buI IpMus. Do dlsa)rdla inter Ipsum ct clerloos. Medita*
tlones cortUs n. iirncl«>q. (Opp. cd. RtlUriniy Voron. M^.)—EngelhardU, ii. Rather. (KOc«chiehtL
Abhh. Erl, 1S32. N. 5.) Xeitndtr, Leben d. Rather. (Deuteche Zeitsch. t cbr. W. 1S51. N. 86.)
e) Coinp. $ 178. n<itc g. Hc'pecting Gerbert's works ««« ffocky GerberL p. 16668.
/) Vila Jfrtmcerci c. 81. {Uibn. Scrr. ror. Bransv. p. 555.) Comp. Saxo Oramm. L XL ed.
Stfphan. p. 209.
a) Jourdnin, Keolierchos critiq. sur I'sigc et Torigino dcs traductions lat d'Aristote. Par. ISlt.
h) Savigtiy^ Gosch. d. r^iin. licohto in Mit Alt 8^4 yoln
CHAP. lY. ECCLE3. SCIENCE. $ 21& UNIVERSITIES. $ 217. BEEENGAR. 237
popes or princes, bat to the necessities of the tiinea, as thousands of stndents
were drawn together by the reputation of some distinguished teiicher. Acts
of incorporation were not sought for from the pope until a later period, when
the younger universities endeavored by such means to rival those wliich de-
pended upon their own reputation. The advantages springing from these
seats of science, which controlled the opinions of the succeeding generation,
were so apparent that the popes were anxious by special favors to secure
their attachment to themselves, and render them institutions in which Chris-
tian studies generally (studium generale) might be pursued, (c) By the influence
of these universities science became generally dilFuscd, at least among the
higher dosses, but in spite of the freedom of its development, it still con-
tinued subservient to partial corjiorate interests, enveloped in barbarous
Latin, and almost exclusively of an ecclesiastical character.
§ 217. The Second Euchariatic Controversy.
L Mawti Th. XIX. p. 757ssw Adelmani Ep. de verit corp. et san?. Dom. cd. C. A. Schmidt^
BmnsY. 1770. Lun/ranci L. do euchar. wcr. c. Ber. (106S-70.) Bas. 152S. and often. (0pp. ed.
ffAckftrj/^ Par. 1W8. t p. 280.) Bereng. L. de s. coeiia c. Lunfr. before lo73. (The edit of the
Wolfenbuttel MSS. maile known by Letming^ and half nnished by Jlyldudlin und UnnHen in 6 P^.
G«tL 1^20-29. 4.) Ed<L J. F. and F. Tk, Vlather, Ber. 1S;U. Acta Cone lloin. Mib Grejr. VII.
tBerrng. con«cripta. {.Vuntd Th. XIX. p. 761.) BernaUlut Const (an opponent of Bcrenpar) de
Ber. damiutione multipIlcL lOSS. {ifatVi. liUberer^ Boccolta Ferrare^e di opp. Bcivntillci. Ven. 17S9.
Th. XXI.)
IL Mabiilon de niultiplic. Ber. damnatione. (Analect Th. II.) LeMing, Ber. Turon. o. Ankund.
twichtigen Wcrka drs?. Brun-^'hw. 1770.4. (Schriftcn. vol. VIII. p. .T14h^ «<»'^7»/<///;i, annnnthitnr
edltio Hbrl Ber. slinul oinnino de .•erlpti.** ejus, Ooott. 1814. 4. JbifL Ber. Ttir. {Shlinft. u.
Tuchim, Archiv. 1S14. voL IL St 1.) [II. Sudendor/^ Ber. Tar. o. e. Saminl. ihn betreff, Briefo.
OimbL 1»0.]
Bcrengar (after 1031), the superintendent of the cathedral school of
Tours, and (after 1040) archdeacon at Angers, maintained, in opposition to
the new doctrine advance<l by Puschasius, that there was a change in the
sacramental elements only in a figurative sense, lie contended that not the
earthly elements themselves, but their influences were changed by their con-
nection with Christ in heaven, who was to be received not by the mouth
but by the heart. These views he expressed in a letter to his learned friend
Lanfrane^ at that time Scholasticus (superintendent of a cathetlral school)
in the convent of Bee, but afterwards (1070) Archbishop of Canterbury.
The latter carried out the doctrine of Poschasius, by saying that the actual
body of Christ in heaven remained entirely unatfected by the change in the
elements on earth. This letter of Berengar being denounced before the eccle-
^tical authorities, (a) his doctrine was condemned at synods held at Ixome
tod VcrcelU (1050). Learned friends advocated his cause, but public opinion
Was against him. Uis doctrine admitted of a variety of interpretations, and
left the subject in the vague st^te in which it had been held in past times ;
while that of his opjwnents presented a clearly defined idea, and threw groat
t) BuUui, HIat Univ. Paris. 1665-7.1 6 Tlu f. CrevUr, II. de I'lTniv. de ParK Par. 1761. 7 Th.
11 IhiharU, IL de rUniv. Par. 1S29. Th. L—Savigny, Oesch. d. rOm. Rechta iin MA. vol III.
a) ManH Tb. XIX. p. 768.
238 MEDIAEVAL CUURCII UISTOUT. PER. IIL A. D. 80a-121«.
honor upon the forips of worship, hy making the sacrifice of the mass a g]o-
rions Theophany. Ilildehrand was at that time legate, and not only person-
ally the friend of Berengar, hut in sentiment tolerant toward his opinions.
But at the Synod of Tours (1054), this prelate w^as prudent enongh to save
his reputation for orthodoxy by the simple scriptural confession that the
bread and wine in the Lord^s Supper were the body and blood of Christ.
Berengar, however, was w^ithout sufficient influence at Rome (1059) to de-
fend his opinions against the rude violence of his enemies, and finally he con-
sented to subscribe a confession in which a grossly carnal participation in the
flesh and blood of Christ was asserted. But no sooner were his feet bevond
the Alps than he recalled this confession, with bitter execrations against what
he called Satan's seat at Rome. The controversy was contmned with equal
literary skill on both sides, in a learned correspondence between him and
Lanfranc, the keenest dialectician of the age. The whole spirit of the times,
however, was arrayed against Berengar, because he contended for a spiritual
and against a sensuous conception of Christianity. At a Synod held at Rome
(1078), Gregory made one more effort to secure indulgence for the conscience
of his friend by presenting a formula of a general nature, but even he was
obliged to give way before the zealots who surrounded him, and (1079) to
demand a more decided declaration. Although even this was subsequently
recanted by Berengar, he was protected by the influence of Gregory, and
lived in retirement on the island of St. Come, where he died (1088)
amidst the blessings of the Church. His memory was for a long time hon-
ored in Tours, but the doctrine that there was a change in the nature of the
sacramental element**, although the outward phenomena, in order to try the
faith of believers, remained the same, had now obtained the victory. T'ra/i-
suhi^tantiation by the hand of the priest was made an article of faith at the
great Council of Lateran. {b)
§ 218. Scholasticum, First Periofl.
L. Danaeu*, Prtileps. in Sentt Lomb. (0pp. thcol. Gen. 1583 f. p. 1008.) Tribhfchot>iu»^ de
doctorib. schol (ir.65) oil. Iltfuumnn, Jon. 1719. Cramer, BossueL, vol. V.-VII. EberaMn, natfirL
Theol, dcr Schol. Lpz. 1S08. liitUr, u. Begr. u. Vorlauf. d. chr. Pliil. (StncL u. KrlL 1$88. 11. 2. p.
286SS.) Histories of Phllosopliy, e«i>ecIaUy by Degerando, llegcl, Bitior, [O. U. Lewe», Dagald
Stowart, V. Cousin, and C. S. Henry,]
In the Berengarian controversy Scholasticism had commenced its develop-
ment. This was a kind of knighthood in Theology, a natural result of the
free power of thought in connection with the absolute ascendency of the
doctrines of the Church. Academical studies were pursued without restraint,
Aristotle's Logic was universally admired, and the whole movement of the
ago was vigorous, though partially turned aside from what experience shows
to be the sober reality of life. All these circumstances had given occasion
for its existence, and its whole power was now to be exerted in proving that
the doctrines which had been previously adopted by the Church were abso-
lutely true in the view of an intelligent mind, and in defending their neces-
sity. After a brief struggle it was completely triumphant over the Theology
b) Oonc Later. IV. c. 1. {MuMi Th. XXIL p. 981.) [Landon^ p. TMm.]
CQAP. lY. ECCLES. 8CIENCR $ 218. ANSELM. P. LOMBABD. 239
which had no other hasis than that of authority, and during its first period it
was wholly employed in giving suhtlety to the thoughts of the common mind hy
Aristotelian formulas. In the very commencement of its course wo find A uselm
of Aosta, the pupil of Lanfranc^ and the successor of that prelate, not only in the
monastic school, hut also (after 1098) in the archiepiscopal office (died 1109).
Though always humble, he exhibited extraordinary powers of mind not only
as a theologian, but as a dignitary of the Church. The knowledge ho sought
was that with which faith supplied him, though he endeavored to complete
the ecclesiastical system of truth on the basis of Augustine's Theology, by
his doctrine of Satisfaction for sin, and to found a rational system by his
proof of the divine existence. According to him, a recognition of the divine
existence is necessarily involved in a complete self-consciousness, and immor-
tality and salvation were the direct result of the love of God. This religion,
which had been wholly lost by sin, could be restored in no other way than
by the expiatory death of the incarnate God. («) At the close of this period
appeared Peter Lombard^ an academical teacher, and (after 1159) Bishop of
Paris (d. 1164). In his SenUncen^ the whole doctrine of the Church is de-
rived from the writings of the fathers, but it is compiled and arranged in
such a way as to constitute a scientific whole. This work became the man-
ual in universal use during the century in which it was published, and gave
its character to that which followed. This distinction was due not so much
to its acnteness or its profundity, as to the ecclesiastical position of its author,
its happy adjustment of opposite views, and its plainness to the popular
mind, {h) In the speculative views which constituted the basis of its system
of truth, was apparent a principle which had been much discussed in the old
Greek philosophy under the name of Nominalism and Realism. The former
regarded all general ideas (universalia) as nothing but abstractions of the
human understanding, and derived from the objects presented to its observa-
tion (post rem) ; while tlio latter viewed them as having tlieir origin entirely
in the mind itself (ante rem), or according to a turn of expression at one
time prevalent, and introduced for the sake of compromise, as that which is
esMntial in every thing actual (in re), {c) These opposite views had a theo-
logical significance in the controversy which sprung up between A nttelm and
BoicdinuSj a canon of Compeigne. The latter was a nominalist, arid was
consequently accused of Tri theism at the Synod of Somons (1092), where he
was oompclled to retract his assertions on this subject. (r7) Nominalism, after
this, wore a suspicious aspect in the view of the Church generally.
fl) MoDoloffluin, Proflloginm, Cur Dens homo? (Erl. 18^.) Do conceptn vlrjrinall etoriij. pec-
«aOpfi. (fi O^rberon, Par. 167R.) odd. Bfrnfffictt. Par. 1721. 2 Th. f— Acta S:?. Apr. Th. II. p.
«•» (MdMer) Anffolmns. (TQb. Qnartalsclir. ls2T. 8. 4. 11.) Billroth^ do Ans. Pr<»sl(>glo. ct Monol.
Ifi1S91 9«ef 184. notoa.
^) Sententiaram 1. IV. Yen. 1477. reo. J. AleawnA, Lovan. 1M6. f. and often.
e) / S-iUih^rii Phil. Nomlnalinin vindicata. Par. 16.M. BaumgarUn-Cnmhn*^ de vero 8choL
^'■nian et Nomlnallum disor. decretisqae ipAorum theol (Opnscc. 1886. p. 55fts. KenKKlelling iA tho
Nr. of 1821.)
<0 JoannU Jfon. Ep. Ana. {Riltu. Miscell 1. IV. p. 473.) Ajuelmi 1. IL Ep. 85. 41. and (1094)
^ ^ fide Trln. et de incarn. Terbi c. blasphemlas RuzclinL
240 MEDIAEVAL CnUCCH IIISTOBY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-1218.
§ 219. MyRticism. First Period,
IT. /khmid, <!. Mystic d. Mitt Alt in s. Entstvhungsper. Jen. 1824. AUt. Lisbner, Hugo t. 8.
Victor, n. d. tlieol. Klohtungcn er, Ztit L[)z. lf^82. J. Gorrgg^ dio christl. Mystik. liefirensb. lS86ia
8 vols. A. JMffericK, d. chr. Mystik in Hirer Kntw. u. Ihrer Denkm. voL L Entwleklungstgotoli.
Qotb. 184S. [L. Koact^ Gesch. d. cbr. Mystik. Li>8. lSft3.]
The tendency of the age in the direction of the feelings and of the ima^-
nation was shown in a mysticism of a lively and vigorous character. This
was an effort of the human mind, by means of its affections, to connect
itself immediately with the Deity. It was not unfriendly to the Church, but
it was earnest against the moral abuses found there. Bernard discovered
the highest life which man can attain in a perpetual love of God, which,
while it is vigorous in action and in self-denials, poetic in its utterances, and
the source of all spiritual knowledge of God, is neverthele^ conscious that
it is itself inexpressible, (a) Richard of St, Victor (d. 1173), by means of
biblical allegories, made known the secrets of the human heart struggling for
words, for he describes the process of contemplation as one in whose highest
flights the soul in ecstatic rapture is perfectly blessed with intuitions of the
diviue glory, (h) The fanciful nature of this spirit appears in the revelations
of Hililegard^ Abbess of the convent of Rupert, near Bingen (d. 1178).
Under the sanction of St. Bernard, they were acknowledged to be actual
divine revelations, because the figures and allegories in which they wero
clothed were agreeable to the taste of her contemporaries. But although they
revealed nothing supernatural, they contained many profound views of the
mysteries of history. {*-) In the convent of St. Victor near Paris, ever since
its founder (1109), William of Champeavx^ had been obliged to give way
before the more brilliant reputation of his pupil Abelard, a reconciliation had
been sought between Mysticism and Scholasticism, on the ground that the
latter was represented by inspired men, and the former professed to be a
series of spiritual elevations, (r/) The profoundly spiritual mind of Hugo of
St. Victor (died 1141), naturally inclined to discover the points of agreement
between different systems, regarded Scholasticism as an excellent preparation
for Mysticism, since it intelligently established the doctrines of the latter,
and in its perfection must lead the soul up to the enjoyment of ecstatic emo-
tions, lie therefore regarded each of these tendencies of the mind as the
complement and correlative of the other, (e) The union of these distinct ele-
d) Especially, De contcmtu mundi, de consideratioDe, de dlllgcndo Deo, Tr. ad Hugonem de 8.
Vict comp. $ 207.
h) E«pocia]Iy, De statu inter honilnia, de praepar. animi ad contempl. s. Benjamin minor, de gra-
tia conteinpl. s. BenJ. major. 0pp. Hothom. 1650. t—LUbner, Rich, a S. Vict do eonteropL doctriniL
Gott 1S37. P. I. Etigelhardt, Kicli. v. 8. Victor u. Ruysbroek. Erl. 1S3S,
c) Scitku, (Ucvclationes S. Vlrgg. Ilildeg. et P:ii8. Col. 162!^ f.) Liber dlvlnorum opp. simplidi
hominis. comp. ^fannl ad Fabric. Blbl. med. et In£ Lat Th. III. cd. PaUiv. p. 2638JS.— C. Ifeinert,
de S. Hild. vita. (Coinm. Soc Oott Tb. XIL Claasi. bist et ph.) J. K. Dahl, d. b. Uild. Mainz. 1881
Gdrres, vol. I. p. 2N'is». II. p. 210s.
. d) SchlohHf.r^ Abb. zu Vincent v. Beaavals' Ilandb. Frkf. 1S19. vol. IL
e) Eftpccially, do uacramcntls cbr. fidei L II. Opp. Kothom. 1643. 3 Th. t According to tbe prooft
addacod by Li^hn^r. (Stud. u. Krit 1S31. part 2. p. 2^4«l.) tbe Tractitus tbeol. ascribed to Ilildebert
(Ilildeb. Opp. ed. Beaugendre, Par. 1703. C) contains nothing except tbe first four books of Hugo's
Summa Bententt
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. 8CIENCK $ 219. JOHN OF SALIS. $ 220. ABELABD. 241
ments of the age after all never became a prominent result, for even Hugo^s
successor, Kichard, declared decidedly in favor of Mysticism, and Walter of
St. Victor (1180), who had studied under Richard, assailed the most celebra-
ted loaders of the French Scholastic party as sophists and heretics. (/) lie
defended Mysticism without really being a Mystic, but JoJui of Salisbury^ a
faithful companion of Becket, and who became, after the assassination of that
prelate, a bishop of Chartres (d. 1182), stood, hke one conversant with Ro-
mans and Greeks, in an entirely different position. It is true that he justi-
fied philosophy on account of its general utility for moral purposes, but
honestly exposing his pride of an empty knowledge to the ridicule of his
contemporaries, he predicted, as a warning to others, that Scholasticism, in
the course of its scientific investigations, would lose the truth. (^)
§ 220. Ahelard, 1079-1142.
L Letters of Abelard and 1Ielui«e, especially Ep. I. in the Kuits De bistoria calamitatnm saarnm,
vlth notes by Du Che^ne. Intrudiictiu ad Tbcol L III. incomp^to. {Abiul. et I/el. 0pp. ed. ylm-
hoUe, Par. 1616. 4.) TlieoL chr. I. V. {Martens Thoa. Anecd. Tli. V. p. 1156.) Etiilcji a. L. aclto te
iimm. (f r3 ji, Anecd. v. III. P. II. p. 627.)— Dial inter Philos., Judacam et Christian, cii. Rkein-
teoU^ Ber. 1S81. Sic et non. Dialcctica. (and dialectical fragments in: Ouvragej) \wiiK\\\s iF Ahelard
pablie* par Victor Cou9in^ Par. 1S36. 4) Sic et Non. Primuin integrum cdd. E. L, Ilt^ik^ et O. &
UtuJeuMil^ Marb. 1S51. From his school : Abael. Epitome Thcol. chr. ed. Rheinwald, Ber. 1985.
[Abailtfiii et IleL Epp. Oxon. 172S. 8. Lettrcs d'Ab. et llel. traduits sur les ninnui'crits de la bib-
BotlL royal p. E. Oddotil, pr^cdos d'un Essa! hist p. M. et Mme Guizot, Par. 18:39. 2 voU.]
IL <;«rr'ii*». vie de P. Ab. et lUl Par. (1720) 1723. 2 Th. Hist lit de la Fr. Th. XII. p. 86. 62988.
/ Berington^ Hist, of the Lives of Ab. and UeL from 1079-1168, with the Letters from the Coll. of
Amboii<>. Binning. 17SS. 4 Sc/tlo8^er, Ab. u. Dulcin, Leben e. Sch warmers u. e. Phil. Ooth. 1S07.
/. II. F. FttrichK, de Ab. doct dogm. et mor. Jen. 1727. Cou«in^ Introduction to his edition.
/ D. H. Goldhorn^ de snmmi.^ princlpils Theol. Ab. Lfis» 1&.S6. JK A. LetoaUiy de 0pp. Ab. qnae
CflOslB ed Ueidelb. 1S89. 4 Ftanck, Bcllr. asu WQrdlg. Ab. (Tab. Ztltachr. IWO. II. 4) M. Ca-
•*»■< Ab. u. HeL Giesa. 1S44 J. A Jacohi, Ab. u. llel. Brl. 1850. F. Braun, de Ab. Ethica. Marb.
1«1 [0. W. Wight, The Romance of Ab. and Uel. New York. 1S58. 12. Bohringer, Church of
Christ and its Witnesses, in last vol 1S54]
In its opposition to Scliolasticism, Mysticism found its most dbtinguished
anta^nist in Abelard. His reputation in the schoob was more brilliant, his
spirit more liberal, his familiarity with the ancient Roman writers more inti-
ntte, and his independence of the ecclesiastical fathers greater, than that of
«iy of his associates of the schoListic party. He regarded the principle, that
nothing is to be believed which is not understood, as the primary maxim of
tbit school. This doctrine of the supremacy of reason, when taken in con-
J^ection with that of the absolute authority of the Church in matters of faith,
^bich was equally sustained by Abelard, produced an obvious incongruity in
bis fandaniental principles. Even in his youth he took delight in vanquish-
H the most renowned teachers of that period by his dialectic skill. He
^Qght (after 1115) on Mount St. Genevieve, and became the most celebrated
/) Cootra novas haeresca, qu&<) Sophistae Abaelardus, Lombar<lus, Pctrus Pictav. et Gilber-
^ I'orretan. libris sentt c^uarum acuunt Generally called : Contra quatuor labyrinthos Galiiae.
**«»ia ^o^a« U. Univ. Paris. Th. II. p. 2'JO. 402. 662. 629ss. A. Planck, Q. d. 8chr. d. Walth.
'•*• V. (Stuii u. Krit 1*44 IL 4)
^ PoHcraticna S. de nagis cnrialium et vcstigiis phUosophor. 1. YIII. Lugd 1689. Metaloglotis,
^ ^^- /''. 1610. Epp. 80a (Bibl PP. max. voL XXIIL p. 242.)— /Tl Reuter, Job, v. Saliab. Ber-
16
-242 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IlL A. D. 80a-12ie.
instructor in philosophy and theology then in Paris. It was there that he
found the higltest rapture and the deepest grief in his love of Heloise. Her
lofty spirit scorned to become the wife of Abelard, for she thought sach a
connection incompatible with his attainment of those ecclesiastical dignities
which she regarded as his proper right. Even this hope her relatives
attempted to baffle by an act of most shameful atrocity (1119). Abelard
then took refuge from the world in the convent of St. Denys, where in an
earnest penitential spirit he was gradually enabled to praise God for the
chastisements which he had endured. Heloise was induced solely by her
attachment to him to take the veil. Compelled to return to his station as an
instructor by the solicitations of the academical youth, he was opposed by
the combined jealousy of the Scholastics and the hatred of the Mystics. At
a synod held at SoUaona (1121), at which a legate presided, his "Introduc-
tion to Theology " was condemned to be burnt as an infidel representation
of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, and he himself was sentenced unheard to
be confined in a very retired convent. But such severe ill-treatment only
increased the sympathy of the people with him, and he was soon after per-
mitted by the legate to return to St. Denys. When, however, he was per-
secuted by the monks on account of his discovery that Dionysius of Paris
was not the Areopagite, he betook himself to a wilderness near Nogent. Im-
mense multitudes followed him to this retreat that they might listen to his
instructions, and in a forest they constructed a multitude of huts, and a temple
which he dedicated to the Spirit, the Comforter. When threatened with new
persecutions, he committed this Paraclete to the care of Heloise as its abbess,
and consented to become the abbot of the convent of St. Gildas at Rnits, in
Brittany, to which he had been elected (1126). Here for ten years he strug-
gled unsuccessfully to establish monastic discipline, when he gave up the
attempt and returned to give lectures once more as a professor in Paris.
There ho was opposed by a crowd of enemies under the direction of St, Ber-
nard, A catalogue of alleged heresies was extracted from his writingSi, many
of which were contrary to the ordinary mode of instruction in the Ohnrch,
or would admit of inferences inconsistent with the orthodox creed. The real
controversy related to the subject of Scholasticism itself, which was accused
of desecrating divine mysteries by its daring attempts at analysis, {a) The
spirit of Abelard was now broken, and when his writings were condemned
at a synod held at Sen8 (1140), he appealed to the pope, by whom he was
doomed on Bernard's representation to a perpetual confinement in a con-
vent, (b) An asylum was finally secured for him by Peter of Clttgny, and
when he died the body of her friend was committed to the hands of He-
loise (c) as an offering richly adorned by God himself in behalf of mental
freedom, not only in the literary but in the social world. It is diflScult to
tell whether he was most beloved or hated by the age in which he lived.
a) Bemardi Ep. 18S. ad Cardlnales. 169. ad Innoc Tr. do errorlb. Ab. ad Innoc (Opp. Th. IV.
pi 114.) Also with the Index XIX. capituL in the works of Abelard. ^
h) Docnrnentd of Synod, sent to the pope bj- Bernard^ Ep. 8T0. Abelarda Apology in <^k><i<^^'^
to Bernanl in bis Kp. 20. (0pp. p. 880e&) Satires respecUng the Synod and St Bernard by Btrmkr
gariua ScholasticM, Apologet pro magistro c. Bernard. {Abaelardi 0pp. p. SOSaa.)
c) Petri Yen. Ep. ad Uel. HeloUmt ad Petrura. {Ahati. 0\^ p. SSTaa.)
CHAP. IT. SOCLES. SCIENCE. % 221. SAC SCRIPT. $ 222. NIEBBLUNOEN. 243
§ 221. Thi! Sacred Scriptures,
Many works upon the Scriptures were written by persons belonging to the
circles of the Mystics and the Scholastics, but although they exhibited a high
degree of mental acuteness and sprightliness, they displayed an entire want
of a proper conception of the peculiarities of ancient times. Though these
peculiarities were not unknown to the authors, they nevertheless received a
deep coloring from the outward relations of the modern world, and yet were
represented as a tradition from the past An abundant literature was also
formed around the sacred writings. In her Pleasure Garden, Herrad^ the
Abbess of Landsperg (about 1176), has contrived to weave into the scrip-
taral history a general summary of all secular knowledge, (a) All kinds
of literature are full of allusions to something in the Bible. But although
the Jews were induced by their Arabic learning to investigate the He-
brew text, the Scriptures were interpreted by ecclesiastical writers with-
oat any important aid from a knowledge of other languages. The vari-
008 manuscripts of the Vulgate differed widely from each other. The glosses
of Walqfrid Strdbo (849) and Anselm of Laon (d. 1117), were generally used,
although they were nothing but verbal definitions and paraphrases derived
from the ecclesiastical fathers, (b) In the more extended commentaries, four
different senses were presupposed in every scriptural passage ; the historical
meaning was regarded only as the vestibule to the sanctuary, and whatever
life appeared was expended in the play of allegorical interpretations. Ru'
perif Abbot of Deutz (d. 1136), endeavored to re-establish all theology upon
the basis of the Holy Scriptures, as the great Book through which God has
intelligently presented the way of salvation to all nations, (c) When the
Slaves endeavored to retain the use of their own national language in their
rdigioos worship, they were opposed by Gregory VII, (1080), who was the
first that ventured to censure the use of the Scriptures in the vernacular
tongue, and justified this opposition by a reference to the mysteries of the
primitive Church. (</)
S 222. Commencement of a National Literature in the Twelfth Century.
A£iint reflection of the ancient national glory long remained, almost en-
tirely imafiected by the influence of Christianity, in the hearts of the people,
and was exhibited in the German epic poetry. This finally received a per-
manent written form during the thirteenth century, in the composition called
The Xiebelungen. (a) The popular fable of the Court of the Beasts was a
pletBant representation of human society among a people conversant with
the simple life of the forest. As this story had already been to some extent
amilarly applied by some of his predecessors, it was formed by a monk of
Clngny about the middle of the twelfth century into the fable of Reinardus^
0) Hortos dellcfauoini, a roannwript with miniatures in the Lib. at Strasbnrg. Engelhardt^ Her-
'»* T^ n. llir H. delic Stuttg. 1818.
^ WiiUi/ridi Oloeea ordlnaria in Biblla. (0pp. Par. 1852. 2 yolfli In the Patrol ed. Migne, voL
^^HL) An$dmi Oloeea loterlinearis. Bas. 1S02. t and often.
f) BuperU TuUienM%, Opp. Mog. 1681. 2 Th. t d) Greg, I VII. Ep. 11.
«) [Tbe FaU of the Niebelongcn, dec traniL hy W. IT. Letttom^ Loud. 186a]
244 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. ILL A. D. 800-12161
which contained an ironical satire upon the gluttony of the monks, and the
avarice of tlie popes, {h) Independent of the clergy, and yet in the midst
of the enthusiasm of the first Crusades, sprung up the joyous^ art of the
Troubmlovrif. With passionate zeal it entered into all the discussions of the
age, and though its inspirations were sometimes employed in singing the ex-
ploits of the Oliurch, it was at other times equally fearless in opposing the
bad practices of the hierarchy, and was always independent of ecclesiastical
control, (c) The Suabian minnesingers^ the nightingales of the middle ages,
near the close of the first half of tlie twelfth century began to sing of earthly
love, joy, imd sorrow. The ordinary feelings with which men regarded the
Blessed Virgin were transferred by these minstrels to the whole female sex. {d)
Walter of the Vogeliceide penetrated far into the mysterious emotions of genu-
ine Christianity, and yet confessed with childlike candor that he found in his
heart notliing like love toward his enemies. On the other band, with the
spirit of a real German, he set himself in opposition to all priestly dissimula-
tion and the unrighteous ban which the pope had imposed upon his country.
A vivid picture of the Crusades is presented in the legends and songs relat-
ing to the expedition of Charles the Great into Spain. In these poems that
monarch, who is called pre-eminently the servant of God, with his twelve
paladins, are described as exposing their bodies to the most imminent perils
for the benefit of their souls. Instead of the treasures of the Niebel-
ungenlied with its heathenish spirit, we now have the story of the San
Graal. The knightly epic, however, when it became fully developed, was
not much pervaded by the ecclesiastical spirit. The meditative Wolfram
of Eschenhach^ in his poem of the Parzival, enters indeed into the proper
ideas of the Church, distinguishes between the ideal and the actual, and
describes the expiations and tlie external holiness which are necessary
to the enjoyment of a higher life, but what he describes is not an eccle-
siastical expiation, and the guai'dians of his sanctuary are not priests, hot
holy knights and a divinely consecrated king. The luminous Godfrey of
Strashurg in his Tristan described the sumptuous life of the court, in which,
totally regardless of the decisions of the Church, the eternal rights of the
heart were treated as inviolable, even when opposed to what was then called
the sacrament of marriage, {e) As early as the time of the Othos, laymen
generally scorned the cultivation of every kind of science, and towards the
close of the twelfth century the clergy entirely renounced the study of all
literature in the language of the people. The general result of all the influ-
ence of this age was, that the clergy entirely lost the monopoly they had pre-
viously possessed in the mental cultivation of the people. (/) Hence, at the
same time with the ecclesiastical sciences, a species of poetry was formed,
dictated solely by those feelings which exist in every human bosom. It was
not, however, a poetry altogether popular in its character, for it was highly
h) Gervinus^ Oesch. iL poet Nation. Literatur. vol. L p. lOSaa. ^
c) The partlculara in Jlillot, Baynonard u. unserm Dietz.
d) a Barthfl, Oppoa. gegen die Hierarcbie. Walther y. d. Y. (Zeitsob. t hiat Th. 1846. H. &)
e) The particulars in Oorrea, Lachmann, Oritnuif Oervinua, and Hagen.
/) Comp. ff, LeOi y. d. deben Yramichelten. (HaL) 1889.
CHAP. Y. SXTENS. OF THE CHUBCH. % 22a DENMARK. SWEDEN. 245
artificial, and adapted only to tlie cbivalroas tastes of the knights. The
most hrilliant exhibitions of its power were presented at the court of the
Hohenstaafens.
CHAP, v.— EXTENSION OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.
Adam* Brem. ({ 170.) I^tud. de sfta Daniae et rellqnaram, quae trans Daniam sunt, regionum
Mtan, aMribb et reL ed. Fabric Uamb. UOd. I
§ 223. The Holy Ansgar. 801-805.
L A letter of Ansgar and the Life of St. WUlehad. {PeirU Th. II. p. 878.) Vita Anskarii by
bis folk>wer RimberL (Ed. Dahlmann in PerU Th. II. p. 6S3.) Life of a Willehad and S.'Ansgar,
aeben. m. Aom. v. Carsten MUe^afs^ Brm. 1826. S. Anskarii Ptgmenta. Written with the assist-
aace of Lappenburg^ Ilarab. 1844
XL JS. C Kruac^ S. Ansgar. Alton. 18281 F. A. KnimmacJuTy S. Ansgar. alte u. neue ZeiL
Brvm. 1S2S. //. ReutenlaAl^ Ansg. n. d. An&ngspunkt d. Chr. in Schwed. ft*om the Swedish by
Matftrhqf^ BrL 1SS7. F. C. Kraffl, Narr. do Ansg. aquilonarium gentium Apost Hamb. 1840. 4.
Q. n. Klippd^ Lebensbeschr. d. Ercb. An^g. Brem. 1845. [Dtplomatarium Norvegicunif ed. by
(Z jMng€ and C. R. Unger^ to bo in 10 Tola., bat only the Ist part in 1849, and the 2d in 1852, are
ret pubL Cbristiaoia. 4to.]
The Danish prince JTarald having obtained the throne of his ancestors
by the assistance of Louis the Pious, after a long contest with his competi-
tora, became a willing instrument by which the policy of the Prankish
monarch might be carried out in his own country. He was baptized in the
city of Mentz (826), and his followers were delighted with the splendid gifts
conferred on them by the sponsors. On his return to Jutland, he was accora-
ptnied by Ansgar^ a monk of Oorvey, who had been induced by his religions
feeKngg and a vision of Christ, to consecrate himself to the work of convert-
ing the heathen. The archbishopric of Hamburg was founded for him by
Lonis the Pious with the papal consent (881), for the propagation of Chris-
tianity in the Northern countries. As this city was soon after pillaged by
pirttes, from whose ravages nothing was saved by Ansgar but some relics,
his archbishopric was attached by the Gorman king and the pope to the
hiahopric of Bremen (849). Having beeA appointed the papal legate and the
hnperia], ambassador for the northern nations, Ansgar resided in this latter
oty, and possessed an influence among those people which prepared the way
for his subsequent efforts in Jutland and Sleswio. He was not, indeed, very
seriondy opposed in his labors, except by the indifference of the people.
This he endeavored to overcome by obtaining possession of heathen children,
Mid by ransoming those persons who had been carried into captivity, and
•raining them to be future missionaries. On his first mission to Sweden
^829), he found some germs of Christianity already existing there, and by
the favor of the court he was permitted to plant some ftirther seeds of the
P>spel among the people. These, however, were soon after entirely de-
stroyed in a popular insurrection. His second visit to that country (855) was
"^ore sQcoeasfuI, since the proclamation of the new faith was then tolerated
^^ the people and their gods, on account of the protection afforded by the
^ of the Christians to those who went to sea. He was often discovered
246 MEDIAEVAL CnUBCH HISTOBY. FEB. IIL A. D. 800-12161
by Reimbert in tears, because he was not regarded by his Lord worthy of
the martyrdom which he supposed had been promised him.
§ 224. German Nations of the North.
The fonndation which had been laid by Ansgar in Denmark was protected
and enkrged by the influence of the Saxon emperors, although it was viewed
with great dishke by many as the religion of their national enemies. The
cause of Christianity, however, gained new strength by the continuance of
their connection with the Normans. This people, ever since the commence-
ment of the tenth century, had obtained possessions by conquest in England
and France, and had adopted the faith as well as the higher civilization of
the conquered nations. The triumph of the new religion was finally secured
through the conquest of England by the Danish kings. Canute the Great
secured the union of Denmark with England, and the reconciliation of the
two nations by the establishment of the Church among the Danes; and
while he was on his pilgrimage to Rome (1027), in accordance with his pre-
vious stipulations, it was connected with the Roman Church, (a) By means
of persons sent forth from Bremen, Christianity continued to extend itself
in Siceden, and though at first its progress was slow, it was without opposi-
tion, and connected with many harmless heathen customs. Alms and fasts
were vowed to the Lord Christ by a city in^ time of distress, though it was
still in a state of heathenism. The drinking horns of heathen chiefs were
not unfrequently emptied to the health of Christ and of the archangel
Michael. The series of Christian kings commenced with Olaf SchooUkonig
(1008), but the temple of Odin at Upsala was not destroyed, until, after a
sanguinary contest, it was levelled with the ground by King Inge (1075). (5)
The gospel was conveyed to Norway in the ninth century by some seafaring
youth, but the white Christ was generally regarded by the people as the god
of a foreign nation. Harald Harfagar^ in a public assembly, took an oath
that he would never again present an offering to deities whose sway extended
merely to his own country, but only to one who was Lord of the whole
earth, and by whose help he hoped to extend his authority over all Norway.
And yet when his son Hacon the Qood (936-950), who had been educated
and baptized in England, thereupon proposed that all the people should be
baptized, not only was the proposal rejected, but the prince was compelled to
feign that a cross which he had formed upon Odin^s cup was int^ided for the
sign of Thor's hammer. At his funeral the Skald proclaimed that he had been
admitted to the Valhalla, because he had mildly forborne to destroy the sacred
things belonging to the ancient gods. The cause of Christianity, however,
had now become identified with that of the supreme monarchs of the coon-
o) Sawo Orammaticus^ (died about 1804.) Hist Danicae L XVI. ed. SiephaniuA, Bor. 1644. 8
Til. t Klotz^ LpB. 1771. A.—Pantoppidan^ Annal. Eco. Dan. dii»lomatici. Hanr. 1741as. Th. I.
Jf&nter^ KOeach. v. Dancm. n. Norw. Lpz. 1828. toL I. F. C. DaAlmann^ Qtaeh. r. Dinoem.
Hamh. 1840. toI. I. p. 28^
b) Claudii Oemhjulm, Hist Sneonnm Gotboramqae ecc 1. IV. Stockb. 1689. 4. Btatuta syiM>*
dalla vet Ecc Sucvogotbicae, ed. ReuUrdahl, Lond. 1841. 4. — Oeijer, Qoscb. Scbwed. A. d. schwed.
Handschr. t. Leffler, Uamb. 188a toI. L [F. C. Oeijer^ H. of tbe 8w«de9L TYansL fh>m tbe Swcdiib,
by J. n, 7Vtrfi«r, Lend. 1347. 8.]
CHAP. V. EXTEN8. OP THE CHUECH. S ««• NORWAY. ICELAND. 247
try, and the former kings of the particolar tribes were as tenacious of their
ancient gods, as they were of the private rights sanctioned by those deities.
The wild and intriguing influence of Olaf Trygtesen (995-1000) was ex-
pended in accomplishing the triumph of the Church, to effect which he was
supplied with priests from England and Bremen. Ohtf the Thicl\ who be-
came king of Norway in the year 1019, in an expedition he made at the head
of his army throughout his kingdom, arranged the affairs of the Church on
a permanent basis. Dissatisfied, however, with his policy, the heathen por-
tion of the nation delivered up his kingdom into the hands of Canute the
Great. In defence of the cause of the cross, Olaf appealed to the religious
enthusiasm of his subjects, and finally perished in a disastrous battle (1083).
But even in the succeeding year, when hatred began to be awakened in the
bosoms of the Normans against the dominion of foreigners, a strong feeling
of attachment for Olaf was revived, and his body being taken from its grave,
was found free from decay. From that time, under the name of St. Olafi
be has been invoked as the patron saint of Norway, and after a single cen-
tury he was honored by all the Northern nations, (r) In Iceland^ Christian-
ity having been proclaimed by several transient messengers, Olaf Trygvesen
at last found a permanent lodgment, and after a severe conflict it was for the
sake of peace accepted at a general assembly of the people (1000), though
with the condition that men might worship the ancient gods in private, and
that cMldren might be publicly exposed without molestation, (d) About this
time, also, a flourishing bishopric was erected by some emigrants from Iceland
on the eastern shore of Greenland, whose tithes were paid at Rome in the
teeth of walruses, (e) In all these Northern countries the moral and social
spirit of Christianity had to contend with the custom of private revenge for
Uood shed by enemies, the right of a freeman to commit suicide, the expo-
tore of children, and the eating of the flesh of horses and of vultures.
When the images of the gods were destroyed by bold and powerful men with
no ^vine judgments following the action, the people generally acknowledged
thit Christ was the superior Deity. The ancient world of the gods was not,
bowever, entirely renounced, but only thrown back into a mysterious abyss,
ttid converted into a gloomy kingdom of magic, peopled by trolds, nixies,
ttd elves. There was indeed a legend current among the more indulgent
portion of the people, which held out a hope that even the spirits of nature
would in some future period be redeemed from their state of banishment. (/)
e) L Snorro SturlMoru, (died 1241.) Heioukringla, ed. Schoeninff, Hafn. 1777ss. 5 Th. £ [Transl.
btoEngL by & Laing, 8 vote. Lond. 1844.] IL Munter, KOescb. v. D. u. Norw. vol I. p. 481sa.
\^ Crkkton, Scandinavia. Anc and MwL &c Edinb. 1839. 2 vote. & U. W/teaton, Hist of the
Htrtkmen, Ac New ed. New York. 1847. 2 vola.]
^ L Idendingabok (by priest Are the Wise, died 1148.) c. 78A. Ucbere. in Dahlmann's Forsch.
A^ 1821 voL L p. 4726a. JInngurcaka a. Iliat primunini VSkallioltenMuin In lt\. Episcc (IStb
^t) Hafti. 1778w Kritini-Saga a. Utet rel. ctir. In IsL introd. (14th cent) Hafn. 1774.— II. Finni
^^^nti, Hkst ecc laL Hafh. 177288. 4 Tb. 4. SUiudlin^ 0. kirchL Geech. u. Gregur. v. Is). (Rllist
^^ ToL XL pt 1.) Munter^ vol I. p. ol9!& [An Uist and De5crip. Account of Iceland, Qrcen-
lo'd.aiui the Faroe lalanda, &c (Ed. Cab. Lib.) Edinb. and New York. 1840.]
*) TorfciH Groenl. antiqoa. Ilafb. 1706. Munter^ vol L p. fid5sa. Comp. Autiquitates Ameri-
■b Serr. septentr. reram ante €k>lambianar. Ilafh. 1887. 4.
/) Qrimm, MytboL p. 279.
248 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCH HISTOBT. PER UL A. D. flOO-181«L
One resnlt at least of the conversion of these Northern nations, was that
those countries of Europe which bordered on the sea were no longer exposed
to the ravages of pirates. (</) The ecclesiastical supervision of them which
had previously been vested in the see of Bremen was now (1104) transferred
to the archbishopric of Lund.
§ 225. The Slavic Nations,
The Slavic nations acknowledged the existence of a Supreme Being, whom
they regarded as the original Creator of a^l things, but they also paid divine
honors to a race of gods which they believod to have sprung from him.
Those were divided into two classes, 6alled the white and the black deities.
Although the latter represented the destructive powers of nature, they were
not viewed as absolutely evil, since they allowed the germ of life to remain
even in the things which they decomposed. Those divinities were repre-
sented by uncouth symbolical forms, and in the several tribes there were
found sacred cities and a hierarchy, (r/) Some conversions effected among
the Slaves by Charles the Great were as transitory as his conquests. The
conversion and spiritual superintendence of the people who resided near the
Danube were intrusted to their neighbors, the Archbishops of Salzbnrg and
Lorch, whose rights were subsequently possessed by the Bishop of Passan.
The Slavic nations, however, were too much opposed to any connection with
Germany, (ind too little acquainted with the German or Latin languages, to be
influenced by a Christianity coming to them from that quarter. The Holy
Scriptures, the preaching of the gospel, and the services of religion, were
introduced to the Moravians in the Slavonian language by two Greek monks
(863), Cyrillus (Constantine) and Methodius^ who became connected with
Rome, but did not relinquish their peculiar Greek forms of worship. Metho-
dius was consecrated at Rome Archbishop of Moravia, and the Slavish forms
of worship received the papal sanction (880), on the ground that God under-
stood all languages and should be worshipped by all nations. His efforts,
however, to erect a distinct national Church met with continual oi)position
on the part of the German bishops, and finally (908) the Moravian kingdom
was divided by the swords of the Hungarians and Bohemians. The Shivish
ritual was kept up under these new rulers in only a few churches, principally
in Illyria. (h) Towards the close of the ninth century, Borziwoi, Duke of
Bohemia, was induced by the flattering promises of Methodius to receive bap-
tism. His last days were spent with his sainted wife Litdmilla in retirement
from the world. Wencenlaus (928-938), his grandson, urged forward the
g) Adam JSrem. Do situ Dan. c 96.
a) Frencel. de dii^ Sorabor. et al. Slavor. {ITqffinann^ Scrr. rer. Lnaat Tb. II.) Mon€, Geach.
d. Heidentb. im nunll. Eur. vol. I. p. 11 Its. OieseUr^ 0. d. Verbreitnng cliristl. dual. Lehrbegr.
nnter d. Slaren. (Stud. n. Krit 1837. II. 2. p. 867s&) HanmcK ^^ Wis& d. slay. Mytbua. Lemb.
1&42. P. J. ScJiafiiHk, slaw. Alterlhftmer, edit by WuUke, Lpt 1848. 2 vols.
h) I. Vita ConsUntini, by a contemporary writer. (AcU 8S. Mart Th. IL p. 19.) rreabf-
1m^ IHocleatia (abontn^l), Rcgnum Slavor. c Ssa. {Schldxer't Nestor, vol. IIL p. 153aB.) ManH
Tb. XVIII. p. 182t«.— II. A»8emani Kalendarta Ecc univ. Rom. 1755. 4. Tb- III. PUara et iforo-
wet9, Moravian Hist eccl. et pol. BrunnL ITSSea. 8 Tb.— </. Dohrotonky: Cyrill. a. Metb. der Slaren
Apostel. Trag. 1823. Mahr. Lepende v. Cyr. u, Mcth, Prag. 182(1.— Qlagolldca, Ueber den Urspr. d.
riim. Slav. Liturgie. 2 ed. Prag. 1S82.
CHAP. y. EXTENS. OF THE GHUBCH. S 885. WENDS. POLES. 249
progress of Ofaristianily more by his iDfluonce as a monk than as a temporal
prince. Dissensions were produced among the people by the hostility some
felt against the Christian faith, and finally entered even the ducal palace.
According to popular tradition, Ludmilla was put to death by her own
daughter-in-law, and Wenceslaus by his brother. Christianity, however,
having passed through severe persecutions, obtained a sanguinary triumph
ander Bolenlaus the Mild (after 967), and with the establishment of the arch-
bishopric of Prague (078), a permanent ecclesiastical constitution was adopted.
As the only condition on which that see could be procured from the pope,
the Roman ritual was also then introduced, (r) The Wends^ who resided in
the country between the Saalo and the Oder, and were divided into many
tribes under as many princes, being assailed by the Germans, defended them-
selves with extreme difficulty. Otho I. was anxious to render the dominion
he had acquired over them by the sword more secure by the baptism of the
people, and hence the bishoprics which he established among them were
intended to be quite as much the citadels of his own power as the castles of
the Church. Hence, by the same act in which the Wends under MUiewoi
threw off from their necks (983) the yoke of the German civil power, Chris-
Hauity was also cast away. Oottschalk, his grandson, succeeded in uniting
the several Wendic tribes into a single kingdom (1047), and was successfully
endeavoring to establish a national Christian Church, when he was assassina-
ted m the midst of his eflbrts (1066). The people then consecrated anew
the altars of their ancestors with the blood of Christian priests, and every
trace of Christianity among them was obliterated. Pomerania having been
conqnered by Boleslaus III.^ Duke of Poland, OthOy Bishop of Bamhurg^ was
invited by him to baptize the inhabitants. This work was finally effected by
thatprekte (1124, 1128), {d) and other tribes were likewise overcome and
converted by the Saxon princes, especially by Henry the Lion (1142-62).
The desolated country became settled by various German colonies, until
finally only a few miserable remnants of the ancient people preserved the
Vendic language and customs, and the whole country became German and
Christian, {e) The last refuge which the gods and the liberty of the Wends
Iwd found in Rugen^ was burned by Ahsalon (Axel), Bishop of Roeskilde,
the statesman and the hero of the seas (1168). {f) The gospel was carried
into Poland by certain persons who took refuge there on the overthrow of
the Moravian kingdom, and on the marriage of Miecislaus^ Duke of Poland,
c) C(mM$, Praff. (died 1125.) Chron. Bohemor. (Scriptt rer. Bobem. Prag. 1784. Th. 1.) Vita 8.
I^lttlllM. (Dolner, Abhandl. d. Bohm. Gescli. d. Wise. 1786. p. 417f«.) Vita 8. Lndm. ot 8. Wen-
eeWiocL ChriMianno de ScaUt Mon. (Acto SS. Sept Tb. V. p. 854. Th. VII. p. 825.) F. Pttlacky,
®«*k. ▼. BObm. Prag. 1886. vol L Torntcaldt, Adalb. v. Prag. (Zeltach. t hl»t Th. 1858. II. 2.)
<0 Devitab. Otton. 1. III. {CanUii Lectt ed. Bamage, Tb. III. P. II.)— {Sell) Otto v. Bamb.
^^ 1792. Bu9ch^ Meznoria Othon. Pomerani ApostolL Jon. 1824
*) I. After Wittichind, ThlAtmar, Adam uf Bremen (§ 170), and Saxo Gramm., consult Helmoldf
^i*«flr»t Bo»w near Labeck), Cbron. Slavorum (till 1170), ed. Bangeri, Lnb. 1659. 1702. 4. {LUbnit
^- Bmnsu. Th. XL)— IL Kanngi^sstr^ Bekehrungsgescb. d. Pommern. Greifaw. 1824. F. W.
*'***W, (}«9ch. V. Pommern. u. Rugen. Hamb. 1889. vol I. L. GiMebrecht^ wend. Geacb. v.
^»8i BerL 184a 8 vols.
/) MunUr, vol. IL Abtb. L p. 820. Abth. XL p. 78188. StArup^ Abaalon. from the Danish by
****** (Zeltschr. t hist Th. 1882. vol IL pt. J.)
250 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCH HISTORY. PER IIL A. D. 800-12161
with a Bohemian princess, Christianity became the religion of the state (966).
By liis second marriage with the daughter of the Margrave Dietrich, and by
its dependence upon the German empire, Poland was drawn into connections
with the Roman Church.- Such connections being cherished with special
care, the Polish churches were induced to pay tribute to St. Peter, the Slavic
ritual which had previously been used in them was gradually abandoned, and
in the subsequent political commotions of the nation the papal power was
sometimes very great, (g) Long after this period the people were accustomed
to celebrate the drowning of their ancient gods with lamentations and par-
tial sorrow, (h)
§ 226. The Hungarians.
Schtcandtner, Scir. ror. IXnng. VInd. 1746. C Th. L F^ir, Codex diplomatlcnB Hang. eccL «l
civ. Budae. 1829. Tb. I.— J. v. MaUath, Qesch. der Magyaren. Wien. 182S. toL L [Godkin^ Hist
of H. Lond. 1S54.]
A few Hungarian princes, while on a visit to Constantinople, consented
to be baptized, tmd their country was filled with Christian slaves captured
during the inroads of their people in Germany. By these means Christianity
had obtained a foothold in the country, until more peaceable relations with
Germany were established by the victories of the Saxon emperors. The em-
peror then requested the bishops Piligrin of Passau and Adalbert of Prague
to undertake the conversion of the Hungarians. Duke Qeysa (972-997),
being sufficiently wealthy and powerful, was in the habit not only of build-
ing Christian churches, but of offering sacrifices to the gods, {a) His son
Stephen (907-1038) brought Hungary into the political community of dvil-
ized nations, gave to the Church a permanent form of government in subjec-
tion to Rome, and with the consent of the emperor and the sanction of the
pope, assumed the royal crown. (5) Surrounded as he was by Christians and
Germans, the new king ventured in various ways to curtail the ancient privi-
leges of the people. In the political commotions which occurred during the
ten years immediately following his death, the most violent efforts were pnt
forth to re-establish idolatry, and were repelled with equal violence.
§ 227. The Finns, Livonians^ and Esthonians.
Eric the Saint^ King of Sweden, effected the conquest of the Finns
(1157), and subjected them to the authority of his own crovni and of tlie
Church. For a long time, however, their magicians were much more hon-
ored than their clergy, (a) But an intercourse had already been commenced
with Livonia by the German maritime cities. MeinJuird, a canon of Bremen,
ff) I. After Thletmar consult Martini OcMi (about 1180X Cbron. Pol. od. BandtkU^ TanoY.
1824. Vincent de Kadlubek (d 1226), de gestis Pol. {DIuqom, Hist Pol LpA. 1711. t Th. L>—
IL Ch.0.v. Frieae, KOosch. d. K. Pohl. BraL 1736. vol L RdpM^ Oeach. Pol Hunb. 1840. toI
L Append. 4. 1i) OHmm, deutsche Mythol p. 446&
a) ThUtmar \. VIII. {Leihnit p. 420.)
h) ChartvUiM, (18tb cent) Vita 8. StepbanL {Sehteandtneri Bcrr. iw. Hung. Vind. 1741 £ pt
414.) Re9pectlng tbo story of tbe Crown adorned with Qreek cbaraeter^ and Uie salutation as Bex
Apoetolicus and Legate, see A. F. KoUar^ de origg. et usu perpetno poteetatis leglsL drca aacra a^
Eegum Hong. Vlnd. 1764. Jlordnyi, de s. corona. Hung. Pesth. 1790.
a) Oertkhjalm I c IV, 4. JT&fM, toL L p. 48as.
CHAP. VL PROT. PABTIEa §228. CATHARISTS. 251
made some attempts to convert its inhabitants (after 1186), for we find that
he assisted them to build fortresses against their enemies, and was consecra-
ted to the bishopric of Yxkiill. Proceeding from that point, the bishops
obtained their respective dioceses by military conquests, in the course of
which they were often in danger of losing their lives, and they confirmed
the results of their preaching by leading the Germans in miniature crusades
against the people. The bishopric of Riga was founded by Albert^ the second
in succession after Meinhard, and the ecclesiastical subjugation of the country
was finally completed by the weapons of an order of knights instituted by
him (1202), called the Brethren of the Sward. With the aid of this order
and of the Danes, the Esthonians were also subdued and converted to the
faith (after 1211). The ascendency of this order and of the bishops was
afterwards undisputed. (J)
CHAP. VI.— PARTIES PROTESTING AGAINST THE OnUROH.
C.du PUssU d^Arffentrf, Col. jtidiciornm de novis error, ab initio XII. 8. usqne ad ann. 1632.
Pit. 172S. 3 Th. t F&Mrien, K. u. KeUcrhist d. mittlern Zeit Ft. u. Lpz. ITTOaa. 8 voI& Flathe,
G«ch. der Vorlaafer d. Kef. Lpz. 1S859. 2 toIs. D, Ilahn^ Qescb. d. Ketzcr. ini MA. Stuttg.
1^15^. 3 TulflL
§ 228. The Catharista,
A feeling of dissatisfaction now began to manifest itself on the part of
many persons on account of the extravagant worldly spirit of the priest-
bood, and the religious spirit of the people began to put forth a strong pro-
test against the Church itself. Persons of this tendency were at first burned
(1022) at Orleans, {a) and were found in various parts of Germany (b) and
England, but the great body of them inhabited Lombardy and Provence, (c)
In these latter countries the Troubadours had contributed much to the spirit
of independence with which the hierarchy was spoken of in that country,
▼liile in Italy the Church was principally regarded as a political power. The
emperor had no interest in destroying the enemies of the papacy, and the
popes were obliged frequently to regard the friendship of the Lombards aa
of more importance than the extermination of heretics. Even the contest to
▼bich Gregory excited the laity against the married priests, either produced
I) Bmrici LetH (aboat 1226), Orig{c. LIvoniae sacrae et civ. «. Cbron. a notls J. D. Gruberi, Fr.
*tl{M.I74Q. f.—Parrot^ Entwickl. d. Sprachc, Abstamm. Oesch. MythoL d. LlwoDf Letten, E^tcn.
StoUf. \m. 2 Tola. If. A. 0. de Pott, de Gladlferis 8. fratrib. militiae Chrbti. Erl. 1S06. Kurd y.
Se^iiter, LivL a. d. Anfange deutM:hen Lebens im baltiscben Nord. Brl. 1950.
o) Ademar^ a monk of Angoul^me abont 1209, Chron. {Baziqtiet Tb. X. p. 154a&) Oesta Syn,
^•rdLtn. {Jiatud Th. XIX. p. 8768».) Glaber Radulf. Ill, 8.
*) llWon tbe Lower Rbine : ExervinU, Praepoa. Steinfeld. Ep. ad Bernard- {Argeniri Th. I. p.
*i)ll«l JSekberti Scrmm. XIII. adv. Catharorum errorea. Col. 680. (Blbl. PP. max. Th. XXIII.
f) Tbc documents arc in Hist g6n6rale de Langnedoc par an B^n6dictiD de S. Manr. Par. 1787.
▼ol III. Polemical writrrs near Uie end of tbe 12tb cent : Ehrardi Flandren^s L anlibaere«t&
(Wi Pp. max. Th. XXIV. p. 1525.) Ermengardi Opsc c. baereticoss qui diount omnia vMbilia
*^ «K a I>eo fSicta, Bed a diabolo. {Th. p. 1602.) Alani de Itunilis L IV. c haereticos rai temp.
(The hro first volai in Alani 0pp. ed- C, de ViseJi, Antu. 1654. t The two last in C. de Viwh
^ Scrr. Cist CoL 165<L 4)— C Schmidt^ Hist et doctrine des Catbares on Albigeois. Par. 1849. 2 vols.
252 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTOEY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-12161
or absorbed elements hostile to every thing connected with the ecclesiastioal
authorities (Paterini). (</) The name of CatharutSy by which this sect was
usually designated, shows what were their ordinary pretensions. A similar
opposition prepared the way for the influence exercised by the Paulicians
who had been transferred into the western countries of Europe (hence called
Publicani, Bugri). The accounts we have respecting them are almost exclu-
sively from their enemies, or from apostates from them, and are consequently
full of errors and calumnies, {e) All agree, however, in describing them as
universally and absolutely opposed to the Catholic Church and all its pomp,
in consequence of what they professed to be an immediate communication of
the Holy Ghost, exalting them above all conscious necessity of ecclesiastical
or civil laws. Their opposition to every thing of a sensuous nature made
them practically renounce all carnal pleasures, and led them theoretically to
ascribe the whole visible universe to an evil cause and to deny the real hu-
manity of our Redeemer. This dualistic tendency, however, may have gone
no further than the popular notion of a devil and his subordinate spirits, and
in a portion of the Catharistic Church it appears to have beeii modified in
various ways, to have been full of moral seriousness and religious sincerity,
and yet to have laid great stress upon fastings, genuflexions, and Latin forms
of prayer. (/) Scriptural preaching and the gospels were held in much
esteem, but various opinions prevailed among them respecting the prophets.
The baptism of the Spirit (consolamentum) was substituted for baptism by
water, and was administered by the imposition of the hands of all persons
present who had themselves received it. In this ordinance only perfect
Christians (bos homes, boni homines) received their consecration, for the
duties which it imposed were so rigid that most persons remained catechu-
mens (credentes, of two different degrees), and did not receive the consola-
mentum, whi(Jh they regarded as necessary to salvation, until their dying
hour. The dualistic view, however, could consistently forbid nothing but
marriage and the eating of flesh. In the midst of a people thus professing
to be filled with the Spirit, and whose pope was the Holy Ghost himself, none
of the existing officers of the Church could exercise any of their hierarchi-
cal prerogatives. The prohibitions contained in the Sermon on the Mount
were accepted in their most literal and painful sense, and those who went to
a dualistic extreme resolved the ordinary doctrines of the Church, and even all
historical Christianity, into mere allegories illustrative of the Christian's inner
life. On the other hand, the Pa%agii of Lombardy maintained the absolute
authority of the Old Testament in opposition to the Manicheans who rejected
d) Slgeberi, Gerhblac. ad ann. 1074.
e) Bonacortiy ono of those tencbers who returned to the Cath. Charch, about 1190, Vita haereti-
cor. 8. inanife!«tatio haervsis Catharor. {IXAchery^ Spicil Tb. L p. 20S. Supplements m BhIhmU
Miscell. cd. ManH Th. II. p. 581.) J. Moneta^ Duniinican, aboiit 1240. adv. Cath. et Waldensea, ad.
Bicchini^ Rom. 1743. f. liaineriiis Sacchoni\ once a chief of the sect, but afterwards a Dominican
and Inquisitor, 1250. Snmma de Catbaris ot Leonistls. (ifarten^ Thes. nov. Anecd. Th. V. p. 1759. and
Arffentri Th. I. p. 48. (The edit by Greiner is no ftirther the actual work of Rainerius, but a later
collection made by some German. Gianeler, do Rainerli Sacch. Summa. Oott ISM, 4) [C Sckmidt^
nist et doct de la eecte des Catlian-?, etc. Par. 1849. 2 voK Stud. u. Krit 1850. IT. 4.]
/) Thus according to an orig. doc : £in Katharlachee Ritnale, ed. by £1 Kunttt, Jen. 1899L
CHAP. VI. PHOT. PARTIES. § 228. PASAGII. g 229. PETEB OF BRUT8. 253
it, and the Ebionite and Arian doctrines concerning Christ in opposition to
the vieivs of the Docetae. (g) The name of this sect, as well as the time in
which it sprung up, suggests that this revival of Jewish Christianity may have
been occasioned by the conquest of Jerusalem, (h) The ecclesiastical rulers
were at first very lenient toward these various sects, but they were soon com-
pelled to resort to the severest punishments. Even then they could not pre-
vent multitudes from embracing these doctrines in secret, and barely suc-
ceeded in escaping from a general and public defeat. Some who urged that,
according to the teaching of Christ and the example of St. Martin, such un-
fortunate persons ought to receive instruction rather than hanging, could
gain no attention. (/)
§ 229. Peter of Bniys and Ilenry, Tanchelm and Eon,
In the course of the opposition which sprung up against the Church in
the twelfth century, a few individuals became prominent either as advocates
or leaders of sects. Peter de Bruys^ who had been deposed from the priest-
hood, but preached (after 1104) in the south of France, was one of these.
He declaimed against the baptism of infants, the mass, and celibacy, burned
the cross which had been the instrument of our Lord's passion, and called
Tipon his hearers to destroy the churches, since God was as willing to hear
prayer offered to him in an inn or a stable as from before an altar. Many
disturbances of a violent nature were created by him, but he was finally
hnmed by a mob at St. Gilles (1124). (a) Henry ^ a monk who had with-
drawn from his order, and was sometimes thought to be a pupil of Peter de
Brays, labored in the same region of country (1116-48), and was at first
highly honored even by the clergy. He was a strenuous preacher of repent-
Mce, and though not opposed to ecclesiastical authority, held up the corrup-
tions of the clergy to the derision of the people. He was finally overcome
hy his powerful opponent, and ended his days in prison. {Ji) Tanchelm (about
1115), who resided on the sea-coast of the Netherlands, preached zealously
Against ecclesiastical organizations, collected around himself an armed train of
followers, claimed to be God equal to Christ on account of the Holy Ghost which
lie professed to have received, held public celebrations in honor of his espou-
sal to the Virgin Mary, and was finally slain (about 1124) by a priest, (c)
-S^n (Eudo de Stella) proclaimed that he had been sent into the world to be
the judge of the living and the dead. He made his appearance sometimes in
one and sometimes in another place in difterent parts of France, attended by
C) BoMcorn in IXAchery^ p. 211ss. O. Bergomensis c Cath. et Pasagios c a. 1230. (Jfuratori
Antiqq. luL Med. aevi. vol V. p. 152as.) [C. U. JIahn, Gesch. d. Kctzer im MA. bes. Im 11. 12. u.
'*"Mrh. StuUg. 185a 8 vols.]
*) Compi I/fcher^ Sef. Acta. vol. L p. 857. On the other hand : Baumg. Crusius, Comp. d.
*) Bennanni Conir. Chron. ad. ann. 1052. Gesta Eplscc. Leodiens. c. 60. 60a. {Martene, ampllss.
0) Pe^ Ventr. Ep. adv. Pctwhrussianofl haer. (Blbl. PP. max. Tb. XXII. p. 102888.
h Acta EpiBc. Ccnomancnslum c 358. {JlabiUon vott Analecta. Th. III.) Bernardi Vita scr.
^«^. Ill, «.
^ Ep. Tr^ectenito Ec?. ad Frid. Archlep. Colon. (ArgerUri Tb. I. p. IIsbl) Abatlardi Intr. ad
"*•■ (Opp. ^ low.) ViU Xorbsrti, § 8«. (AcU 83. Jun. Th. L p. 84&)
254 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-121«.
a bold retinne, and living in so samptuous a style on the wealth of the
churches and monasteries, that the people generally believed him to be a ma-
gician. He was at last taken by surprise, arraigned before a Synod at
Bheims (1148), and without despairing of the success of his cause, died in
the prison of St. Denys. {d)
§ 230. The Waldenses.
I. MemoriiUs of the Wald. Manuscripts in Geneva and Dublin, generally affected hy later I'rotcs-
tant influences (comp. Diockhoff, modifled by Herzog), especially with respect to times before Host:
(^ntica, described by Ileitog^ p. 72:91 and la nobla Leyczon in Raynouard^ Cboix des po^es
orig. des Troubad. Par. 1818. vol. II. p. 78sb. According to the Geneva and Dublin text in Ueraog^
p. 444ns. Kath. Verdicts and Prutucols of the Inquisition in Argentri^ (CoL J ad. vol. I. p. Tits.)
and Ph. a Limhurch^ Hist. Inqtiisit. in the conclusion mentioned as L. sententt. Inquis. Tolosanae.
Catharistic accounts and polctn. Mrriting^: BemarduH^ Abbas Fontis calidi (d. before 1200) adv. Val-
densium sectain. (Ribl. PP. max. vol XXIV. p. 1&S5.) Alanvs de InwlU (d. 1202), c Ilaeretic
L II. (0pp. ed. K. V. VUctu, Antu. IdM.) Walther Mapes in //oAn, vol. IL pi 2578. St^phanus d§
Borhone (about 1250), do septem donis Sp. S. VII, 81. {Argentri vol L p. 6569.) Haineriui. Mo-
neta (§ 228. n. <•.)
IL GilUs, nij*t ccc. das vgl. reform6e8 en quelques vall^s do Pi6monL Gen. 1644. J. Lfg^r^
Hist gen. de^ ^^1. evan?. des valleos dc Piem. ou Vaudoises. Leid. 1669. 2 vols, t Uebers. v. Sckw*^
nitz, Lpz. 1750. 2 vols. 4. {J. Brez) Hist doe Vaud. Laus. 1796. 2 voK Lpz. 179a A. JfonatOer^
Hist d\''g1. Vaudoi^e. Gen. 1847. 2 vols. A. Mutton^ Tlsrael des Alpes, prem. Hist complete dea
Vaud. Par. 1851. 4 vols.— //r/An (see before § 22a) vol II. comp. Preface to vol. III. p. X. F. Ben-
der, Geach. d. W. Ulm. 1S50.— ^. W. Dieckhoff, d- W. iin MAlter. Gott 1851. ITertog, d. roman.
W. ihrc vorref. Zustando u. Lchren, ihro Re£ im 16. Jbh. n. d. R&ckwirk. drs. Hal 1853. [/Vy-
ran^ Hist Defence of the Wald. Lond. 6vo. E. Il^nderton, Origin, Ac, of the Vaudois. W. &
GiUy, The Albigenses in LittelPs Rel Mag. vol I. p. 6. A. Monastier, IWA. of the Vaodob
Church ft-om its Origin. New York. 1849. 12mo. Robt Baird, Waldensea, Alblg. and Vaud. Pbilad.
1848. 8vo. C. U. /lahn, Gesch. d. Ketzer ira Mittelalter, bes. im 11. 12. und la Jahrh. Stuttg. 1&47. C.
U. ITahn, in Stud. u. Krit 1851. II. 4. p. 8C2. Herzog^ d. Waldenser, vor u. nach d. BeC Lpsi 1858. 18.]
The dissatisfaction and ferments which prevailed during the twelfth c^n-
tnry, gave occasion during the last half of it to the appearance of the Wal-
densea. As they were generally conversant with the Scriptures, they main-
tained in opposition to unworthy priests, that all who truly imitated Christ
in his life of poverty, had a right freely to preach the gospel. As the natu-
ral result of their demand that Christians should live in complete poverty
and virginity, a distinction was formed soon after the excitement of their
origin had subsided, between the Perfect, who forsook all and went forth
two by two in their sandals preaching repentance, and the mere Believers,
who forsook the pleasures of the world, but who continued in the enjoyments
of conjugal and social life. Witnesses whose testimony is beyond suspicion,
though they belonged to the Catholic Church, inform us that their name and
origin is to be traced to (Peter) Waldvs, an opulent citizen of Lyons, who
was transported by his own ideal of evangelical perfection, had the gospels
and many sentiments of the ecclesiastical fathers which harmonized with
them transbted into the Romanic vernacular language, gave all his poeses-
sions to the poor, and from a desire to attain a state like that found in the
apostolic Church, went forth (about 1160) as a preacher of repentance. The
tradition more recently entertained among the Waldenses themselves, accord-
ing to which their origin is to be traced to primitive and even to apostolio
d) Wilhelm KevhHgens de reb. Angl 1, 19. {ArgerUri Th. L p. 86as.) Otto FrU. de gest Frid.
1, 54ai AlborUA Chron. ad ana. 114a 1149.
CHAP. VL PROT. PARTIES. S 28a WALDENSE8. g 281. ALBIGENSES. 255
0
times, is trae only so far as the same spirit has always been sustained among
tbem by the sacred Scriptures, and has always protested against the corrup-
tions of the Ghnrch. It is also probable that in some of their Alpine val-
leys a spirit has been maintained ever since the time of Claudius of Turin,
which harmonized with and was best defined by the preaching of the Wal-
denses. These Poar People of Lyons (Leonistae, Humiliati, Sabatati) had no
idea of breaking away from the Church, and when their archbishop com-
manded them to be silent, they turned with the utmost confidence to Alex-
ander m. (11T9), who treated them with scorn. Their doctrine that lajTnen
might teach the people necessarily brought them into collision with the
clergy, and they were soon (1184) excommunicated by Lucius III. But obey-
ing God rather than men, they established congregations in France, Italy,
tad (Germany, and had their principal residences in Provence and in the
lofty valleys of Piedmont. Although they differed from the Catholic Church
not 80 mnch in their doctrines as in their manner of life, which was strictly
ooDformed to the letter of Christ^s sermon on the mount, they were con-
strained to deny that the Church ^f the pope was the Church of Christ, even
when they allowed that many had been saved who had never forsaken it.
Their moral convictions were strongly against the doctrine of a purgatory,
with all its auxiliary additions; they required a confession of all sins, but
expected fbr^veness from Qod alone, and they honored the saints as models
of piety, but not as intercessors before God. Wherever their congregations
were properly organized, their Masters or Barbs, chosen from among the Per-
fect, preached, heard confessions, and in cases of necessity administered the
aacnments. Innocent III. at one time indulged the hope that he could bring
their evangelical poverty under the control of monastic vows (pauperes catho-
lici), bat the fortunes of this sect soon became involved with those of the
Githariflts, and it was said that even if the faces of these heretics were dif-
ferent, their tails were all twisted together. They frequently lived concealed
ia the midst of the Catholic Church, recognizing each other by secret signs,
ttd wherever they were they always formed a light amidst surrounding dark-
new, were active in promoting evangelical virtues and familiarity with the
Scriptures, and always stood ready to aid with the power of a Scriptural
Christianity every higher development of man^s moral nature.
§ 281. The AlUgensian War.
t PtM. Mon4ichi (de Yanx Cemay) Illst Albigenslnm. Guil. de Podlo LaurenUi (Cliaplain to
^*imaA VII.) aaper Hist, negotll Francor. adv. Alblg. (Both found In Bouquet-Brial Th. XIX.)
Hfat 4e la rrol9«de contre lea her6tlqaos Albi^eola, 6crlto en vera provrnraax, pnbl. par if. C. Fau-
'H Pv. 15S7. 4. nist de la guerre dea Alblg. (Together with other documents in tlie Hist de Lan-
n«i-Th. III. Preuvea.) J. du TlUet, Hlat belli c. Alb. Inltl comp. ex Bibl. Vat. ed. A. Dre^
IL Sltmonde di SUmondi, lea crolAades contre lea Alblg. Par. 1829L [transl. into Engl. Lond.
^^Ta] J. J. Barrau et A. R Darragon, Hist dea croia c lea Alb. Par. 1848. C. Schmidt,
B88,ootee.)
The Catharists and Waldenses having become in some parts of Provence
"'^^ powerful than the Church itself, their example was exceedingly danger-
^ Complete authority was therefore bestowed by Innocent III. for the
"iPpreBBion of these heretics. Eis legates travelled about barefoot in the
256 MEDI/IETAL CUURCH HISTOBY. PER IIL A. D. 800-1916l
manner of the npostles, sometimes preaching and disputing, and sometimes
getting up judicial proceedings and popular acts of violence. Peter of Cai-
telnay, one of these legates, in order to accomplish his object, seized upon
those powers which belonged exclusively to the civil magistrate, and thna
became embroiled in a quarrel with Count Raymond VI, of Toulouse, one
of the most powerful princes of the country. The result was that the legate
was assassinated, and the guilt of the deed was imputed to the Count him-
self. Innocent then proclaimed a crusade against him and all other heretics;,
under the conduct of Arnold^ Abbot of Citeaux, as legate, and of Simon de
Mont fort. Raymond endeavored to escape the danger by humbling himself
and taking the cross against his own people. The arms of the crusaders were
now turned against Raymond Roger ^ Viscount of Beziers and Albi, and
hence the heretics, and especially the Catharists, against whom this crusade
was principally directed, were generally called Alhigenses, (a) Beziers was
taken by storm, and the legate boasted, that as a messenger of divine wrath,
he had utterly destroyed the city, (b) Montfort now turned the fury of hia
excited followers against the territories of ^le Count of Toulouse, and when
he had conquered them he was recognized at the Synods of Montpellier and
the Lateran (1215) as the lawful lord of all that he had thus acquired, (c)
Innocent perceived the impolicy of this proceeding, but lest he should lose
the great object at which he was aiming, he did not venture to rend the prey
from the possession of the tigers whom he had let loose, (d)
CHAP. VII.— THE ORIENTAL CUURCH.
§ 232. Extension of th^ Church,
The Bulgarians, originally of Turkish extraction, but after their settle-
ment in Moesia very extensively blended with the Slaves, were for a long
time the most formidable of all the neighbors witlj whom the Greek empire
was obliged to contend. For a considerable period they scornfully rejected
a system of faith proposed to them by their enemies. Christianity, however,
was gradually introduced among them at various epochs (845-865) ; once when
the daughter of their prince returned from captivity among tlie Greeks, then
when in time of famine they made supplication to the God of Christians and
were delivered, and finally, under the influence of Metlwdius^ who is reported
to have exerted his talents among them not only as an apostle but as a paint-
er, (a) That portion of the Bulgarians who resided on the Volga were cox/-
verted to Mohammedanism, and the kindred tribe of the Ghazars^ who re-
sided in the Chersonese, was divided between Mohammedanism, Judaism, and
Christianity, {h) The Mainots, who inhabited the rocky caverns of the Tay-
a) P. JaSy do Valdensinm sccta ab Albleena. bene distingaenda. L. B. 1S34. 4.
h) Caesar IleUUrhae. V, 21. Innoc 1. XII. Ep. 108.
c) Manti Th. XXII. p. 1069.
d) I/urter, Innoc voL II. p. 657aa.
a) Constantini Porphyr. ConUnuator /T, 13s8. Klatas Davids Ignat. {^Marui Th. XVL p.
245.) Comp. § 225.
I) Frdhn, Ibn-Fo6BlAD'8 and andrer A.raber Berlchte CL d. BoBBen Ut Zeit Petenbi 18S8L 4. Prt-
CHAP. TIL ORIENT. CnURCH. $ 282. RUSSIANS. S 228. ROMAN EMPIRE. 257
getos, continued to rcsbt the efforts of the Church until the latter half of
the ninth century, when they also yielded subjection to it. About the same
time the Slaten^ who at ditlcrent periods liad broken into the territory of
ancient Greece, became Christians, and were connected with the Greek
Church, (r) The Russlunif became acquainted with Christianity on the bat-
tle-field. Traditionary accounts tell us of the extraordinary success of some
effort.^ to convert them durin«^ the ninth century, but no traces of the results
i^pear in subsequent ages. Photius proclaimed that they were enthusiastio
in their desires for the gospel, but the event proved that his announcement
Wft9 premature. Oi^a^ their excellent dowager princess, procured baptism
for herself in Constantinople (955), bnt even to the close of her life she could
enjoy the services of a Christian priest only in secret. Her grandson Vladi-
mir^ after a careful investigation of the different forms of religion then preva-
lent, received baptism from the Greeks (988). The people beheld with tears
the abase which was heaped upon their ancient gods, and submitted them-
selves silently to baptism in the river Dnieper. A metropolitanate under the
jurisdiction of the Greek Patriarch was established in Kiew^ then the capital
of the empire. A convent (Petsohera) established in a cave near Kiew, be-
came, after the middle of the eleventh century, the seminary from which the
whole country was supplied not only with bishops and saints, whose bodies
oerer decayed, but with a Russian literature, (d)
§ 283. The Roman Empire and the Church.
The Roman Empire in the East, continually pressed more and more by
the power of the Turks, the Normans, and the Crusaders, maintained its
ooQrage by the proud recollections of its former greatness, and its existence
nierely in consequence of the fortunate position of its capital. The mechan-
iun which prevailed in the secular and spiritual administrations then united
in the head of the imperial government, generally continued unaffected by
the revolutions which so frequently took place in the palace. The spirit of
the Church sympathized with the universal torpidity, and orthodoxy took
the place which belonged to morality and religion. The patriarchs of Con-
■tantinople perpetrated and endured all those acts of violence which the
^hest civil officers are accustomed to inflict and receive where feeble despot-
^ prevail. A party of the clergy was kept under restraint by another
F*rty in the army. The enthusiasm of the crusaders met with no response
^ except ridicule and suspicion. The number and power of these sacred
warriors was such that Constantinople finally became a mere colony of the
^ J. t, KlaprotK, Beschr. d. rasa. Prov. zw. d. kasp. u. Schwarz Meere. Berl. 1814. p-. lldssi.
0 U Quien^ Oriens ehr. Tb. IL p. lOSaiw FaUm^rayer^ Qesch. d. llalbins. Morea wahrend dcs
^•>*Walt Stuttg. a. Tub. 1880. toI. I. p. 173s8. 216^ 227ai. The Btatemcnts ami Rptrll of thte work
^'^W be eorrectod by a porosal of Zinkeisen, Gesch. GrIechenL Lpz, 1S82. vol. I. p. TWaa. 7678.
^ yfdor ((lie<l abont 1118), Annals (till 1110. Pctcr?b. 176788. 5 Th. 4.) m. Uebera. tl Anm. (till
^•*i!mlT)by S'hidter, Gott 1302m. 5 ro\A.—Karamsin, Ocscb. d. rnsi Kelchs. Uebora. by Ifauen-
•^ Rig. isaoss. vol. L II. Strahl, Qeach. d. ruaat Klrcho. UaL 1880. vol. L
17
258 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-121fli
Western nations, and what remained of the Grecian Empire, with oil on
which its hopes conld rest, was transferred to Trebizond.
§ 234. Photius,
Photii Epp. ed. Afontacutius, Lond. 1651. t Origloal docaments in JfunH Th. XV. XVI. YlUt
a cerumen 8. Ignatii, hj Niceta* David. (XfanH Th. XVI. p. 809.) Ana»ta9ii BibL Prae£ ad
Cona VIII. oec (3fitn»i Tli. XVI. p. 1m.) ^usd. Vita Nicholal I. Vita Hadrianl II.— JSl R iSim/iv,
do dlsbldio Ecc chr. iti gr. et lat PhoUl aact maturato. L. B. ISaa [O, Finiajf, H. (>f the Byzan-
tine Empire. Lond 1S58. 8.]
The real ruler of the emperor and the empire was Banlas^ the nncle of
Michael III. The Patriarch Ignatius^ a ennuch of the dethroned imperial
family, zealously protested against the arbitrary conduct of Bardas and the
immoralities of the emperor, in whose drinking revels the sacred rites of the
Church were caricatured. To get rid of him, Photivs^ through the influence
of the court, was elevated to the patriarchal oflSoe (858). This man had
passed through the highest offices of the state, and was possessed of much
diversified learning. By his promotion to that office a schism was created in
the Church, which the court attempted to heal by means of the Roman
bishop. Legates were sent to Constantinople by Nicholcu /., but they were
soon won over to the party of Bardas, and gave sentence against Ignatius
(861). Nicholas, however, annulled their decisions, and rejected Photius as
an intruding layman (863). This disagreement became still more serioos
when the Bulgarians were drawn into ecclesiastical connection with the
Church of Rome. («) A circular was then sent forth by Photius, severely
censuring as heresies all those usages in which the Roman differed from the
Greek Church. Among the heresies enumerated were the observation of
fasts on Saturday, the curtailment of the great fasts, the contempt of con-
firmation when performed by the hand of a presbyter, and the ])rohibition
of the lawful marriage of priests. To these charges was added the bitter
re[)roach that the Roman Church had sinned against the Holy Ghost by cor-
rupting the Apostles' Creed, (h) For, the doctrine of the procession of the
Holy Ghost (§ 105) from the Son as well as from the Father, though it had
been maintained as truth by Leo III., had been disapproved as an addition to
the Creed, (r) and yet had finally found admission into the Latin version of
tlat symbol. At a synod convened by Photius in Constantinople (867), the
pope was excommunicated and deposed. During the same year, however,
Basil became sole ruler in the empire by the murder of Michael, with whom
he had before been associated in authority, and for this bloody crime the
imperial murderer was debarred by Photius from the eommnnion of the
Church. With calm, lofty dignity, the Patriarch stood before his judges,
and was condemned in the Synod of Constantinople (869), which claimed to
be Qicumonical. (d) By the same assembly Ignatius was restored to the pa-
triarchal office, and sought to regain his former friendship with Rome, but
a) Comp. Gfrorer^ Carolingcr. vol I. p. 439. 449as.
h) £p. 2. Montaciit p. 47s>&
c) Miui«i Th. XIV. \u ITss. Anaat Vita Leon. Ill, (JTunitort Th. IIL P. L pw 80a)
d) Man9t TK XVL p. 122s^ 87188.
CHAP. VII ORIENT. CHURCH. { «". PHOTIUa % 28». SCHISM. 259
the dispute respecting the Bulgarians, whom one in his position could not
honorably surrender, soon produced a renewed .occasion for strife. On the
death of Ignatios (878), the emperor became reconciled to Photius, and John
VIIL, hoping to effect a favorable compromise of his difficulties, recognized
the claims of the restored patriarch. At the Synod of Comtantinople (879),
which is regarded by the Greek Church as the eighth oecumenical council,
and was attended by Roman deputies, all decrees which had been issued
agunst Photios were annulled^ ie) The pope, however, soon found that he
had been deceived in his expectations, and pronounced sentence of excom-
munication against the patriarch and his synod. Photius was also hated by
the heir- apparent to the throne, who had no sooner assumed the imperial
crown under the name of Leo the Wise (886), than he was sent to a convent,
where he found his grave (about 891).
§ 236. The Division of the Church,
Lto AUalin^y de Ece. oec et or. perpetna consenA. Col 1648. 4. Afaimhourg^ Hl»t da schisme
des Qreci. Par. 1677. 4. and otbcra. C. A. v. BeichUti-Meldegg^ d. IJrsacbcn d. Trennnng^ (TheoL
Abbh. Grelz. 1'^.)
The previous relations of the Oriental to the Roman Church were never
agun re-established in a definite form. The Circular which had been issued
by Photius has ever since continued a perpetual monument, in which the
tctoal differences between the two churches are exhibited in their most ob-
noxious fornu The political separation of Italy from the Grecian Empire
Deceasarily involved also its ecclesiastical. The more the power of the pope
increased in the West, the more decidedly was it needful to repel his claims
in the East. A full declaration of the schism was delayed by nothing but
the hope which the emperor entertained, that he might obtain some assist-
ance against the Infideb from the warlike nations of the West. But in an
^wde of the Patriarch i/icAa«Z Cerularius (1058), the usual reproaches which
had been heaped upon the Romish Church were increased by another, which
aeeosed it of the Jewish heresy of using unleavened bread ip the Euchar
nt{a) A violent epistolary controversy ensued. Roman legates in Con-
stantinople demanded satisfaction for the offence, and the patriarch sought
npport against the policy of the emperor in the passions of the people. On the
Idth July, 1054, the Roman legates deposited on the great altar of the Church
<if St Sophia the sentence of excommunication which had been issued against
the patriarch, and shook off the dust from their feet (h) A Greek Synod
bnried back a sentence of excommunication against the Roman Church, and
the other Catholic patriarchs became connected with Constantinople, (c)
Both Churches, the Eastern and the Western, each in like manner claiming
to be Catholic to the exclusion of the other, became henceforth permanently
Mparated. In consequence of the crusades, this division of the Church be-
«) )f<tnH Th. XVI L p. 87^*
^) Tn be found onlj in a Latin innn]. in Baroniua ad ann. 1058. N. 22.
h Brerlft commemoratio eoram, quae geM«nint Apocristiarii S. Rom. 8edl8 in regia urbe, by Car-
^ Oumhert, In Baron, ad ann. 1054. N. 19.
«) Mick. CeruiarU Ep. IL ad Pctrom Patr. AnUocb. {OoteUrit Eoc gr. Monani. Th. IL p.
260 MEDIAEVAL CnUECH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 8«V»-l*16w
came gradnally ripened into a national hatred. While they were in progreaa,
several eiforts were made by those engaged in them to unite with the other
ecclesiastical parties of the East, without snccess on account of national dif-
ferences. The Maronites^ at that time a warlike tribe, were the only daas
which honestly and sincerely submitted themselves to the jurisdiction of the
Latin patriarch of Antioch (1182). {(I) The Armenians endeavored to pre-
sent the appearance of a reconciliation whenever they wished for assistance
from the West, but only a few individual congregations under the control
of the Western governments maintained any connection with the Romish
Church, and were permitted to retain their own sacred language and the
usages of their ancestors.
§ 286. State of Science.
The science of this period corresponded with the rigid lifelessness which
characterized all departments of society. But the study of the classical
writers and the ecclesiastical fathers, which had never been entirely discon-
tinued, served to transmit from generation to generation the inheritance of
such an education as they were capable of imparting. When Bardas com-
menced his administration, it began to be perceived that the proud ^irit of
the nation could not long maintain itself by the side of the vigorous cultiva-
tion of the Mohammedans and the Western nations, without keeping up a
superiority to them in learning. He therefore became the patron of science,
and Constantinople was for a considerable time the seat of an eminent lite-
rary activity. Histories of the world, the empire, and the Church were
written by authors of various conditions in life and with different degrees of
merit, but all of them pervaded by the spirit peculiar to a resident of Con-
stantinople. The kind of studies pursued was to some extent philological
and rhetorical, or connected with natural sciences, without any predominance
of an ecclesiastical element. Photivs^ who was even in scientific matters a
model for his Church, has in his Bibliotheea (a) preserved for subsequent
ages brief extracts and notices of many Christian and heathen writers, wlio
would otherwise have been unknown. His Komocanon^ by the common con-
sent of the Greek Church, has been adopted as its authoritative code of eccle-
siastical law. The first part embraced the canons of those synods whidi
were then regarded as authoritative, together with some canonical epistks.
These canons and epistles had been collected together some time in the sev-
enth century, and merely received some additions in number from the hands
of Photius. The second part contains the civil laws relating to the Chnrdi,
systematically arranged and abridged in fourteen sections, with figures refer-
ring to the corresponding canons of the first part, (b) Simeon Metaphroitet
d) WWl Tyr. XXII, 8. Eun^mantu, die Maron. tl ihr Verb. x. l«t K. (T&lk QuitalMlir.
1846. n. 1.)
a) Mvpi6fitfi\oy a. BibL ed. Itn, Bekker, Bor. 1824a. 2 Th. 4.
h) The first Part, together with the Scholiae of Zonaraa (about 1120), and BaUanum (1170), B«9€-
regit liuvoiiKoy e. Pandectae canonnm, Ox. 1672. 3 Th. £ The Secood Part is In JwMli BibL Th.
IL p. 735. and tlio text of the canons which was written oat at some time in the 10th cent in A,
Miijo Spfcil. Roman. Rom. 1812. Th. VII. Comp. BieMr^ %. Rovia. d. Jnat Oodex. B«ri. 1S88L p^
84fla. ^<ok«tf in d. Jen. L. Z. 1814. N. 282.
CHAP. Vn. OBIENT. CHURCH. { 28& LIT£RATUEE. S 237. PAULICIANS. 261
(10th cent) has reoordod in a lively manDer the old legends of the oiicient
atinta. (e) Oeeumeniua^ Bishop of Tricca (about 990), ('/) Theophyhict^ Arch-
bishop of the Bnlgarlans (1107), (e) and Euthymius Zigdbenus^ a monk of
Constantinople (d. about 1118), (/) formed collections for the interpretation of
the Scriptures out of the writings of the fathers, which are valuable because
they are the only medium through which wo have received a large part of
the treasure from which they were drawn. The Creed of the Church had
beomne firmly established on the basis of ecclesiastical tradition, and was
now decked off with a few cautious Aristotelian fbrmulos. It had also been
somewhat tinctured with the peculiarities of Platonism through the influence
of the Areopagite and the fathers of the fourth century. It was obliged to
maintain a perpetual conflict with the philosophy and heretical opinions of
past times. A peculiar spirit is very perceptible in the controversial writ-
ings of Nicholas^ Bishop of Methane (died after IIGG), (^) and in the Treasure
of Orthodoxy (h) which Nieetas Choniates found consolation in composing in
the midst of the misfortunes of his native land. But the special character of
the age is most distinctly seen in the Fanojylut^ collected from the writings
of the fathers by Euthymius Zigabenus by order of the theological emperor
Alexias Oomnenus, for the refutation and condemnation of all heretics, (i)
Among the Oriental parties, the Jacobites were distinguished for having pre-
serred a lively current of the old Syriac learning through several successive
geDerations.
§ 237. Pauliciam, Section 2. Continued from § 140.
Om^nUni Porphyr. BasiHus Maceda a STsa. Anna Comnena^ Alexias. Par. 1(V,M. f. L
XIV. p. 450m.— Ar/<A. PtelU. ir«pl ivtpytia^ loufiivtav ZiJiK. ed. I/tummiUUr, Kll. 16S9. 12. An-
M CSMmi. Alex. XV. p. 49Ga». Euthymii Zygad^ni Narratio de Bogom. sea Panopliae tit 28. gr.
ZiDi interpret add. OU»eUr, Goott ISll 4. (Aim in Wolf.)
SergiuB (after 800), under the name of Tychicus, induced the Pnulicians
to return to the simplicity of morals which prevailed in the ancient Church.
After his death (835) no single individual was elected to preside over
tiwm, but they were governed by a council of their teachers. The most
intolerable oppressions were patiently endured by them, and it was not till
the Empress Theodora had commenced a process by which they were to
c) Never printed as a separate work, some 122 blogrnpliies in the histories of the mints of the
Qi<wkind Roman Charehee, and the Godicea, seldom by thcm.vlve& Leo AUatim^ de varils SI-
■NBib. ct fitmconam scripti*. Par. 1661 4.
<0 ComQL in Acta App. Epp. Paulinas et cath. ed. F. 3foreUiM, Par. 1631. 2 Th. fl
•) Comm. to XI L Proph. min. IV. Evr. Acta App. Epp. Paul. (0pp. c<L J. F, B. Jf. dt RubHi,
▼«H7Bfla.4Th.t)
/) COBOL Id Paalm. (ThsopkyL 0pp.) In IV. Eyv. ed, C. F Matthaei, Lps. 1792. 8 Th. f.
f) 'An^vTv^ir r^f dtoKoyiKrit (rToix««<i»<r»o»» Xlp6KKov Tl\ar<aviKov^ ed. Voemtl, Frcf. 1S25.
A) ^ffovp^r hfAololias L XXVIL, only the five first books in the transl. by PtL Aforellu^,
P«fc m. (BibL PP. max. Th. XXV.)
') IlayovAta Zoyfiariy^ rrjs opboZ. Tiartvs, Terjcov. 1711. £ (The extravagant Tit 24. apiinst
^^ ia SyOfurgi Saracenlca, ed. Brurer. Heidelb. 1505.) Lat ed. Zino, Yen. 15U. f. (Bibl. PP.
"C^Th. XIX. TIL 12 and 13 against the Roman Ghnroh is snppre<»sed.) Comp. Annof Coinn. 8up-
P***^t» nistortam ecc Oraec p. XL et XII. spectanlla. eA. T. L. F. Titftl, Tab. 1S82.— /V/wman,
^^ T. Metbone, Eath. Zlg. and Nlc. Ctaon. a d. dogm. Entwlckl. d. Oriech. K. im 12 Jahrh. (Stud.
■•Krttl8tt.P.a)
2G2 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-121&
be utterly extenninated by a general massacre, that they flew to arms. An
imperial general whose name was Carhecu (844), actuated by a desire of re-
venge for the wrongs which his father had sustained from the government,
became their leader, formed an alliance with the Arabians, and strongly forti-
fied Tephrica^ a mountain-hold on the eastern confines of the empire. He
and his successor Chrysocheres^ with all the cruelty which fanaticism inspires,
made excursions from this fortress, and laid waste the provinces of Asia Mi-
nor. Although the Emperor Bctsil finally succeeded in destroying Tephrica
(871), many Paulicians maintained their existence as a people in the moun-
tainous regions, and kept the extreme portions of the empire in continual
agitation. That he might break up their connections with the Saracens, John
ZimUces formed a treaty with tliem (970), in accordance with which they
were for the most part removed to Thrace, where a colony of tliem had been
formed even in the eighth century. Here they acknowledged a certain kind
of allegiance to the empire, but in the independent possession of PhUippo-
polu they served with great bravery as border sentinels. Alexius Camne-
nus having been abandoned by a large band of them in the Norman war,
effected their subjugation by stratagem and violence (after 1085). During his
residence in his winter quarters in Thrace (1115) he sought the honor of their
conversion, and in fact many of them yielded to the arts of the imperial
apostle. But the Paulicians, under the name of Euchites, with Manichean
doctrines and fanatical forms of prayer, and under Elders who were regarded
as apostles of Thrace, had before th:s become numerous among the Bulga-
rians, (a) The afSnities of these people for the Slavonic Dualism gave them
acceptance in that nation among which they were commonly called Bogo-
mil^. According to their system of faith^ the original Source of all Being
had two sons, called Satanael and Logos. In his attempts to attain equality
with the Father the former became evil in his nature, seduced the angels
from their allegiance, and formed the visible universe. Through the divine
powers which he still retained he created man, and by Eve he became the
father of Cain. All ecclesiastical organizations were established under the
influence of Satanael, and had their principal seat formerly at Jerusalem, but
then at the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. The holy Virgin con-
ceived in consequence of an influence through the ear, and Christ in the
body of an angel succeeded in overcoming his elder brother. The Bogomiles
acknowledged the authority of the Psalms and of sixteen prophets in the
Old Testament, and received many apocryphal books, (h) but they gave an
allegorical interpretation to the sacred history, and to the usages of the
Church. In the garb of monasticism they concealed themselves even in Con-
stantinople until Alexius extorted a confession from them, and homed Basi-
lius their leader at the stake (1118). (e) Small communities of Bogomiles
were found among the Bulgarians through the whole period of the middle
ages, and Paulicians have continued to exist imder many changes in and
around Philippopolis and in the valleys of the Haemus until the present day.
a) Schniteer, d. Each, im 11. Jahrh. {SHrm't Stud. d. OelsU. Wart toL II. H. 1.)
b) Liber S. Joannia. (77Mo Cod. apocr. Th. L [k 8S4.) Yisio laa. ({ 89, note d,)
c) J. a Wolf, Hist Bogom. Vlt 1712. 4 L. Oedtr^ Prodr. H. Bog. crit GoetL 1I4S.4. Enq^^
hardt, d. Bog. (KGcsob. Abhh. ErL 1883. N. 2.)
FOURTH PERIOD.
FROM INNOCENT III. TO LUTHER.
§ 238. General View and HUtarical Writers,
1) S 170. Fontes reram Germ. Geecbichtsquellen Deutachl. (14. Jlc la Jbh.) ed. by J, F. Boehmer^
Stattf. ISIS-A. 2 vols. AWertu9 Stadeiuriik, Benedictine Abbot, Franciscan, died after 1260, Chron.
till 125«.ed. RHnece. 15S7. Vit. 16oa 4. {SehiUeri Scrr. rer. gcnn. vol. II. p. 128.X Continuation
12M-18^ ««1. A. Iftijery Ilafn. 1720. Vinc^ntiua Btllovacen$U, Dominic, in Koyemont, died about
IMi, Specnlam blstorialo, till 12S0. Argent. 147a 4 vols, t Aug. 1474. 8 voK f. (SvhUmer^ Vine. v.
BctaTtli fL Krzieli. m. 8 Abb. Frkf. 1519. 2 toIn) Matthetts Pari*^ BenetltcL in S. Albans,
Hl< maj«»r till 1259. (1066-12:». from tbe Cliron. of Roger <fe Wendav^r, Lond. 1S40.) contin. by
W. Rhktniff^^ m 1273, ed. Wii^, Lond. 1044. 16S4. [publ. by the Camden Sikj. edited by //</«<-
fuU. Lond. 1S40.] f. Jc often. JoanneBde WinieiViur, Franclbc., Chron. 1215— 184S. (Tbesaar. Hist
HdT. Tit 1785. t) Alberiun Ai geutinemU, Chron. 1278-1878. iUrfdin vol. II. p. 95.) The Strasburg
Cbnialcle by Closener (died 13i)4.) cIot$cs at 1862. ed. by a Lit. Aoaoc. In Stnttgard. 1848. Jac. Twinger
of loni^iAo/m, a priest of Strosbnrg, died 1420. Elsafifi. Chron. till 1^6^ ed. by Schilter. Strasb.
16K. 4. {k'unisch, KTmigik, A hU Chron. In W. MUlUr't Ascauia. Jfjid. 1820. P. II. Strobel de
T.Closneri Chron. germ. Arg. 1S29.) G obeli nua Perttona, Dean of Bielefeld, die<i 1420, Co^modro-
miun. Independently 1840-141$. {ifeihoni, vol. I. p. 58.) Antoninu*^ Dominic. Archbish. of Flor-
eoce, Somma btstorialis till 1459. Nor. 1484. 8 vols. f. & often. (0pp. Flor. 1741m. vol. I.) Werner
BofJUt, ChrtbnsUn In Cologne, d. 1500, Faac temponim till 1476. CoL 1474. t & often. Cont by
A LiiUuriu$ tlU 1514. {PMor. Struve vol H. p. 847.)— 2) AUpertinue MuHnatus, of Padua, d. 1880,
Dist AnguBta Ilenr. VII. De goRtisi Italor. jKist mortem Hcnr. till 1317, Ludftv. Bavanis, Fragment
{MnraL vol. X.) Git'T. Vmuni, of Florence, St<irle Florentine till 1?49. cont by J/utteo &
FiUppo nUani till 1864. {Marat vol. XIIIs.) Mil. 1729. f. & often. Jean FroUunirU of Valen-
«loB<^ d. 1441, Chron. de France, d'Angl. etc. 1826-1400. Par. 1508. 1504. 4 vols. f. revue p. &iur
M^ Lyon. 15599&. 4 vols, t In the ColL des Chroniques par BucAon, Par. 1S24. 10-25 vols, of the
Mlh cent {Praetorius u. Froiss In 8clil(*5er*s Arch. £ Gcsoh. 1888. vol. V.) [Chronicles
of EiigL France, S[»ain, *c., transl. new ed. Ixmd. 1S45. 2 vola 8.] Phil, de CMnmines, d. 1509, Chron.
rtilklolre 1464-9^ Par. 1528. C & often, rev. p. L. du Fretinoy, Lond. 1747. 4 vols. 4. Fr. Guicci-
^ini, d. 1540. SUiria d'ltalia, 149ii-1582. Von. 1567 4. & often. [IIi.*.t of Italy fi-om 1498-1582,
tfiML bj A. P. Goddard, 2 ed. 1775, Lond. 9 v<»l». 8. Froi.ssari, Cominlnos & Guiccianlini have
^trtnsL into Eng. Sc publir«he<l t^tgcther. New York & Lond. 1848] The portions of Onic. sup-
pvened by public aathority are in l/eidegger, 111:4. Papatus, ed. 2. Amst 1C9S. Guldohti Monarchla
^IIL p. 17s«. — 8) Cocciu^ SubelllcuSy Hbtoriogr. of Venice, d. 1506, Enneades », rhaps<Hlia Histo-
rt«niDtlll 1504, Yen. 149S?s. 2 voK t & often. (0pp. Ba.\ 1560. 4 vols, f )— 4) PMewaeuM de Fiado-
•S^lMcenHfi. D«>mln. Bl?h. of Torcello, <l 1827, Hist ecc till 1812. {ilurat vol. XL p. 741.)
^riiktmim, d. 1516. Annales l/trtaugiensee 880-1514. 8. Galli 1690. 2 vols, f— 5) Astronomical
Hk of the Empire by Georg. AcrcpoliUt^ 1204-61. ed. Leo AUatim^ Par. 1651. t Georg. Pachy-
*«« 1258-1809. ed. Poitinn»^ IJom. 1661s». 2 vols. f. Im. Better, Bonn. 1S35. A'iceph. Gregoraa^
^*H-18M. ed. BoivinuB, Par. 1702. 2 vols, t Joan. Cantacuunos 1820-54. e<l. PanUmm, Par. 1645.
^vokt Joan, Ihusat 1841-1462, ed. BuUi^ildwt, Par. 1649 t ChalcondyUtB 1298-1462, ed. Fa-
*^ Psr. 1650. t Georg. Phranue* 1401-77, Lat ed. P&ntanus, Ingoldst 1604. 4.
For a considerable time the hierarchy apparently preserved its position at
^« zenith of its power. But in consequence of those abuses to which un-
"Diited authority always leads when intrusted to human hands, pnblic favor,
^ which it entirely rested, soon became aliennted from it. The claims which
264 MEDIAEVAL CUUBCH HI8T0BT. FEB. IV. A. D. 1216-1017.
it set up were ae exorbitant as ever, and even more so, bnt as they were
generally repelled, they were productive only of injury to itself. The power
of the Papacy and of the empire were so conducted as mutually to destroy
one another. The kings always found support against the encroachments of
the popes in the sense of justice and in the strong love of independence which
existed in the hearts of their people. Under tlie uniform improvement in the
dispositions and habits of the people, which the Church had fostered in every
European country, peculiar nationalities now began to be prominently devel-
oped. An intellectual education was extended among the people without the
aid of the Church, by means of which the popular mind became more ma-
ture, and lost its peculiar ecclesiastical character. In these circumstances
the hierarchy attempted to maintain its ascendency by intrigues and direct
force, and while it was struggling for its own existence it could no longer
afford protection against political despotism. A reformation extending not
only to the members but to the very head of the Church was generally re-
garded as indispensable, and was in various quarters actually attempted.
Catholicism itself appeared to have become for many nations an antiquated
system, and not adapted to the existing condition of things. And yet, as it
may often be remarked in history, that great spiritual principles sometimes
produce their sublimest forms just as they are about to be subverted, eo
Catholicism accomplished its noblest achievements during this period. The
papacy was still the most prominent of all actors in history, although its
sphere was frequently limited to the circle of French and Italian politics.
The life of a few princes sometimes becomes the leading object in the picture
of events, and new powers are raised up for the deliverance of the Church.
General history was still written in the same ecclesiastical style in which it
had formerly been composed. Vincent of BeautaU^ in his Encyclopfedia of
all the knowledge and movements of his times, has given us a clear and true pic-
ture of his age. Matthew Paris^ in his English history, containing also many
sagacious observations respecting all the countries of Western Europe, has
not hesitated to disclose, with some bitterness, the crimes of the ecclesiasti*
cal rulers, for this rigid monk was animated by a supreme love to the Church
itself. Albert of Strashurg^ a candid and faithful writer, presents lively
views of individual characters. The Alsatian Chronicle presents a history of
the people whose name it bears in their own language. Antoninus of Florene§
composed a general history, in which the future saint has displayed the most
undoubting faith and much modest criticism. Several statesmen have also
given us histories, in which are presented the views of men in secular life.
Among those were : Albertinun Mnuatus^ who wrote a history of his own
times and of neighboring countries, in a manner somewhat harsh but accu-
rate ; Villani^ who, with his brother and nephew, composed a history of
Florence, with which also is connected many notices of the Middle Ages
generally, in a style of old Roman simplicity ; Froissart^ in whose Chronides
the wars and royal courts of Western Europe are described with an extreme
relish for the glories of the declining orders of knighthood ; and dnnminsi^
in whose work we have the memorials of an age in which he sat at the helm
of affairs, and knew all the secrets of its history. The extreme character of
CDAP. L PAPACY. $889. FREDEBIO IL 6RE00ST IX 265
thb clan of writers may be best seen in Guieciardini^ in whose history of
Italy we have a true and liyely picture of events, in which he was too inti-
mately concerned always to be impartial. Finally, we have the brilliancy of
clasac learniDg displayed in the General History written by Sdbellicus, In
immediate connection with the snbject of Chnrch History, Ptolemaeua of
Lueea compiled a work which is of considerable critical value, on acconnt of
the great number of authorities which ho has carefully quoted, with respect
to the times immediately preceding his own. In a Chronicle of the old
Benedictine Abbey of Trittenheim^ is also interwoven the history of the
general Church, especially so far as relates to Grermany, with much learning,
but with an extreme bias for orthodoxy. The Byzantine historians^ in the
lofty style of writing peculiar to their ancient authors, have described the
•olemnities, the afSictions, and the commotions of the Eastern Roman Em-
pire, in which they generally bore so important a part. But in the opinions
nhich they express respecting western affairs, allowance must be made for
the asperity of feeling produced by the dominion of the Latins and the abor-
tiTe attempts frequently made at reconciliation.
CHAP. I.— RELATION OF THE PAPACY TO GENERAL AFFAIRS.
Uirt PoloDiw. (at tbe bead of { 171.) B«mardu9 Ouido^ Dominic Bi»bop of Lo<1eve, d. 1881.
4imaZrieif4 Augerii, Augustinlan, about 1865. botb until John XXII. (JIurat. vol. IIL P. I, II.)
PkUna {BarthoL Sacchi), Abbrcriator, d. 14S1, Vltao Pontlflcnm Rom. Yen. 14T9. f Later editt.
ihtfBd: the Dutch edltt wltboat the name of the place of pub. are correct according to the ed. prin-
«pi 1460. 1645; Sc 16M. 12. 7:kaodaricu» de Niem^ abbroviator, d. about 1417, named as the author
«f Vitie Pontlfll Rom. 1288-1418. addltla Imperatt gestis. {.Eccard voL I. p. 14C1.) Leon. AreUnuB,
PiH?«Tctapy, d. 1444, remm wio temp, in Ital. gcstar. Commtr. 18T8-1440. {ifuraiori vol XIX. p.
M.) Yitae Paparun Arenlonensium, ed. Steph. AtlueittA, Par. I<t98. 2 voIa. 4. to be corrected by
"■fvcttee to: Hist des eouveraina Pontifes dans Avifrnon, Avign. 1777. 4 Lives of particular Popes
ik Mural vol IIL P. I, IL Orig Docc In Raynald. J. Voigt, Stimmen a. Rom. u. (L papstL llof
tolSL ^tbrh. {Raumer'a hist Taschenb. 1832. N. i.)— Boehmer, Regesta Imperil. 119S-12M. Lately
•>*M. atntg. 1S49. 4. Regeste Imp. 124«-18ia Lately revised. Stuttg. 1844 4
§ 289. Frederic IL {l\^4r-Dec. 18, 1250.
I PHHde VlntU^ (d. 1249.) Epp. I VL ed. Itt^lin. Basil. 1740. 2 vols. Bothmer, Reg. Imp. p^
^ Perti Tol. IV. p. 22Sfla Extraota f^m the Regestis Ifonor. Jll. et Oreg. JX. in Raynald da
^•mtr. Riccardi de S. Germane Chron. 1189-1248. {Afurat vol. VII. p. 968.) Con tin. by AHo.
UhmgOia tm 1238. (/». vol. VIII. p. 4S9.)
n. (Aw*) OeMjbichte Friedr. IL ZGll. 1792. Raumer, vols. IlI-IV. p. 211. W. Zimmermann, die
B>^it a Kampr d. Mooarchie gegen Papst a. repubL Freih. Stuttg. 1838. 2 vols.— C Uti/l^t K.
^Mr. IL ICuaicb 1844
The most enlarged mental endowments and the highest earthly powers
^•^ poBKaaed by Frederic II, for the accomplishment of the destiny of the
^"•w of Hobenstaufen. By means of the Saracen population of Sicily, a
W of whom he had indnced to settle in Apnlia, he always had an army
""•dy with which to terrify the states of the Chnrch. Hence the mild dis-
poation of Banorius III (after 1216) was satisfied when the inheritance
"^<peathed by the Countess Matilda was secured to him, and he made no
''^I'taoce when the emperor'i oldest son, already heir apparent to the throne
266 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. ISlMOir.
of Sicily, was elected to be the next snecessor in the empire, and when all
the privileges of the Sicilian monarchy were re-established. On his corona-
tion at Aix-la-Chapelle, Frederic had taken the vow of the cross, and bad
subsequently renewed it at Rome. By his marriage with lolante, the heiress
of the kingdom of Jerusalem, the obligation to perform this vow seemed to
have become more imperious. But the emperor, occupied with the care of
establishing his power in Italy, always pleaded for a longer delay. The last
period fixed upon expired just as Honorius died (March 18, 1227), and was
succeeded by Gregory IX, This pope was a nephew of Innocent III., and
like that prince possessed much skill in law, and an inflexible resolution. In
his obstinate old age he was oven less restrained by a regard to the conse-
quences of what he regarded as right, (a) On the 15th August, 1227, the em-
peror set sail from Brundusium, but in three days returned, on account of a
pretended or at least a very convenient sickness. Gregory then issued against
him a sentence of excommunication, and was consequently driven from Home
by the emperor's adherents. Frederic now appealed to the Ohristian world
with severe accusations against the pope, and without troubling himself to
obtain a release from a papal ban which he regarded as uigust and invalid,
he again embarked for Palestine, August, 1228. But the anathema preceded
him, and induced his natural allies in the East to arm themselves agiunst
him. At the same time a great host of ecclesiastical emissaries fell upon his
Italian inheritance. In this extremity, from the personal favor of his oppo-
nent, Camel, Sultan of Egypt, a truce of ten years was obtained, during
which it was agreed that he should retain possession of the kingdom of Jem-
salem. He entered the holy city in triumph (March 17, 1229), placed upon
his head the crown of Jerusalem, hastened back to Italy, and drove the papa]
soldiers before him. Many disapproved of the violent measures of the popo
against a crusader, and after vainly using his utmost efforts in every place, to
stir up enemies against the greatest hero of that century, Gregory obtained
from his policy or piety an honorable peace at St. Germano (Aug. 28, 1230).
The pope was obliged to submit to the overwhelming power of the emperor^
and to accept of the code of laws edited by Peter of Vinea (1281), by which
the law of the two Sicilies was firmly established, and though heretics were
surrendered to the hands of the Church, the secular power of the Church was
made strictly subordinate to the State. (Jb) But when Frederic again prose-
cuted the struggle his family were always obliged to maintain with the Lom-
bards, the pope once more formed an alliance with the friends of popular
freedom, and in a sentence of excommunication pronounced against him
on Palm Sunday, 1239, released all his subjects from their oath of alle-
giance, and surrendered his body to the devil for the salvation of his
soul. Each party now sought by written manifestoes to gain over to its side
the favorable judgment of the people, and the two great heads of Christen-
dom confronted each other with charges of heresy. In their controversial
writings the specifications against each other are clothed sometimes in the
a) Vita Greg, by persons near him. {Murat toI. IIL p. 576.)
h) ConstitaUones Begnm Siciliae. Neap. 1786^ t Jtaumer, toL III p. Site.
CHAP. L PAPACY. 1 289. INNOCENT IV. 1 24a CONRAD IV. 267
most common language of ordinary life, and at other times with the poetic
imagery of the apocalypse. Frederic interpreted the favor which the pope
showed toward the Lombards as an evidence of his partiality for the Cathar-
ists living in their midst. Gregory accused the emperor of being the author
of the profane remark respecting the three impostors who had deceived the
world, and justified the imputation by a reference to the impartial justice
with which he had treated the Saracens, the relish with which he had en-
tered into oriental pleasures, and several insolent expressions with regard to
the minicles of the Church, (r) Frederic, who certainly had more faith in
astrology than in priests, not only proved his orthodoxy but conquered the
territories of the Church until he sat down under the very walls of Rome.
The i)ope called a general council of the Church. The emperor gave orders
that the fleet which conveyed the bishops to Home should bo captured.
Gregory died unavenged (Aug. 21, 1241), and after many tedious dissen-
sions among the cardinals, Innocent IV. (Fiesco of Lavagna) was chosen in
lus stead (June 24, 1243). The new pope had been the friend of the empe-
ror, but after various ineffectual efforts to conclude a peace ho became a mor-
tal enemy. By the aid of his countrymen the Genoese, ho escaped from
Italy, and at the general council of Lyons (1245), {d) he once more hurled
forth all the curses of the Church against the emperor, as a heretic and a
sacrilegious robber. The contest was waged not only with spiritual but with
carnal weapons, for the po[)e endeavored to secure assistance by exciting
insurrections in Germany and in Sicily. Frederic died without yielding to
tbe papal claims, {e) but among the people many believed that his body would
Ke no corruption, and at the proper time that he would return and over-
throw the exorbitant power of the priesthood.
§ 240. Ocerthroio of the House of Iloliemtaufen,
L Boehmer, Reg. p. 25Se:^ JamiiUa^ cent by an unknown band Ull 1265. {Mural, voL VIII. p.
96l)»Ddby U)« Gaelph Saha Malasptna, rer. Sicul 1. VI. 1250-78. {lb. p. 73!.)
IL W. Jdger^ Oesch. Col reds IL Nuremb. 1767. Pfister^ Gcsch. v. Schwaben. Ileilb. 1808. vol.
VL MaunMr, vol IV. p. 52^48.
Innocent IV. now proclaimed that the sacrilegious house of Hohenstaufen
bad for ever forfeited all title to sovereignty, and he hastened to take posses-
aon of Sicily as a vacant fief of the Church. But Conrad IV. abandoned
Germany to its own dissensions and conquered his Italian patrimony. Italy,
however, was fatal to him, and at his early death (1254) he left nothing for
bis son Conradin but the remnant of his paternal inheriUmce in Suabia. The
German crown was purchased by foreigners from the imperial princes, who
^«re controlled by papal influence. The Two Sicilies were seized upon by
^tfred^ a natural son of Frederic, and in them he established a popular
SOTemment, against w^hich Innocent preached a crusade in vain. The popes^
0 Tbe remark wan first made by Simon de Tournay^ 1201, & tbe treatise dc trlbus impostorlboa
H pr. i^, a,) belongs to the 16th cent Bosenkranz^ d. Zwetfcl am glauben. Kritik d. Scrr. do trib.
W<^ Hal a. L. 188a De impoetura rel. breve compend. s. L. de trib. impost edit, with lit IntrofI*
*yCfl,tt^. Lp\l>83.
^ Vita Inn by bis Confessor, Xic dc Curhio. {Jfurat, vol. IIL p. 502.) Loehmer, Reg. p. 812fl8.
^ Hia Wm Muratori Th. IX. p. Mlsi Bothmer^ p. 810.
268 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PKB. IV. A. D. 1316-1517.
perceiviDg that their power was insnAScient to keep posseflsion of the two
Sicilies, sold their title, first to England and then to France. Finally Charlm
of Anjou^ hy the aid of Clement IV. (1265-68), became king of the Two
Sicilies after the death of Manfred in the battle of Benevento (1266). But
Conradin felt called upon by the spirits of his ancestors to leave the circle
of his yonthf\il associates in Soabia, and attempt the conquest of his patri-
monial possessions beyond the Alps. He no sooner made his appearance there
than he wns hailed as a deliverer by all disaffected persons. But being de-
feated at the battle of Tagliacozzo, he was taken prisoner while flying from
his pursuers, and having passed through the miserable farce of a legal trial,
the last of the Hohenstaufens closed his life on the scaflTold on the 29th Octo-
ber, 1268. The popes now had the satisfaction of having utterly destroyed
the family of their most powerful enemy, and their triumph was purchased
by the complete distraction of Germany, the dismemberment of Italy, and
the ascendency of France.
§ 241. St Lovis. (1215.) 1226.— Jw^. 25, 1270.
I. Joint ilU, (S€neschal to Louis) Iltst de S. Loai^ p. Ch. du Freane, Par. 1668. t 1761. t Im^
dovici^ Vita et Conversatio per Gaufredum de BeUoloeo^ ConfMBorem, et OuU. Odmoientemt Gb-
pellanoQi eju& {Du Chetns vol. V. p. 444) Ludotioi Ep. de eapUone et Hberatione saa. (/b. ^
80508.)
XL WUkm^ 7th vol : Die KreozzQge Lnd. des Hell. a. der VerlosL des b. Landes. Lpa. 1882.
Louis IX. was, in his pious conscientiousness, a sincere Ghrisdan ; in his
scrupulous austerities and saintly humility, a rigid monk ; and in the energy
and equity of his transactions, even with the hierarchy, a noble prince. On
his recovery from a dangerous illness he assumed the vow of the cross, and
maintained his resolution against all France with such success that by his
policy and enthusiasm the whole nation was Induced to co-operate in the
sacred struggle. The Holy Land had been devastated by the incursions of
the wild tribe of the Ghowaresmians, and had once more fallen into the
hands of the Sultan of Egypt (1247). Palestine could be conquered only in
Egypt. Damietta was taken by Louis in the spring of the year 1249, but
when the crusaders advanced into the interior of the country, between the
dykes of the Nile which had been cut through, they were attacked by famine
and pestilence. Louis was at last obliged to purchase a return to his own
land with the wealth of his kingdom. But in the midst of his misfortunes be
was still unsubdued in spirit and unseduced to evil. By the encouragement
which he showed to the third estate, and by the record which he made of
the established usages of the nation he gave a firm legal basis to the state, and
by the pragmatu aanetion (1269) gave stability to the national church.* In
heart he was not unmindful of his vow, and even when advanced in ago, with
Christ's crown of thorns In his hand he called upon the nobility of Fhince
by their love and honor to prosecute the crusades. When the expedition
accordingly set out. It was induced, by the hope either of an easier oonqnest
or of the conversion of their enemies, or by the Influence of Charles of An-
• Leibnitii Mantissa. P. L p. 157. Comp. Baum^r, roL VI. p^ 1\%^
CHAP. L PAPACY. $ 241. ST. LOUIS. $ 248. RUDOLPH OF HAPSBUBO. 269
jon, to turn aside for the invasion of Tunis. The plan of establishing a
French colony there was frnstrated by the carelessness of the king, and the
nnfaYorablo character of the climate. Louis died of the plague before Tunis,
and with him as with the Emperor Frederic, perished the work to which he
had dedicated his life. Louis belonged rather to a former age, wliile Fred-
eric labored fbr results which could be attained only in the distant future.
Hence both of them seemed to toil in vain, but both were illustrious in their
lives.
§ 242. The Termination of the Crusades.
The Latin empire in Constantinople continued still, but it was perpetually
torn by internal divisions, and regarded by the people as a foreign yoke. Its
etpital therefore fell an easy prey even to the feeble arms of the Greeks
under Michiul Palaeologus (1261). Palestine and Syria, though frequently
reconquered, were always again lost in consequence of the divisions in the
Christian host. God seemed to have forsaken his own cause, (a) Tlie ro-
mantic enthusiasm which had exhibited so many interesting forms had now
given place to a more sober, but more selfish spirit, and Mount Calvaries were
constructed nearer home. Gregory X, (1271-76) exerted all the influence
which a pope possessed, to obtain possession of the East by a new crusade,
md thus preserve it for Christianity, but his efforts were entirely vain, (i)
Ptolemais (Acre), the last fortress of the crusaders, was stormed by the Egyp-
tian host on the 18th May, 1291. (<;) The only benefit which the cmsades
coold accomplish was for the spiritual and commercial interests of the West-
em nations, and this office they had now fulfilled, {d)
§248. Rudolph of Hapshirg, 1273-91. The Sicilian Vespers.
The German throne had been for a long time vacant when the Count of
Hi^nrg became king by the choice of the more powerful princes of the
npire. He now endeavored to obtain the papal acknowledgment, and took
the oath which had been customary ever since the time of Otho IV., because
Alphonso of Castile, a rival king, whom Gregory X had persuaded to rc-
noonoe all claims upon the crown, was yet living. With the moderation of
I mind powerful in its proper sphere, Rudolph abandoned all the rights of
the empire to its Italian dependencies, and confined his attention to tho
ertabljshment of a legal government in Germany, and to the attainment
of the power which his family needed for its maintenance. He therefore
Mcceeded in living on terms of honorable peace with the pope, who needed
» powerful support against the influence of France in Lower Italy, and he
^ opportunity to pave the way for the future independence of the empire, (a)
«) GoniK mrrentcs des T«mplera in DietM^ Leben o. Werke d. Tronbad. Zwick. 1S29. p. 589.
^ Hvanbtrtut de RomanU (in the service of the pope,) de hl^ qaae tractands videbaotar in Cona
PB-LogiL (ir<M«< YoL XXIV. p. 1098&)
«) MaHnu$ Samttus^ Secretonim fidelinm crnci* 1. III. P. XII. c 21sa. (Bonffars vol. II.) Ahul-
f^ (blnuelf present.) AnnaL Moslem, vol. V. p. 95s».
^ U«eren, EntwickL d. Folgen d. Krcuzz. £ Europa. OGtt ISOS. (IIi.«t W. vol. II.) Reffenbogen,
^iHictibiu qaoa hnmanitaA, libertas, mercatara etc, perceperint e bello sacra Ainst 1S09.
A) Codex epfatolaria Rad. L ed. Gerbert^ 8. BlasiL 1722. t aux. Bodmantu, Lps. IdOft. Boehmer,
270 MEDIAEVAL CUURCH UISTOKT. FEB. IT. A. D. Ifl6-]51T.
Clement IV, had reason to doubt the wisdom of his policy with respect to
the Sicilies, for instead of deriving any pecaniary aid fh>n] Charles of Ai^oo,
that prince was continoally exacting money from him. {h) So intolerable
were the oppressions of the French in Sicily that even Gregory X. predicted
that a day of vengeance wonld soon arrive against his royal vassal, (e) But
when Martin IV, (1281-86) a Frenchman, and subservient to French inter-
ests, was seated in the papal chair, (d) at the ringing of the vesper bells on
the third day in Easter, 1282, an insurrection broke forth, and every French-
man on the island was slain. Peter of Aragon, on account of his marriage
with Oonstantia, the daughter of Manfred, was proclaimed King of Sicily, and
was immediately excommunicated by the pope. Charles of Anjon retained
possessi(3n only of Naples, and the i>opes lost all influence in Sicily until new
relations were formed with France in the beginning of the liext centnij,
when a reconciliation was effected, {e)
§ 224. The Hermit in the Papal Chair, July 5,—Dfe. 18, 1294.
Jh^hmer, Rf'frest. p. 888. PtoUmaei Lue. (tn eye-wltntas) H. ect XXIV, 29ml BajntU. ad
ann. 1291. Jucftffi Cardtnalit Carmen de vita, and de canonisadfine CoeL (Jfwrat toL UL P. L pi
618m. eS."^) P^trm de Allioco, Yita Coel. (AcU 6S. MaJ. toL IV. p. 4S8c>— OWmMwC Opp. (im-
tlc) e<l. TeUra, Neap. IWO. 4. (Bibl. PP. Lugd. voL XXV.)
The French influence in Naples had gained over a party ampng the cardi-
nals, which was opposed by another, embracing various shades of dbtinction,
called the papal, the Italian, and the German. But when neither of these
parties was found strong enough to elect one of its own number to the papal
chair, at the suggestion of the name of Peter de Murrhane^ a hermit and a
popular Haint, residing at Abruzzo, all agreed to bestow their votes on him,
each party hoping to flnd in him an instrument for its own purposes. He
assumed the name of Celestine F., and never renounced his saintly poverty
and his former simplicity of life. But with the exception of the King ci
Xai)les, to whose influence he surrendered himself, and whose favorites he
ai>pointed cardinals, all parties soon perceived his utter unfitness for the office
of government. Hence, when he had confirmed the rigid regulations of
Gregory X. with respect to the limitation and seclusion of the conclave, (a)
ho was induced by Cardinal Cajetanus^ who acted in behalf of the older car-
dinals, although with the view of himself becoming pope, voluntarily to
resign his oflSee. Instead of the solitude of the mountain for which he had
longed, hLs successor consigned him to the solitude of a prison, in which be
died (1296). By his third successor he had assigned to him (1318) a place
among the saints, and by Dante a place in hell. (&)
Rep. p. SI an. PerU vol. IV. p. SSZssl— Z< Bret, do prud. Rud. In rebus cum Caria peracdi. T\ibi
17S8.4
h) Marten^ Tlies. nor. vol. II. p. 174. 179. c) &iha Jfala*pina VL 4 d) Bo0hm4r, Beg. J
e) MUh, Amari, la gucrra del Ve»pro Sicitiano. Palermo. 1842. ed. 4. Fir. 1851.
a) Proclaimed at Lyons, 1274. Manal voL XXIV. p. Slsa. b) Inferno III,
CHAP. L PAPACY, f MS. BONIFACE TIIL PHIUP AUGUSTUS. 271
§ 246. Boniface YIIL Dec. 24, 1294.— Oc^. 11, 1303.
Pt6L Luc II. ecc XXIV, M. (Comp. Cod. Patav. In Murat vol XI. p. 1218««.) For Hl«t A
oii^ docamenUs (P. du Pup) Illst da diff6rend entre le Pape Boniface et Phil, lo Bel. Par. 1650. t
SailUt, Ulst des d6niilez da P. BonlC aveo Phil. ed. 3. Par. 171S. n.—Pub€U9, BoniC et famllia Ca-
Jetanomm. Bom. 1651. Totfi; Storla di Bun. YIIL e de* saol tempi. Bom. 1846.— FI Drumann,
Qmch. Bon. d. YIIL KGnipib. 1S&2. 2 Th.
C^jetanus of Anagni, a jurist and a priest, who had grown old while
employed in the affairs of the Roman coart, ascended the papal chair nnder
the name of Boniface VIII. This distinction he attained througli the recom-
mendation of his enemy the King of Naples. Actuated by a frantic hatred
to the GhibcUine party he sent into banishment the powerful family of the
Colonna who now declared Celestine^s resignation invalid, and drove the
plough over Palestrina the town in which they resided. He reproved Philip
of France for having seized upon the property of the Church, and for an
adulteration of the coin, and according to a right then conceded to the hier-
archy, he proposed to act as a mediator (1205) in the sanguinary war between
that prince and Edward I. of England. Philip the Fair forbade his inter-
ference, and when Bonif&ce forbade all taxation of Church property, (a) the
king prohibited auy exportation of the precious metals. That he might not
lose all his revenues from France, and as he was already forsaken by a por-
tion of the rtench clergy, the pope sought to become reconciled to Philip by
giving the mildest construction to his own prohibition. Both kings now con-
sented that he should decide their difficulties, not, however, as the pope, but
one selected by the parties for that special purpose. No sooner, however,
his decision made known in a Bull (June 30, 1298), than Philip refused
to comply with its requisitions, because it did not properly respect tlie right
of prior possession against that of recent conquest. Reproaches of royal
oppression, and papal treachery to the Church, were exchanged between
them, and the legate in France, as a French bishop, was thrown into prison
for high treason. Angry edicts were proclaimed by Boniface on the 5th of
I>ecember, 1801, summoning the French prelates to Rome for the purpose of
reforming the king and the empire. The king, whose ordinary government
was eminently despotic, now appealed to his people, and convened a general
Diet of his kingdom. The three estates were unanimous in maintaining the
independence of the French kingdom (1302). An extract from the papal
decrees which had been so falsified as to make it in the highest degree offen-
sive to the royal feelings, declared every one a heretic who did not believe
that the king in temporal as well as in spiritual matters was subject to the
pope. To this the king replied by declaring every one a fool who did not
believe that the King of France was in temporal things subject to no one. (b)
Boniface now commenced a contest with the whole French nation, and al-
though ho denied that he had ever claimed France as a papal fief, he never-
theless maintained that every creature, under peril of his final perdition, was
«) Clerlds laiooe : Start. Dicretal, lib. 8. tit 28. c. a
h) Thegenaine: Aaaculta fill. The q>arloaa: Deam time. BcUUet, p. 108,111s. Drumann^
T«L XL p^ 19.
272 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCH HISTORY. PER. lY. A. D. 1216-3UT.
bonnd to obey the Roman bishop, (r) He then proceeded to ezcommnnioate
the king, who appealed once more to a general Diet of his empire (June,
1808). Before that body he had the pope accused of the most monstrous
crimes, and demanded that a general council should be summoned to adjudi-
cate upon them. The pope pronounced an interdict upon the whole of
France, abrogated the privileges of the universities, and bestowed the French
crown upon the Emperor of Gennany. Philip's chancellor, William of JVV
garet, and Sciarra Colonna, the expelled cardinal, surprised and imprisoned
the pope (Sept. 7) in his own city of Anagni. In the hands of his enemies
he now resolved to die like Ilim, whose earthly vicar he professed to be.
After a confinement of three days ho was liberated by hb own countrymen,
but grief for the dishonor he had suffered had broken his heart. It is possi-
ble that Boniface thought more of himself and of his treasures than of the
general welfare, but he was impelled forward by his idea of the pontificate,
his conduct was in the very spirit of Gregory, he only mistook in some cases
the ])roper hour for action, and in general had not observed the great changes
which had taken place since the time of his predecessor. Subsequent ages
have held him responsible for his misfortunes. But kings had learned the
secret of repelling papal assumptions, the universal dominion of the hierarchy
had been broken, and public opinion, expressed in powerful tones, had pro-
nounced its disapproval of all attempts to blend the spiritual with the secu-
lar authority, {d)
§ 246. Commencement of the Babylonian Exile.
Although Benedict XL (Oct. 22, 1803— June 7, 1804), was a stead&st
friend of his predecessor, he was compelled to yield to adverse circumstanoeB.
Accordingly he availed himself of an honorable embassy from Philip to ob-
tain a reconciliation with that monarch, in which all decrees against France
were revoked, so far as appeared consistent with the honor of the papacy, (a)
When the conclave was assembled for the election of his successor, it was
found that the party of Boniface was a complete match for that of France,
but the superior policy of the latter prevailed, and Bertrand d^Agoust, Arch-
bishop of Bordeaux, a creature of Boniface, but secretly pledged to act with
the French party, was unanimously elected, (b) Cletnent V, (June 6, 1806—
April 20, 1314) never crossed the Alps, but in the year 1809 fixed upon Avig-
non as his residence. By the appointment of numerous Fr^ich cardinals he
secured the election of a successor of the same political character with him-
self. These were generally French court bishops who directed the osarpt-
tions of the hierarchy only against other nations. Although Clement sub-
jected the French Church to the payment of tithes to the king, repealed
some parts of Bonifaco^s bulls, and made others inapplicable to Fhinoe,
avoided with difficulty a formal condemnation of Boniface himself, and ven-
c) Unam winctam : Extrav. comin. lib. I. tlL 8. c. 1. Drumanit, vol. IL p. 578S.
d) DanV?^ Purpator. XVI, 97s«. XXVII, TOss. Aegidiwt ds Columiut^ (Archbish. of BoiufOi»
d. 1316) de poUstatc regia et pontiflcla. {GoldagU Monorchia 8. R. Imp. Fret 1C14. C roL IL p^ 9&)
Joanneg de PurrhtsUs^ (Dominic, d. 1304.) Tr. de pot rcgia et papalL (Tb. p. 10&)
3) Raynald od. ann. 1804. Du Puy, p. 207aa. h) ViUani, YIII, SOi
CHAP. I. PAPACr. i 246. CLEMENT V. $ MT. JOHN XXIL 273
tared only in secret to recall a compnlsory public recommendation of the
French prince for election to the imperial dignity, ho hurled the most terri-
ble anathemas (1309) against the republic of Venice for its attempt to gain
forcible possession of Ferrara, and when Henry VII. of Luxemburg went on
a militiry expedition to Rome he renewed all the exorbitant deiimnds of his
predecessors. Henry died in the midst of his victories (1313), and it was then
proclaimed in tlie papal bulls that the pope was the emperor^s lord paramount,
and consequently that when the imperial throne was vacant the pope was
the imperial regent in Italy, (c)
§ 247. Louis of Bataria, 1314-47. Joanna of Naples,
L Oiiz. Docc. In Olenaddagtr^ SUntogesch, <1es rom. KaLxerth. 1. IlalAe dos 14 Jhh. Frkf. 1755.
1 Bofhmer^ Rege»tA Imp. 1814^7. Frkf 1S80. 4. & Addltam I. Frkf. 1S41. 4. Vita Lud. IV. Al-
htrt iliv^nii Lud. Bavaros, Jo. VictorienftU and otliers In B<)«liiner, Fonlcs rer. Gorm. vol. I. Ihr-
^tariah ffohfrnburg^ Lnd. IV. defcnsus. Mon. IGlSa. 8 vols. 4. OetcuUl^ Dofenslo Lud. IV. Ingolst.
mi i.-ilann€rt, Ludw. IV. Landsh. 1812. ScldetU Bio^rr. v. K. Ludw. Bulz. 1822.
After a long and violent assembly of the French and Italian cardinals,
John XXIL was presented to the people as their pope (1316-34). While yet
in Lyons he gave his oath to the Italians that he would never mount a beast
except on his journey to Rome, and accordingly embarked by shij) for Avig-
non, and never loft his palace there. In Germany, Lo\iU of Bavaria and
Frckrie of Austria were contending for the imperial crown, and at that time
it appeared to be tlie interest of France to allow the power of the empire to
expend it.«elf in these civil dissension?. Hence, when Louis had made his
opponent a prisoner (1322), and in opposition to the summons tliat ho should
submit to the decision of the pope, pleaded that his title to the crown was
already complete by the choice of the princes of the empire, John simply re-
plwdby a ban of excommunication and an interdict (1324). But even the
ptpal sanction of a breach of faith was ineffectual to make it tolerable to the
lojal spirit of the Germans. Louis came to an agreement with his opponent,
and after a formal appeal to a general council caused him.self to bo crowned
emperor at Rome, and a pious mendicant monk to be placed in the papal
Amt (1328). No sooner, however, was his army withdrawn from Italy tlian
bii power in that country ceased, the pope whom he had set up was sent to
Arignon, and a papal decree announced that Italy was for ever separated from
Gennany. On the one side of the Alps the emperor's, and on the other side
tfee pope's extreme pretensions to a universal dominion were advociited by
inflnential writers, (a) By his passionate interference in all kinds of theo-
lopeal controversy John XXIL gave occasion for the imputation that he was
^inself infected with heresy, (b) In his proud theocratic pretensions the
Germans could perceive nothing higher than the instigations of France. The
interdict, however, though but partially carried into effect, was not without
*) F. W. Rtrthoid^ ROmerziig Ilelnr. v. LaUelburg. KAnlgsb. 153«K 2 vols.
*) On the Imperial side : Mar»ilin% of Padua and John of Jandun In their principal Joint pro-
^'^'^ alwut 1328, Defensor pacts. {GoldaBti Monarchia, vol. II. p. 154.) On llio papal eido: .ff>-
T'^'hM Triumphus^ Samma do potest ecc ad. Jo. Aug. Vind.*1478. and often. Alvarui Pelagiun.
^ pJacto fccleslaa L IL Ulm. 1474 Ven. 1560. t
^) OuiL Occam, Compi erroram Joannis P. (^Golda$ti 1. c vol IL p. 057.)
18
I
274 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-151T.
its inflnence in disturbing the popular tranquillity. A reconciliation with the
Church was sought for by Louis, and although it was desired by Benedict XIL
(1384-42) no less than by the emperor, it was prevented by French inflnenoe.
This dependence of the popes induced the imperial princes to form the first
Electoral Alliance at Bense (July 16, 1888), and Louis announced that the
imperial dignity came directly from God alone, (e) But as the emperor had
done violence to the feelings of his people, sometimes by arbitrary invasions
of the prerogatives of the Church, and sometimes by pusillanimous conces-
sions, Clement VI. (1842-62) succeeded in obtaining five electoral votes in
favor of Charles IV, the son of the King of Bohemia (1346). But this par-
son-king was obliged immediately to take refuge in France, and did not reach
the ignominy of a new election and coronation until after the death of I^uis,
and at the expense of the most ruinous sacrifices (1849). In Naples the Hun-
garian prince, Andreas, the husband of the young royal heiress, Joanna^ was
murdered (1345). His widow, who was soon after married to her cousin, the
Prince of Tarcnto, was compelled to fly before the vengeance of the Hunga-
rians to Avignon. Clement VI., her liege lord and her judge in the place
of God, solemnly pronounced the beautiful queen innocent of the murder of
her husband, and confirmed her recent marriage. She, on the other hand,
that she might obtain funds to carry on a war with tlie Hungarians, sold
Avignon to the papal see (1848), and after various vicissitudes of war,
obtained permanent possession of her patrimonial estates through the media
tion of the pope.
§ 248. Close of the Babylonian Exile.
In consequence of the absence of the pope and the weakness of the em-
peror, in Italy, every city there made eftbrts to attain independence, and
whenever this was secured, innumerable factions and tyrants commenced a
struggle with each other. The result was that all considerate persons began
to long for some powerful head who could rule over the whole. These de-
sires, however, were not satisfied by Charles /F., whose expedition to Rome
(1854) was welcomed with great enthusiasm by the people, for tlie only
object of that monarch was to obtain the pageant of a coronation. Innocent
VI. (1352-62), a prince well versed in legal science and of strict integrity,
recognized the necessity of a reformation, and he even entered upon it him-
self by reducing the splendor of his court, and attempting to appropriate to
the actual service of the Church the treasures accumulated from various
benefices. The estates of the Church had been divided into many indepen-
dent cities and principalities, or had been taken possession of by neighboring
governments. In vain the popes resorted to terrible excommunications to
frighten these ecclesiastical robbers ; the papal government was not restored
until Alhornoz^ the cardinal legate (1863-67), succeeded in raising a bold cru-
sade on a small scale, and brought into action all the arts of a skilful diplomacy.
The Romans had been for a brief period intoxicated with the idea of free-
dom and universal dominion, excited by their tribune Cola di Rienzo^ but
c) OUfmchiager^ N. ML Boehmery Reg. p. 180.
* F. Papeftcordt, CoU di Rienxo n. a. Zeit Hunk 1841.
CHAP. L PAPACY. $«48L INNOCENT VL 1 249. THE SCHISNL 275
when they saw the eterD&l city becomiDg almost desolate in coDsequcnce of
the ahsence of the pope, all, especially those to whom the higher object of
the papacy was dear, became anxious for his return. Urban V, (1362-70),
in opposition to the wishes of his cardinals and the king of France, at last
returned to Rome (1867). He was soon, however, compelled to return
to Avignon by the unsettled condition of affairs in Italy. Gregory XL
(1370-78) once more yielded to the solicitations of his Italian subjects, and
was carried back by the Romans in triumph (1877). Yet the cities of the
Ecclesiastical States were not unmindful of their independence, for they were
careful to intimate that aU regard for religion must be laid aside when it be-
comes hostile to freedom, and that nothing but death could render the resi-
dence of the pope in Italy absolutely certain.
§ 249. The Schism.
I. Grig. Dooc in Itaynnld. Balua. and In Bulaei Hist Univ. Paris, vol. IV. Theodoricus da
Kiem^ de scbisinate inter Papas et Antipapas (till 1410.) L III. et nemos unionis. Bas. 1500. t
ktp 1609.
XL DnPuy, Hist da ecliiKtne 137&-1423. Par. 1654. and often. Jlaimbourg^ IILst du grand
KhisiiM d'ooddant Par. 167S. Ueberei 1792.
The election of an Italian pope was at last obtained by the persevering
olwtinacy of the Roman people. The Archbishop of Ban, Urban VI.
(1878-89), a Neapolitan, was favorably inclined toward the people, though
toward the cardinals, whose opposition to himself he well knew, he evinced
the natural severity of his character. The twelve cardinals from beyond the
Alps therefore fled to Anagni, hired a band of condottieri, declared the elcc-
tioQ of Urban invalid because under constraint, drew three Italian cardinals by
trtfol promises into their conclave at Fondi, and chose Cardinal Robert of
Geneva for their pope, under the name of Clement VIL (1378-94). IIo took
«p his residence at Avignon, and through the influence of France lie was
gndoally acknowledged in the Spanish peninsula, in Scotland, Savoy and
L)rniiDe, and was regarded as the proper successor of the French popes. In
opposition to Joanna of Kaples, who had likewise declared in favor of Cle-
ment, Urban stirred up Charles of Durazzo, the heir-apparent to her throne,
ttd reealled the memory of her deed of blood. The queen then adopted the
French prince Louis of Ai\jou, whom Clement invested with the kingdom of
Naples, and sustained in the expenses of his war. Charles having seized
opoQ the person of Joanna, had her put to death in prison, and maintained
poeBesrion of Naples. But Urban soon after became displeased with him
because he refused to bestow Capua on a nephew of the pope, in considera-
tion of the assistance he had received, excommunicated him, was besieged by
lum in Nocera, and was finally compelled to take refuge in Genoa. In his
%ht through the midst of his enemies he had five cardinals bound and cou-
^tyed with him to Genoa, where they were put to death. Both popos were
^vronnded by a train of cardinals, so that the decease of both would have
^ effect in diminishing the achism. To sustain the expenses of tlio war be-
^6en two popes and of two distinct papal courts, it was necessary to devise
^^ methods of extortion by which every thing on earth and in heaven was
P<it up for sale. Each pope was under the other^s ban, the people were
276 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-1617.
necessarily the only arbitrators of tliis controversy, and the organs of tho
popular will were those who represented the interests of science. The first
actual movement for the attainment of peace was made by the University of
Paris. The only practicable method by which this strife could be composed
seemed to be tho simultaneous abdication of both competitors. Peter de
Luna, under the name of Benedict XI 11.^ was then reigning (after 1394) in
Avignon, and Angelo Corrario, under that of Gregory XII,^ in Rome (after
1406). On their election both had promised to make the sacrifice which the
interests of the Church required, but both, on various pretext*^, refused to
abide by their engagements. Benedict was then abandoned by the French,
aad fled into Spain. Both popes were finally forsaken by their cardinals,
who, appealing to Ciirist himself, a general council and a future pope, assem-
bled at Leghorn (1408).
§ 250. The Council of Pisa, March 25-Au(j. 7, 1409.
I. Act« of Council, 111 3fiiimi vol. XXVIs, Theod. de Kiem^ do scliism. Ill, SSm. [London^
pp. 4SS-492.]
H. Lenfaut, IIi*L du Cone, do Pise. Amst. 1724. 1727. 2 vols. 4. J. IT. r. Wess^uherg, diegros-
sen KVorsnmnil. des 15. u. 10. Jalirh. (C<>n8t. 1S40. 4 vols.) vol II. p. 4Ss8w Comp. IlefeU^ krtt.
Belcucht. Tub. 1S41.
There appeared to bo no way in which this struggle between the rival
claimants of the papal dignity could be legally terminated, but by the repre-
sentatives of the whole Cliurch, in whom the highest degree of power could
be combined. The cardinals now laid aside their divisions, and by the advice
of the Universities, convoked a general Council at Pirn, The priesthood
was represented by twenty-four cardinals and two hundred bishops, present
either in person or by proctors ; the monastic orders by three hundred ab-
bots ; scientific bodies by deputies from the universities, one hundred and
twenty masters in theology, and three hundred graduates of the Roman and
canonical law ; and the state especially by the envoys of France and Eng-
land. In opposition to the protests of the two popes, Rupert, Emperor of
Germany, and Ladislaus, King of Naples, the council confirmed the principle*
defended by Gerson^ Chancellor of Paris, afiirming that the power with
which Christ invested the Church was independent of the pope. Both Bene-
dict and Gregory were then summoned before the council, and after a formal
trial were deposed for contumacy and the violation of their engagements.
The representatives of the Church, however, well knew that they could
hope for no influence or success unless they removed tho innumerable
abuses then prevalent. The cardinals therefore bound themselves by an
oath, that whoever should be elected from their number, should never dis-
solve the council until it had completed the work of reformation in the head
and members of the Church. Peter of Candia, an aged and quiet man who
afterwards bore the name of Alexander F., was made choice of, and that he
might make those preparations which he alleged to be necessary, he imme-
diately postponed the work of reformation to a council which he promised
to convene in three years from that date. By his unrestrained liberality the
* Tr. de aniUte Ecc and Libellus de auferibilitate papae ab Ecc (0pp. vol XL P. L)
CHAP. I. PAPACY. S 251. COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. 277
resources of the Church were in a short time squandered. Benedict still
maintained his claims in Spain and Scotland, and Gregory was acknowledged
by Kupert and Ladislaus. Christendom beheld with amazement three popes
within its bounds, and all its abuses continued without restraint.
§ 251. The Council of Constance. Not. 5, l^U-Ajyril 22, U18.
I. Kesiiectin^ John XXIIL, after Platina his secretary, consult Th^od. d€ Xiem, Vita Jo. {Ilardt^
C-onc. C<in*L \v\. II. P. XV. p. 885.) Invectlva in .llffugifntem a Con>t. Couc. Ja (76. P. XIV. p.
294.) and A ^ re<<'7i iM, Cominentar. (Jfitrat. vol. XIX. p. 9278s.)— MHgnum occum. Constantienso
Omc oil. IFerm. ron der llardt^ FrcC ct Lps. 697»*. 7 vols. f. Theod. Vri*^ an Augmtlnlan of Oana-
bnurk, dv coii5olat1«)ne Ecc. (al.s) II 1st du Cone Const, in Ifardt^ vol. I. p. 1.)
II. I^n/uni^ III»L du Cone, de 0>n< AinsL (171 1.) 1727. 2 vols. 4. Bourgeoi9 da ChanUuet,
aoavelle HK da Cone, de Const. Par. 1718. 4. lioyko^ Ge»ch. d. KVors. zu K<M<tnltz. Vlen. »t
Prapae. 17>2«. 4 voK (1st k. 2d vols. 2<1 cd. 1796.) Asvhhach, Lebon K. Sljfisin. (according to Wln-
<Wek.) Frkt (ISSSs.) vol. II. We^Hfnhtfg vol. II. p. C9!«s. [Landon, pp. liiO-162. I*. JSonntchow,
(1 30(1) on Gcreon, John Ilnaa, and the Council of Ck>nstunce, republ. in 1S58. Par.]
Cossa, the cardinal legate, who displayed great talents in the management
of secular affairs, but was totally destitute of all spiritual character, had
Alexander V. brought to Bologna, that he might close his days in that city
(1410). Having e.xpelled the Visconti from Bologna, Cossa ruled without
restraint as the tyrant of that city, and the cardinals were obliged to make
choice of him as the successor in tlie papal chair. He assumed the name of
John XXIIL, and was soon driven from the Ecclesiastical States in a war
with ladislaus. The emperor Siffi'<mund refused to afford him any assistance
nnU'ss he would appoint some place beyond the Alps in which a council
?honM be Assembled for the removal of the schism, and the accomplishment
of the ecclcsia<?tical reformation demanded by the people. The place agreed
npon by the pope and the emperor was Constance, and the council was sum-
Dwned to convene on the first of November. Full of anxiety and perplexed
with conflicting views, John XXIII. repaired to Constance on the 29th Oct.,
U14. Besides the representatives of the clergy, a great multitude of secu-
lar lords came together there, presenting an array of all the glory of Europe.
At the head of the civil powers stood the emperor with the sincere intention
of effecting the reformation of the Church. Gerson and the Cardinal Peter
iAiUy were the principal lenders of the reforming party. Their superior
power in the assembly was evinced and increased by the arrangement that
the voting should take place by nations. This rule was adopted on account
of the numerical majority of Italian prelates, and even in the preliminary
meetings business had been transacted in separate sections under the name
<rf the German, the Italian, the French, the English, and, after the abnn-
<ioninentof Benedict, the Spanish nations. (</) The cardinals constituted a
tt»Dege by themselves, with no deflned prerogatives. Within their resjKictive
^^ns, the prelates, it is true, maintained tliat their votes were decisive of
*U questions which came before them, but they were generally swayed by
^« influence of the princes and doctors. Tlicre were only a few public ses-
■ons in which all these nations were united in one body, and even in these
^cre were seldom any debates, but simply solemn communications and pro-
a) UardU roL XL p. 224ae.
278 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCH HISTOKT. PEB. IV. A. D. 1216-1517.
clamations of decisions elsewhere formed. The majority finally announced,
that in their opinion the schism could never be effectually healed but by the
simultaneous abdication of each of the three popes, and the general voice
became more and more decided in its demands for the impeachment of John
XXni., on account of his dissolute course of life. John then ai)peared will-
ing to resign the tiara, but soon after, in spite of his oath to the contrary,
with tlie aid of Frederic of Austria, he made his escape (March 20, 1415) to
Schaffhausen. lie afterwards removed still farther down the Rhine, and
revoked all his promises on the ground that they were given under con-
straint. After a brief suspense the council declared itself independent of all
popes, and superior to them, (b) The trial of John XXIII. was regularly
carried forward, he was proved guilty of a long catalogue of crimes, sus-
pended from his dignities, after the submission of Austria imprisoned, and on
the 29tli of May finally deposed. Gregory also resigned, but on honorable
terms (d. 1417). After long and fruitless negotiations, Benedict was gene-
rally deserted by his friends, and deposed by tlio council as a heretic with
respect to the article asserting that there is only one Catholic Church (July
26, 1417). With as much expedition as possible a new papal election was
now held. In vain did the German nation urge that the reformation of the
head and members of the Church should first be completed ; they were over-
ruled by those who dreaded the predominance of an ultra-liberal party, if
the Church should continue without a head. Six deputies from each nation
were added to the twenty-three cardinals in the conclave, and on Nov. 11,
Otho Colonna was elected pope, under the name of Martin V. lie had pre-
viously been regarded as a courteous, skilful, and moderate man, and he now
know well how to thwart the general demands for a reformation by separate
treaties, conceding some privileges as to ecclesiastical ofiSces to particular na-
tions, and some claims of the papal chancery. The patience of the council
was completely exhausted. "With great pomp, on the 16th May, 1418, the
pope took his departure, and the baffled hopes of such as longed for reforma-
tion were now turned to a future general council promised in five years
from that time.
§ 252. Martin V, Nov. 11, Ull-Feb. 20, 1481.
The Concordat which Martin proposed to the French nation was rejected
by the Parliament (1418), and all remittances of money to Rome for crimi-
nal trials and ecclesiastical benefices were once more forbidden. But in
spite of the protests of the Parliament, the king was induced by court
intrigues to effect an acceptance and a partial introduction of the Concordat
(1424). The activity and caution of the pope was also sometimeB sucoeasful
in renewing all the ecclesiastical claims and pecuniary extortions which bad
formerly prevailed. Cossa, who had beguUed his imprisonment in Heidel-
berg by writing verses on the fickleness of fortune, met his sucoeesor at Flor-
ence, sued for clemency, and obtained peace and honor for the remainder of
his life. In consequence of a misunderstanding between Martin and the King
I) Hardt, toL IL p. 860m. 988B.
CHAP. L PAFACY. $252. HABTIN Y. f 258. EUGENIUS YL 279
of Angon, Peter of Luna appeared once more on tlie public stage (d. 1424),
and it was not until his second successor that this papacy at Peniscola was
Ivought to an end. Martin was obliged to tarry for a long time among the
proud merchants of Florence, before he could obtain possession of the cities
cf the Ecclesiastical States from the hands of freemen, and from tyrants.
He finaUy became master of Rome (Sept. 20, 1420), and re-established the
government and the churches which had so long been suffered to decay. The
synods he convened at Pavia and Siena found a reasonable excuse in the
imall number of prelates assembled to postpone the reformation to a still
liter period. But public sentiment was so powerful, and the necessity of
some assistance against the Ilussites had become so urgent, that he was finally
eompelled to sunmion the promised general council at the imperial city of
Bde, in March, 1431.
§ 253. The Council of Basle. 1481-1443. (1449.)
L Acts of Conncil in Mdtui toL XXIX.-XXXL and WUrdttoHn, Subsidia diplom. Ileldelb.
ITik ToL Yllf. LX. [Lafuion't Manual of Coancila, p^ 56-74.] Aeneas 8ylv. Gommtr. do gcstia
Bm, Cone (14S9.) L IL (Orthuini Graiii Fascia rerum expetend. ac fUgi«nd. Col. 1535i t) and
•ftea. (Cofl)[jL Hum in d. Stud. u. Krit 1843. H. a) Augtutini Patricii Summa Goncilior. Basil.,
FlorwUnl, etc. (ffankem. Cone, germ. vol. V. p. 774.) Vit* EugeniL (Balut. MisceU. L VIL)
IL ItkkerU VLisX. Cone gen. Col 16S1. 4. 1 III. pc 20s8. WeMenberg, voL IL p. 271w.
Eugenius VI. (1431-47), in compliance with a promise made at his elec-
tion, confirmed the call which his predecessor had issued for a general eccle-
ustical council. This assembly gradually convened in Basle, and immediately
ttnonnced that the extennination of heretics and the purification of the
Lod^s vineyard, which in the call had been proposed as the object of the
coQDdl, had reference to the reconciliation of the Hussites and the removal
of abases from the Church. Tliis announcement was scarcely made before
the po[)e perceived the designs of the council, and began to dread the influ-
eDoe of its independent spirit among a free people, and on the confines of
tlu:ee great nations. Ue therefore hastened to give directions that it should
mourn to meet in his own city of Bologna, In this, however, he was op-
posed with the earnest remonstrances of his own legate, the Cardinal
Mian, (a) The council solemnly re-aflSrmed the decrees of its predecessor
It Constance respecting the independence and supremacy of a general coun-
cil of the Church while engaged in matters of faith, schism, and reformation.
The po])e himself was cited before it to answer for his conduct. Pressed as
he then was by disturbances among the Roman people, Eugenius sought to
heeome reconciled with the synod, and after acknowledging its independence,
hb legates were allowed to preside over it (April 2G, 1434). (b) The assem-
hlf having been increased by the presence of many deputies of chapters and
penons belonging to the lower clergy, now proceeded to set forth a strict
^rder of business. To prepare all its decrees, it resolved itself into four
^tpntations, each of which was composed of persons from all the Ecclesias-
a) Raynald, ad ann. 1481. N. 22. Giren in fbll in the Fascic. rer. expetend. et (hgiend. CoL
UB&£278a.
h) Jfanti ToL XXIX. p. 90. comp. 409. [Waddingion Ecc Hist Chap. XXIY.]
280 MEDIAEVAL CHCBCH HISTORY. PER. lY. A. D. 121ft.l5lT.
ticol states, (r) Every thing which could bo censored as an abnse in the
Church by the clergy and prelates was brought forward. The papal court
was in many respects reduced, significant references were made to the cus-
toms of the primitive Church, the revenues of the pope from countries be-
yond the Alps, and his power of bestowing benefices there, were consider-
ably reduced, the illegal transfer of ecclesiastical trials to Rome was forbidden,
the pope was solemnly admonished for his disregard of these decrees, and in
a great variety of ways even the administration of ecclesiastical affairs was
interfered with. Wlien Eugenius heard of this, ho adjourned the council
after its twenty-sixth session to Ferrara (Sept. 18, 1487), and subsequently
to Florence, At the council which he convened at the latter place he excom-
municated the rebellious assembly at Basle. But this latter body instituted
legal proceedings against him, the issue of which was that Eugenius was de-
posed (June 25, 1489) for simony, heresy, and disturbance of the public
peace. But the greater part of the prelates had by this time either with-
drawn, or had gone over to the council at Florence. Allemaiul^ Archbishop
of Aries, a man of eminent piety but devoted to the principles of liberty,
being the only cardinal now left, presided over the assembly, and the places
of the bishops were occupied by doctors and the pastors of churchej*. That
they might have a powerful protector near, Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, who
uftcr a long and glorious reign had transferred his territories to his son, and
was then peaceably living f\& a pious hermit by the lake of Geneva, was
elected pope by a committee appointed for that puri)ose by the council (Oct.
30, 1489). lie assumed the name of Fdix K, but his authority was acknowl-
edged only by his former subjects', the Kings of Aragon and Hungary, a
few German princes, the Swiss confederacy, and the greater part of the uni-
versities. But the voice of the people, which had hitherto been the princi-
pal support of the council, disapproved of the rashness of a proceeding which
had no means provided for its support, and threatened the Church with a
new schism. The council was now placed in the position of a violent fac-
tion, compelled to make concessions inconsistent with its principles to increase
or confirm its party, {d) The imperial states observed a careful neutrality
between the pope and the council, but at a Diet convened at Men tz (March
26, 1439), they accepted the decrees of reformation which had been passed
at Basle. Yet when Frederic III. of Austria, a well-disposed man, but pos-
sessed of neither inclination nor ability to carry forward the principles of lib-
erty, or any thing else of an elevated character, was raised to the imperial
throne, and Aeneas Sylcins of Piccoloniini, the shrewd and enthusiastic
secretary and historian of the council, found it for his interest to enter first
into the service of the emperor, and then of the pope, Eugenius was induced,
in consideration of his recognition as pope, to withdraw his decree of depo-
rition against the Electors of Treves and Cologne, and conditionally to con-
cede that the decrees of the Council of Basle might bo enforced in Germany
(Feb. 5, 7, 1447). {e) But the same Aeneas Sylvius who had obtained these
e) JTcMtl ToL XXIX. p. 877.
d) Mamd ToL XXXL p. 802.
i\ Oooeocdata Prindpnin. Decrees at Mentz, In Uoriat^ Concordats Nat Genn. Fret et Lp& ed.
CHAP. L PAPACY. $ 258L BA3LK $ 2M NICHOLAS Y. 28 1
conoesfiions, subsequently induced Nicholas V., by a separate agreement with
the emperor at Vienna (Feb. 17, 1448), craftily to steal away from the Ger-
man Church nearly aU the privileges thus secured. This agreement finally
became possessed of imperial authority by distinct contracts with individual
princes and bishops, under the name of the Concordat of Ast'kf/ft'tnhurg, (/)
On the other hand, France had on the whole faithfully adhered to Eugenius,
but in the Pragmatic Sanction passed at Bourgeit (1438), it had received the
decrees of Basle as far as they were subservient to the independence of the
Oallican Church, {g) This ecclesiastical assembly at Basle having been grad-
ually abandoned by the Church, by its own pope, and finally by its own
members, closed its sessions after 1443 without a formal adjournment. Felix
resigned his precarious dignities (1449), in an honorable compact with
ITicholas.
§ 254. The Popes until the End of the Fifteenth Century.
Platina, from Sixtiis IV. till Plas V., continued generally according to good authorities by the
Augastlnian Omi/rio Pantiui (d 15(J8.) Von. 1562. 4. and ofl«?n, especially Yen. 1703. Stepkanu9
J^fmura, Chancellor of the city of llonio ab<mt 1494, Diurium Romanae Urbis 1294-1494. {Eccard
▼ol IL p. 1S63. JIuratoH, with omissions, vol. III. P. II. p. 1109.)
Nicholas v. (1447-55, Thomas of Sarzana), notwithstanding his hasty
temper, by the mildness and equity of his government restored once more
the glory of the papacy. Himself a man of extensive erudition, he was
always liberal to literary men, and to the poor, llis last years were embit-
tered by his grief respecting Constantinople, {a) Calixtus III, (14o5-68,
Borgia) armed on his own account a victorious army against the Turks, and
spared no pains to secure the throne of Naples to his nepotes. ili) Aeneas
Sykiui was in natural talents and in learning among the very first men of
kis age, and at the expense of his character succeeded in attaining the object
of his ambition. Under the namo o( Pi its IT. (1458-64) he vainly endeav-
ored to cast obloquy on the liberal tendencies and efifbrts of his earlier years,
to wrest the Pragmatic Sanction from the hands of the Frencli, and to place
bimself when, old and sick at the head of a crusade against the Turks. lie
was not a general apostate from his principles ; his youthful sins were com-
inilted in his youthful dreams, but his whole career as a Roman pontiff has
kftua no trace of its influence, (c) Paul II, (14G4-71, Barbo), though an
tlTTSiToL I. Tlio foor bulls of Enpenlus are in C. W. Kovh, Sanctio pragin. Germ, ill. Argent
l»9.i SylL docnm. p. iJ^Sss. C'omp. RaynaJd. ad ann. 1447. N. 7.
/) All the -Vrchivcs of tho Diet of Mcntz are in Wurdttcein, Subsid. dlpU.m. vol. IX. N. 9. p.
•'^ All the Ar<*hi%es of the Dift of Vii-nna arc in Koch^ 1. c p. SOJps. On the qnef>ti(»n wjiether
'^ ilccTees of Ba!>1o were abrojrated witlj re*i»ect to Gennany, we SjtittUr, Gesc'h. d. Fundamcn-
*»^ d. deutschliath. K. (Gott hi:*t Max. vol. I. pt. 2s. vol. IV. pt 1.) On the other bide, see Koch,
>.M«. Tebcr d. Fundamentalgcs. d. deutschkath. K. Frkt u. Lj*. 1700.
9) Hist de la pragm. »anction. (Ttaitez do droits et libcrtez do I'Egl. Gall. Par. 1781. £ As an
"W««lU to the l»t vol. of P. Pithou or Du PuU)
«) L Vita Nic. by his Secretary, Oianezzo MuMtti {Jfuraiori vol. III. P. II. p. Ol^'i.)— II. Dorih
^^*>^ Vita Nic. Rom. 1742. 4. Jogtmann, Geach. d. fr. Kun»te u. Wiss. in Ital. vol. 111. P. &
t) ^>inttori ToL II L P. II. p. »61m.
«) I. 0pp. (hist, geogr., rhet) Bas. 1551. t and often. Epp. Nor. 14S1. and often. Oratt ed.
^''«*», Uc, 1755. 4 His life by his admirers Ptatina, Campani {Mural, vol. III. P. II. p. 967.)
'"d bf himself in the name of hia Secretary, Gobellini Commentr. rerum. memor. qnae temp. Pii
282 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. lY. A. D. 1216-1017.
enemy to all the partisans and policy of his predecessor, did not disturb the
tranquillity of Italy. He was avaricious, but it was that he might spend
what he amassed in pomp and prodigality, a persecutor of science on account
of what he regarded as its heathenish tendencies, tender-hearted and easily
moved to tears, a fortunate rather than a holy father, and one who regarded
his own arbitrary purposes as his supreme law. (</) Sixtns IV, (1471-64,
della Rovera), a learned Franciscan general, who had been implicated in the
conspiracy of the Pazzi, ventured to issue sentence of banishment against
Lorenzo Medici for escaping the daggers of the conspirators. His interdicts
were disregarded by the Florentines and Venetians. Rome was much em-
bellished by him, but the Church was sold and Italy filled with blood that he
might acquire principalities for his nepotes or sons, (e) Innocent VIIL
(1484-92, Cybo) commenced his reign with the violation of the stipulaticms
he had made at his election. To obtain the rents which he claimed from
Naples, then in league with his seditions barons, he prosecuted against it a
disgraceful war, which both parties were finally willing to conclude with an
honorable i>eace, from a common fear of the French. In the very act of call-
ing upon Christendom to embark in a war with its hereditary enemies, he
sold himself to the Sultan Biyazet to become a jailer for that monarch.
While Rome was distracted by the factious struggles of the Colonna and the
Orsini, he acquired for disgraceful crimes the ambiguous title of father of
his country. (/)
§ 255. Alexander VI, Aug. 2, 14d2-Avg, 18, 1603.
I. Burchardi Diarium Curiae Rem. 1484-1506. (Specimen Iltet Arcanae de Vita Alex. ed. LeHh
nit. Han. 1696. 4. more fully in Eccard vol. II. p. 2017. Comp. Paulus, Soplironizon. vol IV. IL
1. vol. VIII. H. 6.) Infeswura. (p. 2S1.) In the higher sense of history, GuicciarcNui, 1. I.-VL
II. Mr. D. R. (Dubos?) la vie d*Alex. Append, to the Illst dn. droit jiabl. eccl. franc Lond.
1787. Tommntl, la vita di Ce^are Ik>rgla. Montecliiaro. 1670. 4. pabllahcd in French as anonymooi
Memoirs. Ainst 1739. 2 vols. 12. Brl. 1782. Gordon^ la vie da P. Ale.x. et C6sar R trad, de
TAnglois. Amst 1782. 2 voU. 12. Eplgr. in Fktcius, I. c. p. 408.
Alexander VI. (Roderigo Borgia) made use of the whole power with
which the Church supplied him to establish an independent kingdom for his
own fiimily. At one time he appealed to all the powers of Europe to asmst
hira in a struggle against France, when Charles VIII. overran Italy to obtain
possession of Naples, as an inheritance from the house of Anjou. At another
he formed an alliance with France, that he might overthrow some of the
principal families of Rome, and spoil the Italian princes of their lawfid pos-
sessions. His son, the fratricide Caesar Borgia^ renounced the Cardinal^s
II. contigiiernnt Rom. 15S4. 4 Frcf. 1614. f— II. IT. C. IMtcing, do Pil IL rebns gMtfe et
morib. Bor. 1825. 4. yic, Bf€t8^ de Aen. Bylvii mornm mentisqoe mutatlonis raUonib. Bariem.
1839. A". li. Ifagenhach^ Erinnemngen an Aen. Sylv. Has. 1S40.
d) Platina^ who suffered too much on his account to be impartial toward him, and hence sbonld
be comp. with Cunn^Jtiun^ edit by Cardinal Quirini^ Paull Veneti Vita, praemissls vindicfis adv.
Platlnatn alio»que. Rom. 1740. 4.
e) IIi!< scholastic Treatises, Rom. 1470. Nor. 1478. Life, probably by Platina in Murat vol IlL
P. II. p. 1052. Epigrams in FlnciiMy varia do comipto Eec. statu poemata. p. 401a. — Wdlekn^^
polit Oesch. d. 1478. zu Flor. geh. Bynode n. dcs Zwi.stes dcr Republ. mit Slxt Botw. 1824.
/) In/ettmra in Eceard. p. 19478&~ Hotonf i, ViU dlnnocenxo VIIL Yen. 1618. £ Epigrams
tn FlaciM, PL 40S.
CHAP. L PAPACY. S «»• ALEXANDER, f 256. JULIUS II 283
fant to become a duke over the principality to be formed from the possessions
of the Church, and of the princes of Central Italy. The Italians were en-
conrage<l with the precious hope that the great object of his despotism was
the ultimate union of the whole peninsula. As a political sovereign, Alex-
ander gave great offence to the Church by his intimate alliance with the
Sultan against France, (a) Although his sensuality was so disgusting, that
be was accused by public rumor of even incest and every disgraceful crime,
his talents were yet so great and his activity was so untiring in the pursuit
of his object**, and either he or the papacy was so much respected, that when
kings contended.for the possession of the newly discovered Western world, it
was finally divided between Spain and Portugal according to his arbitration.
He was unscrupulous with regard to the means by which he accomplished
his plans. While yet only a cardinal he paid some deference to public senti-
ment, but when he had attained the papacy he thought it necessary to put it
down by a censorship of books. This practice, originated by him, (h) was
regarded as amply suflScient to control the evil. Though he had moments of
paiuful contrition, he was sometimes false and hypocritical merely for his own
amusement. He was never guilty of weakness except with respect to Rosa
Vanozza and her children. Though his vices could not escajje the gonerid
hatred, he was always kind to the people. The rich and tlie powerful were
often the victims of his policy, and he did not shrink even from assassination
when he thought it needful for his purposes. In the midst of his career he
fell a victim to poison, prepared by his son for a cardinal then his guest,
nis government was so conducted that every vestige of an independent aris-
tocracy was effaced from the papal states.
§ 266. Julius IL Nov, 1, 1503-i^eJ. 21, 1518.
L Guicdardini 1. VI.-XI. Par In de Grasfth, Diarium Curiae Roin. 1504-22. never printed
b«oje(l by AViyntiW and Ro9coe (p. 285.) ITadrianu* CVzAt4'//«;t«tf, Itinerarium Julil. (Cioconii
^ta K«im. Pontiff. Lujrd. 16C3. vol. IL) Sjmlatin, Lebcn Julil. (7>»w«J, Bcr. v. d. Ke£ Lpz. 1T18.
»«lILp.lU)
IL Duhoik, Hist de la llgue faite k Cambray. Haye. 1710. 2 vols. From the time of Julias
A/iwr'i HW. of the Popes has been Indepentlently revised by RambacK
On the sudden death of Alexander, the republic of Venice, Caesiir Bor-
gia, and the various inferior tyrants endeavored to obtain possession of and
divide among themselves the papal states, while the Iloiuan emperor, the
Catholic sovereign of France, and the Most OhriFtian King had the same de-
Bgn with respect to Italy in general. Under these circumstances, no one but
the Cardinal Julian della Rovera appeared capable of meeting the coming
■tonxL Ilis election was decided upon even before the conclave met, by the
^•'g* promises he was able to hold forth. Julius IL was by necessity as
^dl as by choice a military prince, but all the arts of peace were in the high-
ttt aense fostered and honored during his reign. Considering his Genoese
•faction, he was remarkably frank and sincere in his disposition, and
^o^h sometimes swayed by an irascible temper and by wino, he could not
a) Eccard vol II. p. 8058ea. Fnndgruben d. Orients. voL Y. p. 188a&
h) Baynald. ad ann. 150L N. 80.
i
284 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. ISlft-lSlT.
be influenced by fear, or by a love of gold or of relatives. Private passions
were indeed foreign to bis nature. Eis sword and his political eflrbrts were
entirely devoted to the liberation of Italy and the enlargement of the papal
states. So effectually, by stratagem and by violence, was Caesar Borgia ex-
pelled from Italy, that the very name of Caesar became contemptible. Bo-
logna and other cities belonging to Borgia's patrimony, which had been kept
back by petty tyrants, were now conquered by the mere terror of his mili-
tary preparations. In opposition to the republic of Venice, which had
refused to surrender several cities belonging to the eastern border of the
states of St. Peter, he now entered into a combination with the Emperor
Maximilian and Louis XII. to form the League of Cambray (1509). But
when the French had brought nearly the whole of Lombardy into subjection,
he listened to the entreaty of the Venetians as they besought him not to give
up Italy to be plundered again by the barbarians. No sooner had his de-
mauds upon the Venetians been satisfied, than he directed all his civil and
ecclesiastical weapons against Louis XII. Though now an old man and bro-
ken down by the gout, he hesitated not to throw himself into all the cares
and dangers of a winter campaign, nor was he dismayed when his army was
utterly destroyed, and nothing remained to him but the majesty of the papal
name. Immediately by his exertions was formed the llohj Alliance^ by
which Venice, Spain, England, and the Swiss confederacy became united
with liim, and the French were soon driven beyond the Alps (1512). Louis
met the sword of St. Peter with spiritual weapons, and by means of some
disatrectcd cardinals he called a general council at Pisa for the reformation
of the Church (Nov. 5, 1511). A few French prelates assembled there, who
proceeded forthwith to suspend the pope as a modern Goliath ; but they were
soon compelled by the displeasure of the Italians to remove their sessions to
Milan, and during the next year they entirely disappeared before the tri-
umphant nrniy of the pope. The people, however, still continued to hope
that a reformation of the Church might be ejected by a general council, and
Julius had promised at his election that one should be called together for that
purpose. Accordingly a general assembly of the Church was summoned to
meet in the Lateran^ in opposition to that which had convened at Pisa. In
the first session (May 8, 1512), a discourse was pronounced by Aegidius of
Viterbo, a general of tlie Augustinian order, in which it was maintained
that the Church had become great only by the use of the weapons of the
Spirit ; that temporal possessions were of comparatively small importance,
but that every thing depended upon its wealth in spiritual blessings, (a) On
the other hand the peculiar spirit of the pope himself was predominant in
the council, and nothing more was done than to summon France to answer
for the adoption of the Pragmatic Sanction and to anathematize all kinds of
simony in the election of a pope. Just as this was done Julius II. died while
meditating the most gigantic schemes. Upper Italy was apparently free, a
full treasury had been prepared for his successor, and the papal states were
extended to their utmost limits. There was indeed an evident inconsistency
between his character and his oflice, whicli gave occasion to some bitter ani-
a) Harduini vol. IX. p. 15768a. RioKerH L. lY. V.VLv-im,
CUAP. L PAPACY. §257. LEO X. PRAO. SANOnON. 285
madversions and pleasant satires (b) in countries beyond the Alps. Franco
had annoanced its determination to destroy the great modem Babel, (c) but
in Italy the primary objects of this heroic man were so popular, that his
name has been invested there with a splendid posthumous renown. (</)
§ 267. Leo X. March 11, 1518-1517. (1521.)
L Pari* tie GraaHs ($ 256.) Paulm Javius (Bluhop of Tfocera, d. 1552), Vltae viror. lUustr.
(Oppw hist Baft. 1578. f. voL I. VlU I.) Gnicciardiui, 1. XI.-XIV. Spalatin In T^nzfl, 1. a p. 18.
IL Rcncfw^ Life and Pontificate of Leo X. [Loud. (Bohn.) lS^4tt. 2 vols. S. Rankc, IIlsL of the
PopcA. I^nd. 1845. (Bohn) 3 vo1& 12. ami Phllad. 1S48. 8.] Rauke, die Pup5to. ihre K. n. ihr Staat im
11 a. 17. Jahrh. Brl. 1S84. vol. L p. 69s«. 79s8. Audin^ Gcsch. d. P. Leo X- ft-om tlie French of
Br%g^ Augf^b. 1S459^ 2 vols. [Boicer't IlisL of the Popes to 175S. and from that time cont by S. H.
Oik. till lS4d. New York. S. v. 1848. J. E. RiddU, Hist of the Papacy, 2 vols. Lond. 1854.]
Giovanni Medici was the sucxjcssor of Julius, with whose fortunes he had
been intimately and faithfully connected both in exile and on the throne.
By the influence of his father Lorenzo, he had, even when a boy, attained
8ome of the most exalted stations in the Church, and when he reached the
papal chair he was yet in the vigor of his manhood. By his natural powers
as well as by his uniform habits ho was prepared to relish every pleasure
which the world could offer, and he therefore collected in the Vatican every
thing which could give splendor to the arts and sciences of his nge. Well
educated in the classics and in the liberal arts, he was qualified to do this
with discrimination, and from his connections he was disposed to look upon
these treasures as the appropriate patrimony of his house. Under the name
of Leo X. he always showed himself a skilful and kind master, who could
appear with dignity whenever his levity of disposition was not drawn forth.
He was not indeed a great man either in action or in comprehensiveness
of views. Even the arts were promoted only for his own gratification.
Placed at the very summit of all human influence at a time in which God
created as it were a new world by the hands of consummate artists, he
illowed the most exalted talents in his service to exhaust themselves in
trifling employments. Although he seemed regardless of even the outward
wmbhinee of apostolic or ecclesiastical propriety, he was far from regarding
Christianity as a mere fable. Ilis administration was characterized by
carnestnesi*, and when directed against criminals by a due degree of severity.
His unbounded liberality, however, as w^ell as his lavish profusion, required
snpplies of wealth which rendered all kinds of expedients indispensable. In
the contest which both Spain and Franco were w^aging to obtain possession
of Italy, it was his policy to hold each at a distance from the prey, and to
^tray each in turn to the other. A glorious victory was achieved for the
papacy during his administration, in the removal of the Pragmatic Sanction
(1516), which was yielded by Francis I., that by the friendship of the pope
kis conquest of Milan might be secured, and his hopes respecting Naples
Blight be realized. The Council of Lateran continued in session until March
16, 1517, long enough to celebrate this victory and can-y into efiect a few
P^pal edicts.
*) (Uutten? Erasmus?) Julius exclusis. {Pan^juiU. vol II. Elentlieropoll I. e. Baa. 1544 p. 128s&)
«) Wakh, Yorberlcbt, to Uie 15th vol. of Luther's Werken, p. 42s».
<*) GutceiarditU L XL p. 82«.
286 MEDIAEVAL CUURCH HISTORY. PEE. IV. A. D. 121«-1517.
CHAP. II.— SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CnURCH.
§ 258. Corpus juris canonici.
First complete edition by Jo. ChappuU, Par. 1449sa. 8 voK ed. 2, 1503. The edit of the Correc-
tores Roinani, and published by Gregory XIII. to be Immutable: Rom. 1582. 8 voK f and often.
Critical Editions: e rec nthoeorum e<l. Claud. U PelUtier, Par. 168T. 2 vols. £ and often. J. H.
Boehmer, Hal. 1747. 2 vols. 4. A. C. liichUt, Lps. lS88»s. 2 vols. 4.
While the supreme power in the Church was still in the hands of the
popes, by the side of the more ancient Decrees of Gratian, a new papal
code was gradually formed in three Collections of Decretals, which were
abridged, harmonized, sent to the universities, and thus introduced as the
authoritiitive law of the Church. 1. Decretalium Gregorii IX, e&mpil/tth^
systematically arranged in five books by Raymund de Pennaforte^ in compli-
ance with the orders of Gregory IX, from the rescripts of that pope, and a
few older collections. It was intended to supply the same position in re-
spect to ecclesiastical law which was occupied in civil law by the legislation
of the great house of Hohenstaufen, and it was published in the year 1234,
both in Paris and Bologna, {a) 2. Sextxis Decretalium Liber^ compiled in
five books by order of Boniface VIII,, from Decretals of a later date, and
sent to the universities in 1298. 8. Clementinae., compiled by Clement V.
from Constitutions principally issued by the general synod held at Vienne,
committed by himself to the Consistory of Cardinals (1813) and to his Uni-
versity of Orleans, and sent by his successor (1817) to Paris and Bologna, (ft)
Since this latter period, the power of the popes has not been suflicieDt to give
the force of law to their enactments throughout Christendom, and hence the
general code of the Church has been regarded as complete. But a few later
laws have been added by various glossarists and editors as appendices to it
(Extravagantes). In the first complete edition of the code, a collection of
twenty Extravagantes of John XXII, which had been before compiled, was
added, together with all the laws of a later date, so far as they could be ob-
tained (Extrav. communes), until the time of Sixtus IV. Both those Appen-
dices have been incorporated in the more recent editions, and have therefore
obtained in judicial proceedings an indefinite but never a legal authority, (e)
These decrees and decretals constituted the elements from which has been
formed the Corpus juris canonic i, whose constituent parts are charaoterizod
by the diversified peculiarities of the times in which they originated, but
take cognizance of all relations in ecclesiastical, civil, and domestic life. It
was freely accepted by the whole Western Church, and applied by them to
all cases in which its provisions were consistent with ancestral usages and
local legislation. On the one hand it often afiTorded the protection of law
against the arbitrary conduct of the priesthood, and on the other it served to
sustain the power of the hierarchy by the force of habit among the people
(i) Steck^ de Interpolatlonlbus Raymundl de PennaC Lps. 1754 i. Aug. TTieinsr: I>e Rom.
Pontitt: epistolarum deer, antiquis collectt. et de Grvg. IX. codlce. Lp& 1629. 4 and Recberches sat
plusleure collections inodites de ducretales. Par. 1882.
b) G. L. Bothmer^ do Clementinla. (Ob&s. Jur. can. Ooett 176fi.)
c) Bickell^ (L Entsteh. a. Oebr. d. ExtravagantensammL Marb. ISSSS.
CHAP. IL ECCLES. LAW. { 259. STATE AND CHURCH. 287
and by the efforts of learned men, long after the real hasis of priestly au-
thority had been destroyed. Many commentaries (glossae, apparatus) upon
individual collections were produced by the learned industry of this period.
From the explanations written upon each of these Collections, a summary
(glcflsa ordinaiia) has been formed under the authority of the schools, which
has obtained currency in the ordinary courts, and has the force of common
legal usage. (^
§ 259. The State and the Church.
The political institutions of all the great states of Europe were estab-
lished near the close of the 15th century, just as the feudal system was giv-
ing place to the monarchial. Although Germany continued divided under
various forms of government, some of which were free and others were arbi-
trary, the independence of the empire and permanent rules for the imperial
elections had been secured by means of the Electoral Union at Rhense and
the Golden Bull (1856). A definite legal condition had also been established
(rinoe 1495) by the Landfriede^ or the Peace of the country, and the Impe-
rial Chamber of Justice. France^ by the despotism of some of its kings,
the persecution of its great vassals, and the favor shown to the Third Es-
tate, had finally become a consolidated kingdom, circumscribed by power-
ftd subordinate corporations. For a while England had fought gloriously but
TmsQocessfnlly for a territory by nature assigned to France ; it had then been
distnurted by civil wars, in which its principal nobility contended for the
crown, until the leaders of the great parties were gradually struck down by
i terrible judgment of heaven, and finally Henry VIL (1485-1509), by de-
praring the nobility and exalting the inferior classes, had established his
throne upon a permanent basis. By the marriage of Ferdinand the Catholic
with the hereditary Queen of Castile, Spain also had become united as a sin-
^ kingdom, before whose power Grenada, the last Moorish city, after an
heroic struggle, was compelled to yield (1492). In Italy the popes were
themselves too feeble to obtain the sovereignty of the whole peninsula, and
y«t too proud to allow any other prince to do so. From the time of the
Emperor Charles the Great, the people had invited various foreign rulers to
cater it, whom they soon found themselves unable to endure, (a) The power
of the priesthood was no longer needed or sufficient for the guardianship of
the state. The prelates of the several countries were compelled to share in
the Tarions fortunes of the higher nobility. "WTienever any see became va-
csat, the kings of France and England claimed its revenues as regalia until
^ new prelate had taken the oath of allegiance to them, and the crown of
Frtnce chiimed possession of all vacant benefices in any diocese until it was
fflci By the Concordat with Francis I. the rights of the Gallicau Church
were shared between the king and the pope. (6) In Germany the king pos-
*>*d a prerogative, according to which a prelate was bound to compl} witli
^ first request for an appointment to a benefice which the emperor made
d) Sarti L e. p. SSSas. Batigny^ Gesch. d. rom. K. vol YI. pi 87(&
a) IfacMaveUi, Btorie Fior. (0pp. lUlU, 1818.) toL I. p. 18. 8&
h) P. d4 Marco, YIII, 22. | 6. Banke, Pipste, vol L p. 83.
i
288 MEDIAEVAL ClIUKCII 1II8T0BT. PER. IV. A. D. 121«-1B1T.
after his consecration, (e) The long contested right of requiring that aD
papal edicts should he subject to tlie approval of the civil authority before
they were publicly acknowledged, was maintained by a few governments in
a rather violent manner. (</) In spite of continual denials of their compe-
tency the civil courts asserted with increasing success their jurisdiction over
private legal suits, in opposition to the exorbitant claims of the spiritual
courts. The powers of the clergy were especially curtailed by governments
and rulers of a republican character. In France, when the parliaments had
once succeeded in attaining independent judicial and civil authority, their
rights were guarded with extreme jealousy, and the bishops were made re-
sponsible for every encroachment upon them. The Lombardic cities, es-
pecially Venice, the Swiss Confederates (parson's letter, 1370), and the Ger-
man imperial diet, demanded that the clergy should be subject to the ordinary
penal laws of tlie country, should contribute their share of public taxes, and
be restrained within certain limits in their acquisition of ecclesiastical pro-
perty, (e) The Free Court of the Vehme in Westphalia went so far as to
withhold their secrets from the confessional. (/)
§ 2C0. The Ecdesiastieal Power of the Papacy.
The papacy now essentially dinetised, and yet obliged to put before the
world the most exorbitant claims, became henceforth a destructive power in
the Churcli. By the authority conceded to the decretals the pope became
the creator df his own prerogatives at pleasure. The bold announcement of
the papal decision that nothing could hinder the execution of the pope's com-
mands (non obstante quocnnque), was in utter contempt of the acknowledged
rights of every class. The power which eacli party in a suit possessed when-
ever it i)leascd to have its cause removed to Rome, was occasionally almost
equivalent to a complete denial of justice. The influence of the pastors was
also much impaired by the profitable papal usurpation of a general power to
confer absolution, and grant dispensations. Then as the pope alone could
contirm the elections of all bishops and abbots, no one, however deserving,
could reach the office of a prelate without the friendship of influential per-
sons at Rome, or some act of royal authority. Nearly all other lucrative oflB-
cos in the Church were disposed of directly by the Roman see, under various
legal forms (reservation, prevention, devolution, commendam, accident of
death at the Roman court). Consequently, foreigners and mercenary tools
gained admission to the Church, united several offices and the revenues de-
rived from them in their single persons, frequently without over seeing their
congregations, and while living in extravagance at the papal court. This
power of ecclesiastical patronage was an inexhaustible source of papal wealth,
c) II. C. de Senkenberg, do jure prlmarum precum, indulto papali hand indlgonte. Frcf 1784. 4
d) StockmanA, jtis Belgttrum circa bullarum rcceptlonein. (0pp. Col. 1700. 4. cap. 2.)
«) liaumer, Ilohenstauf. vol. III. p. 19Z».—IiaIthii9ar, libt Entwlckl. d. Freibelton n. d. 0«richto-
bark. <l Eldgon. In peistl. Dingon. Zur. 176S. {Fuchti) Vcre. c pragm. Oc!>ch. d. staatsrccbtL KVeit
d. Eidgon. Germanien. 181G.— t^ O. lieiiihard^ Mcditt de jure principum Germ, cum primls Sax-
oniao circa racra ante temp, refonnatlouis. Hal. 1717. 4
/) a O. V, WdchUr, Boltrr. z. dout5cben Gof^ch. Insb. d. Strafyecbta. T&b. 1S4S. p. 8S.
CHAP. IL ECCLES. LAW. { 260. ECCLE3. POWER OF THE PAPACY. 289
partly on acconnt of the money usually given at every confirmation and the
annate, and partly on account of the open sale of offices. The protection of
ecclesbstical property, which had formerly been confided to the pope, became
gradually the occasion for a general assessment of tithes for carrying on the
war with the Turks, and finally became recognized as affording a riglit of tax-
ing the Church to sustain the popes in their various wars, {a) Even the bet-
ter class of popes could accomplish very little in opposition to these abuses,
during the short period of an ordinary pai)al reign. The reversions had in-
deed been prohibited after the time of Alexander III., but they had in some
instance? been bestowed for the whole period of a single generation, and the
officers of the Roman Curia were exceedingly depraved. But other popes of
an nnworthy character were well acquainted with methods by wliich even
this unhappy stiite of things might become more disgraceful and treacherous.
Offices were sold to the highest bidder, and payment sometimes received from
different persons for the same living. {Ji) It was in vain that individual pro-
tective laws and acts of authority were directed against these methods of
impoverishing the people. When the evil had attained its utmost limit an
effort was made by the great councils to restore security to ecclesiastical prop-
erty, and to re-establish the Christian character of the offices of the Church.
Bat France was the only country which succeeded in this attempt. The new
pragmatic sanction, which gave to that country this distinction, had been
abandoned, it is true, in consequence of the royal policy, but it never lost its
authority as an expression of what was regarded by the French people as
law, and it was always defended by the parliament and the universities, {c)
Other nations were satisfied with a few unimportant concessions. The Ger-
SMn i)eople were contented with the Concordat of Vienna, by which appoint-
ments to ecclesiastical ofiices were withdrawn from the papal chair for one
half of eacli year. But conce<*sions obtained as a mere matter of grace {d)
were soon rendered useless by new encroaclimonts. Two theories had been
put forth at Constance and at Ba^^le — Ej/isco2)al ism, accordmg to which the
pt>pe was merely the first oflicer of the Church, and was subject to its laws
*Qd representatives ; and Curialism, which carried the earlier doctrine of the
plenary power of the pope so far as to assert his absolute infallibility, exagge-
rated his superiority to all law until it amounted to idolatrous honors, and
Wly made its flatteries absolutely ri<licuIous, by asserting that simony was
impoadible at Rome, {e) Both theories were founded upon positive laws, and
l»th were defended by men of great learning. The first was the spontaneous
wcrtion of the whole French nation, and the latter was maintained by the
*Jody of the clergy at Rome. The pious reverence which the people always
•tttertained for the vicegerent of God on earth, had been essentially impaired.
^ yet they were generally far from denying the necessity of a pope to
0) The cr.mplalnts and concefuions in the actrt of tlio Counoth of Constance and Baslo, and tlie
vraMii„-„^ of the German naUon at the Diets afford proofe in abundance.
i) E. G. Th*od, d0 Mem, do schism. II, 7i«.
«) LalAti ct CoAMrtii Cone vol. XIV. p. 202s8. Richerii Hist ConcilL I IV, 2. c 4 MuncK
Cottwdit, vol. I. p. 256si.
*0 ifii. Sifltii Epi 8S5.
•) i«^g^t Triumphi L c Qn. IX. Art 1-4. Qa. V. Art &
19
290 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HI8T0RT. PER. IV. A. D. 121«-161T.
maintain the unity and government of the Church. A prediction, ascribed
to Malachias, Archbishop of Armagh, a friend of St. Bernard, but which
probably had its origin in the time of the great councils, describes with more
or less accuracy, in concise, obscure, and figurative language, the character
of the popes from the time of Celcstine II. (1148). The centuries which
have since elapsed have developed nothing to bring discredit upon it, for
according to it eleven popes yet remain before the last pope shall rule over
the Church in great tribulation, and the city of the seven hills shall be
destroyed. (/) On various occasions the Cardinals endeavored, by stipula-
tions before a papal election, to secure their persons and revenues from vio-
lence, and to bind the successful candidate by their decisions, (g) But no
sooner had any one actually reached the papal chair than he utterly disre-
garded all such illegal restrdnts, so that the privileges of the cardinals were
founded only upo» contradictory precedents, and were respected on personal
rather than official grounds. In the season of extremity, when the Church
was rent by divisions, they placed themselves at the head of the Church.
The decrees of the Councils of Constance and Basle, by which the college of
cardinals was declared to be the constitutional authority of the Church, and
which required that it should be composed of pious, learned, and useful men,
selected from all Christian nations, (h) were never carried into execution.
With but few exceptions the cardinals were chosen from among the nepotes
of the popes, the scions of a few great Roman families (familie papale), and
certain royal favorites, for whom the kings of the different nations, according
to tlieir influence, were able to obtain the scarlet hat.
§ 261. The Ecclesiastical Assemblies.
•
In a few bishoprics regular diocasan synods were formed, that they might
afford counsel to the bishops and be the depositaries of Ids will. Provincial
synods from an indefinite extent of country were seldom held, and only on
special occasions under the presidency of a legate. The national councils
had been almost universally absorbed by the assemblies of the estates of the
empire. The greater or less general councils which were convoked by the
popes until some time in the fourteenth century, cither in the Lateran or in
the south of France, were composed of representatives of the states, assem-
bled partly to ascertain the sentiments and wants of the Church throughout
the country, and partly to carry into effect the papal decrees. In these
assemblies very little regard was paid to the peculiar privileges of the seve-
ral states either with respect to their position or to the order in which they
voted, but every one had influence and precedence in proportion to his knowl-
edge of the subject in hand, or to his oflScial or personal authority. It was
for this reason that we find so much indefiniteness with regard to the right
of voting and the order of business which produced such want of precision
in the mode of conducting the assemblies of the fifteenth century. As the
/) The literature in FnhHc BibL med. et inf. Latin. T. V. v. Malachias.
g) Raynald. ad ann. 1481. N. &ss. ad ann. 1453. N. 5.
h) Gerin. nationls Concordat) c. 1. {Uardt vol. I. p. 1055.) Cona Baa. 8. XXIIL deer. 4. (JfiMM<
TOL XXIX. p. 11608.)
chap.il eccles. law. 1 26t ecclesiastical assemblies. 291
Chnrch conld claim the essential prerogative of infallibility only when it
spoke through an individaal and supreme organ, the contidence of the people,
00 (ar a^ relates to this power, was gradually withdrawn from the dependent
councils, and bestowed upon the independent pope. The liberal party, how-
ever, ever since the Council of Constance, were obliged to maintain that this
infallibility belonged only to the councils, for otherwise the supreme author-
ity of such assemblies must have been renounced, (a) When the three great
Assemblies of the Church grasped after the supremo power, they certainly
could have appealed to the example of ecclesiastical antiquity, but in the
state in which legal matters had stood for centuries before their time, such
an assumption had all the effect of a revolution. It had, however, been
called for by the force of circumstances without arbitrary violence on the
part of any one. These general councils formed the design of becoming
regular periodical assemblies for the administration of the legislative, execu-
tive, and supremo judicial affairs ot the Church. At Basle it was also per-
ceived that this representation of the whole Church would require the revi-
val of a Synodal Constitution, according to which there must be a regular
series of assemblies, beginning with the lowest. But from various local
obstacles it was found difficult to secure an actual assembly of the represen-
tatives of the whole Church, or perfect freedom to their decisions. Only in
times of great extremity, or of universally acknowledged necessity, could
these difficulties be overcome, and hence the pope did not ordinarily find it
bard to elude the action of these dangerous assemblies, or by convening them
in the Lateran to reduce them to their former insignificance. Appeals to a
future general council were forbidden under penalty of excommunication by
Martin V., Pius, and Julius II., (h) since every papal enactment would
thereby have become nugatory on account of the indefinite period in which
it would remain in suspense. Still from the sense of justice which existed in
the Church, these appeals were recognized, and were sometimes made with
greater or less success as legal forms of opposition to the papal decrees. The
legality of tlie Council of Pisa was questioned by the liberal party, (r) The
decrees of the Council of Constance were generally acknowledged by the
Boman court. The validity of the Council of Basle was altogether denied
bj those who favored Kome, but according to the principles of canonical law
it was certainly a legal assembly, at least until its twenty-sixth session. The
pypea were careful to observe a prudent silence respecting the supremacy of
the general councib^ but in practice they entirely disregarded it. They were
thus, unfortunately for themselves, victorious over a revolution which might
otherwise have preserved the unity and the peaceful development of the
Cborch.
«) (Ai«) Krit Qtfch. d. klrchl. Unfchlbark. FrankC 1790. p. 240ft8.
i) Gfr^on^ Opp. vol IL P. 2. p. 8908. Gohellini Cmmtr. 1. III. p. 9\.—Ofrson^ qnomodo et an
^ ia caaa« fldri a Sammo Pootit appellare. (voL II. P. 2. p^ 80S«.) OoldutU Monarcbia, vol.
^l-M17fcA 1592«. Rick^ril, lllst. ConclIL L II. p. 142.
c; fliirc/t, Cone. Constant vol IV. P. 2. p. 24. comp. vol. II. p. 194.
I
292 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-1517.
§ 262. The National Churches.
The Clmrchcs connected with those nations which had heen developed
out of tlio Roman empire through the various Germanic races, had long
since become organized into distinct communities, in consequence of their
intimate connection with the people and the civil government of each coun-
try. And yet the influence of a common origin, and of a central point of
intercourse was so great, that they all felt themselves as parts of one vast
empire receiving its laws from Rome. Although the popes were frequently
requested to fill all ecclesiastical offices with persons who- were natives of the
country in which they were to officiate, even such a demand was rejected
sometimes to maintain the grand doctrine of the unity of the Church, and
sometimes that special favor might be conferred upon the Italians.* But in
proportion as the central power became enfeebled, these nationalities bec^mie
more decidedly prominent first in France, in opposition to tlie i)apal as well
as to the imperial universal monarchy, and secured the peculiar privileges of
their respective national Church by concordats with Rome. Accordingly
we have seen that they presented themselves at Constance and acted there
as legal corporations. It was more especially by means of the separate com-
pacts then concluded, and the ground assumed by the synod at Basle, that
the great fundamental princii)le of law was settled, that no decree either of a
pope or a council possessed legal authority in any country pntil it had been
accepted by the national Church there.
§ 263. The Biifhops and their Jurisdiction.
As the appointment of nearly all ecclesiastical officers had been usurped
by Rome, and ecclesiastical acts of all kinds could be purchased by the Ex-
emptions, especially during the time of the schism, the result was that the
episcopal power had been very much impaired. This induced the bishops at
Constance and at Basle to assume a tlireatening attitude, and to demand the
restoration of all that they had lost. But every bishop had something to
fear or hope for from Rome, and nearly every one dreaded to fall into the
hands of a body which, after it had shaken the papacy, had power also to
overthrow the prelatic sees. The prelates were therefore generally satisfied
with their secular honors, and abandoned the great struggle to look after
inferior advantages. Tlie Chapters became, especially in Germany, desirable
places in which tlie younger sons of the nobility were provided for, and con-
sequently their position was entirely secular and without interest to the body
of the people. On the other hand, the decrees of Rome and Basle met with
very trifling success when they required that half the vacancies in the chap-
ters should be filled by men of distinction in science -and in the Church.
The archdeacons were also circumscribed on the side of the bishops, by a
college composed almost exclusively of secular officials^ (a) and a kind of
penitentiiiU^ who were appointed for the purpose of preaching and having
* ITonorii regcsta, a. V. N. 17. (Jiaumer, vol. VL p. 15.) Comp. Mat. ParU ad ann. 1240. p.
860. ad ann. 1245. p. 445. 450.
a) Sext I, 18. De officio vlcariL— P^rtecA, v. d. Arcbidlak., blsch. Offldaleii n. Vicarl«n.
nilde«h. 1748.
CHAP. IL KCCLE9. LAW. { 261 INQUISITION. 293
the charge of souls. (/>) Those bishops wlio preferred to live as princes asso-
ciated with themselves, for the performance of their episcopal and priestly
duties, a class of persons who were called Chore]/ iscopi and Suffragan
BiffhffjfS. These were bishops who had been expelled from their dioceses in
the Oriental Church, and were afterwards appointed by the i)ope as an ex-
pression of a perpetujd hope, and a protestation with respect to those ancient
episcopal sees (Episcopi in partibus irifidclium). (e) In consequence of the
contest maintained by the University of Paris against the encroachments of
the mendicant friars, and as the result of the position assumed by the Synod
of Basle, the assertion was put forth in France, that the paiff&rs had been
instituted by Christ to be an essential element of his Church, with a limited
bat a peculiar sphere of action, (d)
§ 264. The Inquisition.
Nic Eymerieus (d. 1899), Directorium Inqulsitorum, Barcin. 1508. c Comm. Fr. Pegnae^ Iloin.
157\ £ and often. Lud. de Paravio^ do orig., officio vi progrcssu 6*. Inquls. Matr. 1598. f. Antn.
UI9. f. Ifiil. a Limhorch. HUt Inq. Aiii8t 169*2. f. Samml. d. Instmct d. Span. InqiiUitionsgor.
ueben v. ReuM^ with SpittUr'a Entw. d. Geftcli. d. Sp.'in. Inq. Ilan. 178^. Uorente^ Hist critique
(lellnq. d'Eapa^e, Trad, de I'Espa^n. p. A. PellUr^ Par. ISITh. 4 vols. [Limborch's (nhridgeci) Mul
Uoftnte^s Histories liave been translated and publ. in Ix)ndon and tbo latter iu Philad. See ab^:
Eieords of the Inq. from the orig. MSS. taken at Barcelona. Boston. 1S28.]
When the general massacre which took place in the war against the Albi-
genses {§ 231) was closed by their public subjugation, the work of extermi-
nating those remnants who were known to exist in secret was intrusted by
Innocent III. to the synodal courts. The method in which this was to be
iccomphshed was determined upon at tlie Synod of Toulouse (1229), and
was as follows : (a) " Any prince, lord, bishop, or judge, who shall spare a here-
tic, shall forfeit his lands, property, or office ; and every house in which a
heretic is found shall be destroyed. Ileretics or i)ersons su.spected of heresy
ihall not be allowed the assistance of a physician, or of any of tlieir asso-
ciates in crime, even though they may be sulfering under a mortal disease.
Sincere penitents shall be removed from the neighborhood in which they
reside if it is suspected of heresy, they shall wear a peculiar dress, and for-
feit all public privileges until they receive a papal dispensation. Penitents
who have recanted through fear shall be }»laced in confinement." But lest
hishops should be tempted to show some favor to those who were dependent
on them, Gregory IX. devolved the holy office upon foreign monLs (1232). The
I^minicans gradually became possessed of this office, and it was looked upon
•8 their peculiar inheritance. Louis IX., from a regard to religion, and Ray-
^ndVII. of Toulouse and Frederic II., from a regard to their own reputa-
tion, enacted certain laws w^hich required tliat the sentences passed by the
mqnisition should be carried into execution by the civil authorities, (b) Tlicse
*) Gone. Later. IV. c 10. {Greg. I, 81. c. 15.)
c) Diirr, de Baffraganeis a. vicariis gencralibus in p<»ntiflcalibus Episcoponini Genn. Mog.
ITS. 4.
^ Oirun, 0pp. vol. IL p. 250. 1067.
o> Cone Later. IV. c 8 {Munsi vol. XXII. p. 9S6&:*.) Coiw. Ti>losan. c. 1-2^. (Ih. v.il. XXIIL
P 1H«.) [London's Manual of Ct.oncils, jk 694.]
*) Ordoninces des Roys de France, p. Jf. de LaurUre, Par. 1728. t vol I. p. 5(k Statu ta
294 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCU HISTOBT. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-1517.
holy fathers were responsible to no one but the pope himself, and it was their
duty to search for heretics in every quarter. They had the right to imprison
any one who was suspected, and instead of fornishing him with a list of the
charges alleged against him, they required of him a general oonfession. Tor-
ture was used in their examinations, and witnesses whose names were con-
cealed were sometimes taken from among convicted criminals, the most
worthless of men, and accomplices in guilt, (c) The punishments inflicted
were, public penance, confiscation of property, perpetual imprisonment, and
death by burning, from which even a recantation was not always sufficient
to deliver the victim. The inquisition now became, in the hands of the hier-
archy, a desperate means of sustaining by violence and terror that influence
whose true foundation had begun to crumble. In vain did the people in the
south of France rise in rebellion, and take sanguinary vengeance upon some
of their inquisitors. In Itah/y where the spiritual power was more limited
by peculiar circumstances, the inquisition found it impossible to carry out its
murderous spirit. In Germany the people combined with the bishops against
this attempt to force upon them this tribunal for heretics, and Conrad of
Marburg^ then acting as its president, fell a victim to their violence (1238).(//)
In Spain, where the Jews and Moors had recently been baptized (after 1391),
notwithstanding a strong remaining attachment to their ancestral faith, the
holy court was introduced to take cognizance of all public or secret relapses
which might take place among them ; for, although ecclesiastical ethics would
allow of no force in the conversion of men to Christianity, the violation of
Christian vows was punished not only by force, but by death itself, (t} It
was in this country that the inquisition, under its General Torquemada (after
1483), developed its fearful power. It was there established by the royal
authority (1478), but it soon became in his hands a government of terror
which dictated terms to the king himself, trampled upon the opposition not
only of the imperial diet, but of every other power, and finally crushed aS
freedom of thought in Church or State. The popes with some reluctance
yielded their consent to these proceedings. Even Ximeneny with a character
truly heroic, and worthy of Spain in its ancient and best days, who, on ac-
count of his rigid monastic sanctity, had been appointed Archbis^hop of
Toledo, Cardinal of Spoin, and finally Regent of Castile (d. 1517), and was a
munificent patron of science, regarded it as not beneath his dignity to accept
of tlie office of Grand Inquisitor, that he might secure power enough to cor-
rect iujustice, defend the Christian faith, and rescue the monarchy from the
feudalism of the middle ages. (/) Such an inquisition could be introduced
and sustained only among a people which for centuries, and during long pro-
tracted wars for their country and for their religion, had been accustomed
Raimundi super b»ere»i Albigensi a. 128a {ManH toL XXIII. p. 26560.) Petri de yintit L I.
Epp. 25-27.
e) Martens, Thes. anecdot toI.V. p. 17860S. 17956&— X. A.BieMr, B«itr. i. G«eeh. d. Inqoteitlon*-
Proce»c9. Lpz. 1827. p. 60ss.
d) AWericut ad ann. 1283. p. &44sa. Trithem. Cbron. Ilin. vol I. p. 628L
e) Thomas, Summa, P. II. P. 2. Qo. 10.
/) C J. I/ffeie, d. Card. Xlmeniv u. d. klrchl. Znstande Bpan. Insbca. x. ITurdigaiig d. Inqola.
Tab. 1S41 iliichel AiudUr, Ulst dtt U tU et do I'adminiatration da Card. Xhinna. Par. 1851 &^
CHAP. m. EOCLES. LIFE. { 26& FBANCIS OF ASSI8L DOMINIG. 295
to regard the purity and antiquity of their faith as saperior to all other oon-
aderations. It has, however, reduced this noble nation to the lowest state
of morals, and defrauded it of its natural course of development.
OHAP. III. — EOOLESIASTIOAL LIFE.
§ 265. The Two Great Mendicant Orders,
L Ylta & Francisei by Thoma% ds Celano, 1229. (Acta SS. Oct vol II. p. 688.) completed In
ItU. bj L^Oy Angtlu9 et Ruffinut (Tres Socii, 76. p. 723.) aa the holy book of the Order by Bona-
Tentara. (/A. p. 742.) The First Rule In HoUUn. Brockie, vol. IIL p. SOsa. Luc. Wadding^ An-
nalM Minorum (till 1540.) Lngd. 1625». Svols. f. (till 1564.) Rom. ITSlse. 19 vols. C— ViU 3. Dominid
by bis flrat follower Jordantu^ (Acta SS. Aug. vol. I. p. 545.) by l/umbertus d« RomanU, the fifth
gcoenl of the Order. 1254 {lb. p. 853.) Others in Ilolaten, Brockie^ toI. IV. p. 10.— Jiipoli et
BrtfHond^ Bullarium 0. Praed. Rom. 1789s8. 6 vols, t Mamachii aliornmq. Annales O. Pracdica-
torum. Rom. 1746. f. Quetif et Echard, Scrr. O. Praed. Par. 1719s8. 2 volsi t
IL Lefendo dorie, on aommalre de rili»t dcs Andres niendians. Amst 1734. 12. {Alemherf)
Blit des MoineA mend. Par. 1768. 12. Nuremb. 1769. E. Vofft, d. h. Fr. v. Asa. Tub. 1840. E, Cha-
H% de Jfnlan, Hist de 8. Franp. d^Asa. Par. 1S41. Manlch« 1S42. [A life uf Francis of A. is given
\n BohrinQfr's Church of Christ, Ac, See § -i92.]—Lacordaire, Vie de S. Dom. Par. 1840. Landsb.
1841. [^ P. Day, Monastic Instilutiona. Lond. 1S46. 2 ed. 12. Fox's Monks and Monasteries. Lond.
ISK. SUph^M, (in Edinb. Rev. 1847. and Eclectic Mag. Sept 1847.) Fr. of Ass. Ac]
The enthusiasm which properly belongs to the Church, and yet frequently
endangered her existence, was finally attained and enlisted in her service,
througli the exertions of some very peculiar characters. When Francisco of
Asasi (b. 1172) heard (1208), in the church dedicated to Mary at Portiuncula,
the words in which our Lord sent forth his disciples to preach the gospel, an
idea was revived wliich he had entertained among his indistinct youthful
aspirations. This was the i)roject of an association wliich should walk
strictly in the footsteps of the apostles, preaching repentance in every part of
the world, despising all kinds of private property or possesijions, and obtain-
ing the necessaries of life from the charities of their fellow-men. At first he
was despised by his fellow-citizens, execrated by his wealthy father, and
while travelling through Western Europe and Egypt ridiculed as a victim of
insanity. It was not long, however, before his unflinching contempt of the
world, his honest humility, his burning love to God, and his imitation of Jesus
Christ in a remarkable style of living, (/i) drew around him thousands of dis-
ciples. The law to which they vowed allegiance required love, humility,
pOTerty, and joy in Christ. To a degree which had never before been wit-
nessed on earth, it now became a luxury to share in the earthly sorrows and
possion of our Lord. The brown capoch or frock, which, according to the
^*8hion of the country, was fastened to the waist with a cord, formed all the
clothing which they deemed necessary, and constituted the honorable badge
0^ the order. Innocent III. was induced by the simplicity and humility of
*) This view waa carried to Its nltlmate point in the 40 Conformities of Btirtholomaei Albicii
(^ Pi»ls) Liber Confonnitatum, 13S5, and acknowledged by the General Chapter at Awisl, 1899.
''•^L 1510. t and often. Extracts by Erasmus AlberuA, with a Preface by Luther : Der Bar-
"*^ Munetie Ealenfipiegel a. Alcoran. 1531. UAIcoran des Cordeliers. Gen. 15&C in Lat and
''^cL Amst nSk 2 ToU.
I
296 MEDIAEVAL CIIUKCH HISTORY. PEK, IV. A. D. 1216-151T.
this strange saint to allow him to consammate his plans without Intermption
(1209). (b) Honorius III. solemnly confirmed the right of the Order of the
Fratrcs Minores (1228) to preach and hear confessions in every pbice. A female
order (Ordo S. Clarae) was also estahlished (since 1212) by Clnra of -!*»«/,
whoso disposition was similar to that of Francis, and for whose followers the
latter was induced to prescribe a rule (1224). (c) A broad basis was finally
formed (1221) for his order, when he established a fraternity composed of
those wlio wished to be his disciples, and yet were under the necessity of
remaining in the midst of worldly employments (tertius ordo de poenitentia,
Tertiarii). {(I) Whenever Francisco attempted to pronounce a studied dis-
course he was always confounded, but when he spoke from a sndden impulse,
his si)irit broke forth from the depths of his heart like a storm. Like some
Minnesinger, ho celebrated the delicious raptures of heavenly love and the
devotion of all nature for its Creator, {e) Ho seems to have poss^ssed a
childlike spirit, which loved to commune with all forms of natural life, and
made him salute all creatures as brethren and sisters. After many vain long-
ings to die in proof of his love, he perceived tlint he was to become like the
crucified Redeemer, not by a bodily martyrdom, but by the intensity of his
devotion. lie at hist died lying naked on the ground in his favorite diurch
(Oct. 4, 122G), with the five wounds of Christ imprinted on his body. (/)
The biographies of St. Francis were at un early period highly adorned by
the extravagant fancies of his followers. Even then among his immediate
attendants many legends were received and sent forth to the world, and yet
we are compelled to believe that this seraphic stranger upon eartli really
experienced many tilings out of the ordinary course of nature. — Ikuningo
(b. 1170), a Castilian and a canon of Osma, was a man of a thoughtful
spirit, which in its cultivation and profound emotions sympathized intensely
with the welfare and miseries of his fellow-men. Deeply afiected when he
heard of the growth of heresy, he undertook a journey in the manner of the
I>rimitive apostles into difierent parts of the south of France (after 1206),
that he might etfect the conversion of the Albigenses. On him and his assist-
ants in this enterprise, Innocent imposed (1215) the rule of Augustine, and
Honorius (1210) conferred on them the privilege of exercising a general pas-
toral care in the character of preaching friars (Fratres praedicatores, in
France Jacobins). Even nuns, principally, at first, such as had been con-
verted from the Albigensian faith, placed themselves under his rule, and at a
later period a chiss of Tertiarians (Fratres et sorores de militia Christi) be-
came connected with his order. The leading principle of the order was, the
sacrifice of the dearest objects for the promotion of the saving faith, and the
means which its members used were a learned education, holy eloquence,
and the restoration of the priesthood to its original all-subduing poverty.
h) Mat Purii ad onn. 1227. p. 2-St. c) In IMsUn, BrockU vol. III. p. 84ss.
d) IfoUten. BrockU vol. III. p. 89d8.
€) Lk>bi«kau)pftf des h. Fntna Der h. Fr. als Troabadoar. (Der Katholik von Liobcnnann. 1S2&
IL 4. N. Is.) In tlie Appen<lix in Vogt
/) The fact of the bacra aiifjinata was proved by eyo-witnef^scs ; the Log:ond Is very dellcatolj
hinted at by Celano (.II, 1. $ 24.) Conip. Raynald. ad ann. 1287. N. CO. Wadding ed. Eom. vol-
II. p. 429.
CHAF. III. ECCLEa LIFE. { 265. MENDICANT 0RDEK8. 297
No sooner had Dominieua^ in the General Chapter nt Bologna (1220), effected
the pa8:»ige of an act by which his order vowed to maintain perpetual and
perfect poverty, than he died (Aug. 6, 1221), uttering anathemas upon any
who should pollute his order by bestowing upon it earthly possessions. — The
constitution of these two orders was developed, so far as related to essential
matters, in a similai* manner. A Guardian, who among the Doniinio(ms was
called a Prior, presided over a convent, a Provincial was placed over all the
convents in a country, and a General (minister generalis) residing at Rome
was over the whole order. Each of these officers had the counsel and
inspection of certain Definatores, who represented the several congregations
imder their jurisdiction. The principal superintendence and legislation was
vested in the* provincial convents, and for the whole order in the General
Chapter. Although these mendicant orders were freed from the ordinary
cares of secular life, they were thrown into frequent contact with the people.
They, in contrast with the cathedral chapters, presented to those possessed
of eminent talents and merit a path by which the highest dignities of the
Church might be attained. As they possessed the right to receive confes-
sioiB wherever they might be, they soon became the spiritual advisers of
the whole Church, for they were often intrusted with secrets which persons
would not confide to their own pastors at home. In this way they easily
found occasion to interfere in all the relations of families, cities, and states, {j)
As their table was every where spread, they could admit vast multitudes to
their order. Many convents indeed amassed by begging much wealth, the
possession of which was reconciled with their vows of poverty by the fact
that it was owned not by individuals, but by the general body. With the
papal court they were united by the bonds of a reciprocal interest, and hence
the mendicant friars were regarded by the pope as his standing army, and by
various kinds of charters they were exalted above the episcopal clergy. {K)
But this exaltation above the more ancient orders, their encroachments upon
the spiritual duties of pastors and the jurisdiction of the universities, and
the complete viol ition of all privileges previously possessed, provoked a per-
tnfiuent and often stormy opposition. William of St. Amour became the
leader of their opponents, and pointed out the dangers to which the Church
^as exi)08ed on account of this foolish system of sanctified beggary. Al-
though such men as Thomas and Bonatentura defended the higher objects
contemplated by their orders with consummate ability, even they were
ohliged to concede that such bodies were very likely to become worldly-
minded, and to be perverted from their true design. (/) Hence, although the
mendicant orders were at first regarded as instruments for restoring the
Church to its primitive vigor, and were hailed as a new establishment of the
9) Mat ParU %A ann. 1259. p. 850. «1 ann. 1243. p. 414. ad ann. 1246. p. 405ss.
") Stnm. Roderiei nova Col. prlvilegiorum apost Bcgulariam mendicantium et non mend.
Aatu.ie28.f
*) GuiUlm, de periculis novlMlmomra temp. 1256. (0pp. Constant. 1632. 4. Brotcn, Api»end. ad
"*•'*''• expet et fugiend. p. 18.) Thomaa: contra rotrahentes a religionls Ingre.vu. Contra Im-
P'^'^ites D«l cultum, (0pp. Par. vol. XX.) Bonavtntura : L. apol. in eo«, qui Onllnl Mln. ndver
*•"*"'• I)« p«Qi)crtate Christ! c. Qnllelmum. Expoaitio in regulam Fratrum minor. (Opp. Lngd.
l«*i Tol. ViL) Buiaei I c vol IIL p. 2608at
298 MEDIAEVAL CUUBCH UI8T0BT. PEB. IT. A. a lUt-lBlT.
power of the I^teran, they really prodnced a great dissennon amoDg aD tlw
elements of ecclesiastical life. The two orders were themielves often broa^
into collision with each other in consequence of the identity of their worldly
objects. Mntual jealousies were exhibited in attempts to disparage om
another, and in doctrinal disputations, so that it was soon evident that tbdr
interests were in different directions. The Dominicans, in conseqnenoe of
their control over the inquisition, and their possession of the confidence of
the higher classes, obtained ascendency by inspiring a dread of their power
and their political influence ; but the Minorites possessed the affections of the
people, and in consequence of their Portiuneuta^indulgencea and their legen-
dary glory, their order was supposed to possess more than common power in
conferring absolution for sins. (I') At an early period of their existence the
Dominicans ]>erceived that they could never attain their objects withoat t
scientific character, and hence, in 1280, they secured for themselves a theo-
logical chair in the University of Paris. The Minorites soon followed thdr
example. — St. Francis himself lived to see the origin and progress of a party
under the guidance of Llias of Cortona^ combining eminent scientific acquire-
ments and wealth in the service of the holy cause. On the other hand, Ja-
thony of Padaa (d. 1281), in the true spirit of his master, thought salvatioii
possible only to those who were simple-hearted and separated from the
world, an<l when ho could obtain no audience for such doctrines among his
fellow-nicn, ho sought consolation by preaching to the fishes. For many
years the two parties contended for supremacy in Uie order. Elias was twice
elected Cieneral, was twice deposed from that office, and finally, having fallen
out with tlio i)ope (^1244), he connected himself with the party of Frederic
II. (/) Victory at last decided in favor of this milder party (Fratres de com-
munitate), since its principles afforded opportunity to combine the reputation
of a mendicant order with the power and wealth of the world. On the
other hand, those in whom the bold spirit of their founder continued (Zda-
tores. Spirit oales), refused even to possess property in common. The pope^a
decision was given in favor of the victorious party from regard to a distinc-
tion between a possession in fee simple and a possession of usufruct, and abo
to the fact that the ownership of the entire property of the Minorites was
ostensibly coiitorred u[)en the Roman Church, {m) With the courage of men
who had nothing to lose, the Spirituales then turned their reproaches upon
the Roman Church itself, and as their demand that the order should be sab-
jected to the rule of absolute poverty was in glaring contrast with the
wealth of the clergy, and as their voluntary rejection of all earthly posses-
sions was seen in the midst of a Church filled with quarrels for this very
kind of spoil, a hope was indulged that St. Francis was about to effect
through them a great reformation of the Church. This hope was in some
degree sustained by a prophecy of the Abbot JtHuhim of Floris in Calabria
(d. 1202), who, being full of grief for the corruptions of the Church, pre-
k) Acta SS. OcL vol. II. p. S97s8l— Cyprian th« Yoanger (of DantzicX krit Gescb. d^ Port Ab>
iMM^ 1794.
I) Wadding vol. I. p. 8<S0. vol II. p. 160. vol III. p. S4 101. 312.
»») Greg. IX. a. 1'231. {Rodtriei L t p. Tsa.) Jnnoc IV. a. lW5t (/6. p, la)
CHAP. nL SOCLES. LIFE. {8681 DIVISIONS AMONG THE FK A NCISCANS. 299
dieted that it would be subverted and then be gloriously renewed, according
to the figures of the Apocalypse, at the commencement of the third ago of
the world, which he placed in the year 1260. (w) An Introduction to that
Ererlaating Got^jtel^ (o) which was to come in the place of the gospel of
Christ which then prevailed and wliich was originally intended only as a
preparation und symbol of the truth, was published, and announced that the
period then passing was the age of the Holy Spirit, which had commenced
with the labors of St. Francis and his genuine disciples. Tliose who put
confidence in such predictions were in no wise perplexed when the period
assigned for these wonderful revelations had i>assed. The Spirituales were
united by Cdestine V, into a congregation of poor Cclestine-Eremites.
Boniface VIII, dissolved this association (1802). John XXII, surrendered
the Spirituales, and especially the lay brethren among them (Fratricelli), into
the hands of the Inquisition (alter 1818). Many of them joyfully gave up
their lives in the flames, because they were determined to possess no pro-
perty on earth. (;>) But even the other Minorites, having satisfied their con-
flciences by an apparent surrender of their possessions into the hands of the
Romish Church, were zealous in maintaining against the Dominicans, that
Christ and the apostles owned no property in common. John XXII. rejected
this assertion as heretical, and formally renounced the property of the Fran-
ciscans, which as a mere pretence his predecessors had held (1822). {q) By
this means the order lost a portion of its members, who, with Michael of
Ceneua^ their gei^eral, took refuge with the Emperor Louis, and defended his
cause against the popes. On the death of Louis the Spirituales wandered
about as fugitives, and founded a few settlements. They were often over-
thrown, but were invincible by mere force, and at last most of them became
reconciled to the Church in consequence of some concessions made to them.
At Constance especially, they, together with the Conventuals, who regarded
their possessions as still belonging to the donors, were recognized under the
name of the Brethren of the Rigid Observance, with superiors of their
own. {t, — The most celebrated doctors of the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies were mendicant friars. But when, in the fifteenth century, the hier-
archy were surpassed in attainments by the classes in the interests of science,
the mendicant friars became the principal opponents of the latter, and the
champions of every Romish abuse, and made use of every artifice to keep
the people in the immaturity of a superstitious dependence. But the master
»») Dc Concordia atriuftqne Teat Expoeitio Apocal Ven. 1519. Psalterlam decern cliordar. Ven.
1527. 4. Comp. Acta SS. M»j. vol. VII. p. 98ss. Engelhardi^ Juach. u. d. ew. Ev. (KGesch. Ab-
bandlL ErL 18:82. N. I.) C U. Ifahn, die apokal. Lebren d. Joacb. v. Flor. (Stad. a. krlt 1849. H
8.) Abt. PLil. d. IIohcnsL p. 31288.
o) IntnHluct(»riu!i In Ev. acteruum, by Gerhard^ tbe confidant of John of Parma, a General Bub-
soqaently dei>oi^ed. about 12M. Since deHtroye«1, trith the exception of some Extracts in Argentri^
Col Judioionim <le novls err. Par. ITiSsa. vol. L p. 163^8. Eccard voL II. p. 84988. In a similar
■pirit Olimf. (d. 1297.) Postiiia supor Apoc Extracts in Balveil Miscell. L L p. S18s8. [C. Uahn,
Geicb. d. Kotzer im MA. Stuttg. 1852. 8 vols.]
p) MoHhemii Instltt IT. ecc Cent XIV. Chap. II. % 26. note tc.
q) Balutii Vitae Pap. Aven. vol I. p^ 59a JSktrav. Joan. XXII. Tit K c 2b8. Wadding
rol VI. p. 3948.
r) Seas. XIX. {Ifanlt vol. IV. p. 51S.)
300 MEDIAEVAL CITURCII HISTOUY. Ph^R. IV. A. D. 1216-161T.
minds of this period combined with their old adversaries to expose to gene-
ral scorn their intellectual shallowness, their stupidity, their covetousnesa,
and their atfected clamor about heresy.
§ 26G. Public Worship.
Holiness, during this period, was generally looked upon as a mere external
thing. Even in the fourth century the hermits of the Thebais, and some others,
had been in the habit of reckoning the number of their pater-nost<;rs by some
external token, (a) This formality in prayer received a definite form and
predominant reference to the divine Mother, when the Dominicans intro-
duced the rosanj (Rosarium) into general use. Public worship consisted
almost entirely in the offering of the i/rtw, which professed to be the celebra-
tion of a present incarnate Deity, but in fact it often degenerated into a work
of superstition, perverted by unbelief to purposes of gain. Tlie business of
instruction, however, was not altogether neglected by the Church, especially
on the part of the itinerant mendicant friars, whoso hearers were frequently
so numerous that no temple but that of God under the open heavens was
sufficient to contain them. The discourses of many preachers abounded in
scholastic learning or fantastic conceits, but there were also some who pro-
claimed the word of God in a popular style. Thus the Dominican John of
Vicenza (about 1230) became distinguished for his eloquence, and before he
allowed himself to become an object of ridicule by meddling witli miracles
and political affairs, he was an eminent peacemaker between the numerous
factions which then distracted Italy. (//) Thus also Bcrthold of Ratisbon (d.
1272) powerfully aroused the rude and hardened consciences of his hearers,
and urged upon them the duty of worshii)ping God in spirit. (>) Gailer^
also, of KaiHcrahcrg (d. 1510), whose own heart was pervaded by a sincere
love of perfection, assailed the follies of the world and of the Churcli with
the w^eapons of the keenest wit. (//) Gabriel of Burletta (about 1470), a
Neapolitan preaching friar, presented a specimen of this humorous style of
popular i)reaching, in which the speaker sometimes gave to his discourses
even the ordinary comic flavor, (c) This kind of address was thought to be
especially allowable during the Easter festival, when, according to a preva-
lent custom, the roughest jests were tolerated even in the puli)it to excite
what was called the Easter laugh. (/) As none but the clergy took part in
the public services, the hymns used in the Church remained without alteration
in the Latin language. In addition to those which had been used, some of a
tender character composed among the Franciscans were generally adopted
a) Pidladii Hist Laus. c. 23. Sozom. H. ecc VI, 29. MabiUon, Ann. O. Bcne<i v«»L IV. p.
462fl. Acta 8S. O. Benod. Pracf. ad Saec. V. N. 258!<.
b) Original authorities in liaumer^ Gej?ch. cL Ilohenst vol. III. |». SOSss.
c) Bortliold des Franc. Predigten, th. vollstiindig, th. in Auszugen, cdiL by KUng, Borl. 18M.
Conip. Wiener Jahrb. IS-ir*. vol. 82. p. 1948St
d) Wclu<i>icgol d. i. Predigten fi. SebiwL Brands Xarrenschiff. Bas. 1574 and oflcn.— /: IT. PK t.
AminojL, O. v. K. Lcbin, lA-lircn u. Prc<l. Erl. 1S26. A. Stro<ber, E«at hist sur la vie ct les ccriti
do G. do K. Straob. 1S34. 4.
f) Semnn. quailrigosimalea. Brcsc. 1497. and numerous collections of his dij*conrBc», espociallj
that of Ven. IST'. 2 xoU.—Bfituni/nrtfn, Nachr. v. Merkw. Buchern. vol. VII. p. 124sa.
/) Fu«9li, Bcltr. z, K. u. Ref. Gosch. vol. V. p. 447sa. Hist pollt Blutler. 1S89. voL IV. H. 6^
CHAP. IlL ECCLES. LIFE. § 266. FESTIVALS. JUBILEE. 301
by the Chnrch. Congregational singing, in which the people took part, had
its origin in the extraordinary festivals and among the Fraternities, where
the congregations participated more than usual in the services. In Germany
it especially grew out of the Kyric Eleison, which was anciently sung hy the
people in full chorus as a Refrain, (ff) During the fourteenth century the
festival of the Immaculate Conception (§ 225) was more and more observed,
and the doctrine which it commemorated became, through the influence of
St. Thomas a party question between the Dominicans and the Franciscans.
Great agitations were produced by the discussion of this question in the Uni-
versity of Paris, but finally that body (1387) and Clement VI 1. (1389), who
was carried awav bv its influence, declared themselves in favor of the doc-
trine because they regarded it as most favorable to the interests of the Church
and of true piety. (/<) In Berne the Dominicans supported their side of the
controversy by causing an image of the Virgin to shed tears of blood, by
producing letters from glorified saints, and by branding a deluded man with
certain marks in imitation of the wounds of Christ. The tissue of deceit,
stnpidity and crime, by which these things were rendered plausible, was
finally exposed to public scorn, a legate presided over the spiritual court ap-
pointed for an investigation of the affair, and four of the principal agents in
it were burned (1609). (/) The doctrine of a change of the sacramental
bread into the body of the incarnate Lord was celebrated on the festival of
Corpus Christi (F. corporis Domini). This festival, which originated in con-
nection with numerous dreams and visions in the diocesan church of Liege,
over which he had formerly presided. Urban IV. proclaimed (1204) as a gen-
eral festival of the Church. It was, however, generally neglected by his
snccessors, and was merely re-established by Clement V. as the festival of
the grand miracle in which was displayed the highest glory of the Church, (a*)
Kear the close of the thirteenth century a report, the origin of which was
unknown, generally prevailed in the city of Rome, that according to a cus-
tom remembered by some very aged people, a centennial indulgence might
be obtained in the church of St. Peter on the occurrence of the Jubilee Year,
ISOO. Boniface VIII. was induced by the vast concourse of devout persons
who on this account thronged the city, to bestow upon all who, in a i)eniten-
tial spirit, sliould on this tjrar of Juhllce visit the churches of the ai)ostles, a
complete pardon for the sins of the wliole previous life. Hundreds of thou-
sands flocked to Rome, so that people were compelled to acknowledge that
the whole human race was Romish, and like one great family assembled
aronnd its common father. Hence, in consideration of the brevity of human
life, and the benefit of the Roman people, Clement VI. (1342) decreed that
V) If. Ilnfmann, Oi»ch d. dcut. KLlc«lo5 b. LtiUicr. BroRl. 15:^2. F. Woff, u. die Lois, Se-
loenren u. Lcicbc IleiUelb. 1S41. ('. Ftants, Grsch. d. gclstl. Licdertexte vor. d. KcC llalbrft
*) Thomatt, Suinina. P. III. Qu. 27. Art Iss. Di'ix^ Scotiis In Sentt L. HI. Dist. 3. Qu. 1. $ 9.
^ !*• Qu. 1. J \Z.—Bula<i 1. c, vol. IV. p. ClSss. Argentrc I, c. voL I. P, II. p. Gls-s.
i) AnnhelnVs Bi'mej Chronlk, edit by StUrUin, vol. III. p. 869sa. vol. IV. p. Iss. Jlottinger, U
•**• P- V, p. 8Wsa.
*^ «'<>. ffoc«^miu« (about 1*48), gcsta Pontiff. I^odiens. c. 6. {ChfipeavUli ge^tor. Pontiff. Leod
•^^ toL IL p. 298.) Aovii Ann. atl ann. 1280. N. 1& Acta 88. Apr. voL I. p. 443. Both bulls:
^"•^t /iZ Tit Id.
302 MEDIAEVAL CHTJRCII HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 121«-1M:
the festival of tbe Year of Jubilee should be celebrated every f
Urban VI. (1880) reduced the interval to 88, and Paul II. (
years. (/) From these pageantries in public worship were final]
the representation of sacred dramas in the fonn of Mysteries anc
enacted by clergymen, students, or fraternities, frequently with a
of popular comic parts, but always as a mode of divine worship.
§ 2G7. FloitrUhing Periad of the Imitatite Arts in the C
VamH, le vite de' pittorl. srciiitetti o Bcultorl ital. Fir. 8 P. 1&50. 4. and often. /
Uebers. v. Schom u. FornUr^ Btuttc 1S82-49. 6 vols, [nnd transl. into Enpl. Vatar
Painters Ate In BoIin'& Stand Lib. Lond. 5 vola. 8.] fitrmtT d'Aginconri^lWA
monamcii^. Par. et Stnub. 1>!23. [traniJ. ft, tlic Fr. Hist of Art, Ac 1 vol Lond. lS4i
UebtfR'iclitMaf. z. Oewh. d. nca. Kunst b. Rafut-l. Dre»d. 1S27. t F. KngUr, Ilandb.
Stuttg. ISl'i. {Kugler't Hist Manual cif Sculp. Paint. Arch. anc. and mod. In
Lond. 2 vols. £i. IS^Vi.] //. iHU, Abriw c. kircbl. Kunst-ArcbacoL d. M.\. d. d€
Nonlbaun. (1842.) \^V&. C. S<'hintaii^, QeMb. d. bild. K&nMc in MA. DAweld. 11
Kinktl^ GeM-Ii. d. bild. Kunstc b. d. dir. Viilk. Uiinn. 1S45.— (7 F. r. Rumohi
un;;cn. Brl. l'»27!«. 8 vols. K For^Ur^ GvrcIi. d. dcutficbcn KuiisL Lpz. 1f<51-58. S
vi^rf. (If Quiui'!/, Illst de lu \1o et des «»uvraci'5 des plus ct-lubrcs arcbitectrt da
la fin du XVI I L al. 2. Par. 1>^*)3. 8 voI«. Uobcrs. v. Ileldmann, DanmL 1S81. S
/(T, Dcnkmuliler (L dcut.tvh. Dank. 12 U. Darni»t. 1816tK. new &4>rios. 1S21b\ t [ti
Memorial of Anc. Gcr. Golb. Arch. &c. Lon«L 2 voh.] Sulp. Boit'Mref, Denkma
Nie<lerrliein. Miinicli, ISiiS. f. R Stark, Horn u. Koln o. d. Entwlckl. d. clir. Germa
u. Krit I&Al. H. 2. — Civtfgnnra^ 8toria della ncultnra dal fruo ri^on.'lmontci in ItaL •
Napoleont*. Ven. IS18>fi. 8 voK t—Ltmai, Storla pittorica dclla ItaL ed. t^. Ua^sana li
1SI7. 6 voU 16. [II Ut. of Painting in Upper and Lower Italy, fVoin tlic Ital. of Ijini
Ixjnil. 1S17. 8 voU] Kiiffler, Gcscli. d. Malerel. vol. I. p. IOS.ns. [II. of Painting. 1
Germ. «»r Kupk-r by Fnnttate and Head. Lond. 1S42. 1846.]— «/. //. H>»*i«*fter#7,
Const. 1S'J7. 2 voIh. {J. r. Radoicitz) Ikonograpbiu <L Iloiligen. Brl. ISSl. Dfdron
tlenne. Par. 1S41. vol. I. [Ctirist. Icon<tgrapliy, from tlie Fr. of Didron by ifiliinfft
2 vok Lord Uttdmiy, II. of Cbr. Art I^)nd. 1847. 3 vols 8. F. Cre^et/ and G, L
of MA. L<»nd. 4to. J. S. ,VrinfK, II. of Paint Sculp, and Arch. B(*ton. I'^JJl. 12. A
Lives of eminent Painterp, Scnlptor^ and Arcbitect*. Lond. and New York- ISSd.
Karly Italian Painters. I^md. Is48. //. Shaic, The Decorative Arts £ccle.s. and Ci
Agea. Lond. lbb'2.]
Among the (Jennanic nations, the antique style of ArchiU
cially in its Byzantine cliarncter, had been adopted in the erecl
churches. I^arrel-shnped and cruciform arclies, much depressed,
rally adopted in their construction, as the knowledge of the anci
tions and ornaments had been gradually lost (portal of the Scot
tery at Ratisbon, crypt at Freysingen). But with tlie new life w
up in the eleventh century, a i>eculiar style of sacred archi
developed in consequence of the use of the pointed arch. In a fc
this form had been previously adopted as a temporary expedient ii
ian structures (St. Lorenzo of Subiaco, 847, Ruins of Tusculum), br
priate home was among the Northern nations, with whoso poiut<
admirably corresponded, and yet required but little counterpoise
I) Jticobi Oijfttini de contetiimo s. Jubilaeo anno Lib. (Bibl. PP. Max. vol. XX^
tracU in liaynaUI. ad ann. 1300. N. Iss.) Villani VIII, 86. Fxtrav. comtn. V. Til
naUt. ad ann. 1470. X. 6!i.—Chark ChaU, Lett hist et dogm. snr lee Jubilees et I<
Ilaye. 17M. S voI»k
m) W. Ihnf^ Ancient Myaterleiv. Lond. lS2a W. MarrioU, Coll. of Engl, mln
1883. Monm^rque et Michel, Theatre fran^ais an moycn-fige. Par. 1830. Hist po
voL VI. Tb. 1^ C. A. WitUnhaur, de artis scenicae apud Germ, initils. Boil la
Geach. d. poet Nat Lit toL IL p. SftCaa.
CHAP. IIL ECCLE8. UFE. f 267. ARCHITECTURE. 303
which was at first a work of necessity soon became the fi'eest expression of
the heart, the vaults of the domes rose up on every hand like a stone forest,
and the tall, slender pillars struggling upwards, became the typo of a spirit
aspiring after heaven. The ground-form still continued to be the Basilica,
often in the shape of the cross (in the Latin style), the choir terminating in
a polygon, as a church of priests represented the highest aspiration of archi-
tecture in the interior, and the towers expressed the necessary culminating
and final points of the general effort. In the fantastic decorations of leaves
and flowers, of scrolls and grotesque figures, of gentle animals and the old
conquered dragon, wrought in stone, the abundance of nature as well as of
the world of fancy, was enlisted in the service of devotion. A mysterious
light entered the lofty, sombre halls through painted windows, which were
the purest transparent representations of color, (a) Figures derived from
Bicred history grew out of the twisted columns, and scenes from profane and
eodcfliastical history were represented by shepherds engraved in stone, and
resting with folded hands upon the tombs of saints, bishops, and princes.
The Church was thus like a new temple of Solomon, a typo of the earth
vitb all its children, and the vault of heaven stretched above them. The
erection of these sacred buildings was then a great popular expedient by
which men could conquer a holy land on their native soil, could pour the
wealth of private life into the house of God, and transmit the vast plans of
one generation to its successors, (h) The first stonemasons and architects
came from the monasteries, and gradually lodges of freemasons were organ-
ized, in which the results of mechanical skill were communicated from one
person to another, and the credit of the trade was secured, (c) In the se-
crecy of tliese lodges an asylum was also found for dispositions which rose
roperior to the contemporary Church, and hence w^e find that ecclesiastical
corrnptions were sometimes freely and boldly proclaimed by the stones
which compose the most splendid monuments of the Church itself. The
DKJBt flourishing period of this architecture was during the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, when Conrad of IFochstaden laid (1248) the foundation
^ne of the cathedral of Cologne, and Entin of Steiiibach formed the design
11275) of the tower of the minster at Strasburg. {(t) During the fifteenth
^tury it passed in some measure into decay, not on account of an excessive
Refinement in building, but because that form of pious feeling which creates
wch works for a distant future no longer existed in the public mind, and the
spirit of the middle ages was gone. This Germanic style of architecture,
^hich since the time of Vasari has received the name of Gothic, has subse-
^I'lently prevailed extensively in France, England, Spain and Sicily. In Italy
^« sight of the old Roman architectural structures was too overpowering to
0) M. A. 0es*4ri, Ocscb. d. GlademakreL Stuttg. 1819. [Art of Painting on Glass, trom the
^*««n. «f G«tti€rt. Lend. 1825. 4.]
*) Omp. 0. GrMielsfn u. E. Jfauch, Ulm's Knnstlobon Im MA. Ulm. 1<M0.
0 Comp. IIeidmani\ die 8 altesten Denkmale dcr tent*chen Freimanrerbrudcncheft Aann.
*». (1S19.)
*) 8.fiMMMr€e, G<>«ch. u. Beschr. d. Doms v. Colin. Munich, (1888.) 1842. ^J.v. Gdrre*^ der
^ ▼. Kolln. XL das MQnster r. Strasb. Eegensb. 1842. F. KvffUr, d. Dom. v. KoUd. (Deatscha
^*«t^). 8cbr. 1842, N. 19.)
J
304 MEDIAEVAL CUURCU HISTORY. PEK. IV. A. D. 1216-1517.
allow of its adoption. Its utmost limits in that direction are witnessed in the
whito marble mountain of the cathedral of Milan, with its host of statues,
where the Romish element already begins to interfere with the German.
Every remnant of this German style was surrendered when antique grandeur
and purity was introduced with the revival of classical antiquity. Brunei-
loico formed the arch of the cupola of the Cathedral of Florence (since 1421),
and Julius 11. laid the foundation of the modern St. Peter^s Church (1506),
the beautiful structure of which was commenced after the plan of Bra-
mantca^ and has been so fatal to the interests of the papacy, but has finally
proved to be its most exalted type, and its proudest monument, {e)
Tlio Phmiic Arts, from which Christian morality withheld the privilege
of presenting any figures without costume except those of the martyrs, were
developed in forming the ornaments and utensils of churches, and had their
principal home in Florence. (/) Nicolas Pisa no (1221-74), whoso works
were wrought after the models of antiquity, deserves the credit of being their
modern father. Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) cast in bronze the doors of
the baptistery in a stylo which made them worthy of adorning the entrance
to Paradise, but he was an artistic painter in metals, and hence his successors
have been much perplexed when they attempted to imitate him. During
the same period every deliglitfiil variety of nature's beauties was represented
in the i)iire and animated reliefs of lAicca della liohbia (1388-1450). Dona"
tello (i383-140G) made up for his deficiency in depth of character by his
passionate emotion. Michael Angelo (1474-15Gi) in his youth formed a
group of tlie Madonna with the dead body of our Lord, in which much feel-
ing, delicacy, and beauty were exhibited, but at a later period he seems to
have despised all attempts to delineate subjects of Christian beauty. His
mausoleum of the Medici is an embodiment of profound and petrified
thoughts, and his Moses is a terrible representation of a popular ruler. On
the other side of the Alps the imitative arts were generally made subservient
to architecture. From the shops of the goldsmiths and brasiers of that
period proceeded many careful imitations of ordinary nature adapted to pious
uses. In this limited department of art, Peter Vischer'^H Reliquary of St.
Sebaldus (1506-19) possesses an artistic excellence of the very highest degree.
Modern Paintiiuj originated in the efibrt to represent the views which
are peculiar to Christianity, and received its highest cultivation from the
patronage of the Church. In the Western Church, it is true, there were
some who denounced the use of pictures and statues as an unlawfid indul-
gence of the eyes, but generally it was thought that the arts might properly
be used, and the treasures of the Church might bo worthily expended at
least in commemorating the saints. Ecclesiastical laws were therefore
directed only against those representations which were thought to bo grossly
sensual and of a corrupting character. The pious feelings which found satis-
«) Descrizione istor del piincipio e proscguimento della fkbrlca del dnomo di Flrenze. YXot. 1786L
Fontuna, 11 Templo Vatlcano e suo ori^iue. Itom. let)-! f. Plainer^ d. neuo Pct^r&kirche. (Beechr.
d. Stadt Rom. vol. IL pp. 184-229.)
/) CX>inp. Aug. Hagen^ die Cbrunik 8. Yatentadt y. Florontiner Lor. GhlbcrtL (Kanst-Roman) Lpii
lS8d. 2 vols.
CHAP. IIL ECCLES. LIFE. § 267. PAINTING. 305
faction in the nse of relics, obtainod still high t onjoyineiit from an image in
which we pogeess such a bciiutifiil medium of connection betwoou the flesh
and the spirit. The glorious forms in which the martyrs receive the palms
of victory as they ascend to heaven, reconcile us to the repulsive scenes in
the midst of which their tortures are depicted. The old traditions (§ 189)
which had been so prevalent in the ancient Church, never became entirely
obsolete in Italy. In the mosaic work of the Roman churches are to be
found specimens of paintings produced in almost every preceding century.
A very delicate and expressive style of miniature painting appears in the
manuscripts written in the convents in the time of the Saxon emperors, {g)
As soon as intellectual life began to be awakened by interc >urse witli Con-
stantinople, Christian art also made its appearance fu'st among the Italians.
A corporation with a regular constitution was formed under the i)atronage
of St. Luke among that highly refined people, when it advanced to its great-
est perfection. The design of the paintings obtained from Constantinople
was generally grand, but the figures were vacant, nmmmy-like, and of an
extravagant size, but painted with some degree of skill, and generally on a
ground of gold. Tlie school formed on this model was commenced by Guido
of Siena (about 1221) and Giunta of Pisa (1210-3G), and was completed by
C'mahue (about 1240-1300). The divine Virgin painted by the latter in
Florence is noble and siiintly, but unnatural. Giotto (127G-138G) abandoned
not only the stiff manner but the lofty spirit of antiquity, and under the im-
pnLie of Dante^s suggestions, founded a peculiar style of It.dian art by imi-
tating nature in her most animated movements. Not only the commissions
giTen but the conduct ])resented by the monks, afforded the artistic skill of
^)$ Floreutine achool many oppjiortunities to combine the pathetic with the
barlesque of ordinary life. Even in representations of Scriptural history,
this school, which attained its highest perfection m Ihmeuico Ghirlandaio
(1451-'j3), presented its scenes in a domestic, common style, so that in its
ktnds the manger of Bethlehem exhibited simply a IHorentine accouchement.
^Ainjtlico of FicHoIe (1387-1455) had already introduced into his art the
Rgnificance and endless variety of human expression, and infused into his
sweet pictures the riches of a heart at home not only in the convent but in
l»*ven. lie was peculiarly the i)aiuter of glorified saints, and by means of
l>ii eraph)yment enjoyed communion with his Ix)rd. Mosmrhio (1402-43),
to whom was opened the secret of the chiaro scuro, returned again with joy
tobeaatiful nature, and to tlie grand thoughts of the old ecclesiastical tradi-
^. When Leonanh} (1452-1517) had j)rolbundly developed the laws of
^« art, and even in his Lord's Supper (tlie heads of the ai>ostles in TVeimar;
^ combined the charm of the supernatural with exalted individual beauty^
f^liarUdomeo (14G9-1517) nobly and clearly delineated scenes from sacred
^^r^ with devout conscientiousness, and in attractive coloring. Finally
*^katl Angeh^ by his gigantic power and thorough knowledge of nature,
^®^*nie the painter of the Old Testament, because no subjects seemed wor-
^y of bis master pencil but the prophets of olden time and the tremendous
^ fi<c<, Eatai sur l*art de vurillcr TAge des miniatures peintes dans lee Inanu^criuv Tar.
Halt
20
306 MEDIAEVAL CIIUIICII HISTORY. PER IV. A. D. 1216-ldlT.
sconea of the Last Judgment. Even the Lomhardic school had its origin in the
Church. But although Moniegnn^ occasionally with sacred earnestness, and
Bellini^ with cheerful loveliness, have given us pictures of heavenly and
saintly forms, the most perfect specimens of this school are hrilliant repre-
sentations of attractive sensuous beauty and repuhlican glory. In Gemiany^
a national school of Christian painting was formed at first on the Lower
Iwhine, and afterwards at Nuremburg, whose subjects were generaUy taken
from the common traditions, but with a decided preference for those of a
typical and allegorical nature. The very first effort it put forth, in the cathe-
dral picture of the patron saint of Cologne (1410), seemed like a new crea-
tion. Tlic masters of this school are the two brothers Van Eyh (about
(1306-1470) and Albert Diirer (1471-1528), each devotedly attached to sub-
jects taken from sacred history and from nature. They all excelled in the
use of a beautiful indestructible coloring, and labored within the limits of a
contracted and rather beautiful yet appropriate reality, which in their hands
became e.valtcd as the type of the celestial. The two first were poetical and
graceful, the last was more judicious, fond of common scenes, but fancifhl
and inexhaustible not only in his power of invention, but in his diligence in
execution, and was scientifically acquainted with all the treasures of art in
the Xetherlands and in Italy, (h) The simplicity of the old ecclesiastical art
was still i)reservcd in the purest form in Umhria^ by means of the spirit and
the patronage which proceeded from Assisi, although its rigid sublimity had
become somewhat softened and tender. Thus Wiis it with the works of Pe-
rufjhio (1447-1524), in the beautiful sphere to which he confined himself
until he condescended to betray his art for money. Thus also was it with
res])oct to Franeiitco Fraucia (1450-1618), who in spirit belonged to this
school, and correctly delineated the ancient forms, while he gJive to them the
mo^t delicate blending of colors. Thus also was it with Raphael (1483—1520),
who in Umbria combined the rigidness of ancient Christianity ^^rth a proper
delicacy of feeling, in Florence found liberty fully to f;ratify his ardent love
of nature, in Rome imparted the beauty of nature to Christian ideals, and in
his own bosom found a correspondent sublimity of conception while gazing
upon the prophets of Angelo. The Madonnas of his youth are full of sad-
ness and presentiment, those which he executed in Florence of simple per-
fect happiness, and those of the Sistine chapel have an expression appropriate
to the virgin queen of heaven. The Bible in the hands of this great painter
of the Church became a series of pictures, and in the Stanzas of the Vatican
he has given perpetuity in the world of art to the gorgeous vision even then
beginning to vanish, according to which the papacy was the central point of
all ecclesiastical and spiritual life. (/) Even his other purely secular produc-
tions were adjusted to the same exalted position, and the adventures of the
Olympic deities were conformed to the spirit of the age of the papal Medici,
and exhibited all the embellishments of the most exuberant fancy. But in
h) G. F. Waagen, Uubert u. Joh. v. Kyck. BrsL 1S22. A. WHatf, A. DQrer u. %, ZelU. I^ist-
1919. J. lUlUr, il Lebtfn n. d. Werke A. D. rore. Lps. 1S31. Only 2 volaL In 8 Ablh. A Stark, A.-
DQror. (Oermania. 1S51. p. 625tA)
i) G. IhlloH Descr. dclle ima^nc diplnto da Kafaello nolle camera del Vatioano. B<»n.
[R. Duppa, Life of Raphael. (Bogue's Eur. Lib.) Lond. 1847. 8 ]
CHAP. II L ECCLES. LIFE. $ 26i SAINTS. CANOyiZATION. 307
the work which enlisted his last and dying energies, ho appears to have
canght a glimpse of Christ in his future glory. (/)
§ 268. Worship of the Saints.
The confidence reposed in the goddess, who, either as a bride or as a
mother, was supposed to have all power in heaven, was at this time so great
that the dominion of the world seemed to have been regarded as a vast female
fiof (Kunkellehn), and it was no longer a captions jest when it was said that
the virgin queen was every day annoyed with all kinds of importunities, (d)
In Poetry and in the Imitative Arts she was represented as the Christian
counterpart of the Siren of Venus, and of Mother Earth, although nature
was frequently unconsciously adored in her. The interest felt in particular
localities for those relics which had for the most part been brought home by
the crusaders, gave occasion for a continual multiplicaftion of saintly legends,
embracing many newly invented adventures. A collection of these was
made by the Dominican, James d^ Vorafjine (d. 1298), and not so much on
acconnt of the literary contributions of the author as of the popular elements
it embraced, and the summary of saints' days in the year which it presented,
itwas used in all parts of the Western Church under the name of tlie Golden
Legend. {?/) Some enlightened teachers indeed feared tliat the continually
increasing worship of saints would produce a forgetfulness of (Jod, but the
Chnreh not oidy inculcated a confidence in the prayers of saints, but an imi-
tation of their virtues. The personal relations of particular patron saints to
individual families and guilds which had the care of tlieir sacred things, gave
occasion to various rival interests in their behalf, and to promote their re-
spective glories by means of the arts. The effect of this was sometimes
liighly favorable to an increase of this saintly piety. The creation of new
stints was dependent upon a very difficult and expensive process at Home.
In some cases where the claims for a canonization were not made out, a bea-
tification was provisionally granted. The right which the popes had reserved
ttclosivoly to themselves with respect to these matters, Wiis sometimes exer-
^b^d by tlie great councils. The halo of sanctity was a mark of nobility,
»nd tljc badge of an order which encouraged the highest services by a reward
in the humblest form for the present life, but eternal in another. The mere
pweasion of a high ecclesiastical jjosition was not ordinarily enough to con-
fer any special title to this lionor. Dut even tlie saints of this period present
no very exalted specimens of genuine human excellence, since their merit
tt^^isUtcd rather in strange and diversified exhibitions of the power of faith in
Wrurne self-denials, and in sacrifices. The influence of the monastic orders
^Jis sutlicient to obtain the canonization of a few monks, whoso scientiiic iu-
Te?tlgations were especially characterized by the ecclesiastical spirit. It was
Pfnerally held that no one should be canonized unless, either during life or by
"is'lcad body ho had wrought some miracles, as divine announcements of his
*> / D. PiiMarant, Eaf. v. Urbhio. Lp^ 1S39. 2 voK
1) Erwimfin, PerogrinAtio rdijrionls ergo. ArasL 1655. p. 355s.
*) U»>n(laanreRa. llL*t. Loinbardlca. Argent 1479. t 4t often, ed. Th. Graeite^ Dresd. et Lps. lS4Gaa.
Traisfl«*«l Into all tlio Western langunjfcs.
I
308 MKOIAEVAL ClirilC'fl IIISTOUV. VKIL IV. A. I). 1216-W17.
sanctity. Ki^ohtx ron der FIii*\ on the Alps, appears as an in^;tance of a pecu-
liar class of saints, similar to those of the Thebais. After having performed
the duties of a husbandman, a father, a warrior, and a jndjre in his native
land, he became possessed with an inteurse longing to spend his life with God
in the solitude of the forest. A light, like a sharp knife pierced his spirit,
and henceforth, during twenty years (1467-87), he lived entirely with God,
an<l with no sustenance except what he obtained from his communion with
God. Ilis humble silence, however, could not save him from the suspicionfi,
nor the pious veneration of his fellow-men. In consctjuence of the former
tlie miracle of the spirit seemed confirmed, and in consequence of the latter
ho became the counsellor and arbitrator of the neighboring shepherds. When
the freedom of the Swiss confederacy was endangered by dissensions among
its members (1481), harmony was restored by the presence and authority of
Brother Glaus, (r) Under the guidance of their confessors women became
saints. In Germany, Elizaheth^ the daughter of a king, and full of grief that
she could not die a virgin, tliough the wife of a prince, sustained herself by
the profits of her own toil, and turned the Wartburg, so recently the abode
of worldly pon-p and music, into a hospital. In her widowhood she solemnly
renounced her own will and all the world, that she might devote herself to
the care of leprous persons, and dic<l (12.'J1) while young, beautiful, and glow-
ing with a saintly love. The stern priest, under whose perverted counsels she
thus fell a sacrifice, delighted in the hoi)o that all renmanta of earthly feeling
had been slain within her spirit, and iinnounced at Rome, with many sworn
witnesses, her ardent piety, the radiance of her countenance in prayer, and
the miraculous cures which she had etfected. Her apotheosis, as of an ideal
of charity, was celebrated as early as in the year 1236, a lofty monument of
German architecture spans her grave at Marburg, {d) and in the legend the saint
has obtained so much grace, that even her timid prevarication mirnculoosly
became a truth. In Italy we find Catharine of Siena^ the daughter of a
dyer, who grew up among the sacred services of the Dominicans. When a
child she was accustomed to kiss the very footsteps of these pions men. She
could never be satisfied with self-denials and tortures, and at a later ])eriod
indulged in the use of no nutriment but that which she derived from the ele-
ments of the Lord's Supper. Jesus Christ himself condescended to pay the
child a friendly visit, wearing his triple crown, and gradually either alone or
in the company of a few saints his visits and conversations became more fre-
quent, until they became daily occurrences. Finally he solemnly betrothed
the virgin to himself, by conferring upon her a ring, and took from her sidfr
her heart, and substituted his own. Such at least was the statement which
c) Widtner^ du GOttl. in !rd. Entwickl nach^wiesen im Leben Nik. v. d. Fl. Lur. 1819. Bu^
«inffer, Bruder Klaus u. s. Zoitalt Liizcm. 1827. {G. Gdrres) Oott in d. Gesch. Mnnich. 1881. IL 1 .
A book imputed to him on voluntary seclusion (Pliilo5. mystico. Nooet ICIS. 4.) is not genuine.
<f) I. Conradi Marpurg. Klis. vi<Ina. Ep. Exiiriitnatnrum niiracc ad. Dum. Papam. (iLuehsnbechfr^'m
Annal Uasa. Marp. 1735. Collect IX.) TfMxloricu« Thuring. (of Apold."») de 8, Elisab. ((7ttniji»»
LectL ed. Basn. Th. IV.) Greg. IX. Canonizatio S. Klls. viduae. (Bullar. Rom. Th. L p. IM. '
IL K. W. JusU : Ell*, d. Hell. Zur. 17D7. MonUiUmhei-t, Hist dc 8. Ells, de Honprte^ Par. (ISSft-")
1S87. 2 Th. miL Anm. v. Stadler, Aach. IS^C. {€. King$Uy, The True Story of EUubetb of Hux^'
gary« or the Saint's Tragedy. Lend. 1852. 12.]
CHAP. IIL ECCLES. LIFR $ 268. CATHARINE OF SIENA. 309
8he made to her father confessor. It is possible that tho interest of the order
may hare had some influence in the result, but it is certain that this lowly
maid was finally adored, not only by this powerful order, but by nearly tho
whole of Italy. Compelled to spend much of her time in the midst of secu-
lar employments she frequently fell into a trance. She was finally induced
to abandon the luxury of this contemplative kind of life, and of her attend-
ance upon couches of loathsome disease, that she might devote herself to tho
work of composing the strifes which then existed in Italy and in the Church.
She eihorted Gregory XL to enter upon another crusade, effected i)eaco be-
trveen him and the Florentine^ urged the return of the papacy to Rome, wa;
used as an instrument in the quarrels of the mendicant friars, and finally died
at Rome (1380) the saint of the Roman papacy in its dissensions, and pas-
sionately longing to meet her espoused Lord. In consequence of the un-
friendly feelings of the Franciscans with respect to her, she was not canonized
until a long period after her death, and even then this office had to be i)er-
fomjed (1461) by her own fellow-citizen, Pius II. (t;) The only saint France
could claim during this period, since she oidy effected tho deliverance of her
country, and met with a tragical end, was never recognized by her age, but
WIS burned as a witch (May 30, 1431 j. (/)
§ 2G9. Miracles and Magic,
?^f>c//i, de suporslit mi'dii aevL (0pp. Ilasun. vol. IV.) Meinertt^ Aborsrl. dor schol. Jaiirh.
tHi< Vcrjlelcb. d. Sittoii des .MA. vol. III.) [ W,tltfir Sfott, Denionology & Witchcraft Lon'l. 1^3i».
Xew T.ek, 1S.31. O. C. Ifnmf, ZanWr Rlbllotl^k, Ac. Mainz. ISJC. 6 vok 8. For. Quart. Hev. (in
UWAW MiHouin.) IWJO. E. S»tltet-t*!, IHst of Mapic, kc, trans). \>y A. T. Vunnjmnu, Lon<l. Ib41.
Sfw York. 1S17. 2 vuU. li IT 6^ Dendy, Phil, of Mystery. New York. 1645. 12.]
The intelligence of this age sometimes imposed limits upon the enthu-
siasm which delighted only in supernatural revelations, and assumed higher
ground than the popular faith, since it occasionally tore the mask from de-
ception, or proposed to the legend some questions with regard to its veracity.
Bloody Hosts were not generally regarded as miracles, tliough none could
tben explain them on scientific i)rinciples. And yet Birgitta's revelations
were solemnly confirmed {a) at Constance and at Basle, and the people cried
out '' A miracle !" when the mendicant friar saw the blood of Christ flow
<iown the crucifix erected for absolution, {h) Numerous pilgrims and beggars,
>8 well as immense wealth and treasures of art were collected at Loretto, on
account of the legend of the fourteenth century, respecting the house of the
dirine Virgin, which, having been consecrated as a temple by the apostles,
^been removed by angels from Nazareth, after the loss of the Holy Land,
<) Ada P3. April, vol. HI. p. &5.'}»<Ji. Her Ix'ttom, conversations, and revelations are e<lltc<l in
I»»li«n, by (Uglt^ Slen. ITOTsi*. 5 Th. 4 coiiip. Fobrii-. I5U.1. med. et inf. LaL Th. I. p. SiJ-ls. Pn.Oi •»-
»a*cont«sutionnm miwr sanctitatc tt d«»clr. B. Culli. OfarUn^, aiiipl. Col. Th. VI. p. 12«7.s*.)
/) Pruoi'sde condamnation et de rehabilitation do rloanne d'Arc dite la PucoUo. 8ui\i> do tons k-
**«nv*ni« hist par Jnhn Quich^rat, Par. 1S41-9. T) v«.N.— A'. Hunt, d. Jiuijrf. d. Orl. (N'oiu- Prophv-
*"■ Lf*. 1^5l.) [J. M. KntfiH, Story of Joan of Arc. Phllad. 1S3!». Aiwiu Memoirs of Jean dA. it
^ 0^ ber Um«t LomL 1S24. 2 vols. 12 ]
Q) (r^rNOfr, Fr. de pmhatitme spiritiiuiii. KM'F- ^<>'- '• '*• ^- P- 3") Tr.: do distitiotiono vorar.
^wnmaCilAU {lb. p. -W.) Ilmft, Const Cone. vol. III. I». III. p. 23j«. voL IV. P. XL p. i^Os.
h According to George of Aniialt, Losch^r, Kef. Actrt, vol. I. p. SsS.
310 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH UISTOET. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-161T.
and after many wanderings had fonnd a permanent abode at Loretto (1205). {c)
Mysterious arts to ascertain the future had never been entirely discontinued.
Astrology had been raised by the influence of the Saracens to the dignity erf
a science, and sometimes had an officer at court appointed to attend to its
interests. White magic was tolerated by the Church. But the unfriendly
spirit shown by the advancing intelligence of the age toward superstition,
harmonized with the suspicion of the vulgar that the ordinary limits of hu-
manity cim seldom be i)assed without Satanic art. The same spdls which
the Church used for the deliverance and exaltation of souls were supposed
to bo employed by the infernal powers in like manner, for their destruction.
The horror felt in the depths of our own nature for such arts has been gen-
erally expressed in the arbitrary symbols vrhich superstition has invented.
Yet in the Italian legend of the enchanter, Virgil^ we have not cnly the
unconscious prophet of Christianity who was lamented by Puul, but the skil-
ful employment of the black art in the performance of wonderful feats, and
in the construction of buildings. In the Norman Merlin also, is set forth a
sliadowy counterpart of the divine Saviour, when the wild impulses he derived
from his demoniac origin are contrasted with the graceful humanity he in-
herited from his mother. In the German story of Faust, the representative
and compiler of all the magic of the Middle Ages, and in that of his younger
brother of a more southern clime, Ban Juan, is exhibited the ruin of the
must richly endowed genius, when it is determined by the aid of infernal
powers to exceed the limits God has assigned to human knowledge and enjoy-
ment, (d) The truth of this popular faith in covenants and unlawful inter-
course with the devil wtis finally conceded by the Church, and those who
were supposed to be guilty of such things were arraigned before the eccle-
siii^tical tribunals as traitors against divine majesty. (<•) Sometimes those who
addicted themselves to the black art were bunied by the direction of the
Church, but frequently the imputation of sorcery was derided as a mere su-
perstition. On hearing that witches and wizards practised their arts in Ger-
many to the serious injury of both property and life among the people.
Innocent VJII. revived (1484) the laws agjiinst magic in the widest sense
inii)lied in the popular faitli, (/) and appointed two judges of witches for
Upper Germany, who compiled a manual for the trial of witches, as remark-
able for its learning as for its superstition and impurity. (//) Then conmienced
a process, during which the popular faith, avarice, and the new modes of evi-
dence required by the penal law, consigned thousands of witches to the
flames. The injuries which they were accused of inflicting were generally
confined to the most trifling matters of ordinary life, and no witch appears
c) BapthUi MantttanuM, Eco, Laurctanae Hist (0pp. Antn. 1576. toJ. IV. p^ 216»!s.) MarUmelli
Toatro istor. della 8. Casa Naz. Kom. 1732. 2 vols. Treated polemically : Vergerii I* do Idolo Ijiur.
(0|)p. adv. Papatnm. Tub. 1563. 4. Th. I.) Ingol 15S1. Bemeggfr^ Hypobollmaca Marlae d^Iparae
camera. Argent 1619. 4. Af>ologetica1iy : Turriani Kesp. ad capita ai^m. VergerH haercUei. Ingol.
l."^S4. 4. Turselini LaureUna lllst Mog. 1599. Ven. 1T27.
(f) J. Gorre^, die dents^hcn Volksbucber. ITcidcIb. 1S07. p. 207sa. C. L, StUglUzy Sage r. RamL
{liauinpr, lliftt Taschend. I.i)z. 1834) Coinp. Jabrb. t wLsa. Krltlk, 1SS4 N. 25. [W. Gw/ttin, Lixtc
<»r tbe Necromancers, New Y(>rk. 1885. 12.] e) According to Oen. 6. 1-4. Eiewf. 22, 191
/) Jlauher, BIbllotheca. SL I. p. Isa.
g) {Jitc. Sprenger et lleinr. Intttiior.) Malleus Malcficarom. Col. 14S9. 4. A «lt«n.
CHAP. IIL ECCLE8. LIFE. pfi$9. WITCnCRAFT. § 270. DISCIPLINE. 3 1 1
6ver to have become wealthy by her arts. Actual crimes were never legally
proved. Some may have been induced by the popular superstition, by som-
nambulistic states, and by narcotic salves, to form criminal desires, and to
regard themselves as witches. But in general the violence of tortures, and
the various illegal processes of investigation were sufficient to account for the
confession of unnatural crimes, without supposing them real, {h) But no
persons ventured to express doubts with respect to the propriety of such pro-
ceedings, except on very rare occasions, and in the most guarded manner. (/)
The picture drawn of the Witch's Sabbath is only a copy of the fantastic
representations often given of the assemblies of heretics. The process against
witches now supplied the place of that which had formerly been employed
against heretics. It was only in Germany, England, and Scandinavia, that
the nation generally became enlisted in its behalf. The bulls of Alexander
ind Leo against magicians and poisoners in Lombardy, appear to liave been
directed against some remnants of the Manichaeans. (k) As all nature was
believed to be subservient to the kingdom of God, and to have a share in the
blessings of the Church, many thought proper sometimes to defend themselves
cren against noxious beasts by exorcism and excommunication. (/)
§ 270. Church DmipUne and Induhjencen. Cont.from §§ 66, 202.
The Ban and the Interdict had now lost their power, in consequence of
the abase which had been made of them. The popes were therefore com-
pelled in their political contests to sharpen their spiritual weapons, by abol-
ishing every right previously recognized among enlightened and Chri?;tian
nations. Clement V. and Sixtus IV. declared the Venetians infamous and
ontlawe<l, even to the fourth generation, {ft) In the thirteenth century the
popes introduced the annual practice on the day before Good Friday (incoena
Domini), when absolution was especially ])estowed before the altar, of
solemnly pronouncing sentence of excommunication, in a form not then invn-
rinble, against the whole host of heretics and wicked persons of all kiu'ls,
then 80 constantly increasing. (Jb) The discipline of the Church had become
exceedingly lax, in consequence of the vast number of the mendicant friars,
and the preachers of indulgences. The prerogative ])y wliich the popes j)ro-
fessed to remit all ecclesiastical punislnnents became so much extended that
they finally possessed the complete power to forgive all sins. Tliis was de-
rived from the doctrine which taught that the merits of Christ and the saints
(Thesaurus supererogation is perfectorum) were so abundant, and the unity
A) X. Rfmigii DacinoDolatrio. Lutril. 159."). 4. Frkf. IbOs.—l/.tubfr, IJihliotlieca, acta et Pcripta
"•«Jea. Lemgo. 1789s8. 36 St W. G. S'>ldan, Gt-scli. <1. nexi*npr.)cv»<i'. Slutt^'. 1S48. C. G. r. Wmh-
'"^ In ?. B«rltr. z deatsclien Oesoh. Insb. z. Gcsch. <L Strnfr. p. bl. *i77!<!». Comp. Grimin^ <loiit*chc
MjtlHj. p. 579SS.
') C/r. Jfoiitor, Ac Lanilla et i)ytlionlcl.s mnllerlb. CoL 14s9. Strasb. 1575. 4. J. «'<>/•, dc prae.«ll-
8a*d«monain. Ba^ 1563, & often.
*) //a«tA#r, St. III. p. 15U^. St. V. 277{w.
^ h Ilfrnmerlin^ Tr. de exorc. et wljiiratlonib. c. anlnialln brnta (about 1451).—^ Prir^ lCap]iort oi
'*c*i«rches 8ur le^ procojs et juflri-m. rt'Iatlfj* aux aniinaiix. l*ar. lS'il».
«) litiynaltj^ tul ann. 13o9. N. 6. a<l aiiD. 1*52. N. 18ss. Cotnp. Muratori vol. VIII. p. 1151.
^) lAmUrtini Ac Fe6tl«. P. L c IIHJ. Raynald. ad. aim. 1411. N. 1. {Le Bret) Gesch. d. Balle
J»noeiial>omjni (Stattg.) 17698. 4 vols. 4.
312 MKDiAKVAT. t iin:c:i ni<n!:v. ri:ii. iv. a. d. 1216-151T.
of the mystical body of the Chnroh was so perfect, that she had power to
dispose of those merits according to tlie wants of men. (c) Even the indul-
gences of the year of Jnbilee were sent beyond the Alps, and when divinee
were debating whether the pope had power of absolving souls in purgatory,
the bnlLs of indulgence issued by Alexander and Leo soon decided the ques-
tion, (ff) Ever since the papal chair had sustained some severe shocks, the
popes had opened such a shameless trade in indulgencen^ that those who
farmed and dispensed them paid little attention to the repentance and reforma-
tion which had always been demanded by the Church as conditi<^ns of for-
giveness. The indulgence was disposed of as all that was needful for recon-
ciliation with God, even for yet future and intended offences. Grave
ecclesiastical letters on the unlawful use of butter were harmless. Some
indulgences wore granted to obtain funds for the erection of inland churches,
hospitals, and even secular establishments of general utility, A largo portion
of the revenue was consumed by the preachers themselves, but the final
receptacle was the treasurer of the pope. Just as the profits of all money for
indulgences had been formerly devoted to the crusades, they were now^ ap-
propriated to the Turkish war or to the erection of St. Peter's church. A
general rumor, however, prevailed, that Leo X. had promised a part of the
money so basely obtained from Germany, to his sister, {e) It was in vain
tliat the people remonstrated against these extortions and immoralities, and
some of the princes either forbade the preachers of indulgences to enter their
dominions, or deprived them of the revenues they had collected. Literary
niou directed the shafts of their ridicule against these hawkers, and even
expressed some doubts whether the tickets they bestowed would be respected
by the great Judge of all. The more earnest class of preachers were also
indignant and zealous against a trade which involved the murder of the souls
of men. (/)
§ 271. Flagellants and Dancers,
(Jitc Boil^au) lllst Flaj;ellantium. Par. ITOO. 12. Schtxttffen, do secln Flag. Lps. 1711. fdrm-
^mann^ dJo chr. Golwilergosellscliafton. Ilal. 182S. Mohnike, u. Oeisslergesellsch. u. verbrud, (Ueaer
Art (Zcitachr. f. hist Th. 1S33. vol. III. St. I.y—Uecker dio Tanrwoth. BrL 1S82.
A system of penance and fleshly mortification by scourging (disciplina) in
the closet, was especially recommended by Damiani, and extensively encour-
aged by the mendicant orders. But all at once appeared long processions of
penitents, who went about day and night, naked down to the waist, with
heads covered, sinpring penitential psalms, and whipping themselves until the
blood flowed. This peculiar mode of contrition commenced in Perugia
(12G0), and soon spread over nearly all Italy. In the struggle between the
c) Alex. IfiiUn, Snmma, P. IV. Qu. 23. Art Ir.
d) AIm. HnUtt, P. IV. Qa. 28. Art 2. T/ionuu, Suppl. ad Sunim. P. II L Qa. 71. Art 10. 7W-
ihtin. Ghron. lliraaufr. vol. II. p. HS^i.—Amoi't. 1. c vol. 1. p. 96. 209. vol. II. p. 2S8.
e) M. VUlnni VI, 14 Guicciardini 1. XIII. p. 896.
/) Appollatlo pn) parte princo. Norlmb. a. 1460. inlerposita. {S^nckenherg, SoL jur. et htat Fref.
178i vol. IV. p. 37S.) Wfs«eU adv. indulgentlas Dsp. ( Wahh, Mon. vaeAW aeri, voL I. p. 111.) Ar-
thold^ edit, by Kling, p. 884. Loscher, Ret A^t^ vol I. p. SAftss. Kapp, Saninil. etnlger z. AU.
gchor. Schriften, Lps. 1721. Veesenmeyer^i. Gesch. d. Ablasswes. kura. vor. d. Rc£ (KUut Arohlv.
1825. vol. III. St 4.)
CHAP. IIL EGCLES. LIFR S 271. FLAGELLANTS. DANCERS. 313
Gaelphs and the Ghibollines this country had boon more tlian ordinarily filled
with vices and crimes, and the people now seemed to linve been siezed by a
penitential paroxysm, and to celebrate a general sea«'on of reconcili.ition with
God. {a) A few of these processions crossed tlie Alps, jmd were there rather
objects of astonishment than of imitation. But when the hiarj' death came
from Asia and passed through Europe (1348), even in Germany every place
was startled by the scourging processions of the brethren of the cross, whoso
doleful songs were especially directed to Christ, entreating him by the recol-
lection of his own sufferings, and from a regard to their repentance, to stay
the progress of the plague, (b) These scenes were repeated as often as the
people were visited by national calamities, or there appeared to be a call for
an unusual degree of penitence. A number of these scourging procession'*
passed through Southern Europe, near the commencement of the fifteenth
century, under the direction of the Dominican, Vincent im Ferrer I, a Span-
iard, whose eloquence was so powerful among different nations, in exciting
men to a religious earnestness, that the gil^ of tongues seemed to have been
restored in him. (c) At fii-st the popes were in favor of this movement, because
tbey hoped it might stimulate the energy of the ecclesiastical party against
the Ghibellincs. But when the scourge began to be looked upon as more
efficacious than all ecclasiastical penances and means of grace, the hierarchy
hecame displeased with it. Clement VI. declared himself opi)osed to an
enthusiasm (1349) which threatened the subversion of all ecclesiastical and
civil order, (d) and finally Vincentius himself yielded obedience to the dissua-
rive admonition of the Council of Constance, (c) This unfriendly disj)osition of
the Church induced some societies of Flagellants to assume a hostile position
toward the ecclesiastical authorities. In Thuringia a company of theni which
bad been condemned to the flames by the inquisition (after 1414), denounced
the clerg}' as Antichrist, rejected the use of the crucifix and of images, and
the invocation of saints in worship, and substituted the baptism of blood by
the scourge for all ecclesiastical sacraments. (/) The same kind of sensuous
deTotion by means of convulsions of pain or pleasure, was practised by bands
of Dancen in a few towns along the Rhine (1374, 1418). This epidemic was
treated in Stra.sburg as a demoniacal possession, against which, invocations
were made to St. Vitus, (g)
«) JTwKirW PaPirini Chnm. (.Vunitorl vol. VIII. p. 71 'Ja.)
t) Aflor a<*ner*» CMironIk: C. Scfimidt, Llod u. Predict d. GclsM. (Stud. u. Krlt. ISGT. n. 4.)
^ S^^tgan^, lo grnntl ptf-IerinAgc d<« flauolIjinL-*. Strash. 1S37. Frooly revlse<l by TinvMnUorf, Lps.
^^l-IIfck^r, d. whwarze Tod. im 14. Jahrh. llrl. 1832.
f) lutltcig IhU^r^ Vine, Ferr. nach .s. Leben o. Wirkem. Brl. 1S:30. Come» t/c If<>fieuthaf'Stae(i-
W^«le Vine. Fvrr. Li>!>. IS 19. 4.
<f) Tritht.nti Chron. Hire. II. \\. 2()9. liaynahl. ad ann. 1349. N. 20.
') Gtrtum^ Ep. m1 Vine (C)pp. vcd II. p. 658.) Tr. contra st^ctarn flapell. 50. (Th. p. 66(».)
/) llardt. Const, Cone vol. I. p. 126. Coiiip. R. Stump/, Ili.Ht. fl.'urtdl. praeolpuo in Tliurlngia. ITSO.
"^•♦••tftnnnw/i Neue Mltth. a. d. Gebletc bl.-»t. antiq. Fork;li. vol. II. II, 1.)
0) JiuticM of Badulphas de Ulvo, in tbo Lioipunrlan and Alsatian Cbronielc in FOrstemaiin, p.
**** * Hesker.
314 MEDIAEVAL CUUBCU mSTOBT. PEK. IT. A. D. 1216-1517.
§ 272. MordU of the Clergy,
Avignon and Kome had now received the names of Sodom and Babjlon,
and it was reported that in those places Christianity was of no other benefit
than jis a profitable fable. ('/) The most exalted and wealthy stations in the
Church were regarded merely as livings belonging to certain persons by birth,
or civilly to bo i)iirchased, and those who occupied them followed the esam-
j)le of the Roman court, by devoting themselves wholly to worldly interest.
Public services were for the most part administered by an ignorant and low
minded rabble, from which no one could ever expect to raise himself by the
most meritorious exertions for the good of the Church, (b) The clergy were
also corrupted by secret lewdness, for the practice of which the spiritual office
itself was made subservient, or by concubinage, to which they were often
urged by their congregations for the safety of the people, and for which they
were taxed by their bishops, (c) During the various reformations projected
in the fifteenth century, it was sometimes proposed that the honor of the
priesthood should be redeemed by restoring to them the rights of nature.
But even liberal-minded prelates acknowledged that such a measure would be
the commencement of a revolution in all hierarchical relations, {d) Hence,
while the most unscrupulous portion of the clergy compensated themselves
by indulgence in base and scanty pleasures, those who were serious-minded
and anxious to comply with the requirements of the Church, and by good
works attain a seat in heaven, were borne down by their burden, and made
uneasy on account of doubts respecting their salvation. The sentiments of
the people with reference to the clergy wavered between habitual reverence
and an involuntary feeling of contempt Sometimes, however, the popular
indignation against the sins and privileges of the clergy broke forth into open
violence. The literary portion of the laity put into circulation heavy accusa-
tions and bitter satires against the clergy, (e) Even in some books of pictures
were represented many scenes from the lives of the prelates, in contrast with
others taken from the humble lives of Christ and his apostles. But in this
way the Christian spirit maintained its rights, or at least preserved, in the
midst of the Church a full liberty sternly to reprove such enormities ; and
there were not wanting even in the great councils, some preachers of repent-
ance, who held up a faithful mirror in which the Church could recognize its
own distorted features. (/) There were always many among the clergy wor-
thy ot a better age, who felt the disgrace of their times, and to whom it was
a) Ptttrnrca, Epp. sine tit Lib. (Lng«l. 1621.) Ep. 10. 18. ^^c de Cl^mariffi^ de niln» Ecc. c 2T.
b) OrtffnniuH coram Urbino V. {Flacii Cat test vcr. N. 106.)
c) Cone. Paltrntin. a. 1322. c 7. {Mansi Tli. XXV. p. Toa) Nic. de ClemangiK c 22.— TVIiwr,
erzw. EhoUisijrk. vol. II. p. 591s8.
</) GerHon. Dial. s)phiae ct naturae super caelib. (0pp. voL 11. p. 617.) More sllghtlj: Piua II.
{PUitlnn p. W5.>
e) Many of tliose by the Troubadours In Diets, (Zwick. 1S29.) in the Fabliaux et contes publ par
Mi*on (Par. ISi''^) in FUtcii CatAl. tcstium veritatis, Kpp. viror. ob»cun>ruin. Pasqallli (ElcatberopoL
1544.) & others.
/) The dbconrses of JJ^rnardus RiptisaUi^ TheobaUlm k others in Hardt^ Ck>n8t. Cona Th. I.
P. XVIII. p. 879SS.
CHAP. IIL ECCLES. LIFE. § 272. CLERGY. § 273. PEOPLE. 315
evident that so conteniptiblo a hierarchy could no lunger control the hearts
of men. (g)
§ 273. Tlie Religious Character of tlie People. Cant, from § 200.
The gradual transformation which had taken place in the eliaractcr of the
people did not publicly manifest itself until hear the close of this ])eriod.
Superstition was not yet eradicated, hut the enthusiasm and poetic fervor it
had displayed in former times had gradually disippeared, and the exuheranoe
of fancy which had been enlisted in its service now gave way before the
efforts of the understanding. Tliese had been awakened to the highest inten-
sity by tlie exigences of the real worM, and in order to obtain the comforts
of life. Not only had the morals of the people been endangered with ro-
8i>ect to individual actions, but tlie very principles on which tliey were founded
h:ul been changed by the free sale of indulgences. Still the Christian spirit
and the common sense of the i>eoplc always returned again to the great ele-
ments of moral truth. Literature and science then reviving in groat vigor,
were generally clothed in a learned dress, and confined to the Liitin language.
The iHjople were not prepared to enjoy the benefit of the n^w art of print-
ing until they had learned to read. While the lower clergy reniained so
ignorant, it was needless to employ any special art to retain the peoi)le in that
state of ])U[)ilago without which no hierarchy will be tolerated, and yet we
find some institutions like the censorship of the press, the impiisition, and the
limitations imposed upon the use of translations of the Bible, which clearly
evince an intention of keeping the peoj)le in a degraded condition. The
proofs, however, which we possess, that the people were generally ignorant
and corrupt, {a) refer principally to Northern Germany, and to the lowest
da«fics. The best domestic chaplains were the mothers, (h) and knowledge, not
riijcerity or strong religious feeling, wjis wanting. It was night, but in many
reAi>ects a .^cred night. Knighthood, and consequently the true basis of an
aristocracy, had been undermined by the use of gunpowder, the leg .1 consti-
tutions of the several states, and the new power of the commercial classes.
Even the poetry of cliivalry had been exchanged in the schools which the
Master-singers who lived near the close of the thirteenth century held in
the different cities, for lays which related more to the ordinary lives of the
middle and hiboring classes. The popular elements contained in the ancient
poetry were made more prominent, and modern improvcinents were added to
them as in the Low-German fable of Keynard ilv-}. Fox. During the strug-
0e then in progress between the Church and the State, a third osteite had
^n gradually formed by the side of the nobility and the clergy, which had
H) Aft«r Gfr»<m, Thewl a. ^iom, and especially Ific. de ClenuingiK, do rulna Eccl. {llardf^
^n*t(\,nc vol. LP. IIL)
01 Collected In the tirst chapter* of the Histories of the liefonnalion. e. g. KL Vfj^Ui IIi-.t ct
»»>!»iu,< reform, ov. riiii. 1G>S. Lbucher, llof. Acta, vol. I. p. IOOsh. Spi^ker, Liither, vol. I. p. «7ss.
«!». Brftgrhiuidi:r, Lothcrs Schilder. d. sittl. Venl. I)etit5chl. (Kef. Alman. IS17. p. 212w.; [Ills-
tolts by lianke (iransl. by Mrs. Austin), natliliufftnv, Siehbing^ Soarn^v^ Scilt^ D'AiAifln* and
®**'«^"j On the other Mdo Bctr. u. d. Zn?t d. K, im 15. u. Ant 16. Jaiirii In Bi^njj. a. d. Nothw.
*«»«'l. Orun.ll. d. K. verletzenden livt (Tub. Quartahchr. 1S3L P. 4.)
^) Predijtten d. Fuwten Qeorg v. AnhaJt Witt. 15M. p. 289.
316 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH niSTOBY. PEK. IV. A. D. 1116-1011.
become acquainted with the pleasures of mental freedom and of civilization.
In Italy, espetially, where the doctrines of the Ghibelline party were com-
mon, where ehussical studies were cultivated, and the papacy was seen in its
corruptions at home, this class became indifferent to the Church, and some-
times to Christianity itself, though it condescended to allow the popular re-
ligion to remain unmolested, (f*) In Germany, especially, a healthy energy
still remained, and many had tasted of intellectual freedom in consequence of
tlie nmnicipal liberties they had acquired. Such were therefore prepared to
repel every unlawful aggression which might be made upon them in civil or
ecclesiastical affairs.
§ 274. Sarcey of the Monastic Life. Cont, from § 266.
Tlie more ancient orders lived in retirement, some of them strictly observ-
ing their original severity of discipline, but most of tliom in the enjoyment
of great wealth. Frequently scarcely a semblance of their original rule re-
mained, and sometimes vows were made by the members that they would not
regard it. The convents, in some instances, became phices of the most shame-
less lewdness, and tlie most unnatural crimes were concealed within their
wolh«. Various attempts at reform were therefore made during the fifteenth
century, especially at Constance and Ba«le, and were partially carried to a
successful issue by the right or wrong means used by the ecclesiastical depu-
ties, the bisho|)s and the local princes ; but they were generally repelled by
those who resided in the convents, sometimes with subtilty and insolence, and
sometimes with powerless desperation, (a) A careful system of legishition
respecting the rights and duties of the private members of the orders was
gradually perfected in the decretals, (b) The prohibition issued at the fourth
Council of Lateran (§ 204) was not sufficient to prevent a monastic commu-
nity from sometimes gathering around some extraordinary master spirit, or
from being gradually and imperceptibly formed where persons of like dispo-
sitions were brought into contact. These j)eculiar associations generally found
some pope who could be induced to recognize them as incorporate commu-
nities. The peculiar circumstances of the age which had called into exist-
ence and given such success to the mendicant friars, induced many to follow
their example ; but for want of some effective and pri»minent character in the
commencement, they could never attain important fonn or influence. Inno-
cent IV. (1245;, to console the Carmelite for the loss of the Holy Land, con-
ceded to them the privileges of mendicant friars. (<?) Aleicand^ IV. (1256)
conferred the same privileges upon the Angvstinian Hermits^ whom he
gathered together from various scattered associations of monks, and united
under the rule of Augustine, (d) Martin F., after exhibiting many tokens
0) Kapp% Ref. Urk. voL II. p. 897. 499. Htnke^ Frofgclstcrci n. Atbeismus in Itolien. Anb. z.
Ucbere. v. ViUer»y u. d. Itef ]>. 4G98S.
a) Instaromniutn: Jo. Bunch (d. 1479; de reform. monaBterioram quorondam Saxon. {^Leibn^
Scrr. Brunnu, vol. II. (>. 476. SOdss.)
//) Greg. III. 81. Scxt III, 14. CU.m. Ill, 9. Ejrtr. comm. III. 3. & others.
c) Bullarlum Carinclltanutn. Rom. 171'»ss. I*. I. p. 4m.
d) Bullarlum Kuiil vol. I. p. Iia Acta SS. Fcbr. vol XL p. 447.
OHAP. in. ECCLES. UFE. 1 274. CONVENTS, f 275. BEOHINES. 317
of 1)19 dislike toward them, granted similar privileges to the Servitet (Servi b.
Horuie Virg.), an order which originated (1238) in a religions excitement
among some gentlemen belonging to the principal families of Florence, and
which was intended to celebrate the honors of the divine Virgin and her sor-
rows, (e) Colomhino^ while pemsing the lives of the saints was excited to
renonpce the highest power in the government of Siena for the most menial
occupations, and founded, in accordance with the rule of Augustine, the order
of the Jesuites^ (/) which was confirmed by Urban V. (1367) as an order of
meiidic^mt lay brethren, but was abolished by Clement IX. (1668) as wealthy
padri del* acquavite. Finally Francisco de Paolo (d. 1507), whose life is
represented to have been a monstrous caricature of the life of Jesus, founded
an exaggerated resemblance of the order of the Minorites, in that of the
Minimi^ incorporated by Sixtus IV. (1474) and confirmed with a gi'odual
enlargement of their rule by Alexander VI. (1492, 1501), and Julius II.
(1506). ig) In Spain and in Italy there were certain hermits, who were united
in congregations, and assumed the name of St Ilieronymus (after 1370).
Some of these lived according to the rule of Augustine, but under the patron-
age of Ilieronymus, and others were governed by a rule derived from the
writings of him whcse name they bore, (h) The Olketans (Congr. S. Mariae
montis Oliveti) were founded as a congregation of Benedictines in a wilder-
ness near Siena by John Tolomei^ in commemoration of the recovery of his
fflght, and were recognized by John XXII. (1819). (i) With the approbation
of Urban V. (1379) 'Birgitte (d. 1373), a pious seeress, belonging to the royal
house of Sweden, who had fulfilled the duties of a wife and a mother,
fonnded the order of the Redeemer (commonly called Ordo S. Birgittae).
The rule of this order required that there should be in each convent sixty
nuns, and for the performance of its spiritual duties thirteen priests, four dea-
cons, and eight lay brethren. All these, with the numerous convents of the
order in the northern countries, were to be under the control of the abbess
of Wadiiena^^ who was regarded as the representative of the holy Virgin, (it)
§ 275. More Independent Associations,
As early as in the eleventh century some women in the Netherlands asso-
ciated together, without entering into any absolute vows, for the perform-
ance of works of mercy, and were popularly named Beghines^ or praying
sisters. Their number increased during the thirteenth century, when many
conld not be satisfied without something more than a connection with either
the general Church or with the convents, or were too poor to assume the
veil. A more honorable kind of nunneries (the Canonissae saeculares) was
also established for the noble widows and the orphan children of the cru-
saders. The example of the Beghincs was soon followed by certain men who
t) PatUi Florent. Dial de orig. O. Serv. (Lamii Delic. Erad. Th. I. p. las.) .
/) AcUi S9. Jal. Th. VII. p. im^
g) Acta SS. Apr. Th. I. p. 103*8. /A/yof, Th. VIL p. 42ftw.
h) ITol^ten. BrockU Th. III. p. 43. Th. IV. p. Iss. 0 R'tynald, ad win. 182a N. 50.
k) BirgitUie rcvclaJones, ed. Tarrecr^mata, Lub. 1492. Mon. 1690. t & often. Llfo In: VaiUf
«« VlUs Aqullonla 8. Vilae 89. in Scandinavia. Col 1628. f. c. notls Erici Ii«ti»*l, Ups. 170S. 4. Kule
In HoUten. Brockie Th. III. p. lOOsa,
318 MEDIAEVAL I'UUECII HISTORY. PER IV. A. D. 1216-1517.
were called Beghards. (a) A peculiar class of these people, whose office it
was to attend upon the sick and to bury the dead, proceeded also (about
1800) from the Netherlands, and were called from their patron saint
Ahxiani^ from the huts in which they resided, CelUtae^ and from their low
funeral chants, Lollanh (Nollbruder). There was naturally an intercourse
between these fraternities and the Tertiaries connected with the mendicant
orders, and there were many unobserved transitions from the one to the
other. Accordingly after the middle of the thirteenth century, when they
were thrown into a hostile position with respect to the hierarchy, and the
suspicions of the inquisition had been awakened, many Beghines betook
themselves to the communities of the Tertiaries, and again, when the Minor-
ites became involved in party conflicts, many of them became connected
witli the Beghards and Lollards, since these were regarded as their compan-
ions in sutferings and hopes, and were likewise then persecuted as heretics.
But after the time of John XXII. the popes protected against the inquisition
those engaged only in works of charity, {h) In the same country, distin-
guished as the Ijome of practicid views, was formed under the influence of
Gerhard Groot of Deventer (d. 1384), a powerful preacher of repentance, a
society called the BrotJura of the Common Life^ which was composed prind-
prtlly of clergymen engaged in copying books. The convent of regular
canons at Windesheim (1386), with which all similar institutions were con-
nected, became the spiritual centre of this community. Some of its mem-
bers remained in connection with the parishes where they resided, and others
lived in the houses of the brethren, supj)orted by the profits derived from
their common occupations. The latter were bound by a special vow to re-
fuse jdl secular, literary, and ecclesiastical honors, and the lives of all were to
be devoted to pious exercises and studies, in which nothing was to be allowed
unless it tended to their improvement. Laymen were admitted as members,
houses were also established for sisters, the literary education of the youth
was conducted on Christian principles, and the perusal of the Scriptures in
the vernacular language was encouraged, but the grand object of the society
wjis the cultivation of their own spiritual happiness, (c)
§ 270. The Templars and the Knights of St, John. Cont. from § 211.
liaynald. ad anii. 1307-13. P. du Put/y Ilbt dc la condamnaUon dc8 Templlere. Par. 1650. 4.
Frkf. 1C65. 4. Mofdtinhtiic^r^ Trocoris gogen <l O. d. TtMnpl. a. d. Acton d. papstl. Commiss^. IlaoiK
1792. /{(ii/nouard, M<muincns, lilst relalifa. a la condamnatiun des Chevaliers du Temple. Par.
1S18. In MU'helrt, Proccs des TemplW'ra. Par. 1841. 4. Jtaiilard de Chamhure^ Kt-gle et BtatutM
secrets des Tcuip., prcccdcc» de Tbl^t. do retablibseinent, de la destruction et de la continuation
UKxIernc. Par. 1S41.
Dark rumors began to prevail respecting the secret crimes committed by
a) Mosheinu, de Begliardls ct Be»:uinabus. ed. Martini ^ Lps. 1T90. E. Ifallmann^ Gesch. d. Ur^pr.
d. belgisjjl.en Bej^lilnen. Berl. 1S43, [Mosheim. Ecclea. Hist, Cent XIII. Chap, IL $ 40. note r.)
h) Bulla of John XXII. and Grog. XI. 1818. 1374. and 1377. in MotthHm. Lap. 896. 401. 627.
c) I. Lives of Gerliord and FlorenUus by Thomas a KempU. (0pp. ed. SoinmaliuM^ Antu. 1(507.
4. p. 7C5.) J. BuHchy Chronicon Windesemense, ed. JiofnceUle, Antu. 1621.— IL Clarine (Son and
Father) over den Gee»l en do Denkwijze van Gecrt Groot (Archief voor kerlcel^e G^chiedenis.
1829. vol. I. p. 855. 1830. vol. II. p. 847.) Delprat, over de Broedcrechap van G. Oroote. L'trechL
1980. with an App. by Mohnike^ Lpz. 1840. UUmann^ Reformatoren v. d. Be£ voL IL p. 6289.
CHAP. IIL BCCLE8. LIFE, f 276. TEMPLARS. KNIGHTS OF ST. JOHN. 319
tbe Templare. PhUijy tho Fair commenced an actual investij?ation of these,
by the imprisonment of all the Templars then in France, for which he had
made secret preparation, and hy the confiscation of their property (Oct. 18,
1307). The charges es[)Ocially urged against them were a denial of Christ,
adoration of the idol called Baphomet, and unnatural lewdness. Tlie pro-
ceedings before the royal connnission at Paris, which issued in the condem-
nation of tho order, were characterized by the grossest injustice and illegali-
ties. It is indeed true that more than once the interests of Christendom had
been sacrificed to the selfish policy of the order, and it is probable that some
knights had been guilty of unnatural vices, that the order had become per-
vaded by a spirit hostile to the Church, and that a few Grand Comnianderies
bad been indifferent to the religious controversies of the day. Nothing,
however, was legally proved against the order. It was evident that Philip
was eager to get possession of the wealth belonging to tho Templars, and to
break up the government which they had formed within and independent of
his own. Clement V. sacrificed them to obtain the favor of the king, and
this proud order of knights could expect no aid, for it had lost the friendship
of the clergy (//) Even before the proceedings were concluded, fifty-four
knights were burned by order of Philip (May 12, 1310), because no confes-
rion could be extorted from them by all the power of the rack. As a matter
of expediency and not from regard to a judicial sentence, the order was
abolished by Clement (May 3, 1312). (h) Its property was to have been
given to the other orders of knighthood, but in France the king firmly
grasped the reword of his guilt. James of Molay^ the Grand ^Master of tho
order, who with other high functionaries had been condemned to perpetual
imprisonment, was burned (March 19, 1814) because he j)ublicly denied cer-
tain confessions alleged to have been made by him. (r) The people looked
npon his death as that of a martyr, and upon that of the king and of tho
pope, which speedily followed it, as special citations to the bar of God. Tho
(ate of the expiring order in the several countries where it prevailed was
different, according to the justice or favor shown toward it by the princes
and bishops, and the courage and unanimity exhibited by the knights them-
selves. Except in France, they generally were pennitted to enjoy hfe, lib-
erty, and a competent support during life. The memory of the sainted
Molay, and a hope that the ruined Temple would in some future day be re-
stored, was secretly spread abroad among the people. — The Knights of St.
John, deprived of Ptolemais by the Saracens, settled in Cyprus, but having
conquered Rhodes (1310), they afterwards made it the principal seat of their
order. The tragical fate of the Templars, in whose guilt they had partici-
pated and whoso rivals they had been, was not beheld by them in vain. As
^ey were generally connected with the nohility of Eur<)i)e, and po^s^ssed
o) Xicoliii CL d. Be<chuI<Hjrunjfon, welche deni T. O. comacbt wonlen. Ilrl. 17S2. On tho i>ther
•M«: Ihrdf, In thfl Morcnr. March, 17S8. Munt^r In Honki's N. Mag. vol. V. p. 3Ms:«. hmnrnfir,
^rtertam Baphomctiit revoUtnm. (Fumlprub. d. Orl. 181S. vol. VI. i»t 1.) Rnynonard In the
'own. drt Sarans, Mar«, Avr. 1S19. Blblloth. univ. vol. X. p. 827. XI. p. a.
^) JT.iMi vol. XXV. p. 8*9.
0 VVUini VIII, 92. C^ntln. Chron. Gnu, ae Xangls in D'Achery Splcil. vol. IIL p. 67. Ray
**««i L c p. SO60&
320 MEDIAEVAL CHUKCII IIISTOKY. PER. IV. A*. D. 1216-1M7.
great power on the sen, their order hecmne a fbrniidable bulwark of Chrb-
tendom against the Turks.
CHAP. IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL LITERATURE.
§ 277. ScJwlasticism. Second Period. ISth Century. Cont. frofn § 218.
Paris now gave unequivocal evidence that it had become the principal
seat of a scholasticism which developed its maturity in intimate connection
with academic life. The Physics, the Metaphysics, and the Ethics of Ariii-
totle were introduced by the x\rabians, and even Thomas made use of e
translation from the original Greek, (a) The hierarchy wore indeed jealous
of the ascendency of a heathen philosopher, and attempted (after 1210) to
l>rohihit the use of the whole, or at least of a part of his writings, but oven
the power of the Church was ineffectual against a prevalent intellectual ten-
dency of the age. Through the influence of the mendicant friars especially,
this philosopher was regarded as the harbinger of Christ, and the representa-
tive of all natural science, in accordance with whose principles the eternal
truth of the doctrines of the Church may be proved, and a systematic con-
nection between them may be established. (/>) But the spirit of the Chnreh
was as powerful as a philosophy which was obliged to direct its energies
wherever tlie liighest intellectual interest existed. The Franciscan Alexan-
df-r of Jlalc^^^ a master of theology in Paris (Doctor irrefragibilis, d. 1245), by
his acute analysis of all j)Ossible questions, already indicated what was to be
the next form philosophy would assume, and at the same time showed by his
practical ecclesiastical tendencies the peculiar character which it then pos-
sessed, (r) Tlie little Dominican Albertm of Bollstadt (d. 1280), in the midst
of his various academic and ecclesiastical engagements, made a collection of
all the knowledge of his age. From the Arabians he derived a knowledge
of nature and of its mysteries, {d) By his history of the Winter Garden and
of the Speaking Head, he obtained the reputation of being a wizard and a
man of the people, (') and from his relation to his still greater pupil, the
saint, he received the appellation of the Great. The Dominican Thomm
(Count) of Aquino (d. 1274), who taught in Cologne, Paris, Rome, and other
cities of Italy (Doctor angelicus), and who refused the office of archbisliop of
Na])les, his native country, may be regarded as the highest point of Scholfls*
ticism. Subtle and profound, full of enthusiasm in behalf of the doctrines
of the Church as well as of philosophy, he made a powerful effort to effect a
reconciliation between Aristotle, Plato, and Augustine. The order to which
(7) Jourdfiin, ([k 237.) p. 4'i5<. ISOss.
h) Jonrdoin^ p. IQS.-v. BuUuua vol. III. p. SI. 14088. Launoius^ de varia Aristot in Acad.
Par. fort una. Par. H»9. 4. ed. J. 11. ab EUwich, Vit 1720. Acta Philosophor. llaL 172a St XL pu
710. tt. XV. p. 869.
c) Snraina unlv. Tliool. In 1. IV. Sontt Ven. 1475. Col. 1622. 4 vols, t
0) After the Coinniontarios upon ArLototlo and Lombard u.% consnlt Summa Thcol., pbyatc wd
a^t^ol. writings Opp. ed. P. Januni/, Lufd. 1C51. 21 vols. t—Iiutlol. Notiomagentia de vitA AlU
MagnL O.L 1490. f.
e) Gdrrta: toiit Volksbucb. p. 27s8. Volks- u. Meistcrlieder. Ueldelb. 1817. pw MSan.
CHAP. IV ECCLES. LIT. 1 27a SCHOLASTICISM. SC0TU8. 321
he belonged has been accustomed to regard his Snmina as the most perfect
development of Christian science, and even the Chnrch, after some hesitation,
finally received it as a work in which Christ himself might find pleasure. (/)
§ 278. Scholasticism. Third Period. 14:th and 15th Centuries.
When the highest intellectual energies had been exerted to harmonize the
two great anthorities of the age, the only alternative for science in its pro-
gress, was to direct its attention to the differences which existed between
them. Bnt this struggle with the internal and external power of the Church
was manifested in a play of bold questions which exceeded the proper
province of theology, and although they were all so decided as not to con-
flict with the doctrines of the Church, in the mere proposal of them intellec-
tQftl free<lom was preserved, and an obscure dissatisfaction was shown toward
the limitations im[>osed upon it. The remark that a principle might be true
in philosophy and yet bo false in theology, betrays the doubt which Scholas-
tiwm felt with respect to its own ultimate tendencies. The leaders of this
school generally came from those orders which were most prone to dwagree
with the Church. Duns Scotus^ a teacher in Oxford, Paris, and Cologne
(Doctor subtilis, d. 1308), recognized man as an individual created by the
Holy Ghost, and consequently in his original condition pure and free, but
limited by his connection with the world, and capable of redemption, so as
to possess a. true divine intuition only by the power of the Church, (a)
William of Occam ^ a teacher in Paris (venerabilis inceptor), after 1322 the
provincial of the Franciscan order in England, and after 1328 a resident at
the court of Louis (p. 299, d. 1847), wielded the sword of a free spirit not
only in his doctrine but in his life. He however knew no other way to res-
. CQc the absolute doctrines of the Church but by asserting, in accordance with
»new form of Nominalism, the subjective conditions under which all human
knowledge must be placed. (7;) The old controversy respecting Nominalism
*M consequently revived, and although Louis XI. had proscribed (1473) it us
dtnijerous, and with a similar stretch of arbitrary power had subsequently
(1481) (r) invited a free discussion of it, victory now preponderated in its
^▼or. The Franciscans, delighted with the prospect of opposing the niys-
tenoos subtlety of their Scotus to the saintly authority of Thomas, now
'^solved to follow none but him. The controversies respecting the proper
^its of human freedom, the satisfaction of Christ, and the sinlessness of
^'•'y, were only subordinate elements in the intricate conflict in which the
^^iif« and the Seotists, the Realists and the Nominalists^ proved the full
f) Cnmna. In 1. IV. Sentcntlarnm. Snmma Theol. in 8 P. (8 vols. Incompletfs snpplied by Suppl.
«C«mni. in 4 L Sentt) CommenL Q. BRcher d. Arlat n. d. h. Schrift, apolog. n. asket Schrr. 0pp.
^1570, 17 vola. t and often. Ven. lT45ss. 28 vols. A.— Acta SS. Mart vol. I. p. 655. Touron,
^*«S. Tbomas. Par. 1787. 4 Bern, de Rttbeis de gestis et Scrr. B. Thomac, Von. 1750. t Kling
'■'l^TbwL d. Thtim. (S^ffler'a rel. Zeitschr. 198a vol. IIL H. 1.) IT. l/oerttl, Thorn, u. b. ZelL
^•lM«i [Art in Kitto's Journal of Bib. Lit vol. I. p. 1.]
*) <^>aestionea in 1. IV. 8entt QaesU. qoodlibefales XL 0pp. ed. Wadding, Logd. 1689bii. IS Th.
, ''• ^ Albergoni Besolutio doctr. Scotlcae. Logd. 1648. Baumgarien-CrutiuB^ de TbeoL SootL
^l«ll
^) Qoaettlonct saper 1. IV. Betitt Centlloqalaro tbeol. Lngd. 1495. f.
') ArioMi Th. V. pi 706aBL Comp. UUmann^ Weasel p. 827aa.
21
322 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTOKY. PER. IV. A. D. 121«-l5i:.
power of their intellectual and spiritual weapons. (<7) The systematic char-
acter of Scholasticism became much relaxed in such polemic engagements,
and in the conflicts of the schools it lost its religious earnestness. Its decline
had already commenced when it refused its countenance to the riew form in
which science now made its appearance. It had, however, aroused men to
freedom of thought, given a rigidly scientific form to the doctrines of faith,
and presented the true questions on which philosophy should be employed.
It had therefore fulfilled its destiny by giving a definite form to the existing
materials. Gahriei Biel (d. 1495) is usually mentioned as the last of the
Scholastics. lie was the faithful counsellor of Count Eberhard in the estab-
lishment of the high school of Tubingen (1477), and was intimately con-
nected with Occam in a liberal opposition to the papacy. He was also much
engaged in making known the Ethics of Aristotle, but he was of a modest
spirit, and inclined to favor a scriptural and j)ractical Christianity, {t)
§ 279. Mi/HticiHm, Second Period. Cont, from § 219.
Amol'I, Lebcn d. GIfiubU;en. Hal. 1701. A mold i Hist, et descr. Thcol. mysUcae. Fret 1702. p.
292S8. Ue Wet4^, chr. 8ittenl. Brl. 1821. toI. II. II. 2. p. 220i«. C/u Schmidt, Ettsal snr los iiysUquos
du quatorzicnio biccle. Strasb. 1886. 4. Vllmann, Kefomiatoren vord. Ref. vol. II. p. ]25s«. F.
GalU, Golstl. Stlmmen a. d. M;V. Hal. 1841.—/'. P/eiffer, dcutsche Myittiker d. 14. Jahrh. Lpt 1S4&
voL I. (the less Important.)
The course of Scholasticism was always completed by the prevalence of
Mysticism. It was not, however, until it had become much degenerated in
the wranglings of the schools, that new advocates began to arise, who es-
caped from the tumult of the buyers and sellers to find a refuge in the inner
sanctuary, and now defended the cause of Christian feeling principally in the
German language, and with a German spirit. There were two tendencies
distinguishable among them, although they are often blended together. The
first was a class of persons addicted to si)eculative reveries, and may be
traced back to Erigena, Dionysius, and the New Platonists. They described
the extinction of all selfishness and the perfection of hoi}' love as an absorp-
tion of the soul in God, and more or less consciously interpreted ecclesiastical
dogmas simply as allegories. And yet so strong were their moral and eccle-
siastical tendencies, tliat this was always connected with a recognition of a
creation, and of the historical son of God. Master Eclard alone, the pro-
vincial of the Dominicans at Cologne, by his feeling of nearness and ardent
love to God, attained such a giddy height that he lost all consciousness of
the distinction between God and man, Christ and the Christian, good and
evil, and his memory was attainted by the ecclesiastical tribunals (1329). (<i)
John Tauler^ a Dominican residing at Cologne and Strasbourg (Doctor snb-
d) Arada, Controverslao inter 9. Thomam ct 8cotum super IV. I. Seatt CoL 162a 4. Bulaeui,
Th, IV. p. 208saw Argentri Th. I. p. 842s8.
e) Colk'ctorlutn ex Occamo In 1. IV. Sontt (Tub. 1502. 2 volsw) Brix. 1574. 4 voIbl 4 Sermoi. da
Temp. Tub. 1500. A.—TrUhem. de Scrr. eoc c. 90S. MottH Vltae I*To«efia. Tubing. Tub. 17ia 1
Decas Llf.W. Biel. (pr. Wemmlorf) de Gab.^Blcl, celeberrimo Paptsta AnUpaplata. VIL in». 4
o) liaymild, ad ann. 1829. N. 70. Doctn^ ^flscell. z. Gesch. d. deuL Literat vol L p. MSaa. C
Schmidt, ^^eister Eckard. (Stud. u. Krit 1889. U. &) JK MarUnten, Melster Kek. Th«oL Stodie.
Hamb. 1842.
CHAP. IV. ECCLE8. LIT. $ ^9. TAULEB. KUYSBBOEK. 8US0. 323
litnis et illnroinatns, d. 1861), after preaching for some time in a spiritual and
acceptable manner, became convinced by a layman (Nicolas of Basle) that his
spirit had never been traly consecrated to God by a complete death to the
world and to himself. lie immediately became, in consequence of his utter
despair of himself, a most awakening preacher to others. In strange lan-
guage he allured them to seek for intellectual poverty as the true way to
become like God, and invited them to taste the delicious pleasure of com-
pletely dying in God. (//) Standing in no need of sensible imagery, and set
at liberty by God himself, he preached that the spiritual and the temporal
sword should never be used in the place of one another ; that in the con-
flicts between civil princes the jKwr innocent people should not bo placed
ander the curse, and that if they were, the curse would become a blessing.
It was not long before he himself experienced the power of such a curse, (e)
John Rvyfibroth (Doctor ec»8taticus, d. 1881), having been long employed in
the service of the Church, sought to find a quiet retirement in the Angus-
tinian convent of Gruenthal, near Brussels, in which ho recorded his thoughts
in a simple and monotonous but lofty manner, under the impression that
they were inspired by God. He described the sacred frenzy of love as
nierely a state of transition, and the higher life as a perpetual birth of the
Sob and an everlasting effusion of the Holy S])irit within us. He warned
men against spiritual indolence, recognized the moral power of the will, but
commended mental ecstasy as the highest state of existence, because in it
num is released from the images and veils of his own being, and sunk in the
abyss of divine love. ('/) Even the German Theology of the fifteenth cen-
tnry expended its principal strength in discussing subjects relating to perfec-
tion and its several degrees, the extinction of Adam and the formation of
Christ in us, and the necessary processes of becoming human and divine.
Tb«e expressions, however, could readily have been adopted by a simple
pious spirit, as mere descriptions of that revelation of an exalted love of
God out of which they sprung, (f) A transition from this position may be
noticed in the Dominican Henry Suso (d. in Ulm, 1305), uho was said to
btve been named Amandus by God himself. Even in liis youth he had been
remarkable for an alloetionate spirit, and troubled with the sorrows of every
tiling around him. He appears in the character of a Snabian Minnesinger,
MNicbfuIgiinsr<lc»armen I-*bons Chrlstl, Murk iL :>«'eIo, A; others. Lpz. 149S. Ausr^b. l.'SO^. Ai often.
V«iisf«nf.»nnc«l to tlie present forms of lanffoaffe, and ed. by C*i>'H<>det\ Luz. Ivi.S. T'li changed
•*l"a«»ft!i^ arnu-n Lt-bi-ns C.hristl. with lexicon TKuIerisinnm by Si-fi lin^a^r, Vrkf. 1n83. von d.
LAlwnn^ Ilerm. Sulz. IVM. Oi>p. ]»t. rodd. Sitriutf, Col. IM**. f. Predlgrttn. Frkf. IS^fl 3 vols.
lV#a\f,| {q ihe!»e, the lii.-tory <»f hi* converHon by himself: Historic' des Ehrw. d. Joh. Taulcr. —
^'^«M'*(«, Meinoria Taul. in.-taur. Vit ICSS. 4. Oherliu, de Taul. dictione vern. et niyst Arg.
"^i f. .SiAm/<//, J. Taul. Ilamb. 1841. i?M</f/6rtc^, chr. Biogr. pt 187»s. [B. Buehniig.J.T.
*• i Freonde Gottfii. Lp». 18r4. 12.]
f) Si>fcmn*» Collectaneen a<i ann. 1850. SchtfiUN, p. ^'^8^
'^'iHromatu i«pirltnalinm nuptiarum. Speculum aeL sal ut la, etc. 0pp. e. Brabantiae permanico
**«>' «ediL lat i*r /-. Surium, Col. ir>55. f and often. His Vita by a brother Doininiran of the
"♦^tftoemion ,.(,YJi^ by Surlus. Four treatlsea of Rush, in Low Germ. (ed. by Ar*ntncaldt)
****V Cllmann, Ran. l$iS.—Engt/h<irdt (p. ^>. n. b.) p. IGSas.
«)Tent»<.he Theohjgia, ed. by Luther, Witt TM6. 4 by Grfll Brl. 1S17. by F. L. Kriiffsr,
^^"^ IStt by Dete^i-, Erl. 1S27. by TroxUr, S. C. alien, 1887. by VUMtnthal, BerL 1S42. by Pfe^-
MStitti. 1S5L comp. UUmann, In Stud. n. Krit 1S52. U. 4.
324 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTOBT. PER. IT. A. D. 121«-1517.
bnt the mistress of his affections, to whom he devoted himself in mysterious
longings, and with all the passion of yoath, was eternal Wisdom. In parsnit
of this he tortured himself for many years, until his nature became utterly
wasted. He was then favored by God with still severer trials, in the endur-
ance of which he succeeded in attaining the tranquillity of divine love, and
became lost in that divine nature which is the real essence of all creatures.
His fundamental doctrine was, that a passive human being must be divested
of the creature, formed anew in the likeness of Christ, and perfected in the
Deity. There was a vigorous moral spirit in his ardent love which sought to
save every thing ruined by sin around him. (/) The other tendency of Mys-
ticism was directed to the simple wants of the heart and of the people.
Thomas (Ilamerken) of Kempen^ a canon of the convent of Mount St. Agnes,
near Zwoll (d. 1471), in spite of his zeal for monasticism and the worship of
the Blessed Virgin, by his writings as well as by his private counsels uncon-
sciously led many from the Roman Church to the true Church of the heart,
by a quiet communion of the soul with God and Jesus Christ. ({/) The book
on the Imitation of Christ, respecting the author of which whole onlers of
monks and nations have contended, became a kind of Bible for the people,
and in quiet contrast v^ith the worship of the saints, the formal life pursued
in the convents, and the fables of the Minorites, set forth the true spiritual
following of Jesus in the destruction of all selfishness, and in the exercise of
a love which unconditionally surrendered itself to God. (A) This branch of
Mysticism had a seminary which was maintained among the Brethren of the
common life.
§ 280. Exceases and Compromises,
From what is related of Tournay^ it is evident that Scholasticism had
.the presumption to imagine that the very existence of Christianity depended
upon its power and its logic, (a) Scholasticism was accused of forgetting the
word of God while contending about mere words, of frittering away the
earnestness of the Christian life by its sophistries, of driving away animation
by its frigid learning, and of making theologians seem like fantastic vision-
/) Llfo of IL 8u9o by himself. BCicblein v. d. ew. Welshelt, and other nrritlngn.— Lcben a.
Schrifttin Recording to tlie old style of writing and printing by DUpenhrock^ with Einl. t. G^rr€\
Katisb. 1829. 0pp. latt red. Stirius, Col 15&& QeistL Biathen. v. Soso. Bonn. ISM. C Schmidt,
H. Soso. (Stud. u. Krit 1848. 11. 4.)
ff) Soliloqaia aniinae. Exercitia spiritnalla. Uortalas roaar. YallLs liliorum. Hoepltato panpenim.
Vitae Beatorum. Dial Novitiorum. 0pp. ed. Sommalius, Col. 1560. 4. and often. Aaseerl Schrr.
Weim. 1S24. 4 vols. Siimmtl. Werkc uebcra. v. Silhtrt, Vienna. ISSSaa. 4 vols. [TransL Into Engl
Lond. 2 vols. \%.'\—ScKolU, Th. a K. sent de re. chr. exponitar. Gron. 1889. J5L Bukring^ Th. v.
K. Brl. 1849.
h) De iinitatione Ch. Argent 1472 often and in varioos languages since Fahric, BibL med. et InC
Lat vol. IV. p. 214aa. [Imiution of C. new ed. Lond. 1849. 8.]— G'. d« Ortgory, Memoins car le
vdritable auteur do rimltation de J. C. revu p. le Comte Lanjvinais, Par. 1827. Whb app. by
WeigL, Sulzb. 1882. Silhert^ Gersen, Gerson u. Kcmpia, welcher ist Vrl Ac YIen, 1828. G. i*
Or«gory, de imit Cb. Aquae 8ext. 1888. Ullmann^ Reformatoren. voL II. SapiJeroent J. R
Malou, Rechercbes sur le veriUble aatenr. (acad. royale de Belgiqae. Brax. 184a 4 vola. XIV.)— 8e-
eandus tract de imit. Chr. ed. Liebner, Goet 1842. Cooap. UUmann In Stad. n. Krit 1818. H. 1.
[and BaehHng, in Stud. u. Krit 1850. H. a] -^
a) M(it Paris ad ann. 1201. p. 144. Bat oomp. Rmr, OandavensU L. do aerr. eoc c. H
{FiMbric Bibl. eo& vol. IL p. 121.)
CHAP. lY. ECCLES. LIT. f 88a BONAVENTUBA. OERSON. 325
arieB in the eyes of other learned men. With such views, Gerson and Nicolas
of CUimengU demanded that the course of theological studies should be re-
formed, (i) There was, however, so much of truth on the side of both
Scholastir.ism and Mysticism, that the compromise which had been effected
between them could not be abandoned. This compromise was attempted
daring the most flourishing period of Scholasticism by lionaxentura (Jobn of
Fidanza, Dootor seraphicus, d. 1274), and during its decline by Genon (John
Charlier, Doctor Christianissimus, d. 1429), but it was attained rather in tlieir
personal lives than in a scientific form. Bonaventura strictly conformed to
the mles of Scholasticism, but ho has enlivened its most subtle definitions
with the ardor of his own feelings. His affectionate spirit contemplate^l
both the internal and the external life as a mirror of the eternal reality,
thongh he was not anfrequently invited to the most extensive spheres of ac-
tivity in the Church. He is one of those exalted forms in which the eccle-
siastical spirit most complacently exhibits its glories. We need not wonder,
therefore, that the representatives both of the Eastern and of the Western
Ghurch mingled their tears at his tomb, (c) From the position of Mysticism,
which he established by psychological arguments, and fortified by sound
logic, Gerson carried on a powerful conflict in behalf of the true peace of
the Church against the extravagances of the hierarchy and the errors of su-
perstition. (//) Raymond de Subunde^ a Spaniard, endeavored to eftect (about
1480) a more perfect union of these opposite parties by laying aside the
formulas then generally in use. "God has bestowed upon man the book
of nature, in which every creature is a letter written by God. Tliis
divine book and the Holy Scriptures can never contradict one another. The
former, which is common and open to all, is the primary source of knowl-
edge, is intelligible to the laity, and cannot be perverted by heretics. But
the highest knowledge is the love of God, which is the only thing man can
truly call his own, to be offered to his Creator.'* According to this signifi-
cant train of thought, it is not very diflicult to construct the doctrine of the
Church from materials supplied by the book of nature, /. e. from the internal
and external experience of man, who needs not an artificial science, but only
a higher illumination, {e)
V) Gtrtonii Epfx doae de reform. Theol. (0pp. vol. I. p. 121. 4S.) Xic de Clemangi« L. de studio
T>»«>1 (.DTAcKery, SplcIL vol. I. p. 478.)
e) Cummentar. in IV. L Sontt Breviloqaiam (cd. TTef^U^ Tub. 1S45.) Centiloqnium.— Itinomriara
■cwUfln Dennu Stiiuuliu. Incondium amoris. 0pp. Jumu SixU V. cnicnd. Horn. 15SS. S. Th. f. Yen.
Wl* W Th. 4.
') Alter the ecclcBiasttcal publiftlied wrlHngrs rspectally : Conslderatiooes do Th. mystica 0pp.
^l>E.du Pin, Anta. ITOfi. 6 Th. t—Lecuy, Easai sur la vl© de J. Oera. Par. 1882 2 TU.—EngfU
*""td« Oera. mystico P. II. ErL 1822s. 4. Ilundeshagen Q. d. myst Th«»l. d. J. Oera. Lpa. 1884.
(Zdtacbr. C Llat Th. voL IV. SL 1.) LUbner,iL Gers. myst Theol. (Stud. u. Krlt. 1S.S5. II. 2.)
•*'^'*i, doctr. J. Gers. d. Th. myat Par. 1S88. Ch. i'ichmiclt, Easal sur Jean Gcra. Stra^b. 1S89.
') Uh, creaturarum a. TheoL nataralls. Argent 149d. Latiniore stylo in oomp. red. a. </. 0»n*>'
"'^AiDit 1650. 12. Solisbac 1S52.— Montaigne, £»ais II, 12. D. Matzke, d. nat. Theol. d. K. v.
'^•riiL 184flu Stud. n. Krit 1S4T. U. 4.
326 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCU UISEOBY. PEB. IV. A. D. 1216-151T.
§ 281. The sO'CalUd Rethal of Literature.
MeinerB^ Lebensbwchrr. bcrulimte Manner a. d. z. d. TViederh. d. W. Zur. 1795eft. 8 voli.
Ileeren^ Gwcb. d. clasj«. Lit. i^ d. Wlcderaufl. d. W. Grjtt. 1797. 1S<»1. 2 voK //. A. tYhnrJ, Gesch.
d. Wii'deraufbluh. wlss. Bildiing vorn. in Dentschl. Magdb. 1S27 82. 8 vols. K KninTi Xar. de
bumanitails Etndior. XV. vt XVI. S. in Germ, origlne et indole. Mii^n. 1S48. 4. Editions of tb«
mwlern Classics and Ibeir Conmientaries in Ehert. [//. IlnUam^ Int. to the Lit «»f Knr. in tbe \h.
16. and 17. Ccntt. Chap. I. dc II. Lond. 1S42. New York. 1S47. J. BeHngUtn, Lit HIat of the MfcL
A^e& IjonA. 1S46. & de S'utmandi^ II. of Lit in tbe South of Eur. transL by Iio9co€, New York.
1S27. 2 vols. 8.]
A scientific educjition had been extensively secnred and diffused by means
of tbe Universities. These were sometimes devoted only to a single depart-
ment of science, and at other times embraced faculties for all the sciences.
They had generally been founded by the princes, or the cities in whose neigh-
borhood they were, and especially in Germany they were all conformed to
the model of that of Paris. The first of these was established at Prague
(1348), and the last at Wittcnlerg (1502). But they were dependent for all
their i)rivilege8 upon the papal see, and very readily settled down in the
comfortable routine of traditii;)nary learning. The scientific sjurit then
awakened received only indirect encouragement from these institntions.
The Franciscan Roger Bacon (Doctor mirabilis, d. 1294) pointed out the
defects of a barren knowledge of Scholasticism, and in the character of a
proi)het of worldly science, with geniid energy and maltijdied experiments
penetrated thoroughly into the mysteries of nature, whoso arrangements he
recognized in every thing, {a) Dante Alighleri (d. 1321 in exile at Ravenna),
in his Divine Comedy, effected a reconciliation of the claims of love and reli-
gion, and as in a General Judgment of sacred poesy gave an allegoriciU repre-
sentation not only of the state of the human mind and of his age, bat of the
history of the world. "With the boldness of a Ghibelline, in whose eyes the
universal authority of the empire was as truly instituted by God, and was as
essential to the welfare of the world as the papacy itself, he denoancod the
abuses of the hierarchy, and on his own authority canonized or consigned to
perdition whom he pleased. A friend of Virgil, he was no less an admirer
of St. Thomas, an enthusiast for ecclesiastical doctrines, and the first-bom
son of the Church among the poets. (^) This great work of modern genius,
which he composed in the language of the people, but with a perfection
worthy of the best of the ancient writers, awakened a spirit which could
appreciate and confide in those writers also. The age was in fact now fully
prepared for a revival of the great works of antiquity. Although the
chissics, especially the Roman, had never been entirely forgotten, the true
spirit which pervaded them had not been perceived, and the language in
a) Opus mi^as (1266.) ed. Sum. Jebb, Lond. 1783. f. comp. Samnil. merkw. Lebensbescbrr. Ilal.
1757. ToL IV. p. 61CS8.
fc) C<nnp. Diintifi Epp. c notis ed. C. Wittf^ Patar. Id27. BautngnrUn-CruaivM de Dantid doe-
trina tlieul. (Opp. p. 827.hs.) Osanam, Dante ct la pbil. cath. an 18 si6c1e. Par. 1889. M&nat 1S4i
L. n. Arndt, de Dante hcritporc Ghibcllina Bon. 1S40. Schrr. of Schlo9Mr, ISW u. ISSa Witte,
1S31. Blanc in d. Encjkl. vol. XXIII. Philaletheii (John, Duke of SaxonyX 1S89s0l Of^M,
ArUiud,'i^A2. F. X. TT^v'/', Dante's Leben il Werko, kullurgesch. Jena. 1S02. [ScM^tl^lWsLot
Lit New York. 1S44. //. SUhhingn, Lives of the Ital. Poet^. Lond. 1S88. 8 Tola. 8. C. £alb^ Ufa
and Timea of Dante, f^oin tbe Ital. by Bunhury^ Lond. 1S51. 2 vola. 8.]
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIT. $ 281. HUMANISTS. 327
which they were written had become qnite destroyed. Petrarch (d. 1874)
was the first who turned with a congenial spirit to the ancient authors, and
even if his imitations be regarded as unsuccessful, ho was certainly trained
by them until he became a general spokesman in the aflUirs of Italy, and of
the human heart, (c) Jhccaccio (d. 1875) labored in the same field, and
brought back to Western Europe the gods of ancient Greece. He was pub-
licly appointed to expound the writings of Dante, wrote the first polished
prose in the language of the people, and was allowed to exercise his wit at
the expense of the monks, of good morals, and probably also of Christianity
itself. (f() A knowledge of Grecian antiquity had been introduced, especially
after the Synod of Florence (1439), by large numbers of Greeks, who as
deputies or fugitives became scattered in all parts of Italy. These were gen-
erally persons of only moderate talents, but they brought with them the
ioheritance which a refined antiquity had bequeathed to them in living tra-
ditions, and they were therefore received in the halls of the Medici and of
the Vatican as if they had been apostles. The wealth which had been pre-
served at home was now also brought to light, the convents opened their
graves, and the resurrection of classical antiquity was now regarded as a
national aflSiiir by the whole of Italy, and as a solemn festival in honor of the
great ancestral world, whose fragments were recognized not only under the
rabbish of centuries and the ashes of Vesuvius, but even in the customs and
dispositions of the people. To study these sacred relics of heathenism, the
youth of the Western world, with the Germans and Hungarians in the van,
now went on pilgrimages across the Alps (after 1450). The influence of this
ujioa theological studies may be observed in the life of the Roman LanrentivH
Valla (d. 1457), who first developed the laws of a true Latinity, and was
induced by the artistic refinement which it produced, decidedly to pronounce
the scholastic style absurd, by the philological knowledge it afforded to ex-
plain and illustrate the original text of the New Testament, and by the his-
torical criticism it fostered- to give jutlgraent against the fables of the hier-
archy, (e) Tlie monks whom he derided invoked against him the power of
tbe inqui/ition, but his fame was too great and he wa*< too highly esteemed
by the nobility of Italy to be reached by that court, and he was silenced only
by papal confidence and favors. In fact the paj)al court was by no means
displeased with these efibrts, the serious consequences of which it did not
anticipate. The bishops beyond the Alps knew but little about them, and
Scholasticism could no longer present to them any considerable resistance.
Tlie mendicant friars, who were attacked with the greatest severity, and
^bose ignorance rendered them the most susj)icious, were the only class
vbich, e8{)ecially in Germany, were bold enough to accuse the new literary
«) Africa Epistolae (0pp. Baa. 1554. 15S1. Lupd 1601. 2 vols, f.) Sonnettl. CanzonU Trionfl.— r.
F.F4mme^ Franc. Petr. Lpi. 1S18. [T. Campbel/, IMe of P. Lon«l. 2 vol.-*. WolUiHton, Life of P.
^'WwL fr,)m the ItaL I»nd. Svo. Mrtt. Dohnon^ Lifo of P. from the French. Phllad 1S17. 8.]
<0 De i^ncalogta Deer. 1. XV. Bas. 1532. t Decanicronc. [Decam. transl. in £ogl. 4. voK I'J.
iMxLlSil]
0 Ekmtntianim laUnao linsrnao 1. VL Dialectico 1. III. AnnotL In N. T. (ed. Era^mu*, Par.
^r. rrp. JieriuM, Amst 1631.) De ementiU Constaiitini donationo. (0pp. Bas. 15^10. 1548. £)—
^>t Gericbt XL L. Valla. {J*aulm, Beitr. z. K. u. Bef. Ge«ch. Brcm. Ib37. p. 815».)
328 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 121«-1517.
xmproYements of heresy on account of their heathenish and schismatical ori-
gin. The Ghibelline party in Italy was distinguished for the interest which
in various ways it showed in pagan antiquity. The new school of PeripU'
Utic^ in opposition to the scholastic Aristotle, declared that the theory of
the universe maintained hy the ancient Greeks was, to say the least, a philo-
sophical truth, and Pomponaao (d. 1526), like a modem Prometheus, ven-
tured openly to declare his conviction that the immortality of the soul was
according to philosophical principles more than doubtful, although it might
be conceded as a theological truth to a Church which could not dispense
with it. (/) The Platonic Academy^ in the gardens of the Medici, defended
only a few of the religious ideas peculiar to Christianity, {g) There w^as a
kind of superstition which in some places made a boast of its attacliment to
heathenism, and the language of the Holy Spirit which had been used in the
ancient Church, was now exchanged for some delicate flourishes of a pagan
Latinity. (A) Infidelity and superstition were arrayed boldly and distinctly
in opposition to each other. In Germany, it is true, the deposition to en-
gage in classical studies originated in the school of Thomas a Kempis, and in
general it preserved the Christian seriousness of this source. (?) But from
the very nature of the new studies, those qualities of the mind vhich have
most to do with the world obtained the ascendency in the hearts of such as
were devoted to them, and the common j)eople seized upon them as though
they constituted a general education of the whole individual man (Humanis-
mus). The consequence was that a meutal revolution wns commenced,
which in its essential character was properly named a restoration of the
Sciences. At the same time the great ocean which surrounded the world
was crossed, and a heaven began to rise before them, in which the earth,
hitherto regarded as an immovable emi)ire in the centre, modestly assumed
its proper position. {I') Now also Machiatelli (d. 1530) revived the ancient
doctrine, that while religion was of vast importance for its salutary influence
upon the state, the highest political objects might nevertheless be attained
without the aid of the Church or of Christianity, (l) Thus was formed inde-
pendently of the hierarchy an intellectual power which had detected the cor-
ruptions of the Church, and had lost a sincere faith in its assumption that no
one could be saved except by its oflices. Through the discovery and preva-
lence of the art of printing (about 1440), which was almost equivalent to a
new gift of tongues, this power became absolutely indestructible and irre-
sistible.
/) Petri Pomponatii L. de immortAlitate anlmac Bon. 1516.— Cone. Later, a. 1513. {FTarduin
vol. IX. p. 17198.)
g) Botcoe, Lorenzo do Mcdicl. [Lond. 184«. 1 v. In Bobn's Stand. Lib. and Pbllad. 8 v. 8.)
Sietfking, Oeach. de Plat Aca«l. zu Flor. Oott 1S12.
A) In PauU IL Vita Platlna, p. 665s. Canrusius p. 738. Quiriniu p. 9m. Erawni I XXVL
Ep. ^L—Walchil Hist crit I-At. linguae a 12. n. 8. RiyU under Bembo. IIenk4 on ViUera. p^
469SBL Piper, Mythol. d. cbr. Kunst vol. I. p. 279sa. [Ranke^ IlisL of the Popes, vol. L p. T2*.]
€) Meinert vol. II. SOSss. after Revil Davontria illustrata. Lugd. 1651. 4.
k) G. L. SehuUA, Astroaomia per Copernicum instaurata religionis et pietatis cbr. p«r. Lnth. re-
purgatae egregia a^jutrix. Budis^ 1S30.
/) DlscoRii sopra la prima Dec di T. Llvlo. II. Principe. Storia Fiorentina.— ^SbAloM^r In hfe
Zeitschr. f. Oe«h. n. Lit vol. Y. p. 48588. {MachiaveUCt Hist of Flor. the Prlnoe and other worki,
transl. into Engl in Bubn's Sund Lib. Lond. 1S47.]
CHAP. IT. ECCLES. LIT. $ 2SS. REUCHLIN. 329
I 282. John Benehlin. 1455-1522.
J. B. 3faiu»f VIU BeachL DurlacI 16S7. MHners vol. I. pt 4498. E. Th. Mayerhof, Reneb. n.
%. ZAi. BrL 1S80. Erhard toI II. [K UTss. [Barham^ Reachlln^s Lifo and Times. Lend. 12ma]
Reuchlin (Capnio), who Lad been educated in the study of the Classics,
tnd was a leader of the Ilumanists, came originally from Pforzheim. At
first he devoted himself to the study of Jewish literature, expecting to find
die mysterious wisdom which had been promised there. Though disap-
pointed in this, he obtained a knowledge of Hebrew, which he succeeded in
diffusing throagfa the Church, and applied to the exposition of the Old Tes-
tament, (a) From a scientific spirit as well as from private inclination he
disapproved of the proposition urged by Pfefferkom^ a converted Jew, to
oommit all the Rabbinical books to the flames, at least so far as they did not
Uupheme Christ. Tliis was construed by the inquisitor Ilogstraten^ who
th«n preidded over the Dominicans at Cologne, as evidence that he was
neretly a convert to Judaism. In the eyes of such a man the Greek language
was the mother of all heresies, and the study of Hebrew was an unquestionable
tpoBtisy to Judaism. Standing in the independent position of an advocate of
princes and cities, Reuchlin assailed the theological barbarism of the Domini-
cans with every kind of intellectual weapons, to which the inquisitorial
Judges had nothing to oppose but cries for his condemnation. {!)) The whole
German people were witnesses of this ecclesiastical feud, and a learned class
of spirited youth under the banner of Ulrich of Iluiten^ openly declared
themselves on the side of Reuchlin. From the circle thus formed proceeded
the Letters of Ohtcure Men^ (e) in which the extreme stupidity of the mendi-
cant friars, their general immorality, and their loud outcries respecting the
heresies of the Humanists, together with their own dog-Latin, is described so
Mturally and truthfully that the Dominicans themselves joined in circulat-
ing the book, though they afterwards hurled their anathemas against it in
▼ain. The controversy was at last brought before the pope himself, and de-
cided in favor of Reuchlin. The Dominicans made every eflTort to obtain a
wversal of this decision, and the papal court was not altogether indifferent
to the threatenings and briberies they made use of, but on the other hand,
Rencblin was sustained by the whole influence of the emperor and the em-
pire. The party at Cologne were finally compelled by the sword of Francis
^ Sichingen to defray the expenses of the suit (1520). Tlie amount of
^l«se was only a hundred and eleven gold-florins, but the mendicant friars
^epe themselves overwhelmed with ridicule, their cause was utterly ruined
^ the estimation of intelligent persons, and Gdfmany had now proclaimed
to the world where she would stand in the decisive struggle which was ap-
Ptt)ichiDg.
«) Da verbo mirifico I III. Tub. 1514. t De arte cabbalisUca I. III. Hag. 1517. f.— I>e radimen-
^^. Phorrae. 150«. t Baa. 1578. t De accenUbus ot orthogr. linguae hebr. Hag. 1518. fl-Epp.
"^ WU 1519. 4.
") B. Katiiwh. ob man den Juden alle Ibre R&cher ncbmen nnd verbrcnnon soil. 1510. P/ffferk,
^^"PtcfeL 1511. R. Augensplegol. 1511. Defenslo Balaroniatorea c. Colonienses. 1518. beaidea other
•^**e. li. Hardt, Hbt Liter. Ref. P. If.
*) EpH obacuromm virorum. 1. I. Ilagen. 1616, I. II. Basi 1517. and often, den. od. Hotermund^
'"^ IttT. S Th. edit, and expL by M&noh, Lpx. 1827.— r. ab UutUn^ Triuinpbua Capnioo. 15ia
330 MEDIAEVAL ClIUECH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 121ft-lMT.
§ 283. Dmderim Erasmus, 1465-1536.
Opp. cd. Cleiicut, Lnptl. ITOSaa. 11 vols. f. Coinp. Vitae Erasmi by himself In Cleric. voL L
J. U CUrc\ Wbl. cliolMe, vol V. p. \9^*». vol VI. p. Tw. Jortir^ Lift) of E. Lond. 175&>. Burtgny^
Vlo d'R Tar. 1757. UcbtTS. v. Rtick m. Zus. v. Ileuke Hal. u. Ulm. 17S2. 2 vola. (Heaa) E. r. Rottrrd.
Zur. 179rt. 2 voK Afl. MulUr, Leb. d. E. v. R, limb. 1829. coinp. Ullmann in d. Stud. u. KilL IS29.
II. 1. [^«^//r, Life of E. Lond. 8va Z>'^»<Wflrn^, Hist of Ret vol L p. llSas.]
Among those engaged in promoting the literary improvement of this
period no one was more prominent than Erawnvs of Rotterdam. He was
tlio offspring of a faithful coimection, but one which never received the sanc-
tion of a Church fettered by monastic prejudices. He was for some time a
pupil of the Brethren of the Common Life at Deventer, and afterwards a
monk at Stein (1486). When he lacked courage to refuse the monastic vows
he was released from them (about 1490) by the Bishop of Cambray, who was
anxious to turn his classical education to a better account. Several years
were then spent in journeys for literary purposes in France, England, and
Italy, until he became settled with his publisher at Basle (1521). When a
young man, and devoted to literary pursuits, he lived in a state of depend-
ence upon the capricious favor of his English patrons, and at a later period
when reigning supreme in the learned world he refused with a lofty conscious-
ness of his jwwer, every office of dignity both in the Church and in the courts
of princes. But as he was of a feeble constitution, fond of ease, and as he
enjoyed with a high relish the elegancies of life, he was always delighted with
costly presents and pensions. He displayed an astonishing activity in the dis-
cussion of the various subjects then brought forward in ecclesiastical and
sociid life, sometimes for his own pleasure and sometimes in compliance with
the wisiies of his patrons. Many classical authors and ecclesiastical fathers
were edited by him, but above all, the originid text of the New Testament
was made accessible to the public, and the immense benefits of the press were
then realized principally by his agency, (a) His character was not of the
highest order, for he was easily excited and suspicious, and he was dostitnt^ of
inventive power or depth of thought; but his common sense was of the most
solid nature, his stores of knowledge were abundant, he was never at a loss
for the happiest turn of expression, and his wit was inexhaustible. The in-
sipid practices of the monks, the subtle refinements of the scholastics, the
weak points of the worship of the saints, the extravagances of those who
preached indulgences, and the follies of every class, even of the popes them-
selves, were all unmercifully ridiculed in his writings. Nor did he hesitate
to throw suspicion upon tHe foundation on which the whole fabric of the
hierarchy rested, and to refer to Socrates as a saint, although he reproved the
heathenish tendencies of the modern Ciceronians, and always appeared ar-
dently attached to the Christianity of the sacred Scriptures, (h) He was not
backward to attack the interests of many classes, and when excited or exer-
cising his wit he was frequently bolder than circumstances required. It was
a) G^Iloquia Ciccronlanusi. Ada^a. Moriao enconiiam. Encblr. niilltls chr. Ratio verae TImuL
Matriinunii ohr. instiiutio. £cclc>iti.sto.s. Epp. etc [Ills Panegyric upon Folly has been XnxuX. and
publ. in Oxf. \(m. 12. and Iiis Familiar Colloquies tranisL by Bailey, and publ in Load. 1725. &]
h) J. A. FahricU E.xora de rel. Er. (Opu»c. hist crit. lit p. 879a&)
CHAP. IV. KCCLES. LIT. 1 283. EKASMU3. $ 2S4. SpEIPTUUES. 331
therefore not surprising that nearly every kind of heresy was imputed to him.
The common people, however, were not the object of his efforts, neither did
he aim to effect any very violent changes in society. Even to those who were
enlightened ho only ventured to hint at truth, he never objected to an in-
trenchment of himself behind ambignou?* ex[)ressions, and on all subjects pro-
fessed his readiness to submit to the judgment of the Church should it even
teach the doctrines of Arianism and Pelagianism. It was, therefore, no very
ditficalt matter for such a man, eminently intellectual and distinguished
among his contemporaries, to keep up a tolerably good understanding with
the principal men of the hierarcliy, whose education was accomplished and
secular. By all those who filled the i>apal chair during his life he was es-
pecially esteemed.
§ 284. The Holy Scriptures,
In matters of faith an indefinite kind of authoritv was everv where con-
ceded to distinguished writers among the ecclesiastical fathers, the Scholas-
tics and the Mystics. In the controversy with the Hussites the principal
obje<'t was to prove that the authority of the Scriptures was dependent upon
that of the Church, but all those who contended for reform in the Church
itself, directed their attention to the word of God. During the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, considerable interest was taken in a tedious kind of
Scriptural exposition, much like the allegorical and devotional method of an
earlier j period, according to which each passage had various senses. Few,
however, ventured to go beyond the authority of the Vulgate, of Ilierony-
mus, and of Augustine. Individuals indeed, like Thomas, though ignorant
of the original languages, and full of preconceived opinions, nevertheless
under the guidance of a congenial spirit, sometimes penetrated deeply into
the meaning of the Scri[)tures. (a) Some assistance in an intelligent expo-
ation and criticism was also derived from the works of Jews and heathen
writers. Xlcolis of Lf/ra (d. 1351), a Minorite, investigated the literal mean-
ing of the Old Testament with no small amount of Rabbinical learning, (b)
The first printed edition of the Hebrew Bible was published under the care
of the Rabbins, and was conformed to their critical traditions (Ma.sora). (<•)
XimeMii (after 1505) in the possession of unbounded means and opportunities,
^t up an edition of the Bible in jdl the sacred languages, but the original
text Was based upon recent maimscripts, and was corrected by the Vulgate, (ii)
Tbe New Testament had already been ])laced in the hands of thousands by
^^6 Libors of Erasmus. (^) Valla was desirous of teaching the Latin Vul-
^e, but Erasmus i)ointed out its errors, and endeavored to make the simple
''^^niiigof the words of the New Testament intelligible to his readers, and
^> '^. Thduck, de Thoina Aqtiinatc atque Abaol. interprctibiis N. T. Ual. 1S12. 4.
^) ^Vtstillae porpotuae in univ Biblitk Kotn. UTl. 5 vols. 4 otlen.
c) S*fcncinL 1 .Ss. f. RrU. 1494. Ai oacn.
' iiiblit hebr. ciiald. frr. et L»t do niandat) Fr. Ximene* de Citneron, In Coiiiplutcnid Unly.
**^*"''- Th. «. t Not publicly until 1520, an«l beyond the Pyrenees In Xh'll. Comp. U^/tU (p. 294.)
^ ^*'*^ [BarreiU Life of Ximenea. Lond. 8.]
«) K«v. In.*lniin. Ban. 1516. f. With continual improvitnents 1519. 1522. 15iT. 1535. Ilenke x. d.
"• ^•'^Iten Q. il. N. T. Anii. lu. Burigny vol. IL pu 583as.
332 MKDIAEVAL CIirRCH UISTORT. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-1S17.
althongh be was in possession of only a few mannscripts, he availed himself
of the labors of the Greek excgetical writers. With a bolder criticism Fdbsr
(Lefcvre d'Etaples, d. 1537) broke throngh the custom of relying upon tho
Vulgate, and although he fled before his enemies when threatened with mar-
tyrdom, he prepared the way for the triumph of the gospel in France, (y)
Bonaventura's Bible for the poor proposed that the favorite object of all
preaching should be the contents of the Scriptures. (^) The opposition of tho'
Church to ])rimitive Christianity was evinced in the fact that when it per-
ceived the almost universal use of the sacred writings by parties hostile to it,
the hierarchy ventured more and more decidedly to prevent the perusal of
the Scriptures in the language of the people, and to subject every translation
to an ecclesiastical censorship. (A) In spite of all their efforts, however, after
the middle of the fifteenth century, the wishes of the people and the power
of the press prevailed, and fourteen editions of a translation in the High Ger-
man, all founded upon the Vulgate, though none were in the genuine lan-
guage of the people, are evidence of the extent to which it was used, (t)
§ 286. The Doctrine of the Church,
The introduction of genuine Christianity had all the effect of bringing for-
ward a new law. The doctrine of the Church made no further progress than
that which sprung from an attempt to justify, in the view of literary men,
the corruption of ecclesiastical morals by indulgences, and an outward for-
mality (§ 270). From this proceeded the doctrine that, without regard to tho
spirit with which an ecclesiastical observance was performed, it possessed a
certain degree of moral value, and that man might be forgiven by his God on
account of liis own works or of indulgences. It was, however, argued that this
reconciliation with God was primarily founded upon the original atonement by
Christ, {a) The Scholastics made justification before God a consequence of
love or of the faith which is quickened by love (fides formata). A few Mys-
tics made it the consequence of faith alone. In a limited sense only can it be
said that the 7^omMf« stood on the same ground as Augustine, for while they
regarded original sin as a culpable offence, and divine grace as predestination,
thoy nevertheless looked upon the former as consistent with the possession ol
some remnants of power, by which a man can render himself worthy of the
divine favor (meritum e congruo), and the latter as dependent upon the
divine foreknowledge. The Scottists^ on the other hand, described both origi-
nal sin and grace rather as the invaiiable condition of all men, and as de-
/) INalterium Quincaplcx. Par. 1309. In £pp. Taali. Tar. 1512. In IV. Evv. Meld. 1A23. Frandi
Biltlc after 1528, complote at Antw. 1530. t.—Ch, If. Or<^f^ Ewai rar la rio ct les Merita de J. Lcf^nv
d'Et StntHb. 1S42. K. U. Grt^, J. P. Stapulens. [Zoltach. f. liist Th. 1S32. H. la.]
g) Hiblin paiipcrum, I*rae<licatoriba8 i>erutili<>. 1590. 4. Jb often.
;0 Innoi'. in. I. II. Ep. 141. Cone. ToloM. a. 1229. c 14 {JftnH Th. XXIII. p. 197.) [IjandotC*
Manual, Toulouse a. 1229. c. U.]—UM^il Hist contror. de So. et SacrU vernaeulia. Lond. 1090 4
Ileg^lmaUr.GiffcXi. •!. Bibelverbot*. Ulm. 17S8.
0 Fir»t edit, was tliat of Mentz, \Wi.— Panzer., lit. Nachr. r. d. aller< gedr. deat Bibela.
Nlirnb. 1774. n. Gescli. d. r'un. kath. dent Bibel. NQrnb. 1781. J, Kehrein, z. Oetch. d. deutMben.
BIbolueberR. vor. Luth. Stutt;;. l^M.
o) DaUaeuM^ de poenla et Bati5flictt bnm. Amat 1649. [IFagifnbaeh Illat of Doetrineii § 196L]
CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIT. § 285. DOCTRINE. §286. CASUISTRY. 333
relopments of the spiritual world in the course of Providence. The Pelagian
tendency was essential to a Church which placed works by the side of grace,
and taught that our own merits may exceed the demands of duty. The pro-
fonnd Thomist Thomas de Bradwardina^ a Professor at Oxford, and finally
an Archbishop of Canterbury (d, 1849), summoned the whole generation in
which he lived before the bar of God, to answer for its adoption of Pelagian
lentiments. His philosophical system was founded upon the principle that
God is the necessary cause of every event, and man only his shadow. (5) Tliis
manner of speaking was so foreign to the prevalent mode of thought, and
the delusion with regard to the opinions of Augustine was so general and
indispensable to the times, that it awakened as little favor as it did oppo-
nUon. (c) It is, indeed, not improbable that when men happened to be ar-
raigned under some peculiarly unfavorable circumstances, even trifling depar-
tures from the ordinary opinions of the Church, were condemned by the
tribunals, but certainly a great variety of opinions were freely tolerated,
particularly with respect to anthropological doctrines and in literary discus-
sions. The popes were far from possessing either the ability or inclination to
pronounce any decision with respect to those controversies of the schools in
which great parties were arrayed against each other. The Church seemed to
be 90 indifferent respecting all subjects not connected with its own usages
and privileges, that it was commonly said that it would be safer to impeach
the absolute authority of God than that of the pope.
§ 286. Ethics and Casuistry.
Dt WetU, chr. Sittenl. BrL 1S21. vol. II. II. 2. p. 116aa. and Leiirb. d. chr. Sittcnl BerL 1838. p.
ItSoL Stdudlin^ Oesch. d. moralph. Han. 1S22. p. 466as. <Sc Gesch. d Sittonl Jesa. Qutt 1823. vol. IV.
^ttSaa.
Ethics now became properly a science. Ahelard had already presented
tbe principal points of a regular moral system (§ 220), in which his dislike to
amerely external ecclesiastical sanctity and penance?, is made especially promi-
nent. According to him sin is not an outward act, nor a thought, nor a
natnral desire, but a consent to that which we tliink we are bound to refuse
from a regard to the divine will. We truly repent only when the pain we
endure springs from love to God. Other methods by which we attempt to
make satisfaction for sin are merely means of discipline. Those scholastics
^bo came after him generally connected their ethical system with their the-
^ogy, without however, on that account, assigning to it an inferior position.
'^omoi was most successful in rendering the usages of the Church consistent
^th the purity of Christian morals, {a) According to him the ultimate ob-
i** of ethics is to attain a likeness to God by means of the Church, the con-
tcmpUtive life is more exalted than the active, and monks and prelates are
m^spensable to a perfect state of society. Like Aristotle before him he
^*^>cribes Prudence, Justice, Courage and Temperance as the cardinal virtues,
*) iHcaiua Del adv. Pel. L III. ed. SavUitUL Lond. 16ia t
c) ^rgentri toL L p. 328s& With great probability Qietieler cites on tbla subject also Raynald
') Bommt, seeondae Partis prima et secunda.
334 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 121ft-151T.
and following Augnstino he roproscnts the virtues peculiar to Christianity
consisting in faith, hope, and love. In contrast with these stand the seven
deadly sins, with pride the mother of them all. The etiiical system of the
Mystics was confined to the delineation of the means and degrees by which
the creature can die to self and awake to the life of God. Through the
influence of the Humanists, sprung up in contrast with the conventional
morality of the Church and of the knights, the idea of a purely human ethics
which di 111' red from the law of Christ only in name, and had been already
hinted at in Thomasin r/rN^r* Italian Guest (121 Gs.). According to this,
constancy of mind is the basis of all virtues, and inconstancy the basis of all
vices, God is not a Judge who can be induced by money to make wrong
exchaufro places with right, good men will bo happy whether in ontward
prosperity or adversity, wickedness renders those who commit it miserable,
the will alone gives character to every action, and Gwl always loves the vir-
tuous, {h) When this scholastic method of treating the subjects of faith and
law was applied to ethics, a science of Casuistry w^as fonned, for those espe-
cially who had the care of souls, and to take the place of the old penitential
books, (r) In thi>< theory of cases of conscience, the conflict between daties
and the ambiguities of particular circumstances were either invented with the
most artful ingenuity, or taken from actual life. When it was received as a
real counsellor in the path of life, the rock of conscience was still shaken by
it. The moral judgment of the Church itself appeared to waver. When in
the Council of Constance the Franciscan, Jean Pefit^ was solemnly accused
by France of having defended the Duke of Burgimdy for his assassination of
the Duke of Orleans, on the ground that the latter was a tyrant and a
traitor, and the Dominican, John von Faklenburf/^ was charged by Poland
with lijivirjg [)reached in behalf of the German orders, that the Polish king
and nation should be expelled and massacred, the only result which could be
obtained by idl the eloquence of Gerson was a general disapprobation of the
assassination of tyrants, while the i)articnlar crime complained of and its
defenders rem;iine<l unrebuked, and Martin V. refused his assent to the con-
demnation of Falckenburg. Political considerations and bribery were doubt-
less concerned in this result, but tlie hesitancy of the Church allowed the
mendicant friars to j)lace the sentiment under the protection of their doc-
trine of probabilities, that any one was jnstiflable in punishing by his sword
all those who were beyond the ordinary reach of justice, {(l)
h) Dcr WalRche (Jast d. Thomasin v. ZIrklaria, <h1. with phlL A hiaL obas. by If. RHckevt, Qaed-
Unb. 1852.
c) In the thirteenth century, Suinma Kaymandiana, by lUym. do Pcnnaforte; in the fourt^^nth,
A8te5ana. by Astosanus, Rartholina ». Pi^anc•Ila, by Bartbol. do 9. CVmconlia, in Pisa; in the fift««oth,
Angelica, by Angelus de Clava;<io, and others.
d) Germn Opp. vol. V. II. P. II. p. 8S6aa. Ilardt, Const Cone, vol IV. p. 439stiw 15M. tHugo—l
Hist PoU Fret 1711. f. 1. XI. p. 870.
CHAP. V. EXTEN3. OF THE CHURCH. $ 2ST. APOLOGISTS. 333
CHAP, v.— EXTENSION OF THE ROMAN OAXnOLIO CnUROH.
§ 287. Apologetics, Islam, Jttdaum,
The literary defences of Christianity wore principally directed against
eome objections nrged by Mussulmen and Jews, but they merely justified the
views of Christians at the bar of their own judgments. Thomas of Aquino
gave utterance to the rigid views of the Church when he maintained that
she is the only judge of reason and the only gate of salvatiori. (a) The Pla-
tonist, Marsilins Fieinus (d. 1499), maintained the view adopted by the Hu-
manists, according to which God had revealed himself also to the heathen,
but had never become a perfect man except in Christ, (h) Mussulmen were
prohibited, under the penalty of death, from even listening to Christians.
Baymond Lnllus^ of Majorca (1236-1316), who had been startled from the
poetic dreams of a gay youth by the image of a suffering Christ, attempted
to overcome the power of Islam on the one hand by establishing institutions
for philological missions, and on the other by his new art of reasoning, which
he supposed was able to conquer any mind. With restless activity he pro-
dumed his fanciful doctrine of combination to Christians, and a Triune God
to the Saracens, and finally suffered the martyrdom which he had long sought
bot feared. The Church long hesitated whether he should be regarded as a
saint or as a heretic, {c) It was not until the Cross had become victorious
in Spain that many Moors and Jews were induced by the alternative of death,
or banishment from their native soil, to receive baptism from their conquer-
ors. In that country, especially, Judaism became pervaded by the literature
of the Middle Ages, and exceeded even the learning of the times. Maimo-
nides (d. 1208), by combining the doctrines of Moses with those of Aristotle,
gave new life to Hebraism, and yet with warm alFection preserved collected
traditions, (d) So decided was the ecclesiastical prejudice against loans of
money on interest on the ground that it was usury, that nearly all the i)ecu-
niary wealth of Christendom in each generation fell into the hands of the
Jews, at that time scattered in every country of Europe. It was, however,
as speedily lost by them in consequence of the extreme oppressions and vio-
lence to which they were universally subjected. Wherever a protracted
profit from them was regarded as more advantageous than a sudden robbery,
tbey were protected by the princes like any other lucrative poascssions.
liany laws were passed and frequently renewed by the Church, to i)revent
•11 dependence of Christians upon Jews, to destroy all bonds of affection be-
tween Jews and Christians, to forbid the employment of Jewish physicians,
wd to nullify all mortgages held by Jews upon sacred utensils, and the pro-
perty of the Church. Even (Gregory I. regarded it as unquestionably proper
A) Bumma csthoL fldei contra Qf>ntiIe^ I. IV.
^) De rel. chr. et fidel pletatc ad Laurent Me<l. (Opp. Par. 1641. C vol I.)
^) H. LuUi Opp. qua« ad Inventam ab \pw artem univcr:»1ein pertinent, C Jord. Brani ct C.
^P*in»e commtr. Argent 169S. Act* SS. Jan. vol. V. p. 6888s.
^ JJVclally More Neboohim, Baa. 1629. 4. Ber. 1791. nebcra. v. Scheyer, Frkf. 1880. [J. Tlnm-
*'^> K^tfona of the Laws of Mooes ftt>ni the More Neb. of Malm, with note^ Ac. Lond. 1S28. Lit-
^« Mag. Yol L pL 2888S. 5458a.} Beer. Lebon o. Wirken d. Moeea ben Maimon. Prag. 1S85.
\
336 MEDIAEVAL CnUBCH niSTOBT. PEE. IT. A. D. 1116-1517.
to entice Jews into the profession of Christianity, were it only for the sake
of their children, and frequently arraDgcments were made for compolling
Jews to listen to discourses for their conversion. All, however, conceded
that they should never be compelled to profess the Christian faith, and the
popes excommunicated those who attempted to injure these living witnesses
for the truth of the Christian faith, in the enjoyment of their usual privi-
leges and discipline, on the ground that at some period before the second
coming of our Lord they were to be converted to Christianity, (e) But the
exclusive influence of ecclesiastical prejudices, the wealth of the Jews, and
the necessities of those indebted to them, continually nourished the popular
hatred. The commencement of the crusades was remarkable for scenes of
Jewish slaughter, and not unfroquently afterwards the feelings of the popu-
lace were so aroused against this people by vague rumors of the crucifixion
of Christian children, of poisoned wells, and of the piercing of the Host,
that in some cities the whole Jewish population were suddenly massacred or
burned at the stake. Excluded as they were from public stations of honor
and ci\joynieuT, they applied all their energies and keen intellects with almost
convulsive eagerness to the accumulation of money, by which alone they
could possess influence. In silent bitterness toward the whole human race,
but faithful to their principles even to death, this reprobate people of God
by hundreds gave themselves and their children to the slaughter rather than
to baptism. (/)
§ 288. Prussia, Lithuania. Lapland.
LiU>r. see S 211. Jfone^ Synib. n. Mythol. vol. I. p. l^s^—DlugoHsi Hist Pol I X. p. 96a. /.
lAndenhUitt, Jabrbb. e<lit. by Voigt, Kunigsb. 1S28. p. 608s. 2»XsA,—Sch^eri Lapponta. Frcfl 1671
4. Mone^ vol. I. p. 21sfi.
The bishops who, since the tenth century, had been consecrated to carry
the gospel to Prussia, found nothing but death there. The Polish Cistercians,
after 1207, appear to have been more successful. But when the converts
were used by Polish princes in the subjugation of the Prussians, they were
all murdered, and the Polish provinces on the border were reduced to deso-
lation. In this extremity the order of the German knights was invited to
assist the distressed Poles (122G), and by a league between it and Poland, the
empire, and the Roman court, Prussia became its perpetual possession.
These knights then proclaimed a crusade against their enemies, ai.d after
long and bloody wars they effected the conquest of the inhabitants (1230-83).
Innocent IV. divided Prussia into the dioceses of Culm, Pomesania, Erm-
land, and Samland. The bishops wore to have possession of a third part of
all the land as an independent property, but they soon became dependent
upon the knightly order, by which a refractory bishop of Samland was
allowed to starve in prison, (a) Every foot of territory conquered by the
e) Alexand. III. In Cone Later, a. 1179. c. 26. Jnnoc. IlL I. IL Ep. 803. Comp. Bemardi Ep.
822. Thomm, Suuinia. P. II, 2. Qa. la
/) JoH, Oesch. d. I^r. vol VL VII. & AUgr. 0«ech. d. Isr. Yolka. vol IL p. SlYTaft. [./off « Iltet of
the JcwB, Ac. transl. from Qerm. by J. II. Hopkins, New York. 1&13. MUmatCt Hist <^ Jewt. New
York. ISSO.] Depping, les Jalfii dans le moyuu >, Psr. 1S9U. Looherer^ QMbL der t. d. Klrche fiir a.
wider die Jaden hervorgesangonen Verordnn. (Jahrb. f. TbeoL n, chr. FUL 188& toL IY. H. 8.)
a) Oeib»er, Oesch. d. Domk. za KSnigsb. Kuoigsb^ 1880. p. iOim,
CHAP. V. EXTENa OP THE CHURCH. $ 28». PRUS&IA. LITIIUANIA. 337
order was secared by permanent cities colonized by Germans, so that nlti-
mately the Prussians were more properly exterminated than oonverted. In
the beginning of the fourteenth century the Grand Master made the city of
Marienhurg his permanent capital, and there were put forth the most splen-
did exhibitions of knighthood, (h) Soon, however, dissensions arose be-
tween the order and the hierarchy, the people whom they governed were
driven to despair, one portion of the country was wrested from them by the
King of Poland, and the remainder was received from him as a royal fief
(^1466). — Jagello^ the Grand Duke of Lithuania, purchased the band of the
heiress-apparent to the throne of Poland by submitting to baptism (1886).
His countrymen received each a white woollen coat as a sponsor^s gift, and
allowed themselves to be baptized in troops, all in each company receiving
the same name. But even in the sixteenth century heathenish customs main-
tained their place side by side with Christian usages. — The sovereignty of
Sweden was acknowledged by the Laplanders (about 1279), and a church
was consecrated for them at Tornea (1385) by Hemming^ the Archbishop of
Upeala. After this, children were generally baptized, and marriage was cele-
brated by the priests, but the natural poverty of the country ai. J tlie sepa-
ration of the families was so great, that a pastoral charge seemed almost
impossible, and the minds of the people were subject to the magical rites of
their former heathenism, {c)
§ 289. Prester John and the Mongols,
Ataemani BibL or. vol. III. P. L II. Moskeim^ Ilist Tartaroruin ecc. Hlmst 1741. 4 Abel-
AfiRtiMt, Mtoioires sur les relations poUtiqacs des princes chrdtiens avec lefl eTn]>ereurs Mongols.
(Mm de riost de France, Acad, des Inscript 1822. Th. VL VII.) Schmidt, Hist des MongoU
<Irpab Tscbinguiz-khan Jusqu'il Timur-lenk. Par. 1S24. [HisL of the Mongols from Ohcnghis-Khan
loTun^rUne. Amst 1858. 4 vols.]
Near the commencement of the eleventh century the Nestorians induced
a Tartarian prince to profess Christianity, who transmitted to his successors
the name (Ung-Khan) which has been rather doubtf^iUy translated into Euro-
pean languages in the form of Prenter John, In the popular traditions of
lus own age he was a mythical personage, in which Europe admired an ideal
sorpasdng the papacy itself in its union of the royal and sacerdotal power.
A royal priest of such an illustrious character, Alexander III, was very
•nxions to connect with the Roman Church.'" Ilis glory, however, was soon
lost in the confusion created by the conquests of GhenghisKhan, Europe
itfldf was delivered about the same time (1241) from the perils of the great
national migration of the Mongols, not so much by the hand of man as by
^ power of God. Mendicant friars were sent to these conquerors of Asia
^1 the Roman Church and St. Louis of France. Brilliant hopes had been
awakened by the personal favors shown to individuals, the regard which a
^Qering people usually entertain for the deities of the nation they wish
to rabdoe, and the actual hesitation which Mongolian Deism exhibited in
^'^'^^g between the gospel and the koran. The exaggerated accounts sent
h) J. Voifft, Oeech. Marienb. Kdnigsb. 1824.
e) Comp. BheimcaUTi Rep. 1841. roL XXXIII. p. 82m,
• Barontue, ad ann. 1177. M. SSaa.
22
338 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-1511.
back by tho missionaries there, filled all Europe with the most exalted ex-
pectations. Even in the thirteenth centnry, however, the papacy of the
Dalai-lama began to be developed, and other Mongolian tribes embraced the
religion of Islam. One small congregation in the city of Peking^ over which
an archbishop had been consecrated by Clement V. (1807), was entirely de-
stroyed during an insurrection in China against the Mongols (1869). The
Xestorians alone sncceeded in preserving a few settlements there.
§ 290. The Kevo World.
Bitrth. de las Casat, Relaeion de 1a destraiMon de las IndiM. 1551 4 QaL 1614 germ. 1665. 4)—
Robertson, Hist of America. Lond. 1772. and often. [New York. 184a] Weise^ &. Las Ca& (Zelt-
sdir. t hlsL Th. vol IV. Bt 1.) Walten'a Weltk. 1885. vol. L p. 87s8. [ W. Irving, Life and Voyages
of Columbus and bis Companions, new ed. New York. 1848. 8 toIs.]
In Spite of the ecclesiastical prejudices he was obliged to overcome, Co-
lumbus believed himself called by the Holy Spirit to fulfil the word of the
Lord, predicting that the gospel should be carried to nations at the utmost
borders of the earth. The discovery of America (1492) and the circumnavi-
gation of Africa (1498) were regarded as mighty conquests in behalf of
Christianity. The Indians, however, had no desire for a heaven where they
were again to meet their Spanish tyrants. In every way that European vio-
lence could devise, they were forcibly compelled to receive baptism. And
yet the blessings the gospel ever carries in its train could not be altogether
withheld from them. The Dominicans exerted all the power of the Church
to secure for their converts the rights of human beings. Finally the heroic
sufierer Las Coms (1517) obtained a law from Charles I. (V.) secnring to the
natives the ei\joyment of their personal freedom, but it was pm*chased by
the introduction of the African slave-trade.
CHAP. VI.— OPPOSITION AND REFORM.
Liter, before % 228. Flacius, CaUl testlum veritatK (Bas. 1556. Arg. 1562. C) Vrtt, 1666. Fascia
rerum expetendarum ac ftigiend. cd. Orihuinus Oratlus, CoL 1585. t aux. R. Brown, Lond. S vola, t
Jo. Wolf, Lcctlunes memorab. et recond. (Laving. 1600.) Lp& 1671. Hardt: Const Cone. toI. L P.
IX. nist lit KeC P. IIL C. UUnuinn, Beformatoren vor d. Reformation. Ilamb. lS41a. 8 rdik
F. A. Uolzha'uaen, d. Protest nach solner Entsteh. Lpz. 1846. vol L
§ 291. General View.
The highest forms of the ecclesiastical system then prevalent bad their
origin in enthusiastic notions and feelings, inconsistent with nature, (a) Bot
as all enthifeiasm must in the course of time expend its force, and natoro
will ultimately assert its rights, the extreme self-denials which that system
had undertaken and required, soon became a false display, for which some
indemnified themselves by unlawful and unnatural means, and others became
a prey to idiocy or despair through their compulsory fidelity. Hence, so
long as Catholicism was looked upon as the only possible form of tbe Churchy
there were either perpetual corruptions of all ecclesiastical institutions,
a) Comp. Hegd^VW. d. Bel. Brl. 1888. vol. L pu 171m.
CSAP. YL OPPOS. A BEFORlf. $ S^ BTEDINOEBS 339
oontiBoal renovations of the spirit, which either gave new life to the old
forma, or created new. But the true mission of Catholicism in Europe was
now nearly complete, the people began to think that they had passed the
period of pupilage, and those who were employed in political and scientific
porsnits were evidently saperior to the hierarchy. The internal spirit which
called for such a system no longer existed, its abuses had attained a high
degree of extravagance, and finally a painful schism had become perceptible
in every part of the Ohurch. The necessity of a reformation was therefore
generally acknowledged. Many felt that it waa near, and expressed their
eonvicUons by predicting sometimes the destruction and sometimes the glo-
rious renovation of the Ohurch. Not unfrequently their feelings were ex-
hibited in prophedes that God was about to raise up pious doctors, Christian
heroes, and even monks or hermits for this work, {b) Two classes of per-
sons became prominent in the course of these struggles for reform : 1) The
hostile parties continued from the preceding period, whose revolutionary ele-
ments were soon almost completely destroyed by the Chnrch, while all that
WIS true in them passed over into the other class. 2) A party composed
pertly of a series of ecclesiastical teachers still deeply imbued with the spirit
ai Catholidam, and anxious to bring it back to its original intention, and to
reader it consistent with its own principles and laws, and partly of those
who despaired of any general reform according to the customary forms of
lew, and who therefore commenced the work in their own way. These,
longing for a primitive Christianity unknown in later times, had no scruples
in renouncing all terms with the Church of that day. All these tendencies
were in various ways intermingled with one another, inasmuch as the Catho-
lic and the Protestant elements were as yet comprehended in each other.
I. HosTHJE Pasties.
§ 292. Ths Stedingen and the Heretical GhibelUnen.
A tribe of Frieslanders in the district of Steding, among the settlements
on the Weser, succeeded in maintaining the popular freedom which origi-
>udly previuled in Germany. The castles from which the Count of Olden-
l>vg threatened their country were demolished, the tithes which the Arch-
l^p of Bremen demanded of them were withheld, and the curse of
exeommunication which the latter denounced upon them was disregarded,
for forty years the count and the bishops contended against this little tribe,
protected only by the courage which freedom supplies, and their country^s
Borinee. Their heresy consisted not in the adoration of a toad, as was
^o^rted in the stopid and lying accounts sent to Rome, but in something far
*ore dangerous to the peace of the Church, {n) It was the first triumphant
"^f^e of the people against the nobility and the priesthood, and therefore
*<oeeding1y interesting to the peasants, who every where gloried in it Gre-
^) V2e(^ Trial IV, 80. ApoL ConC August p. 27es. Lacker, ReC Acti. toL L p. 148tii
^'^*^*^, H. eec L XV. p. 418. ITaffenbacK, Oesch. (L Bcfl toI. L p. 118. AuguM^ die BeC Pro-
V^i^ (B«itfr. X. Ocaeb. o. Stattot d. er. K. 188& voL IIL pu IUm.)
«) MoMl ToL ZZIIL p. 828. Baynald, ad ann. 128a N. 4SaL
I
I
\
340 MEDIA^EYAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IT. A. D. 191«-1517.
gory IX. oansed a crnsade to be proclaimed against the Stedingers as here-
ties of the most deadly and absnrd character. Their great and glorious
struggle was finaUy terminated by a dreadfol battle (1284), which only a
small remnant snrvived to sabmit to the yoke of the Chnrch. {b) — ^During
the contest between the popes and the house of Hohenstanfen, some sectaries
residing in the Suabian city of Hall (about 1248) declared the pope a heretic,
and that the clergy had forfeited their power on account of their corruptions.
They therefore offered prayer for the members of the house of Hohenstanfen
as the only just and perfect rulers. When the power of these princes was
broken they also disappeared, (c) But for a long time after a story was cur-
rent in various forms among the people, according to which Frederic 11.
would at some future period return, or fVom his blood should arise a mighty
eagle which would destroy the Roman Church, (d)
§ 298. Fraternity of the Free Spirit,
The bold aspiration of the spirit toward God, which was not serionsly
opposed when it appeared in all its indistinctness and benignity in the sys-
tem of Mysticism, necessarily fell under the Judgment of the ecclesiastieal
courts when it came out with scholastic definitions, exalted itself above the
Church itself, and was even perverted to the gratification of wicked pas-
sions. A synod at Paris (1209) pronounced judgment upon the schocd of
Amalric^ which combined the Pantheistic doctrines of Erigena with their
own principles of reform, which they announced in the style of the abbot
Joachim. They maintained not so much that every thing was one and God,
as that God is the essence, the end, and the object of every thing created.
Every pious person is a Christ in whom God becomes man, the resurrection
is regeneration, heaven and hell are internal and moral states, the body of
Christ is in the bread even before its consecration, just as God is in all na-
ture, and the Trinity is merely the incarnation of the Deity in three different
periods of the world. After them and among them the age of the Holy
Spirit was to commence, when there would be no more need of an external
Church. They also maintained that the pope was Antichrist, that every
thing done from love was pure, since the Spirit who reigns in the hearts of
all who know themselves to be one with him cannot sin. Amalrich of JBena
was himself compelled only to recant his assertion, that no one can be saved
who does not consider himself a member of Christ's body (1204). The con-
demnation of persons then in their graves, by the Synod of Paris, and the
connection of the proceedings with the name of Erigena, indicate what most
have been the panthebtic object of that assertion. A treatise of Datid of
Dinanto was at the same time destroyed, which wonld seem from arguments
urged against it at a later period, to have founded upon certain Aristotelian
h) Jo. OUon^ CaUL Episcc Brem. {Menkm voL IIL p. 798.) Oregor, IX, ad Aivblcp. Bran.
{Lindmbroff, p. 112.)— J. D. Sitter, de pago Steding et de Stedingla. Tit 1751. 4 {Serg^ MoieaBk
Dalsb. YoL L P. IL p. 529.) Scharlinff, de Stedingifl. Hafh. 1828. ScMo984r^ Wdtgvaeh. toL III
Th. S. Abth. S. p. 127n.
e) Alberhu Stadens, ad ann. 124a
tf) Jf<MAtf<m, Yen. e. anpartb. Ketzargosch. mmat 1T48. pw SIShl JTMUEmis d. Biffhliiatr Kid.
aenaga (ZeltB«h. t thnrlng. Oaaeh. 185& H. 9.)
CHAP. YL OPP0& h REFOBIL | 29a. FRATEKNITY OF THE FBEE SriKlT. 341
conclusions the idea that the Deity could have no distinctions in his nature,
and that from him proceeded spirit and matter, (a) Soon after this holocaust
at Paris, a popular party with similar principles made its appearance on the
Upper Rhine, and, until some considerable time in the fourteenth century, in
some parts of France, Germany, and Italy. They were known under vari-
ous local appellations, frequently as Beghards and Waldenses, but among
themselTcs they were generally called Brethren and Sisters of the Free
Spirit. The nature of their principles leads to the conclusion that Uiey had
their origin in the scattered fragments of Amalric's school^ in which their
dootrinee had been advocated in a systematic form. Their principal doc-
trine, however, does not seem to have been the Pantheism which contains
no popular elements, but an opinion which they made prominent in all their
teachings, according to which it is the Spirit alone that makes us free and
happy, (h) From this they inferred that all outward things were unprofita-
Ue, and thus adopted a sentiment which in every age has been very ambigu-
ous in its application. Some found access to God by breaking loose from
lU earthly objecta, but others gave themselves up to worldly lusts, on the
ground that the^e could have no influence upon the mind,* but might, on the
other hand, serve to extricate the feeling of original unity from the artificial
distinctions of society, by abolishing marriage and the possession of private
property. (<•) The Picards or Adamites, who in the fifteenth century en-
deavored to introduce among the Hussites a paradisiac state of nature, were
diildren of the same spirit, and perhaps were externally in connection with
them. Some of these escaped the swords of the Hussites, and preserved a
loerct remnant of their sect in Bohemia. {*()
§ 294. Order of the Apostles.
L Hbt Dalelnl & Addltaznentum ad Hist Dulc (Muratori vol. IX. jk 4S8.)
IL Mutkeim, Gctcb. d. Ap. O. (KetzcrgeKb. p. 198.) A, de Beglutrd. p. 221aB. &'hloitaer, Ab&l. u.
DiUa. OuUuk 1S07. [L MarioUi, Fra Dolcino, An Hbt Memoir of; tnuisl. Uom tho lUL by A.
QdMga, Luod. 1S52. &]
Gkcrardo Stgarelli^ of Parma, a youth of a fanatical disposition who had
been rejected by the Franciscans, felt called upon to invite men back to the
trae poverty of the apostolic life. The Order of the Apostles, which he
eoQeeted (after 1260) around his person, went about with their spiritual sis-
Un begging, and proclaiming that the kingdom of God was near. The popes
pnkilnted (after 1286) this new mendicant order, but they continued to
Mnmble with the Catharists and Fratricelli, and awaited the approaching
^owolill of the papacy according to the imagery of the Apocalypse. Ghe-
•ttdo was buried in Parma (1800). The apostolical brethren were then
«) Cooe. Par. AcU In Mariene^ Thes. Anecd. vol. IV. p. 16888t Accounta by liigot-dus ad onn.
^ «od GwwHm IleitUrbae. V. 22. In Man^i vol. XXII. p. 801m. Gerwn. de concord!* iiu'tu-
(kncloglca. (vol IV. p. 926.)—SnffflA4tr<ft, A. v. Bena. (Klltat. Abb. N. a) C U. Iluhn, Am. v.
^(?<«d.iL Krit ISIfl. H. 1.) J. If. KronUin, Am. v. B. u. David v. D. (Stud. u. Krit 1S47. 11. 2.)
^)'obD4,28iw RoolS.
«) MotMm : de Beghardis et Bcgiiin. p. 810. 255. H. ecc vol. II. p. 652flL
*) CoQtemporary acoonnto In Lennini, Hist de la guerre dea llaea. vol L p. 79ss. (Comp. Btint-
'^^Dtai tor lea Adamltea de Bobi^me. Jb, vol. II. p. SOlaa.) Moskftm, U. eoc. {i. 687a. BrI. K.
l5.H
342 MEDIASYAL CHUBCH HIBTOBT. PBR. IT. A. D. 121f-151T.
induced to follow Doleino, a native of Milan, and bis spiritaal friend Marga-
retta. His prophetic circular Letters recognize indeed the historical neces-
sity that the Ohnrch should pass into the hands of the wealthy and power-
ful, but maintain that since the hierarchy had left their first love, and
surrendered themselves to earthly things, it was now needftil to retnm to
the poverty of the apostles. His assertions, which probably attained this
distinct form only by degrees,* were merely a compilation of the herenes
which had prevailed at an older period : ^^ The Roman Church is the great
harlot of the Apocalypse ; all the popes since the time of Sylvester, with
the exception of Peter de Hurrhone, have been false leaders ; it is better to
live without vows than with them ; men and women may oohabit without
distinction; peijnry is lavrful in opposition to the inquisition; and the
power of the Church is transferred to the Order of the Apostles, in whidi
alone salvation can be found." Believing that the revolution he expected
was at hand, and that the Staufian imperial dynasty was about to be re-
stored, Dolcino took up arms against the inquisition, with something like a
thousand men went forth on a bold predatory expedition, and finally in-
trenched himself dn Mount Zebello. Here he was surrounded by the host of
the crusaders which had been sent against him by the Bishop of Yeroelli,
and at last sank under the power of hunger and the swords of his ene-
mies (1807).
§ 295. Termination of the Earlier Sects.
In the south of France, after many fluctuations of fortune^ victory be-
came decided in favor of Cathohcism, amid fields strewed with the slain and
the ashes of dwellings (1228). In Italy itself the Holy Father was sur-
rounded by all kinds of heretics. The Catharists had been allowed opportu-
nity to complete a regular system of Church polity, and in Brescia they even
ventured to destroy some Catholic churches, and solemnly to excommunieate
the Roman Church, (a) But when the chief of the Ghibelline party had
fallen (until 12G9), they sunk under the power of the inquisition, and in
consequence of their own unfaithfulness. In Bosnia alone they succeeded in
maintaining their ascendency, until the measures of the government against
them (after 1442) led to the subversion of the empire by the Turks, {h) In
Milan, some who advanced the idea that a female hierarchy ought to be
formed on the ruins of that which then existed, because the Holy Spirit had
become incarnate in a woman, were obliged to atone for their nahness at
the stake, (c) The Waldenses were reduced in numbers because they bad
been burned by their persecutors, but some congregations stiB remained in
the south of France and in the secluded valleys of Piedmont. The Teaaons
for the increase of heresy were declared by a zealous Catholio to be : the
vanity and the zeal of heretics of every condition in life to teadi and con-
- ' — '
♦ Thte to BOfltained by the milder Tlew in the ftecoants discorered by BoQ^iUini Dole. • i
t»renL Novam. 1888. After him : .;: Krone, Fra Dole n. d. Patarener. Lpi. 1844. Qvm^ Oakm
d. Stad. d. ev. Geistl. W&rtemb. 1846. vol. XVIIL U. 1.
a) Raynaid, ad ann. 1225. N. 47.
}>) Raynaid, ad ann. 144&. N. 28, 1449. N. 9. 1450. N. 1&
c) After Palaeky : Pfchack^ d. Bdbm. Wilbelmlne. (Zeltochr. t hM. Tb. 1889. H. &)
OHAP. YL OPPOS. M BEFOBU. | S98. D*AILLY. GEBSON. 343
Tert those with whom they were coiiTersaiit hj means of the Holy Scrip-
tares, and on the other hand, the neglect of popular instruction, the contempt
for the Church shown hy its own servants, and the unapostolio lives of the
prelates, {d) After the thirteenth century, no one who considered merely the
worldliness of the Church and the multitude and zeal of the heretics, could
have any doubt whether the latter or the Cathohcs would obtain the vic-
tory. In the commencement of the fifteenth century heretical congregations
of almost every kind were scattered and broken up. But it was only in
secret that those forms of opposition were maintained or organized which in
the sixteenth century came forward under the name of Anabaptism, when
•■ailing the constitution of the Church, and of Unitarianism when arrayed
against the doctrines of the Church, (e) The victory, however, was depend-
ent partly upon the hopes which might be entertained of a reform and the
disposition of the liberal party then powerful in the Church itself, partly
upon the lifeless disposition of the age, which, as represented by the Human-
liti, was satisfied with a shrewd and selfish smile at existing evils, and finally
npoa the more settled condition of the states and their recdhciliation with
Rome. A victory on the part of such heretics, as most of those were who
existed at that period, would have destroyed for ever the historical develop-
ment of Christianity. If, therefore, we may concede that the Church was
rig^t in shrinking from no calamities or laceration of feeling (f) to overcome
this first threatened revolution, the very relation of such a victory to Chris-
tisDity rendered it evident that at some future time an entirely different
result might be expected.
II. Reform.
§ 296. Reformation in tJu Head and Memben.
When the Minorite, Alcarus Felagius (about 1330), poured forth his
lamentations over the low condition of the Church, the only remedy he
Mm^t was the re-ostablishment of the papal authority, (a) About the close
of the same century public opinion became decided that the reformation of
the head of the Church must commence with a limitation of its power to
do mischief. In the fifteenth century, when every nation and class in society
dem&nded the reformation of the Church, when prelates and popes united in
the promise that it should be given, and in fact proclaimed that it was already
hegon and completed, every one understood this iudotinite term to mean pri-
ouuily that which he most desired, the removal of what seemed to him most
<)ppre8Bive and unchristian. Reformation was generally understood to mean :
^ establishment of Christian morals among all classes, and especially among
the clergy, the abolition of Roman extortion, and the restoration of all cccle-
*»tKal institutions to their original design. The canon law, however, was
to remain untouched, and hence its meaning was indefinite. Nothing was
^ Append, to BainsHi Summa & ft. (BibL Max. toL XXY. p. S6&)
^ /%ffS Symbb. ad YlUm et doctr. Laelii 800. ill P. L Lpa. 182A. i. Gehtm; de primordlij
**^««». iitg. 1880.
/) Uo, MAlter. toL L p. 0O9i.
•) hmukk de pkD«ta Eoel. Ulm. 1474 1 M often.
344 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCH HISTORY. PES. IT. A. D. ISIMUT.
eaid respecting doctrine. In consistency with this view, those who gaT9
expression to puhlio opinion, especially the Parisian divines, represented tLc
reformation as essentially connected with the reconciliation of the groat schism.
The Bishop of Camhray, Peter d^Ailly (d. ahont 1425), comhincd all tlie efforts
of the French Chnrch in the demand of a general connoil, and although after
the experience gained at Pisa, he had doahts whether any help could be do-
rived from sach a sonrce, (6) he exerted all his intellectual energy at Con-
stance to have one summoned. Gersan also defended the independence of
the general assemblies of the Church, as the only medium by which a legal
and salutary reform could be effected, but maintained that the only way in
which a sound state of heart could be secured was by the study of the Scrip-
tures, and a better education of the people. Accordingly, toward the dose
of his stormy life, he commenced the reformation among the children, (e)
Finally, Nicolas of Clamengis (d. 1440), believing that the time had come in
which judgment should begin at the house of God, and having described the
corruption of the Church in language rhetorically extravagant, but in Roman
Latin, and with graphic distinctness, then waited for the exaltation of the
Church by external means, whenever she should humble hers^, and amend
her ways, {d) Ilemmerlin^ a canon of Zurich, as a preacher and as an im-
pressive author, has faithfully represented the spirit of tlie Council of Basle,
but his aristocratic hatred of the Swiss Confederacy produced his removal
from public life to the prison of the convent of Lucerne (about 1457). (e)
Andreas, Archbishop of Crain, of the order of preachers, in his wrath against
Sixtus IV. called, on his own authority, a general council at Basle (1482), for
the deliverance of the Church. Although the old City of Councils ventnred
to endure an interdict in his defence, he was, on the pope's requisition, im-
prisoned, and when he found himself forsaken by all on whom he had relied,
he hung himself on the railing of the tower (1484). (/) The more advanced
champions of reform in the great councils sometimes inadvertently wont be-
yond the fundamental principles of Catholicism. D'Ailly appealed to the
opinion of the ancient fathers in proof of his position that councils might err
even in matters of faith, and Gerson advanced the idea of a universal Church,
which, under Christ its sole head, was the only Church in which salvation
could be found, was without error, schism, or sin, and was consequently very
different from that of Rome, {g) The Mystics believed in the possibility of a
Reformation springing from within the Church itself. Those in particular
who were called the " Friends of God," and who professed to take reftige
under the cross of Christ, and depended upon visions and secret leaders, must
have occupied a position quite ambiguous with respect to the Church, and
were full of bitter complaints of its degeneracy, (h) The saint of the North
h) De difflculUto Befbnn. in Cona nniv. {ffardU toL I. P. VL p. 855i)
c) Tr. de parvulis trahendis ad CbrUtuui. (0pp. vol IlL p. 278.)
d) y. de damengU^ de raina EooL about 1406. ilTardt voL I. P. IIL p^ l.>— ^d. JfOn^ Kk. de
G6man{(ea, sa vie et sea ^iit& Straftb. 1846.
6) B, Reber, Felix Hemmerlin, ZQr. 1846. Here see p. \9u, of bis writings.
/) Ptiter Numagm, OesU Arcbicp. Crayensis (Wiroeb. 1514.) in lloUinger^ H. aoe. p^ XV. ^
8478S. Wurgtinen, Basler Chronik VI, 14.^.^ BurckharJt, Erzb. A. v. Krain a. d. leistA OoocilsTir^
sacb in B. Basel. 1852. ff) Uardt toI. II. P. V. p. 190. 4c toI. I. P. V. pi 6S.
A) Bulman Mtrtwin (d. 1882), das B. t. d. neon Felsen. (oompi a SekmUU to d. ZettMhr. C bis^
CHAP. VL OPPOS. A( BEFORM. % 996. ESASMU8. CUSA. 345
wlieD flihe visited Rome found the whole Deoalogne reduced to a single pre-
0^ ^ Bring money I " and she therefore predicted a Reformation, which
should proceed, not from the pope, but from Christendom, (t) Gregory of
Heimbnrg (d. 1472), a legal counsellor, even when excommunicated and
homeless, remained true to his character, and with German stardiness invoked
the German national spirit, in opposition to Roman encroachments, (k)
Emmus perceived that the only vocation suited to his character was, in the
qmet leisure of a literary life, to effect a reformation of theology, and thus
prepare the way for a peaceful reformation of the Church, by promoting a
knowledge of classical and ecclesiastical antiquity, and by cultivating tlio
fiicdty of independent and sober common sense. But there were in the hier-
srohy prodigious resources for evading these calls for a Reformation, and for
oomipting those leaders in it who could not be overthrown. All the bold
ohampions who advocated it at Basle gradually submitted. Some of the more
cudouB did this first, and all could do so with dignity. Nicolas of Cuia
(d. 1464), afterwards Cardinal and Bishop of Brizen, defended the supremacy
of ths pope at the bar of the very synod for whose independence he had just
been contending. According to his metaphysical speculations all the affairs
of Church and state were arranged on the principle of a unity before which
no opposition could be true. To the scholasticism of his day he opposed his
Isimed want of knowledge, to an absolute faith in the Scriptures he opposed
the anthority of the Holy Spirit who had been given to men and had cstab-
hdied the Church before the letter of the sacred writings had been composed,
and to such as disbelieved the miracles of the Church he opposed his own
diooteiestedness as a legate and as a preacher of indulgences. He, however,
preierved in his heart a desire for a Reformation, and predicted that the
pqMcy would be subverted and the Church renovated, but at some distant
period. (I) At the commencement of the sixteenth century every thing
•eoomplbhed for the Charch at Constance and at Basle had apparently come
to nothing, and all confidence in councils was given up. There were not
wanting, however, even among the friends of the hierarchy, some individuals
who warned them of the consequences of this course. Cardinal Julian wrote
to the pope (1481), ^^ If all hope of our amendment should be cut off, we shall
1m attacked by the laity according to our deserts." (m) Chancellor Mayer of
Hentz wrote (1457) to Aeneas Sylvius : ^^ The German nation, once the Queen
of the world, but now a tributary handmaid of the Roman Church, begins to
veoie herself as out of a dream, and is resolved to throw off the yoke." (n)
^MMl p. i. p. sin.) Plaintes d'an La qae allemand sar la decadence de la chrutiente (18M.) optu-
«l>pabiU pL Ck. Schmidt, Strasb. 1840. 4 RohHch d. Qotteafr. u. Winkler am Oberrhein. (Zeltacbr.
' kht Tb. ISia P. 1.) C. Schmidt, Tauler, p. 161aa.
<) ^ir^Uae Eevelatt in Wo^i Lectt meinor. vol. II. p. CTOsa.
^ AdmooiUo de liOostis naarpatt Paparum Kom. ad Imperator. Re^^ et Prince, cbr. a. Confbta-
Oopttinatac Papae. (OoldaH^ Monarch. 8. R. Imp vol. 1. P. &57mw) & oUien. Comp. Jlag^n in d.
*«8t Heldelb. 1S89. voL II. p. 4140a. VUmann, Reformat vol L p. 21288.
0 Be eatb. eonooidanUa. De docta ignorantia. Apol. doctae Ignor. De Deo absoondito. De oon>
!•*•<» Kpp VIL ad Clomm et Literatos Bobemiae, Conjectnra de novi«8imi8 dieb. (0pp. Baa.
^t ToU t) r. A. Scharpf, d. Card. N. v. C. Mainz. 184a vol I. J. M. IHix, N. v. C. fi. d. K.
* *rtt BatbL 1847. 2 vols. R, Zimmsrmann, Cua. als Vorlaufer Leibnltiena. Welm. 1852.
»)Ac*«i«Ill8tGoocageo.CoL1681. LIILp.82L n) Tra(/f< Lectt memor. vol. L p. 868.
346 MEDIAEVAL OHUBGH BISTORT. PXB. IT. A. D. 1916-1M7.
A literary man in Germany thonght the Reformation equally impracticable
and necessary at that time, (o)
§ 297. John de Wyeliffe. 1824.— Dec. 81, 1884.
I. Writings of J. WIcL Lond. 1886. IT. Knyghton, de eventlbw AnglUe osqae 1895. (7%9<Ml#iit
Bcrr. llisL Aug. Lond. 16d8. t) Arg^ntri toL L P. 2. pi Ita.
XL J. I^evU, Hist of tlie Ufo it 8uffering8 of J. W. (Lond. 1790.) Ox£ 1990. Rob, Faai^Aaii,
Life &, Opinions uf J. de W. Lond. (1829.) lS8i. 9 vola. [new ed. Lond. 185& 4. C. W. U &/«. lilb
of W. New Turk. 1S8S. 2 vols. Llttcll*s Kel. Mag. toL III. pi Slss. 148m.] De Xuever Oronemat^f
Diatr. in J. W. viUm, ingenium, sciipta. Trt^. 1887. O. Weber, Qeech. d. akatb. K. a. Seeten la
Grossbrit. Lim. 1S45. vul. I. Tb. 1. E. A. Leward, d. theoL Doctrln. W. (Zeitsch. I hist Th. 1S4IL H*
2. 4 1847. II. 2 ) G. V. LeokUr, W. a. d. LoIIarden. L {lb. 18S8i H. 8.)
The papal power in England had heen renovated by means of the mendi-
cant friars. In the time of Edward III. parliament enacted that every one
who should be the bearer of any papal orders with respect to eccleaiastioal
offices should be imprisoned (1850), forbade all appeals to the court of Rome
(1853), and declared that all rents paid to the pope as a liege lord were un-
lawful (1366). Wyeliffe also wrote in the style of the Abbot Joachim
respecting the last times of the Church, (a) Under the instruction of Brad-
wardine he had become skilled in scholastic learning, and in both branches
of the law, and as a subordinate member of the University of Oxford he sop-
ported that institution by his learned tracts in opposition to the mendicant fiiars
(after 1360), and defended the government in its endeavors to render itself
independent of the French papacy. As a professor of theology after 1872,
and much respected as a realistic philosopher, he was sent as one of the
deputies to Bruges (1874-76), to confer with the papal commissioners respect-
ing a free appointment of ecclesiastical offices by the Oburch. He afterwards
spoke and wrote against the oppression of the Church by the papacy, against
the arbitrary mode of excommunications then prevalent, against monasticism,
purgatory, and against the necessity of auricular confession, indalgenoee, and
the worship of saints and of images. Gregory XI. condemned (1877) nine-
teen articles selected from his writings, which however Wyeliffe, under the
protection of the court and the high nobility, merely explained in a milder
and more definite sense. But when he longed to extricate himself from the
antichristianity of his own day, and enjoy the privileges of a Church like
that which Paul had constructed, and therefore taught that the Scriptures
alone were worthy of complete confidence (Dr. Evangelicus), that the tem-
poral power of the pope was derived solely from the emperor, that it was
treason to obstruct appeals from the spiritual courts to the king, that priests
lost all spiritual power by the commission of mortal sin, that tithes and other
alms should be withheld from priests living in sin, that the saving grace of
God was not connected exclusively with the priesthood and the sacraments,
and, finally, that Christ was present in the Lord^s Supper only in a spiritual
manner; his doctrines were condemned at the £arthquake-Ck>unoil at London
(1882), and Wyeliffe himself was excluded from the University. He was,
o) Life of the celebrated D. CranUiL Hamh. (1722.) 1729. p. 61. M^ekeberg, d. tiMoL
tcr d. A. Krantz, llarab. 1851.
a) The hut age of the Church, 1851 Dublin. ISM. 4.
CHAP. VI. OPPOS. & BEFOBU. | S97. WTCLIFFR S29& HUSS. 347
however, assured of his personal freedom by the House of Commons, and
betook himself to his own rectory of Lutterworth, where he had leisure to
complete his principal work containing his Augnstinian system of scriptural
scholasticism, and his propositions for the reformation of the Church. (6)
His influence was exerted by means of his translation of the Scriptures 'from
the Vulgate, his sermons, (c) his pamphlets, and some poor priests whom he
tent among the people, and many were known to be his adherents to whom
the name of Lollards was transferred, but he produced no permanent religions
iiDpresBion upon the masses of society, and the insurrection which occurred
in his day among some peasants, in favor of liberty and equality, was only
uded by a misunderstanding of his doctrines. His views were principally
received and promulgated by the higher classes and men of learning, and
hence, no sooner was the government hurried into a sanguinary persecution
(after 1400) than all his adherents were easily thrust back into obscurity. It
was with especial reference to Bohemia that the anathema of the Church
against the views of WyclilTe was made so severe at the Council of Constance.
§ 298. John Hum and the ffussites.
L Tbe Utentare of the Soarces may be fonnd in //. v. Anfae**^ Anz. f. Knndo d. deot MA. 1SS8L
^T8> mf».—filit. H ^anumm. J. Ilium ct IlUr. Piuig. Nor. (1558.) 1715. 2 vols t Gerichll. Ank-
IigiQ. vertbeld. d. J. H. ohe cr n«cb Constanz ging, mitgetb. ▼. Lebmann. (Stud. u. Krlt 1S37. P. 1.)
Xuf tbings are In IltinH & in Aen. Syltil Hist Bobomor. Bom. 1475. f. & often.— JS><M«yna, Calix-
Uaff, Canzler rL Neiwt Prag, Diarium belli Huss. {J. P. de Ludetoig, Beliqaiae Maooflco. vol. YL
Comp. Duffrotrmti/ In d. Ablih. d. bObm. Oesellscb. cL Wiss. 1733. p. SUSas.)
II. /. nHnhl^ien^ Hist HuMltar. Mog. 1549. f. Z Theobald, llnssltenkrleg. NUrnK 1621. 8 ed.
BnL 170a 8 vols. 4. ZiUe, Lebensb. d. J. II. Prag. 1789. f. 2 vula. A. Z&m, IL za Coatn. Lps. 1880.
A 6. r. d. UorH, de Ilasal vita praesertlmq. illiua condemnati causia. Amst 1387. E, ds £onn4-
(i^ J. Has e le (^na de Constance. (Lea reformateara avant la ret voL L II.) Par. 1845. — Pa-
^jr,Ge8cb. v. Brthm. 1845. vol. III. Abtb. 1. {J. A. ITei/grt, Has o. Hier. Stadie. Prag. 1858.)—
Jamdw, Oeach. d. cbr. BeL u. K. Tb. XL p. 9S0iaA,—Len/antj Hist de la guerre dea Husa. Amst
1181. S voK A. Prsb. 17S3. 4 vols. Supplement p. Beauiohre^ Laua. 1745. 4. \^Bonnecho9e'9 work above
Kftmd to was repubL in Paris in 1SA8.]
Ever since the middle of the 14th century a few eminent priests of Prague
who had been persecuted but not silenced, as preachers of repentance (a) and
is their writings (b) had contended against a corrupt clergy as tbe Antichrist,
^ hftd endeavored to draw off the minds of men from the human institu-
tions of the Church to the apostolic laws, to the universal priesthood, and to
ft cmcified Redeemer. John IIuss, of Hussinecz (after 180b), a Professor of
^losophy, a scholastic realist, and (after 1402) n Bohemian preacher in the
<%)«I of Bethlehem at Prague, followed in their footsteps. Toward himself
^ Was rigidly severe, but toward others he exhibited a fHendly disposition,
^ reading was not extensive and was principally directed to the histories of
>) THtloj^na (Dialogor. I. IV.) 1892. (Bas.) 1525. 4 Frcf et Lpa. 175a 4.
«) EngdharflU WycL als Predleer. ErL 1381
•) Cenr. of Waldimusen d. 1869. Jan of Steknu, about 1360. Milicz d. 1874 J. P. Jordan^ d.
^•rtloifcT d. HuMltcnth. In Biibmen. Lps. 1346.
*) Matth. V. JatuAC, d. 1894, de regulls Vet et N. TestamcnU 1892, de abominationc & de antl-
^'^'^ veonljr sectiona of tbis work, the last baa been regarded as a writing of IIuw (Hist et Mo-
■Wtt. tol I. p. 876c&) Jfeander, M. v. J. ala Vorlliufer d. deut Bef u. Beprasent d. neuen Priodpa.
v^iMeaicb. Abbh. ed. by Jacobi. BrL 1851. pi 92.) Extncta in JordMi A Neander (KOasch.)
\
348 MEDIAEVAL CHUBCH HISTORY. PBS. IV. A. D. 181f-1617.
the nuurtyTB, and his eloquence, thongh oonsidfirable, was owing more to his
lofty enthnsiasm than to bis natural talents. He was devotedly attached to
the Romish Chnrch until, in consequence of the intercourse between Oxford
and Prague ho became acquainted (about 1408) with the reformatory wri-
tings of Wycliffe, in which he recognized particular truths of the greatest
importance, and soon publicly avowed his admiration of the name of Wye-
liffe. His preaching and his publications were then directed against the
worldliness of the clergy and the abuses of the papacy, but it was not long
before his direct reference to the gospel led him to announce that all clergy-
men possessed equal authority, that a visible head was not needful to the gen-
eral Church, that the congregations possessed some special rights, that tithes
were nothing but alms, and that civil authorities had a right to confiscate any
property of the Church which had been perverted to improper uses. As long
as the votes of Germans were most numerous in the councils of the Univer-
sity the writings of Wyclifie were condenmed there. But by iq>pea]ing es-
pecially to a feeling of old national jealousy he succeeded in obtaining the
passage of a law (1409) by which the German corporations were deprived of
their privileges in the academic republic. In consequence of this proceeding
the University lost most of its students and became strictly Bohemian, and
Huss, himself, became an object of hatred in all parts of Germany, (e) With
him, at the head of an evangelical clergy, advanced the impetuous but learned
knight, Jerome of Prague, who had just returned from an academic cmsade
in behalf of Wycliffe^s scholastic principles. On the complaint of the Arch-
bishop of Prague, IIuss was cited to appear at Rome, deposed and excommu-
nicated OS a Wycliffite (1410), but he appealed to a pope better informed, and
in consequence of his favor with the people and King Wencealaus, the arch-
bishop found it necessary to become reconciled to him (1411). When John
XXIII. (1412) had indulgences offered for sale to raise ftinds for bis crusade
against Naples, Huss boldly preached against them, and against the erection
of the standard of the cross in opposition to professed Christians. The bull
of indulgences was burned at the public pillory in the same manner in which
the archbishop had burned the writings of Wycliffe, public tranquillity was
disturbed, and the disturbance was avenged with blood. The views of Hosi
were now elevated above all regard for the Roman Church, and he formed A
conception of the true Church as a communion of all who have been eternal^
elected to life, the head of which could not be the pope but Christ aloiM^
since no earthly dignity, no human choice, and no visible sign could conftr %
membership in it. (d) When the place of his residence was placed by a bo^
under an interdict (1413), he retired to the castles of his friends, and preflcb^
to the people with great power. As he had appealed to a general ooonciJL
God, and to Christ, the Emperor Sigismund summoned him to Consta^^
He freely obeyed this citation, trusting to his own orthodoxy, and prep^^
if necessary, to lay down his life with joy. He was soon thrown int<^^
finement (Nov. 28, 1414) ; the Bohemian and the Polish nobility «>n V^
c) J. T. Held, Tentainen hl«L lllostrandls rebus a. 1409 In Univ. P«g©n« gMtU. ^.
W, Tamet, GejMsh d. Prag. Univ. Prag. 1S49. p. 4788. ^* *
cf) Tr. d. EcoL (UUt et Monum. vol. L {x 243.)
CHAP. YL OPPOS. & HEFORM. | SM. UU8S A THE HUSSITES. 349
for his rights in Tain, and the emperor had nothing hnt a blush to give as an
apology for the violation of his safe condnct. (e) Some of the charges alleged
against him he was able to deny, and others he coold modify — ^be had never
Rjeoted the doctrine of transnbstontiation, the pope had been created by Oon-
atantine only with respect to his temporal honor and earthly possessions, a
king, a pope, or a bishop in mortal sin was in the sight of God nnworthy of
the name, and snch a priest could not properly administer the sacraments.
The council required him unconditionally to recant his opinions, and con-
demned him for his obstinacy, since he would make no concessions except to
the authority of the Scriptures or of reason. (/) A person of a different
character might perhaps have extricated himself without betraying the cause
of truth, and indeed have become a leader in the synod. The farewell let-
ters which Huss wrote to his friends were full of heroism and tenderness, (^)
and he died (July 6, 1415) praising Christ and fully believing that his cause
would become victorious at some future period, in the hands of more power-
fbl men. (A) Jerome at first recanted, but soon recovered his courage, sum-
moned his judges before the Supreme Judge of all, and, according to an
aooount left us by a philosopher, died with the fortitude of a Stoic, (t) Theo-
logical heresies were charged against these men, only in an indefinite man-
ner, and by a misunderstanding of their views. When we find that a liberal
aflsembly like that of Constance rewarded these liberal effoi-ts by martyrdom
at the stake, we must also recollect that the hostility of the scholastic school,
the hatred of the Germans, and the bitterness of the clergy on account of the
general contempt to which they had been exposed, all co-operated in pro-
ducing the result. But the decisive object which the hierarchical party had
in view was simply to terrify its opponents by bringing to the stake men
whose sentiments were so similar to theirs ; while, on the other hand, they
were sacrificed by the liberal party lest it should expose itself to the suspicion
of sharing in their heretical sentiments. But a large part of the Bohemian
nation were seized with horror at the cruel deed perpetrated at Constance,
under the guise of sanctity, and in a body they rose in rebellion. Huss and
Jerome were honored as martyrs, and the priests and monks became victims
to a most terrible and sanguinary vengeance. A custom introduced by Jacob
of Misa and approved by Huss, according to which the cup in the Sacrament
was administered to the laity, was now made the badge of the Hussite cove-
nant (k) When WcnceslauSj who had retained possession of his crown, in
consequence of the weakness of his government, died (1419), and Bohemia
became the inheritance of his brother, the emperor, the greater part of the
estates refused to swear allegiance to a prince who had broken his promise,
and they therefore raised the standard of civil war (1420). The Hussites
«) On the otber lumd : J. Haas u. & Qeleitsbr. (Hist poL BL 1889. toL IY. H. 7.)
/) A, Coppenherg^ utrum IL doctr. fberit heretica ot merito uutb. proecripta? Monast 1884
g) Briefe d. J. H. za Eonstanz. Nach. d. buhm. Urtezte ed. by F. Mikowec. Lpa. 1849.
A) Hist et Monn. vol. L p. 88«a. yol. II. p. 51588L— iTan^i an yere de Luthero Taticinatas sit Haas?
(Ywm. Abhb. BnL 1821. pi 157as.)
0 roggii Epi ad Aretln. (eo. Orelll Tur. lS85i Ilardt Th. III. p. 64n.) Hist et Monn. Th. IL p.
L~A HdUr, H. y. Prag. L&b. 1885.
k) MarUni Dn de Ja& de Misa. Altd. 1758. i. oonl Sehreibmr^ de Petro DreedensL Lpa. 1678. 4.
350 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 1S1^1517.
were divided into two parties, of which the milder, called Calixtinet (Utrm
quists), reduced their demands to four articles : the privilege of freely preflcb
ing the word of €rod, the administration of the Lord's Sapper in hoth f<Nniii
the return of the clergy to the apostolic life of poverty, and the right of thi
congregation to punish all mortal sin. The other more rigid party, called th<
TahoriteSy cl timed to he the true elect of GK>d, rejected nnconditionally all thi
principles of the Church which could not be proved from the Scriptnrei
expected in a short time the second advent of Christ, and under their iniSitta
ated leader, Ziaka^ carried on a war of extermination against the neighborini
nations. After the death of Ziska (1424), his place was filled by a moo]
whose name was Frocopius^ but as many of the troops looked upon the lo6
of their general as irreparable, they called themselves Orphans. Altfaoii|^
these parties were opposed to each other they became united when a comnMn
danger threatened them. Every army sent against them by the emperor o
the papal legates was beaten, being composed only of mercenaries under tb
name of crusaders, and opposed to a people whose wrath had been powei
fully awakened. The conquerors were now in the most cautious muine
summoned to appear before the Council at Basle. After much debate tb
Calixtines came to an agreement (1488) respecting their articles, and it wa
agreed that the word of God should be regularly preached under the direc
tion of spiritual superiors, that the Lord's Supper should be adminSstere
under both forms by the special authority of the council, that the prt^ierl;
of the Church should be managed by the clergy according to the usages o(
the fathers, and that mortal sins should, as far as possible, be punished h,
the civil magistrates according to law. The Taborites and Orphans, who it
garded this compromise with contempt, were overcome (May 80, 1484) at th
battle of Prague, and Bohemia became subject to the emperor by a trettf
formed at I(flan (1436), by which religious and political liberty were secnrei
to the people on the basis of the compromise with the council. Bat thi
treaty was in many ways violated in favor of the Catholics, who, after th
dispersion of the Taborites were a sufficient match for the Calixtines aloM
On the death of Sigismund (1437), when the nation were called upon t
choose a successor, controversies respecting the succession sprung up, sni
civil wars were prosecuted with no decisive results, until at the Diet of Kni
tenberg (1485) a religious peace was established by King Wladislaus, whio]
secured the Catholic and Calixtine parties in the possessions which they tbeo
held. So long, however, were the Hussites agitated by political storms tha
ultimately none of their advantages remained, except the outward form of th
cup in the sacrament, and recollections of former glory.
§ 299, The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren.
Kbcher^ die 8 Torn. QUnbenftbekennt d. R Br&d. Frkt u. Lpz. 1742. J. Camerarii hist Btm
tlo de ft-atrnm orthod. eecleslis In Boh. Moravia et Pol. (about 1570.) Heldlb. 1600. Fret IflSBL i
Comenii Ilbt. fhit Bohemor. (Arnst 1660.) c praeC Buddel. Ual. 1708. i. Locknar, Eotatak i
enXe Schicksale der BrQdergem. in B. xl M. N&rnb. 1888. A. Kdppen^ d. KOrdnimg a. Dteiptta. <
alten hoss. Br&derkircbo. Lpa. 1846.
A small band, composed principally of remnants of the TaboriteSi bn
mollified by necessitous circumstances, became dissatisfied with the ooneec
CHAP. YL OPPOS. * BEFORll {299. BOHEMIANS. |80a WE8SEL. 351
ik>ii8 made to the Catholics, and the low state to which the evangelical spirit
bad declined, and therefore separated themselves from the Calix tines (after
1450). Their congregations were prescrihed on the eastern borders, but soon
became numerous in Bohemia, Moravia, and Poland, in spite of severe perse-
oatioiia. Their first bishops received ordination from the Waldensian bishops,
tnd seyeral remnants of the Waldenses, with other pious and peaceable per-
I0D8, were received into their community. They were generally poor, quiet,
well yersed in the Scriptures, and divided into three classes in regular grada-
tions, called Novices, Proficients, and Perfect. They rejected the saints and
prelates of the Catholic Church, taught that there was a mystical connection
between the body of Christ and the elements of the Lord^s Supper, did not
pretend to be the only saving Church, but only members of it, and by an
ecclesiastical discipline like that of the first centuries, maintained a habit of
life rigidly moral, spiritual, and pious, though in many respects contracted in
itsoljects.
§ 800. Learned Precursors of the Reformation in Germany.
Nearly all the subjects which so powerfully agitated the world during
tbe conflicts of the next century, were more or less discussed by learned men
in the midst of the general opposition to the Church raised by science and
piety in the fifteenth century. The great points common to them all were
&e purification of the Church by means of the Scriptures, and the reception
of Christianity as the only saving faith. John (Pupper) of Ooch^ rector of a
ooDvent of nuns in Mechlin (d. 1475), endeavored to find Christianity in
those errors which have in all ages been its snare, viz. the perpetual observ-
anoe of the Moeaic law in some form, faith without works, satisfaction with
works without divine grace, and finally vows as indispensable conditions of
evangelical perfection, (a) John Wessel (Gansfort), originally from Gron-
iDgeo, but afterwards a resident successively in Cologne, Lou vain, Paris, and
Heidelberg, whose mental activity at last found congenial employment in the
itining excitement of a counsellor's and a teacher's life (Lux Mundi, Mag.
contradictionum, d. 1489), has, in the style of the Scholastics and Humanists,
conceived of Christianity on a basis of mysticism, and regarded it as some-
thing entirely spiritual, wholly confined to a man's own heart and God. His
expressions, therefore, with regard to ecclesiastical institutions are generally
very limited, and formed with a careful exclusion of all reference to doo-
Wnea. " The Holy Scriptures, God's own abbreviated word, ia the living
Monroe of aU true faith ; the Church is based upon a compact ; there is a
pBneral priesthood of the rational universe ; &ith is to be reposed only in an
^^''tliodox pope, and not in every council ; sins can be for^ven by none but
^^<>d; excommunication has only an external influence; indulgences refer
^*^^ to ecclesiastical penalties ; repentance is internally complete through the
'^S^teousness of Christ and God's free grace, when we are sincerely grieved for
cur ains ; the true satisfaction for sin is a life in God ; and purgatory is noth-
^^ bat the purifying influence of a longing after God." (b) His friend John
*) Dt Ub«rUte cbr. ed. C OraphmUy Anta. 1521. 4. De qoataor errorib. Dial in Walch, Mon.
9tnL ToL L Fue. 4. Comp^ WaicV* Vorr. p. Xllba
h Aooil»etkmofhUthooltr— ti—i; Farrag0 WmmU (1081.) Witt 1688. And often. LaUr pneC
352 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTOBT. PER IT. A. D. me-lUT.
(Rucnrath) of Wesel^ a professor in Erftirt, and a preacher in Wonns, stand*
ing on the ground of the rigid Angnstinian theology, made an assault upon
the received system and usages of the Church. If the names of all the elect
are inscribed from eternity in the book of life, he inferred that no excommu-
nication could ever blot them out, no absolution could insert any in addition
to them, and no observation of merely human statutes with which the
Church is burdened, could raise them to a higher rank. As long as pK>po-
sitions like these were not addressed to the people, they could be toleri^ed
under favorable circumstances as learned doctrines in the schools. But Jc^n
of Wesel, who glorified Christ although he despised the pope, was accused
by the Dominicans of Mentz, was compelled to recant when old and sick,
and was finally imprisoned in a convent (1479) until he was set at liberty by
death (1481). {c)
§ 801. Jerome Saronarola,
L TratUto circa il regimento di Flrcnxe. Fir. U94 ed. 6. 1847. Compendio dl rlrelazloni. Fir.
1495. 4. (Conip. revell. Flor. 1495. 4.) De riinplldtate Titai) cbr. Flor. 1490. 4. Trlnmphas crnds.
Flor. 1497. 4. Expoff. in Psalmum : Miscrerr mcL Flor. 1498w 4. and often, eqtedally sermcma and
letters. Catalogae in Meier, p. 89(teA.— Koman view: Burehardl Diarinm. {Eccard r<A. IL p.
20S7M. PauiM, Bi'ltrr. z. I). K, n. Hel. Gcsch. Brem. 1887. p. SSlw.) Apohigetical : J. F. Pteut
de Mirandula, Vita Patrls II. Sav. 1580. (with other orlg. Docc.) ed. .;: QnHif, Par. 1674 8 vote, 11
Pad/. Burlamacchi, Vita del. P. Sav. ed. Manti in Btduaii MiscelL Luc 1791. f. toL L (Barlamao*
chl, d. 1519. Mans! has edited only the byjierortbodox revision by BotUmi, which waa not made tfll
1527. I have nought in vain at Florence fur the original text not longer ago than 1852, nnmeroat
Codd. in the BIbl. Msgliahecchiana, contain the simple text of Mansi with only unimportant yarl*-
tions.) In connection with Oen. llii^t. : Guicclardini \. IH. p. 9988. MaccfiiaveUi : Diflconl I,
11. 45. Principe c 8. Commiw* VlII, 2. 19.
II. Buddeu9 de artib. tyran. Sav. Jen. 1690. 4 with his later Retractatia (Parerga hist Jen. 1719.)
F. W. P. r. Ammon, Grondz. d. Theol. d. Sav. ( Wintr** krit J. 182a vol VIIL H. S.) Rudtlbadi,
lller. Sav. u. a. Zeit Ilamb. 1S85. K. Mfler, Glr. Sav. BrL 1836. K. Ilat, Sav. (Nene Pr«»pb««ciL
p. 97.) {R. R. MaddM, Life and Mart of J. Sav. Lond. 1858. 2 Tola. &]
After a period of literary activity in a convent, the Dominican SatonO'
tola hecame known as an impressive preacher of repentance in Florence
(after 1489). He reproved the sins of great men as freely and as faithfhlly
OS those of ordinary men, and predicted that divine judgments were abont to
break forth upon Italy, but that a great purification of the Church, proceeding
from Florence, should follow from these severe troubles. He also predicted
the approaching ruin of the house of the Medici, and the march of a foreign
king across the Alps, to chastise the tyrants of Italy and to reform the
Church with the sword. Accordingly, Lorenzo Medici died, Charles VIIL
advanced (1494) across the Alps, and the sons of Lorenzo were banished
from Florence. After this partial fulfilment of his prophecies, and when the
people by his advice had seized upon the government of the republic, the
state was entirely dependent upon his counsel, although he never interfered
with the details of the administration. He looked upon a government hj
by Luther in bis W. by Walch^ vol. XIY. p^ 219. 0pp. Gronfng. 1614 4— &. /7. Goeat, de Jo. W«i
Lab. 1719. 4 O. Muurling^ de Wesseli Oansfortii cam vita, lam meritis in pracpar. aaetorooi eHMi-
daUone in Belgio sept P. L (Vita.) Tpij. ad Rh. 1881. C. UUmann^ J. Weaselt eln Yoiigioger Loth.
Hamb. 1884 Die 2 amg. A. in d. Beformatoren vor d. Be£ toL II.
o) Ub treatise adv. indnlgentias in WaleK, L c. Fase. I. p. 111. Legal doeomeiiti felatti^ t» Ml
trial in ArgeiUH toL L P. IL pw 891i8b UUmann^ toL L p. Wlwk
CHAP. TL OPPOS. A REFOBM. $ 801. SAVONAROLA. 353
tbo people as most appropriate to snch a place as Florence, and he advised
that it should be a spiritual community, established upon the principles of
the fear of God, true patriotism, and peace among all its citizens. From his
pulpit he commenced a great moral reformation. Ilis system of faith was
founded upon that of St. Thomas, though it deviated somewhat in the direc-
tion of the Mystics, and was animated by the spirit of the Scriptures. Of
eonrse he had no hope of salvation from the saints, nor from his own works,
bat his whole trust was in the grace of God. Although he declined the
dangerous appellation of a prophet, he derived his predictions from a pro-
phetic spirit nourished by the Scriptures, and he believed that in his conclu-
Bons he could no more be mistaken than that God himself could err. Alex-
ander VI., wounded in various wa3's, and threatened with a council,
endeavored to silence the terrible prophet at first by brilliant promises, and
afterwards by sending him a crafty summons to Rome (July 21, 1405). Sa-
Yooarola excused himself on the ground that he could not at that time be
absent from Florence. Many Florentines were offended at the rigid morality
vhich in its enthusiasm held a carnival with the works of luxury and art,
and consigne^l them to an auto-da-f6. The noble families were chagrined at
tbe ridiculous manner in which the government was conducted by a monk
and the people. An attempt to restore the Medici was expiated with the
heads of its authors, in the midst of legal forms before unknown. The
ttnrdy confidence which Savonarola reposed in the King of France, brought
tbe city of Florence into a dangerous political condition, and the retreat of
tbe king gave a ridiculous aspect to his prophecies. Already was his influ-
ence over the minds of the people abated, when he was forbidden by the
Boman authorities to enter the pulpit (Oct. 1496). As he would not allow
the word of God which burned within him to be smothered, he was excom-
monicated (May 12, 1497). He regarded such a prohibition as utterly void
wben opposed to the spirit of love, and concluded to appeal from the earthly
to the heavenly Pope. lie therefore continued to preach to the people,
tamring them that his cause would be triumphant though he himself should
nffer martyrdom. The Franciscans placed themselves at the head of the
oppodtion to the Dominicans of his convent of St. Mark, the people became
excited at the disappointment which their curiosity had received when
aaembled to witness a divine trial of his claims by the ordeal of fire, for
vbioh neither of the champions had any inclination or confidence, and
fisaHy the city was threatened with a papal interdict. The convent of St.
Jtark was attacked by a mob, a few of Savonarola's adherents were struck
down, and he himself was thrown into prison. An extraordinary court of
jvtioe compelled him to confess on the rack that he had played the part of
* fwopbet from motives of ambition. Condemned by the judgment of the
I^ as a heretic, and by the voice of the Signoria for crimes not specified,
iM ^OQsly submitted himself to death, and between two brothers of his
<*^ was burned at the gibbet (May 28, 1498). Even the politic Secretary
^ State in Florence considered it becoming to speak of such a man with
'•Terence. His portrait, with the halo of sanctity, painted by Fra Bartolo-
0^ ia suspended in the gallery of St. Mark even to the present day.
23
354 MEDIAEVAL CHX7BCH HISTORY. PKR. lY. A. D. I91f-1S1T.
CHAP. Vn.— THE GREEK CHURCH.
§ 802. Arsenius.
O. Pachymerf III, 10. 14. 1988. IV, las. VII, 28. Nictph, Gregorat III, 1. IV, 1m. VII, t.-
Kngelkardt, die Arscnianer u. Ilesycbiisten. (Zeitscbr. t hist Tli. 1888. vol. VIIL H. 1.)
A complete re-establishment of the monarchy had been prevented by tlu
introduction of an arrangement resembling the feudal system, and by th(
formation of an independent nobility, composed of those families which w«n
contending against the occupation of the country by the Latins. The Chnrd
regarded itself as the moral power by which the unity of the nation was tx
be preserved and the empire was finally to be restored. But when Mickat
PalaeologuB actually set up the imperial authority in Constantinople (1261)
he had the lawful heir to the throne, John Lascaris, deprived of his sight
For this act the patriarch Arsenius pronounced sentence of excommunicatioi
against the emperor (1262), who was compeUed by the murmurs of the peo
pie to promise compliance with every penance required of him. But whei
the patriarch demanded that he should lay aside the purple which he hai
unlawfully seized, the emperor retaliated the ecclesiastical Bann with a dvi
banishment. He also succeeded in gaining over a synod to his purposes, b]
which Arsenius was deposed (126G), on the ground that his election and hi
administration had been irregular. Only three gold pieces which had beei
earned by transcribing the Psalms were found in the episcopal treasury
Even when banished to a desert island, and with his last breath, the deposei
patriarch rejected the prayer of the emperor to be reconciled to the Chnroli
The next patriarch was obliged to yield to the popular displeasure. Michac
then succeeded in having a popular saint consecrated as patriarch, by whan
the restoration of the emperor to the communion of the Church was finslh
effected (1268). But an influential party of monks called Arsenites persistei
in rejecting the emperor and his patriarch. This dangerous schism was no
healed until Andronicus caused the dead body of Arsenius to be deported ii
the holy place, and the wrong which had been committed against him
atoned for by a penance imposed upon the whole nation (1812).
§ 808. The Light of God and Philosophy,
L Among contemponriea, for Barl NicepK Oregora* XI, 10. Against blm, Jo. Oania
9HB. (Both in the Corp. Scrr. Byz. Bonn. 1828a8. P. XlXa.) DocamenU in ManM toU XXVa^
II. Petavitu, do tbeoL dogmatib. voL L L L c 12a. EngeUMrdt, de Hesycb. ErL 1S89. 4.
Mount Athos^ with its dark forests, in which tradition says no creature o
the female sex can exist, and looking far out upon the sea, had become, aftc
the ninth century, covered with monasteries. These constituted a republi
made up exclusively of monks, from which the Eastern Church was snpplie
with bishops, (a) In this place Barlaam, a classically educated monk fitH
Calabria, found monastic saints who thought they could attain while yet i
the body, by a perfect cessation of corporeal life, an intuition of the divii
a) J. P. Fallmerayer^ Fragmenta a. d. Orient Stattg. 184S. toL IL Cknnp. Sostathiu ▼. Tkc
Mlonich, CL d. Mdnebastaad. flrom the Greek, hy O. L. F. 7\^/d, Tab. 1847.
CHAP. VIL GBSEK OHUBCn. {997. LIGHT OF GOD. |«06. UNION. 355
Light and Efleenoe. The method they adopted appears to have produced a
kind of magnetic clairvoyance. When Barlaam ridiculed these Quietists f Hoi;-
xaoTtu) as navel-gazers CO/x(/>uXo^t;xot), Gregory Palamas maintained that
the divine light might be intuitively contemplated, and referred to the newly
created light which surrounded our Lord on Mount Tabor. Barlaam rejoined
that nothing but God could be uncreated, and consequently that his opponent
had made out that there were two Gods. A synod convened in Oonstantino-
ple (1841) decided in favor of the monks of the sacred mount, and Barlaam
paased over into Italy and to the Roman Church. At Constantinople the
eontroversy was carried on with reference to various pointed questions, and
with many interferences from the court, until it reached the conclusion
(1850) : that God's essence and energy were distinguishable ; that there is an
uncreated energy, like the light on Tabor, which is inseparable from God,
and that this was denominated Deity by the fathers, although it is subordi-
luite to the divine essence. Platonism, whose gospel was proclaimed by Ge-
miBtUB PUtho at the time of the Synod of Florence, generally maintained its
inoos trust in opposition to the worldliness of Aristotle, but its radical prin-
ciples were deeply fixed in an affectionate attachment to Greek antiquity. It
was therefore accused of being a new form of heathenism by those who de-
feaded Aristotle, whose system, on the other hand, had now become adapted
to the requirements of the Church, (b)
§ 804. AtUmpU at Union. Cont, from % 235.
Leo AUatiut, GraodA orthod. Bom. 1602. 1669. 9 toI^ i.
While the Latins possessed the imperial authority, a reconciliation be-
tween the two Churches was impossible, on account of the political abuses
of which the Greeks complained, and the exorbitant demands of the domi-
nant Church. But when Constantinople ag^ became the capital of the
Greek empire and of the Greek Church, the emperors were anxious to effect
areooQciliation, or at least the semblance of one, because during the thir-
teenth century they were apprehensive of another crusade from the West,
and after the fourteenth century they were desirous of aid against the
Turks. At tlie Council of Lyons (1274), therefore, Michael Palaeologtu
sUowed his representatives to subscribe the Roman confession of f(dth, reserv-
ing only the old established usages of his Church, (a) and at the Synod of
Fhrtnee (1480) the union of the two Churches was consummated by the
Greek emperor and the Patriarch himself (h) But the people were entire
(Grangers to any such union, and when the throne of the Palaeologi was
^fftttened, the popular party betook themselves to the Comneni at Trobi-
*i<^ The learned men on the Greek side defended their Church by proving
^ igreement with ecclesiastical antiquity, and those of the Latin party de-
h itfOo, d« P1«t atqne Arist phfL differentia. Par. 1541. Oeorg. TrapexwU. Compar. Ar. et
^ Vet. 159&-. W. (TdTM, OeonadloB a. Plotha Bresl. lS4i. The 2d part contains both treaUiea.
«) Raynald. ad ann. 1267. N. 72^. Maivti rol XXIY. p. 60. 67Ba,
b) laiihH et Couartti Conco. toL XIIL p. SlOaa. Sylv, Sguropuli vera Hist nnlonls non
**>eht«rQr. «t Lat bl Codcl Flor. narreda Or. et Lat ed. R, OreygMon^ Bm%. Com. 160a 4 On
'*>««(i>«»lde £«o .i2<al Bom. 16«fi. 4
356 MEDIAEVAL CHUROH HISTOBY. FEB. IT. A. D. 1916-1517.
fended theirs after the example of St. Th<mia9^ (c) hy forged original docu-
ments and false constructions of the Greek fathers. Once more, when the
Turkish hastions had heen already erected against the walls of Constantino-
ple, a reconciliation was celebrated in December, 1452, and a Roman cardinal
legate held mass in the Church of St. Sophia. But the only effect of this
was that the consciences of the people were fretted, and their love was
alienated from the emperor himself. The only true union of the Chnrchea
took place in the social circle of the Platonist Cardinal Bessarion (d. 1472),
Archbishop of Nicaea, who, after the Synod of Florence, abandoned a cause
which he regarded as desperate. By his interest in the cause of his na-
tive land and her exiled children, he subsequently proved that he was not
a deserter, but a mediator between two nations and two mental king^
doms. (d)
§ 805. End of the Greek Empire.
After Phi*arua^ Ihtetu, ukl others, CntMus Tarco-Graeola. Baa. 1664 t J.r. Hammer, Qtach.
d. osman. Beicha. Pesth. 1827aa. voL I. p. OOQsa. vol IL
Abandoned by Western Europe, after one more glorious struggle on May
29, 1453, New Rome was stormed by the Turks, and the church of St So-
phia was desecrated and converted into a mosque. The family of the Palae-
ologi retired to the Peloponnesus, and there wasted away until it became
extinct (1460). The Comueni indulged the vain hope that they could obtain
deliverance by the surrender of Trebizond (1462). (a) One Christian hero,
Scanderbeg^ who had formerly attained the highest dignities among the Mo-
hammedans, but, late in life, had forsaken them all to become a Christian,
now effected the deliverance of Epirus, for more than twenty years withstood
the whole power of the Ottomans, and finally may be said to have been
overwhelmed rather than overcome (1466). (b) His Albaniane became more
properly the allies than the subjects of the Porte, and generally adopted a
false kind of religion intermediate between that of Christ and that of Mo-
hammed. The Mainota and the Thieves remained independent tribes of Chris-
tians in the mountains. The remnant of the Grecian nation was allowed by
Mohammed IL^ the conqueror of Constantinople, to continue under a mild
form of servitude and in the free enjoyment of their religion. Gennaditu^
who had been chosen patriarch by order of this sultan, presented to him the
confession of faith of the Oriental Church, in which were embraced all thote
important particulars in which Christianity is distinguished from Islam, (e)
One half of the churches remained in possession of the Christians until the
beginning of the sixteenth century, when the Sultan Selim appropriated as
many of them as he thought needful to the use of the Mohammedans. The
patriarch, being regarded as a high political officer, receives his confirmation
e) Opnsc. ooDtra errores Oraecorara ad Urban lY.
d) A. Banditti, de viU et reb. gesUs Bmb. Rom. 1774 4. K ffoM^ Besaarioii. (HaU. EnqrcL
voLIX)
a) Fattmerayery Oeech. d. KaisertiL Trapezuut Munloh. 1S27.
b) MaHnu9 BarUUw de yiU Oeorgii CaatrloU L XIIL Argent 1587. t to be modified bf Ofb-
Um & Bdmmer, c) 0099, Abtb. IL p. 80s.
CHAP. YIL OBEEKCHUBCH. S 806. TUBEISH RULE. 357
or deposition according to the will of the saltan. He has a permanent synod
of bishops and notables to act as his coancil and jadicial conrt, in connecdon
with which he is the arbitrator and jadge of his people. The administration
of justice in civil matters, and generally with respect to minor offences, is
performed in the episcopal coartfi. These have, it is true, no power but that
of arbitrators, yet the fear of being excommunicated by them is so great that
this \a snfScient. (d) The Greek Church was compelled to share the depressed
fortunes of its people. It now undertook the vocation of consoling a people
overwhelmed by misfortunes, and of preserving its own peculiar institutiona
until a brighter day should dawn upon it.
d) 0. GHb. JHnL d. BechUznst in Qrleohenland wahrend d. tark. Herrabalt^ Heidelb. 1S85.
i
MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. I
FIFTH PERIOD.
FROM LUTHER TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA.
-•♦*-
For Oen. History: Ck>rre8pondenz K Karls Y. ed. bj K. Lanz, Lpa. 1844aB. 8 vols. Guiceiardini
(pi 888X P. Giovlo, Hist roi temp. (1493-1513. 15S1-27.) Flor. 1550fl. A often. De Thou, Hist soi
temp. (1&48-1607.) Frdl 4 vols. f. & often. KhevenhOUr, Ann. Fenlinandei, 8 ed. (157S-1687.) LpiL
171006. 12 vols, t Goldast, Imp. Rom. FrcC 1607. t k Constt Imp. R. FrcC 161S. 8 Tola, t Koch,
Samml. d. Relchsabschlede. Fret 1747. 4 vols. t^Saatrow, (10O5i) Herkomroen, Gebnrt n. Laaf a. "Lt-
ben^ ed. by Mohnlke, Qrelfiw. 1828s. 8 ycAx^^Robertaon, Hist of the Emp. Cbaries Y. Lond. 1789L
8 Tola. 4. ed. by Frost, 1 vol a New York. 1S40. Uebera t. Remer, Bmaeb. 1793. 8 to1& F. t. B^
choltB^ Ferd. I. Ylcnna. 1882-a 9 vols. [8. A. Dunham, H. of the Oennanlc Empire. Lood. 18S4-A.
8 Tol& & W. a Taylor, Ano. it Mod. Hist New York. 1846. 2 Tola, a W. SmU\ JaxO. on Mod.
Hist &C. 2 TOlsL a Lond. 1S41. W. JRuueU, Hist of Mod. Europe to 176a 8 Tola, a New Nork.
F. Kohlrauach^ Hist of Germany, transl. by Haas. New York. 1847.]
D § 306. General Vieto.
The necessity of a reformation, now nmversally recognized, was the prin-
cipal legacy beqaeathed by the preceding age. This work now commenced
among the people simultaneonsly in Saxony and in Switzerland. It was the
result, not of literary improvement, though in connection with it, nor of eon-
tests with the papacy, although much of its success was owing to the arro-
gance and the corruptions of that system, but principally of the fear which
pious persons felt lest true repentance and salvation should be ntteiiy lost
sight of in the eager chase after indulgences and human merit It was not
until the Reformation was decidedly opposed by the hierarchy, that the
Ohurch was compelled by the inevitable force of circumstances to divide. It
was then that the principle of Protestantism which had previously been sub-
ordinate, led its friends to establish an independent Ohurch, that Christianity
might there find an appropriate development. This was accomplished in
Switzerland in the midst of isolated struggles among republican parties, and
in the interior of Germany, in the midst of learned controversies, solemn
imperial transactions, popular commotions, and mercenary wars. Both re-
forming parties justified their views by appealing to the Soriptora, and
1 806i OENEBAL VIEW. % SOT. LITERATUBB. 359
expected salvation wholly from the grace of God through Ohrist; both
serioQslj misunderstood each other, not indeed at first, but at a very early
period, and both were German in their national characteristics, although, as
was to be expected in a border country, the Helvetic Ohurch partook at an
early date of a French admixture. The Reformation now began its course
around the world. Political interests, foreign to its true objects, in some
instances interrupting and in others promoting its progress, became involved
in the conflict, but the ecclesiastical interest never ceased to be prominent.
In consequence of the very opposition it had received, Catholicism renewed
its energies, and Western Europe became divided into two great hosts, which,
in the very country where the Reformation originated, contended with earthly
weapons for the existence of Protestantism. Its rights, however, were finaUy
purchased at the expense of the devastation and disunion of Germany. Both
Churches, while agitated by the highest excitement of opposition, were finally
obliged to leave each other in peaceable possession of what each actually
occupied. The development of this contest, and its results in the contend-
ing Churches, constitute the central object of our history during this period,
and supply the peculiar conditions according to which the topical arrange-
ment will be formed.
CHAP. I.— THE GERMAN REFORMATION.
§ 807. Original Authoritita and Literary History,
JL L Wiitiogs of the Reformers { 809. 3ia Spalatini Ann. Bef. (till 1548.) ed. by CTprUn. Lps.
1118. F. Myconii Ubt Ref. 151S-42. ed. by the same. Gotba (1715.^ 1718.—,^ CochJUie^vt, Cmtr. de
■etti et tcrr. Latherl 1517-47. Mog. 1549. t A often. L. Suriun, Chronlcon 1500-6(1 Col 1567.—.^ SM-
damutt de atatu reL et r^iip. Carulo V Caes Cmtrr. Ar^;. 1555. f. complete 1557. & often. 111. am End*^
Tnl 1785^ 8 Tula. Uebor^. v. Stroth, IlaL 1770sa. 4 void. Contin. u.^. ad 1561. Landorp. FrcC 1619.
9to1& 4. [Ilbt of the KeH of the Church. 1517-68. from the Latin of J. Sleidanus, by JS. Bohtm,
Lond. 1689. f ]— ColIeetl«>ns: F, IfortUder^ Ilandlungen a. Aosschrelben v. d. Uraachen d. dt Kriega
vldcr d. Sehmalk. Bundt^-Verw. (till 1555) FrkC 1617a. 8 vok t Gotba. 1645. t U. t. d, UardU
HM. Utter. KeC FrcC et L. 1717. t R IdicAer, vollst ReC Acta. (1517-19.) Lpz. 1720sit. 8 to1& 4.
J.Kapp, Nachlese z. Ref. Gcsch. n&tzl. Urk. LpA. 1727ss. 4 vols. Strobel: MiscclL N&rnb. 1778«.
CIIl BeKrr. z. Lit 17S45.H. 2 A; 5 vols. Johanrmen, die Entw. d. Prot Oeiste.% e. Samml. d. wlch-
t%itta Dokamente v. Wormsw Edict b. z. Sp. Prot Kopenh. 1380. C. O. Naud^cker : Urkunden a.
iBc£ Zeit Caaa. 1S86. ActenstQckn. Numb. lS8Sw Neue Beitrr. Lp«. 1341. 2 vols. C. E. Forttemann,
Hcnei Urkandenb. z. Gesch. d KRoC Ilamb. 1S42. 1 vol 4. J. K. Seidemann : Erluutt z. Ret
0«Mfa. Dnd. 1944. Beitrr z. ReC Oesch. Drsd. 134G. 8 Th. Yitae quatuor Reformator. Luth. a Mel.
^^Oamsrario^ ZwtngL a JWyconlo, Calv. a Se»tt. Praef. est Neander. Ber. 1841. 4. i/i Ada*ni
^l^Qermanor. Tbeologor. Heidelb. 1620.— IL P. &irpi, {P. Soave PoL) 1st del. Cone, dl Trcnto,
^^^. 1619. t it often. Illst Cone. Tridcntini, Lond. 1620. Lpi. 1690. 2 voK 4 Jc often. Uebers. v.
*««6ac»» Hal. 176188. 6 vols. v. WlnUrer, Mergenth. 1889. 4 vols. PtUUivicini^ 1st del CJonc dl
^ Bon. 1646. 8 Tol& t Mendrislo. 1886aa 10 vols. Ut redd. GUitUna, Anta. 1670. 8 voIa. t it oftan.
^^<^ T. KUUdu, Aogsbw 1386. 8 voK Bowuti, Hist dea variations des Egl. prot Par. 16S8. 8 yoIbl
^ Soften. 1784. 4 rola. L. Maimhourg, Hist da Lutheranlsmc. Par. 1630. 4. it often. JC. Rifely
K6«8ch. (L neaeaten 2>it Mainz. (l&41s<i.) 1344-7. 8 vols.— V. L. de Sfckendorf, Cmtr. hist et apoL
^UthenaianKv FrcCetL (1638.4.) 1692.1: Uelicrs. u. vrm. v. Frick^ Lps. 1714. 4. Ausx. n.
^•"^ ▼. /iMiiiMi, Frkf. u. L 1755. 4 vols. \Tb. v. Rooe. Tab. 1793. 8 vol*. Teyitxfl^ hist Ver. v. d.
** «• ErL Seekend. ed. by CtfpHan, Lpa. 1718. 2 vols. C, A. &aig, Gesch. cL A. Conf (1517-62.)
^1780«L 8 vols. 4 C J. Planck, Gesch. d. Enst Verilnd. u. Bild. nns. prot Lehrbjrr. b. z. Con-
•^^m (1781m. 8 vols.) 1791-1800. 7 vols. WoUmann, Gesch. d. Ref in DeutscliL Alt (ISOIssl)
ttl^ « vok MarhHnehe, Qeach. d. teutsch. Be£ b. 1555. (1817. 8 vols.) ISSlss. 4 vols. C, A, Men-
^ ^ 6«ich. (Neaera Gesch. d. DeatschL 18 rol&) BraL 1826. 8 roUi L. Ranke, deatache Oeadb. im
i
360 MODERN OHUSOH HI8T0BV. PER T. A. D. ISIT-IMS.
Zelta. d. Sef. Beri. 1839-48. 3 ed. 1892. 5 volfl. A 1 ed. « volflu Soarces : [nist. of tbe Bcf. In
trmiuL hj Sfrt. AiuUin^ 2 vok. & Lond. 18lfi.] K. llagen, DeatachL lit u. rel. Verh. ira Rtt Ztitt.
Erl 1S41~44. 8 vols (2 <& 8 voI& : Gelst d. Kef. o. a. Gegensatze.)— «^ G. Midler^ Denkw. a. d. Gesch.
d. Ref. (Reliq. alter Zeit vol. 8.) Lps 1806. Rcf. AlmaDacb, ed. bj Keywr, Erf 1S17. 1818. 189QL
1821. Rotermnnd^ «rn. Andenken d. Mfinner die f^r a. gegen d. Ref Lath, gearbeitct liaben. Brea.
1818. 1 Tol. C. Q. ytudeck^r, Gescb. d. ev. Prot to Deutachl. d. a. anare Tagei Lpz. 1S4U. 2 rok.
B. I. Writings of the Reformers $ 8^1. 816. V. Anaheim, Bemor Chronilc till 1526. ed. hy StUr'
Hn Jc Wi/s», Bern. lS25e& vol Vs. Ui BuUinger'9 Ref Gosch. (till 1582.) ed. bj //ottinfferA VdaeU,
Franenf ISSSaa. 8 vols.— Ref Clironik d. Karthfins. Georg. aebern. daroh K. Baxtiirf Baa. 1SI0.—
J. Q. Pan»l.i: Beytrr. z. Erl. d. K. R. Ulst d. Scbweizerl ZQr. Uilss. 5 vols. Epp. ab Ecc llely. Ka-
fomiator. vel ad ena acr. Tig. 1742. J. J. SimUr^ Sml alt. u. neu. Urk. Z(tr. ITftTsa. 6 vols.— XL MtUm-
bourg. Hist du Calvtnisme. Par. \6S2.—Siiyl^, Critique gen. de TH. da Calv. Rott 16S4. 2 vo1& 12. A
Lettree de Tantear de la Critique R. 168ft. J. Btttniige^ Hi»t de la ReL dea 6g1. r6ft»rmeea. (Rot lOMi
2 Tola. 12.) llaje 1725. 2 vola. 4. J. J. ffoUing^r, helv. KGesch. Z^. 1696ea. 4 toU 4. A. Ruekut,
H. de la R^^f de la Suiaae. (Gon. 1727dL 6 vols. 12.) Nyon. 1835-8. 7 vola. J. de Btatuobre, Uiat de la
r6f (Ull 1580.) Ber. 1785. 8 vola. L. Win A if. Kii'chhofer, neaere bdv. KOeecli. ZQr. lS18-:9. 8
vola.— ^. SeuUeU Ann. Ev. renovatL lldlb. 1618. Gerdta: Introd. in Hist Ev. renovatt (1516-aft.>
Oron. 1744881 4 Th. 4. Scrinium ai MiaeelL ad Ref spect Gnm. 1748m. 8 Tb. 4. K, R. HaQetthack^
Yorleae. &. Weaen a. Geacb. d. Ref Lpo. (1S84. 2 vola.) 1651. J. H. Merle d'Attbigni, Hlat de la rit
d. 16 allele. Par. 1S858. 4 voK [Hist of the Rcf. of the 16tb cent by J. IL Merle D*Aabign6, transL
by H. White. Edinb. A New York. 1847-185a 4 vols. 12. IT. Stebblng, Hiat of the ReH 2 votai IS.
Loud. 1886. O. Waddlngton^ Iliat of Ref on tbe Continent 8 vola. a Lond. 1841.]
(7. de VUlere^ Eaaai aar Tesprit et rinfluence de la r6f de Lath. Par. 1802. ed. 6. 1S5L [Eaaaj oa
the ReC of Luther by VllIer^ tranal. by & MilUr, 1 vol. 12. Phil. 1888.] N. d. 2 ed. Ucbera. ▼.
CnifMr^ m. Bell. v. Ilenke^ Ilamb. (1805.) 1828. v. Stampeel m. Vor. v. Rosenm&ller, Lpa. (ISOSL)
\%\9.^RoheU}t, do Tinflucnce de la Ref de Luth. Lyon!^ 1S22. Mayenoe. 1823. J, DoUinger^ d. RcC
iliro Entw. u. Wlrk. ira (Jmfanged. Lutlt. Bckenutn. Ratisb. 1846-8. 8 vol&—iC G. BrtUcktuid^^^,
deutache Ret Lp& 1844
The events of the Hefonnation were produced principally by published
writings, which, in subsequent times, needed only to be collected. The ac-
counts letl by Spalatin (d. 1645) and Myconim (d. 154G) are valuable merely
as the testimony of those who actually witnessed what they related. A
more comprehensive picture is presented in the work of Coehlaeus (Dobnek,
d. 1562), although colored by the peculiar views of his party. In oppodtioa
to his abusive representations the learned statesman, SUidanus (Philipaon, d.
1556), showed by original documents that the Reformation was a woi^ of
Providence, in which the whole human race was interested, and that it had
important relations to general history. In the contest waged against Maifii'
hourg^B elegant but malignant representation, Seekendor/, on account of his
access to the archives preserved by the State, is entitled to a place among
the original authorities. Among the historical writers, the Reformation hM
been described by Sarpi^ a real Protestant under a monk^s cowl, and by Pal'
lavieinij with all the advantages and the prejudices of a cardinal. JSomuei
has more particularly noticed the gradual development and the human ele-
ments, as well as the variations and arbitrary character of the Reformation.
The work of Planch is impartial, but sometimes altogether too full of minate
details, while that of MarheineJce is popular, and yet, in consequence of its
documentary character, possesses much of an antiquarian aspect. Woltmann
has bestowed special attention upon the rights of those who were opposed to
the Reformation. A vast amount of original authorities, especially from tho
records of the German empire, has been brought forward in an intelligent
maimer by Eanhe^ who has interspersed in his narrative many admirable
reflections, and in a style of almost dramatic interest has contrived to exhibit
not only general characters and incidents, but the most inaignifioant agents in
OHAP. L BEFOBMATION. S 806. LnTHEB*S YOUTH. 361
their atmoet efforts against the more prominent historical personages. Ln-
ther*s cause has been described with much less precision by Ilagen^ as the
result of a general effort at a compromise, and as an early departure from its
own original principles. Hie Helvetic Reformation does not so clearly pre-
sent a common centre, and the development of great characters in the midst
of great events. With the sympathies of an actor in the scenes which he
deacribesi, Bullinger has simply, clearly and faithfnily narrated in the Chroni-
cle of his own times and vicinity (1519-32) not only those incidents which
were important, bat many which were of but trifling consequence connected
with the glorious transactions of his native land. As Bayle had previously
yindicated the Reformation in opposition to Maimbourg^s passionate shrewd-
neaBy so Basnage in a skilful and spirited manner defended it against the inge-
nioos declamation of Bossnet. The historical materials were collected with
honest diligence by Hettinger^ and more perfectly and more skilfully by Ru-
eia(, bat both were under the influence of a powerful party spirit. From a
podtioQ in which he happily combines practical with contemplative views,
Hagenbaeh instructs and consoles the painfully excited age in which he lives,
bj holding up before it a vivid picture of preceding times, and yet preserves
A proportionate representation of the whole Reformation. In the lofty and
Attraeti?e picture presented by Merle d^Avhigne^ the author seems conscious
of a perfect agreement with the reformers in their theological views, and yet
arails himself of all the resources of modem literature.
I. Ebtabusiiment of thb Lutheban Chub on, till 1582.
IirfUr. Lltentnre : Fahricii Centifolium Lutb. Hamb. 172Sss. 2 vols. Ukert, L. LobeiL Qoth*.
inr. S Tolt. E.O. VogO, BibL BIngraphica Latbenna. Ual. 1S51. Works: Lat Yit 151568L 7 vols,
t Jes. ISCMml 4 Toll, t Oerman, Witt 1589b& 12 Tola. f. Jena 15S5m. 8 vola. f Altcnb. 1661aBi
Ufok £ td. bj «/: (?. WalcK, Hal 1787-5& S4 vols. 4. According to tbe orlg. language by Ploch-
Btto 4 Irmlscfaer, ErL 1826-50. 68 vola. (Selectiona bj PJUm', ¥t\it 1887fi«. O. v. Osrlach, BrL
lUim. bj Zimmtrmann^ Friif. 1846^.) Letters ed. by De WetU, Bri. 1S25-2& 5 vols. Life : Jtf*-
(oMttM, Illst. de vlU et actis L. ViL 1546. den. ed. Augtuti, Vrat 1817. Uebera. v. Zimmermann
«. Aim. T. VitUrt, GOtt (18ia) 1S16L J. MaiheHm, Hist v. L. in 17 Pred. NQrnb. 1565. 4. & often.
Kiam. r. J?im^ BrL ISll. Tbe MS. Illst of JiuUeberffer^ &. L. a. a. Zeit edit by Neudeck^r, Jena,
yXfi IL Waleh^ v. L. (Werke, vol. XXIV.) F. & KHl, Lpe. 1764. 4 vols. 4. Scfirotckh, Lpai 177S.
^fMotr.QwiYi. L a. d. KVerb. Berl. 18ia 1 vol. Giut, P/izer, L. Lt-ben. Stnttg. 1836. {Audin^
Hi«.d«la vie de L. Par. (1888.) 1841. 2 vola.) M. Meurer, L Loben. a. d. Quellen (^rziiblt Dread.
OStlK.Svok) 1852. If. L. der deotache KeC In bildl Darst v. G. Konig, in gcscb. Umriaaen v.
B- Qdttr, Uamb. 1851.— AT. Jurgeu*, L. Leben. (1438-1517.) Lps. lS46s. 8 vok [Botcer, Life of L.
*Mrt7 Prog, of the Ret 8. Jf. AitcheUt, Life of L. New York, 1846. 12. J, E. RiddU, L. & his
''^46 Lond. 1887. 12. J. Scott, L. & the Lath. Rot New York, 1833. 2 vola. 12. Laicaon, Aato-
^HiOfLLood Itoia]
§808. Luther's Youth.
Martin Luther was horn at Eisleben an hour before midnight on the lOth
<tf HoTember, 1488. His father, John, was a respectable miner belonging to a
P^*MQtThuringian family in Moehra, (a) and afterwards the proprietor of some
'<NQdrie8 and a councillor in Mansfeld. He was in early life subjected to a
fl^tte discipline. Having spent some time with the NuUbrethren at Magde-
^J)^- C Ortmann, Moehra d. Stamrotort Lath. Saliang. 1844 yobbe, Stammb. d. Familie M. L
^'^"^ ISMl Compi {J. C. & Thon,) Schloaa Wartbarg. Eiai 1826. p. 14da.
i
362 MODEBN CHX7BGH HI8T0BY. PSB. T. A. D. ISlT-ieiSL
burg, and fia a current scholar (5) at Eisenach, where he was sapported for a
while by the charity of a matron interested in his earnest style of singling and
praying. With the view of preparing himself for the legal profession he
became a student (1501) in the University of Erfhrt, where his principal
studies wore the Dialectics of the Nominalists and the Latin Classics. He
there also became Master of Arts and commenced reading the Physics and
the Ethics of Aristotle. But, fbll of anxiety for the salvation of hb soul,
alarmed by the sudden death of a fHend, and haunted by terrors respecting
his own death, on the night of the 17th of July, 1505, he fled to the Augns-
tinian convent, where, in spite of many remonstrances he became a monk,
and in 1507 a priest. But aU the austerities of a conscientious monaslao life,
all the humiliations of a mendicant friar, together with the most intense stndy
of the scholastic writers, especially Thomas, Occam, and d'Ailly, only
increased the d^ection of a mind which had nothing to do but to consume its
energies in a course uncongenial to its nature. The Vicar General of hia order
in Germany, John of StaupitZy who had entered into Augustine's doctrine of
faith and of election, with all the ardor of a sincere love to GM and man,
now gained his confidence, foresaw his future greatness, and strove to cheer
his spirit, (c) Gradually Luther found consolation by discovering in the
Scriptures, and in the writings of Augustine and Tauler, a doctrine which had
been overlooked by Scholasticism and Monasticism, but which taught him thai
man is to be saved, not by his own works, but by faith in the mercy of God
in Christ. It was not, however, until he had been transferred by Staupitz to
Wittenburg (1508) that he began to find rest in a more abundant and unre-
strained activity. He soon discontinued his lectures upon Dialectics and
Physics, turned his attention to Theology, acquired a knowledge of the origi-
nal languages of the Scriptures, took delight in religious disputations, and
finally ventured, though with great reluctance, to preach. In 1510 he took a
Journey to Home as a pilgrim, ((Q and on some business of his order. During
his brief residence there the glories of Roman antiquity and art had no
attractions for him, but with all the zeal of a devoted Catholic he Tinted
every church and grotto there, and was offended by nothing but the levity
of the inferior clergy with whom alone he then became acquainted. His call
to become a Doctor of the sacred Scriptures, and the oath he was then
required to take (Oct. 18, 1512), raised his thoughts to higher objects than
any suggested by his monastic vow. {e) His conscience now compelled him
freely to investigate and make known the truths of Christianity. Bat though
he preached Christ instead of the fables of the saints, and the grace of God
instead of any merit acquired by human prescriptions, he was even then full
of wrath at the obstinacy of heretics. {/) His literary efforts were directed
\h) Current scholars are sach as get thetr living by alma as tbej wandor tbroagh tba town and aiiif
and pray at the doors of tho prlncii>al citizens.]
c) Von d. Nachfolgang des will. Sterbens Chr. 151&. Lib. de exsccat aet pra«destinatioBti. 1517.
Von d. hulda. Llobe Oottesc L[>s. 1518.— 6r. II. GdUe, de Stanp. Lub. 1715. 4 a L, W, Orirntn, da
BUnp. cjusqne in sacronim insuarat nieritis. (Zeitsch. t hist Tb. 1837. Tol. YII. H. S.) A, />. Gmtdtr,
ViU Staap. GOtt 1887. 4. VUmann, Befll Yor. d. Bet vol IL p. 25660^
d) Jurfferu^ vol IL p. 269ss.
e) Liber Decanor. Fac tb. Vlt ed. I\}erttemann^ Lps. 188S. p. lift. Waick^ toL XTL p. SOSL
/) JUrpsns, ToL ILL p. HOOh,
CHAP. L BEFOBMATION. $809. TETZEL. 96 THESES. 363
not merely against the Pelagian external holiness, bnt the logical forms which
Scholasticism then sanctioned, and these occupied his attention quite ns much
as his expositions of the Scriptures, especially of the Psalms and of the Epis-
tle to the Romans. But the University had already abandoned Aristotle and
Bubmitted to the authority of Augustine, {g)
§ 809. The Ninety-Fite Theses,
Albert of Mentz authorized tlio sale of indulgences in Germany for the
erection of St. Peter's church, on condition tliat one half of the profits should
be his. When the Dominican Tctzel carried on this trade with the utmost
effrontery in the dioceses of Magdeburg and Ilalberstadt, Luther found at his
confessional that much iiyury was done by it to the practice of true Chris-
tian repentance. He therefore preached against it, and wrote to tlio neigh-
boring bishops {a) against it, but when he saw that he was despised, {h) on the
eve of All-Saints' Day, 1517, he affixed to the gate of the Castle-Cliurch of
Wittenberg (c) ninety-five propositions, which he proclaimed himself ready
to defend against any man who might assail them. They asserted : That
God alone oonld bestow true absolution, and the pope, like any other bishop
and pastor, can only dispense this divine absolution to penitents and believ-
en ; that absolntion might indeed be beneficial, but could not be indispensa-
ble to the recipient, nor should it be esteemed higher than works of piety
and mercy ; that it referred only to ecclesiastical punishments, and that it
was then so much abused by those who traded in indulgences, and was so
misunderstood by the people, that if the pope knew what was going on, ho
would prefer to see the Church of St. Peter reduced to ashes than to have it
built by snch means. — Even if Lnther really thought that in all this he was
maintaining nothing prejudicial to the interests of the Church and of the
papacy, he certainly must have been aware that he had thrown out a chal-
lenge to the most powerful prelates and monks.
§ 310. Interference of the Pope,
Tetzel now raised against Luther the helpless outcry of an inquisitor, (a)
•ad the learned Syheeter Prierias, a high officer in the papal palace, de-
eded the cause of his brother Dominican with a stately indifference, (h)
Both of them, however, founded all their arguments upon the infallible au-
^^ty and absolute power of the pope. In his reply, and especially in
<1)poaition to the quotations from St. Thom&<^ Luther avowed that he, like
^ Aagnstine, recognized no authority as infallible but that of the sacred Scrip-
^^^^ {c) The Dominicans made every effort to arouse the people against him.
9) Ih WHU ToL L p, 67.
«) «^ /. Voifel, Leben d. pSpsa Gnaaen-Pred. T. Lpe. (171T.) 1727. J. S. Kapp, Schanpl. d. T.
^Minkrtn,^ Lp«. 1720. and Samml. hierhcrgebor. Schrr. Lpa. 1721. F. O. llofmann^ Lebcnsb. T.
^ 18U. I) J&rgen* vol III. p. 46886.
^) Dbputa Dr. M. Lather! pro declarat. virtutia indalgentiar. Printed In Ldtiher vol I. p. 48S8&
•<*5* ToL XVIIL pi SMbs. Comp. Walch vol XVII. p. 1708.
") lotcker vol I. p. 4S4, Wimplna In favor of TeUel.
*) Dial In presumptuoaas Luth. concluslonca de potcatato Papac. {L^^lch€r vol. II. p. lis.)
^ W Ml Prior. (£dMA«r toL II. p. 889aflL)
364 MODERN OUUBCH HI8T0BT. FEB. V. A. D. 15ir-16i8L
Bat in spite of all their endeavors, his well-terapered discourses and writings
oonvinced the people that what he had taught them respecting repentance
and the ahuses of indulgences was true, (d) His theses flew with astonishing
celerity into every part of Germany, and were commended by many honest
and learned persons, but the silence or the displeasure of the prelates lay
heavily upon him, and he became alarmed at the consequences of what he
feared might bo his own rashness. But in the midst of all his internal and
external conflicts, the conviction became more and more settled in bis mind
that he was contending not for his own cause, but for that of Ohrist, and
that while he was at peace with his beloved Redeemer, he had nothing to hope
for or to fear from the world, (e) He himself had sent a copy and a defence of
hiB theses to pope Leo X., (/) accompanied with a letter in which he ezpreases a
firm consciousness of possessing the truth, but unconditionally submits his per-
son to his superiors. (^) He was summoned (Aug. 7, 1618) to appear at Rome,
but the Elector of Saxony obtained a concession that he should be examined
in a paternal manner at Augsburg by Thomas de Yio, of Gaeta, the cardinal
legate. Luther appeared (Oct. 1518), under the safe conduct of the emperor
and the city of Augsburg. Cajetanvs^ a learned scholastic of severe man-
ners, expected to refute Luther's propositions respecting indulgences by sen-
tences from St. Thomas and the Decretals, but frightened at this Ger-
man beast with piercing eyes and strange speculations in its head, he soon
bade him go away and never return until sent for. Luther privately de-
parted on the 20th Oct., having entered an appeal to the pope when better
informed. As, however, he soon after became more and more satisfied that
he could expect no justice from a court of Rome, and when a Bull had been
issued which solemnly confirmed the controverted doctrine of indalgeneeSi
he changed this appeal and directed it to a General Council, (h)
§ 811. Amicable Negotiations.
In the letter which Gcgetan sent to the elector, he demanded that Luther
should be sent to Rome, or at least into banishment. Luther justified his con-
duct before his sovereign (at Augsburg) by pleading that it was his duty to yield
only to the truth, entreated that his master would not act towards him the part
of a Pilate, and declared that he was ready to wander forth into exile, (a) Bat
Frederic the Wite was personally a friend of the people, and as a prinoe, was
distinguished for his caution and his piety toward the Church, (h) Though
he had once gone on a pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre, and expended much
money in the purchase of sacred reliques, he now prohibited the preaching oi
indulgences within his dominions. He became conscious of an increasing
attachment to the evangelical principles maintained in the writings of La-
d) Sermon v. AbUs& a. Onade. Nov. 1517. {U9ch^ toL L p. 468ia.)
4) Walch vol. XIV. p. 470. D^ WetU vol. L p. 118.
/) Besolutluncfl disput de virt Indulgg. (Ldtcher vol IL pi IBSol)
g) J>€ Wette vol. L p. 11».
K) Augsb. Acta in Ldtcher vol. II. p. 486flB. Waleh vol XV. pi 544aa. I>« FMi toL L ^
\4AsB.—BdrMr, de coll<.qulo L. c Ci^. Lpa. 1722. 4.
a) De WeUe vol I. p. 174m.
h) O. Spalatin^ Loben a. Zeitgesch. Fr. d. W. (from bis MS8.) Jen*. IWl
CHAP. L BKFOBICATION. S 81t. FBEDEBIC THE WISR MILTITZ. 365
ther, although he was always undecided and distrustful of his own judgment in
fifpiritual matters. He was at least averse to all violent measures, and was fearful
ci the injury which his university at Wittenberg might sustain should he sacri-
fice its most distinguished instructor, (c) He therefore replied, that Luther^s de-
mand to be arraigned before an impartial tribunal in Germany appeared to be
nothing more than was reasonable. The pope was under obligations to the elec-
tor, and was anxious by some favors to secure his influence to prevent the Ger-
man crown from being bestowed upon his grandson, Charles of Spain, by
which the sapreme power in Italy and Germany would once more be com-
mitted to the same hand. A Saxon nobleman, Charles of MiltiU^ and a
chamberlain in the papal court, was sent to Saxony for the purpose of effect-
ing a reconciliation. During his journey through the cities of the empire,
this legate found that public opinion was already so decided in behalf of
Luther, that he acknowledged his utter inability to take Luther to Rome at
that time, even if an army were present for his assistance. In a respectful
manner he summoned Luther in Jan., 1519, to appear at Altenburg. He
conceded that the abuse of indulgences was wrong, and avowed that he had
already expressed his displeasure at Tetzel, but he entreated at the same time
that the Church might not for such a reason be distracted by a schism.
Luther promised that he would maintain silence respecting indulgences as far
as his opponents would do the same ; that he would receive instruction re-
specting any errors into which he might have fallen from any German bishop
whom the pope might appoint for that purpose ; that he would publish let-
ters in which he would admonish all persons to be obedient and respectful to
the Roman Church ; and finaUy, that he would write to the pope, and assure
the Holy Father, that although he had been unduly severe in some of his
writings, he had never thought of infringing upon the privileges of the Ro-
man Church, (d) Accordingly he indited the promised letter, in which his
language was fbll of expressions of humility, and the Roman Church was
exalted above every thing but Christ himself, (e)
§ 812. The Disputation at Leipsic. June 27-July 16, 1519.
Aeto coHoq. Lptt in Ldtcher toI. IIL p. 203s^ If'alch voL XV. p. 9&4m. Lutk. Acooant in De
W€Ue vol I. Ik 284. 290m. 807sa. Melancth, Account in Cof^p. R«f, vol L p. S1sa.—J. G. Stickel^ do
tI, qium oolloq. Lipai habnerit ftd promoT. refbnn. Jen. 1827. C G. Ilering^ de disp. Lipsiao a. 1519.
iMbita. Lp& 1889. J. K. Seidemann, d. Lpz. Disp. Dnad. ISia
Luther had already agreed in Augsburg with his learned friend, Dr.
(Mayr von) Eck of Ingolstadt, that the controversy of the latter with Carl-
stadt (Andr. Bodenstein) should be decided by a disputation. But in the
polemical writings sent forth by Eck, Luther perceived that he was himself
the object of this treacherous attack, and he therefore deemed it indispensa-
ble that he also should take part in the debate, (a) The apprehensions of
c) Gomp. his Letters to Dake John, 1520-28* in Forstemann''s new Urktindenb. toL L p. Iss.
d) Ldtcher vol. I. p. 552881 vol. III. p. 6a«. 820s8. De Wetts vol L p. Wlae.'-Seidemann^ K. v
Ifilt Ghronolog. Untera. Dresd. 1841. H E. Apel^ quae C Milt o. Luth. Altenb. egerlt Alt
18588. 2 P. 4
«) 2>tf WeUs vol L p. 288ss.
a) Eoeii ObellscL Lntheri AsterisoL {Ldfihtr voL XL pi 888aa.)
i
366 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. UUT-ieia.
those who shrank from the now agitation were allayed by their confid<
the brilliant talents of £ck, (h) and the disputation was held before a
respectable assembly in the Pleissenburg at Ltip^ic, At its oommeiM
and at its close, Carhtadt maintained that the natural man is totally
to perform any thing good, and that even in a state of grace no aoticHi
be meritorious. (<*) lie had Augustine, and Eck had the ancient fathers \
the scholastic writers in his favor, but both of them appealed to the
tures. In his theses, Eck had ventured upon the assertion, that even
the time of Sylvester the Roman Church held rank above all other ohi
and that whoever was in possession of the chair and the faith of St.
was always recognized as Petcr^s successor and the universal vicar of <
This declaration was assailed by Luther^ and the controversy wai
pressed to the assertion that the pope was not by divine right the nn
bishop of the Church. Luther adduced arguments for this position fr<c
Scriptures and from history, but Eck threw upon him the reproach oi
ing to a Hussite heresy, and urged him to express a doubt of the inM
of councils. The glory of a victory was not indeed obtained by Lut
this contest, but the controversy had now become universal, and I
finally freed from all feelings of sacred awe with respect to the 1
Church, now saw with astonishment that the truth had been ntterei
before his time, and that all the spirits of opposition had become oo
within his bosom.
§ 318. Melancihon, General Affairn,
T. Opp. Bas. 15410A. 6 vols. rec. Peueer^ Vlt 150288. 4 vols, f Selection br KUthe, "Lpg,
ToU Couiplcte vd. begun in the Corpos Reforaiator. ed. BrtUchntiiier^ poet Bretech. J
UaL et Brunsu. 1884-J^ 10 vula. 4. Camerari%f^ de Pb. M. orta, totius vltae cnrria et hm
nUa Lps 156fi. ed. Strohtl, IlaJ. 1777. AugusU, Vrat 1S17.
II. Old Lit in StrohfVs ed. of Camerar. 8. 56988. A. U. Kiemeyer^ M. als Praeceptor
niae. lial. Ibl7. J/. Fuciutt, M. Lcben a. CharacUristik. Lpa. 1S81 L> F, Ueyd^ M. v. Ti
TQb. 1889. F GalU, Chnractcristik M. ala Theologen a. EntvickL & Lehrbegr. HaL IBIft
Matthew M. K I^bei) u. Wirkcn. Altenb. 1S41. {F. A. Onm, Life of P. MeL fh>in a L
Host 1885. 12.]
A young man accompanied Luther to Leipsic, who brought to the
the Reformation vast treasures of learning, and the scientific repntati
the second humanist of his age. This was Philip Melancihon^ the i
George Schwartzerd, a skilful armorer, at Bretten, in the Palatinate
Rhine, where he was bom Feb. 16, 1497. His great-uncle Renchli
much delighted with the early development of his precocious mind,
ing finished his preparatory studies at Pforzheim and Hcidelburg, after
he passed through the whole course of the sciences taught at TubiDgeo
lished his Greek Grammar in 1618, and after 1514 gave lectures as a 1
of Arts upon the classics and the original philosophy of Aristotle. S
no sooner called to Wittenberg than he declared that the course of in
tion for youth must be improved (Aug. 29, 1518), and gave to it a homj
Greek tendency. He soon became intimate with Luther, not only <m ac
h) Eccii Epp. Ep. de rat studlor raor. Ingol 1548. 4. {StrobO, Mlac H. IIL p. Mn.)
mund^ ernea. Andcnken. vol. L p. 251fls.
c) A. O. JHscthqf^ de Carolst Lath, do senro arblt doctrinae defenaore. QoCt. ISOQl
CHAP. L BEFOBMATION. JSia MELANCTHON. $814 HUTT£N. 367
of the high esteem which both felt for each other, but because both were
with equal zeal laboring to explain and establish the authority of the Scrip-
tures, against which nothing was looked upon as of any avail. Ho was gen-
tle only when compared with Luther, for he was really impetuous and easily
excited. He was timid and sometimes yielding from his anxiety lest in the
excitement of controversy Christianity itself should be lost sight of, (a) and
l>eoAiiBe he could make proper allowance for the position of an opponent,
irhile Luther dashed onward to his conquests without looking to the right or
Co the left. He had more learning and eloquence, but less strength of char-
acter, less depth of feeling, and less creative enthusiasm than Luther. The
pontion which he assumed, and which nature seemed to have designed for
2iiin with respect to Luther, was that of a trusty counsellor and assistant.
TEhere were seasons when he felt lonely in Saxony, (b) and was wounded by
XiQther, but there was something in the latter which he reverenced as almost
^iTine, and iw^ich he never ventured to restrain, (c) Although he was oon-
Aflsedly the first among the theologians of his party, he often betook himself
Amdly to his classics, and Luther found it necessary to hold him firmly to his
dieologtoal Lectures, (d) The division of the Church produced a pang of the
intense grief in his guileless spirit, (e)
{ 814. Appeal to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation.
The German knighthood formed a kind of third estate, which took rank
iT the princes and the bishops, and was determined to maintain freedom
for themselves, if not for the common people. At the head of this order in
respect to power at that time, stood Francis of Sichingen (d. 1523), a man
"Violent in assault, but a shield to all who were oppressed, (a) In respect to
intellectnal influence, however, no one was superior to Ulrich of Hutteii (d.
1528), the knight that never rested, that never hesitated to oppose every
form of injustice, and long before Luther ^s appearance had boldly attacked
popes and monks with his utmost satirical power. This bold knight now
gave his hand for the assistance of Luther in the great contest with the king-
dom of Antichrist, believing that in doing so he was struggling for the lib-
erty of Germany. (6) It was to the German nobles, many of whom offered
other an asylum or their swords to the reformer, as the genuine representa-
tives of his people, that Luther addressed his pamphlet on the improvement of
CAiriitiaii morality, (e) In the introduction he pointed out how the Romanists
1^ intrenched themselves against the Reformation within three walls : Threat-
« Aem with the secular power, they cry out, " The spiritual power is supe-
nor! ^ Ply them with arguments from the Scriptures, they exclaim, " The
^ 0»rp. Rtf. ToL L p. 898. »ia t) Jh. vol. I. p. 859.
^ /ft. ToL I. pc 211. d) lb, p. 606c 677. IJ€ WetU vol II. ^ 60a
^ Corp. JUf. Tol. L p. 1110.
J*) ^vft. LeodU L. de reb. gesUs et calamitow oblta Fr. de Sick. {Freher vol. IIL p. 295). JC
**•«*» ft. T. 8. Stnttg. 182788. 8 yola.
^ *) Werke ed. bj Afiinc\ Brl 182188. 5 vols. Selection and Trans. Lpa. 19228. S vols.^!. 8ehi^
*^U-T.H. Lpa.1791. iraAnUM% Jagendiehen H. Orelftw. 1816. Wafferueil, U. v. H. NQrnlk
^ £ «. Bruniuno, U. v. H. 1842a. 2 vols. Ck>inp. Uist. poL BL 1889. roL lY. H. 58. 88.
c)Aq^16M. In iraioAToLZ.p.296011
368 MODERN CHUBCH UISTOBT. FEB. Y. A. D. 1017-lftl8.
pope alone can explain the word of God ! " Appeal to a general ooondl, and
they reply, ^* None but the pope can sammon or preside over it I *' He then
proceeded to break through these walls with the assertion that every real
Christian belonged to the spiritual order, and appealed to the great body of
Christians as the real sovereigns in each congregation, to whom he pree^ited
the articles of the reformation, for which they should contend as for a na-
tional interest. These were : The reduction of the luxuriant eztravaganoe
of the papal court, security against the gradual exhaustion of the German
people by Roman avarice, the independent appointment of Grermans to eode-
siasticol otiices in Germany, the final decision of all trials before Grerman
courts, the abolition of the servile oaths which bishops were required to
receive, the surrender of all secular power then held by the pope, so £ar as
it was founded ui)on pretended donations and usurpations, the limitation of
the orders of mendicant friars, the restoration of the convents to their origi-
nal design as simple Christian schools, the abolition of oompnlsory oelihaey,
reconciliation with the Bohemians on reasonable conditions, the abrogation
of the canonical law, tlie discontinuance of the idolatrous homage generally
paid to Aristotle, and of the worship of the saints, and finally the improve-
ment of the course of acadoniic studies and of popular education. With the
grief of a Christian and the indignation of a German heart, the pope was
here called to account for teaching by his indulgences a noble and sincere
nation to practise deception and perjury, and the Germans are exhorted to
hunt out all papal messengers with their merchandise, and expel them from
the country. Indeed, this pamphlet was a public disruption from Roi^e, and
a general summons to the nation to do the same. With terrible eloquence
the national feeling was aroused by a relentless exposure of all those indigni-
ties which had been endured for centuries with a German good nature, but
which had only provoked derision at Rome. Tlie revolutionary character of
the reformation was decided by this little work. Luther, however, in the
most absolute manner declined all offers of the sword which were made to
him by the knights. As the world had been created and the Church had
been originally established by the word of God, he had no doubt that a
restoration of the Church could be effected by the same means, (d)
§ 816. The Babylonian Captivity and Christian Freedom,
Luther^s army was his ever fresh and always interesting writings, and
these he sent forth with a rapid development of mental power. The book
which he called the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (a) oommeneea with an
expression of thanks to his opponents for assisting him so much in his attain-
ment of truth, and an announcement that he must now reject what he had
in the beginning of the controversy conceded. In the course of the debate
it had become evident to him that indulgences were nothing but a roguish
trick of Roman sycophants, that the papacy itself was not even a human, but
a devilish institution, that the cup in the sacrament belonged to tbe pec^le,
d) Seekend. I. $ Sa p. 19a
a) Oct e, 1620. Opp^ Jen. Tom. II. p. 2fiOBi. Wakk tqL XIX. p^ Vm,
CHAP. I. BEFORMATiON. S 815. LUTHER ON CHB. FBE£D03£. 369
that the mass was not a sacriiice nor a good work, and that the newlj-dis-
oorered doctrine of transubstautiation, or any view which asserted a real
connection between the consecrated bread and the divine body, was not ne-
cessary to faith. The only sacraments allowed to be of divine institution
were baptism, penance, and the Lord^s Sapper. In opposition to a reliance
npon the ontward Church and its forms, he introduced the doctrine of the
saring power of faith alone. Ohristian liberty, therefore, ought not to be
fettered by any statutes and arbitrary vows like those which required fast-
ings, donations, pilgrimages, and monasticism. This declaration he said might
be considered as a part of the recantation which had been demanded of him.
And yet, at an interview with Miltitz at Lichtenburg (Oct. 12, 1520), Luther
once more allowed himself to imagine that a reconciliation was possible, (/>) and
that he might lay a foundation for it, he wrote a treatise on Christian Free-
dom, in the spirit of the old mystics, exalted above the pending controversy,
but with the whole reformation in his heart, (c) A Christian man was repro-
BMited as a free lord of all things by a faith which commits his soul to Christ,
and as a king and priest, subject to no law and dependent upon nothing ex-
ternal. And yet this Christian man was a servant of all things, since from a
regard to the divine will he endeavored to be nseflil to all around him.
From kindness of heart, and not as a matter necessary to piety or salvation,
be might even comply with the innumerable mandates of the pope, just as
]iary confbrmed to the custom of purification, as Paul circumcised Timothy,
and as Christ paid tribute. Such was the discourse which Luther sent to Leo
X., aceompanied with a letter (d) toll of expressions of personal regard, but
with sentiments of a lofty self-respect. He at the same timu exhorted Leo,
18 St. Bernard once did his Eugenius, to remember that he was as a lamb in
the midst of wolves, or as Daniel sitting among the hons, and to avoid the
citastrophe which could not much longer be delayed, by a reformation of his
infected coiu*t and of the general Church. The noble Medici was delighted
lith the fine talents displayed by brother Martin, but was disposed to regard
^ whole controversy as a mere quarrel among the monks, (e)
§ 316. The Fire Signal
The opinion, however, prevailed at Rome, that this perilous controversy
could be annihilated by a sudden blow, (a) A bull was issued on June 16,
1S20, in which forty-one propositions taken from Luther^s writings were oon-
^ned, his works were ordered to be burned wherever they were found,
ttd he himself was excommunicated unless he recanted within sixty days,
^ which every Christian magistrate was required to imprison him and
^) Ih WetU ToL I. p. 490. J. Q. Droyun^ Ref Oesch. (Zeltsch. t tb&r. Oe8cb. 1858. E. 2.)
^ De libertftte cbr. Yit 1520. 4. (0pp. Jen. Tb. L p. 64(1) Yon Freiheit eines CbrUtenmenscben.
^ IBM. 4. ( Waleh vol. XIX. p. 1206.)
^ Alter Oct 1& dated back to Sept 6, 1520. Ep. Lutberiana ad Leo X. Witt 1020. 4 pablished
"^^auM time in German. D€ WeUe vol I. p. 49788.
*) AAcr Bandelli Oerde*^ H. Er. ren. vol L p. 205.
^) Ulcrie cujundatn (Pirckbclmer) e Roma. {Ri^derer^ Nacbrr. s. K. Gel. a. B&chergesch.
^ IT<i T«L L pu 179HL) Sarpi, H. Cono. Trld. roL L p. 158. FaUavie. H. Cone Trid. I, sa
24
370 MODERN CUUBCH HISTOBY. PER. Y. A. D. 1617-164&
deUver him at Rome, (b) This bull was brought to Germany by Eok as a
token of his victory. The heart of Luther now became strong as he saw
that the die was cast, and he no longer doubted that the pope was antichrist.
His works were burned in Mentz, Cologne, and Louvain, but in many cities
those who endeavored to execute the bull met with severe abuse, and in the
electorate of Saxony, in accordance with the precedent g^ven by the Univer-
sity, it was rejected, (e) Luther published a pamphlet in opposition to this
bull of Antichrist, renewed his appeal from the pope as from an obdurate
heretic to an independent Christian council, {(t) and on the 10th Dec., 1620,
at the head of a procession of students, he went out of the city by the
Elster-gate, and threw the bull, together with the book of the canon law,
into the flames. At the same time he offered up thanks for the burning of
his own writings, and declared his present act the fire-signal of bis irrevoca-
ble renunciation of the papacy. Other books of his opponents were also
committed to the same flames by other hands, (e)
§ 817. Political Belations until 1621.
In the legal condition in which the German empire then was, common
measures either fbr good or for evil Were equaUy difiScult The chivalrous
emperor Maximilian^ that he might effect a reformation, had at one time
seriously entertained the strange idek of becoming a pope himself, (ft) It
was not therefore consistent for him to attempt any thing rashly against one
who was contending against Roman abuses. After his death (JaiL 12th,
1619), nothing of a violent nature could be undertaken against LuthCT while
the elector of Saxony was the imperial regent in Lower Germany. Charla
I, and Francis I. were candidates for the German crown. The influence of
the pope was secretly opposed to France, and as long as he had hope of suc-
cess he openly protested against Spain. Frederic the Wise declined accept-
ing the crown when it was offered to him, on the ground that the power of
his house was insufficient to maintain it. It was principally through his
influence that Charles was elected. The Emperor Charles V., on his way to
his first Diet at Worms, was saluted with splendid promises if he would in
the spirit of the German people place himself at the head of the movement
for the establishment of a national Church. His mind, however, was now
occupied with preparations to contend with Francis I. for the sovereignty of
Italy. The natural policy of the pope with respect to this contest was openly
to attach himself to the party of him who might for the time be victorious,
and yet secretly to support the vanquished. The conduct of the emperor
with regard to Luther depended very much upon his interest and policy in
this struggle. Just as he was about to form an alliance with the pope, whose
assistance he needed in Spain, he was compelled to pay deference to the feel-
h) Exsarge Domine : Ballanini ampl Col. ed. Coqwi^ P. III. toL IIL p. 487m. With EuUm^m
Anm. In WaU-h vol. XY. p. 189108.
c) RUderery Geech. der darch Pnblic. d. Bulle ge^ren Lnth. erregten anraben. Altd. «. Nftrab^
me. 4
d) Walch vol XV. p. 1782BflL IOOOm. e) lb. p. 1926aa.
a) Sal Cyprian, de Max. I. Ponttfleatam M. affoctante. (Dm. TirU. aif. Co1». ITSSw A.)
CHAP. L BEFOBMATION. | 818. DIET AT WOBMS. 371
fngs of Frederic the Wise, who continaally demanded that Luther should
be tried before an impartial tribanal. Hence even a second bnll of excom-
munication issaed against Luther (Jan. 8d, 1521), the object of which was to
deprive him and his followers, reproachfliUy called Lutherans, of all the
privileges of men and Christians, produced no effect whatever, (b) Spalati-
Rtfjt, the learned and sincere friend of the elector as well as of Luther, (c) at
the request of his master made every effort to moderate the rapidity of Lu-
ther's course. The attempt, however, was without success, and the reformer
only asked that his sovereign would allow him to proceed at his own peril,
as he had no fear that the power of God would be impeded.
§ 818. The nut at Worms, 1521.
L Aete Latberi In oooiltiU Wormat ed. PotticaHut^ Vit 1546. (0pp. Jen. vol IL p. i860.)
Walek ToL XV. p. 20S28S. vol. XX I L p. 8026a. FdrOemann^ new Urkandenb. vol. L p. 278flb
SpataHn. Ann. p. SSas. SfHdan. I. IlL p. Z\B6.—Cochlaeus (CoL 1668.) pi ftSsa. Tarody : Passlo
Kurtini Luth. eecand. Maroellum. {Gerdetii Munam. vol. IL N. 5.)
IL Buy0, L. L Wonna. HaL (1817.) 1824 Zimmer, L. i. W. Heidelb. 182L— .y<miM<for, Wieder-
crinn. an L. u. d. Be£ Mainz. 1821.
The legate Aleander demanded of the states of the empire at Worms,
that in order to carry out effectually the papal excommunication, Luther
diould be placed under the ban of the empire. The demand, however, that
he should be condemned without a hearing, was regarded as inconsistent
with German usage. The states made a distinction between the opinions
which he entertained respecting the constitution of the Church and those
which were opposed to the £uth of their ancestors. With regard to the
former, they were disposed to deal very leniently with him even if he should
nAise to retract what he had published, but with regard to the latter they
were wUling to take his case into consideration, (a) On receiving a citation
tnd a pledge of safe conduct from the emperor, Luther came to Worms,
Aeogh he regarded his situation much like that of Huss at Constance. On
the 17th and 18th of April he stood before the emperor and the imperial
^et At the dose of a discreet defence, in which he showed wliy he could
Bot retract what he had written, either with respect to the word of God in
the Holy Scriptures, or against the ungodly conduct of the i)ope, or yet
ifUDst the wicked advocates of the pope, his last words were, ^^ Unless I am
nloted and convinced by proofs from the Holy Scriptures, or by plain, lucid,
nd evident argument, I yield my faith neither to the pope nor to the coun-
oh ilone, for it is clear as the day that they have frequently erred and oon-
tndicted each other. Until so convinced, I can and will retract nothing, for
Hiineith^safe nor expedient to act against conscience. Here I stand, I
^ do nothing else ; God help me ! Amen." In subsequent communica-
tions with a committee of the princes, when it was proposed that he should
intnist his cause to the diet or to a council, he remained constant to his
^) ttaynald. ad a. 1A2L N. laa. Walch vol XV. p. 9080.
^) Spal. biat NachlaUL n. Bricfef ed. began by Ke\uUck«r and L. Pr4lUr^ 1. vol Jena. 1861.
4*11* a. 6.) WagMr^ O. SpaL Altenb. 1880. Perihel, O. Bp. in emend. faerK. merlta. Jena. 1840.
«)Aaii4v vol Lpc 876a.
372 MODERN CHUBCH HIBTORT. PER. Y. A. D. 151T-lMa
avowal that he oonld yield to nothing bat the Holy Scriptnres or to reasoii-
able argument, and since the cause in which he was engaged was not bis
own, bnt the cause of God, he could not commit it to the hands even of bia
dearest friends, (b) The promise of the emperor to afford him a safe conduct
was sacredly fulfilled. On the 26th of May, when many of the states had
left the diet, sentence was pronounced against Luther and all his adherents,
and permission was given to any one to assault their persons and seize upon
their property, (c) But Luther's heroic confession had won the hearts of the
people more than ever to himself, and the very members of the diet who
condemned him in compliance with the requirements of law, presented to
the same assembly 101 articles of complaint against the Roman See. (d)
§ 819. The Wariburg, and the Tumult at Wittenberg, 1521, 1522.
2>0 WeUe vol. L Um.—AuguMni AnUmii Da. de Patmo Lath. Hal 1696. and oftes. a
KbhUr, Lath. a. d. Wiirtburg. ElMn. 179S. 4.
On the 4th of May, while Luther was on his journey homewards, he was
seized by a company of horsemen, who, according to a previous understand-
ing with the elector, conveyed him to the fortress of the Warthurg, Here
he lived under the name of Yonker George, often sick, depressed in spiritB,
and lamented in all parts of Germany as lost. The bold publications, how-
ever, which he sent forth from his retreat until after the middle of summer,
against the necessity of auricular confession, masses for the dead, monastic
vows, and the new idol of the archbishop of Mentz, gave unequivocal evi-
dence that Luther was still alive. The Elector Albert of Mentz humbled
himself under the severe reproof administered by the condemned monk, (a)
Meanwhile, the brethren of his order connected with a monastery in Witten-
berg, shut up their convent and abolislied the practice of private masses. A
few of the priests renounced celibacy and were married, (b) On Christmas
day the Lord's Supper was administered by CarUtadt in both kinds and in
the German language. These proceedings were approved by Luther and
tolerated by the elector, who only required that no innovations should be
introduced until all had become united and satisfied with respect to them by
means of written and oral discussions and sermons, (e) But when Oarlstadt
proceeded so for as to disturb public worship, demohsh the images of the
saints, and commit other wild acts of violence, and when prophets came
f^om Ztoickau with menaces according to their caprice against Church, and
State, and Science, Luther could no longer be restrained by his friends. In
the beginning of March, 1522, he left the Warthurg, amused himself in the
course of his journey with his knightly incognito, (d) and in ^e sublime
h) Hier. r«AiM, it 8. Yerhandl. m. Lnthor, ed. by Stidemann, (Zeftscb. £ bist Th. 1851. H. 1.)
o) Goldatt, Gonstt Imp. vol IL p. 14888. Walch toI. XT. p. 22648. Dated back to Maj a
d) Fate* ToL XV. p. 2068.
a) De Wette voL IL p. 11288. Walch vol. XIX. p. 6668&
h) J. <?. Walter, prima gloria Gerogamiae restitntae Lvtbevo rindleata. Keoet ad. Ol 1767. 4
'VtMmmeyw in Stad. u. Krit 1881. H. 1.
e) Corp. B^. yoL L p. 65a
<i) Heir. Alman. 180& p. lltai Berntt^ Jo. KeMler, genannt Ahenuioi & 6*0. ISSl pk. Vm.
CHAP. I. SEFOSMATIOK. |82a MEL. LOOL LUTH. BIBLK 373
calmDesB of one who felt that he was acting by divine direction, (e) wrote an
heroic letter to the elector from Borne. He then preached daily during a
whole week in Wittenberg^ in behalf of the snpreme power and liberty of
the spirit, in those immortal words of Christian mildness by which he won
the hearts of his hearers in favor of a peaceable development of a reforma-
tion founded upon voluntary conviction and the evident letter of the sacred
Soriptares. (/)
§ 820. System of Doctrines and the Scriptures.
The scientific representation of the religions principles of the Reformation
was famished by Melanethon in his Theology^ (a) a work which grew ont of his
Lectures upon the Epistle to the Romans. It had its origin in that deep con-
sciousness of human impotence on account of sin, which is exhibited in the
Augustinian doctrine of original sin. For tliis sin of the human race Cl)rist has
made complete satisfaction to divine justice. Hence salvation is to be found in
faith alone, i, e,m the surrender of the whole spirit to Christ, and the ordi-
nances of the Church and all kinds of works are profitable only so feu* as they
proceed from faith. If this grand but simple system of faith was sufficient
to vindicate the reformation in the opinion of literary men, the opposition
of the Roman Church to the word of God in the Scriptures was its most snc-
oeasfiil plea in the minds of the common people. In his solitude in the
Wartburg, Luther had translated the New Testament principally from the
original text into the German language. After revising it in company with
Melanethon, he published this work in 1522. A translation of each of the
books of the Old Testament afterwards appeared, in composing which he
Wis assisted by the counsel of hb fHends. It displays a strong prejudice iu
faTOT of that which had before been regarded as the true rendering, but it is
no less distinguished for its extreme conscientiousness. They thus succeeded,
in 1634, in printing the whole Sacred Scriptures, a master-piece of the Ger-
man language and heart, and forming the basis on which were established
the Scriptural phraseology and spirit of the people for many generations, (h)
§ 821. The Diet at Nuremlerg, 1622, 1628.
Wdteh vol XY. p. 2504i8. Baynald. id ann. 1582.
The emperor was busy in Spain with his war against France, his brother,
the Archduke Ferdinand, was threatened by the Turks, and at the head of
^^ empire stood a regency chosen by the states. Tlie execution of the edict
^ Worms was therefore left to the will of each state. Leo was succeeded
V Badrian F/., an honest native of the Netherlands, who had been edu-
^M m the scholastic manner, and was as thoroughly convinced of the ne-
•) Ik WdU Tol IL p. ISTsfl.
/)raleAyol. XX.i>.6«a.
') Lod eommanee rerarn theoL Wit 1521. and often. Strobtl^ Yn. e. Uteratargeech. von MeL
^ AHd. n- NOrnb. (ITTAl) 1782.
^) Utt edit with Luther's eorreetlon9, 15M.— XuM. Bendbr. r. Dollmetachen der n. 8. ( Waleh
^ ^L pi 816a&) MathsHu*, 18th Pred.— Pan««r. Oesch. d. BIbelQbere. L. Nbrnb. (1788.) 1T9!.
^<''^«iB«l». d. reL Werth d. Btbeiabere. L. Bri. 1915. IT. Sohott, QeMh. d. Bibelftberai L. Lp«
^ 0, W. Hopf^ WOrdlg. d. Loth. BibeWerdaataeh. NOrab. 18lT.
I
374 MODEBN C11UBCH HISTOBT. PER. Y. A. D. 151T-16I&
oefBity of a reformation as of the heretical nature of Luther's doctrines, (a)
Hence his legate Ghieregati^ at the Diet of Nuremberg^ on the one hand de-
manded that the edict against Luther should he executed as though it were
against a second Mohammed, and suggested that the insurrection now
directed against the spiritual, would soon he turned against the civil mlers ;
and on the other, acknowledged the necessity of a reformation, and promised
that it should he effected in a lawful manner in the head and memherg of the
Ohnrch. Tlie estates fastened upon the cecond part of this communica-
tion, and hastened to hring forward a hundred articles of complaint agdnst
the papal see. (h) It was owing to these ahuses they declared that Luther
possessed such power, and a general rehellion would therefore he the prohahle
consequence of any yiolent measures for his destruction. They therefore urged
that a free Christian council for the removal of these grievances shonhl he
held within a year in some German city, and argued that until it might be
assembled nothing should be taught but the pure gospel, with mildness and
according to the explanation generally received by the Church. Hadrian
had nothing to offer at this turn of affairs except lamentations, yet he was
really zealous for a reformation, and actually commenced it in his own conrt.
But a pope who was obliged to regard the rights and wrongs on which his
own power was based, was necessarily more inefficient in this matter than a
professor who had nothing to think of but eternal truth and public opinion.
§ 822. Introduction of the Befonnation,
The divine power which attended Luther received the co-operation of the
Humanists with all their worldly wisdom, and the Reformation was looked
upon as a struggle for the liberty of Germany. Its opponents were ridiculed
as blockheads or threatened as traitors. Even the imitative arts came to the
assistance of the struggling Church, (a) The Wittenberg Nightingale also
now announced the opening of spring, (b) and all the liberal-minded youth
gave in their adherence to the new party, which, however^ professed to he
merely returning to the God of ancient times, (c) From the success of the
movement the princes expected the forfeited property of the Church, the
priests expected wives, and the people freedom, (d) It was, however, the
pure enthusiasm of Luther and the introduction of a new form of the Chris-
tian spirit, which drew these favorable influences into his triumphal march,
a) J. F. Suddeus^ do Pontiff R. qui ro£ (hxstra tenUrnnt Jen. 17ISL 4. p. 299\ G. Burmann^
Hadr. VI. Tn^. ad Bh. 1727. 4. J. T. L. DanM, AnalecU crit da Adr. YI. Jen. 1818s. 9 P. 4
h) Die 100 Beschwerden d. Deutachen Nation, m. Anm. r. O, M. Web€r^ Frkl 1S89. eompi
Ranke vol. II. p. 4068.
a) Watch vol XIY. p. 2108S. toI. XT. p^ 98088. Oeiman Litany : Walch vol XV. p. tVl9m.
Caricatures: SMd, I XVI. p. 201. Paliavio, I, 8S. 8pUt€r, pi 697. Carniyal pTaya: !>• Wetti
vol. I. p. 661. Mate comedy : Ma)ua^ YiU BeuchL Dorl. 1687. p. 546a. Papal aaa and Munkh calf:
Walch ToI. XIX. pw 2408. J. Voigt, PasquiUe, Spottlieder, a. Scbmib#cbr. a. d. 1. lliUt< d
16. Jahrh. (i7aum«rV hist Taachenbuch. 188& p. 8208a.) Piper, MythoL d. chr. Kanst toL L
p. 8168.
h) Hans Sachs : Wlttenb. NaclitlgalL 1528. Dlspntacion zw. e. Chorberm n. e. Schuhnaaoher.
1624 4.—JR J. Kimmtl, de J. Sacbsio, qnantum ad rempabL Christ. Talaerit reftaaiBndam. Gar.
1887.
c) Yom altcn o. n&en Oott, Glaaben n. Ler. 1621. 4
<f) J. MarXf Unacben d. aelinellen Yerbreit d. Bet Maini 1881
CHAP. L BEFOBMATION. f8S9. SAXONY. HSSSfiL 375
and whiob was alone able to shake the yet colossal power of Catholicism,
without exhansting in the struggle the strength to form a new ecclesiastical
establishment. The introdnction of the Reformation in particular localities
generally took place in the following manner : some individuals in the con-
gregation, by means of Luther's writings, were led to perceive the inconsis-
tency of the existing state of the Church with genuine Christianity ; then
some preacher, probably an Angustinian, possibly a Franciscan monk of the
same views, would draw the multitude after him ; then the sacrifice of the
mass would be discontinued in spite of much opposition from the spiritual or
the secular anthorities, and finally, divine worship in the language of the
people would be commenced, with a strange confusion, at first, of various
usages. The people were seized with a horror of the papacy, and in almost
every place where the popular will prevailed, as in the imperial cities, the
Reformation was triumphant Instead of guiding these great popular move-
ments, the princes wore ratlier borne along by them. Frederic the Wise died
(May 5, 1525) trusting to the grace of God through the righteousness of
CJhrist. His brother and successor, John the Constant^ a mild and sincere
mler, was devoted with all his heart both to the cause and to the person of
Luther. Philip^ the youtliful Landgrave of Hesse, after the Diet of Worms,
joined the party of the Reformation, became a personal friend of Melano-
thoD, and declared (1525) that he would rather part with his lands and sub-
jects than to abandon the word of God. As a leader of his party he was
crafty but at the same time upright, fond of novelties, a pious Christian, and
a firm friend of the Bible, but either independent of the theologians, or with
a smgular scrupulosity bringing them to his terms, Ml of confidence not only
in divine aid, but in the worldly means by which a spiritual revolution was
to be effected, intelligent, and in his best days powerful, (e) Li Prussia^
irhere the German order was already despised, the gospel entered under the
most favorable circumstances. George of Polentz^ Bishop of Samland, hav-
ing oondncted himself at an earlier period of life as became a pious priest of
noble blood, now placed himself at the head of the reforming party, and on
Christmas day, 1523, in the cathedral at KOnigsberg, proclaimed with great
joy that the Saviour had been once more born for his people. The Grand
Harter, Albert of Brandenburg^ gave to all princes and bishops the example
of a saocessful secession from the Church and the empire, by receiving the
bereditary dukedom of Prussia as a fief from the Polish crown (1525). (/) In
^ South, the Dukes of Bavaria, in consequence of the spirit whicli prevailed
itt their univeroity at Ingolstadt, and the favor of the pope, enjoyed nearly all
^« political advantages of the Reformation, and formed a wall of defence
fi» the old faith, {g) In the North, George^ Duke of Saxony^ was personally
^ CK t. Rommel, Philipp. d. Grosnn. Gieseen. 1880. 8 vote. Nen«i Beitrr. z. Gvsch. PhiL ed. by
^'"i^. DiniMt 1842. W. Munscher, Ge»ch. d. lies*, red K. Cass. 1860. F. W. ffunenkftrnp, hess.
^OmcIi. im Zeita. d. Ref. Marb. 18S3. vol. L Comp. TheoL BriofWechsel zw. Pbil. v. H. n. G«org v.
8«h*n. (Zdtseh. t blrt. Th. 1S40. H. 2.)
/) CoDclones sacne G. PolentK ed. A. R. GebHr, Regiom. lS48w 4. J. VoigU BriefW. d. be-
'^■Qt Gelebrten m. Albrecht v. Pr. KCnigsb. 1841.— ^A««<i, de prirois sacror. refurmauxribas In
^'^U. Eeglom. 2 P. 1825 et 182T. A. Lambeck, Gesch. d. Kef. In Weatpr. Thorn. 186a
i) V.A. Winter, Geacb. d. er. Lehn In n. dorob Baiarn. MOneb. ISOOi. 2 vda.
376 MODEBN CHUBCH HIBTOBY. PEB. Y. A. Di 1617-4M&
anzioTis for a reformation, bnt one which should be founded upon old oatho-
lic grounds, and conducted by the legitimate authorities, and not by a dofo-
tered monk, (h) The complete accomplishment of the Reformation aome-
times occasioned much inconvenience to those who adhered to the imcioit
Ohurcb, and such as resided in conYents especially were driven forth upon
the wide world ; but in general the Reformation necessarily triumphed by
the power of an unbiassed conviction. The Catholic Ohnroh, on the other
hand, protected all its established possessions not only by calumnies upon
Luther^s doctrines, but by a rigorous censorship, by restraints upon literary
investigations, imprisonment, banishment^ and other violent measures. Some
were even deprived of life. Luther praised the liord that even this glory of
the apostolic Ohurch was now restored to the world, (i)
§ 828. Commencement of the Division in Germany, 1524-1526.
Clement VII. perceived the impending danger and made every exertion
to avert it. At the Diet of Nuremberg (1524) his legate, Campeggio, de-
clared that the list of grievances which had beeu presented was regarded at
Rome as the work of a few evil-minded persons, but the utmost that he could
obtain was the promise that the edict of Worms should be executed as fi&r
as was practicable for each state of the empire. It was at the same time
decided that the empire itself would soon after at a diet appointed at Speyer
(Spire) undertake the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs, (a) The legate also
succeeded in forming at Ratisbon an alliance between Ferdinand of Austria,
the Dukes of Bavaria and most of the bishops in the south of Grermany, by
the terms of which an apparent reformation was accepted of under his
sanction, and they agreed not only to abolish some of the grossest ecdeiuas-
tioal abuses, but, by a decree of July 6th, 1524, to exclude the Wittenberg
Innovations from their respective countries, and sustain each other in every
danger which might result from such a course, (b) The emperor wrote letters
threatening all who would not execute the edict of Worms, and forbade the
assembly at Speyer. At a diet held at Deseau (June 26, 1525), the opponents
of the Reformation among the princes of Northern Germany also consulted
about the attitude which they could most properly assume in opposition to
the Lutheran heresy, but the extent of the danger from this meeting was
much exaggerated, (c) In consequence of these proceedings the Landgrave
of Hesse and the Elector of Saxony met together at Grotha and pledged them-
selves to assist each other with all their power against every assault on ac-
count of the word of God. The original document was ratified at Torgau^
h) A. M, SchvUze^ Oeorg n. Luth. Lp«. 18S4. L. FUehm-, H. Georg, Lnth. il d. veijagtm L»ip-
siger. Lps. 1880. Seidmumn, d, R«r. Zeit in Baehwn, 1617-<89. Dreed. 1S4&
€) Walch vol XXL p^ 29m. 94s«. 178ae. Rabut^ Hiat d. Heillg«n, AoaerwftbltMi GottM Zeogen
m dtesen nnsern letzten seytten. Btraasb. 1664. Term. 1671. 2 voU. t Act* mtftymm, qui Irae mto.
in OaIIU. Germ. AngL Flaodria et Italia oonaUns dederaat nomM £▼. Gen. IBU. BlBckH, di* Mir-
tyrer d. ev. K. Narnb. 1S28.
a) FaUavio. II, 10. Walch, yoL XY. p. 8«Maiw Banks, yoL IL pw IXU.
h) Watch, ToL XV. p. 2e9»HL Strobel, Misa St IL p^ 10980. GoUUuk ConaUtt Inp^ toL UL
p. 48700.
c) D0 WftU, vol IIL p. 82. Seidmnann d. Dma, BOndn. (Zeltaeh. £ Mat Tli. 184T. H. 4)
CHAF. 1 KBFOBMATIQV. $898. TOBQAU. fSMw BETOT YIIL 377
Mtroh 4, 1626.) (d) This confederation was soon after strengthened by the
looeflBion of Lnneburg, Anhalt, Mansfcldt, PranBia, and Magdebarg, bnt it
alwftys remained rather vacillating and nndetermined, for Luther was exoeed-
ioi^ displeased that any one shonld set himself in opposition to tlie emperor,
or think of defending the almighty word and providence of God by carnal
wMpona and worldly policy, {e)
i 824. The King and the Theologian.
Henry YIII, of England, who coveted the reputation of a theologian and
an ecclesiastical knight, either wrote or cansed to be written in his name, a
defence of the seven sacraments, (a) in the coarse of which he even impeached
Luther's sincerity. So highly was this royal production extolled at Rome
that it was declared that no one could have composed it without the assist-
ance of the Holy Spirit, and it was placed in the same rank with the writings
of St Augostine. But Luther^ conscious that he was contending for a Mon-
ardh in whose presence all earthly sovereigns must stand confounded, hurled
bia words of wrath at the King of England, and hesitated not to call the
royal disputant a liar and a knave, (b) In the midst of such a storm the king
floon found that he was never intended for a theologian. Some years after-
wardSi through the influence of the Danish king, Luther became elated with
the hope that Henry might be induced to decide in favor of the Beforma-
ti<ML He therefore became so regardless of his manly dignity while seeking
only the interest of his cause, that he wrote an humble apology to the king,
and offered to recall his offensive language. Henry made use of this letter
publidy to mortify Luther, who found it difiScult to regain the lofty tone
which he had first used with respect to the scandalous lampoon of the King
of Enghind. {c)
§ 825. The PeaeanW War. 1524, 1525.
I. LttMitnrt of the orig. Doeaments : ff. «. Aua»€99^ Anz. t Kande d. dt Mittelalt 1888. p. SOU.
Oollc«tioM: Waiek, toL XYL p. 6t& toL XXL p. 149tiL TVnCMl, vol IL p. 831s«. Kiipp^ NmU.
▼itL lY. pi m\m,
IL SuHoHm*, Qewb. d. dt BK. BrL 179S. J. CK Schmid, BK. (HalL EncykL vol TIL)
SArtibmr^ BuMbobah. Frefb. 1825. OecM^ Beltr. x. Oesch. d. BK. in d. ichwub. f^nk. OrlncL
HflOtr. 18801 WaoKtmutk^ d. dt BK. Lps. 1884. W. Ummermann^ allg. Oeecb. d. grosMn BK.
fltattjK. 18Al-a. 8 Tols. a Btgd, z. O«oh. a. B«nrtb. d. dt BK. (Allg. MonAlscb. t Wise. a. LU. 18B8L
The conspiracy of the nobility against the spiritual and secular princea,
which had sought to strengthen and vindicate itself by the principles of the
Reldrmation, had finally been put down by the overthrow of Sickingen. (a)
But the long cherished discontent of the oppressed peasantry which had al-
ready broken forth on different occasions, (5) took occasion from a misunder-
^ BorfUdsr, YIII, i-8. t) Kapp. toL IL p. 57186. De WeUt\ toI IIL ^ 454aa. 6Mmi
a) AdMrtio YIL Bacrr. adv. LtUk, Lond. 152L Walcb. vol XIX. p. 158.
t) OonCn Henr. B«^in Martlnas Lntb. 1588. Walcb, vol XIX. p^ 895l
c) D€ ir«tte, ToL III pw 8888. Walcb, toL XIX. p. 468flA.
a) Bommd. toL IIL Abth. L p^ SSSaa. Ranke^ toL IL p. Slsa. HUt pol BL 1888. toL TY.
B.»-l&
>) Watkamulht AafrUada o. Krlcge d. B. im MA. (BMuners hiit Tuobenb. 1884)
378 MODERN CHUBCH HIBTORT. FEB. Y. A. B. VOl-tUL
standing of some sormons on Christian liberty and the powerfnl popQhr
movements connected with the Reformation, to rise in open rebellion agaioflt
the secular and spiritual nobility, that they might secure th^r rights as Ghrii>
tians and as men. This took place, too, at a time in which an evangelied
preacher condemned not only all loans upon interest, and the poaseasion d
wealth, but the owning of any permanent property as inconsiatent with Chris-
tianity and the word of God. (<*) Its first appearance was in Snabia (16S4),
but soon extended to Franconia, and along the Rhine to Thnringen (1525).
These peasants in justification of their course appealed to their 12 Articles, (<Q
the Scriptures, and the writings of Dr. Luther. In the opinion which Jf«>
lancthon expressed, the articles of the peasantry were condemned withoot
reserve, and the people were enjoined unconditionally to obey, and to sabnut
to their grievances without resistance, (e) But Luther had a heart which
sympathized with the sufferings of the people. In his exhortations to peaoe
he acknowledges that most of their articles were reasonable, and admonidMi
the princes as well as the peasants to concede whatever was equitable. (/)
But when the latter maintained their cause with fire and slanghter, proceeded
to the bold design of completely remodelling the government of the empin,
received as their leaders enthusiastic persons like Thomas Mumer^ who in the
character of a prophet with the sword of Gideon, and In the terrific langiugs
of the Old Testament proclaimed universal equality ; when they introdooed i
community of goods and published abusive libels upon what they called (he
nnspiritual and luxurious carnality of the people of Wittenberg, (^) Luther^
wrath was inflamed, and fearing that the purity of his caose might be pol-
luted and confounded with tlie abominations of this rebellion, he enjoined, ia
his pamphlet against the plundering and murderous peasants, (A) that thij
should be slaughtered like so many mad dogs. The advice was literally fbl*
lowed by the princes of both the Catholic and the Protestant parties. But
even this did not prevent the enemies of spiritual liberty from ascribing to
it those abuses which were committed in its name, and the people inoiagiiied
that they saw in Luther's exhortation to engage in this crusade against tiie
peasants more of the courtier than of the popular reformer, (t) It was at
this time that an element which had sprung np in Luther's mind after Ids
return from the Wartburg became decided, and gave a character to the whok
fhture progress of the Reformation. In connection with the importance of
the inner life and of faith, was introduced the necessity of an external
Church, the bold process of demolition was modified by a regard for history,
and amid the ruins scattered around them, the reformers now oommenoed die
work of forming a new ecclesiastical establishment.
c) Slra'Mt, llAuptst. n. Art chr. L«hr. wider cL vnchr. Wocbor gepredigt la Flwiirfc 19ia 4
Stroftel^ Miscell. vol III. p. Sas. d) Walch, toU XVL p. Mas.
e) Ib.p. 82«. /) lb. p. 59.
q) Fdritt^nanny ncues Urkandeab. vol L p. 2288S. MelanctKon^ ITist Th. MOnx. {^RoOka vol I.
p. 208. Walch, vol. XVI. p. 199.)— Strobel, Leben, Schrr. a. Lehren Th. M. K&rnl>. ITVOi Atfi-
fikxnn, Th. M. Drosd. 1S42.
h) Walch, vol. XVL p. 91ai. {) Ib.p.99aA,
GHAP. L BEFOBMATION. 1 886L ERASMUS. 379
§ 826. Braamus and Luther. Cont.from § 283.
K LMt^rhikhn^ de Ensrol tngenio ot doctr. quid valaerint ad Instaur. sacroram. Jen. ISSd. Chle-
6m, Er. Q. Loth (Zeitnehr. t Hist Tb. 1849. P. 2.)
Although Luther always discovered in the writings of Erasmus more of
the human than of the divine element, more argument for error than revela-
tion of truth, and more love for peace than for the cross, with an humble
admiration of his talents he had still sought (1519) his friendship, {n) In
pleasant but serious terms Erasmus commended Luther^s cause to Frederic the
Wwe, for he could not but see its justice oven from the faults of its oppo-
nents, (h) He also proposed terms of compromise in which the paj)acy was
treated simply as an equal party, (c) But in consistency with his character
he disapproved of carrying a controversy which might arouse any amount of
passion among the people so far as to threaten a division in the Church and
the empire, and he trembled for his literary world and for his learned leisure.
Bat for these very reasons, as well as from his regard for higher intellectual
affinities, he maintained silence in spite of the solicitations of prelates and
kings, {d) It was finally the friends of the Reformation thcmselve.^:, who
sometimes boasted that he belonged to their party, and sometimes re])roached
him for what they called his cowardly silence, that compelled him to speuk. {e)
In writing, however, against Luther, he did not attempt to defend the super-
stitions of the mendicant friars, nor the absolute power of the pope, but to
adduce the proof which Luther had demanded from the Scriptures of the
freedom of the moral will. (/) The great champion of intellectual freedom,
in consistency with the logical requirements of his system, did not hesitate
in a passionate reply to contend for the innate bondage of the will, {g) for he
disposes of those Scriptural passages which imply the freedom of the will by
•flserting that Grod secretly intends the reverse of what he expresses in his
revealed will, and that the apostles spoke of such a freedom only by way of
irony. Erasmus showed that such an assertion was arbitftry, and contrary
to all scientific rules, (h) But while Erasmus, dreading the reproach of semi-
pelagianism to which he was justly obnoxious, concealed and anxiously guarded
his own views, his opponent avowed and defended what he regarded as infal-
lible truth with bold confidence. Luther therefore appeared to the literary
men of his own party triumphant, and to the people the whole controversy
was completely unintelligible. After this dispute Luther committed Erasmus
to the judgment of Ohrist as an epicurean, an atheist, and an enemy to all
religion, (i)
a) Dtf WdU vol. L p. 89s8. p. 59. vol IL p. 49&— Vol I. p. dITas.
h) SpalaUn, Ann. p. 28a. Seckend. AdditL L L p. lllas.
o) Eratmi Epp. (ed. CUrie.) XIII, 80. BuHgny vol L p. 886i».
d) Corp. R^f. vol. L p. «88. 692.
«) Eratmi Kpp. XVIII, 28. Corp. Ref. vol. I. p. ^i.— Vlrici ah IfuUm Expostulatfo com Ena-
Argent 1522.— />« Wette voL II. p. 489. Unschnld. Nachr. 1725. p. 545.
/) Franm. de Ilbcro arbftrio Diatr. 1524. Walch vol. XVI I L p. 1962.
g) Luth, do aervo arbitrlo ad Era^m. 1525. Walcb vol. XVIII. p. 2060.
A) Hyperaspi&tes Dtatr. adv. servnin arb. Latb. P. IL 1526s. (0pp. vol X. p. 1249. 1330.) Comp^
Xpp. XXI. 2S.
0 De Wette vol IIL p. 427. vol IV. p. 497. Walch vol XXIL p^ 161280.
380 MODERN CHUBGH HISTOBT. FEB. Y. A. D. 1517-164a
§ 327. Lnther*8 Domestic Life and his Colleagues,
Luther remained longer than any of his companions with the prior of the
deserted monastery, and did not lay aside his monk's hahit until some time in
Dec. 1524. His marriage with Catharine von Bora (June 18, 1585), a nun
belonging to the disbanded Cistercian convent of Nimptsch, was neitlier the
result of an ardent passion, nor a part of his policy as a reformer, but it be-
longed rather to his private life, and in view of the disturbed Btate of the
times was entered upon with some hesitation, but with little consultation. It
proceeded from a general inclination, encouraged by the wishes of the parents,
for the happiness of domestic life, the joys and the sorrows of which he after-
wards experienced, (a) Indeed abont this time he was frequently oppressed
by sickness, and prepared for a sudden death by reports of conspiradee
against his life, but as a general thing he sat very pleasantly in the circle of
his friends, enjoying with a keen relish not only the holier and higher pleasures
of religion, but the innocent amusements of music, song, and many a bold
jest. iP) His extreme kindness and honesty of heart fitted him to be the
oomforter and assistant of all who were distressed. Hb moderate ciroom-
stances were precisely such as his disposition and position rendered suitable, (c)
Staupitz^ who was in 1519 in the service of the Cardinal of Salzburg, and in
1522 Abbot of the Benedictines (d. 1524), about 1521 withdrew himself fh>m
Luther, being alarmed at the storm raised around the reformer. Luther
looked upon Staupitz as cold and pusillanimous, but the man who firsi kin-
dled in his bosom a love for the gospel was never forgotten, (d) His ooUeagnes
faithfully assisted him in his labors : Nicolas of Amsdorf (d. at Eisenach,
1565), who adhered to Luther's words with Luther's own vehemence ; (fy
Justus Jonas (d. at Eissfeld, 1555), who had been a jurist, and was theref<ntt
appointed provost of the Castle Church at Wittenberg, an eloquent and
akUftd man, {/) and the gentle Bugenhagen (d. at Wittenberg, 1558), who, in
spite of his Pomenmian dialect and prolixity, was in the highest degree dl|^
nified, adapted to govern a church, disinterested, and a oomforter to Lother
in evil times, but entirely under his influence, {g) These were all frequently
engaged in various ways in ecclesiastical affairs beyond the limits of Saxony,
and were scattered in the time of the German war. CarUtadt for a long
time persevered in advocating a destructive process as the only proper method
of reform, and was anxious to introduce into ecclesiastical and civil affidrs an
a) De Wette vol II. p. 646. vol IIL pi la& lOn. jet p. 21. Corp. Ref. vol I. p. 754il Waleh
vol XXIV. p. ISSsA. 826fta. VeeMnmayer, &. gleichzeit Schrr. gegen L. Vorbelr. (KHIjC Areh. ISSdL
Tol III. P. 2.) F. Walch, Cath. v. B. Hal 1751sa. S Tola^ W, .&•««, 0«Mb. a t. B. UaL 18181 /*.
G. Ifo/mann, K. v. R 1346.
b) LtUh. TischredAn, (Memoire of his ftiends,) collented by Aniifkber. Eisl 1566. t A AreqneaiClj
in zweif. Redaction s. Walcb vol XXIL ed. by Forateinann A Bindscil Lp& 1844-S^ [Lutkar^Ti-
ble-Talk, Lond. ISma A with Life by Barkhardt^ Load. 8va] Michel^ H^moires de L. 6eriti par
lai-mvme. Par. 1835. 4 vols.
0) PaUavic. IV, 14. 12. De WetU vol IIL p. 495a. vol V. p. 767. Watch vol XXL p. STOl vol
XXIV. p. 57s. 198as.— (rdt» do paoperUto L. Lub. 1719. 4. Ukeri vol L pw 8478B.
cf) I 80S. nt b. e) O. Btrgtur, do Nie. d. Amad. Maf(d. 1718m. 3 Pgg. 4
f) Knapp^ Narr. do Justo Joiia. Hal 1S17.
g) ZieUf J. Bugenh. Lpa. 1829. Krq/t, de J. Bag. ia res eoa meritlft. Hmb. 1881. 4
CHAP. L BEFOBMATION. 1 828. PS0TE8TATI0N. 381
nnoondidoiml adherence to the obvious and literal construction of the Scrip-
tures. By snch a course he necessarily came into collision with the Reforma-
tion, and approached very near the brink of spiritual apostasy, but at last he
found peace and moderation for his agitated spirit in Switzerland (d. at Basle,
1541). (h) With the jurists also Luther had some misunderstanding for a
while, on account of his burning of the canon law. But as he could not pre-
vent others from studying it, and finally commenced the study of it himself, (/)
we find that even at Worms Dr. Schnrf came forward as his faithful advo-
cate.
i 828. Religimis Liberty and the Protestation,
The emperor finally succeeded in destroying the French army near Pavia,
and in taking their Mng a prisoner. The latter at the peace of Madrid (Jan. 1 4,
1526) purchased his liberty, though on difl3cult terms, which he never intended
to fulfil. Clement YII. soon after absolved him from his oath, and became the
prime mover of a confederacy against the exorbitant power of the emperor.
This made the emperor willing to suspend the execution of the edict of
Worms, but his brother in Germany was reluctant at such a time to embitter
the feelings of the members of the Catholic league by such a step, and ac-
oordlngly the diet at Speyer (Aug., 1526) was unanimous in the decree, that
until the meeting of a general council, every state should act with respect to
the edict of Worms as it might venture to answer to God and liis imperial
mifjesty. («) The vile notification by Otho von Pack, that the Catholic princes
bid combined together for the overthrow of the Protestant powers (1628),
WIS the occasion not only of bringing out the warlike spirit of Ilcsse and of
Electoral Saxony, but of showing how far the peace of Germany itself was
oidaDgered by the controversies with respect to religion, (b) The army of
^ emperor, nrged on by the zeal of the Lutheran foot soldiers, stormed and
plundered the city of Rome (May 6, 1527). After many vicissitudes in the
fortune of the war, the sovereignty of Italy was secured to Charles in the
ipring of 1529, and the pope himself acquiesced in the arrangement. Charles
v., however, was obliged to pay some deference to the feelings of his Catho-
Bo nbjects in his hereditary dominions. A Catholic majority was therefore
(Mned at the Diet of Speyer, which enacted that the edict of Worms
ihoald continue to be enforced in those states which had hitherto acknowl-
edged its anthority, but that no innovations should be required in the remain-
u^ provinces, tliat none should be obstructed in celebrating the mass, and
thit the privileges of every spiritual estate should be respected. Against
^ Hecess of the imi)erial diet, by which the Beformation would have been
condemned by its own friends to a fatal stagnation. Electoral Saxony, Hesse.
lAitibnrg, Anhalt, the Margrave of Brandenburg, and fourteen imperial
^^ presented a Protestation (April 19, 1529) and an appeal (April 25)
A) rimU, Lebenageach. A. Bodenat. v. Karlat Frk£ a. U 1776^ Jf. OSb^l, A. B. t. Kartot (Stud.
•"Kritis*!. p. 1.)
0 ^ Wem ToL III. p. 43&
^) TU or1«. docamenta In BuchoUa^ FcnL L roL III. p. STlas. Waleh voL XYL p^ 2480&
*^<M II. p. 27588.
^) nurtUder roL L Book II. Rank€ vol. IIL p. 2988.
382 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1617-164&
to the emperor, to a general or German conncil, and to all impartial
titm judges, not only on the ground of the prior and clear decision at 8
but on the principle that in matters which relate to the honor of 6c
the salTation of souls, the authority of a migority was not to be reg
This was done not only in behalf of themselves, but also of their peopl
of all who then or afterwards might believe in the word of God. (c)
§ 829. Synod of Uomherg, 1526. Saxon Church Visitation, 1627-1
The Reformation had been introduced in various forms according
circumstances of the different places where it prevailed. The jurisdid
the bishops had been in fact abolished, and yet no other govemmei
been substituted for it. A synod was therefore convened by the Lan*
at Ilomherg^ composed of all who could be considered according to 1
or the new views the proper representatives of the Church in Hesse,
and prelates were silent under the glowing eloquence of the exiled Mi
Liimhert of Avignon (d. 1580), and a synodal constitution based upon
oratic principles was adopted, according to which every congregatic
competent to the whole duty of ecclesiastical discipline, (a) The £le4
Saxony, on the urgent solicitation of the pastors in his dominions t
would take up tlie same subject for their churches, appointed eccles
and lay commissioners, who formed a directory for divine worship and
lar instruction on the basis of Melanothon^s liook of Visitation, (h) tl
Confession of the evangelical faith. This had the effect of harmonlQ
practice of all the churches, evangelical preachers were appointed b;
commissioners in all ploc/es, and arrangements were made with thot
possessed the titles to spiritual endowments by which these were ab€
Superintendents were appointed to exercise ecclesiastical supervisio
decide cases relating to marriage, (c) The ignorance of the people
their teachers which Luther discovered during this visitation affecti
very deeply, and reflecting that intellectual freedom can be endured onl;
intelligent people, and that children are the true sovereigns of the fat
composed (1529) two Catechisms, in which divine mysteries are presei
simple popular language, and in a form suitable for children, (d) The
siastical Constitution which was the result of this Saxon visitation, I
the common model to which the other German churches in the countr
conformed.
c) J. J. JfuUer, Iliitt. T. d. ev, Btinde Prot a. Api». Jena. 1705. 4. J, A, IT. Tittmanu^
d. cv. Btilnde ni. hist Eri&ut Lpsi 1S29. A. Junff^ Ocsch. d. Rcichst ru Sp. 1529. (Bcltrr. i. (
Ref. 1880. Tol. I. Abth. 1.) For tbe orig. documents there qnutod: (hrp. Ref. toI. I. p. IWTi
a) Kef. Ecc^ Hawiae. i^Schminkt^ Monn. Ham. Th. IL p. 68a) Lamh. Ep. ad Coloa ed.
OteM. 1780. K.— Martin^ Nachr. r. d. Syn. za Homb. Cass. 1804. Ron\mtl vol. IIL Abth. I. ;
Bach, Oesch. d. Karhess. KVerC Marb. 1882. J. W. Baum, Fr. Lamb. Strasb. lS4a P
UetM. KKW: Ordnang, ed. hy K. A. Credner, Qleaa. 1852.
h) Unterrlcht d. VUitatoren an die P&rfa. (Lat 1527.) M. Loth. Voir. Yaitt 152a 4 edit In
Oerinan by Sttobel, Altd. 1777.
c) Kapp, Nachlese. vol L p. 178aii. Rotnherg, /. d. eraien Kfrcbenvla. Bnl. 1754 4
d) Fci^A vol. X. p. 2ia. JttfirtMfi, hist krit EinL In beido Haupt-Kat Elbrt 1824 /fl^
moriA atr. Cat Luth. Lpa. 1828aa. 4 P. 4
CHAP. L BEFORMATION. f 880. DIET OF AUGSBURG. 383
§ 880. The Diet of Augtiburg, 1530.
JL Pro reL chr. res gestae in oomttiis Ang. a. 1530. {Cyprian^ Hist p. STss.) On the other side:
Oeseh. d. rellglonshandl za Angsb. (Forstemann^ Arcblv. IlaL 1^1. vol. I. P. 1.) A report
vUeh was presented at Angsb. 1680, contribnted by MoMer. (Stud. a. Krit 16.V). II. 8. before in
lAth. Werke bj Waleh toL XVI. p. 878. 912efi. aa if ttom Spalatin, comp. Gif»eUr^ Stnd. n. Krlt.
last 1L 8. Walch voL XVL p. 734bs. Forstemann^ Urknndenbnch z. Ge$>ch. d. Keichst zu A. Hal.
1888-& 2 vols. Corp. Rff, vol. II. p. SOss.— rAyfra*M«, H. d. A. C. Rost 1576. 4. Lat Frcf 1578. 4.
md often. CoeUttini Hist Comitior. Aug. celcbr. Frc£ ad V. (1577.) 1597. t Ve^enmayer^ k1.
Baltrr. a. Geach. d. K. zu A. NQmb. 1880. 16.
IL Cyprian, Hiat d. A. C. Goth. (1730.) 1736. Botermund, Gescli. d. zu A. Qberg. Bekenntn.
Bann. 1829. Jf. FueliM, Qesch. d. Reichi^t zn A. Lpz. 1880. Fikengcher, Qesch. d. Reicbst za A.
H&rab. 1880. C. P/af, Gesch. d. Reichst za A. Stattg. 1680.— (7. G. Weber, Gescb. d. A. a Frkf.
ITa&SToIa.
A peace had been conclnded by the victorious Charles V. with France
nd Rome. In the spring of the year 1580 he crossed the Alps, resolved
either to lead back to the Church those who had wandered from it, or to
tTenge the ignominy heaped upon Christ. At his request the protesting
itates drew up a statement of their faith and of the abuses discarded by
ihem. This Confession^ composed by Melancthon, approved by Luther, and
rigned by the States, presented the ultimate points to which they could go in
file way of concession for the sake of peace. On the 25th of June, it was
read in German by the Chancellor of Saxony before the Diet at Augsburg^
and afterwards committed to the hands of the emperor in Latin and German.
Ai the object of this paper was religious, practical and political, the peculiar
derelopment of Protestantism is not made so prominent in it as the points
in which that system agreed with the ancient Catholic faith, and the opposi-
tion to abuses which were generally acknowledged by all intelligent persons
of that period. A few of the prelates avowed themselves ready to dip their
pens in their own blood to answer it, but some of the princes and lords were
lifonght by it to perceive that they had hitherto been incorrectly informed
Wepecting the new doctrine, and the Protestants themselves attained by it
tt established centre for their own unity. By the command of the emperor,
» Confutation was composed by Eck, Faber, Cochlaeus, and Wimpina, and
lead (Aug. 8) in the diet, but it was so pitiful an affair that it only raised the
courage of the Protestants. On the 22d of Sept., however, when the States
preeented their Apology, the emperor refused to receive it, and had a decree
pMsed which asserted that the Confession was opposed to the unquestionable
principles of the Sacred Scriptures. Melancthon, offended at such abuse,
oiMe more revised his Apology^ and published it even during the session of
t^ diet as an appeal to the age in which he lived, as well as to subsequent
*^B»ee. The recess of the diet, passed Nov. 19th, threatened after a brief pe-
riod of indulgence utterly to exterminate the new sect. The protesting
Prinoes, esteeming the favor of Christ far more than the displeasure of the
•>P«ror, after presenting their Protest, took their leave of the city,
§ 881. League of Smalkald and Peace of Nuremberg.
The danger of the Protestants became evident at Augsburg. The impe-
'W ootmcil, to which was committed the task of executing the recess of the
^ next commenced a legal process against the Protestant States for hav-
i
384 MODEBN GHUBCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1MT-1M&
ing confiscated the property of the Church. When, therefore, the diTinee
of Wittenberg had acknowledged that the imperial states were jostified as
magistrates in protecting their subjects from unjust aggressions, (a) these
Protestant powers assembled together at Snuilkald on Ghriatmas, 1580, and
formed a well -organized league in 1531, for mutual defence by force of arms,
embracing the princes and the most powerful cities of Upper and Lower Ger-
many, with the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave as the leaders of the
confederacy, {h) All those who were dissatisfied with the imperial govem-
ment, among whom was Bavaria itself on account of its displeasure at the
appointment of Ferdinand to be king of the Romans, placed tliemselves
under the protection of this formidable power. As the Sultan Solyman was
threatening to invade Germany, and especially Austria, the emperor was
obliged to purrhiise internal peace and efficient aid against the Turks at any
price. Even his confessor advised him to give up the vain fancy of saving
men^B souls, and content himself with winning back his obedient subjects, (e)
A religious peace was tlierefore concluded at Nuremberg (July 28, 1582) ((Q
through the mediation of the Elector of Mentz and the Elector Palatine, by
the terms of which both parties agreed to abstain from mutual hostilitiea
until the meeting of a general council. This could be regarded only as an
acknowledgment on the part of the Catholics that they were yet unprepared
to become assailants, and on the part of the Protestants that they were re-
strained by conscientious scruples. This peace embraced only those who had
already professed adherence to the Confession of Augsburg. The emperor
pledged himself that the suits in religious matters should in the mean time be
suspended.
11. Establishment of the Reformed Churoh until 1581.
J. V. Mailer's u. B. Olntx-Blotzheim's Oeschcta. Schweizer. Eidgen. (5 toIs.) eont. hfJ, J, B$^
tlnger, 6. 7. vol till 1C81. Zur. 1825-9.
§ 382. Youth and Doctrine of Zwingle.
L 0pp. od. Oxtalther, (Tig. 545s.) 581. 4 vols, t M. SchuUr «t J. SchuUkt^ Tig. 18eS-48. 8 TohL
(1st and 2d vols, tlie German, to1& 8-S. the Lat. original, and the former In a Lat tnniaL) Aua& ▼. !»
Usterl Ai Viigelln. Zur. 18199. 8 vols. Selections from the ptact Works (and tnuialatiooa Id the
Germ.) v. R. ChrUtoffel, Zur. 18488. 8 vols. Oecolampadii et ZwinglU Epii. 1. IF. Bas. (15ML £)
1592. i. Before this edition : 09w. Mj/oonii £p. de Vita et oMta Z. Respecting the Lottors of 7^ :
Arch, t KOesoh. 1S15. vol IIL St 8.
IL {Kii9cheUr) Z. LeWnsgescb. ZOr. 1770. J. C. JTtM, vie d'U. Z. Par. et 06n. Traaal. Into
Germ, vrilh uba. by Z. VvUH^ Z&r. ISU. Suppl. in Arcbiv. f. KG. 1818. vol. L St 8. II, & U. W.
Hotermund^ Lcben Z. m. Abrids d. schw. Bef. Brm. 181 S. J. JT. Schultr^ Z. Qesch. sr. Bfldnng &
Reformator. ZQr. 1819. Sal J/eM, Un>pning, Gang. a. Folgen d. dorcb Z. in Zikr. bcwMLtOD BcC
ZHt. 182a i.J.J. Jlottinger, II. Z. n. a. Z<.it Zar. 1848w [Life of Zwingle, transL fhtm Genu, of i.
U. Hess, by Lwy AUceti, Svo. Lond. 1812. In Blackwood's Mag. for 1828. and IJttellls ReL Mi^
vol. II. for lS2a MiscelL of Tract Soc. vol 8. p. 289-820. Life of U. Z. and Sketch of OeeoL pobL
by Pre& B. of Pabl. Pbtlad. 18. K Zeller has announced a work on the theoL systom «f JBwli^]
Euldrkh Zwingliy the son of the amman of "Wildhaus (b. Jan. 1, 14B4X
a) Waldi vol X. p. 66088. comp. 656.
5) ITalcA vol XVL PL 2142SB. //orf^ed^rr voL L L VIII, Tsai
0) Briefo an K. Karl V. v. & Beichtr. Mitgeth. (fh)m the Span. Imp. ArcbiTa8» by O, SdM^
Brl 184a
d) ITa^ to]. XYL p. 81828a. JJortfed^r vol L I, m
CHAP. I. BEFOBMATION. f 882. ZWINOLE. 385
beoame Tened in dassioal learning, and received a liberal thoologioal edn-
eatioii in the city of Basle. lie was for some time no stranger to the pleasures
of the world, and was especially skilfal in playing upon the late, bat he
gradually became (after 1518) deeply interested in the stady of the original
text of the New Testament, that he might learn the will of Grod from the divine
word itself. After spending ten years as the pastor of a church in Glarus^ he
was appointed preacher in the convent of Einsiedlin (1516), where he took
occasion, from the crowds which thronged as pilgrims to the miraculous
nnage of Mary, to preach that prayer should be offered not to Mary, the pure
handmaid of the Lord, but to Ohrist the only mediator. In consequence of
lua evangelical preaching he was invited to become a chaplain at Zurich^
where on New Tear's morning, 1519, his powers of popular eloquence were
exerted in the cathedral itself in defence of the reformation both in Church
md in common life. The Swiss Confederacy was in legal form still a mem-
ller of the German empire, and at that time the recollection of those glori-
ous deeds by which liberty had been restored to their mountains was by no
neans loat in the hearts of the people, but the honesty and unanimity of the
olden times had already become much impaired by numerous enlistments of
the people as mercenaries in the wars of foreign nations. As an earnest re-
publican, Zwingle was zealously opposed to the oligarchy, to their annuities
from foreign princes, and to their trade in Christian blood, (a) Conscious of
tiieir own independence, the people had set bounds to the exorbitant claims
of the qoiritnal courts (p. 288). But the idle and warlike youth fought the
Utiles of the pope for his money, and when this could not be obtained,
Julius II. paid them with ecclesiastical gifts and preferments. In the fidelity
of 1u8 Swiss guards the vicar of Christ found a security for his body against
the fickle spirit of the Roman people. From a papal nuncio residing at
Zorich, Zwingle annually received fifty florins, with which he purchased
books. Bemardin Samson^ a Franciscan from Milan, opened a traffic in
indulgences among the inhabitants of the Alps (1518). Zwingle preached
igunst him, but the Bishop of Constance himself persuaded the city of
Znrioh to close its gates against him, and when complaint was made to the
pope respecting the mischief caused by the traffic, Leo X. promised to call
the trader to an account. Zwingle was acquainted with some of Luther^s
vritings, but although very unlike that great reformer in religious profund-
ity and genius, in consequence of his demand that every thing should be set
<ado which could not be proved from the Scriptures, he was induced by the
independent study of those Scriptures much more suddenly and uncondition-
ally to break loose from the ancient Church, (b) It was for this reason also,
that although nothing was dearer to him than truth, many errors which had
W been perceived, were not distinctly condemned, (r) His faith mounted
npward in bold speculations, though it dways returned to the path which an
ii^Bgent judgment approved, and which was favorable to spiritual im-
P'^etfient In opposition to a righteousness by mere external works, he
a) BuUinger^ Refonnationigosch. toI. L p. 41ii 4St. 01.
b) Proolb in NiUcheUr p. 157as. Sch^il«r, jk 119. SSft.
c) £. g. OMlngtr, H. «oa p. XVL P. II. p. SOT.
26
386 MODERN CHUBCn HISTOBY. FEB. Y. A. D. 1617-ieia
also saw that justification was to be obtained entirely throngli the merits of
Christ. But original sin was in his estimation a mere disease, the moral will
was subject only to Providenoe, and he looked upon Hercules, Socrates, and
the Catos, as belonging to the communion of the blessed, though they could
be saved only through Christ, (d)
§ 883. Introduction of the Reformation.
Through Zwingle^s influence the great Council of Zurich gave orders that
all preachers should confine themselves to what was contained in the divine
Scriptures, but maintain silence with respect to non-essential innovations and
institutions (1620). (a) For the sake of those who were opposed, and that the
truth might be more publicly known, he determined to defend in the muni*
cipal hall at Zurich sixty-seven propositions which he had formed agunst
the whole external polity of the Catholic Church. When, however, he pub-
licly announced them (Jan. 29, 1528), only a few objections were presented
by Faber of Constance, {h) In a second disputation (Oct. 26->28), a decision
was given against the use of images and the sacrifice of the mass, (c) An
easy victory waa obtained for the Reformation when the principle was once
adopted, that every thing must be proved by the Scriptures, interpreted on^
by the Scriptures themselves. Leo Juda^ Zwingle^s colleague in office, in the
spirit of the Reformed Church translated Luther^s New Testament into the
Swiss-German dialect (1525), and the Old Testament from the original text
rtill 1529). Zwingle looked upon every local church, in proportion as its
opinions were based upon the Holy Scriptures, as completely justified in con-
tending against the whole hierarchy. The Great Council, regardless of the
protests of the Bishop of Constance, but sustained by public opinion, intro-
duced tlie new constitution into the Church (15249). The established church
of Appenzcll^ beyond the Rhone, resolved that preachers who taught what
could not be proved from the Sacred Scriptures should be denied support
and protection, {d) Berthold Haller (d. 1536) preached, though with cau-
tion, in behalf of the Reformation in Berne, {e) and Manuel^ in a Carnival
play, exposed to public derision the avarice of the clergy and their fear of
the gospel. (/) Oecolampadim (d. Nov. 28, 1581), tlie learned fHend of
Erasmus, and in ordinary matters a timid and peaceable man, but kept in
perpetual agitation in such stormy times for his advocacy of the cause of his
Lord, was the principal instrument in directing the minds of the people of
Basle into the path of the Reformation, although a knowledge of its elements
had been previously acquired from the general perusal of Luther^s writ-
d) Com. de vera et Iklaa reL Tig. 1525. Fidel ratio •A Car. Impi Ti^ 1680. 4. Ghr. fldd Uvvlt
et clani exp. ad Kegem chr. (ed. BulUnger.) Tig. 1588. De providentia. (voL L>— ZflBtfr, 4e tbeoL
System Zw. (Th. Jahrb. 1858. U. la.)
a) FHA^li, Beitrr. vol. IL p. 887. BuUingtr vol L p. 83.
I) Ci>ncluMonea. (0pp. vol L pi la.) ExplAiiaUa (/fr. p. Sia.) Acta diipat (toL IL p^ MTm.)
BiMingtr vol. I. p. 84fl8. 978a.
0) Acts in Zwingle*s Works. toL L p. 589aB. Buttinger toI. L p. 126aB.
d) Klaarer'tt account in Bimler, vol L Part IIL p. SOSaa
e) Kirchhofer, B. Haller a. d. ReC t. Bern. Zar. 188&
/) C. GriineUen, Niclaoa Manael, Leben n. Werkei Btnttg. 188?.
CHAP. L REFOBMATION. %9B&. BADKS. BEBVEL BA8LE. 387
inga. O7) The inhabitants of those places which were £avorable to the Catho-
lic Chnrchf hoping to overcome their opponents by their favorite weapons,
and relying npon tiie talents and skill of Dr. Eck, appointed a day for a pub-
lic disputation at Baden (May, 1526). As Zwingle had reason to fear for his
safety should he venture to be present in that city, Oecolaropadius was the
principal opponent of Eck in tliis disputation. The subjects which engaged
their attention were the presence of Ohrist^s sacred body in the sacrament,
the sacrifice of the mass, the worship of saints, the use of images, and the
doctrine of purgatory. On the part of Eck there was great blustering,
while Oecolampadias contended only by arguments, but both claimed the
eredit of a victory. (A) Berne endeavored to keep aloof from the agitations
of the controversy, and its council gave orders that some of the more obvi-
ous and serious abuses should be removed, and that preaching should be con-
formed both to the Scriptures and to the ancient faith. (0 But such partial
measnrcs were by no means adequate to the exigencies of the times. No
loooer had the great council once more assumed the supreme power, than
both parties were invited to a public discussion, which was attended by all
the leaders of the Reformation in the country (Jan., 1528). The result was
so decisive, that soon after a public decree was issued by the council, in which
the Jurisdiction of the bishops was entirely renounced, and the idolatrous
worship of Rome was abolished, {k) In Basle^ the Reformation became vic-
torious in consequence of the triumph of the municipal guilds (1529). (I)
The dty of St. Gall embraced the evangelical doctrine (1528), the abbot
fled, and the friends of religion became organized into a community under
the protection of Zurich and Glarus. (m) For in Glarus^ where it was de-
eded after a severe contest that every congregation should choose for itself,
te mifjority were in favor of the Reformation. Sehaffhauaen^ after oonnd-
eraUe hesitation, gave in its adhesion to it (1629), and in Solevre neither
pirty obtained the ascendency. In every place where the new doctrines pr^
Tuled, every thing opposed to them was rigorously put down. The altars
v«re destroyed and the idols were burned. In the Gray League alone (the
Griscms), after the disputation at Ilantz (1526), the law allowed every one to
tike bis choice between the old and the new faith. And yet when Schlegel,
tbe abbot of 8t. Luke, contrived a treasonable conspiracy with the Castellan
cC MasBO fbr the overthrow of the heretics of Cairfy he was beheaded
(1529). (n) The popes, who stood in need of Swiss soldiers, and could do
nothteg against the will of a republican people, preserved for a long time
fiuk more than the semblance of peace. (0)
f) Orynatmi et Captto^ de tIU et oblta Oec bcfbre Ms tnd Zwingle^s "Ejp^—S. Heit^ Lebonft-
fwk. J.Oek. Z&r. 1798. J. J. Uenog, d. Lehen J. Oek. n. d. R«C la Basel. Bm. 1848. 2 voU
&) BulUnger toL L p. SSlia. Edit of the Acts of the Reformers, by Ifurrur^ (Lucerne. 1527. i.)
iBMncUf regarded by tbe Reformers as inaocarate. i) ButUnger vol I. p. llOsa.
^ 76. ToL L p. 806m. 496s8. WaUh vol XVII. p. M08.~{7. FUcker, Geach. d. Dll>^ n. Ref In
*«>■ Bcra. 18S8. Kmkn, d. Refomuttoren Berna. Ben. 1S28. Reapecttng the otber Jab4Iee pabli-
cMioii: fitnd. n. KrIL 1888. P. 4 p. 901 sol <C L, «. HaUer^ Qeach. d. klrchL Rer. a proL Rofl d.
KntflatB. D. d. omlles. Oegend. Luc. 1888. /) BMingw toL IL pi SSea. Slsa.
«) Ih. ToL IL p. SSOsa. SiniUr toI. L p. llSsa. Vemtt, Kessler. (| 819. nt <t)
>) After Kampell and do Porta: L. Truog^ Gesch. d. Ret v. Oraab. Gotre. 1819. p. 89Mb 89. Bvl-
"■tfiPvel IL p. 84k o) EL f. BulUnger toL L p. 88ii
888 MODERN CHUBCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1517-16181
§ 884. Ditition of the Stem Confederacy,
The evangelical doctrines of the Reformation agitated all the cantons of the
confederacy, but the rural population of the mountainous districts being ^s-
pleased, under the influence of the priests, with the political demands of Zwingie,
were especially distinguished for their adherence to the ancient faith. Uri,
Schwytz, Unterwalden, Zug, and Lucerne, pledged their faith to each other in a
diet at Lucerne (1524), that they would defend the faith of their fathers, bat
they availed themselves of the opportunity to forbid the sale of indulgences, to
improve the manners of the clergy, to limit the revenues of the Church, and
to extend the jurisdiction of the courts in ecclesiastical affiurs. {a) In those
places which were under the direct government of the whole confederacy, it
was impossible to avoid the clashing of parties. The burning of images, and
sometimes even of monasteries, was of course exceedingly painfbl to the
Gatholic authorities, especially when it occurred in places subject to thdr
control. They therefore took an oath, that every one who treated the saints
or the mass in a contemptuous manner should be punished. It soon became
evident, from the maimings and public executions they inflicted, that their
oath was no idle threat, {h) A Christian compact was now formed among
the Reformed cities, into which even Strnsbnrg and Constance were adndt-
ted. The five Catholic cantons also formed an alliance with Ferdinand of
Austria for the protection of the faith. An irruption was made by the inhab-
itants of Unterwalden, to sustain an insurrection of the people in the upper
port of Berne against the Reformation which had been forced upon them, (e)
Zwinglc now demanded war ; the cities brought into the field a powerM
army, and the five cantons purchased peace (June 24, 1529) by conceding:
that each party should be permitted to adopt what faith it pleased, aU slan-
derous speeches should be punished, and in every congregation under the
government of the general confederacy, a migority of votes should dedde
upon religious matters. The articles of compact with Austria were then tom
in pieces, and with respect to free preaching, general promises were suffioient
to give satisfaction, {d) But it was never the intention of the Catholics to
fulfil these promises in the sense in which they were understood by the
people of Zurich, as the calumnies alluded to were nothing but the expres-
sion of a universal feeling. When the authors of these calunmies were there-
fore allowed to remain unpunished, the cities next forbade all supplies and
intercourse with the mountainous districts, {e) To save themselves from
starvation, the five cantons now betook themselves to the sword. Against
this the cities were not prepared, and the Catholic host fell upon an advanced
outpost of the army of Zurich at Cdppel (Oct. 11, 1631). Zwingie^ who, during
the last years of his life, had been threatened in various ways, was fbU of
melancholy, and had singular presentiments of his approaching end. THth
the least possible confidence in man, and the highest in God and in his cause,
he accompanied the standard of the city as the pastor of his people. Zurich
lost the biattie, and Zwingie was left on the field, surrounded by the
a) BnUinger toI. L p. 142se. 218». I) lb. toL L p. 14Saii IStai
c) lb. YoL XL p. SlssL 48a& <f) lb. toL II. p, 19BaB, 186fli.
e) Jb. YoL IL p. 8S8n.
CHAP. L REFOBMATIOar. |88K. SACBAMESTTASUN COSTTBOVERST. 389
of the choicest portion of the friends of the Reformation in the city. (/)
The superior strength of the cities was indeed soon after hronght into action,
bat the confidence of victory and unity was on the side of the Catholic
army. The religious peace which was soon afterwards concluded (Nov. 16),
recognized the right of each canton freely to make its own arrangements
respecting itsteligious affairs, hut in those portions which were under the
general government, and in those cantons which were hitherto undecided, the
old Chorch was almost universally restored hy violence. (^)
§ 885. The Sacramentarian Controcersy.
Waiek ToL XTIL p. ISSAn. toI. XX. (Selnecktr and ChemniU.) IlUt. d. Bacnmentastr. Lpx.
WL i. Ldtehsr^ complete Hist motaam, between Lath, and the Bet Frkfl and Lefp. 2 cd. 172^
trtlk.-'Litd. LauiUr^ II. oootrov. NumunenUriae. Tig. (1568w) 1672. Z&r. 1564 JTo»piniani II. sa-
CODL Tl» (U0&) 1603. 2 Th. £ ZOr. 1611. 4— J. Ebrard, d. D. t. h. Abendm. Frkt 1846. vol II. i^
l-»&
In the spirit of Erasmus, and with a proper sense of his own indepen-
dence, Zwingle always protested against being numbered among the adhe-
rents of Lnther. (a) He could discover nothing in the Lord's Supper but a
wffk of commemoration and fellowship. Even Luther was obliged to reject
the doctrine of transubstantiation together with the priesthood, (h) but the
depth of his sensuous mysticism needed a spiritual presence of Christ's body
in the sacred ordinance. CarUtadt^ during his iconoclastic fury, had put
forth the assertion that Ghrist pointed to his living body when he instituted
tin supper. In consequence of this, a controversy, embittered by the per-
lOBal relations of the parties, sprung up (after 1624) between him and Lu-
ther, (r) The Swiss, respecting whose position the divines at Wittenberg
were for a long time indistinctly informed, undertook in their own way (after
U26) the defence of the severely-persecuted Carlstadt. Zwingle translated
**thi8 is^ by the words ^^this signifies,'' and Occolampadius regarded the
hread when called the body, simply as the symbol of the body. These dif-
fsrent views led to a dispute between Luther and Zwingle at the head of
their respective parties. (</) The Swiss Confederacy adhered to Zwingle, and
the imperial cities of Upper Germany were disposed to do so, but the doc-
trine of Luther found a trusty and influential advocate in Suabia in the per-
Ha of Brentz, a man who would listen neither to the fathers nor to Aristotle,
Int to Christ alone, (e) Luther appealed with absolute confidence to the
letter, Zwingle to the sense of the word of God. The first was boisterous
>Bd iometimes ludicrous, while the latter was more polished but bitter,
^hen Zwingle referred to the nature of a body, Luther endeavored to show
/) Kom B«aebr. d. 6 kath. Orte Kriega. {BaWiasar, Helvetia, vol IL p. 186m.) BuiUngtr toL
Dipt n6«.— (iZ Gther) Die Schlacht d. KappeL ZQr. 1881.
I) ladta^er vol. IIL p. 247. UoUinger vol IL Commencement
if) ExplanaUoo of the 18th arUcIa 1528. (vol I. p. 2S5.)
() Ik WdU ToL IL p. 577.
^ Watek roL XY. p. 2422iM. vol XX. p. 186fls. Comp. Oibd In Stud. u. Krit 1S41 H. 2.
*) &■. Arnica exegeein Ti^ 1527. 4 LuOl Dan die Worte ChrUti : daa ist m. Leib., noch fest-
*^ Weder die Schwarmgcister. WiL 1527. and others.
') Sprtafina Snevicnm. 1525. Gompi J. Ilartmann and JT. Jdg^Tt J. Brenti. Ilamb. l^ifl. vol
390 MODERN CHimCH HI8T0BT. FER. Y. A. D. ISH-IMSL
tbat the body of CLrist was omnipresent in consequence of its inseparable
onion with the Deity, and the assertion of his opponent seemed* to him
equivalent to a denial of Christ This controversy, therefore, inasmuch as It
had its origin in the peculiar mental character of these great leaders, and yet
was not of much importance to the interests of piety itself, became finally so
prominent as to produce a complete misunderstanding between the dispu-
tants. In vain did the Landgrave endeavor to effect a reconciliation, re-
minding thcin that their common danger should keep them united. (/) At
the meeting which took place between them at Marburg (Oct., 1529),
Zwingle was induced by the strength of his convictions with tears to ofier
Luther his flratemal hand, even if the principal point of difference should
remain undecided, but this was rejected, {g} The principal pointe of their
common faith were, however, arranged in fourteen articles on the basis of
the Confession of Augsburg. With regard to the memorable fifteenth arti-
cle, which asserts that Christ's body and blood are corporally present in the
Lord's Supper, both parties promised to exercise Christian charity so far as
the conscience of each would permit. The Landgrave now became a mem-
ber of the league of the reformed cities (April, 1630). Although Strass-
burg, Constance, Meiningen, and Lindau presented their separate eonfessioii
at Augsburg (July 11, 1580X (A) they acknowledged in it that the souls of
believers were nourished by the true body of Christ. The pliant Jfartm
Bacer reconciled matters by introducing the acknowledgment of a presenoe
of Christ also for the hand and the mouth. (/) By this means the cities of
Upper Germany were induced to adopt the Confession of Augsburg,
enter into the League of Smalkald. (1581).
in. ESTABUSHMSNT OF THE LxTTHEBAN CmiSCn UNTIL 1555.
§ 886. Articles of Smalkald,
As the only method by which peace could bo secured, the emperor
demanded that the pope should call a general council. It was, howevi
feared at Rome that the complaints of the several nations might in a gem
assembly of the Church unite with the voices of tlie Protestants, or tbat
latter might be so used by others as to compel the papacy to make soi
general concessions. Clertient VJI. held out promises which were intended
only to prevent the calling of a national council in Germany, and Paul
sent forth a call for a council in May, 1537, to assemble at Mantua^ at a ti:
when such a council was hardly possible in Lombardy on account qf the
with France. A confession was laid before the league at SmaUciiM, m{
(Feb. 15, 1537) by the theologians there present, and intended to be pw
sented to the general council, or otherwise to remain a new monument of their
/) De WfUe vol. III. p. 465s.
g) Acts In Walch vol XVIL p. 28618^ Corp. Ref. vol I. p. 1095u. BitHinffw rot U ^
22858L— Die 15 Marl). Artlkel nach d. Orig. v^rOffenfl. v. J7 IT^ppe, Marb. 1848L 4. (Zeflseb. f M*
Th. 184a H. l.)—L. J. K. SchmUl, d. Kellgionsgwpr. in Mart. Marb. 1840.
A) Conf. TetrapoIItana. Arg. 1681. 4. iyiemeyer, Col. Conft Lps. ISia p. LXXXIIL 174te
0 ITciIcA ToL XVIL p. S491M.
CHAP. L BEFOBMATION. $ 8M. ABTICLE8 OF 8MALKALD. 391
QDADimitj. (a) These Articles of Smalkald were composed by Lnther when
Tiolence was no longer to be appreliended, and reconciliation was impossible,
and they present the doctrines opposed to the Romish Church in the strong-
est terms. In addition to this, by request of the Leagae, a tract was pre-
pared in Latin by Melancthon^ in which it was proved from historical facts
that neither the primacy of the pope nor the jurisdiction of the bishops had
been instituted by divine authority. This treatise was designed to be the
irst formal attempt to justify those who solemnly renounced all papal and
prelatical sway. But its author had the courage to subscribe Luther^s arti-
cles, with the remark that for the sake of general peace, a superiority over
those bishops who had been created by human authority might be volunta-
rily conceded to the pope if he allowed the gospel to be preached in its purity.
Luther, overwhelmed by sufferings caused by the gravel, left Smalkald with
these parting words : ^^ May God fill you with hatred for the pope I He
knows his people, and feels like them I " The confederates were unanimous
in the conclusion that they were bound to decline a council which met in
Italy, and which contained a condemnation of their cause in the very terms
in wMoh it was called together, (h)
{ 837. ProgreM and Political Power of the Reformation,
In Electoral Saxony, John Frederic the Magnanimous^ a conscientious, sin-
cere, and truly pious prince, with a mind somewhat contracted, but heroic in
purpose and in endurance, succeeded his father (1582). Philip of Hesse, on
Siis own responsibility, but sustained by the power of the Protestant Leagoe,
&n a sudden expedition reinstated (1684) Ulrich^ Duke of Wurtemberg, who
Jud been driven ftom his possessions, which had been given to Austria by the
Suabian League. Ul riches refractory spirit had in misfortune found conso-
Xation in the gospel, and the Reformation which had for a long time been kept
^own by violence, after a little vacillation suddenly became victorious in
Wurtemberg under the direction of Brentz, a man who possessed the same
"Views as Luther, (a) A Holp League was formed (1538) at Nuremberg, com-
posed of the Archbishops of Mentz and of Salzburg, the Duke of Bavaria,
<jeorge of Saxony, and Henry of Brunswick. But the power of the emperor
continued to be much restrained by his foreign wars. A considerable sup-
jNNrt was obtained for the Protestant League in the Northern kingdoms, and
splendid promises were held out to it by Henry of England and Francis of
jEVance. George of Sa^cony^ whose spirit became every year more and more
fBmbittered toward Luther and the age in which he lived, struggled in vain
against what seemed to be his destiny, for he was obliged to leave his pos-
Bons to a Protestant heir. His brother Henry already belonged to the
a) M. Mturer^ <L Tag. zn Smalk. n. d. Schm. Artikel Lpa. 1887.
h) Walch Tol. XYL p. 2426W. Corp. Ref. vol II. p. 962bs. 982as. AonU Palcarii de Cone.
It. et Hbero Epi ed. UL IUg«n, Lp& 183'i. 4
a) achnurrer, Erliot. d. WOrt. K. Bef. u. OelAhrten-Oench. TQb. 1799. J. C. Schmidt it F. E.
r, Deokw. d. w&rt a. ochwab. Set Geech. TQt. 1817. (Qruixeiaen) Denkblatt d. B«f. in Stattg.
Stottf. 1885u J. HarUnann, Gescb. d. Ret in Wurt Stuttg. I8861. Jlartmann a. Jiiger, J. Bnntx,
Bmb. 1842. ToL IL jL F. Heyd^ Ulr. H. ro WOrt Tilb. 1S41-4. 8 toIb.
392 MODERN CHUBOH HISTOBY. FB& Y. A. D. 1517-ltML
League of Smalkald, and on the festival of Pentecost, 1689, Lnther and th*
Reformation entered the dty of Leipdo in triumph, (b) The EUetor of Brtm-
denhurg compelled his wife to fly from his residence that she might live in
the ei^oyment of her faith, and exacted an oath from his sons that they would
deave to the ancient &ith in opposition to modem innovations. But Jm-
ehim II. (1686) allowed the word of Gk)d to have free toleration in his do-
minions, and in 1689 partook of the Lord's Supper according to the forms of
the Evangelical Ohurch, although he preserved an independent poaituMi
unconnected with the League. That hody, however, was soon after (after
1646) strengthened hy the accession of the Bleetaral Palatinate, (e) Whea
the bishopric of Naumhurg became vacant, Julita van Pflug^ the provost of
the cathedral, a learned and at the same time a mild divine, (d) was elected
by the chapter, but the elector could not resist the temptation to provide for
it an apostolic bishop. Nicolas von Anudorf, by an act of arbitrary power
was invested with the office of a bishop, but with the salary oi a pastor, and
Luther boasted that he and his friends had been guilty of the sin of oonse*
crating a bishop without chrism, and even without suet, lard, tar, grease, in-
cense, or coals, (e) An electoral officer was appointed to administer the aeon-
lar affairs of the diocese. Henry of Brunswick and the Protestant prinoeSi
assisted by Luther, assailed each other by pamphlets, in which all the pro-
prieties not only of princely dignity but of human life were violated, and when
Henry threatened Groslar, he was attacked by Saxony and Hesse with a pow-
erful army, driven from his dominions (1642), and finally made a prisoner
(1646). (/) Among the secular princes Bavaria was the only power which
continued to support the papacy, and even there much difficulty was expe-
rienced in resisting the opposition of the people and the states. Qf) Herman^
the Elector of Cologne^ commenced with a Catholic reform, but he finally
assumed a Protestant position, and the archbishop was informed of his plan
of refbnnation according to a form drawn up by Bucer and Melancthon
(1648). {h) Cardinal Albert of MenUt allowed the Reformation to go for-
ward in his Chapters of Magdeburg and Halberstadt as long as the states
were willing to assume the payment of hb debts (1641). All bishops were
tempted to go over to the Protestant side by the prospect of becoming here-
ditary princes. King Ferdinand himself, influenced by the writings of La-
ther, and by a father confessor, who, on his deathbed, repented of his whde
ecclesiastical life and actions as a deception, now promised to oompromlse
h) Kobbey Heinr. d. Fromme, Lps. 1889. O. R Winer, de F«oalt theoL ev. in Unlr. Upc
nib. LpA. 1S89. 4 JT. W. Ilerinff, Oeach. der im Markg. Meissen a. d. dua gehOr. tb&r. KrdM mt
Ect Groeaonbafn. 1889. If. G. JJatte, Abrfss d melnnelsch-albert sfisch. KOeseh. Jjp^ 1847. toL IL
c) Ad, Mm^, Oeseh. d. Bef. in d. Mark Brandenb. BrL 1889. J. SeMaddHtck, d. n«bMtr. d.
Kar£ Joacb. z. luth. K. Lps. 1840.—//. AUinff, H. Eca Palatinae. (Monn. plet et lit Fre£ 170L i.)
R G. Slruve, B«r. v. d. PfSlx. K. Ilbt FrkC 1721. 4. JT. F, VUrordt, OMcb. d. Bet im Ora«ik. Bft-
den. Karlsr. 1847.
d) a O. MUUr, de merifcte Jalft PflugIL Lpa. 1819L
e) r(ilcAvoLXVILp.8l8&e6pec{allyl2SM. /^r^CMMMiM, Ncoe Mlttb. biit aatt<|. Fonoh. Bri.
18S5. vol. IL P. 2. {UjMiM) Bcricht a. d. Wahl a. ElnfQbr. NIo. r. A. Nordb. 1686.
/) Walch VOL XVIL p. 1M8«. IforOedsr Bach. lY. W. SUUr, Chankterlttik Heter. d. Jiie
Marb.l84A. g) ITifiter ($ 828. nt a)
h) M, Decker*, Herm. t. Wied. Erzb. v. EGln. Gologiie. 1840.
CHAP. L REFORMATION. 1 88& NEGOTIATIONS. If AUBICR 393
fluttan with respect to religion, with the states at an imperial diet, and in
•ooordanee with Lather^s connsel. (i) Aside from porsonal iQclinations nothing
but the necessity of adhering to Catholicism under which the House of Hap^-
hirg was placed on aocoont of its connection with Spain, Belgium, and Italy,
was safficient at that time to nphold that religion in any part of Germany.
{ 838. NtgotiationM/or Peace and Preparatione for War,
Once more was presented some prospect of preserving the Church from a
^▼ision. Divines of hoth parties were appointed hy the emperor at the Diet
of Ratuban (1&41) to adjust measures for a peaceful accommodation. The
pbos Contarinif who was fiivorable to the Amdamental doctrines of Protes-
tantisni as they were then maintained, had been appointed legate, (a) With
Us approbation a compromise was proposed by Oratella^ in which it was
averted that salvation was founded upon faith in the merits of Christ alone,
and not upon our own works or deserts. The divines were therefore agreed
with respect to the four Articles of Original Righteousness, Original Sin, Hu-
man liberty, and Justification, which Luther had always maintained as the
ftradamental principles of Christianity. With reference to otlier subjects on
which no agreement was yet attained, and with respect to which the proposed
seheme conceded every thing which could be given up by the Catholics of
that period without renouncing their distinctive character, the emperor re-
quired that until the decision of a general council could be obtained, all should
extfdse fraternal forbearance toward each other. The Landgrave and the
Eleetor of Brandenburg were entirely agreed, and Juliue Pflng and Melanethon
were just on the point of extending to each other the hand of reconciliation.
Bat Lnther and the £lector of Saxony saw nothing in all these concessions
bat a snare ; the King of France, alarmed at the prospect of a reconciliation
b Germany, complained of treachery to the Church ; and the legate, threat-
ened from Rome for having transcended his powers, made a retrograde move-
ment Qf) This result was only the manifestation of opposing principles in
the person of their advocates, and in this failure of a reconciliation which
■eemed so near, all became distinctly conscious that the schism was irrccon-
cfltble. The emperor concluded at Crespy (1544) an honorable peace with
Fhnoe, and the Roman King a five years' armistice with the Turks. In the
Uagoe of Smalkald the cities began to complain of the princes, and unkind
Mugs were produced in various ways. Maurice^ a keen ambitious youn^
Bum, had succeeded (1541) his father in the dukedom of Saxony. Although
^ regarded the Reformation in the light of an historical necessity he felt no
CBthmiasm in its behalf, and while personally disputing with the elector he
i) /<rtt an LutlL 1. Febr. 1587. in Walch toL XVL p. M84
«) Ctmiarmi Tr. de jnsUficatlooe. Par. 1571. Beccatetto, YiU del C. Cont With bis Letten
^•' Kvpi BagiB. Poll, ed. QuiHni. toL UL''Ki4din0, ad Qatr. Ep. de Cont purtoris doctr. de Jostlt
^cteonfeMore. Lpa. 1749.
^) AeU Colloqafi in Oomttito BatU^nae babitL (od. Buoer.) Argent 1541. 4. AcU In Conrenta
'■tt*. (cd. M^UimeOoH,) Wit IMl. 4. Compi HortUd^r voL 1. 1, 87. Waleh vol XVI L p. eSSaa
^V^ B^ ToL IT. pi 119ml In oppoaition to Buc«r : Bckii ApoL pro Prindpibos oath. Ingidat
^-Rajfnaid. ad aon. 1541. Seotend, III, 88. Ranks, Pipite. vol I. pi ISOai. BrstichnsUUr,
^^ K. Ocipr. angeC ni Wonna» Ibrtg. la B^. (Zaitiebr. t hiat Tlk vol IL P. L)
394 MODERN CHUBCn HISTOBT. PER. Y. A. Dl 1617-lMa
abandoned the Leagae of Bmalkald (1642), and seeretlj pledged himself to
the emperor that whatever might be the issne of the war, the imperial au-
thority flliould in no respect be impaired, (e) The Conncil which was opened
at Trent (1545) was rejected by the Protestants. Legal proceedings by order
of the emperor, and on complaint of the Chapter of Oologne, were instituted
against tlio archbishop of that see. It was soon evident from the execution
of some evangelical preachers in the Kotherlands that he was in earnest He,
however, persuaded himself that his conduct sprung more from a referenoe to,
liberty than to Lutheran ism, and to the property than to the doctrine of the
Chnrcli. Indeed, the complicated condition in which the material interests
of all parties were placed, stood very much in the way of an amicable adjust-
ment of other tilings. But when it had become apparent that the posiUon
of the respective parties at the diet rendered the adoption of any general
measures almost impossible, and when the decision of the imperial oounoil
which treated the proceedings respecting ecclesiastical property as a mere
matter of spoils, had been rejected by the Protestants, it was evident that
the empire was indeed divided, and that the peace of the country was de*
stroyed.
§ 389. Luther 8 Death and Public Character.
The lost years of Luther^s life were spent in great exhaustion and pro-
tracted sickness. He was so much offended at the immorality and luxury
which prevailed at Wittenberg, that he left that city (1545) and returned only
on the urgent request of the University and the elector. He foresaw that
troublous times were approaching his native country, and he longed to depart
in peace. His last days, however, were illuminated by some beams of his
former power, and he still indulged in bold, childlike pleasantries, even in the
midst of sublime conceptions, (a) Having been invited to Eisleben to act as
umpire between the Counts of Mansfeld, he gently and devoutly fell asleep
on the night of the 18th of February, 1546. (() The sudden changes which
took place during his career, and in which he was obliged to act as a leader)
produced marked contrasts between different periods of his life. The pope
was regarded by him at one time as the most saintly, and at another as the
most fiendish father. When he was excited with passion his foelings changed
in the most boisterous manner. His whole life was devoted to the promo*
tion of intellectual freedom, and yet he was zealous in behalf of the letter*
Relying wholly upon spiritual influences while giving laws to the most turbu-
lent storms of revolution, he nevertheless occasionally advised that the pope
with all his menials should be cast into the Tyrrhene Sea. (c) His opinions
were always expressed with absolute sincerity, and he was an-utter stranger
c) G. Arnold, Vita Kaur. {Mmken. toI. IL) Brandt, Vindieiae Manritlanae. Jen. 1617. 4 F.
A. V. Langentu, Moritz, Ilerzog Q. KarC zu Sachs. Lps. 1841. 2 Tola. H. B. Btandea, Beitrr. & Cbar-
akter. d. H. u. Churf. M. Lpa. 1853.
a) Especially his Letters to Catharine : De Wette vol V. pp. 788. 787. 789.
b) J. Jonu u. J/; Cdiil Berlcht v. Lutberi Abstcrben. Besides other reoords of his death f n Wakh
Tol XXI. p. 274W91 J. Janan, Schr. an Job. Fr. Q. Luth. Lobenseude, hrvg: v. Kreyaig, Meiaa. 1S47.
—Mohnikf, L. Lebcnscnde. Strals. 1817. K. A. Credntr^ L. Tod a. Bedentung. Frkt 18M.
0) Walch vol. XYIL p. 189688.
CHAP. L REFORMATION. 1 889. LUTH]£R*9 DEATH AND CHABACTEB. 395
to tfery form of earthly interest. By a vigorous sensnonsness of disposition
he stood firmly rooted in the earth, while his head reached into the heavens.
No one of his age equalled hira in creative power, his style was frequently
nnigher than even that rough period seemed to have allowed, hut in popular
eloquence he had no 8U])erior in all Germany. The eagerness and passion
which he always felt in the midst of his conflicts, supplied him with the en-
joyment which he needed in them. Wherever he discovered injustice he saw
nothing but hell itself. His services, however, did not consist so much in his
rlostroying and breaking loose from what was wrong, — for many others extri-
cated themselves from the ancient Church with much more facility and deci-
Mon, —as in his constructive power, and in the exuberance of his warm faith
and love. And yet there were some periods of great trial in his life, when
the temptations of the devil made him fear that he should be bereft of God
and Christ, and every thing dear, (d) He had no hesitation even in the pres-
ence of his opponents freely to avow the deliberate conviction of his heart,
tlurt be was well known in heaven, earth, and hell, as the chosen instrument
of God for the accomplishment of the divine purposes, and yet this seemed
to have nothing to do with his individual person. lie never wished to hear of
Lutheran doctrines, (e) and his sublime confidence in God never appeared to
asinre him of his own deliverance from danger, but simply to convince him
that God was able to raise up every day ten such men as I>r. Martinus, (/)
The time Jn which such a man should bo vilified by absurd reproaches, or
defended by iDiberal vindications, has now passed away, and he should be re-
garde<l, not as the property of an individual party, but of the German nation
and of Christianity.
§ 840. The Smalkaldic War, 154C, 1547.
BorOsder vol. IL book III. And pajare 161Ss8. Walch voL XYIT. p. 1817n. Oftmerarii Oomm.
Mli SnuUc. grmece acr. {Frefur Th. III. p. 457.) Literary hist of the accoants of the war in Uksrt
ToL IL pc ISMl— i/. G. Jahn^ Oesch. d. schmalk. Kriegs. Lp<L 1837.
An edict was proclaimed by the diet (July 20, 1546), in which the Elector
of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse were declared guilty of high treason
Against the emperor and the empire. Although the emperor was very care-
fbl not to give his expedition the name of a religious war, Paul III. openly
proclaimed a crusade for the extermination of heretics, and called for olfer-
ings from the Church for this purpose. An army was htistily assembled l^y
the Protestants on the borders of Suabia and Bavaria, which was much
nperior to that of the emperor posted at first neai* Ratisbon, and afterwards
occupying a strong position near Landshut. But as many persons had an
equal right to command, and many things were presented for consideration,
the hour for successful action was allowed to pass, and time was afforded for
the emperor to collect around him his forces from Spain, Italy, and the Neth-
erlands. Even then, however, the forces were neariy equal, but the Protes-
ttnt princes shrunk from the blow which was to decide their fate. Just at
that time news was received that Duke Maurice had taken possession of the
d) Walch Tol. Xn. p. 82708L MattKe^iu*, 12. Predigt p. 1888.
tf) WiOch ToL X. p. 42a ToL XV. p. 1989. /) Ih Wett^ vol V. p. 787.
396 MODERN CHUBCH HISTOBT. PER. Y. A. D. lS17-lMa
Electorate of Saxony under the pretence of preventing a similar act by the
King of the Romans. This induced the elector to hasten back to Saiony ;
late in the fiiU the allied army was disbanded, and one city after another im-
plored pardon fh>m the emperor, or purchased it with various offerings, nntU
the victory on his side was by no means difficult. The Elector of Ck>Iogne,
excommunicated by the pope, menaced by the emperor, and abandoned by his
estates, laid aside his office (Feb. 25, 1547). (a) By the commencement of
the succeeding spring the whole of Southern Germany had been reduced to
submission without a single blow. John Frederic had in the mean time taken
possession of his own dominions as well as those of his cousin with the ex-
ception of Dresden and Leipsic, but he was not blind to the fiite impending
over him. And yet even in this extremity the princes did not think of the
only means of deliverance now remaining to them, which was an appeal to
the people to rise in defence of their faith, (h) While the elector was sur-
rounded only by the vassals and mercenaries which composed his ordinaiy
urmy he was surprised by the emperor in the forest of Lochau near Muhlkerg
(Apr. 24, 1547), and compelled to run the chance of a battle. His army wis
completely destroyed, and he himself was taken prisoner. His life was pur-
chased by the surrender of Wittenberg and the abdication of his crown. The
electorate and a part of the dominions of Ernest were bestowed upon Man-
rice. The landgrave surrendered at discretion (June 19), and contrary to his
own expectation, and in spite of the security given by his son-in-law, he was
retained in close confinement {c) The other members of the League, with
the exception of a few cities of Lower Germany, now also submitted.
§ 841. The Interim.
SUk, d. dreifkche Interim. Lpa. 1781. J. Schmid, Hist Interimlstica. HlmsL 1780. SpUt^r,
Beltrr. z. Oeach. d. Angsb. Int (ZeltMh. t hlat Tb. 1851. U. &)
The emperor allowed of no interruption of the forms of worship adopted
in the several countries which he had conquered, (a) and appeared anxious to
make good his previous assurance that he had no design to interfere in matters
of faith. This policy may have originated either in his desire to force the
pope to enter upon a general reform, or in his conviction that such snbjed<<
were beyond his jurisdiction. The only thing which he demanded was that
all should agree to submit to the authority of a general council at which he
engaged that all should receive reasonable and Christian treatment. Bot
with the view of re-estabUshing by his own authority the unity of the West
em Church, he published at Aug$burg (March 15, 1548) an imperial edict, in
which directions were prescribed respecting the way in which all mat
ters relating to religion should be arranged until the deciaon of the coondL (ft)
a) Deckert^ Hens. v. Wied. p. 1488a.
b) Comp. Rommel, PbiUpfx Urkundenb. p. 825.
c) For evideoee of deception : L. G. Mogen, H. CkptiTttotU Ph. Frc£ 1786. MUmumH roL IV. pi
880m. In bvor of a mlsundersUnding : Raumer toL I. p. 5478ft. Oeach. Ear. Lpa. 1882. toL L p
547aa. For an intenUonal decepUon : Ranhe tc^ IV. p 408Ba. Comp. Rommsl In d. MonatbL &
Allg. Zeitung, April, 1846.
a) Comp. Buffenhagen, Wie ea vna sn Wittenberg gegang<«n iat in d. rergangiMQ Krieg. 1547. 4
b) BUk, p 86«aaL Form aaoror. emend, a J. Pflogio propoatta, ed. A (?. JfAIIer, h^ IStVi.
CHAP. L BEFOBUATION. $ ^i- INTEBIBl $ 941L MAURICE. 397
This Interim, which had been composed by Julias von Pflng, with the assistance
of Agricola, the court preacher of Brandenburg, and was originally intended
by the emperor for the Oatholic as well as for the Protestant states, conceded
the marriage of the clergy, the use of the cup in the sacrament, and some
indefinite constructions of particular doctrines of the Oatholic Church. 8uoh
concessions were regarded by the emperor as of vital importance, and yet
their value was much impaired by the condition that the property of the
Church was not to be restored until the terms were agreed upon in an amica-
ble settlement. Only two of the inferior princes ventured openly to oppose
this proceeding in the diet itself^ and John, Margrave of Brandenburg, with a
lofty earnestness and a bitter raiDery, avowed his disgust at the noxious com-
pound thus prepared for them, (c) In many of the cities of Upper Germany
the Interim was carried into effect by violence and threats, but its general
execution would have required another war, and one too in direct opposition
to the people. Those who had formerly preached the reformed doctrines were
now compelled to wander abroad, and in some instances they were perse-
cuted. ((f) John Frederic, who now displayed a heroic constancy and devo-
tion in his confinement, rejected not only the authority of the Interim, but
that of the council ako. The answer of Maurice, so for as it related to his
raljects was evasive, but he exhorted his states and the divines to concede all
that could be given up with a good conscience. It was principally in conse-
qnence of this advice that the Leipsie Interim was drawn up under the di-
rection of Melancthon, in which every thing decidedly contrary to evangelical
doctrine was declined, but the greater part of the Catholic ritual was con-
ceded, on the ground of its being indifferent (Adiaphoron). The power of
the pope and of the bishops was to be acknowledged so long as they used it
for the edification, and not for the destruction of the Church, (e) This form
was accepted by many of the states, and was generally executed in the midst
of strenuous opposition on the part of many congregations and pastors, and
at the expense of the expulsion or imprisonment of the latter. Both Inter-
ims, however, were despised by both Catholics and Protestants.
§ 842. Maurice, 1652.
BofUeder toL IL book Y. Camerarfi Or. In memor. Manr. {Menken^ Serr. rer. Germ. toL IL)
d« bello Imperatori a Maar. illatu. Arg. 1710. 4 Langenn. (]>. 894.)
The German cities still remained in the possession of the foreign merce-
naries, the consciences of the people were disturbed by the operation of the
Interim, or were threatened by the action of the general council, to which
the Elector of Brandenburg had already profossefl his submission, (a) Ger-
many appeared about to become a mere province of Spain by the accession
of the imperial prince Philip, which the emperor now demanded, and the
word which the young elector had pledged for the liberation of the land-
e) Wtfferur^ Lebensgescb. d. Markg. TobanDes v. Br. Brl. 1827. His ** Kleiner CatcchSsmiia '
gIvM by SpMtvr^ p. SSSsa.
i)'tLf^ Uartmann, J. Brentz, vol IL p. 187b8. ScuUm toL V. p. 61aa.
«) BMt^ p. lOSai. Mlsfl.
a) Aiyiuilcl. ada. 166L N. 4U
398 MODERN CIXUBCII UISTOBT. FEB. Y. A. D. 1517-16I8L
grave was entirely disregarded. Maurice perceived tiuit nothing ooold
store liis honor in the estimation of the German people hat some hold and
deci^ve step. lie therefore resolved that he would achieve tiie freedom of
the empire and of the Church by one bold stroke. A secret treaty was
formed by him with Mecklenburg, the Margrave Albert of Brandenburg, and
the sons of the landgrave, and an alliance was formed, in opposition to
the advice of Melancthon, with France, by which he lost the possession of
Mentz, Toul, and Verdun, (h) An occasion was afforded for the collection
of an army by the pretence of executing the decree of outlawry which had
been issued against Magdeburg, then the home of Protestant opposition.
The suspicions of the emperor were allayed with consummate skilL On the
20th of March, 1552, he left Thuringia, overthrew one after another the gar-
risons of the emperor in the several cities, and on the 22d of May presented
himself before Innspmck. The emperor, though at that time enfeebled bj
sickness, was obliged to escape by night, and the council fled with precipita-
tion before him. By the courage exhibited in this martial expedition, it was
shown that the existing religious innovations could never be put down by
force. In July (16. 29), the treaty of Pamau was formed under the gnann-
ty of the empire, (r) by the terms of which the landgrave was set at fib-
erty, the imperial council was to be open to those who professed the new
creed, and a diet was promised in a short time for the removal of the griev-
ances with respect to violations of the laws of the empire, and for the setti^-
ment of religious differences. Only one clause in these articles, providing for
a permanent peace at least for all those who sympathized with the Augsburg
Confession, or at all events for all who were not connected with sects con-
demned by the recess of the imperial diet, was seriously resisted by the em-
peror. The two illustrious martyrs were received by their people with great
Joy and many tears. Maurice now turned his attention to an expedition
against the Turks.
§ 848. ReligiouM Peace. Sept. 25, 1556.
L L^mann^ Acta pabl. dc pace rel. d. t. Belcbshandl. a. rrotocoUe d. RF. Frk£ (1$S1. 4) 17QT.
Sappl. 1709. f.
II. O. LUtel, Oesch. d. RF. Frkt 1755. As to the spirit of the RF. (ffenke't Mag. toL IU pi.
6M68.) JtafiJb^ vol. y. p. 276t&
Maurice, while young and victorious, fell in battle (July 11th, 1553) for
the peace of Germany. After numerous hindrances, the promised diet assem-
bled at A ugshurg. Both parties were now convinced by bitter experienoe
that no peace could be maintained in the empire without mutual forbearance.
The imperial council was composed of an equal number of members belong*
ing to the old and to the new faith, all of whom were to take their oath only
upon the law of the empire and the word of God. The right to reform the
Church was conceded to the imperial states, in spite of the continual protests
of the papal court in opposition to it, and it was agreed that they should
never be oppressed, molested, or contemned on account of the foith, eccleii-
l) BbrOtder toL IL p. lOOSaa. c) HortUdtr yoL IL pc IOSTml
CDAP. L BEFORMATION. $ M4 CONOOBDIUM OF WITTENBERG. 399
astical usages, or regalations which the j had established, or miglit afterwarde
establish. It was conceded that the states of the empire had a right to
reform the Churchy although Rome never ceased to protest against it. The
only condition conceded to subjects was, that when they were oppressed on
aooonnt of religion, they had the right without obstruction to leave the
oonntry. (a) With respect to individual countries to which the Catholic
party were unwilling to concede religious liberty, the King of the Romans
promised to see that none of those states which had already professed adhe-
rence to the Augsburg Ck)nfes8ion should suffer oppression on account of it.
Bat while it was acknowledged that the actual possession of any church or
of any ecclesiastical property, whether by spiritual or lay persons at the pre-
ose time of the treaty of Passau was valid, the Oatholics demanded that all
qHritnal states of the empire which should subsequently go over to the Augs-
burg Confession should by that very act forfeit all their offices and posses-
dons. All parties perceived that the very existence of the Catholic Church
in Germany depended upon this. This article, which was called the Ecelesir
atUeal Beserration^ because the states could come to no agreement respecting
it^ was proclaimed by the Roman king as an actual ordinance of the diet, (h)
ind became the germ of future sanguinary contests. The peace was regarded
IS applicable only to those who adhered to the Confession of Augsburg and
to the votaries of the old religion, but it was looked upon as absolute until
the several parties in religion finally came to an understanding. The empe-
ror Charles took no further part in these negotiations, and was already pre-
piring to lay aside his crown and to withdraw from the world.
lY. Establishment of the Refobmed CnuBon until 1564.
§ 844. The Coneordium of Wittenberg, Cont, from § 886.
The doctrine which had been especially established at Strosburg, affirm-
ing a true though a spiritual participation in the body of Christ, appeared to
be consistent with all the formulae Luther had used, and could be distin-
goished firom them only by the assertion that such a participation could be
ei\joyed by none but believers. On the basis of this a plan was formed by
Booer and Capito, by which they hoped to effect a union of the Swiss and
tbe Wittenberg divines. They went personally to "Wittenberg, and there
wfifered their orthodoxy to be severely tested. They finally subscribed a
Coneordium composed by Melancthon (May 25, 1586), the phraseology of
▼bich was so strictly Lutheran that it could be reconciled with tbeir own
^ only by some peculiar and private explanation, (a) which sometimes con-
^Kinded together and sometimes distinguished between the unworthy and the
Vibelieving. But as Luther did not object to these explanations, the Con-
^diom was accepted by most of the Swiss, and the different parties were
^ RudolpM, d« eroigr. sabditonim et expal& ErL 1166. 4
^) Frick (pr. Ba0b€rUno\ d« reservAto eca ez mente Pads rtl. ^luqae effectibns m htia,
*) (hrp. £rf. YoL IlL p. 75m. Shrard toL XL p. 882m. NitM»ch, Urkondenb. d. £v. Unloii.
■MMap.«Ofc •
400 MODEEN CHURCH HISTORY. P£R. Y. A. D. lftlM«l&
regarded as united, (b) Bot Lather was oonvinoed that there iraa no real
union, and as he felt utterly averse to the whole Zwinglian school, and Bf»
pecteil Melancthon himself, (c) he once more renewed the controversy in the
most violent manner. He was now fast tending to the grave, and he was
therefore anxious that his testimony against these fanatics and sonl-destroyOTs
might be left unimpaired, (tl) In this manner the sohbm between these two
great parties of the Reformation was restored, (e) There is no apparent fonii*
dation for the common report, that in his last days he felt any apprehensioDa
that he had been too violent in his opposition to the people of Zurich. (/)
§ 845. Italian Switzerland,
J. SennebUr, H. lit do Gcnvvo. Gen. 17S<L StdudUn im KHlst Arch. 1884 roL IL P. IL
Kirehho/ar^ Leben Wilb. Fan>la. Zilr. 1S8U 8 vols. Ch. Schmidt, Etudes snr FtreL Strasb. 18M. 4
Ch. Chenetiir^ Farel, Frument, Vlret BefonnateiiTS relfgfeaz. Gen. 188&. JaqMemot^ Yfavt, RA>
formateur de Lausanne. Strasb. 1S86. 4. Ruckat and MerU dTAubignL [Utot of the R<<f. Id Svlls.
and France. New York. 1547. 12. (p. Saa) /. ^pon. Hist of the City and State of Geoera, &e oolL
fh>ni MSS. Ac Lond. 1687. £]
The reformed faith had been preached after 1527 on the borders of Savoj
and France. The people of Geneva regarded the bishops appointed over
them by the Dukes of Savoy as the uniform and stanch enemies of their
municipal rights. After many severe disturbances, however, the inflnenoe
of Savoy was finally overthrown by means of an alliance with Berne, the
Reformation was triumphantly successful, and Geneva became a member of
the Swiss Confederation (1585). After the victory of the people of Berne
in the Canton de Vaud, the Reformation triumphed there also, and subse-
quently to a religious conference at Lausanne (Oct. 1586) was formally intro-
duced. At the head of this religious movement stood Farel (d. 1565), a
native of Dauphin6. lie had been educated in liberal studies, but to only a
limited extent, under the instruction of Faber, and had taken part in all the
controversies respecting tlie Reformation in the surrounding country. In
word and in deed he may be said to have been an Elias, who, though often
in danger of death, overthrew an ecclesiastical system which he regarded aa
idolatry. In comparison with his style of speaking, the vigorous eloquence
of Yiret had the appearance of only a mild persuasion. The constitution of
Geneva, however, still continued unsettled, the morab of the people disso-
lute, the people themselves uncultivated, and even the higher degrees of edu-
cation corrupt
§ 846. John Calvin. July 10, U(^^May 27, 1564.
I. Epp. et responsa. Gen. 1578. f. Opera. (Gen. 1S17. 19 rolsw f ) Amst 1S71. (16S7.) f Tok £
Calcini, Be»a*^ Ilenr, IV. allorumqne literae quaedam. ed. BrettchnHder^ Jjpa, IS9&. VfML de Ift
vie et Diurt d. J. Caiv. par Theod. de Biae, Gen. 1664 4 1665. Lat In the Eppi aad oftes. Mftr
grams: Bolsec, Hist de la Tie de Calv. Par. 1677. and often. Gen. 168& [Beta's Lifb of a
by F. Gihson^ and notes by an Am. Ed. Pbilad. 1S86. 12.]
b) De WeUe vol V. p. SSss. e) Walch voL XYIL p. 26S988L p. 2627aa.
d) Kurzes B«k. v. h. Sacr. Witt. 1544. 4 ( Waloh roL XX. p. lOOliiL)
e) Corp. Ri\f. vol. V. pi 47&
/) At first in the Beeponslo ad narrat Wurtembnrgcnsiam de colloq. Manlbnu. Hdlb. 19ft
On the oUier side : K. iStrdbel, die Legonde v. Lath. UebertxUt z. CalTiniam. (Zaltaeh. £ Lath. ThtoL
0. K: 1S40. U. 2.) '
CHAP. L BEFORMATION. {840. CALVIN. BEZA. 401
II. BrtUchneider, Blldung ii. Getet C o. d. Gcnfer K. (KeC Aim. 1S21.) P. Henry, Lebcn C
Bamb. 1S85-44 8 voI\ \\At'i \A Cnlvin, transl. fVoin the Germ, of P. Henry by // Sitbhing, Lond.
1801 9 Tola &] J. A. Miffnet, d. Eiiif. d. 'Ret n. d. Tcrf d. Calvinism in Genf. A. d. Fr. v. StoU,
LpL 1848L [J. Jfaeteruie^ Life of C. Lond. 1881. 12. T. Smj/Vi, Obss. on the Life ind Char, of C.
FUImL 188S. la Art In Kltto's Jourual of BibL Lit vol. IlL and YII.]
CalTin (Cftuvin) was a native of Noyon in Picardy, and was always
ardently attached to France. He was originally educated for the Ohnrch,
and cTcn when a boy had the charge of a congregation. At a Liter period
h6 acquired some distinction as a jurist, and finally, under the influence of
the Reformation, became a theologian. In consequence of a bold declaration
in behalf of the Reformation, which he made through the Rector of Paris,
be was obliged to become a fugitive (1688), and published at Basle his Insti-
tQtes of the Christian Religion, in which his object was to vindicate the
Beformation fh>m the aspersions cast upon it in France. This work was
wen then complete with respect to Christian doctrine, but by subsequent
remons it became the noblest scientiflc vindication of evangelical Augustin-
ism which has ever been given to the world, and is ftiU of profound religious
aeQtiments in connection with a bold, relentless carrying out of his principles
to tbeir utmost logical consequences, (a) From the very fact of the abso-
hrte onmipotence of God and the absolute dependence of men, he inferred
that God had by an eternal decree created some for salvation and others only
equally guilty for destruction. With respect to the Lord's Supper, he struck
out an intermediate scheme, according to which believers spiritually though
rtaDy partake of the very body of Christ which was exalted to the right
band of God. His representation of the controversy was mild, and the posi-
tion which he gave to Luther was far superior to that which he assigned to
Zwingle. (6) Having wandered for some time without any flxed residence in
▼arioM parts of Italy and France, Calvin was authoritatively stopped by
Farel in the name of God as he was passing through Geneva (1686). As lie
believed himself by nature too much inclined to tenderness and timidity, he
fortified his powerful mind by a faith as severe against others as himself. He
gradoally became more and more austere toward those who opposed him, and
>brank not from making use of even the most formidable measures against
tbem. (e) He was not destitute of profound sensibilities, but he was averse
to aD earthly ei])]o3rments, indifferent to popular favor, and exercised a com-
plete control over the minds of others by the awe inspired by the simple
power of a firm will, and after a three years^ banishment (1588s8.) by the
tttTors of an ecclesiastical discipline. His opponents, the Libertines^ were
Partly those who had succeeded the Fraternity of the Free Spirit (Spirituels),
u^ bad embraced all the practical consequences of the doctrine of a sole
^▼eraal Spirit, to whom all things and events were to be ascribed, (d) and
pvdy of those who, with various degrees of moral character, were anxious
toaroidthe heavy yoke of the Reformation, (e) By the theocratic power
«) Immotio cbr. religkmis ad Beg. Franc Baa. 158«. Argent 1589. Gen. 1609. £ and olt den. ed..
'^^'^^ Bcr. 18S4B. 2 P. [Trand. Into Engl. 2 vola. & Pbilad. 1841. and often.]
^) I>e 1^ Co«na. 1545. at first in Fr. 1540. Comp. JTenry toL L p. 270a
c) Aary roL IL p; 425fl8. 486s«. 489n.
^ (ioh. Instroetio adr. fonatleam aectam Llbcrtinorain Ml
•) Bmrjf ToL L p. 481m.
26
402 MODERN CHURCH UISTOBT. TKR. V. A. D. 1517-l<iaL
which Calvin established over the state, but which sometimes wavered ; by
the public interest which he awakened in ecclesiastical affairs, and by the
establishment of a representative constitution intimately connected with the
civil power, ho gave to his ecclesiastical system a strictly regulated freedom.
By his published writings, by his personal counsels, by his public services,
and by the theologians whom he educated, his influence triumphed over the
Zwinglian school, extended itself far beyond the limits of Switzerland, and
subjected even the people of Zurich to its power. (/) Through his influence
Geneva became a republic, firmly establislied, governed by an oligarchy, per-
vaded by an ecclesiastical spirit, and renowned in the history of the world.
Thither resorted all who during that age w^ere persecuted for their faith, and
it became the acknowledged centre of a Reformed Church, (g) His work
was faithfully carried out by Theodore Beza (1519-1605), who had risen to
maturity in the most brilliant circumstances in France, and as a promiung
Humanist had like Abelard enjoyed at one period the highest pleasures of
science and of social life, but had at last found safety in the Reformed
Church. He there became the faithful colleague of Calvin, but he was more
beloved. With his reformatory views he combined his former humanigtio
culture, (Jt) and finally attained an extensive literary and ecclesiastical influ-
ence, which made him the patriarch of the Reformation to the sucoeeding
generation. (J)
CHAP. H.— ESTABLISHMENT OF A PROTESTANT ORTHODOXY.
I. LUTHERANISM.
ScJdHMelburQ^ CaUlogl Haeretlcor. Frcf. 1597-9. 18 i. (7 vols.) J. Mutael Pnell in Epit F.
Cone Jen. 1701. A. Lbicher, ($ 885.) fortgca. ▼. Kietfling, (till 1601.) Schwab. 1770. 4 J, G. WakK
hist n. theol Einl In d. R. Stn*itlgkeiten. 2 ed. Jen. 1778. 8 vols. Pin nek : prot Lehrbeg. 4-4 vok.
and Qesch. d. prot Th. ▼. d. ConcordlenC b. MItte d. 1& Jahrh. GOtt 1881. U, Ueppe, Ocaeh. 4.
dcutscben Protest 1555-81. Marb. 18528. (till 1574.) 2 vols.
§ 847. Antinomian and Osiandrian CoJitrorersies.
L Walch vol XX. p. 2014SS. Corp. Re/, vol. L p. 915sa. Ratghergtr^ p. 96n. FbrtUmanm^
nonea Urkundenb. vol. L p. 291fla.— C L. yitz9ch, de antinomismo Agr. 2 Pgg. Tit 1804. 4 (Dt
dlsiT. revelat Yit. 1881. Fbc IL N. 9&) A. Wetcttaer, de anUn. Agr. Strala. 1829. A. K. J, KitmcK
a. Oosotz XL £v. (DentBcbe Zeitschr. 1851. N. la) E. Elicert, de antlnomia Agr. Tar. 1887.— it
Kordt*, Agr. Schrr. mdglichsL vollatindig verzclchnet Altona. 1817.
II. AcU Osiandristlca. Kcinfgsb. 155& 4. F. Funceii, wahrh. Bericht, wie d. Bpalt v. d. G^
rechtigk. d. OL aich Im L. Preasoen erhoben. Koen. 1558. 4. J. Jfoerlin, Hist d. Oa. Scbweimeny.
(Bnischw. 1554.) i.—IlartJtnoch, Preasa. KGescb. FrkC 1686. 4. p. 80988. F. C, Baur, Inq. in Ol
de JusUC doctr. Tab. 1881. 4. J. C. Lehnerdt, de Oa. vita et doctr. Ber. 1885. /McK. Cmtt de 0&
188598. 4 Pgg. ir. WUten^ Oa. Leben, Lohre a. Scbrr. Abth. 1. Strala. 1844 4
Luther^s fondamental doctrine of justification by faith alone was quite
mnoh opposed to moral lerity as to ascetic self-torture. It caused the mind U>
f) Conaensus Ttgarinaa 1549. Kiemeif^^ CoL Cont p. 19188. c£ XLIaei Compk Bmtd49kagmL<m
d. Conflicte d. ZwingUaniBmos, Latberth. u. Calvinism In d. Bemischen Landesk. Bern. 1842L
Q) Uenk€, 12 BelL za YiUera
h) E. g. Beta^ Icones, L e. imagines viroram doctrlna rimal ot pietate iUafltr. Gen. 1850. 4
0 Fn)u*^ de vita et obita Th. B. Cten. \W^^ScMouer^ Leben de8Th.de Ben a. P. ICartj-v-
Hdlb. 1809. •;: W, Baum^ Th. Bexa. Lps. 1848-5L 2 vols.
CHAP. IL LUTHEBANIBM. { 847. AOEICOLA. 08IANDEB. 403
penetrate deeper into its own nature, and conveyed in itself the highest
moral earnestness and the most cheerful energy of a new life in Christ. By
its very nature, however, it was liable to be misunderstood by its friends as
well as its enemies. Agricola of Eisleben, after 1586 a professor at Witten-
berg, and after 1540 a court preacher in Berlin (d. 1566), contended, in
opposition to Melancthon in 1527, and to Luther in 1587, that in the sphere
of Christianity the law of God had no place, and hence that the gospel,
which killed as well as quickened, should be the only theme of preaching, (a)
He had reference to the Catholic doctrine of justification by works, and to
the Mosaic law, which he confounded with the moral law, while Luther had
reference to the law expressed in the Decalogue, and in the conscience as a
perpetual schoolmaster to bring us to Christ. Agricola was probably influ-
enced by an idle vanity as well as by this obscurity of views, but with all his
talents, his cheerfulness and popularity, he humbled himself (b) when in an
independent position before even the unjust reproaches of Luther, who con-
tended that such an onset upon the divine law was dangerous to all moral
aerioDsness. (r) In this controversy, however, was involved the deeper prin-
dple, that man still possessed suflScient moral goodness to apprehend what is
best for him out of love to Christ, without the fear of the law or of hell. In
thb we may discover its affinity with various disputes respecting human works
ind divine co-operation, which have been several times renewed since 1556,
but always with the same obscurity of views. — To guard against the danger-
ous error that Christ's merits merely cover our sinful nature, and are im-
puted to the believer in an external way, Andreas Osiander^ the reformer of
Noremburg, and a man remarkable for his Scriptural knowledge, maintained
that Christ becomes our righteousness in his divine nature and by dwelling
eiKntially in the believer, and in general, that if man had never fallen, the
incarnation would still have taken place to complete the divine image in
boman nature, (d) lie even succeeded in producing some kindred expres-
lions of Luther, which had been written in the spirit of the old mysticism, (e)
ind Luther, who was aware of his morbid sensibility, declined any contro*
Teny with him. (/) But when he was by the operation of the Interim
dii7ea from Nurembnrg, and was placed by his friend Albert, Duke of Bran-
^bni^ at the head of ecclesiastical afiairs in Prussia ; above all when he
proclaimed his doctrine in its boldest contrast with the theological sentiments
of Lather and the other reformers, in which justification was always repre-
mted as a judici:il sentence of God with respect to the believer, (g) nearly
*very Lutheran divine denounced his position as a relapse to the Catholic
amalgamation of divine grace with human merit. In Prussia, Osiander tri-
^phed by driving his opponents into banishment After his death (1552),
') 18 PositioneA. (Fdrttemann vol L p. 818n.)
^} nrtUmaiM Tol. L p. 849.
^ < DhpaUtloDes. 158a 40. (Loth. 0pp. Jen. toL I. p. 617as.)
^ BibtrU, Oft. Lehre In Ihrer frQhestcn Oestalt (Stad. n. Krit 1844. H. S.)
«) EtUebe sebune SprQche v. d. Recht£ d. OL d. Ehrw. Luther, yerdolmctiebt t. OsUnd. Kfin.
^1- i f)D€ WeUe vol IV. p. 488.
^ I>bimtt. IL uM de lege et evaog., tlten de jnstUl Reg. 10OOL 4 Yon d. elnlgen MliUef u.
Mtt BekeoatnuML Kdn. lO&L 4
404 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1517-1618
his 80n-in«law Funck^ at the head of a party, sought and obtained reconcilii
tion with those who belonged to Melancthon^s school. Bat as all invanoE
of the civil as well as the ecclesiastical constitation were impated to hit
who controlled the dnke^s conscience, a political party favored by the Polis
feudal sovereign, combined with his theological enemies against him. Th
controversy was terminated by the execution of Funck (1566), and the ooe
demnation of Osiander^s doctrines as an essential heresy. (A)
§ 848. Lutherans and Philippists, General Affairs.
The controversy respecting the Lord's Supper had given to the Refomu
tion a tendency toward the letter of the creeds. Luther had foreseen thfl
tliis would become a pernicious source of theological quarrels, and yet h
was among the first to commence them. Melancthon was the personal fHen
of Calvin, on whose breast he had often reclined his weary head, (a) A oon
ciliatory impression had also been made upon Luther's mind by Calvin^s doc
trine of the Lord's Supper, and both of these reformers had a high esteem fb
one another, (h) But in the exasperation which Luther felt in his last dxy
toward the divines of Zurich, all who would not recognize the natural body a
Christ in the sacred Supper were looked upon as belonging to the same gene
rol batch. In the later editions of the Confession of Augsburg, Melanotho
unconsciously made some alterations in accordance with his own gradoal d(
velopment. These were confined principally to the tenth article, in wWb
every thing inconsistent with the views prevalent in Upper Germany wi
obliterated. This *^ explanatory, and in some respects enlarged Confesrion
of 1540, (c) which even Calvin subscribed as the deputy from Strasbonri
became henceforth the general banner of the Reformation. Without notidn
any essential change, men generally regarded it in the same light as the or
ginal confession, until an express ratification of it was called for at an asBen
bly of princes at Naumhurg in 1661. Here a declaration in favor of tii
unchanged Confession of Augsburg met with opposition from the Duke o
Saxony, and gave occasion to the reproach that internal divisions preYttb
among the Protestants. A new generation of princes therefore united tc
gether and put their seals to the old confession, (d) Although the path int
which Melancthon was led by Luther was more elevated than what he wmd
have followed if he had been left to himself, it was in some respects all
nncongenial with his peculiar temperament. But even during Luther^ Is
years, when he frequently expected to be sent from the University, and sooM
times felt himself subjected by Luther's stubborn and imperious sphit to
rather dishonorable servitude, {e) he was actually exerting a supreme antlxH
A) Historie r. Funk ex actis pubL (Acta BoroasiciL Kdn. 1782. vol IIL p. 217. 81L 471aa>— Oovpi
doctr. Pratenlcam. 1567.
a) ITenry, Calr. vol L p. 24488. 868. 876.
If) C B. Petef, Erzahl v. Sacnunentstr. Brem. 1600. p. 187fl>. Wh«t haa been cited in Bmr,
Oalv. vol I. p. 26588. and In JSbrard^ AbendoL toL II. p. 47488. li more to be relied upon.
o) Libri Sfinb. a. Conc<»dia. ed. IIa9Sf ed. 8. p. IX. Xllaa.
d) O. P. Jlomn, d. v. d. ev. Stiioden zn Naumb. geb. Gonventa Frkt 1701 Ji H. (MMtf^
FQntentag xa N. \j^ 179& Hepp^ toL L p^ 864n.
«) Corp. B^, yoL Y. p. 474 476e. 49a— ToL YL p. 880.
CHAP.il LUTIIEBAinSM. {848. PHILIPPISM. $ 849. BYNEKOISM. 405
ity at Wittenberg. The hearts of these excellent men, however, always
affectionately returned to each other, (f) When tlie storm of war had
passed away, the University was re-established under tlie auspices of Melanc-
thon, and the system of doctrines which he had formed, referring every
thing to man's moral and religious wants, was generally adoj)ted. But so
deep was the impression which Luther had left upon the spirit of tlie age,
that many could find salvation only in the words and forms which he had
sanctioned. Hence, when Melancthon was induced by his attachment to the
new elector, and sometimes by his forgetful ness of his relations to the world
at large in his extreme love of literary tranquillity, to seek for an easy
method of establishing peace with the ancient Church by moans of the Int<.*r-
im, Flacius resigned his professorship at Wittenberg (1548), and in Mngdc-
barg invoked the spirit of Luther against Mehmcthon^s perfidy to the Church.
This proscribed city was then an asylum for those divines who felt oppressed
by the weight of Melancihon's authority, and who entertained apprehensions
for the purity of the Lutheran faith. Even when the adiaphoristic contro-
versy had lost all practical importance, its agitation still lingered in the dis-
OQSsion of the question whether any but indifferent points were surrendered
in the Interim, and whether even indifferent things may be siurendered to
the enemies of the goepel. {g) To maintain an intellectual contest with the
new electoral house and with Wittenberg, then susi)ected of being possessed
by a Oalvinistio devil, and to constitute a fortress for genuine Lutheranism in
general, the University of Jena, with a charter from the emperor and the bless-
ing of lieaven, was founded (1548-58) by the soas of John Frederic, who
in troablona times confided in the future. Qi) Filled with anxieties for the
barmonj of the Church, Melancthon was finally delivered from this sophistic
MMtt/um, and from the wrath of the theologians (April 19, 1560).
§ 849. Synergistic Controversy,
Lather opposed to the requirement of merely external works made by
the Boman Church, and to the Pelagian notion of the merit of human acts,
the doctrine that good works were not indispensable to salvation. To pre-
vent the abuse which might be made of this assertion, Melancthon asserted
in his revised Confession of 1535, that good works were truly necessary, but
in no respect meritorious. Such an expression had been disapproved of by
lather, and when it was afterwards incorporated in the Interim, it was capa-
ble of an interpretation favorable to the necessity of good works in the
^^itholio sense. Hence, in opposition at first to Major^ who used it to sup-
f) Luther In the PraeC to the 1st vol of the Witt 0pp. and In his Ust Lottera, Mel. In bis Testa-
■•I of 154a (Corp. Ref. vol 11 L p. 825.) and In his Faneral Disc.
0) Wieder d. achnOden Tenfel, d. 1. wider des Interim dnrch Garolum Azariam. 1549. 4. FUtcil
^(k Interim et adUphora edita. Magdb. 1550. Comp. Biek and Schmid. {% ail.)— On Lnther'a
^: BaUtberger, Hist arcana, given bj Arnold in his KOesch., and last bj StriibeL, Ahd. 1774, a
"^'It'ation of the genuine work of the Physician to the Elector of Baxonj. On the Phillppi.<^t ^ide :
"^ ''^H^r, Sjnodns aviam. (ScriptapubL Acad. Witt vol III. Epit by C. K Schwam, in Zeitsch.)
'«»hteK.1888tN.ia
^) Mdaneth. Brtefw. IL d. OrQndang d. Univ. Jena, znsammengeat ▼. B. WHuenhom^ Jena.
406 MODERN CHUBGH HISTOBT. FEB. Y. A. D. 15ir-16«a
port the Interim, Amsdorf maintained that justification by mere grace wi
in this way denied, and as long as the nature of good works, and the kind o
connection which they most necessarily have to salvation, was not definec
he succeeded in proving with Paul that good works were pernicious to salvi
tion, (a) just as he afterwards asserts the same thing of human learning. (2
This obscurity of thought and bitterness of feeling was only increased at
religions conference at Altenburg (1568). {e) Luther had at one time boasta
much of the absolute omnipotence of God, and did not shrink from absolitt
predestination as the necessary inference f^om the Augustinian doctrine o
original sin. But Jfelanethan^ that he might avoid at the same time the tfa
rors of this doctrine and those of Pelagianism, began to maintain in 1586^ i
more and more decided terms, that in conversion the will of man oonsente
and conspu*ed with the grace of God. Luther had been silent upon thi
subject, for his own heart was a witness to him against his system, and i
behalf of the universality of divine mercy. In the Interim, this Synergin
was incorporated as a concession to the Catholic Semi-Pelagianism. A woci
having been published at Leipsio by Pfeffinger in favor of this synergisti
doctrine, Amsdorf publicly opposed \t,{d) The professors at Wittenbe^
were obliged to defend Pfeffinger^s party. On the other hand, those at Jem
led on by Flacius, took up the controversy and endeavored to prove that th
natural man could never co-operate with the divine influence in the heart
but was always in opposition to it. In accordance with the sentiments o
this party, a confutation of all the heresies which then survived, and espc
cially of Synergism, was sent forth for the acceptance of the evangelioi
states, with the authority of the ducal court, (e) But even at J&Mk there wi
a party favorable to this Synergism, and Victorine StrigeliiMy its leader, wi
violently thrown into prison. (/) By various solicitations, however, th
court was induced to allow a disputation to be held at Weimar betweei
Strigelius and Flacius (1560). (^) In opposition to the inquisitorial tribvm
of Flacius at Jena, a ducal consistory was established at Weimar, to whic
was committed the censorsliip of the press and the exclusive right of exoon
munication. When the party of Flacius in the name of Christ oomplaine
of this subjugation of the Church, demanded that the liberty of the press a
a divine right should be restored, and in their appeals to the people oppose
with increasing violence this papacy of the princes, (h) they were banished froE
a) Dmb die Propoeltlo: gate Werke Bind z. Selfgk. achodlldi, eine r«cbto At. Prop. aeS,
b. Paaliam a. Luthanun gepredigt Without place 1559. 4
b) Wie christlich a. trenlicb HesshuB. m. d. IL Schrift n. mfr handelt Magdebu 1S64. 4
c) Acta colloqall Altenb. Lps. 1570. t.—L6ber^ ad U. coIL Altenb. anlmadrr. Alt 1776L 4. M»
jorlt Oppi 1569. 8 volfli t witb antoblog. in tbe lot toL
d) Pfiffinger^ Propoa. de lib. arbitria Lpa. 1556i AfMdorf, dffentL Bek. d. ninoii L. d. Kr. v
Confutatio d. jctzigen SchwArmer. Jen. 155S.
e) Bolida ex yerbo Del aamta cot^utatlo etoondomnatio praedp. corruptelaram, sectanua et eno
nun. Jen. 1559. 4 (Corpus doct Thoring.)
/) jr. Erdmann (Pr. J. Oerhardo) de Strigellanisma Jen. 1658. Han. 1675. 4 Mura^ (Pr. Wei*
manno) H, vitae et oontrov. Strig. Tab. 1782. 4 J.O.T, OUo^ de Strig. liberioris mentSa lo See
lath, yindice. Jen. lB4a
g) {Sim. Mu9aeu9) Disp. inter Flac et Yict YInarlae babita. Brem. 1568. 4 (Unsch. Nacb. 1740L p
888.) (Flaciwt) Erz&hl. wie d. Streit Yictorini endlich gescblicbtet worden. Without pbK^ 1561 4
A) Beep, pro prelorom libertate. Jen. 1561. and clt\xttt,^Salig toL IIL p. 6aOH. PEa«dl toL 1Y
pc61SMw
CHAP. IL LUTHEBANISM. { 8Sa CBYFTO-CALYINISM. 407
the oonntry (Dec. 1561), and the theological faculty was filled by the advice
of the party at Wittenberg. But when the nnfortnnate Dnke John Frederic
was overthrown (1567), the opponents of the school of Melancthon were
once more triumphant. The friends of Flacius were recalled, though he
himself remained in exile. In the disputation which he had held in Weimar,
he had been nrged to the assertion that original sin was the very essence of
man. Bat when he attempted to establish this extravagant assertion, which
Mas at the time but slightly considered, and as an indefinite expression of
foiling was by no means unprecedented, it was supposed to imply that either
God was the author of sin, or that man was created by the devil. Hence
even the former friends of Flacius became his bitter opponents, (t) Avoided
&« this man seems to have been by the society of his day, he was the inti-
mate friend of Luther, and possessed the very spirit of a Gregory. He
opened the path to every kind of knowledge then regarded as indispensable
to Protestant science, but expended his talents upon the smallest trifles and
the most useless controversies, and died at last in extreme poverty. (I)
§ 860. Crypto- Calvinism. Cent, from § 844.
Ldtehsr and others, before { 885. — Peucsri Hist csrcemm et IlbenttioDis dfv. ed. Peui^ Tig.
llOBb— /VfoM^ Witteberga » Calv. divexata et divinitus liberaU d. L Ver. vrie der sacram. Teafel in
iMhsenlaod etngedrongen. Witt 1616. 4— Walcfi, Bibl. Theol. vol. II. p. SSSaa. EicJutadii Nar. de
C Peac Jen. 1S41. i. E. A. U. Urimbvrff, de C. Fenc Jen. 1841.
Although by continual conflicts with himself, Melancthon finally suc-
ceeded in believing that the actual body of Christ was present in the Lord^s
Sopper, (a) he decidedly refused all fellowship with Zwingle^s imaginary
Christ, (b) By the suggestion at first of Bucer (1584), he regarded it as suf-
fident to believe that the whole Ohrist was present, and was imparted in the
Mcred ordinance, and yet he did not hesitate to call this, in the language
ordinarily used in the Roman Church, a communication of the flesh and
bbod of Christ, (c) He accordingly maintained fellowship with the divines
of Zurich, (d) even when Luther had once more renounced it ; and as he was
convinced that neither Luther's nor Calvin^s doctrine of the sacrament was
an insuperable bar to a saving communion with Christ, he thought he might
oomply with the suggestions of his own timidity and inclination, and allow
both of them to continue in the Church. Hence, when Westphal of Ham-
burg fhrioosly assailed Calvin with the assertion that the real incarnate body
of Christ was present in the bread, — when he saw the noble John of Lasl^i,
Who believed not only in the symbol but in the mystery of the sacrament,
with his foreign congregation, driven from England, and refused an asylum in
^ parts of Protestant Germany as robbers, poisoners, and martyrs of the
^vil, — and when Calvin himself solemnly agreed with the Confession of Augs-
f) literary blitorj in Walch, BibL TheoL toL II. p. 5»78&
it) G neUt^in, cbr. PrwUgt CL d. Leiche Hn. FL Miirtyrers J. Ch. FrkC 1575. 4.— a Bi LSber,
CW. /. Oerhardc) de Fladanismo. Jen. 1653. i, J. R RiUer, FL Leben u. Tod. FrU n. Lps.
iXtfSL) 179& R A. n. Htimhurg, de Fl Ilijr. Jen. 1842. TuMAm^ FL Illyr. mit BeiL ▼. H. Rm-
^^ BrL ISR R Sehmid, Fl. Erba. Strelt hist lit (Zeitach. C hist Th. 1849. IL la.)
a) (kMrp. R^, ToL L p. 1106. V) lUd, p. 1066. 1069L 1070. 1077. 1084.
c) /Md ToL IIL p. 514-ToL IX. p. 499. d) Ibid, voL Y. p. 842a.
406 MODERN CHURCH BISTORT. PER Y. A. D. IMT-lMa
barg as it was explained by its own aathor, (e) Melanothon avoided a distinct
declaration of his sentiments on this subject ; (/) and it was not nntil the doc-
trine of the omnipresence of Christ^s body (ubiquity), which had been hastily
mentioned by Luther, was proposed as the only saving basis of the Holy Sup-
per, and made by Brentz the law of the Church in WOrtemberg, (^) that he
expressed his disapprobation that such novel articles in such provincial Latin
should be introduced into the symbols of faith, (h) But the theological school
which he left behind him thought that salvation could be obtained only in a
Oalvinistic sacrament, and was opposed to another which looked upon Cal-
vinism as only a bridge to Mohammedanism, and supposed that their eternal
salvation might be eaten, and that a personal violence was inflicted upon the
God-man when the consecrated bread or wine was accidentally injured, (i)
Those belonging to the former school were sufficiently numerous in Eleotoral
Saxony to form a powerful party in the court under the direction of Peucer^
a learned physician and a member of the elector^s privy council. The effects
of this controversy in Lower Saxony and in the Rhenish Palatinate were per-
ceptible not merely in the theological schism which it produced there, but in
all ecclesiastical and political relations. The Elector Augustus avowed his
faith in Luther ^s sentiments, even when he knew not precisely what they
were. The Philippists therefore found it necessary to preserve the sem-
blance of Lutheran orthodoxy, that they might avoid the complaints of their
opponents. Through their influence the elector was induced to bestow legal
authority upon a collection of Melancthon^s writings, {k) and as soon as he
had attained a guardian power over Jena, to expel the zealots Wigand and
Hesshusius from their professorships and from his territories (1578). In an
anonymous pamphlet, which appeared without the co-operation but with the
recommendation of the Philippist professors, Melancthon's doctrine of lSb/b
Lord^s Supper was shown to be the only true one, the various views of the
Lutherans were opposed as papistic, and the remarkable prosperity whidh
was visible in the Reformed churches in and around Germany was pointed
out as an evidence of the divine favor and agreement with them. (J) The
suspicions of the elector were awakened by the denunciations of the princes
on account of this book, and some intercepted letters showed that the oljecfc
of the Philippists was to draw him over to the Calvinistic fiEuth. The re-
ward which the divines received for this proceeding, was the banishment or
imprisonment of themselves and all who favored them at oonrt. Frayera
were offered up in all the Saxon churches for the extermination of the Cal-
vinistic heresy, and a medal was struck in commemOTation of this triumph
of Christ over human reason and the devil.
0) Hist and Lit in Bbrard, AbendoL toL II. p. 682aiw
/) Corp. Ref. vol. VIIL p. 862. vol. IX. p. 874.
g) ConfeKio et doctr. in Dae Wirt de vera praemntia corp J. C. (Acta pnbL Eoei Wtit ad.
Pfaffy Tub. 1720. 4. p. 834a.) Brmu de porsonali unione, duanim natar. in Ob. IMl. 4
A) Corp, Rff. vol IX. p. 1084. Opinions in Fred. IIL : Jodidum do 0. Dom. Heidalbu IMa
€) Comp. Heppe, Protest vol 1 1, p. 886fli SpUkar, Job. MoscqIos. (Zdtacfa. £ Ust Th. 1S«». Hi &)
k) Corp. doctr. Pbilippicum s. Misnicum. Lps. 1660. t and often.
t) Exegesis pempicaa et ferme Integra controversiae do s. coena. WiUiOQt plaoa or year. (Ed. by
tbe pablisber Vugelein at Leips. 1574. with tbe mariu of a Genevan printer, batoompoaed bj the 81-
leaiau pbysician Joachim Curat%Uy a pupil of Melanothon.) Oomp. n«pp% toL IL p^ 4UL dSTss.
jOHAP. IL LUTHEBANI8M. f 8St ANDBBAE FOBM OF CONCORD. 409
§ 861. Efforts at Cmeord,
nbapiniani Cooc dtooon. Tig. 1607. Gen. 1678. 11 Hutteri^ Cooc oonoom Ylt 1614 f. Lpa.
MKL 4. ^fitoti, Oetofa. d. C F. Lpa. 1779. 2 voU^
Th6 Latherans were now victorious, but it was no very difficult thing for
their opponents to recover themselves. In the form of the Eucharist which
bod been forced upon the churches, the sentiments of Melancthon were
repreiented as identical with those of Luther, {a) and the spirit of Melanc-
thon 0till reigned in the churches of other countries. The shame which
manj felt on account of these internal dissensions, was increased by the
reproach of the Catholics. But the only way by which the dogmatic spirit
of that age could think of attaining unanimity, was by a confession of faith
ouistracted on the most scientific principles, and deciding by tlie highest
nthority the controversies then agitating the Ohurch, and all others of info-
rior imp<Hianoe. Jacob Andreaej the indefatigable and pliant but tenacious
cihaQceUor of Tubingen, endeavored to obtain the honor of completing the
Beformation by composing such a work. In the accomplishment of his pur-
pose he turned his attention especially to the princes of the several coun-
tries. (&} He was, however, repelled by both Lutherans and Philippists,
until, after the overthrow of the latter, the Elector Augustus became a leader
in the affair. After various assemblies of clergymen, much preparation (c)
and many corrections, a number of distinguished divines were convened
from the established churches of different provinces in a monastery at Berg,
hi the last revision, performed entirely by Andreae, with the assistance of
Sebeoker and Chemnitz, who had been educated under Philippistic influ-
«Doe8, every thing which looked like Philippism was stricken out. (d) In
this manner, with the utmost caution and fear of exaggeration, the Form of
Ctneord was completed on the 28th of May, 1577. The Scriptures are recog^
Bind in it as the only rule of futh, but their entire agreement with Luther
Mprerappoeed. Not only should the gospel be preached as the only means
of aalvation, but the law should be proclaimed as a terror to evil-doers, for
tbe discovery of sin, and for the discipline and instruction of believers. It
ttxnoedes that there are indifferent things (Adiaphora) in religion, but it con-
tends that in times of persecution even they may be connected with unpor-
tant consequences. An appropriate distinction is drawn between justification
by fiuth alone and the subsequent gradual sanctification. Good works are
not represented as indispensable to salvation, but as the necessary conse-
iveooes of true faith. All co-operation on the part of man in the work of
iMnQ improvement is denied, but the Augustinian doctrine of original sin is
^ iSorth after a rejection of the offensive errors of flacius, in immediate
^oiukeotion with that of the universality of divine grace, with no attempt to
«) Aftielc* of Torgmu : Kan Bek. u. Art v. h. Abendm. Witt 1574. 4.
^) /a Val. Andr€(U^ Fama Andreaoft reflorescens. Arg. 1670. 12. Ls Bret^ de J. A. vita et mis-
^"■^basproicforaMiidAEoe. Lath. Tab. 1799. A. J, C. 0,JokawMtn^Z, A. eonoordiat Th&tiglc
(?«lt«h.t hist Th. 18B8L H. 8.)
^ SdnriMaeh-flAehii Concordia. (Aeta et ser. Eoe. W&rt p. SSlm) Maalbr. Forroel, Torgiscbea
^ (ei bj SmnJLtr^ HaL 17ea) J. B. BalthoMir, Hist d. Tovg. B. Orelftw. 1741^ 6tb pt
^ CkiftraM Epp. Hannor. 1614 p. 417. Torg: Booh, Smd^r^ p. 78aa.— (r. Quech, de Mart.
^^•"■■Woi Jen. 1S4&
410 MODEBN CHURCH HI8T0BT. FEB. Y. A. D. 1MT-164&
reconcile their apparent inconnstenoy. Oalvin's hideous doctrines of the
Encharist and of Predestination are condemned, and the Lutheran doctrine
of the Lord's Supper, involving the omnipresence of Christ's hody by virtue
of a mutual communication of the attributes of his two natures firom the
time of his conception, was sustained. A general synod for deciding upon
the new creed had been promised, but it was now looked upon as dangerous,
and was finally avoided. The Form of Concord was adopted by the imperial
Diet, and all who held office in the several schools or churches under it were
required to subscribe it. {e) It was, however, rejected by Hesse, Nassau,
Anlialt, (/) Pomerania, Holstein, (ff) Bremen, Nuremberg, Strasbourg, and
others, on the ground that in some respects it was too rigid, especially when
it separated two much-beloved heroes, by canonizing the one and making
the very name of the other offensive, and yet many pastors despised it be-
cause they regarded it as too lenient and too fluctuating in its meaning. (A)
Its original object was therefore never completely attained, and it became to
the Calvinists and the Catholics a convenient object of ridicule, under the
title of the Form of Discord. Even Julius, Duke of Brunswick, had taken
a deep interest in this affair through Chemnitz, whose administration was
characterized by so many prelatical tendencies, and through his own treasu-
rer. But his secular and his religious interests were not quite identical, and
he felt himself painfully wounded by some of the friends of the Form of
Concord. He therefore withdrew from the support of that Confession, and
Beither in Helmstadt nor in any part of Brunswick could it stand by its own
power. (0 But besides this Form of Concord, other pieces were agreed upon
that they might together constitute a general code of ecclesiastical faith,
viz. : The oecumenical symbols of the ancient Church, the original undhanged
Confession of Augsburg together with the Apology, the Articles of Smal-
kald, and Luther's Catechisms. This J^k of Concord^ with a pre&oe, and
subscribed with the names of as many of the imperial states as were of the
same mind, was sent forth in the (German language from Dresden on Jane
25, 1580, and evdr since in its isolation has constituted the mafyna eharU of
German Lutheranism.
§ 852. Reaction of Saxon Oahinism,
Bescbr. d. calv. Botte, die rich in Sachsen elDgeeehllchen. JeiUL 1591. StmmL vamlichL Nadirr.
s. sacba. Oeflch. Chemn. 1767flB. vol lY. Y. Kietlinff, (before $ 847.)
The Philippists in Electoral Saxony were neither annihilated nor oonyinoed
that they were wrong, and it is therefore not surprising that they soon ob-
tained another brief victory by means of the same arbitrary princely power
which had overthrown them. Christian I, (after 1586) was induced by his
brother-in-law, the Elector Palatine, to attempt a compromise with them.
e) Comp. JohantiMtk, d. Unterechr. d. C F. in Seohaen. (Zeltach. £ hlet Th. 1847. H. 1.)
/) Johannaen, d. f^ie ProtestanUtm. Im FxinL Anbelt (Zeftscfa. £ bist Th. 184C. H. %,)
ff) J bid. Schlesv. Hoist Stellnng t. 0. F. im 16. Jbb. (Zeltach. £ bist Th. 185a H. 4)
A) £. g. comp. J. Wigg«rA, KOeech. Mecklenb. Parcbim. 184a p. 170ml
€) E.L,T. Uenks, d. Unir. Helmet HaL 1888. p. 19fla. a O. K LmU, d. OL F. im Henost
Brannechw. (Zeltach. £ bist Th. 184& U. S.)
CHAP.il LUTU£BANIS\r. $852. CBELL. $ 858. IIESHUSIUS. KEPLEE. 411
His chancellor, Nicholas Crcll, who then directed public affairs without the
counsel of the nobles, and wished to be called neither a Lutheran nor a Cal-
Tinist, managed in such a way as gradually to effect a union with the Re-
formed Church. All controversial quarrels in the pulpit were forbidden, the
principal offices in the parishes and in the schools were filled with Philippists,
exorcism in baptism was abolished in spite of the murmurs of the people, no
more subscriptions to the Book of Concord were obtained, and an edition of
the Bible was commenced with comments in the spirit of Melancthon. In
tlie midst of these proceedings, however, tlie young prince died (1691), and
no sooner was Duke Frederic William I., the guardian of his successor, es-
tablished in the regency, than rigid Lutheranism was again restored. Arti'
ele$ of Vuiiation^ expressing the most decided opposition to Calvinism and
the doctrine of predestination, were proclaimed (1592), and all officers in
Church and state were required to adopt them under oath, {a) A spirit of re-
venge indnced the nobles to offer their swords as instruments of the rage of
the divines, and after an imprisonment of ten years, Crell was beheaded for
high treason, (b)
§ 863. Spirit and Remit of the Doctrinal Controversy,
During these theological controversies, the idea became generally preva-
lent that the principal fruit of the Reformation was a clearly defined system
of doctrines, for the purity of which every pastor and congregation felt respon-
lible to God. Every other feeling and right was obliged either to yield to
this, or to identify itself with it. Undismayed by misfortunes, and hurling his
treatises, sermons, and excommunications against his enemies at home and
ahtMd, Tileman Meshusius was seven times deposed from eminent stations in
the Charch, and exiled from his country. But the literal sense for which he
xealously contended was finally turned against himself. Wigand, who had
been his companion in controversy and excommunication for Christ's Siike,
and was now like him, and by his assistance a Prussian bishop, denounced
him as a heretic, and overthrew him on account of a subtle scholastic formula.
He, however, still maintained a calm and dignified consciousness that he was
itroggling in the service of his Lord, and in his last will expressed no regret,
Mcept that he had not punished sinners with greater severity, and had not
contended against factious persons with an intenser zeal (d. 1688). (a) Kep-
^(d. 1631), who, while listening to the harmonies of the universe, investi-
S>ted the laws of the planetary motions that he might with devout joy make
^wn to others the miracles of divine wisdom, and would rather starve than
■Portatizo from the Confession of Augsburg, was driven from the Lord's fold
tt sn nnsound sheep, because he would not subscribe the articles in which the
^nnists were condemned, and doubted whether the body of Christ was
^7 omnipresent. His mother also died in fetters under the accusation of
a) libri Symlk 8 ed. by l/aM, p. CXXYIIbs. SGTas.
^) Aiim«, Lelchenpr. &. d castodirteo a. enthaupteUD Dr. N. Cr. Lpa. 1601. 4. Uis controv.
^^t% la Walch vol II. p. \m.—Engelcken, d. N. Cr. Boat 17^. 4. IT. G. ffatte, d. B«deut
^ Crdriehen Pruc««e8« a archlv. Beilrr. (ZeitMb. t hist Tb. 184S. U. 2.)— Cbr. Oundermana
**!«<»% Klafce Petn n. Bekentdnis. (eatjrr. Qedlcht) 1592. 4
«) /. G. Leuci/std, Hiat Hesbnaiana. Qaedlinb. 171& 4
412 MODERN GHUBCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1517-K4SL
being a witch, (h) The opposition to the Form of Concord gradnallj diaqn
peared when its most decided opponents went over to the Reformed Ohuroh,
bat the schism between the two churches became permanent, in consequence
of the food which was then so plentifally supplied to the religious passions
of the people. The writings of Chemnitz and Hutter, composed in the spirit
of the strictest Luthcranism, were then generally esteemed, and supplied the
place formerly occupied by the theological works of Melanothon. (e) Their
ascendency was also sustained by the independent authority of the literature
of that period. John Gerhard (d. at Jena, 1687) attained the dignity of A
Protestant ecclesiastical Father, in consequence of a happy combination of
polemic learning and quiet devotion. The sphere of his literary and official
activity was very extensive, and when almost every thing seemed to be in
ruins around him, his talents wore devoted to the work of preserving and an-
thenticuting what he esteemed useful and true, (d) But the youthful energies
of Protestantism were much impaired even in the midst of its victories by these
controversies, and Melancthon^s condemnation as a heretic was felt to be adsi^
shadow upon the original principles and type of the Reformation.
n. Calvinism.
Ldecher, {% 886.) J. O. Walck, hist il UmoL Einl. In d BtrelUg. tonderUcb anasM' d. lath. K. S
ed. Jen. 1788m. 6 vols, lleppe, (before { 847.) [Merle d^Auhigni^ Spirit of the Bet Chnrefa, Mi»>
cell Writings. New York. l&4e. p. 8468&]
§ 864. German Reformed Church,
After the violent rc^jection of Philippism, a German Reformed Chureh
sprung up in the midst of the established churches where it had prevailedy
by the side of the Reformed Church of Switzerland. Although it originaUy
did not expressly adopt the doctrine of predestination, and never received the
peculiar stamp of Calvin^s character, it wore a Calvinistic aspect, in conse-
quence of its special fellowship with Calvinistic churches, and its reception of
a large number of Calvinistic refugees, through whom its institutions became
based upon the exclusive authority of the Scriptures, (a) In the PalaiinaU^
where the Reformation received its original character also fh>m the influenoe
of Melancthon, the sovereignty was exercised by Frederic 111^ who desired
in the Eucharist to partake of nothing but an entire Christ, with all his bene-
fits. After the disorders excited by Heshusius* efforts to establish Luthersii-
ism, he deposed every clergyman (Aug. 1560) who would not accommodate
his views to those of Melancthon (§ 850. nt. h,\ and after the diet of prinoss
at Naumburg he still adhered to the amended Confession of Augsburg, and
{') J. «. Bre(tachu>ert, Joh. Keppler'B Leben u. WIrken. Stuttg. 1881. Oomp. Tkdmek,
Scbrr. vol. IL p. 884flB. [Life of Kepplnr, in Lib. of Un Know. Lond. 188a]
o) Uatteraa redlvtvna, by K. ffaee, 7 ed. Lpii 1848. pi 88a.
d) MediUtiones sicrae, 1608. 18. and often. Uebera. v. iZ A. Schmidt, Brl (182T.) 1887. Lod
th. Jen. 1610-22. 9 Tola. 4. den. ed. OoUa, Tab. 1762a& SO vola. 4. Metbodoa atodll th. Jen. 1617. ad.
4 1654. Schola pletatia d. 1. cbr. I7nterrlchtung, waa Tor Utaaehen a. OottaeeL bawofen adtaa. JaML
182a 6 ed. NQmb. 1668. Oonfeaslo eath. Jen. 1688-7. 4 Tola. 4. FreH 1879. t Dlapp. quibw dognmi.
CalTfnianor. expenduutnr. Jen. 1683. i.—F. J Fieoher, Ttta J. O. Lpa. 1728. HIat aea. p. XVIL Ift
TitA J. 6. lllttstr. Lpa. 1727.
a) Heppe, d. Cbarakter d. deutaoh.-BeC K. v. d. Yarh. dra. c Lnthartli. n. Ody. <8tad. o.
185a IL&)
CHAP.il CALYINISll f 851 PALATINATE. HESSE. 413
introdaoed into the churches the simplicity and chilliness of Switzerland
(1562). By his authority, Ursinus and Olevianus composed the Heidelberg
Cateehum^ which was soon after not only received as the Creed of the Gor-
man Reformed Church, hut has heen highly esteemed in many foreign coun-
tries. The devotional spirit of this Confession gives prominence to the doc-
trine of divine Predestination only so fai* as it seemed needful to console the
(Hiristian with the cerUunty of redemption, and to that of the Eucharist only
to impart an assurance of communion with Christ, {b) At the religious con-
ference held for the reconciliation or for the conversion of parties at MauU
Irunn (1564), the theology of Wdrtemherg was found to he in striking con-
trast with that of the Palatinate, and the doctrine of the Eucharist hascd
upon that of the ubiquity of Christ^s body exhibited sufficient power to divide
the Church, (e) Under Louis YI. (1576) Lutheranism was established, but
after his death (1688), the Calvinistio tendency became predominant. The
latter also triumphed in the midst of violent popular commotions in Bremen
(1661-81), although the cathedral was finally opened (1638) to the Lutherans,
who could not be entirely exterminated there, {d) In Anhalt^ the ecclesias-
tical Establishment of the Palatinate was adopted from attachment to Mdanc-
thon (1596). (e) Under a similar influence, Nassau, protesting against the
monster ubiquity in the Form of Concord, was induced to adopt the Heidel-
berg Catechism (1582), and in consequence of its relation to the house of
Orange, it was brought to accept of the ecclesiastical system which prevailed
in the Netherlands (1586). (/) Mavrice, the learned Landgrave of Hesse-
Casaely after many fruitless efforts to reconcile the two Churches, compelled
the Lutheran (church to adopt such improvements (1605) as ultimately brought
them into the Calvinistic communion ; but in Upper Hesse Lutheranism still
preTailed. (g) Notwithstanding many disturbances, the established churches
generally followed the form of reformation adopted by their respective princes,
Ibr no alternative was allowed their ministers but either to preach the doc-
trines embraced by the civil authorities, or to leave the country. John Sigis-
mnnd, the Elector of Brandenbarg, once gave his oath to his father that he
would never forsake the doctrines of Luther, but on Christmas 1618, he re-
ceived the sacrament of the Lord^s Supper in the court church in Berlin, ac-
cording to the Calvinistio ritual. In the confession of faith which he made
(1614), he declares that in professing himself of the Reformed Evangelical
Ghnrch, he acted without regard to the authority of human names, under
the durection of the Holy Spirit through the Scriptures, that his object was to
away all remnants of papal superstition, (h) and that in God^s cause he
() Flnt Impression in Ocnnan and Latin, Heidelb. 1568. Niemeyer^ Col Confess, p. LYII,
i.— ^ V. Alpen, Oesoh. u. Lit d. Heid. Cat Erl 1800. AugwU (411.) p. 96aB.
c) (Ureinns) ProtoooU d. L Acto d. Oeapr. zn Bfaolb. HdlK VX&. 4 H«ppe^ Gescb. d. dt Prot
▼«L IL p. 7188^
€l) Gerdet^ Hist motunm ecc. in civ. Bremensi temp. HardenbergiL Oron. ^5<li. Ji IT. DurUte,
d. tt. Stadt Br. Breui. 1843. voL III p. 8598a.
«) Bepetitlo Anhaltina. 1579. Niemeyer^ CoL p^ 61288. Beckmann^ Hist d. F&zBt Anhalt
171088. vol. YL p. 12188.
/) J. B. Steubing^ K. n. Re£ Geech. d. Oranien-NaiML Lande, Hadam. ISOl
g) U^ppe^ d. £infi]ihr. d. Yerbesseningspankte in Heasen. 1604-10. Cass. 1848.
A) JfUm^€r PL LXXYII, 6428s.
414 MODERN CIIUBCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 151MU8L
was Dot bound by his previous covenant. Although he sought to indnoo
others to follow him, divested the University of Frankfort of its Lutheran
character, and abolished the legal authority of the Form of Concord, he only
demanded Christian toleration from his own country ; and yet so great was
the dissatisfaction of the Lutheran people of the Marquisate and of Prussia,
that however beneficial such a change of faith may have been to his foreign
relations, it could not on the whole have been recommended on the score of
mere expediency. (/) The feelings of those connected with the Reformed
party were much more decided, and those Lutherans who went over to it
never looked upon themselves as apostate inasmuch as they still firmly ad-
hered to the Confession of Augsburg (of 1540). In the Religions Peace no
mention had been made of the Reformed Church, but its members claimed
the privileges of those professing a faith kindred with that of the Augsburg
Confession. Accordingly, in the negotiations on this subject at the Diet of
Augsburg (1576), and under the influence of the evangelical spirit of JVed-
eric IIL, the Lutherans did not venture in the presence of the Catholic impe-
rial party to repel these powerful allies, (k)
§ 865. The Netherlands.
O, Brandt, Illst dcr. Reformatio de Nederlanden. Amst (166S8S.) 1677. 4 vols. 4 EngL Lnad.
1720. 4 Tolsi French, Abstract Amst 1780. 8 vols. 18. D. Oerde», 11. Ret vol IIL Tpep m />ir>
mout GeschlcdenisacD der Nederlandsche henrormde Kerk. Breda. 1819-27. 4 vols. — Corpeqwxndamn
do Philippe II. sar lea affaires des Paysbaa, publl^e par Gachard^ Par. 1848-51. 2 voIsl [SehUUr^
RovoU of the Netherlands. New York. 1847. 12. 7! C. G'^ttian, Ulst of the Netbeii Philad.
1S81. 12.]
The Netherlands were inhabited by an industrious and thriving people,
especially jealous of their municipal and provincial rights, and according to
the most ancient laws were regarded as a fief of the empire. But in conse-
quence of a connection by marriage between the house of Hapsbnrg and the
royal family of Spain, it became subject to the Spanish crown. Such a
people were sure to welcome the principles of the Reformation, and the way
had long been prepared for their promulgation. The first step was taken by
the genera] diffusion of Luther^s writings, but as the people were more c(m-
nected with Switzerland and France, the Reformed faith made the greatest
progress among them. Here in his patrimonial dominions, Charles V,
evinced the strength of his attachment to the Church, by a complete enforce-
ment of the edict of Worms. Hundreds died in prison or on the scaffold.
When the emperor had become fatigued with the cares of sovereignty and
of life, his son Philip 11,^ to whom he surrendered the Netherlands, and to
whom all civil and religious liberty was equally odious, sent thither the in-
quisition for the extirpation of both. The heroes of the nation fell beneath
the axe of the executioner or the knife of the assassin. After enduring in-
credible hardships, the people, with their swords in their hands, ventured to
demand their rights. The struggle for their faith was in some respects diflfinv
0 />• l^' Iftring^ hist Nachr. t. d. Anfkng. d. er. re£ K. in Brandeobi v. Prooiaen. HaL 1771
A. Jf&ller, ($ 887. nt c.) p. SSOsa. JP. 1/elvHnff, Oeacb. d. Prenss. Btaata. Lemgo. 18Mw toL I. ^
10U7sa.
t) Struve, pflk. KHIft Cap. & p. 189i.
CHAP. IL OALYINISM. S85«.DORT. ARMINIIJB. 0B0TIU8. 415
ent from the civil war in which they contended for their ancient rights, but
both were carried on under the skilfhl direction of the heroic prince of
Orange. The ornaments fonnd in the ancient churches were entirely de-
stroyed. The seven northern provinces in which German manners and an
evangelical fidth prevailed, formed (1579) a confederation called the Union
of Utrecht, The civil and religious freedom of these provinces was not,
however, adniowledged by Spain until it became so completely exhausted
that it was obliged to conclude an armistice (1609).
§ 866. Synod of DorU ^ov, 18, IQlS-end of May, 1619.
AeU Synodl nattonaUs Dordrecht! hab. Lngd. B. 1680. £ Han. 1620. 4. Acta et scr. synodalla Be-
iDoiMtmitlain. Harder. 1020. 4. EaU»U Hist Cone. Dordracenl, ed. Mothem, Hmb. 1724. Epp.
piMiCaBt ct erud. ▼Iruram eec et theol. Amat (1660. 1694.) 1704. t LItterae delegatomm Haaslacor
•d LaadgrAv. miaaae. ed. ab H. Heppe^ (Zeitacb. 11 hist Th. 1858. H. %)—J. Regenboog, Hist d. Be-
monstranteD. Ainat 1774. 8 voI& a. d. HoU. (v. Cramer.) Lemga 1781. 2 vols. if. Oraf^ Beitrr. i.
Oifeh. d. Sjm. ▼. Dord. Bas. 1825. [Artt of the 8yn. of D. with the Hist &c by the Stat«s-Qen.
ftom the Lat by 7! Soott, Utlca. 1881. 12. N. Chatdain, Hist d. Syn. d. Dordrecht Par. 1811. &]
In the University of Leyden, established under the influence of the Re-
formation, the spirit of Zwingle came into open conflict with the victorious
spirit of Calvin. Arminitu (d. 1609) having become perplexed with respect
to the doctrine of unconditional predestination, Gomarus defended it against
him. (a) Both became leaders of opposite parties, and when Arminius at-
tempted to establish an ecclesiastical peace among those congregations which
had abandoned the papacy on the basis of a few simple articles selected from
the Scriptures, and regarded as essential to salvation, the effect was to threat-
en the young Church and republic of the Netherlands with an open division.
A, Justifioation of their creed, called the Remonstrance, was presented (1610)
l>y the party of Arminius to the fissembled states of Holland and West Fries-
land, (b) But as most of the ministers had been educated at Geneva, Calvin-
ism had the ascendency among the clergy, and through their influence among
^he common people, to whom the merits of the controversy were unknown.
Sat the venerable Oldenbameveld and Hugo Grotius, who as a humanist
and a statesman had paid some attention to theology, were at that time
political leaders in the republican party, and were the protectors of the He-
fnomtranU, (c) This was suflScient to induce Maurice, Prince of Orange, the
Stidtholder and the General of the Republic, then striving to attain the
supreme power, to form a connection with the Calvinists. A synod was
called by the States-General for the determination of the controversy.
Although all the Reformed churches except that of Anhalt were invited to
^e part in its deliberations, the number of foreign deputies actually present
^tt very small in comparison with that of the members from the Nether-
"Oda, Even before the synod was opened, the Prince of Orange by an act
•) AmUnU Oppw tiieoL L. B. 1629. 4. and often. [Worlu of J. Arm. ed. by J. NichoU^ Lond. 9
^ &] 0. Brandt, Hist Yitae Arminii, ed. Moahem, BmnsT. 172& [AT. BangSy Life of Arminina.
^^ Tort 1844. 18. Life and Works of A. publ in Auburn, 1852. 2 vols. &]
&) In Lat in the Epp. praest et erud. Yiromm, ed. 2. p. 145.
c) B. lud^n, Hugo Orotius nach Schicks. il Schrr. BrL 1805. [3f.D€ BuHffny, Life of H. Oro-
^ to»ii«L from Ft. Lond. 1754. %.]
416 MODESN GHUBCH HISTOBT. P£B. V. A. D. 1517-1848.
of exorbitant power expelled all who belonged to the republican party. The
members of the synod, therefore, consifiting of thirty-six pastors, twenty
elders, and five professors, were selected with some degree of arbitrarineflB^
and it was obvious that the fate of the Remonstrants was decided upon be*
fore the opening of the meeting. Their spiritual leaders, under the condoet
of Episcopius, the eloquent and inflexible successor of Arminius, (d) were
summoned before the synod merely as accused persons. They there protest-
ed against an unconditional submission of themselves, but notwithstanding
the milder views of the foreign deputies, they were declared by a majority
of votes, and by the authority of tlie word of God, incapable of any eccled-
astical or academic functions until they should penitently return to the fel-
lowship of the Church. In most of the provinces of the Union, those
preachers and teachers belonging to the Remonstrant party who would not
immediately resign every spiritual office were expelled f^om the country.
But after the death of Maurice (1625), when the Republican party again
obtained the ascendency, the Arininiana were tolerated, and their chnrcbes
became numerous and flourishing on account of their liberal exegetical litera-
ture, (e) The Articles of the Synod of Dort were confirmed by the Statee-
General, and although they received legal authority in no foreign coantij
but France, Calvinism became henceforth the orthodox doctrine of the Re-
formed Church. Calvin's twofold doctrine of predestination, based npoo
that of original sin, was in some degree modified in them, and all who pro-
perly used the means of grace were told that they need have no doubt of
their final salvation. (/) But oven the tendency which proceeded from
Zwingle and Melancthon was fostered, and occupied a subordinate position in
the churches. Its most important original record, after the Heidelberg Cate-
chism, Is the creed left by Bullinger, and adopted through the influence of
the Elector Palatine by the Swiss Confederacy under the name of the Second
Heltetic Confemon (1666). According to it the promises of God are general
for all believers, {g)
CHAR III.— PROGRESS OF THE REFORMATION THROUGH
EUROPE.
§ 857. United Austrian States^ until 1609.
Raupach, ev. Oest Hmb. 1782s8. 8 volfli 4. Waldau^ Geseh. d. Prot in Oost Anop^ 178IL t
voU-V. Burii, Hist dipL de statu rel. ev. In Hang. & L 1710. t {P. Smber) Ulst. Eoe. rc£ to
Hang, et Transoylvftoia, ed. Lampe^ Tn^. 1728. 4. J. Ribini^ Memor. Aug. Con£ in Unng. Pwoa.
17878A. 2 vols. Die wiobUg8t«n Sohicksale d. ey. K. Auga. Bek. in Ung. 1520- 16aa L|itL IML
[Munyay) IllsL eco. ot. A. C addlctorum in Uuog. Utlb. 1380. Corpus Syaodonun Aug. OooC !■
Hung. ed. J. SUberinyi^ Pesth. 1848. O. Ifansr, Uist Eco. TransylvAoicar. Fret et Lpt. IMl
li.—Pontani a Braitenberg, Bok. pla. Frcfl 160& t^BucholtK. (p. 858.) Rante, 0. d. ZObm
Ferd. L u. Max. II. in & Zeitscb. vol L p. 228.
German Protestantism was extensively diflfased at an early period among
d) PKa LinibcreK ViU Episa Amst 1701. J. Konynmbttrg^ Landes Ep. lUd. 1791. 4
e) Adr. a CcMetiburgh, BibL Scrr. Remonstr. Amst 1728. O. S Franelu, de Hist d<*gntlaai
Anninianoruin. KiL 1814. D. de Bray, Eiaai sor rHist de i'^ise AnnlQieoiie; Straeb. 1S8& 4
/) Kiemeyer^ Col p. 690bs.
g) Ed. 0. P, FriUtcKe^ Tor. 1839. in I^irnneygr ^ 462aa.
CHAP. UL KUROPEAN UEFOBM. $857. AUSTSIA HUNGARY. 417
the higher classes in Austria. Ferdinand /., during the last years of his
reign, stood aloof from the strife of parties. Maximiliiin II, (1564-76),
whom the Protestants regarded as a secret believer in their principles, and
the Romans as an apostate, endeavored to reconcile both sides, and to pro-
mote a general reform consistently with the laws, by giving to the knights
and to tlie princely cities the privilege of forming an ecclesiastical system
according to the Confession of Augsburg. Hungarian students who studied
at Wittenberg and returned to their native country imbued with Lutheran
sentiments, Waldenses, Hussites, and Humanists, were all instrumental in
carrying the principles of the Reformation in every direction. The most
sanguinary laws were insufficient to impede the progress of these agencies.
All laws were silent during the storm which followed the battle of Mohnos
(1526;. No greater severity against the Protestants was exercised by the
house of Hapsburg when its hold upon Hungary was so precarious, than was
indispensable to its own security; and wherever the Turks held sway, a form
of worship in which no images were used might be extended without ob-
struction. Ferdinand I. conceded to a few magnates and towns in his domin-
ions the enjoyment of a free religious toleration, which was still further
increased under Maximilian. The Reformed churches became equally numer-
oos, and soon began to be disturbed by controversies. The writings of Luther
were also carried into Transylvania by some merchants of Hermanstadt, on
their return from the fair at Leipsio (1521). After enduring many persecu-
tions, all the Saxon churches declared themselves adherents of the Augsburg
Confession (1544), the Magyars connected themselves with the Reformed
Charch, and the Wallachians continued to worship according to the Greek
ritual. During the civil wars which took place in Hungary for the posses-
sion of the throne, complete religious freedom was granted to Transylvania
at the Diet of Clausenhurg (1556). In an election of a king of Bohemia
(1526), Ferdinand was chosen instead of the Duke of Bavaria, principally on
account of the favor which he showed to the UtraquuU. In the commence-
ment of the Smalkaldic war the Electors of Saxony were invested with the
power to command the army furnished by the Bohemian states in any way
which might promote the conmion cause. These, in consequence of Luther^s
success, had regained their former spirit and power, had become reconciled
with the Bohemian brethren, and now combined their Hussite sentiments
partly with Lutheran and partly with Reformed doctrines, {a) Rudolph II,
(after 157C) permitted evangelical persons in all parts of his dominions to be
oppressed, freedom of opinion was confined to the nobility, and divine wor-
ship (after 1604) was entirely suppressed by pubho violence. Stephen Bot-
skai^ Prince of Transylvania, whose power was considerable on account of
his alliance with the Turks, now took up arms for the establishment of po-
litical and religious Uberty. He succeeded in obtaining the Fe^ce of Vienna
(1606), by which Hungary and Transylvania were allowed freely to receive
either the Augsburg or the Helvetic Confession, (h) In the latter province
a) Confenlon of 1535 Jb 1575 In Lat in Jfiemeyer^ CoL p. 771. 819sb. With many original
docnments: Die andero Apologia der St&nde d. K B^heimb, a. d. b&bm. Bpr. In die tentsche yvt"
a. 1619. 4
h) Padficatio Ylennen^ in Emher-Lampe^ p. 825ba.
Q7
418 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1517-1648.
popery had been entirely renounced, and in Hungary a m^ority of the
people and nearly all the nobles had done the same. AVhile the members of
the house of Uapsburg were contending with one another, the evangelical
states of Austria, with arms in their hands, obtained from the Archduke
Matthias the restoration of all the privileges they had acquired under Maxi-
milian. The Bohemians at the same time received from the Emperor Ru-
dolph an imperial charter, (c) by which they were placed on the same ground
with the Oatholios, and the supreme power was conceded to the states (1609).
§ 858. Swed^,
J. BacUy Inventariam Ecc Bneo-Oothor. Llncop. 1648. 4 P. K Th^telitu^ Handllngsr. till
Svergee Refivmations-och Kyrkuhlstoria under Oustat L Stookh. lSll-5. 2 vol& (Conip. Zeltacb. C
blAt. Tb. 1840. n. 2. 1847. H. 2.)—/?. C. Romer, de Gust. I. rerum sacr. InsUaratore. Triy. ad Rh.
1840. Qei)er^ Oesob. 8chw. (p. 246. nt h.) 18W. vol. ll.^Schinmeitr^ Leb. d. drel wriiwod. Kelt Lor.
Anderran, Olaf a. I^r. Peterson. Lnb. 17Sd. 4. — A. ThMner^ 8cbw. n. a. Btellang z. h. StuhL Qotar
Job., 81g. and Karl IX. Angsb. 183S. f. 2 vols. [Vertot^ Rev. in Sw. on account of the chang»in
Religion, from tbe French hj J. Mitchell Lond. 1728. &]
Sweden had been delivered from the sanguinary hands of the Danes by
Omtatm Vam (after 1521). The Reformation was preached there by the
brothers Olnf and Latcrcnce Peterson^ who had studied at Wittenberg, and
were so constituted by nature that the oue possessed those intellectaal quail*
ties in which the other was deficient. The bishops, who held in their hands
the principal wealth of the country, were connected with the Danish inter-
est, and the new government, anxious to relieve the people of their taxes
and to pay off their Ilanseatic mercenaries, longed to obtain possession of ths
property of the Church. A public discussion was held under the royal pro-
tection at Upsala (1526), and a translation of the New Testament was made
by the Chancellor Anderson, The king, sustained by the nobility and peas-
antry, humbled the bishops at the Diet of WeKtcratt (1527), and took posses-
sion of the property of the Church. The Reformation was iiitrodaoed
in accordance with the advice of Luther, although the greater portion of the
people for a long time received only its external form, and scarcely notioed
the change, and even the king had cause to deny that any change had taken
place in the national religion. Those bishops who acknowledged the new
order of things remained members of the diet and superintendents of the
Church, but they were made dependent upon the royal favor, and their pow-
ers were circumscribed by the authority of consistories. A reconciliation
with Catholicism was sought for under John III. (after 1568), whose wii59
was a Polish princess, and belonged to the Catholic Church ; but in conse-
quence of the refusal of the Romish court to concede the demands of the
king, and the opposition of the people to the Catholic ritual, the effort proved
unsuccessful, (a) Sigmnund^ King of Poland and (after 1592) of Sweden,
atoned for his attempt to oppress the evangelical Church by the loss of tbe
Swedish crown, which was won (1599, 1604) by his unde, Charles IX«, the
champion of Protestantism. At first nothing but the word of God contained
e) A. e. btibm. Urk. (kbersL m. Anm. v. Borott, Gorl. 1808.
a) Die Jeeulten ala Vermlttler e. prot Kirobenagendo. Brl. Monatschr. 17M. latelj fd. bf
BOhr, Neast 1825.
CHAP. IIL EUROPEAN BEFORM. f 859. DENMARK. 419
in the Holy Scriptures was acknowledged as the creed of the Chnrch. Bat
finally the clergy, that they might meet the calninnies of their Catholic op-
ponents, and that the whole Swedish nation might have hnt one God, and
might worship him as one man, proclaimed their adherence to the Angshurg
Confession in 1598, and to the Form of Concord in 1663, (5) and a law was
enacted which provided that all who should apostatize to popery should he
banished from the country.
§ 859. Denmark with Norway and Iceland,
Fontnppidan^ (p. US. nt a.) roL II. p. T5488. vol. III. Xknter^ Danske ReC Ilistorie. KJobenb.
Svolii a. KO«tch. r. Dim. u. Nor. Lpz. 1884 vol. II L Stemmer flra don Danske Eirkes Ref. Tld.
Od«iue. 1886. 4— Jffi^rtc, de cauBb prop«gatae oeleriter in Dan. re£ Ilafl 181 T. 4.
The whole power of the Danish state was shared hetween the hishopB
and the harons. Christiern IL was elected king in 1518, and proved to he a
tyrant under the tyranny of the mother of his x>aramour. Under him the
nobility were degraded, the people were exalted, and the Reformation was
(kvored that he might obtain the mastery of tlie bishops, (a) On his expul-
non by the united power of the barons and prelates, his uncle Frederic I, of
Hobtein (1528-*88), who was connected by marriage w^ith the house of Sax-
ony, and a firm friend of tlie gospel, was raised to the throne. But in the
idpnlatioiis made before his election, he pledged himself to maintain the
privileges and rights of the bishops, and to punish those who preached
against the Grod of heaven and the holy Father by fines and bodily chastise-
ments. The Reformation continued still to spread among the people until
the king obtained a law at the Diet of Odense (1527), by which Protestants
uid Catholics were put in possession of equal civil privileges, the marriage
of priests was tolerated, and the election of bishops was rendered indepen-
dent of Rome. The bishops protested against the succession of his oldest
ion, with whom Luther was known to be on terms of intimacy. Christiern
III^ however, succeeded in gaining over to his party the lay members of the
diet, when all the bishops were suddenly attacked on the 20th Au^%, 1586,
lod their freedom was obtained only by the renunciation of their dignities.
Boenncw^ Bishop of Rocskild, alone would yield nothing to the injury of his
Church, and died the death of a martyr in prison (1544). At a diet held at
Copenhagen (Oct., 1586), from which the clergy were entirely excluded, the
political privileges of the Church were completely destroyed, and itij posses-
■^Mte were shared by the king and the nobles. Tlie king was crowned by
^genhagen^ and an ecclesiastical constitution was adopted by wliich a few
titular bishops were appointed, and the Church was made entirely dependent
•Pon the court, (h) The Form of Concord was cast into the flames by
^^trie IL (1581), (r) but during the I7th century it possessed great au-
™ority among the people. The new Church was established without oppo-
^> 'Et. K. Zeitnng. 188S. N. 5«.
^) Jhhimann, Ocach. v. Dlinncmark. vol. III. p. 850m.
^) Jiohnike^ Krunung Chr. a. a. Qomahlln durch Bag. Strala. 1885. Jf^ntetf Bymbb. ad IIL Ba-
^•■**«^i In Danla comraorationem. Hafn. 1S86.
O ^.Hab EliVDlch, de F. C. num In Danla sit combtuta? Wit 1716. 4. Gegen a. Zweifd die
urkiasi^Se: Gcrdm, H. Bed vol IIL pra«£
420 MODEBN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-lWS.
sition in Nai^ay^ not, however, until the Archbishop of Drontheim had fled
with all the ecclesiastical treasures (1537). In Iceland the Episcopal party
were destroyed while stmggling with arms in their hands (1550).
§ 360, Polajid^ Litonia^ and Koorland,
Adr. lifff^nvolBcii (W^ngiernki). Syst bl»t chron. Ecd. SlaTonlcarnm. TTltrnJ. 1652. 4 Janet
llbertt Dljtfldeutium in regno Pol. Ber. 1707. C Schlcksalo d. poL DiMld. Hmb. 176S>*. 8 vols. C.
G. T. Frifsf, Ret Gesch. v. Polilen u. Lltth. Br«I. 17S6. 8 vols. G. W. C, Lochner^ FaU et rationes
fatiiilianan clir. in Pol. qune ab Kcc. cutli. alionae fucrant, asque ad conscn^ns Sendom. temp. (Acta
Soc Jablonovianae. Li>s. 1S;J'2. Th. IV. Fsc 2.) C. V. Kra^inski, llistor. Sketch of the Ri!»e, Pro-
greflH, pnd Decline of the Ref. In Poland. Lond. 1S8>^ 2 vols. 8vo. bearb. ▼. Lindan. Lpz. 1841.— A".
/.. 7W«cA, kurl. KHbt Riga n. L. 1767s^ 8 vols. J. lukametcicM^ Gescb. d. Re£ Kirchen in Lith.
Lpz. 184S-00. i vola. 8. [Ac Account of Livonia and the Marian Ten. Ord. Lend. 1701. &]
Many persons expelled from various countries on acconnt of their religion,
found an asylum in Poland under the protection of particular nobles.
Churches had theref^e been formed which were composed of Bohemian
brethren, of the Reformed, and of Lutherans. After some warm controver-
sies these became united at the Synod of Sendomir (1570), under one gene-
ral confession, whose indefinite articles afforded room for minor differences
of opinion, (a) As the power of the waiwodes was almost unlimited in their
respective domains, the kings and bishops had very little power to inflict
•persecution. By these inferior governors a religious peace was concluded
<luring the interregnum (Pax Dissident hnn^ 1573), which had the force of a
law of the empire to secure equal privileges to Catholics and Protestants.
But as early as the time of Sigismnnd III. (after 1587), the Catholic party
had acquired much strength by means of the inducements which the king
and the Church could present to the higher nobility, while many of the Dis-
sidents had become dissatisfied with the general confession of faith, and had
renewed the former controversies in the body to w^hich they belonged.
Vladislavs IV, sought in vain to effect a general reconciliation, or at least a
mutual understanding of the contending parties, by means of a religious dis-
cussion held at Thorn (1644). (5) — ^The Grand Master of Livonia could not
refradn from following the example of Prussia, although the archbishop
arrayed himself in defence of prescriptive rights and the ancient faith.
Riga decided in favor of the Reformation (1528), and conscious of its inde-
pendence as an imperial city, it became a member of the League of Smal-
kidd (1538). Nearly all the population had embraced the cause of the
Reformation when the Grand Master, Conrad Kettler^ assumed the title of
Duke of Koorland and Semigallia (1561). That portion of Livonia, how-
ever, which was situated on the other side of th^ Dwina, and which be
could not defend against the power of Russia, was ceded to Poland on oon-
<lition that it should be permitted to profess the Augsburg Confession.
a) Conscnsns Sendomiriensls Ficf. ad Y. V0i.—Jabkm9ki^ Hist Cons. S«ndoin. B«r. 1781. 4.
b) Scripta &d«ntia ad Colloq. Thoran. Uelmst 1645. 4. Acta Conv. Thor. Yumr, 16Mw 4
CHAP. IIL EUBOPEAN BEFOBIL $861. ENGLAND. 421
«
Gbeat Bbitain and Ireland.
WUkitu, OoDC Brit yoL IIL Befl Ecc. Anglic Lond. 1C08. t—G. Burnet^ H. of tho Eef. of the
Choreh of EngL Lond. (16798s. i voIr. f ) [New York. 8 and 4 vols. 8.] E. CardtceU, Docnmentary
Anoals of th« BeC Church of Eni^L 1M6-1716. Oxf. 1S89. 2 vol.o. J. Strypf^ Ecc. Memor^ls under
Heorj VIIL, Edw. and Mary. Lond. 1721. 8 Tola. f. and Annals of the Be£ during the reign of Q.
Eliz. Lond. (1709sa.) 172&s^ 4 vols. f. H, Soames^ II. of the Kef of the Church of Kngl. Lond.
lS26eak 4 vol*. J. v. GumpacK, Go«ch. d. Trennung d. cngl. K. v. Koin. Darm5t 1S45. Weher^
(J 297.) vol. II. : Dor construct Theil d. Kef u. d. purit Sectcnbildung. 1858. {J. K. Worgan^
Specalom EecL Angllcanae, or Kef in Engl. Lond. 1$S0. Zurich Lettera, ed. by IT. Robinson^ Lond.
18ML 8. 71 ruiUr, Church Ilbt of G. B. Lon<L 1S37. 8 vols. S. C MuitUmd, Tho lUf in Engl.
Lond. 1849. a ZhtT* Church Hist of Engl, ftom 1500-1683. Lond. 1839. 6 vols. S. T. V. Short,
Hist of the Church of Engl, till 1688. Lond. 1810. S.]— PrimordU Kef Hil>emicae. {GcriUa, Mlscell
Gronlng. toL VIL P. L) R. Mfint, n. of the Church of Irel. from the Kef. to the Kevol. Lond.
1889. As a cariosity : OobbeU, II. of the Prot Kef In Engl, and Irel. Lond. 1S28. 2 vols.— />. I/unie:
Hist of Great Brit {Stuart.) Edinh. Lond. 1754m. 2 vols. 4. Hist of Engl. {Tudor.) Lond. 1759. 2
Toli. 4. and oAen. Lingard, Hist of Engl, till 16S8. Lond. 1819. 18 vols. 12.
§ 861. Estdblishment of the Anglican Church,
A party favorable to the Reformation liad been prepared in England by
the inflnence of Wycliffe, and it was now revived by the circulation of the
writings of Lather. An English translation of the New Testament by Fryth
and Tindal was printed at Antwerp (1526), and went like a Phoenix from its
uihes across the channel. Bat Henry VIIL defended tlie religion of St. Tho-
mas with his pen and his sword. Subsequently, however, his deadly love was
fixed apon Anna Boleyn, and he entertained doubts of the lawfulness of his
marriage with Catharine of Aragon, his brother's widow. Clement VIL
could not consent to annul this marriage with' the aunt of the emperor. By
the advice of Cranmer the king obtained a decision of a body of learned men,
who declared that the marriage of a brother's widow was null and void. He
then married Anna and fell under the papal ban. A Parliament, in which
lorility rather than a love of reform prevailed, sundered all connection be-
tween England and the pope, and the king, who ruled in God's stead both
in Ohurch and state, probably according to his lusts, was recognized as the
■ole head of the Charch (after 1582). An immense property belonging to the
monasteries now fell into the hands of the king, and a still greater treasure
of art and antiquity was squandered. Cranmer^ who had been exalted to tho
vchiepiscopal see of Canterbury and secretly married to a Gorman lady, now
^deavored to involve the king in the Reformation, even contrary to the royal
^^es. The superstition of the times was exposed in the most unsparing
'^^ner. Becket's sepulchre was dishonored, and the Holy Scriptures were
^^ributed among the people. The venerable bishop, John Fi«her, died in
defenee of the liberties of the Church, and the Chancellor Thomas More was
''^beaded pleading for such a reformation as no royal or popular violence
^^d effect, ancl clinging fondly to his ideal of a future commonwoaltli, in
^hich all might have room to labor equally for the common weal in a life of
*^Ppines8 conformed to natural laws, (a) But the Catholics somttinics ro-
'^^ded the king of his celebrated defence of the faith, and of the law of 1539, in
**) D« optimo reipabL statu deque nova insula Utopia 1616.— ff. 7^. jRwdA/ir/, Thomns Morns.
«6j^b. 1829. fv. J. Walter, Sir Thoa. More. Lond. 1880. [J. JUaeintoth, Life of Sir Thomas Mor«.
422 MODEBH CUUECH HISTORY. PEB. Y. A. D. 1A17-1M0L
which transnbstantiation, celibacy, masses for the dead, and aiirici]]ar
sion had been placed under the protection of the common hangman. {H
followers of Lnther and of the pope were frequently executed on th<
gibbet.^ It was not till the time of the regency daring the minority
ward VI. (after 1647), that Cranmer was able, by means of the Parli
to enter thoroughly upon the work of reform, and by calling Bucer U
bridge, to form an alliance witli the German divines. Edward, howoYC
in early youth (1558), and Mary, the daughter of Catliarine, inherit
crown. She had been educated in the Catholic Church, had cndnred
youth many sacrifices in its behalf, and now became animated with e:
enthusiasm to see it victorious. With hands full of blood and violeii
now gave back England to the pope, and Cranmer died at the stake fa
heroically than he had lived (1556). (c) In early life Mary sunk und
weight of her own melancholy and the hatred of her people (1558).
beth, the daughter of Anna, then ascended the throne. Her birt
according to the decision of the Romish Church, illegitimate, and bI
been educated in the evangelical faith of her mother, as well as in the
of misfortune. During the long, rigid, and prosperous reign (tiU 1608)
virgin queen, the Reformation was established in spite of internal and e
enemies, with a good degree of circumspection and moderation. But e^
sometimes found occasion for the axe of the executioner against Ad|
man missionaries and assassins. Many Catholic ceremonies were still n
in the book of Common Prayer. A confession of faith was formed
Edward, and afterwards reduced to 89 Articles, which was aooepte
convocation of the clergy at London (15G2), and was made by Parliam
rule of faith for all the clergy (1571). In this it is declared that the
tures contain every tiling necessary to salvation, that justification is Hi
faith alone, but that works acceptable to God are the necessary fruit
faith, that in the Lord's Supper there is a communion of the body of
which is spiritually received by faith, and predestination is apprehends
as it is a source of consolation, (d) Supreme power over the Church is
in the English crown, but it is limited by statutes. Bishops continued
the highest ecclesiastical officers, and the first barons of the realm. Wl
was done by the kings of England against the papacy and in behalf
Reformation, was enforced also as the law for Ireland. But the Irish
nately resisted every effort of their tyrannical oppressors to compel tl
embrace the new faith. The English, however, proved from the Old
ment that as a conquered territory Ireland belonged to them as Canaa
belonged to the Israelites. The free and common territory of the ooa
ated and kindred tribes was converted into royal fiefs, and when the pr
chie& were goaded on by continual oppressions to rise in rebellion, thai
were given to Englishmen, until the native inhabitants were almost
b) in/I-in«, ToL HI. p. 84891
c) Sirype, Tb. Cr. Lond. (1091.) 1711. t GUpin, Th. Cr. Lond. 1781 BammL
beecbrr. a. d. brit BSogr. UaL UMaiL vol II. //. J. Todd, Life of Cr. Load. 1881. [Ut« c
C IT. X«5<i<, dE Mra, Lee St Yind. of Cr. bj Todd.}
d) Niemeyer, CoL p. 601aBi.
CHAP. IIL EU£OP£AN BEFOSMATION. $ 862. PURITANS. 423
pletelj deetitute of property. The entire revenues and property of the Church
were gradually taken ixossession of hy a forei^ Protestant hierarchy, by the
ude of which the Irish were obliged to sustain their own bishops and pastors
from their own scanty resources.
§ 862. Origin of the Puritans and Independents.
{Bradthaio.) The English Parltane. Lond. 1605. Lat: Puiitanlsraiu ftngl. FrcC 1610. 2>. Xeal^ U. of
the ParltaM. Lond. (ITSlss. 4 voK) 1798-7. 1822. 5 vols. [With notes by J. 0. ChouUi. New York. 1844.
8 rote. 8.] «/. B. Miirtdeit^ Hist of the early Puritans (I ill 1642.) Lond. 1S50. [ /f. //. StoweU & D. WUmm^
IL of the PuriUns in Engl &. of the Pilg. Fathers. Lond. 1S26. 12. R Brooks, Lives of the Puritans.
Lond. 1813. 8 vols. S.]—RobinMn, ApoL pro exullbns Anglis, qui Brownlstae appellantar. Lupd. 1619.
4 C. Walker^ II. of Lidependency. Lond. (1648s8.) 1661. 8 toK 4. & Hanhury, \\\t,t Memorials,
relating to tho Independents or Congrcgationalists. Lond 1389. 8 vols. [Bogue &, Bennett^ Hist of tho
DiMentera Lond. 1808-12. 4 vols. 8.]— W. ChUbut, die Dissenters. (Zcitsch. £ hist Tb. 1S4& H. 1.)
A party consisting principally of those strict Oalvinists who had suffered
persecution under the reign of Mary, and now had returned as confessors, took
ofTence at the dei)endence of the Church upon the state, at the high preroga-
tives of the bishops, and at the splendid ritual of worship, whose indifferent
forms not being expressly authorized by Scripture, were looked upon as rem-
nants of Antichrist. These Puritans demanded a Presbyterian form of
Chnroh government, a simple spiritual form of worship, and a strict disci-
pline. Elizabeth endeavored to overcome their opposition, but this was found
rather to increase with their Sabbatical festivals on Sunday, and their Calvin-
istic doctrine of predestination. By the Act of Uniformity (1559) all Non-
conformists were threatened with fines and imprisonment, and their ministers
with deposition and banishment. But those ministers who had resigned their
congregations, or been deposed, established new congregations in connection
with Presbyteries (after 1572), and the most vigorous portion of the estab-
lished Church itself exhibited an inclination toward Puritanism. A separa-
tion from a church which was regarded as a persecutor of Christians was now
effected on conscientious principles by Robert Brown (after 1580), and after
his return by John Robinson (after 1610), who preached that according to
apostolic example every congregation should bo an independent church, that
every man was justified in worshipping God according to his own conscience,
and that ministers were dependent only on their congregations. These Inde-
pendents^ when they were compelled to leave their own country formed con-
gregations in the Netherhmds and in America, but they were still firmly
rooted in England, where the Puritans under continual persecuticins became
daily more violent and gloomy, and gradually a dangerous and powerful party.
In their morals and manners they were eminently pious, they looked upon all
earthly pleasures as sinful, their own fancies were regarded as divine inspira-
tions, and they tliought that the state itself should be subject to their demo-
cratic hierarchy.
424 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1617-1M&
863. Scotland,
J. Knox, H. of the Rcf. of Scot!, (till 1567.) Lond. 1664. f. & often. D. CuJdfrttood, H. of Um
Kirk of Sc. Lond. 1673. £ Edinb. 1845. 7 vols. GU. Stttart, H. of the Kef In 9c Lond. 17S0. G. Cboft;
H. of the Church of Sa tfom the Kef. £<1inb. 1815. 8 vols. A". //. Siieir, d. K. r. Sch. Heldlb. ISiL
2 Abth. A'. G. V. Rudloff, Oesch. d. Ref In Sch. Brl. 1S47-9. 2 voU [J. Skinner, Eorl. Illst. of Sc
Ltmd 1S18. 2 vol*, a AnalecU Scotia, lllustr. the civil, eocl. * lit 11. of 9c Ed. 1S3M-7. 2 vols. 8.
IT. Jf. IlttheHngton, H. of the Charch of Sc till 1843. 4 eil. Edinb. 1851 a 8 ed. New Y(»rk. 1844. 8]
—RobertJton, II. of Sc E<llnb. 1759. 2 vols. 4 &, often. [New Yi»rk. 18:J6. a P. F. TytUr, II. of Sc
Lond. 1842-44. 9 vols, a dc 1845. 7 vols, a Sir W. Scoti, \l. of Sc new ed. Lond. 1S37 2 vi4s. 12]
The first martyr for the Reformation in Scotland (1528) was Patrick
Hamilton^ a youth belonging to the royal family, bnt favorable to the Refor-
mation in conseqaenco of his studies in Grermany. Cardinal Bfatoun continued
to bum persons at the stake until a martyr predicted from the midst of the
flames his own violent death (1546). Such martyrdoms were the most im-
pressive kind of preaching for a rude and sensuous, but true-hearted people.
Under the unsettled regency which bore sway during the minority of Queen
Mary Stuart the reform party had opportunity to gain strength. The leader
and the impetuous but eloquent preacher of this party was John Knox'
(d. 1572), whose vigor hud been acquired amid the flames of persecution and
the toils of the galleys, and who had learned to despise the terrors as well as
the pleasures of the world, (a) After the marriage of Mary with the Dau-
phin of France the regency attempted, with the aid of French troops to over-
throw the Reformation, and to enforce the hereditary claims of the queen
upon the English crown. The Reformed party then collected together and
formed themselves into a Congregation of Christ at Edinburgh (1557), and
with Elizabeth's assistance obtained an act of Parliament (1560) by which the
people received a Calvinistic Reformation, (h) and the nobles the greater part
of the property of the Church. But in the season of its triumph Protestant-
ism sought to persecute its enemies ; it sometimes cost a person his property,
and even his life, to attend a mass, and a pious vandalism wreaked its tarj
upon the monuments of the Church. After the death of her husband Mary
returned to her own hereditary dominions (1561). The frivolous manners of
this beautiful queen's court were an abomination to the stern Calvinists, and
Knox went to meet her as the ancient prophet did the idolatrous queen, and
remained unmoved by her tears. Finally she awoke the flames of civil war,
not so much by her secret machinations against the Reformation as by her
criminal passions. Failing to accomplish her purposes by such means she
now cast herself into the fatal arin.<» of Elizabeth, (c) The crown was placed
upon the head of her son, James VL (1567), the leaders of the Reformation
were made regents during his minority, and a Presbyterian form of eoclesiaa-
tical government was every where adopted (1592).
a) Smetoniug, Vita Kn. Edinb. 1579. 4. Th. McCrU. Life of J. Kn. Etilnbb ISll. 9 toIs. A «tA(&
[ancinnatl. (In Galv. Lib. vol. III.) IS&S. a] Irn Aqbz. ▼. Planck^ Gott 1817. G. W0b4r,J. Kn. a.
(L schoti K. (Stud. a. Krit 1S42. U. 4.)
b) Cont Scoticana I. in NietMyer p. Lis. 840sa. 4e First Book of DiBclpline.
c) F. V. Rnnmer, Elizabeth n. Maria Staart Lpfl. 1886. {IT. G. BtU, Life of Marf, Qaaca ef
Scota. Lond. 1S40. 8 cd. a P. F. TytUr, Inquiry into tbe Evidence, dso. Lond. 1790. 9 volflL WkUm-
ker't Vind. Je MIm Btng«r't Life.]
CUAP. nL EUBOPEAN BEFOBlf. $ 861 JAMES I. CHABLE9 L 425
§ 864. Great Britain tinder the Stuarta.
KuAteorth^ Hist Collections. 1618-44. Lon>]. 1782. 6 vols, ffarria, IT. of James I. I/)nd. 1754 4.
■ad n. of Charles L Lond. 1758. 4. GuUot, II. de lardvol. d'Angletorre. [UUt. of the Eniz. Rev. of
1640, ttom the Fr. of Onlzot Lond. 1845. &] Par. 1886 3 ed. 1841. 2 vols. Sc Collection des MemoiroA
nlatift k la Bev. Par. 1828. 8 vols. Maca^tlttif^ II. of Engl vol. I. cap. 1. [</. // .Apaa^ Court of Engl
under tbe Staarta. Lend. 1846. 4 vols. 8. R, VaugKan^ \L of Engl under the Stuarts &. Common-
wealth. 1608-88. Lond. 1840. 9 vols.]
Mary's son was also Elizabeth's heir, James I. of England. Utterly disap-
pointing the hopes he had raised among the Presbyterians, he appointed bish-
ops as the instrnments of an arbitrary monarchy in Scotland, was increasingly
bitter even to the last toward the rude strictness of the Pnritans, but was mild
in his opposition to the Oatholics, in proportion as they swore that the pope
had no power to depose princes, nor absolve subjects from their allegiance.
The discovery of a plot formed by some Oatholics for blowing up the Parlia-
ment (1606?, filled the peoi)le with consternation and hatred. Charles I, in-
herited his father's inclinations and aversions. The opposition of the Puritans
which had already been increased by persecution, and been directed to the
inferior regard sliown in the Old Testament to worldly monarchy, was aroused
to the highest extreme by prelatical sermons upon the superiority of a mon-
arch to all laws, and upon the duty of unconditional submission to his au-
thority. The king made an effort to govern without his Parliament, married
a Catholic princess, who imagined herself a modem Esther, and gave to the
Scottish Church a liturgy which the people abhorred as they would have done
a service to Baal. The Scots now formed a league in behalf of the true re-
ligion and the freedom of the kingdom (Covenant, 1688). The king was
oUiged to convene the Parliament (1640) to obtain money for the war against
them, but the representatives of an enraged people, exasperated by still fur-
ther thoughtless opposition, impeached the royal counsellors, entered into the
Solemn Leagne of the Scots, and when threatened by the king raised an
army, which, in spite of many defeats, soon became irresistible in consequence
of its religious enthusiasm and moral discipline. The Irish Catholics, relying
npoQ the repated inclinations of the king, made preparations for a general mas-
MUJre of the Protestants among them (1641). The Puritans, with their Old
Testament style of preaching, maintained their ascendency in Parliament,
^hile the Independents were most numerous in the army, but both were
•peed in their opposition to all papal abominations, and in their derivation
^ all power from God and his people. A select number of pious and intel-
ligent clergymen were assembled by the Parliament to consult with a smaller
nmnher from its own body with respect to a new ecclesiastical organization.
This Watminster Synod (1 648-49) in connection with a few commissioners
"^^ the Scottish Church, after long debates between Presbyterians, Inde-
P*^ta, and those who would have the Church governed by the civil pow-
^ (Erastians), finally adopted a Puritanic order of worship, a Presbyterian
*Mrm of Church government, and a Calvinistic Confession of Faith with two
^^•^^hisms. The seats of the bishops in the House of Lords had been va-
^ted, and their office was now abolished, the revenues of the Church prop-
^^ Were consumed in these difficult times, principally for political purposes,
*Ba with a few alterations in favor of the civil powers the acts of the Synod
426 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1M7-1648.
were proclaimed as laws. Only in the Scottish Charch, however, have the
TVestniinster Standards been thoroughly received, for in England their enforce-
ment was opposed by the growing ascendency of the array, (a) Archbishop
Laud, who had refused all connection with the pope as long as Rome re-
mained as it was, but who had been unable to recognize him as Antichrist,
now ascended the scafibld (1645), and was soon followed by his sovereign,
with a fortitude and divine resignation which has since given him the name
of a martyr king (Jan. 30, 1649). Cromwell^ an Independent, though as a
ruler favorable to a Presbyterian constitution, in the mean time obtained the
mastery of the revolution which had borne him into power, and gradually
advanced from the fanaticism of faith and freedom to the cunning selfishness
of a tyrant, (b)
Fejlsce,
h (Serrannfl) Cmmtr. de stata reL et reip. in r^rno OaL Gen. 1570-80. 5 toIs. {Bc»a) H. ece. das
^'g1. Tvf. 1521-63. Antv. I5S0. 3 vol.s Reynier d« la PlancK*^ II. do I'^Ut de France, aous Fran^, IL
pobl. p. Jfennech^t, Par. 1S36. 2 voK DaviUi, 11. delle guerro civ. di Franda. 1559 -9S. Ven. l(aw.4.
& often. (BenoM) II. de Tddit. de Nantes. Delft. 1698a. 5 voK 4. De Thou (|>. 853).— Recuell de
Lettree niltoives de Henri IV., pnblle par Berger de Xivrey, vol. I. (1568-S4.) Par. 1*48. {G. F. A
Jam*9^ Life of Henry IV. Lond. 1847. 8 vols. 8. Jjord Mnhon^ Life of Louis Pr. of CcHtde, New
York. 1348. 12. Anon, Life of L<»uis of Bourbon, Pr. of Conde, from Uie French. Lond. 1693. 2 T<rfa.
8. Maimbourg, W. of the League, from the Fr. by Dryden, Lond. 16S4. 8. Ranke^ Givll wan and
Monarchy in France in the 16th Jc 17Ui centt Lond. 1852. 2 vols. 8. M, dietelnaii^ Mom. of Fran*
cU) n. &, Charles IX. from the Fr. Lond. 1724 f. R. de BduUU^ A. des Dues de Guise, Par. 1SI0. S
voU 8. Blackwood's Mag. Apr. 1350. (Eclcc Mag. Dec. 1850.) ]
II. Lacretfll^, H. de France, pendant les guerrea de rel. Par. ISlS&s. 4 vols. A. L. ITerrmaw^
Fr. Rel. n Burgerktiegc im 16 Jahrh. LpA. 1828. Browning^ IL of the Hogaenots. LomL 1889. S roliw
Captfigne^ II. de la Ref. do la ligue ct da rugne de Henri IV. Par. ISSls. 8 vob. L. Ranhf^ fnmL,
Oefl^h. im 16. u. 17. Jhh. Stuttg. 1352. vol. L \^Mr%. Miirnhy II. of the Prol. Ref in France, Pbllad.
1851. 2 vols. 12. £. Sm^lley, H. of the Ref in France, New York. 8 vols. 12. (7A. WrU». IL of the
Prot Ref in France. Lond. 1854. 2 vols. 12. A with an Append, by // W. Herbert, New York. 1854.
2 vola. 12. O. de Felice, YL of the Protestants of France, fh>m the Fr. Load. 1853. 9 vola. a]
§ 865. Night of St. Bartholomew.
The rise and fall of the sects in the Southern provinces, a liberal adniim»-
tration of ecclesiastical laws, and an extensive cultivation of polite literature,
had prepared the way for the entrance of Protestantism into France. The
hearts of the first converts to it wore gained by Luther^s writings, bnt the first
churches in France were established by her own sons, Calvin and Beza. The
appropriate business of the Sorbonne was not neglected, and Luther's seditions
writings were condemned in due season, (a) Francis I. sometimes thought
of effecting a peaceable reformation, and even invited Melanothon to come
to him for that purpose. But the policy of the French court at that period
a) Puritanorum Libri Symb. ed. Nicmeyer. Lps. 1840. Sack. (p. 434) voL II. p. tflasL X O. fu
Budlof, d. Westminster Syn. (Zeitacb. t hist Th. 1850. IL 2.) [ W. M. I/eiheHngUm^ HIat ct
Westm. Aw«em. New York. 1848. 12.]
h) OUrer Cromwell's Life, Letters Sc Speeches, by 71 Carlyle, Lond. 1845. % vola. [J, H.
rtAxOtigni, The Protector, a Vindication, New York. 184a 12. HarrU, Life of O. a Lond. 1T«4 »
J. T. madley. Life of O. C. Now York, 184a 12.]— FMiwrniin, Gesch. Cromw. A. d. Fr. r. Biriy
Lpa. 18S0.
o) Determin. Tlieol Fac Paris, super doctr. Lath. d. 15. Apr. 1521. \Q0rde%^ H. B«f. Monamm.
Y lOsa ] MeUincth, ApoL adv. AiriM Paris theologaatror. dMr. Vit 1081.
CHAP. III. EUROPEAN SEFOBM. $ 866. FRANCE. BEZA. 427
indaced it to favor the Protestants in Germany, and to burn them, especially
the Waldenscs, in great numbers (1545) in France. (() Besides, although
Melancthon freely consented to the king's proposal, Luther was suspicious of
it, and would have nothing to do with a reformation in which the spirit of
Erasmus, and not a love of the gospel prevailed, (c) The French court was
also influenced, not merely by its zeal for religion, but by its political fears
and hatred of a sect which denounced as capital offences crimes nnblushingly
practised in the royal paliice. But in spite of persecutions, sometimes proba-
My produced by enthusiastic violations of Catholic feelings, the Huguenots
increased, especially in the south, and united themselves together at a Gene-
ral Synod in Paris (1559). The Ccmtession of Faith which they there adopted
was Calvinistic, and their ecclesiastical constitution was representative, com-
bining independent congregations and a united general Church, (d) Many of
the nobility of the kingdom, the Bourbons, with the title of King of Xavarre,
and the noble Chatillons, ranged themselves at the head of this party, and its
political power became formidable. During the reigns of two successive
kings, whose intellectual inferiority rendered a regency always indispensable
(after 1559), their mother, Catharine de Medki^ held the actual reins of au-
thority, while the Dukes of Guise supported by the Catholics, and the princes
of Bourbon by the Huguenots, contended for the regency. In the strife of
these leaders the queen-mother found the necessary condition of her supre-
macy. At the religious conference of Poiasy (1561), in the presence of the
assemblecl court, Beza succeeded in truly and brilliantly defending the new
feith against the whole prelatic strength of France. («) In the edict of Janu-
ary (1562) the Huguenots obtained the right to hold public worship any where
except in the principal cities. (/) But this privilege was regarded as an
abomination by the city of Paris and the Catholic population generally, and
was derided with sanguinary violence by the Duke of Guise. During the
same year, therefore, hostilities were commenced with all the aggravations of
a civil and religious war, and were three times renewed after as many treaties
of peace. The Catholic governmental party were assisted by Spanish and papal
troops, and the Reformed by English gold and German blood, (jg) Finally, at
the peace of St, Germain (1570) the Huguenots were guaranteed the posses-
sion of freedom of conscience, a degree of publicity in religious worship, equal
political privileges, and a few fortified towns as securities for the future. In
token of a complete reconciliation the king's sister was given in marriage to
Eenry of Kavarre. All the Protestant leaders were invited to Paris to cele-
brate the nuptials. There, on the night of St. Bartholomew, 1572, the queen-
mother gave the signal for a massacre which had long been the subject of
conversation, but was then resolved upon under the impulse of the moment.
During this fatal night twenty thousand Huguenots, with the brave General
V) Corp, Rff Tol IL p. 741. 8M. 879. 904u. Sirobel MeL Raf nach Frankr. N&rnb. 17M. a
BAmidt, d. UniuDS-Vormcbe Franz I. (Zelt^€h. C hisL Tb. IS^a H. I.)
c) EL de la porvcuUon et saccagement du peuple de M^rindol et de Cabri^rea et autres drooii-
toUns appeloa VaudolSb 1506. BeMa, I, SSas.
d) Number, CoL p. 811m. e) Baum, Beza vol IL p. liSaa.
/) B^om vol. I. : Recaell d^dits pw Iss.
g) r, W. BtiriKold, DeataoliL a. d. Hiigen. IMS. toL L
428 MODERN CHUSCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1517-ie4&
Coligny were murdered, presenting a horrid earnest of the future revolution.
A Te Deum was sung at Rome by the order of Gregory XIII. in honor of
this extermination of Chrlst^s enemies. (A)
§ 860. Edict of Nantes,
Those wlio had escaped the massacre now armed themselves for vengeance
with the courage of despair, and once more conquered from their enemies a
recognition of their rights (1576). Henry of Navarre, who had been spared,
and compelled to deny his faith, assumed the position which naturally be-
longed to him, and became the leader of the Huguenots. But the Guises, in
alliance with Philip II., now formed a Holy League^ in which a majority of
the nobles and people swore that they would extenninatc the heretics.
Chnrles IX. died under the torture of terrible dreams (1574). Henry III, was
compelled to violate the treaty of peace, but finally, disgusted with the tyranny
of the Holy League, he had Henry ^ Duke of Guise, the Gideon of Catholic
France, assassinated, and the Cardinal of Guise executed, fled before the fury
of the Catholic populace to the camp of the King of Navarre, was excom-
municated by the pope, and was at last assassinated by the Dominican, Clem-
ent (1589). By this death of the last of the house of Valois the throne de-
scended by inheritance to Henry of Navarre, whose title had been declared
invalid by the pope and the league. After many severe struggles to gain pos-
session of his royal rights, and finding that he could never hope to give peace
to his subjects so long as the greater portion of them regarded him as a here-
tic, Henry IV, concluded that France was worth the offering of a mass (1598).
As soon, however, as his kingdom became settled, he secured to bis real com-
panions in faith by the irrevocable Edict of Nantes (1598) freedom of reli-
gious faith, the public worship of God with only a few trifling restrictions, all
their rights as citizens, and great privileges as an organized politiciil corpora-
tion, (a) They were indeed to pay tithes to the established Church, but were
to be free from all kinds of episcopal jurisdiction. Although these conces-
sions did not completely satisfy even the Huguenots, it required the whole
royal power to enforce compliance with the edict among the magistrates, and
in the provinces opposed to it. But just as France had begun to enjoy the
highest prosperity under his administration, just as he was about to execute
the most enlightened schemes for the permanent pacification of Europe,
Henry fell beneath the dagger of Ravaillac (May 14, 1610). The peaceftil
sons of the old Huguenot heroes were finally driven to insurrection by a
series of violations of their rights, and Cardinal Richelieu by the power of
his intellect overthrew all opposition, and disarmed them as a political party.
At the same time, by an act of amnesty at Nismes (1629), he secured to them
all those ecclesiastical rights which had been guaranteed in the Edict of
Nantes; but by various persecutions and frequent apostasies the reformed
h) Attdin, H. de Ift 8. Barth^leroy. Par. 1S2S. WaohUr, d. BInthoohzelt Lps. (1326^) 1
Against Capengue: R(inJc«: hist poIlL Zeitsch. 1885. vol. II. St 8. 4e Franz. Oesch. vol L p.
W. G. Sot^an, Franlcr. u. d. BarUiuloinausnactit (Raumer's hist Tasoheub. 18M.)
a) BenoUty Monn. p. 62s&
CHAP. IIL EUBOPEAN BKFORM. $ 867. 8PANIABD9. ITALIANS. 429
Church was reduced to not more than half the strength which it possessed
before the night of St. Bartholomew, (b)
§ 3G7. Spain and Italy,
U. Gedde$, Martjrologiam eor. qni In Ui«p. etc {Jfonh^m. Dss. ad U. ceo. Alt 1783. p. 668.)
B. CimMlri, Relat de niartt Prt»L In IIJsp. {GerdM^ Serin, vol. IV. P. II.) JPCrie, II. of the pro-
greM & »appreMlon of tbo Eeform. In Spain. Edinb. 1829. Adol/o de Castro, II. de los Protev
tantes E»panolos. Cadiz. 1S51. [The Spanish Protestanta and their iiersecntion under Piiilip II., frum
the Spani&h of De Catiro, by T. Parker. Lond. 1S52. a H. Watson, Philip IL of Spain. New Yorlj.
1S18. $ y-Gtrdetii, Spec Ital. refurmatae. L. B. 1765. 4 Ji^Crte, II. of the progresH & auppr. of tlie
Uet in luly. Edlnb. 1327. C\ F. Leopold^ u. d. Uraaclien d. Rcll u. dercn Yerfall in Ital. (Zeitsch.
£ hbL Th. 1S43. II. 2.)
In the train of the emperor the seeds of the Reformation were conveyed
to Spain, where they were cherished perhaps even by some who surrounded
his dying bed, (a) and certainly were received with the highest enthusiasm, in
some instances from a patriotic resistance to the iuquisition, but in others
from a profound religious feeling, which found satisfaction in the reformed
doctrine of justification. But Catholicism, especially the worship of the
saints, is deeply rooted in the obstinate spirit of the Spanish people. Purity
of faith is as highly valued by a Spaniard as purity of blood, and he would
not scruple to imbrne his hands in the blood of a brother who had apostatized
from the faith, (ft) Martyrdom therefore had no terrors, and when Philip
had exhausted the immense resources of his empire in endeavoring to put down
the religious revolution among other nations, the inquisition ettectually silenced
the arguments of Protestantism by throwing into prison and there putting to
death all persons suspected of heresy, or by the popular pageantry of an anto
da fe. In Italy ^ the contempt into which the clergy had fallen, and the ex-
chisive engagement of worldly men in the studies of polite literature, had
prodaced a spirit which hailed the movement in Germany with great joy. By
means of literary societies of Protestants connected with the foreign armies
in their midst, and of translations of the writings of the Reformers generally
nnder assumed names, individual friends or congregations were gained in
nearly all the principal towns, and especially in Ferrara, under the protection
of the heroic Duchess of Este, a daughter of the King of France. (<•) Oppor-
tunities, however, were found for the indulgence of evangelical /tef/zV/^* in the
Old Church, (d) or they were divided among themselves by controversies re-
specting the Lord's Supper, and by the conduct of those who were hostile to
an ecclesiastical systems, and therefore wished to destroy or at least encroach
upon that portion of the Catholic faith which was retained by the reformers.
Moreover none but the middle classes in Italy were ever sincerely devoted to
the cause of liberty, and the spirituality of the German and French Protes-
tants could never be very popular among a people so fond of those arts which
&) Tsschirn^r, de caosls Impeditio in Francogal. sacromm pabL emendation is. (0pp. Lpa. 1S39
p. 818.)
[a) Wm. Stirling, Cloister life of Charles V. Lond. 1852. 8.]
h) Claude SenarcU, Ilist vera de morte Jo. DioziL IIM. {Oerdesii Serin. anUqoar. vol. VIII.
P. 1.) Corp. Ret roL VL p. 113s.
c) KHlstor. Archlr. 1824. P. 4. p. Is. R Munch, K. v Este. Aach. ISSlss. 2 vols.
d) Del beneflclo di Crlsto about IMO. <fe often. liiederer, Nachrr. toL IV. p. 121. 28988.
430 MODERN CIIUBCn HI3T0BT. FEB. Y. A. D. 1017-1U&
are addressed exclasively to the outward sense. When therefore the danger
was perceived at Rome, and an inquisitorial tribunal with formidable powers
was ai)pointed there (1642), many fled beyond the Alps, and others recanted
and relapsed into thoughtle&sness, indifference, or even insanity, (e) Dreading
the eloquence of martyrdom, the inquisition strnck terror into the hearts of
the peoi)le rather by imprisonment, by consignment to the galleys, and by
secret executions. It was only in Calabria that the members of a few chorches
of the Waldenses were hnnted to death like wild beasts (1560). Near the end
of the sixteenth century all vestiges of Protestant communities in Italy were
completely obliterated. Among those who fled to foreign countries were some
highly honored divines and prelates, who, with few exceptions, spent their
lives in great unhappiness. (/)
CHAP. IV.— FANATICS AND ULTRAISTS OF THE REFORMATION.
Schlwttflhurg ([>. 401) JZ W. Erhkam^ Oc9ch. d. prot Sektc^n im Zeita. d. Re£ Ilainbc 1S4SL—
ITagen (p. 800.) vol III.
§ 868. General Relations of the Reformation,
While some who anticipated and co-operated in effecting the Reformation
finally shrunk from its results, in the midst of the general commotions whidi
tlien took place, and the liberty which all enjoyed, many individuals of differ-
ent dispositions wished to share in the privileges of the new Church who
exceeded either the true limits of Protestantism, or at least those which the
popuhir mind could then tolerate. These extreme characters the reformed
churches with one common spirit violently rejected. What Calvin sanctioned
by a dark deed, Melancthon praised, {a) Luther remarked that the most
deadly acts of the inquisition might thus be justifled, and that after all, the
hangmen were the most learned doctors, (b) In this way the maxim was
gradually formed, that errorists should be silenced, and that obstinate here-
tics should not indeed be put to death, but confined, and sent out of the conn*
try. Philip alone, among the princes, was disposed to recognize the right of
all men to liberty of conscience, and that persons of another £Edth may poe-
sess the essentials of true piety, (c)
0) C. L. Roth, Fr. Spleras Lebonsende, N&rnb. 1829.
/) R g. Schlosser (pi 402. nt. L) C. Schmidt, Vie de Tterre Martyr YermfglL Strub. 188& 4. JF.
Meyer, dlo ov. Gcineinde in Locarno, ihre Aaswand. naeh ZQrich il weltere Schlckai Zar. ISSte. f Toh.
a) Otlrlni Defenslo orth. fldel c ermres Sernetl, nbl ostonditar, haeretfoosjare giadll eoeromdai
08«e. 8.L15M. cTorp. i?**/ vol. Yin. p. 362. [.SSM/5f n^, Illst of the Cbnrch, vol IL p. 128L Spirit
of the ^i1srrim^ vol. HI. p. 615. Bib. Repertory, vol. YIIL p. 8L Bma, Life of Oalv. ed. by Sibtcm^
note 0. Henry, Life of C. vol. IL p. 219.]
h) De VTetU vol. II. p. 622. Walch vol. lY. ^ 759. X. 874. XY. 1686. XYL 61. Yet Me /^
Wette vol. IIL p. 498. Y. 99. Walch vol XIII. p. 442a.
e) Brief an Job. Fricdrich d. Mittlorn t. 7. Man. 1559. {^Salig. toL IIL p. 486as.
Beitrr. vol. XI. p. 80488.
CHAP. lY. ULTBAI8TS. 1 889. ANABAPTISTS. 431
§ 869. Anabaptists as Fanatics,
L Jtuiu» Meniut: d. Wiedertenffer Lere vnd gehcimn. a. 11. S. widorlegt M. Vorr. Luth. Witt.
1980. «nd Von d- Qelst d. WT. Witt. 1644. 4. // BiMlnger, d. \VT. vrsprnng, fQrpang, Sccten. ZQr.
1560; 4.'Newe Zeltung: r. d. WT. za MaoBStir. (MltLuth. Voir. a. Melmncbtb. Propositionea.) NQrnb.
ld8S. 4L Onto d. WT. za M. 1A85. 4. IT. Dorpiuit^ warbafftigt) bist wle das Er. zu M. angefangcn
Tod darch d. WT. vent^ret wider nnfrgelidrt bat (Witt) l&He. 4 Magdeb. 1S47. //. a Kerssen-
hroiek^ anabcpt faroris hist norratlo. 1564-78. (defective : Mencken^ Scrr- Germ, vol IIL a poor
tnna. : Oeaoh d. WT. za M. 1771. 4)
IL B: J. If. OWf^ Ann. anabaptiaticL Baa. 1672. 4. N. Krohn, WT. Tom. In Niederdeutach. (Hof-
mannlaner.) Lps^ 1758. V. A. WinUr^ Oescb. d. baL WT. MQnch. 1809. //. Jochmus, Oescb. d.
KReform za BL a. IbrM Unterganges darch d. WT. MQnst 182S. «/. Hast, Gescb. d. WT.
M&nst lS88w C. A. Oom^ius^ de fontib. qnibas in Ubt aeditionia Mon. Tiri ducti osi aant Mon.
185a K. Hiue^ d. Belch d. WT. (Nene Propbeten.)
While the Reformers justified their opposition to the papacy by appealing
to the Scriptures, or to clear and manifest reasons, it was not surprising that
others, on the contrary, decidedly arrogated to themselves as individnab
what the Chnrch claimed for herself in general, and that fanatical persons
mistook their own passionate impulses for divine inspirations. Their r^ec-
tion of infant baptism, in consistency with the Protestant doctrine of faith,
and on account of its want of Scriptural authority, together with their con-
sequent repetition of the baptism of adult believers, became the distinctive
badge of their party. These Anabaptists, who made their first appearance at
Zwichan and Wittenberg (1521), were nearly all put to death in the Peasants'
war, bat in almost every part of the country, a class of enthusiasts resem-
Uing them, bat very unlike each other in moral and religious character, be-
came the pioneers and freebooters of the Reformation. Some of them were
persons who had renounced the world, and others were the slaves of their
own lusts ; to some of them marriage was only an ideal religious communion
of spirit, to others it was resolved into a general community of wives ; some
did not differ from the reformers with respect to doctrine, but others rejected
original sin and the natural bondage of the will, denied that wo are to be
JQstified by the merits of Christ alone, or that we can partake of his flesh,
and maintained that our Lord^s body was from heaven, and not begotten by
the virgin. As they acknowledged no call but that which came directly
from God within them, they despised the ministerial ofiSce in the Church,
<nd though they denounced all historical records, they justified themselves by
isolated passages of the Bible for overthrowing all existing relations in social
fife. In their assumed character of men moved by the Holy Ghost, they
Were of course exalted above all law, and frequently exhibited a spirit of
rebellion against every kind of government. Hence, among both Catholics
ttid Protestants it was thought right to punish them even with death. In
funster ^ where the Reformation and civic liberty had obtained the ascend-
•Qcj by rather violent measures (1532), some Anabaptista from the Nether-
*'*d8 having driven out all who opposed them, formed a theocratic Democra-
cy (Feb., 1584), which was to be the commencement of Christ's promised
^*^gdom on earth. Matthiesen was regarded by them as the prophet Enoch,
•'^^ after his heroic death, Bockelson was received by them as the king of the
^orld. Prophets were sent abroad in every direction, a kind of community
^ goods and polygamy were introduced among them, and the most san-
432 MODEKN CUUBGU HISTORY. PSK. Y. A. D. 1517-1M8.
guinary proceedings were enacted under a pretended divine inspiration, until,
after a courageous defence, Munster was conquered by the neighboring
princes (June 24th, 1525). Their disorderly conduct was then arrested by
the sword, and the authority of the hierarchy and of the nobility was re-
established.
§ 370. The Anabaptists as an Orderly Community, Collegiantg,
Menno Sim. Fandamentum, together with some other unimportant imall works. 1575. 0pp.
AmKt. 164(1 Conip. Arcbiv. f. KOoKtu ISIl. vol II. R K. Hoosfn^ Menno S. Lpa. 1348. J. C
Jfhrintj, ^undl. II. v. den Tau^e& b. 1615.) from the Dutch by K ran Gent.) Jena. 17iO. — U.
S<'fif/fi. II. Christianorum, qui Mcnnonitae apiiellantur. Amst 1723. and H. Menn. plenior dednctia
lb. 1729. (r. L. r. IleihStcitz and F. Wtidtt'ck', Beitrr. z. Konntn. d. Unfges. Gemeinden. Brsl 1921m.
2 vols. A. Ilttruinger, das IIcl K. u. Solmlwoscu d. Menn. Speyer. 1S8I. — J. Wiggem^ d. Taafge&
In d. Pfnli. (Zeltech. f. hist Th. IjttS. II. S.—Ilu^s, gegcnw. Zast d. Menn. u. Colleg. Jen. 1748. Ar-
chir. t KG. 1S14. yoL I. Part a
The misfortunes and extravagances of the Anabaptists of Munster com-
pelled those who survived either partially to distrust their claims to infiiUibil-
ity and their hopes of a secular kingdom, or to throw themselves upon the ex-
pectation of an advent of Christ in the future. These scattered, divided and
dispirited commimities were collected into small congregations in various
parts of the Netherlands and on the German sea-coasts, by the pious dili-
gence of Menno ^imon^ who had formerly been a priest (d. 1501). Under
the name of Assemblies of the Saints, they adopted a rigid discij)line, re-
jected all oaths, war, lawsuits, and divorce except for adultery, and prac-
tised the washing of feet as a sacred ordinance ; and though they obeyed
the authorities, they contended that it did not become a successor of Christ
to exercise worldly jurisdiction. Public toleration was conceded to them in
the Netherlands when the liberty of those provinces was obtained, and grad-
ually it was allowed them in England and Germany. But even during
Menno's life they became divided on the subject of the rigidity of excommu-
nication into the Pure and the Gross, or on the doctrine of election into
Calvinists and Arminians. With the latter class the CoUegiants became
united more particularly in Khynsburg. This sect sprung up about 1620,
when the Arminian clergy were excommunicated, and three brothers of the
name of Kodde^ ruling elders of more than ordinary proficiency in the Scrip-
tures, collected such as were of the same faith with themselves into assem-
blies for prayer (Collegia). They rejected all ecclesiastical offices for religions
instruction, and demanded a severity of morals such as prevailed in the
primitive Church, but they were almost indifferent with respect to ecclesias-
tical articles of faith. Hence persons of very different sentiments were to be
found among them, but tlie association by which their congregations were
united was not dissolved until some time in the nineteenth century.
§ 871. Antitrinitarians.
Ch. Sand, Bibl. Antitrr. Freist (Amst) 1631 F. & Book, Hist Antltrr. Sodnlanor. Lpt. cti
glom. 1774s8w 2 vol.\ F. Trtchael, M. Servet u. a. Yorgfinger. Ueldolb. 1889.
The fellowship of the Reformers with the Church was shown by
inviolable attachment to the ancient Catholic symbols. But those in yaric^-
CHAP. IV. ULTRAIST8. |871. ANTlTEINITARIANai SEEVETUS. 433
oonntriee, and especially in Italy, who were secretly opposed to all ecclesias-
tical creeds, indulged the hope that they would find an asylum in countries
possessing the Reformation. Some of these, therefore, in the name of the
Scriptures or of intellectual freedom, claimed the riglit to rejc t any ecclesi-
astical doctrines, and especially the doctrine of the Trinity as it had been
taught in the Church, or in an Anabaptu^t spirit uttered opinions respecting
this right from a professed divine inspiration. The reformers, however, has-
tened as speedily as possible to deny all fellowship with such heretics, by a
sentence which adjudged such persons to a capital punishment. John Bench
thonght he discovered in the abundant h)ve which Christ produced by his
agency before he came into the world, and which lie typically represented, a
state of exaltation above the Scriptures and all laws, and yet led to the pre-
cise course of conduct which they required. Ilis education in polite litera-
ture did not raise him above the secret practice of anabaptism, in wliich he
thonghf seven evil spirits were abjured, and seven good spirits were received
by the believer. He was opposed to the doctrine of the equality of the Son
with the Father as a real idolatry, but the principal point on which his feel-
ings were enlisted, was one in which he maintained that an eternal hell was
inconsistent with the divine mercy. He was merely expelled from the sphere
of his activity in the cities of Upper Germany, and escaped martyrdom as a
heretic by an early death (1528). (ji) HiUcr, a learned friend of Zwingle and
a popular poet, was, while full of expressions of repentance, beheaded at Con-
fltance for his assertion of the imity of God (1529), although he was also
convicted of holding Anabaptist sentiments and of adulterous conduct. (J))
Senetus^ a native of Aragon, and a man of extensive acquirements but of a
restless dis])osition, taught that the Deity was the real essence of all things ;
that the world in all its forms is actually nothing ; that the Trinity is only a
revelation of the great First Cause in the form of the light and the word
finally completed in the incarnation ; and that the Holy Spirit is merely a
mode in which God communicates himself to created beings. He therefore
derided the Trinity held by the Church as a three-headed Cerberus, and
thonght himself destined to be the restorer of Christianity. He was burned
by the Catholics in effigy, and by the Protestants in reality, at Geneva
(1563). (/•) Campanns^ who appealed from the whole world to the apostles,
ind described the Son in accordance with Arian views, and the Spirit as only
the influence by which man was redeemed and assimilated to God, died in
prison at Cleves (about 1578). (^/) Gentilis^ a Calabrian, completed the doc-
trine of three Gods of unequal rank, which had been advanced by Grihaldo^
•) Tom GeseU O. (a. I. et a.) Gei.<t]. Bluincn^nirtl. (6 fimall Trcatii^ by Denck.) Amst. 1690.—
^«V«i vol III. p. 275sflL Jhherle, J. Denck u. ^ BQchL v. Gesetz. (Stnd u. Krft 1961. H. Is.)
^)'r.J. Breitinger, Anccd. de L. lleUero. (Mu«cum Ilelv. 1751. vol. VI.) IHetrick, In d. Tab.
Zrit8di.iSM.II. i.
c) DUIL do Trin. (IlAffen.) 1532. Chrlstlani5mi restitutio. (VIen.) 1653.— Relation da procia
^'inUoal lnifnt6 a Geneve contre NL Servet, redlgeo d'aprea los documcnta originaux par A. RillieU
^ ISU. Oileini Udells expos, orrorum Serv. a. I. 1554.— J/baAtfim, Ubu Serv. Ulmst 1727. 4.
■^^cue Xat-br. v. d. Arzte Serv. IIlnisL 17r)0. 6. HeberU^ Serv. Trln. u. Chrl-rtol. (Tub. Zeltacb.
^ H. a.) Biiur, Dreielnlgk. vol. III. p. 4&W. \W. IT. Drummand, Life of Servetua. Jjoml. 1S48.
^ ^- WrigM, Ap«L for Serv. Lond. 1S05. 12. /7«»ry, Life of Calv. voL XL and aa In { 86S. Dt a.}
^ SchOhom, do Camp. (Amoenitt liter, vol XL)
28
434 MODEEN cnuncii history, per. v. a. D. WU-ldlS.
a learned jurist, by maintaining that the Son was another God of the same
nature, but derived from the Father. lie saved his life by a recantation, an
ecclesiastical penance, and an act of perjury at Geneva, but lost it at Berne,
as ho thougTit, in honor of the Father (156(5). (<•) David Joris^ a painter
from Delft, who had before been highly esteemed as a prophet in the new
kingdom at Munster, taught that the Trinity was merely a revelation of
God in three different ages of the world, and assembled together Anabap-
tists of all kinds, with the promise that they should take possession of the
earth as the Israelites did of Canaan in the age of the Holy Spirit, which had
made its appearance in him. He was whipped and outlawed, but found an
honorable asylum under an assumed name at Basle (d. 1556). {/) Others
took refuge in Poland, and were there at first known under the common
name of Dissidents, but were, after 1565, expelled from the Reformed Church
as Unitarians. They were not entirely free from persecution, but through
the favor of some powerful supporters they obtained a general centre for
their body at Itacau (1569). (y) In Transylvania a public recognition of the
Unitarians was obtained (1571) by the influence of the Piedmonteso Blan-
drata^ the private physician of the prince. Jesus was honored by this sect
simply as a man, but one who was richly endowed by God and exalted for
dominion over the whole world. Adoration was paid to him by most of
them, and those who refused this were persecuted. (Ji)
§ 872. Soeinians,
L BibL fratriim Polon. Irenop. (Amst) 165d. 8 vols, f. Ch, Otdorodt^ Unterrichtang r. d.
IlAuptp. fL clir. R. lUk. 1004. and oft Catecb. Racov. (1C09. 12. and oft. Poln. 1605.) ed. Oeder^
Frcf. 1789. WUiowatiu*, Rel raUonalia. 1685. Amst. 1708. Stan, LutUniecii, U. ref. Pol
FreteL 1695.
II. Jituideus, de orlg. Soclnian. Jen. 1725. 4. Ziegler. Lohrbg. d. F. S<»c (/7«»iv, N. Mag. roL
IV. p. 20l8.<».) E. Bengel, Ideen i. Erkl. d. Soc Lchrbgr. (Tub. Miitr. St. 14.'a) O. FocJb, dw- 8o-
einlanlfimufl in der Oesammtontw. d. cbriatl. Geistfa, nacb s. bist Verlauf. u. Lebrbegr. KM 1811
SAbUi.
Laelim Socinvs, belonging to the noble family of the Sozini of Siena,
spent his time, after 1547, in reformed countries in the character of an
inquiring but sceptical man of letters, under the advice and toleration of the
reformers, and highly esteemed for his honesty and intelligence (d. 15G2). (a)
It was by his nephew and heir, Fattshis Socinvs (d. 1604), that the Unitarians
in Poland, with whom he became connected, became organized as a commn-
e) B. Aretius, Yal. GcntlHs Justo capitis suppliclo affect! 11. Gen. 1567. 4. Gent fmpietatiun tx-
plicatio exactis Senatos Gene v. c. praof. Th. Bezue^ Ocn. 1667. 4.
/) T n'onderboeiy 1542. 4. 15.V. t—Uist Dar. Jovis d. Enketzen, dareh d. Unlr. BaaeL Baa
15.'>9. 4. II. vitae Dav. Geoi^i baeresiarcbae, conscr. ab ipstna genero, Nie, JBUmliJbio, ed. J. I^
v<u«, Pavontr. 1642. 12 Je*sfniu»^ aufgedeckte Larve Dav. OeorgIL Kiel 1670. 4.
g) Cateche&l« et Conf. fldoi coetus per Pol. oongregati in nomine J. C. Cracor. 1574 12. known a»
the 1. Racovian Catecbism.
h) Blanir. Cont Antitr. c refUtatlone FlacU, cd. Jlenke, tilmat 1794. (Oppi aead. pi MS.>
HeberU, a. il. Ix^bren v. Bland. (Tab. Zeitacbr. 1840. II. 4.)— Samma unlr. 'lb. chr. sec. UnltaiioA
Claadiup. 17S7. (RoMnmiUUr, in Stiiudlin's u. Tzach. Arcbiv. t KGeach. toL L U. 1.)
a) Ch. F. lUgen, Vita L. BocinL Lps. 1814. Symbokie ad Tit et doct L. a UL L|Mi 8 P*.
1886-14. 4. Orelli, L. Soc. (B&sl. wias. Zeitacbr. 1824. vol II. P. a p llSaa.) /*. 7V«eA«^ LeOo
Bozini u. die Antitrinltarier sr. Zclt Ueidelb. 1844.
CHAP. IT. ULTBAISTS. 1 872. S0CINIAN9. 1 87a BCnWENCKFELD. 435
nity, and received a complete system of doctrine, (ft) The principal article
of this was an attempt at an accommodation between different parties by the
doctrine, that although Jesus was horn a mere man, he was nevertheless
witliout any earthly father, and was wonderfully endowed by God, was
taken up into heaven, and as the reward of his life was deified, that he
might bo a mediator, to bring man, alienated from God by sin, to the knowl-
edge and grace of God, and that he might reign as the king of his people in
all periods of time. As man is destitute of any natural knowledge of Grod,
divine revelation is made to correspond with the laws of his mind. Tlio
Socinian explanations of the New Testament were therefore frequently of a'
bold and novel character, but conformed to the pr^'udices of a limited un-
derstanding, and the ethical system adopted was more of a social than of a
rehgions nature. Christianity was viewed on the whole as a moral redemp-
tion by our own efforts. The connection with the Anabaptists, which Socinus
found already formed, was very soon broken off. Socinianism was the extreme
of opposition to popery, and was never a true pulsation, but the feverish ex-
citement of the Protestant Church when it was sinking into a chill ortho-
doxy. Its advocates were never regarded by the Protestants as Christians,
and it was only in Altorf, near the commencement of the seventeenth cen-
tury, that they succeeded in forming an organized party. Even this was
Boon suppressed. A few literary men, especially among the Arminians, have
been obliged to defend themselves against the reproach of Socinianism. (e)
In Poland, the attack upon Protestantism was most ferocious against the So-
dnians. In 1638 they lost possession of Hacau, where the Polish nobility
had been educated, and in 1658 they were entirely exterminated under the
ostensible charge of being traitors to the government. {<T) The exiled con-
gregations found refuge under the great Elector, and individuals took up their
residence in the Netherlands, but the proper time for Socinianism as a sect
WIS DOW past.
§ 373. Caspar SchtcencJcfcld of Ossing, Sebastian Franc?.'.
Forhiswrtting^ tee WalcK, Bibl. theol. Th. IL pi OIsa. Kurze Lebeai^b. Schvr. without place. 1697.
Hht Nacbr. v. Schw. sanit Anzahl sr. Schrr. Prenyl 1744. Die wesenU. Lchre dea Herrn G 8chw.
*• *r. GluibenRgcn(*s.<H.Mi. Divl. 177(1 {JdAne) Dankb. Erin, an d. Schwenkfcldcr zu Piiila<le]i>bla. GOrL
'^^t'^Wiffatuf, <\^ Hchwcnkfeldianismo. Lps. 15S6. 4. Srl/kam, p. 857sft.— /"rancX* ; I'arHdoxa 2S0
<!• L Wanderred. aus d. H. 8. (Ulm. 1534.) 4. Baain d. Wise. Gutea u. Bi«ea. Vim. 1504. 4. DIo
<^lo Arch. Aug»b^ lASS. f. Das verbuthschiert mit 5ibt>n i^igeln verschlussno Bnch. (Ibid.) 1589.
t-& TV Wald, do vita scripUs et Byst myrt. S. Francl. KrL 1793. 4. K. am Ende, kloine iiachleae
«»i anvollst Nachrr. v. 8. Fr. NOrnb. 1796. 4. mil 2. Fortas. 179A-99. /Tagen voL III. p. 814aa.
^•^iam, p. «S««. C T. Kaim, ± llet d. Eeicbwt Ulm. Stuttg. 1851. p. 269*8.
As the Reformation found salvation only in the Scriptures but by means
^ a true and saving faitli, the latter, when it was especially ardent, some-
^njes rose against the narrowness and uncertainty of all merely external
*•) Opp. Ireoop. 1650. 2 vols, t {Prtypcoviwi) Vita F. 8. 1686. 4. before Opp, Soc. u. Bibl. tnL
^''•onorum. Soulmiru, Mem. of the Life of F. 8. Lond. 1777.
«) HamhdcK Elnl. In d. K. 8treit. d. ev. K. mil d. Soc Cob. 1753. 2 volii 4. ZeUner, II. Crypto-
^olstnl Altorflnafl Acad. Infesti. Lps. 1729. 2 vols. 4.
<0 Prodltiones Arianorani patriae ernae sub tempus belli Saecld. 1657. 4. On the other aide : Zw-
'^'^^^cii Memoriale in cauw Fratrum Unitar. 8tcUnL 1659.
436 MODERN ClIUKCn HISTOET. PEB. V. A. D. 1B17-164S.
Scripture. The confidence which was thus produced in an immediate and
living communion with Christ is well illustrated by the case of Schwrneifeld
(d. 1561). In the court of the Duke of Lignitz, he formed a centre of influ-
ence in behalf of the Reformation in Silesia, and (even in 1525) was on
terms of personal intercourse with Luther. lie, however, came gradually to
the conclusion, that although Luther was correct in opposing the papacy, the
new kingdom proposed by the reformers was to be wholly conformed to the
outward letter, and therefore was not likely to aflford much assistance in the
Christian life. On his banishment from Silesia he betook himself to Suabia
(1528), where he maintained a friendly intercourse with the Protestant
princes, and a violent controversy with the Protestant theologians. By the
latter he was held up as the chief of all fanatics, but he seems to have propa-
gated his principles without attempting to found an independent party. The
main points of his system, in addition to all kinds of strange sentiments
respecting the deification of Christ's flesh for us, that it might be the food
of our souls in the Lord's Supper, and respecting Christ's death as a {lenalty
paid to Satan for man, {a) were his exclusive regard for sincere piety in the
heart by means of a gracious incarnation of Jesus Christ within us, and a con-
sequent iudift'ercnco to the mere letter of the Scripture or the visible Church.
A few followers and congregations, especially in North America, have pre-
served some true memorials of him until the present time, (h) "With similar
views, but with more learning and moderation, Thamerus (d. 1569) has de-
fended the redeemed and divinely enlightened conscience in opposition to a
reliance upon the sacred letter, lie was therefore obliged to fall out with
the reformers, and thereby proved that the Catholic doctrine on this sul^ect
was more consistent with sound common sense than the Protestantism of
that period, (r) The idea that God is continually making revelations to all
believers, was not by any means incredible to enlightened human reason.
The principal champion for this doctrine was Seh. Franel\ originally from
Woerd (Donauwoerth, d. at Basle about 1543), successively a priest, a Lu-
theran preacher, a soap manufacturer, a learned printer, and always a popular
writer. ((/) He found edification in the apparent contradictions and obecnre
passages of the Scriptures, the letter of which he regarded as the sword of
Antichrist by which the Christian is slain, and yet the sacred pyx in which
the true Christ is conveyed to men. He allowed himself to believe nothing
except on the united testimony of his own heart and conscience, and he pro-
fessed subjection to no master but himself. He was acquainted with ancient
philosophy, was familiar with the mysticism of the middle ages, and de-
scribed the Deity as the everlasting essence, which needed not the existenoo
of any creature, and yet pervaded and acted through all created forms. Tha
will of man, however, being free, may either be governed by the divino
nature within him, or may pervert this nature to unliallowed objects. When—
a) O. L. Hahn^ Schw. Sententia do Chr. persona ot opere. Vrat 1S47.
[&) J. SchulU, in Ul8t of Kcl. DenominaUons in U. S. (Uaniaburg. 1S49. 9.) p. 657.]
c) A. ITeantUr, Theob. Thaoier, A Bopraca. u. Vorginger moderner QeiAteerichtiini^ BrL I8li.
d) Vom Lastcr d. Trunkenh. 1581. 4. Clironica, Zeytbuoh u. GescbycbtbiboL Straaab. IMl. C
Cofimographie a Weltbach. ISM. t Bprucbworter, Scbune Weiseo, Herrllche Clugraden o. Hoff-
^>rach. FrakH IML and oft.
CHAP. IV. ULTBAI8T8. 1 87a. FBANCK. 437
ever he passively sobmits to it, God becomes man in him. Thas in Socratef^,
in Christ, and in others, what has been concealed, unexpressed, and even
anpossessed in many, becomes manifest, and God becomes dependent in the
flesh that man may become deified in following liim on the way to the cross.
Franck was driven out of Strasbourg and Ulm, and the Landgrave and Me-
lanctbon (f) uttered warnings against him as the dcviFs special and favorite
blasphemer. (/) He thought the papacy so worn out in the hands of the
devil, that when Satanic influences could find no concealment behind St.
Peter's chair, a new papacy had been established as speedily as possible.
The Christianity which he endeavored to promote was to be free from all
restndnta, from sectarian policy, from factious strife, and indeed from all ex-
ternal things. But so completely did he fall out with the ruling spirits of
his age, that no course remained for him but with them to wait patiently for
the approaching end of this world, while within himself the shores of a new
world were rising on his view.
CHAP, v.— CONDITION AND RESULTS OF PROTESTANTISM.
Uunde^ageti, d dentsche Proteatantlsm. Frkf. (1846-47.) 1850. D. ScXenkel, d. Weacn d. Pro-
te?t a. d. Qa«Uen d. B«C Zcita. Schaffb. 1$46sa. 8 vols.
§ 874. Protestantism as a Principle,
The object of the reformers was to return to the purity of the apostolic
Clmrch, and to remove the abuses which had become almost universal dur-
ing subsequent centuries, especially on the subject of justification by works
and the deification of creatures. They therefore maintained that the word
of God was the only authority in matters of faith, and that human nature is
80 corrupt that it can attain salvation only by the merits of Christ, appropri-
ated by a faith wrought by divine power, (o) The struggle after freedom
was regarded as a subordinate matter, and as a general thing was very little
a subject of attention. But as justification by faith was a transaction which
took place entirely between Christ and the heart of the believer himself, and
they were obliged to oppose the claim of the existing Church to infallibility
^d the exclusive power of saving men, and as the new Church could claim
no snch power while struggling against the positive right, it laid hold of that
^hich is eternal and abstract. The ideal of a perfect Church was therefore
proposed, in which the diflferent churches were variously represented in pro-
Portion to their faith, although no one of them was ever perfect. This invisi-
m Church therefore embraced all true believers in all places on earth, (b)
The idea of Protestantism was in this way unconsciously developed. The
^*^ itself was of a later origin, drawn from a prominent individual fart
') Cl Sff. Yol. IIL p. 98890. with the snbsciiptlons of the divines assembled at Bmaloald in 1510.
/) Uth. in Walch vol. XIV. p. 894
*) A. Domer^ d. Prindpi unsrer Kirche nach d. Innern Verh. sr. zwei Seltcn. Kiel. 1841. D
***»*W;d. Pr. d. Prot MIt be& Beruchts. d. neuesten Verhandl. 8cliaffh. 1S52.
^) "Hie eisential Idea is found in : Ap<A. Confeim. Aug. Art IV. Walch vol. XX. p. 1881. ThA
^T Words: ZtHngli, brevls ExposlUo, art de Eccle&la. Calv. Inst IV, 1. T.
438 MODERN CnURCH niSTOBT. PER V. A. D. IBlT-lMa
and applied to a ^eat genera] idea. On the one hand, it implies a continual
protest against the extravagant claims of Catholicism, and on the other an
acknowledgment of a common universal Christianity wherever a heart is
found in connection with Christ. It likewise claims to he the Christianity
of the heart and of freedom. So far, however, were the reformers from per-
ceiving this in the midst of the excitement of their internal and external
conflicts of faith, that from the time of the convent of Berg and the Synod
of Dordreclit, the Protestant Church appears only like a purified form of
Catholicism. In various ways it practicaDy represented itself as infallible,
and even expressly claimed that there was no salvation out of itself, (r) In
its doctrinal statements respecting man's natural state, it wore the aspect of
a Christianity of bondage. In both Churches of the Reformation the Pro-
testant principle was realized at first in the highest degree, in accordance
with the type shown in the character of their respective founders. In the
Reformed Church it appeared in the fonn of the ascendency of a vigorous
understanding, requiring an unconditional return to the forms of primitive
Christianity. In the Lutheran Church it took the form of a predominant
profound feeling, and recognized an historical development in the Church.
In the first place, the disagreement respecting the doctrine of the Lord's
Supper which was determined by this difference in original character, could
hardly fail in producing the precise disagreement which afterwards followed
with respect to the two natures of Christ. Then the different political throes
which attended the birth of the respective Churches, were evidently deter-
mined by the ethical character of each. The Lutheran nations were disposed
to leave even their earthly affairs in the hands of the all-controlling God-
man, wiiile the Reformed with bold activity set about the completion of the
work of their heavenly King. In these diversities we may discover the
ground for the difference of aims which is discoverable in these Churches ;
the Lutheran fixes its eye principally upon the eternal salvation of man,
while the ultimate object of the Reformed is the glory of Grod. This differ-
ence, however, is rapidly vanishing, (d)
§ 875. Morals.
The doctrine of salvation by faith was opposed to that of dependence
upon works, and the idea of Christian freedom was in direct hostility to that
of the depression of the intellect by human enactments. The simplicity and
absolute character of the moral law was secured when evangelical connaels
were regarded as only the non-essential means by which its objects were ta
c) ZtcingL de vera et falsa rel (0pp. vol. II. p. 192.) On tbo other band : Cdlv, Inatt L lY. e. flL
$ Vi.—Mo9er, Corp. Jur. cv. LQt 178S. vol. IL p. 895. Comp. A. E. Zeitnng^ 1881. N. 180. IStt.
N. 122. 1888. N. 20$. 180.
d) J. Tickler, de Indole racr. emendattonls a Zw. instftutae recte aeeUmanda. Tn^ 18S7. M^
Gf>bfl, rel. Eigenth&ml. d. lath. n. ref. K. Bonn. 1887. J. P. Zan(^ welehe Odtnnf febuhrt d.
Ki^cnthuinl. d. ref. K. Z&r. 1S41. JIagenbacK, d. re£ K. in Bez. a Yerikaa. n. Colt ScfaalTh. ISlS.
K. Strobfl, u. d. Untorach. d. Inth. a. ref. K. (Zoitsch. £ lath. Tb. 1811 H. a) Zym, s Cbarakter d
rcC K (Stad. u. Krit 1843. II. 8.) Merle D'Aubigni, Lntber xl Cahrln. [transL in D'Anb. and hffi
wriHnga, New York. 1846.}— il. Schtceiaer, GLchre d. refl K. 1844 ToL L pw Tn.
In Stad. a. Krit 1847. H. 4. and TbeoL Jahxbb. 184& H. 1.
CHAP. y. PBOTESTANTISM. S 879l MOBALS. 439
be attained. The reformers endeavored, by^ means of German and Latin
popular books and schools on an ecclesiastical basis, to educate a people who
conld appreciate and act upon Protestant principles, (a) In consequence
of the unwonted freedom proclaimed at the Reformation, it must be con-
ceded that the seeds of wild passions already sown were made suddenly to
spring up. By the prominence given to original sin, in comparison with
which particular temptations and sins were looked upon as of inferior im-
portance, the moral power of Protestantism certainly became much less than
we should have expected from so great a religious revolution. (//) It must
also be remarked, that mere orthodoxy more and more constantly took the
place of a living faith ; and in the low state of education which then pre-
vailed, there was great danger that the high ground taken respecting works,
and the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination, would lead to an easy kind of
reli^oos practice. It is true that Luther at one time spoke of Germany as
worse than Sodom, and mourned that he spoke the German language ; Me-
lancthon deplored that all the waters of the Elbe were not enough for tears
to weep over the unfortunate dissensions of the Reformation ; and the re-
formers generally, in view of these evils, gave way to the presentiment that
the end of the world was near. It should be remembered, however, that
Luther was at that time angry that the Reformation had just been abused to
those selfish purposes which are never wanting in the midst of such revolu*
tions ; that he applied to his age the same rule he was accustomed to use
with respect to his own heart, and in his monastic confinement looked upon
the luxury naturally springing from the increased wealth acquired by the
middle classes on the discovery of America as a crime ; nor should we for-
get that Melancthon sometimes shrunk back from the very mental conflicts
which had been conjured up by his own power. At all events, it was not
long before the Church took upon itself the work of controlling public
morals. Among the Lutherans, it is true, this was attempted without any
thorough system of ecclesiastical discipline, but by means of exhortations,
monitory lectures, and excommunication, not unfrequently mingled with much
passion, (c) In both Churches tliere was an occasional reference to the
power of punishment possessed by the civil authorities. A domestic and
ecclesiastical system of morality was tlms established, of so rigid a character,
that when compared with the facility possessed in the Catholic Church of
alternating between sinful pleasures and penitential exercises, it appeared to
have produced, in connection with profound religious spirituality, a severe,
sometimes a gloomy and a restless disposition. Such was particularly the
case in the French and Scotch Churches, and an extreme form of it was de-
veloped among the Puritans. The Sabbath was observed with scrupulous
exactness, and many things before regarded as discretionary or innocent were
DOW treated as sins. On the other hand, we have the single fact of the big-
a) De constitaendia scholia Luth. liber, pracc«dit MeL praefatia Ua^. 1524. ( Waich voL X. in
^) P. If. ScAuUr, Gesck <L kaWch. Uvl. Unterr. unter. d. Prot UaL 1802. A. ScAa^r, de I'in-
flneoce de Lutb. sur I'education du pcuple. Par. 1S.';8.
h) K. Sarcerius, v. Jberlicber VUtaUoD. Eial. 1550. 4. Comp. EngeUiardt in Zeltocli. £ List Th.
iao.u.1.
e) £. g. A, MusctdM^ t. plndrichtoD HoMoteofeL Fmkf. (1556.) 1557.
440 MODERN CHTIBCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1617-1618.
amy of the Landgrave, for the secret consummation of which Lather and
his colleagues granted a dispensation. This was done by him for the par-
pose of avoiding a still greater evil, and was justified by a reference to the
divine dispensation in behalf of Abraham, and to the papal license given to
the Count of Gleichen. It wns, however, done with too little care for the
interests of the Church, and proved a stumbling-block which was harshly
used against him, and was even abused in jmblic for justifying a barbarous
polygamy. (</) No divorces were allowed except for adultery, and yet by
official and entire separation of the parties they prepared the way for further
concessions, (e) The approbation which the reformers gave to the assassina-
tion of tyrants, proceeded in Melancthon's case from the influence of his
ecclesiastical and classical studies, and in Luther's case from the views of
right which prevailed among the ancient Germans, and a manly self-
respect. (/) The whole fanciful system of faith in magic and in Satanic
influences remained undisturbed and possibly even more distinctly prominent,
in consequence of the poetic manner in which Luther involuntarily described
his conflicts with the devil. But even before the movements connected with
the Reformation were over, important efforts were made to construct a sci*
entifio system of ethics, in which the virtues were classified in the usoal
ancient and theological form, but springing out of a justifying faith. The
extreme excitement against Osiander's doctrines (§ 847) was in the Lutheran
Church especially unfavorable to a further investigation of such subjects, (jji)
§ 876. Law.
The reformers maintained merely the ordinary view of law, according to
which the power of the state was entirely separated from that of tie Choroh,
and Luther even boasted that he had kept them from being peiiloualy confound-
ed, (a) But with a full consciousness of the result, they went back to the posi-
tion of the apostolic Church, derived the whole authority of all ecclesiastical
officers from the local churches, and would allow no one but Grod, (b) and least
of all the princes, of whom Luther had a very poor opinion, (c) to have do-
minion over souls. In the constitution of the Hessian Church, an attempt
was made to form an equal balance between the independence of the partioo-
lar congregations and the unity of the provincial established Church (§ 829).
Luther had doubts whether any artificial legislation could form a people
adapted to such a state of things, (d) His favorite idea of a Church was not
one in which the popular element was highest, but one in which every indi-
vidual was looked upon as moved by the Uoly Ghost, (e) But in one
d) De W^U T(i]. y. p. 286sa. C. Ref. vol IIL p. 849. Ueppty urk. Beitrr. z. Oescb. d. I>opfMl-
ebe d. Landgr. (Zeitsch. f. hist Tb. 1802. U. 2.)
0) MerkwQrd. Ebefall, niitgeth. v. Schwan. (Zeltacb. £ tbQr. Oeecb. 1853. H. 2.)
/) Slr&btU Mlficell. vol. I. p. 170. Vkert vol. II. p. 46. Walch vol. XXIL p. 2151iu
g) VenaUyHus, A vlrL chr. 1. III. Nor. 1629. P, «. Eitten, Ethlk. Witt 1B71. Coxnpt PM ia
Stad. u. Krit 1848. H. 2. Schtean, Ibid. 1860. H. 1. A. Schxe^iaer, IbW. H. \m.
a) Cor\f. Aug. II, 7. Walch vol X. p. ^^AB^^SchwkO, fl. d. nrapr. Verb. d. K. s. Btaate ^ d
Qeblete der. ev. Prot (Stud. u. Krlt 1650. H. la.)
li) AH. Smalc. p. 8628. /)« WeUe vol. IV. p. 10«. Walch vol. X. p. 462. 4«9.
e) Jhid. p. 460. d) Schr. an d. Landgrafen In RichUr, KVerfl (nt /.) p. 408.
e) Walch vol X. p. 2718.
OHAP. Y. PB0TE8TANTIS1L |87«.LAW. STAtL . 441
the limitis and in another the power itself, showed that in actnal
practice both views were impracticable in their full extent. In arranging
the powers of the Church, however, Luther alvyays had his eye exclusively
upon the spiritual interest. In the empire, the Church could bo represented
only by the imperial states ; and in the hope that the legal bishops would at
0ome time become reconciled to the Church, the superior ecclesiastical offices
in Germany remained vacant. For the time being, therefore, the princes and
magistrates from love to the Church performed the functions of the highest ec-
clesiastical offices as provisional bishops, though with the counsel of distin-
gnished doctors aud the aid of the provincial states. Consistories, composed
of civil officers and clergy, were instituted (after 1689) principally for jurisdic-
tion over causes connected with marriage, excommunication, and processes in
which clergymen were concerned. The government of each provincial
Church gradually fell of itself into their hands, responsible only to the civil
aathorities, so that the actual legal system became directly the reverse of the
kgal principle originally proposed. (/) Even then Luther had cause to sigh
over the bishopric of the court, without any spiritual character, and some-
times i>articular divines, when oppressed, reminded the princes that Christ
had not delivered his people from papal bondage merely to make them slaves
to the Politlei. {fi) But the actual condition of things was soon justified on
legal principles by various learned men, on the ground that it was a transfer
ot the episcopal power to the hands of orthodox princes by virtue of the
Religions Peace (Episcopal system), {h) The congregations included in the
district of each imperial state constituted a distinct provincial Church. And
yet from their opposition to the Catholic imperial Church, and from their
pofloaooion of a common creed, the Protestant states even after the dissolution
of the Leagne of Smalkald, regarded themselves especially in the general diet
tB a angle political ecclesiastical corporation, and the provincial churches,
although some of them might be beyond the limits of the empire, were
looked upon as constituting a single evangelical Church, joined together by
mutual sympathy in love and conflicts. The Reformed Church received a
republican constitution in consequence of the peculiar mode of its origin, and
^ country in which it was formed. Its basis consisted of a system of
^yiJoda composed of clergymen and elders, in a regular ascending series up
to the highest assembly. This system, however, was never fully carried out
except in the French and Scottish churches, and even in them the co-optation
^ the elders and the choice of the ministers were necessary through the
*^^er synods, the congregations having only the right of a rejection. In
"le German Reformed churches the Presbyteries gave way before the Con-
'^'^ries of the governments, (/) and in the Lutheran churches of the Lower
/) Waich p. 190«. L, Richter, A ev. KOrdnungcn des 1«. Jobrh. BrL 1846. 2 vols. 4. Ihid,
'^**- <!. ev. KVcrf in Deut«chL Lpa. 1651.
it^ ^ ^'^^ ^«'- "'• P- 5^*- *TiicuIty Ht Jena, 1661 : SaUg vol. III. p. 685. Fac at Wlttenh.
^*®* CondL The4>L VlL Frcf. 1664. f. P. II. i.. 129.
*) ^. SUphiini, Tract de Jurlsd. R<«t (1609.) 162a 4. £«p. Carpzov.
) Tom lo8 pynodes nationanx des ^'gl. ret de France, par A^n^on^ Ilaye. 1710. 8 vols. 4. Ebrard,
rj*- «». mt« Entwlckl. d. Presb. Vert d. reC K. Frankr. (Zeltach. t hist Tb. 1849. U. 2.) A, Of>m*
^« <l acbott Nationalk. nacb gegenw. Vert Hamb. 1844a. S vols. Saek, (pw 424.) //. v. MUkUr,
434 MODEKN CllUIlCn HISTORY. PER. V. A- D. 1517-1548.
a learned jurist, by maintaining that the Son was another God of the same
nature, hut derived from the Father. He saved his life by a recantation, an
ecclesiastical penance, and an act of perjury at Geneva, but lost it at Berne,
as ho thougTit, in honor of tlie Father (156G). (e) David Jorfs^ a painter
from Delft, who had before been highly esteemed as a prophet in the new
kingdom at Munster, taught that the Trinity was merely a revelation of
God in three different ages of the world, and assembled together Anabap-
tists of all kinds, with the promise that they should take possession of the
earth as the Israelites did of Canaan in the age of the Holy Spirit, which had
made its appearance in him. He was whipped and outlawed, but found an
honorable asylum under an assumed name at Basle (d. 1556). (/) Others
took refuge in Poland, and were there at first known under the common
name of Dissidents, but were, after 1565, expelled from the Reformed Church
as Unitarians, They were not entirely free from persecution, but through
the favor of some powerful supporters they obtained a general centre for
their body at liacau (1569). {g) In Transylvania a public recognition of the
Unitarians was obtained (1571) by the influence of the Piedmontese Blan-
drata^ the private physician of the prince. Jesus was honored by this sect
simply as a man, but one who was richly endowed by God and exalted for
dominion over the whole world. Adoration was paid to him by most of
them, and those who refused this were persecuted. (A)
§ 872. Socinians.
I. Bibl. fratrum Polon. Irenop. (Amst) 1656. 8 vola. f. Ch. Ortorodt, Unterriehtong r. d.
Ilftuptp. fL chr. R. Rak. 1604. and oft, Catecb. Racov. (1609. 12. and oft, Poln. 1605.) ed. O^der^
Frof. 1780. Wi«»t>watiu*^ Bel. rationalls. 1685. Amst. 1708. Stan, Luli^niecii, U. reC PoL
Frelst 1685.
II. Btuldeu*, de orlg. Socinian. Jen. 1725. 4. Ziegler. Lchrbg. d. F. S<>c. {TJenlf, N. Mag.ToL
IV. p. 201RS.) E. Bengel, Ideen z. Erkl. d. Soc. Lehrbgr. (Tub. Mac. St. 14?a.) O. Fock^ dcr So-
einianiflmas in der Oesammtentw. d. cbristl. Qelstes, nacb s. blst Verlanf. u. Lebrbegr. Kiel 1841
S Abth.
Laelius Sochws^ belonging to the noble family of the Sozini of Siena,
spent his time, after 1547, in reformed countries in the character of an
inquiring but sceptical man of letters, under the advice and toleration of the
reformers, and highly esteemed for his honesty and intelligence (d. 15G2). (a)
It was by his nephew and heir, Fausttis Socinm (d. 1604), that the Unitarians
in Poland, with whom he became connected, became organized as a commn-
e) B. Arftitu, Val. Gentllls Jnsto capitis snppUclo afTecti II. Gen. 1567. 4. Gent impietatnin ex-
plicatio e.vactis Senatas Gene v. c. pracf. Th. Beucie^ Ocn. 1567. i.
/) T Wonderhoek, 1542. 4. 15». C— Hist Dav. JovIb d Erzketzen, durch d. Univ. Basel B«l
1559. 4. II. vitae Dav. Geoi^i haeresiarchae, conscr. ab ipsiiu genera, Kic Bte^dikic^ ed. Ji lU"
tiuft^ Davontr. 1642. 12 Jensfnius^ aufgedcckto Larve Dav. GeorgiL Kiel. 1670. 4.
g) Catechesis et ConC fldei coetus per Pol. congregaU in nomine J. C. Cracov. 1574 12. known as
the 1. Kacovian Catccbism.
h) Blanir. Cont Antltr. c. roftitatlone FlacU^ ed. Htnke^ tilmst 17W. (Opp. aead. p. «45.)
lltberU, a. d. Ix^bren v. Bland. (T&b. Zeitacbr. 1840. II. 4.)— Samtna nniv. 'lli. chr. sec UniUrloa
Claudlop. 17S7. (RoMnmiOUr, in Staudltn's u. Tzscb. Archiv. f. KGeach. vol L U. 1.)
a) Ch. F. lUgfn, Yita L. Soclni. Lps. 1814. Symbolao ad vlt. et doct L. & ilL Lpo. 8 P.
1826-14. 4. Orelli, L. Soc. (Basl. wias. Zeitscbr. 1824. vol. II. P. a p llSaa.) /*. Tr^Kuel^ LeHo
Boxini u. die Antitrinitarier sr. Zcit Heidelh. 1844.
CHAP. IV. ULTRAI6T8. 1 8T2. S0CINIAN9. 1 87a SCnWKNCKFELD. 435
nity, and received a complete system of doctrine, (b) The principal article
of tbis was an attempt at an accommodation between different parties by the
doctrine, that although Jesus was born a mere man, he was nevertheless
without any earthly father, and was wonderfully endowed by God, was
taken up into heaven, and as the reward of his life was deified, that he
might bo a mediator, to bring man, alienated from God by sin, to the knowl-
edge and grace of God, and that he might reign as the king of his people in
all periods of time. As man is destitute of any natural knowledge of God,
divine revelation is made to correspond with the laws of his mind. Tlie
Socinian explanations of the New Testament were therefore frequently of a'
bold and novel character, but conformed to the prejudices of a limited un-
derstanding, and the ethical system adopted was more of a social than of a
rehgious nature. Christianity was viewed on the whole as a moral redemp-
tion by our own efforts. The connection with the Anabaptists, which Socinus
found already formed, was very soon broken off. Socinianism was the extreme
of opposition to popery, and was never a true pulsation, but the feverish ex-
citement of the Pi'otestant Church when it was sinking into a chill ortho-
doxy. Its advocates were never regarded by the Protestants as Christians,
and it was only in Altorf, near tlie commencement of the seventeenth cen-
tury, that they succeeded in forming an organized party. Even this was
soon suppressed. A few literary men, especially among the Arminians, have
been obliged to defend themselves against the reproach of Socinianism. (c)
In Poland, the attack upon Protestantism was most ferocious against the So-
cinians. In 1638 they lost possession of Hacau, where the Polish nobility
had been educated, and in 1658 they were entirely exterminated under the
ostensible charge of being traitors to the government, (d) The exiled con-
gregations found refuge under the great Elector, and individuals took up their
residence in the Netherlands, but the proper time for Socinianism as a sect
was DOW past.
§ 373. Caspar ScJixcencJcfcld of Omng, Sebastian Francl:.
For lib wrttlIl«^ tee Walck, Bibl. Uieol. Th. IL pi CT.-a. Kurze Leben'^b. Schw. without place. 1€97.
Htst Nachr. v. Schw. «ariit Anzalil sr. Scbrr. Prcn/.L 1744. Dio wesentL Lchro des Ilcrrn C Scbw.
o. sr. 01aabenH(reni*85on. Ur»1. 17Td. {Jdhne) Dankb. Krin. an dL Scbwenkfeldcr za Philadelphia. GOrL
1816i — Wigand,^^ Schwcnkfeldianlsmo. Lps. 15S6. 4. Erbkam^ p. Zhl^»,—Franck: Taradoxa 280
<L L Wanderred. aus d. IL 8. (Ulm. 1534.) 4. Baain d. Wise. Gutea u. Btiees. Ulm. 1534. 4. DIo
Oaldin Arab. Au^b^ l&3a t Daa vcrbathschiert mit tWten i>igeln verscblossno Biich. (Ibid.) 1589.
t—S. Tk, Wald, de vita acriptls ct t^y^i. inyst S. Francl. ErL 1793. 4. K. am Ende, kU-ine Kachloae
xn d. onvoll»t Nachrr. v. S. Fr. Nnrnb. 1796. 4. nilt 2. Forts.*. 179S-99. rragen voL III. p. 314afli
Xrhkam^ pi iSOtf. C. T. Kaim, ± KeC d. Beicbsst Ulm. Stuttg. 1851. p. 269!&
As the Reformation found salvation only in the Scriptures but by means
of a true and saving faith, the latter, when it was especially ardent, some-
times rose against the narrowness and uncertainty of all merely external
h) Opp. Irenop. 165«. 2 vols, t {PrtypcKtvim) Vita F. 8. 168ft. 4. before 0pp. 8oc. u. BIbL tnX.
Pulonorum. Soulmin^ Mem. of the Life of F. 8. Lond. 1777.
c) Itdmhach, ElnL In d. K. Strolt d. ev. K. uiit d. Soc Cob. 1758. 2 vols. 4. Zeltfur, U. Crypto-
Sodobmi AltorflnaA Acad. infestL Lps. 1729. 2 vols. 4.
d) PrwlitioDes Arianorum patriae suae sub tempos belli SaedcL 1657. 4. On the other aide : £«-
bienitcU Memoriale in causa Fratrom Unltar. StetinL 1659.
434 MODERN CHURCn HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 151T-ld48b
a learned jurist, by maintaining that the Son was another God of the same
nature, but derived from the Fatlier. He saved his life by a recantation, an
ecclesiastical penance, and an act of perjury at Geneva, but lost it at Berne,
as ho thoug?it, in honor of tlie Father (1560). (<?) David Joris^ a painter
from Delft, who liad before been highly esteemed as a prophet in the new
kingdom at Munster, taught that the Trinity was merely a revelation of
God in three different ages of the world, and assembled together Anabap-
tists of all kinds, with the promise that they should take possession of the
earth as the Israelites did of Canaan in the ago of the Holy Spirit, which had
made its appearance in him. He was whipped and outlawed, but found an
honorable asylum under an assumed name at Basle (d. 1556). (f) Others
took refuge in Poland, and were there at first known under the common
name of Dissidents, but were, after 1565, expelled from the Reformed Church
as Unitarians, They were not entirely free from persecution, but through
the favor of some powerful supporters they obtained a general centre for
their body at Racau (1569). (g) In Transylvania a public recognition of the
Unitarians was obtained (1571) by the influence of the Piedmonteso Blan-
drata^ the private physician of the prince. Jesus was honored by this sect
simply as a man, but one who was richly endowed by God and exalted for
dominion over the whole world. Adoration was paid to him by most of
them, and those who refused this were persecuted. (A)
§ 872. Socinians.
L BIbl. fratrurn Polon. Irenop. (Amst) 1656. 8 vols. f. Ck. OnAorodi, Unterriditung r. d.
ITanptp. d. chr. R. Rak. 1604. and oft, Catech. Racov. (1609. 12. and oft. Poln. 1605.) ed. 0«d«r^
Frcf. 1789. Wig9owatim, Bel. raUonalia. 16S5. Amst. ITOa SUtn. LuhUniecii, 11. ret Pol
Frelst 1685.
II. Buddewt, de orlg. Soclnlan. Jen. 1725. 4. Ziegler. Lehrbg. d. F. S<»o. {Ilenlf, N. Mag. roL
IV. p. 201 w.) E. BengeK Meen i. Erkl. d. Soc. Lehrbgr. (Tub. Mae. St. 14m ) O. Ft>ct, der So-
einianifloius in der Oesammtentw. d. cbriatl. Oelstes, nacb a. bist Verluuf. u. Lfbrb«^. Kiel ISIt
SAbth.
Laelim Socimis^ belonging to the noble family of the Sozini of Siena,
spent his time, after 1547, in reformed countries in the character of an
inquiring but sceptical man of letters, under the advice and toleration of the
reformers, and highly esteemed for his honesty and intelligence (d. 15G2). (a)
It was by his nephew and heir, Fauatus Soeinvs (d. 1604), that the Unitarians
in Poland, with whom he became connected, became organized as a comma-
e) B. ArHluM, Val. Gentllis Jnsto capitis sapplicio afTecti H. Gen. 1567. 4. Gent impietttiun ex-
plicatio e.xactis Senatus Oenev. c. praof. Th, B^mae^ Gen. 1667. 4.
/) rWondtrbMk, 1542, 4. 15W. C— Hist Dav. Jovis d. Erzketzers, durch d. Unlr. BaaeL B«l
1559. 4. II. vitae Dav. Geoi^i liacresiarchac, conscr. ab ipsius genera, Kic Bte^diJbio^ ed. «/! iSe-
r/u«, Pavcntr. 1642. 12 Jetseniun^ aufgedeckte Larve Dav. GeorglL Kiel 1670. 4.
g) Catcchesls et Conf. fldci coctus per Pol. congregaU in nooaine J. C. CracoT. 1574 13. known as
the 1. Kacovian Catechism.
h) Blan ir. Cent AnUtr. c. reftitatione Flacit, ed. Jlenke, tilmst 1794. (Opp. aced. p. M5.)
IfeberU'^ a. d. Lehren v. Bland. (Tub. Zeitachr. 1840. II. 4.) — Samma nniv. Ih. chr. see. Unitarioe
Claudiop. 17S7. {RowntnulUr, in Staadlln's a. Tzsch. Archlv. t KGeseh. vol L IL 1.)
a) Ch. F. lUgen, Vita L. 8«»cinL Lps. 1814 Symboloe ad vlt. et doct L. a III Lpo. 8 p.
1826-44. 4. Orelli, L. Soc. (Basil, wisa. Zeltschr. 1824. vol. II. P. a p llSaa.) F. Tr^fUel^ LeHo
Boiini XX. dio Antitrinitarier sr. Zcit. Ueidelh. 1844.
CHAP. IT. ULTRAI6TS. $ «72. SOCINIANS. % 919. SCHWENCKFELD. 435
nity, and received a complete system of doctrine, (ft) Tlie principal article
of this was an attempt at an accommodation between different parties by the
doctrine, that although Jesus was born a mere man, he was nevertheless
without any earthly father, and was wonderfully endowed by God, was
taken up into heaven, and as the reward of his life was deified, that he
might bo a mediator, to bring man, alienated from God by sin, to the knowl-
edge and grace of God, and that he might reign as the king of his people in
all periods of time. As man is destitute of any natural knowledge of God,
divine revelation is made to correspond with the laws of his mind. Tlie
Socinian explanations of the New Testament were therefore frequently of a'
bold and novel character, but conformed to the prejudices of a limited un-
derstanding, and the ethical system adopted was more of a social than of a
religious nature. Christianity was viewed on the whole as a moral redemp-
tion by our own efforts. Tlie connection with the Anabaptists, which Socinus
found already formed, was very soon broken off. Socinianism was the extreme
of opposition to popery, and was never a true pulsation, but the feverish ex-
citement of the Protestant Church when it was sinking into a chill ortho-
doxy. Its advocates were never regarded by the Protestants as Christians,
and it was only in Altorf, near the commencement of the seventeenth cen-
tury, that they succeeded in forming an organized party. Even this was
soon suppressed. A few literary men, especially among the Arminians, have
been obliged to defend themselves against the reproach of Socinianism. (e)
In Poland, the attack upon Protestantism was most ferocious against the So-
cinians. In 1638 they lost possession of Racau, where the Polish nobility
had been educated, and in 1668 they were entirely exterminated under the
ostensible charge of being traitors to the government. (<Z) The exiled con-
gregations found refuge under the great Elector, and individuals took up their
residence in the Netherlands, but the proper time for Socinianism as a sect
was DOW past.
§ 373. Cattpar Schtcenckfeld of Omng. Sebastian Franc?.'.
ForhU wI1tin«^ see Walch, Bibl. Uieol. Th. IL pi nr.ss. Kuree Lcbensb. Schw. without plice. 1697.
Hi<t Nachr. v. 6chw. sanit Anzahl «r. ^cbrr. PrcnzL 1744. Die weseotl Lchro des Herrn C Scbw.
a. N*. OUoben8genits!H>n. Ur»I. ITTd. {JdAne) Dankb. Erin, an d. Schwenkfelder za Philadelphia. GOrL
191«t — Wlgatuf, d« Schwenkfeldianismo. Lps. 1586. 4. Erbkam^ p. 2i>li^—Franck: I^aradoxa 280
d. L Wanderred. aus d. H. 8. (Ulm. 1534.) 4. Baam d. Wise. Outca il B<«es. Ultn. 15U4. 4. DIo
OaMia Arch. Augsbi 153S. t I>aa vcrbuthschiert init Mbon Sigoln verscbluasne Bnch. (Ibid.) 1589L
£ — S. Tk. WaM, de vita »crlpti« et pjst inyst. S. Francl. ErL 1793. 4 K. am Ende» kUino Nacbloac
za <L nnvoltst Nachrr. v. 8. Fr. Nfirnb. 1796. 4. mit 2. Forta^ 179S-99. Ilaffen vol III. p. 814ea.
J^rbkam, p^ «S6a. C. T. Kaim, d. Itet d. Beicbast Ulm. Stattg. 1651. p. 209sa.
As the Reformation found salvation only in the Scriptures but by means
af a true and saving faith, the latter, when it was especially ardent, some-
times rose against the narrowness and uncertainty of all merely external
e*) Opp. Irenop. 1656. 2 vols, t (Prxypcovim) Vita F. 8. 1686. 4 before 0pp. Boc. u, Bibl. tnt
Ptflonornm. Soulmin^ Mem. of the Life of F. 8. Lond. 1777.
c) Ramhachy ElnL In d. R. Streit d. ev. K. mlt d. Soc Cob. 1758. 2 vola. 4 Zeltner, II. Crypto-
Sodoismi AltorfliUM Acad. InfestL Lps. 1729. 2 vols. 4.
d) Proditiones Arianorum patrUe suae sub tempos belli SaecicL 1657. 4 On the other aide: Z«>
^^^nf4»frfi Memoriale in causa Fratram Unitar. Stetinl. 1659.
434 MODERN CHURCH niSTORT. PER. V. A. D. 1517-l«a
a learned jurist, by mftintaining that the Son was another God of the same
nature, but derived from the Father. He saved his life by a recantation, an
ecclesiastical penance, and an act of perjury at Geneva, but lost it at Berne,
as ho thougTit^ in honor of the Father (156G). (e) David Joris^ a painter
from Delft, who had before been highly esteemed as a prophet in the now
kingdom at Munster, taught that the Trinity was merely a revelation of
God in three different ages of the world, and assembled together Anabap-
tists of all kinds, with the promise that they should take possession of the
earth as the Israelites did of Canaan in the age of the Holy Spirit, which had
made its appearance in him. He was whipped and outlawed, but found an
honorable asylum under an assumed name at Basle (d. 1556). (/) Others
took refuge in Poland, and were there at first known under the common
name of Dissidents, but were, after 1565, expelled from the Reformed Church
as Unitarians, They were not entirely free from persecution, but through
the favor of some powerful supporters they obtained a general centre for
their body at Rncau (1569). (g) In Transylvania a public recognition of the
Unitarians was obtained (1571) by the influence of the Piedmontese Blan^
drata^ the private physician of the prince. Jesus was honored by this sect
simply as a man, but one who was richly endowed by God and exalted for
dominion over the whole world. Adoration was paid to him by most of
them, and those who refused this were persecuted. (A)
§ 872. Socinians,
L Blbl. fratrurn Polon. Ironop. (Amftt) 1656. 8 vols. f. CK Oatorodl, Unterrichtung t. d.
Tlftuptp. d chr. K. Rak. 1604 and oft Catech. Racov. (1609. 12. and oft, Poln. 1605.) ed. Oeder,
Frcf. 178Q. Wigsowatiue, Eel. raUonalls. 1685. Amst. 1708. SUin. LulUniecii, II. reC Pol
FrelPt IC95.
II. JiuddetM, de orlg. Soclnlan. Jen. 1725. 4. Ziegler. Lchrbg. d. F. S<k?. {flenl'^, N. Mag. t»L
IV. p. 201m.) £. Bengel, Ideen i. Erkl. d. See. Lchrbgr. (Tub. Mae. Sr. 14?8^ O. Fock^ der 8o-
einianlAmus in der Qmammtentw. d. cbristl. Gelstes, nach a. hi.st Verlauf. u. Lehrl^egr. Kiel 1841
2 Abth.
Laeliu8 Socinvs, belonging to the noble family of the Sozini of Siena,
spent his time, after 1547, in reformed countries in the character of an
inquiring but sceptical man of letters, under the advice and toleration of the
reformers, and highly esteemed for his honesty and intelligence (d. 1562). (a)
It was by his nephew and heir, Fauafus Socinvs (d. 1604), that the Unitarians
in Poland, with whom he became connected, became organized as a commn-
e) B. Aretiu9y Yal. GendUs Jnsto capitis snpplicio afTec:! II. Gen. 1567. 4. Gent Impietttam «x>
plicatio exactis Senatas Genev. c. praof. Th. Rimte^ Gen. 1567. 4.
/) T H'ondtrboek^ 1542. 4. 1555. f — Hist Dav. Jovla d. Erxketzers, dnrch d. Univ. BaaeL Baa
1509. 4. II. vitac Dav. Georgii hacresiarcbac, conscr. ab ipslas gcnero, Xic. Bletdikio^ ed. J. R^
Tius^ Paventr. 1642. 12 JeAsenimi, aufgedockte Larve Dav. GeorgIL Kiel. 1670. 4.
g) Catecliesis et Conf. fldci coetua per Pol. congregaU in nomine J. C. Cracor. 1574 12. known m
the 1. Uaoovian Catccliisni.
h) Blan 1r. Conf. AnUtr. c. reftatatione Flacii^ ed- I/entf^ tilmst 17M. (0pp. acad. p. %4&.)
Hebtrlf^ a. d. Lchren v. Bland. (T&b. Zeitachr. 1840. II. 4.) — Snmma univ. 'lb. chr. aec Unltarloo
Claudiop. 17S7. (RmenmiUUr^ in Staudlin's n. Tzach. Archlv. t KGeach. vol L H. 1.)
a) Ch. F. lUgtn, Vite L. 8«>cinL Lps. 1814. Symbolae ad vit. et doct L 8. IIL Lpa S P.
1826-44. 4. OrtUi, L. Soc. (Basl. wiaa. Zeitachr. 1824. vol. II. P. a p llSse.) F. Tr^h»el^ LeMo
Bosini XL die Antitrinitarier ar. Zcit Ueidelb. 1844.
CHAP. IV. ULTRAI8TS. $ «72. S0CINIAN8. $ «7a SCHWENCKFELD. 435
nity, and received a complete system of doctrine, (ft) Tlio principal article
of this was an attempt at an accommodation between different parties by the
doctrine, that although Jesus was born a mere man, he was nevertheless
without any earthly father, and was wonderfully endowed by God, was
taken up into heaven, and as the reward of his life was deified, that he
might bo a mediator, to bring man, alienated from God by sin, to the knowl-
edge and grace of God, and that he might reign as the king of his people in
all periods of time. As man is destitute of any natural knowledge of God,
divine revelation is made to correspond with the laws of his mind. Tlie
Socinian explanations of the New Testament were therefore frequently of a'
bold and novel character, but conformed to the prejudices of a limited un-
derstanding, and the ethical system adopted was more of a social than of a
religious nature. Christianity was viewed on the whole as a moral redemp-
tion by our own efforts. The connection with the Anabaptists, which Socinus
fbund already formed, was very soon broken off. Socinianism was the extreme
of opposition to popery, and was never a true pulsation, but the feverish ex-
citement of the Protestant Church when it was sinking into a chill ortho-
doxy. Its advocates were never regarded by the Protestants as Christiana,
and it was only in Altorf, near the commencement of the seventeenth cen-
tury, that they succeeded in forming an organized party. Even this was
soon suppressed. A few Uterary men, especially among the Arminians, have
been obliged to defend themselves against the reproach of Socinianism. (e)
In Poland, the attack upon Protestantism was most ferocious against the So-
cinians. In 1638 they lost possession of Racau, where the Polish nobility
had been educated, and in 1668 they were entirely exterminated under the
ostensible charge of being traitors to the government. {(T) The exiled con-
gregations found refuge under the great Elector, and individuals took up their
residence in the Netherlands, but the proper time for Socinianism as a sect
was now past.
§ 373. Caspar Schicencl'feld of Os»ing, Sebastian Francl:
For his writiniips see WalcK, Bibl. theol. Tli. IL pi &'s&. Kurze Lcben.ob. Schw. without place. 1607.
Hist Nacbr. v. 6chw. saint Anzaiil sr. bclirr. PrcnzL 1744. Die wescntl. Lehre des Herrn C 8chir.
a. »r. GUubeoi>geno&!ion. lir»l. ITTd. {JdKne) Dankb. Erin, an d. Schwonkfelder zu rhila<Ielphla. GOrL
18Ht — 1f/{7ci»M/, de Schwenkfeldlaniamo. Lps. 15S6. 4. Erbkam^ p. ^It^—Franvk : J^araduxa 280
d. L Wunderred. aus d. IL 8. (Ulm. 1584.) 4. Bauin d. Wiw. Outes n. Biisea. Ulm. 1^34. 4. Dlo
OaMia Arch. Au^b. 1533. t Das vcrbaUiachiert init Mbcn i^igoln verschlossne Bnch. (Ibid.) 1589L
£ — S, Th. WaM^ do vita »crlptl» ct syst. inyst. S. Franci. KrL 1793. 4 K. am Ende, kitlne Nacbleao
xa <L anvollst Naclirr. v. 9. Fr. Nornb. 1796. 4. ndt 2. Forta.^. 179!^99. ITagen vol III. p. 814ea.
Jgrbkam, p^ SSCsa. C. T. Kaim, d. Eet d. Beiebsat. Ulm. Stuttg. 1651. p. 209s8.
As the Reformation found salvation only in the Scriptures but by means
of a true and saving faith, the latter, when it was especially ardent, some-
times rose against the narrowne^ and uncertainty of all merely external
b) Opi). Irenop. 1656u 2 vols, t {Prtypcovim) Vita F. S. 1686. 4. beforo 0pp. Boc u. Blbl. tnt,
P(/lonorum. SoulmitL, Mem. of the Life of F. 9. Lond. 1777.
c) Rambach, EinL in d. K. Strelt d. ev. K. mit (L Soc Cob. 1758. 2 vola. 4. Zeltntr, II. Crypto-
Sodoismi Altorfloaf) Acad. Infestl. Lps. 1729. 2 vols. 4.
d) ProiUtiones Arianoram patriae suae sub tcmpus belli SaedcL 1657. 4. On the other aide : Z«>
^ietUeeii Memoriale in causa Fratnim Unitar. StetioL 1650.
434 MODEEN CHURCH niSTORT. PER. V. A. D. 1517-l«a
a learned jurist, by maintaining that the Son was another God of the same
nature, but derived from the Father. He saved his life by a recantation, an
ecclesiastical penance, and an act of perjury at Geneva, but lost it at Berne,
as ho thought, in honor of the Father (156G). (e) David Joris^ a painter
from Delft, who had before been highly esteemed as a prophet in the new
kingdom at Munster, taught that the Trinity was merely a revelation of
God in three different ages of the world, and assembled together Anabap-
tists of all kinds, with the promise that they should take possession of the
earth as the Israelites did of Canaan in the age of the Holy Spirit, which had
made its appearance in him. He was whipped and outlawed, but found an
honorable asylum under an assumed name at Basle (d. 1556). (/) Others
took refuge in Poland, and were there at first known under the common
name of Dissidents, but were, after 1565, expelled from the Reformed Church
as Unitarians. They were not entirely free from persecution, but through
the favor of some powerful supporters they obtained a general centre for
their body at Rncau (1569). {g) In Transylvania a public recognition of the
Unitarians was obtained (1571) by the influence of the Piedmontese Blan'
drata^ the private physician of the prince. Jesus was honored by this sect
simply as a man, but one who was richly endowed by God and exalted for
dominion over the whole world. Adoration was paid to him by most of
them, and those who refused this were persecuted. (A)
§ 872. Sociniana.
I. Blbl. fratrurn Polon. Ironop. (Amst) 1658. 8 vols. f. Ck. Ontorodt, Unterricbtung t. d.
Tlftuptp. d clir. K. Rak. 1604. and oft Catech. Racov. (1609. 12. and oft. Ptiln. 16(V5.) ed. (kdtr^
Frcf. 1780. WiMotpatius, Rel. raUonalis. 1685. Amst. 1708. SUin, Lulienifcii, U. nt PoL
Frelpt 1 085.
II. Buddeus, de orig. Soclnlan. Jen. 1725. 4. Zifgler. Lcbrbg. d. F. S<k;. {Henl-^, N. Mag: vol
IV. p. 201m,) K Bengel Ideen i. Erkl. d. Soc, Lehrbgr. (Tub. Maff. St. U^8^ O. FttcJk, d«T So-
etniaiiiflmuB in der GeMimintentw. d. cbristl. Qel«te9, nach a. bist Verluuf. u. I^brl^egr. Kiel 1841
2 Abth.
Laelitu Socinvs^ belonging to the noble family of the Sozini of Siena,
spent his time, after 1547, in reformed countries in the character of an
inquiring but sceptical man of letters, under the advice and toleration of the
reformers, and highly esteemed for his honesty and intelligence (d. 1562). (a)
It was by his nephew and heir, Faustus Socinvs (d. 1604), that the Unitariaos
in Poland, with whom he became connected, became organized as a commn-
e) li. Aretiua^ Val. Gentllis Jnsto capitis supplicio afTe^tl H. Gen. 1567. 4. Gent Impletatnin «x*
plicatio exactis Senatas Genev. c. praef Th. B^fte, Gen. 1567. 4.
/) T Wonderbo^, 1542. 4. 1555. C— Hist Dav. Jovla d. Erxketzers, durch d. Unir. BaaeL Baa
15C>9. 4. II. vltae Dav. Georgii bacresiarcbae, conscr. ab Ipsius gcnero, Kie. Blfdikio^ ed. J. Rm-
viu^ Pavcntr. 1642. 12 Je^sfiiiuK, aufgedeckte Larve Dav. GeorgiL Kiel. 1670. 4.
ff) CatccbesUi et ConC fldcl coetus per Pol. congregaU in nomine J. C. Cracor. 1574 12. known m
tbe 1. Uacovlan Catecblsm.
h) Blan 1r. Conf. AnUtr. c. reftitatlone Flacli, cd- I/enl't, tilmst 17M. (0pp. acad. p. t4&.)
IlebfrU^ a. d. Lobren v. Bland. (Tub. Zeltacbr. 1840. II. 4,)— 8umma univ. 'lb. cbr. aec Unitarfos
Claudlop. 17S7. {Ro«enmuUsr, in Staudlln'a u. Tzscb. Arcblv. £ KGeacb. vol. L H. 1.)
a) Ch. F. lUgen, Vite L. 8<>clni. Lps. 1814. 8>-mbolae ad vit. et docL L a 111 Lpa S P.
1826-44. 4. Orelli, L. Soc. (B&sl. xvlaa. Zeitscbr. 1824. vol 11. P. & p llSse.) F. Trtchselt Leile
Boslni XL die Antitrinitarier pr. Zcit Ueidelb. 1841
CHAP. IV. ULTRAISTS. $ 872. S0CINIAN9. % 919. SCHWENCKFELD. 435
nity, and received a complete system of doctrine, {h) Tlie principal article
of tbi3 was an attempt at an accommodation between different parties by the
doctrine, that although Jesus was born a mere man, he was nevertheless
without any earthly father, and was wonderfully endowed by God, was
taken up into heaven, and as the reward of his life was deified, that he
might bo a mediator, to bring man, alienated from God by sin, to the knowl-
edge and grace of God, and that he might reign as the king of his people in
all periods of time. As man is destitute of any natural knowledge of God,
divine revelation is made to correspond with the laws of his mind. Tlie
Socinian explanations of the New Testament were therefore frequently of a*
bold and novel character, but conformed to the prejudices of a limited un-
derstanding, and the ethical system adopted was more of a social than of a
religious nature. Christianity was viewed on the whole as a moral redemp-
tion by our own efforts. The connection with the Anabaptists, which Socinus
found already formed, was very soon broken off. Socinianism was the extreme
of opposition to popery, and was never a true pulsation, but the feverish ex-
citement of the Protestant Church when it was sinking into a chill ortho-
doxy. Its advocates were never regarded by the Protestants as Christiana,
and it was only in Altorf, near the commencement of the seventeenth cen-
tury, that they succeeded in forming an organized party. Even this was
soon suppressed. A few literary men, especially among the Arminians, have
been obliged to defend themselves against the reproach of Socinianism. (e)
In Poland, the attack upon Protestantism was most ferocious against the So-
cinians. In 1638 they lost possession of Racau, where the Polish nobility
had been educated, and in 1C58 they were entirely exterminated under the
ostensible charge of being traitors to the government, (d) The exiled con-
gregations found refuge under the great Elector, and individuals took up their
residence in the Netherlands, but the proper time for Socinianism as a sect
was DOW past.
§ 373. Caspar Schicenckfcld of Ouing, Sebastian Francl:.
For his wrltini^ see Walch, Bibl. tlieol. Tii. IL pi C7.ssl Kurze Lebenjib. Schw. without plice. 1697.
Hist Nacbr. v. 8chw. sanit Anzahl »r. ^cbrr. PrenzL 1744. Die wescntL Lelire des Ilerrn G. Scbw.
a. »r. GUabeosf;eni*s.«on. Bml. 177d. {Jdhn«) Dankb. Erin, an d. Scbwenkfelder zu Philadelphia. GorL
18Ht — Wigaiid^^ Schwcnkfeldlanismo. Lps. 1586. 4. £rf/kam, p. SblnA.—Franrl-: I'aradoxa 280
d. L Wunderred. aus d. H. 8. <Ulm. 15^4.) 4. Baum d. Wif«. Outes a. Br«es. Ulin. 1bS4. 4. DIo
Oaldia Arch. Augsbi IStSS. t Das verbuthschiert iiiit MU>n SIgoIn vcrscblossne Bnch. (Ibid.) 15891
£ — S, Th. Wald, do vita scripa.<) et t^jst tnysi. 8. Frnnci. ErL 1793. 4. K. am Ende, kleinc Nacbleao
xa d. anvolIsL Xaclirr. v. S. Fr. Nornb. 1796. 4. ndt 2. Forts?. 179:^99. Ilaffen vol. III. p. 814ea.
JKrbkavn, p. iSOsa. C. T. Kaim, d. Ket d. Ueicbsst Ulni. Stuttg. 1851. p. 2698&
As the Reformation found salvation only in the Scriptures but by means
o( a true and saving faith, the latter, when it was especially ardent, some-
times rose against the narrowness and uncertainty of all merely external
V) Opp. Irenop. 1656u 2 vols, t {Prtj/pcovim) Vita F. 8. 1686. 4. before 0pp. 8oc. u. BlbL frat
Ptflonoram. Soulmin^ Mem. of the Life of F. S. Lond. 1777.
c) Jiambac/L, ElnL In d. R. Strelt d. ev. K. mlt d. Soc Cob. 1T58. 2 vols. 4. Zelttur, U. Crypto-
Bodoismi Altorflnae Acad. InfestL LpH. 1729. 2 vols. 4.
d) Prodltlones Arlanoram patriae suae sub tcmpus belli SaecicL 1657. 4. On the other side : Z«>
^i^tUeeU Memoriale in causa Fratnim Unitar. StetinL 1659.
450 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER V. A. D. 161T-16ia
CHAP. VI.— THE ROMAN CATHOLIO CHURCH.
Sarpi^ PaUaTi'Hni, (p. 359.) YiUe et res gestae Pontlflcam Rom. et Cardd. anctortbns OfomNtio,
Cabrera^ Victorello. Rom. 1680. f. L. Rankt^ d. rom. Piipete, ihro Klrche n. Ibr. Staat im 16^ o.
17. Jabrh. Brl. (1884ss.) ISSTas. 8 vota. Jl^de, &. d. Bchicksale d. E. a. d. Trido&tiBom. (Tlih.
Quartatech. ISM. H. 1.)
§ 881. The Popes in the Age of the Reformation^ till 1685.
Onu/rio Pantini^ Platina restltatus c additlone. Pontt a SIxto IV. usque ad Piom lY. Yen.
1583. 4 and often. A. du Cheane, U. des Papes. Par. 1646. f. oont (till Paul Y.) p. Fr. du C*A«mm^
Par. 165a 2 vula. t Rambach, \l\sL d. P&pste. (oont \>j Bower, 10th voL) Magd. ITTfti S
AbNshn. 4. [B. Platina^ Lives of the Popes from the time of (Hirlst to Slxtns IV. transL and eoat
(till 16S5.) by P. Pj/caut, Lond. 1635. f. liotcer's Lives of the Popes till 175S, coot hj & Jl Qm
till now. 2 od. New York. 1885. 8 vols. 8.]
During the contests between France and Spain for the possesdion of Italy,
Leo X. formed an alliance with the emperor, and died exulting over their
common victory (Dec. 1st, 1521), and with the reputation of having ex-
hausted the revenues of three pontificates. Hadrian VL (1622-28), of
Utrecht, an ardent literary man, hut with no taste for art and poetry, a pre-
ceptor of the emperor, and twice regent of Spmn, though regarding his pos-
session of sovereign authority as the most unfortunate circnmstance of his
Ufe, came to the papal chair entirely unacquainted with Roman affairs, or tbe
various intrigues of that period with respect to Italy, and became most pain-
fully conscious of the dependence of even the best of men upon the times in
which they live. The efforts he put forth for the deliverance of Rhodes
from the hands of the Turks were utterly unsuccessful, and be finally died
under tlio burden of his official duties, (a) Clement VIL (1528-84), a natu-
ral son of Julian de Medici, made an earnest but ineffectual effort for the
independence of Italy (p. 881). Rome was once more plundered by the bar-
barians, and the vicar of Christ was obliged to pay dearly for the procession
w^hich the emperor contrived for his liberation. lie was, however, success-
ful in his policy of employing the imperial forces to secure the possesion of
Florence as an inheritance of his family, and in elevating his niece to the
throne of France, (b) Paul III. (Farnese, 1584-49) was himself acquainted
with polite Uterature, and honored it in others ; he adorned the city of Rome
with many works of art, exhausted his resources in unfortunate schemes to
acquire principalities for his sons and grandsons, and by subsidies against the
Protestants laid the foundation for the load of debt under which the States
of the Church have since groaned. He soon, however, became alarmed at
the sudden success of the emperor, and subsequently, as fur as was possible
for a pope, ho acted in political concert with the Protestants. He appointed
to the office of cardinal men of profound piety, and committed to their hands
the duty of forming a plan for the reformation of the Church. They repre-
sented the papacy as the true source of all abuses, and proposed measures
against the secularization of ecclesiastical offices and endowments, and against
the incompetency and immorality of the clergy. Such a plan the cardinals
concluded should be introduced, only very gradually, and with great secrecy.
a) Biographies by Giovto and others in Burmanf^ (p^ 874)
h) ZUgletf H. Qem. (ScMhonk, Amoenn. H. eee. toL L p. SlOl)
CHAP. VL CATH. CHUECIL 1 881. JULIUS IIL PAUL IV. PIUS IV. 451
The knowledge of it, however, was betrayed to the Protestants, was pub-
lished by ihem to show how much even their adversaries had conceded, and
was eomraented upon by Luther with unreasonable raillery, and the pope
found it better to introduce the inquisition instead of the Reformation, (c)
Julius IIL (Del Monte, 1560-55), with an impudent affectation of modesty,
attempted to justify his elevation of the keeper of hb moukeys to the dig-
nity of a cardinal, and although abundantly competent to the duties of his
station, speut the whole period of his pontificate in enjoying himself in his beau-
tiful villa. There was, however, a party continually becoming more power-
fbl, which was convinced that the Church could never be delivered but by
piety and a rigid morality. Their first choice fell upon Mareellus II. (1555),
but he was destined by Providence barely to make his appearance in the
papal chair. (<0 Paxil IV, (CaraflBi, 1555-59) brought to the throne the
gloomy severity of an octogenarian monk, and was inflexibly strict toward
himself, toward others, and even toward his guilty nephews, but proved him-
self a terrible enemy to heretics, and gathered around himself a shadow of the
ancient hierarchy. For a while his patriotic feelings obtained the mastery,
and induced him to form an alliance with France to effect the liberation of Italy
from the power of Spain. A heretic infantry defended Rome against a Catholic
army, and nothing but Philip^s piety toward his Church prompted him to grant
the pope an honorable peace. On the day he died, his statue was mutilated
by the people, and the house of the inquisition was reduced to ashes, {e)
PiuM IV, (Medici of Milan, 1559-65), condescending and pleasant as he was
by nature, allowed all the measures adopted by his predecessor to remain in
force, eatablbhed the papal authority by his moderation and conciliatory con-
duct toward the princes, conceded the use of the cup in Austria as far as the
German princes and bishops thought it needful for their country, and sus-
tained the heroic efforts of the Knights of 8t John for the deliverance of
IWta. (/) The Dominican Pirn V. (Ghislieri, 1566-72), a i)ious judge in
tQ matters connected with morality and heresy, realized as much as {xissible
in the court and the Church generally, the ideal of the rigidly crevout party,
oicouraged the violent and sanguinary measures then adopted against the
Protestants, and assisted in gaining the naval victory of Lepanto against the
Turks, {g) Gregory XIII, (Buoncompagno, 1572-85) established learned eccle-
iiastical schools especially for missions, corrected the book of canon law by ap-
peals to the original authorities (p. 28G), and the ecclesiastical and civil was
nude to harmonize with the solar year. (/<) In consequence of his attempt to
t) {A. M. Quirini) imago opt Pootificis expraMa fn gieetis P. IIL Brix. 1745. 4. On the other
Me: £Uding, Ep. de g«f^8 P. Lps. 1747. 4. StMhom, Ep. II. de eniendftuda Ecc. Tur. 1748.
W4kk vol. XVL p. 2S948& cf. Bulla licforniat PauH III. ad Hist Ck>ne. Trid. i>ertinons, concepta,
Boa vn%atat ^ Clausen^ Ilavn. 1880. 4. [Noceflsitj of Ref prcaonted to the Diet of 8|M*yer, Letter
«i fuA IIL to Charles V., and Calvin's Kemarka. transL by Beeeridffe, PbUad. 18SS. 18.]
d) P. Pkftidori de vita Marc. IL oomnicntar. Rom. 1741 4
if) A. Curaccioli, Col bi«t de vita P. IV. CoL 1612. 4u F. Magii DIaqq. hist de P. IV. tnculpata
Ttta. N«ap. K78L t Bromato, Storia df Paolo IV. Bom. 1748. 2 vola 4
/) Leomirdi Or. de laudib. Pii IV. Pa<L 1065.
g) //. Catena, ViUdcl P. Pio V. Kom. l&SCi A. J. A. GahuUi de rlU Pfi V. Rom. 160S. t
(icu SS. yia^. Tb. I. p^ 616.) A. Btorii P. V. Rom. 1672. t P. A. Maffei, Vito dl 8. Pio. Ven.
irii. 4 Jiendham, Lifo of S. Plus V. Lond. 1S8&
h) Comp. F. Piper, Oeach. d. Osterfestes a d. EaleDdexreform. BrL 184S.
452 MODERN CUUECH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1648.
relieve the finances of the state by restoring long-forgotten fendal tenures
which he had no power to enforce, he revived old party dissensions, and
increased the nnmber of the banditti until they openly took the field as an
organized array. (0
§ 382. Ignatius de Loyola^ 1491-1566.
I. Ribadeneira, (according to the account of Con8Alrn») Vita Ignat Neap. 1572. and often.
Mnfffi^ (according to the account of Polancus) de vita et m(n1b. Ignat L. Bom. 1535. 4. and often.
Cf. AcU SS. Jul. voL VII. p. 409.
II. Boiihouri^ Vie de S. I^'njico. Par. (1679. 4) ICSO. trans, by ITaza-Iladlitz. Vlen. 18». Gtnetii,
Leben d. h. Ign. v. L. Innspr. 1S47.— /Afn^*, Lebon I. L. Bo^ 1721. F. KortHm^ EntMebnngi-
geech. d. J. O. Mannh. lS48b [/. Taylor, Loyola an<l Jesuitism In Its Budlmenta. Lond. 1849. 8. K
W. OrinJMd, Hist of tbo Jesuits. Lond. 1:^53. 8. T. J. Bum^ Gesch. d. Ordens. d. J. only Part L If
published. Lps. 1858.]
Don Inigo de Loyola^ a i^ative of the mountains in the Basque provinces
of Spain, was thrown upon a sick-bed in consequence of severe wounds re-
ceived during the heroic defence of Pampeluna (1521), and while reading
the history of the saints, became filled with a longing to acquire, like St.
Francis, a glorious crown in heaven by earthly sufferings. Having been
betrothed as a spiritual Amadis to the Holy Virgin, he endeavored by ex-
treme self-denials and temptations to acquire an education and sphere of
activity worthy of such a knighthood. With six companions in the Church
of the Virgin Mary at Montmartre (1534), besides taking the ordinary monas-
tic vows, he solemnly pledged himself to take care of himself, to minister to
pilgrims, to seek the conversion of the Saracens, and to receive with the
most confiding obedience every command which the Holy Father might
impose with respect to any sphere of duty. After much reflection, Paul
III, (1540) granted this Society of Jeaus^ which at first consisted of but sixty
members, his permission to devote themselves as a community to the ad-
vancement of the soul in the Christian life and faith, and as a military com-
pany to the extension of Christian truth, (a) Ignatius was elected the firrt
general ofHhe order, and he obtained for it (1545) all the privileges of the
mendicant friars. He soon saw it extending into all parts of Europe, and
under the conduct of Xavier, developing its operations for the conversion of
the heathen beyond the ocean. The mind of Ignatius was somewhat con-
tracted, but he possessed an indomitable wiU, and his whole life was spent in
the relief of the sick, the instruction of children, and the care of souls. He
endeavored always to keep his mind so occupied with spiritual exercises, that
his religious feelings and his imagination were in continual excitement, and
yet were firmly held in a given direction, (h)
0 M. A. Ciappij Comp. delle attioni e s. vlU di Or. Bom. (1591.) 1596w i. Ji Bomptani B. pen-
tif. Gr. Dill. 1685. Mvffei, Ann. Gr. Bom. 1742. 2 vols. 4.
a) Litt. apost, quibus institutio, conflnn. et yarla privUL continentur 8. J. Antr. ICSfi.
b) Exercitia splritualla 8. P. Ign. Loyolae. Antv. 1689. and often. Lond. 1888. Directorlam la
exerc. spir. Antv. 1688.
OHAP. VL CATtt CnURCII. § 8S8. JESUITISM. 453
§ 388. Jesuitism,
L ConsHtntiones Soc. Jean. (Knm. 1588.) Antu. 1685. (Corpus {n^titatorum B. J. Anto. 1703. 9
Tote. 4) InBtitatam 8. J. Prag. 1757. 2 vols. 4 Hist 3. J. anctore Orlandino, (Rom. 1G15.) Sac-
ehino, Poh^no^ Juvencio^ Cordara. Antu. 1620. 1750. G vol& f.
IL HUL d« la comp. de Jesus. Par. 1740. 4 vols, and often. Illst Ehrcntempcl d. Qcsell. J.
VIen. 1S41.— ^. C. DaUtrs, H. of the Josultst Lond. 1S16. 2 vols. Mlt Erl. (v. F. v. Kett.) DQsseld.
1*». t vols. iL Nachtr. MQncb. 1S21.--& SugenJuim^ Gesch. d. Jes. In DeutschL Frkf. 1848. 2 vols.—
/?. lIoif>inititti H. Jesuitica. (Tig. 1619.) Gen. 1670. f. Jlarenherg^ pragm. Gesch. d. O. d. J. Hal.
I76a 2 vols. {AdHung) Vra. e. Gesch. d. J. Brl. n. Hal. 1769s. 2 vt.ls. P. P. Wolf, allg. Gesch. d. J.
(ZQr. 17S9sa.) Lps. 180a 4 vols. SpittUr, Q. Gesch. u. Vorf d. J. O. Lps, 1817. [Cretinfnn Jolij, Illst
r*L poL et lit de la Comp. d. J. Par. 1S46. 2 ed. 6 vols. 12. A. SteinmtU, Hist of J. from the Germ.
Philad. 1S40. 8 vols. Rafcaignan^ Life and Inst of J. New York. 12. K Duller^ J. as they were
and are, flrom the Germ. Lond. 1S45. 12. W. H. RuUy Celebrated Jei(nit^ Xavler, Lnynez, Garntilt
Bellarmiiie, Schall, and Gruber. Lond. 1858. 8. MlcheUt &, Quinet, The J. fk-om the Fr. New York.
1S42. 12. J. Poyndtr, H. of the J. Lond. 1816. 2 vola Svo.]
A few sagacious and enthusiastic spirits connected with the order, well
understood the peculiar wants of the ago, and by a dexterous adaptation of
it to these, even under the administration of its second General Lainez (d.
1564), it became conscious of its general power to maintain the cause of the
hierarchy against Protestantism, whether within or beyond the limits of the
Roman Church. Before any could become members, they were required to
pass through a novitiate, in wliich they were severely and appropriately
tested. Of the actual members, some were called scholastics, others coadju-
tors, secular or spiritual, and only a few choice spirits reached the perfect
dignity of the Professed. From the latter were chosen the principal officers,
the Soperiors, and the Provincials, constituting a well organized train of
anthorities up to the General of the Order in Rome with his assistant Coun-
cil. Every individual was powerful in his appropriate sphere, but in every
act be was closely watched and guarded lest he should transcend his proper
limits. So perfect was the obedience inculcated by a long course of disci-
pline, and strengthened by every spiritual means, that with the exception of
some internal storms, a single arbitrary but inflexible will controlled every
moTement of the order in all parts of the world. And yet, although each
isdividual possessed no more will of his own than the particular members of
the human body, he expected to be placed in precisely that position in which
his talents would be best developed for the common benefit, in exercises of
monastic devotion, in literary and scientific pursuits, in the secular life of
courts, or in strange adventures and eminent offices among savage nations.
All became accustomed to regard the order as their only home, and their
superiors as their only providence. The movements of this order were not
impeded by the clumsy machinery of ancient monasticLsm, for it had at its
command all kinds of ecclesiastical dispensations, and as a third kind of
monasticism, completely restored to the various occupations of the Avorld, it
entered into every relation of social and secular life, (ft) At the close of the
century in which it was established, by the multitude of its members engaged
in the instruction of youth, and appointed to be the guardians of i)riiiccs, it
had become the most important power in the Catholic Church. The Jesuits
also endeavored to become proficient in every kind of intellectual cultivation.
a) II. r. Or€Ui^ d. Weeen d. Jai Ordeoa. p. 186p.
454 MODEBN CnUBCH HISTORY. PER. T. A. D. iMT-ie48L
as the only way to obtain ascendency in the world of mind. Bat although
they had among them a multitude of learned men in every department of lit-
erature, the curse of their struggle against human freedom rested vpoo
them, and not a single great work was given by them to the worid. FnH
of pomp as their churches generally were, very little genuine taste, and
scarcely any true works of art, were to be seen, and they seemed like post-
humous sons of their parent Catholicism. They gave their conntenanoe to
every fantastic and gloomy superstition, though it must be conceded that it
was a Jesuit whose tender spirit moved him to be the first to arouse the
people by his awakening appeals against the abominations of the trials of the
witches, (b) In spite of the ill-will of the other orders, and the snspieioiis
of some governments, public sentiment in Catholic countries was in their
favor. But in their efforts to become all things to all men, and to make the
way of salvation easy, some of them indulged in an inconsiderate boldness of
assertion, which was not properly rebuked by their leaders, and thus tlietr
enemies found occasion for accusing them of maintaining the hierarchiea]
views of former times (p. 834) respecting the inferior importance of ordinary
duties in comparison with the attainment of a supreme object, of putting
forth general maxims dangerous to the security of aU laws, and of oompoeing
a science of casuistry, in which pedantry and frivolity were equally coaspicn-
ous, but which seriously impaired the inviolability of the moral law. (r)
§ 884. The C(ntn€%l of Trent Dec, 18, 1546-jD«5. 4, 1568.
L Cftnoncs et deer. C. Trfd. Som. 15M 4 and oft. ed. Jod. is Phtt, Lor. 1770 4 Lpa. 185ft Ate
B. Congr. Card. Cone. Trid. interpretam Resolutiones et GoDsUtt PoattC reoratlorM ad laaooauam*
Bpect ctl. Aem. L. RichUr, Lpa. 1S5S. [CanonB and Decrees of the (Ecamen. Coiiacll of Ttaot.
transl. by J. WaUncorth, with Essays on the Hist of the CoaocU. liood. 1848. 8]— (/*. eC J. du Pny)
Instmctions et n)is.oives des Hofs dc France et de leurs Ambaas. et antres actes eonctm. le dme da
TV. Par. (1607.) ed. 4 1654. 4. Lett et M^mofree da Fr. de Vargat^ etc; trad. p. M. de F«ai»r,
Anist 1699. lat fee. Schntmm, Bmnsv. 1704. 4. Moon, ad Ilkt C. Tr. spect amplta. CoL of, Jod.
U PUit, Lov. 17S1-7. 7 vols. 4. G. J. Planck, Aneedota ad U. C. Tr. Oott 1791-181& 25. Fasec; J.
MendhariL, Memuirs of the Council of Trent Losd. ISM. 4. Acta C Tr. ab a. UMl a 6dhr. ftar>
dinaU PaUotto descr. ed. Mend ham, Lond. 1849L [The ConncU of Tf. and tta pfOoaedin|giL (FnK
Board of Publ.) Philad. 1885. 18.]
H. Sarpi, PaUavicini (p. 850.) [P. P. Sarpi, H. of the C of Tr. traul. bj A Mtmnt, Lond.
1676. t P. S. PaUavicini, IL du Cone dn Trcnte. Montronge. 1844. 8 Tola 8] Cooip. J. K, JBHttekar,
Beurtb. d. Controversen Sarpi's a. Pall T&b; 1848. 2 rola. L JSU. du Pin, B. dv C da Treate;.
Brax. 1721. 2 voi.«. 4. Silig, Tollst Hiat des Tr. Gone HaL 1741 sbl S toIb. A. J, M. GieeU^ Geach.
d. C. z. Tr. Katisb. 1840. 2 voI& Weweriberg (p. 277.) toI IIL IV. J.T.L. Dana^ Gaedi. d. Tr. C
•len. 1816. [Bungener, Hist of C. of Trent from the Germ. Lond. 1853. ^ A, L. Riekier^ Caoona
and Decrees of the C. of Trent Berl. 1856. 9.]
The general conncil long called for by the nations of Europe to restore
peace to the Church, and to reform its abuses by a process accordant with
legal forms, was finally convened by Paul IIL The objects expressed in the
h) {Fr. Spee) Cautio criminaUs & de process, c. safas. Rint 1681. FreC 16M. a»d olUa.
c) Especinlty after TK Sanchte, de sacramento matrlm. Gen. 169Sl 8 Tola, and eft. A. #« K»^
har, L. The«>I. moralis, 24 8. J. Doctoribus reaeratoa. Lngd. 1648. and oft— Satire: Moaita prirata
8. J. Notubirgac (Krakaa> 1612. and oft— JC Chemnitiiu, TheoL Jeaoritar. praec cappc Lpi«. 15;'>ii.
l>octrinae Jesuitar. praec. capp. conftitata. Rapellae ed. 2. 1564. {G Sdoppiuey Aaatomla 8. J. 1<»K,
4. {X. PerranU) La Morale des J68i oxtralte de lears Ilfrea. Mon& 1609L 8 toIil 12. J, MtUndot/,
d. Moral u. Pulitik d. J. Darmst 1840.— Defence : J. R Leu, Beitrr. z.WGirdl^ d. J. O. (^er Mrblar.)
Lac. 1840. F. J. Bum, Die Geaellaeh. J. Mainz. 18S& Abth. L
CHAP. YL CATH. CUUBCIL % 884 COUNCIL OF TBENT. 455
tenns of the call were to exterminate heretics, and to secure definitively the
internal unity of the Church, in the Romish sense of these terms. It was
opened at Trent just as war had been declared against the Protestants, but
after the emperor^s victories, the pope saw that the imperial influence waa
greater in a council assembled in a German territory than that of the Holy
Spirit. The place of meeting was therefore changed to Bologna (1547), un-
der the pretence of danger from a pestilence, and when the imperial bishops
sdll remuned at Trent, it was adjourned to 1548. Julius III. so far yielded
to the threats and promises of the emperor, that he ordered the syno<l to
oontinae its sessions at Trent on May 1, 1551. Some Protestant delegates
had already arrived, and others were on their way, when for fear of Maurice
of Saxony, the assembly adjourned April 28th, 1552, for two years. It was
Doti however, reassembled untU by order of Pius IV., Jan. 8, 1562. The
order of business for the assembly, after every thing that could produce any
reooUecdon of Basle was set aside, was entirely under the control of the pre-
ading legates. The twenty-five sessions were merely public solemnities, at
which the decrees debated and prepared in the committees were openly pro-
ckumed. The decrees were passed by a migority of the bishops and generals
of orders present at the time, of which the Italians were more numerous
than all the other nations together. The opposition, especially of the French
and Spamsh bishops, became sometimes very formidable, and by these the de-
mands of the Protestant deputies were welcomed with much favor, (a)
£ven the fundamental doctrines of the Protestants respecting the Scriptures
and Justification, or views consistent with them, found some to advocate
them, (b) and the emperor, with the French king, made important demands
for a reformation; but when this liberal party was seen to have become
Protestant, or were frightened by finding themselves tending toward that
result, the papal party by treaties with the courts and with individual pre-
lates obtained a complete victory, (c) Decrees respecting doctrines, and de-
crees for the reformation of tlie Church, were after tlie fourth session
published alternately. The former contained a revision of the previous sys-
tems of doctrine, and as far as the dogmas of the middle ages advocated by
the different theological schools could be made to harmonize, thoy were
stamped with the seal of infallibility, and most of the Protestant deviations
from them were condemned. In the decrees for reformation, many salutary
rules were adopted for the government and discipline of the Church, and
many canons of the ancient Church were revived. These decrees were all
confirmed by Pius IV., who reserved to himself the paptd prerogative of ex-
plaining them as he pleased. The S3mod of Trent was accepted uncondition-
ally by most of the Italian States, by Portugal, Poland, and the emperor; and
with a reservation of the royal prerogatives by Spain, Naples, and Belgium ;
with some exceptions by Switzerland and Ilungary ; and only so far as re-
spects doctrines by France, (d)
a) Varga^ Lett et Mem. p. 408a. Wees^nberff^ yoL IIL p. Sllra.
b) Sarpi I IL p. MQsft. 8228a. Pallacleini yill, 11. 4. Ilormayr^ Tascbenb. f. vaterl Oeech.
ISSt. pk laOMk c) Rankt^ Pipftte toL L p. SSSsa.
d) Camrayw^ H. de U reception da C de Trenta. Amst 1756^
456 MODEBN CHURCH HISTOBT. FEB. T. A. D. 18ir-164&
§ 885. Sixtu9 F. April 27, 1686-^w^. 27, 1690.
Robardi, 8Ixti V. go^ta qulnqacnnalia. Rom. 1590. 4. Leti^ Vita dl Sisto Y. Locannm. 1969. 9
Th. later in 8 vols, and often, esfi in Fr. Par. 1702. 2 vola. Defended with a parti«an liplrlt bj C.
Tempettiy Storla dclla vita e geste di Bisto Y. Rom. 1755. 2 vola. 4 Comp. Rante^ Pupate. Tel.
IIL p. 817n.
Felix Peretti made liis way from the herd to the throne by his pionn zeal
as a Franciscan, a preacher, and an inquisitor, and when a cardinal under tlie
name of Montalto (after 1576), by an humble deportment and a complete
renunciation of his natural and impetuous love of command. The style in
which this contrast between his earlier and his later life is mentioned io
popular accounts, only shows by what qualities and conduct the people of that
period generally believed that the triple crown could best be won. Having
attained this highest point of his ambition, Si^tng F. thought that nothing
was impossible for him, and while grasping with his utmost power every
thing actual and possible, he busied himself with the most fantastic and stu-
pendous plans. The utmost that human power and sagacity oould do was
accomplished by him in maintaining the papal authority, in opposition to
princes who were either contending for the Reformation, or had already
made peace with its friends. Instead of vainly attempting to put down here-
tics, he concluded that he might profitably make use of them in firmly bind-
ing the Catholic kings to the interests of the papal see. But in the contest
between France and Spain, he saw only a contention between the mOder and
the more rigid parties in the great Catholic body itself, and hence his atten-
tion was distracted and his practical energy was enfeebled. Under his direc-
tion the banditti were completely destroyed ; by the exercise of an inexorable
and almost barbarous severity the authority of law was re-established in his
territories ; a wise system was put in practice for the support of tbe poor ;
industry was awakened ; the Vatican library attained a magnificent size; vari-
ous works in biblical literature were printed ; the printing-press in the Vati-
can for the publication of all that has reached us from the ancient Church,
beginning with the Scriptures, wa<i established ; the vast works of antiquity
were rescued from their rubbish, as far at least as they could become useful
in illustrating the triumphs of the cross ; and, although he placed by the side
of these many new edifices not unworthy of the association, and even en-
riched his relatives, he left behind him a vast treasure in the castle of St.
Angelo, from loans and an increased sale of offices, to be used by his suooess-
ors only in cireunistanccs strictly defined. His government was not accord-
ing to the taste of the Roman people, and the Jesuits, whom he hated, did
much to curtail his reputation, if not his life. But so profound and so poetio
was the impression which he produced upon his contemporaries, that even in
his own age his hopes, his achievements, and his fortunes became incorpo-
rated in various forms among the legends of the people.
§ 386. Pope^ of the Seventeenth Century,
Clement VIIL (Aldobrandini, 1592-1605) was in the sight of God ancL
man a priest of extraordinary piety in the ecclesiastical sense of tliat word.
In spite of the opposition of the rigidly Catholic party, with a wise ostenta-
CHAP. VI. CATH. CHURCH. S 8861 CLEMENT VIIL PAUL V. OBEQOBY XV. 457
tion Le absolved Henry lY. from papal exoommanicatioD, and thereby formed
& needfnl ooanterbalance to the oppressive friendship of Spain. He was
obliged to act with zeal against the Edict of Nantes, and yet toward indi-
vidual Protestants he exhibited many tokens of personal friendship. His
inflnence upon France, Spain, and Savoy was that of a prince of pe.ice ; but
when the tme house of Este had become extinct, he took possession of Fer-
rara as an escheated fief, by military force, preceded by tlie terrors of an ex-
oommunication* By sach means a termination was given to the exercise of
arbitrary power in Ferrara, bat with it aL<u> ceased the cheerful splendor of a
eourt adorned by knights, art, and literature, (a) Paul V, (Borglicse, 1605-21)
regarded himself as the appointed instrument of the Holy Ghost to render
the decretals of his predecessors equal in authority to divine laws, in an age
which he misunderstood. This produced many disagreements between him
and the different Italian states, respecting the limits of jurisdiction possessed
by the spiritaal courts. With Venice, where the power of tlie state was held
in the highest esteem, this controversy {)roceedcd to an open rupture when the
pope demanded that certain clerg}'men who had been condemned for some
capital offences, should be delivered up to him, and that a law should be re-
pealed by which an increase of the property of the Church in real estate was
forbidden. The Venetian senate was excommunicated by the pope, and the
territories under their control were placed under an interdict (Ai>ril 17, 1606).
The papal ban was declared by Venice to be unjust, and therefore void. The
Servite, Paolo Sarpi^ an intelligent and highly educated man, and of rigid
Gfttholic piety with respect to his mode of life, justified the republic in the
eyes of foreign nations, and quieted the minds of the Venetian people by
strengthening a consciousness of their rights. When the pope therefore saw
that his interdict was despised, and that Ferrara was in peril, he was obliged
to avail himself of the mediation of France to effect a peace, leaving the
rights of the republic unimpaired (1607). (h) He was more successful in
laying a permanent basis for the wealth of his own family, by the destruction
of the unfortunate house of Cenei, Sarpi was included in the stipulations of
the peace, and although well acquainted with the ordinary practice of the
Roman curia, he continued with all the lawful means which history affords,
to protest, like another Paul withstanding Peter, against the arbitrary aggres-
sions of the pope upon the liberties of the Church and state (d. 1023). (c) On
the other hand the pope had himself saluted as the Vicar of God, and the
valiant preserver of the papal omnipotence, (d) Gregory XV, (Ludovisi,
16Sl-2d), who always lived on the brink of the grave, gave a permanent
form to the rules by which the election and consecration of the pope should
a) Lettres da Card. cTOwat. Par. 1627. f. Amrt. 1732. 6 vols. Lea ambM»ades da Card, au PfT"
«>«* Par. 1623. t—U Wadding, ViU Clem. VIII. Rom. 1728. 4.
2») Interdict! VeneU H. aaet Paulo 8arpi ex ital. Cantabr. 1726. 4. Contmr. inter P. M. et Vene-
tos BfCta et scrr. ex Ital. lu villa San Vincentluna 1607.
«■) Opere (with hla Vita by Fulffenzio). Yen. 1677. 5 vols. 12. GrUeinni (Memorle aDoddot«.
^*^naL into Germ, by Le Bret, Ulm. 1761.) del genlo dl Fra Paolo. Yen. 17S5. {Fontanini, Storla
■''casAdl Fra Paolo. Yen. 1808.) BlancM-Giovini, Biogr. dl Fra P. Znri^. 1336. 2 voU E. M&ncK,
I*** P. SarpL Carkr. 1889L
*) Bn)9ii PaoloB V Borghesioa. Bom. 1624.
458 MODEBN CnXTSCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1S17-16«L
henceforth he condacted, (e) canonized the founders of the order of the
Jesuits, whose pupil he had heen, made a powerfnl effort to maintain the Ger-
man war, and received the Palatine library as his share of the booty. (/)
Urban VI I L (Barberini, 1623-44), although folly oonscions of his eminent
dignity and talents, was contented with the prosecution of such designs as
belonged to him in the character of an Italian prince, the oonstmction of a
few forts, and the conduct of an inglorious war against the house of the Far-
nese. For a while his policy was favorable to the cause of the Protestant
powers, and the rigid Catholics complained that the pope stood as cold as ioe
in the midst of the conflagration of churches and monasteries. Bnt he pro-
tested against the compulsory concessions made at the treaty of Prague, main-
tained the most rigid system of Catholicism, and gave the final form to the
bull In coenu Domini (p. 811), in which nearly all the claims of the mediaeval
hierarchy are advanced, and not only Saracens, pirates, and prinoea who im-
pose arbitrary taxes, but Lutherans, Zwinglians, and Calvinists, were anathe-
matized, {g)
% 887. Law and Political delations.
It was principally through the labors of some learned Jesuits that the
ideas of the middle ages were now reduced to a regular theocratic system of
policy, the fundamental principle of which was that the state is to the choroh
what the body is to the soul. It was contended that although this body lives
in accordance with its own laws, it should nevertheless be subservient to the
great objects of the soul, and in extreme cases should be sacrificed for the sal-
vation of the soul. It was also conceded that the royal power is not derived
from the pope, and is not subject to him, and yet where the salvation of the
soul demands such a sacrifice, the pope has a right to depoee even kings, and
the inquisition is authorized to take away their Hves, since every earthly
power loses its rights when they are abused for the injury of religion. Ac-
cording to this system the sacerdotal power was committed to a distinct order
of men by God, and the royal power was derived from the people, so that
the advocates of this system carried out the doctrine of the sovereignty of
the people to its extreme results, (a) Not only individual Jesuits taoght that
it was lawful and even pleasing to God to slay a tyrannical king, but even the
Sorbonne decided (1589) that the French people ought to have no scruples
of conscience in taking up arms against their king, (b) This was, it is true,
intended to express a decision on a particular case, and was directed only
against those kings who threatened the interests of Catholicism. But the
majesty of even Catholic kings was made to depend upon religious considera-
f) Ingoli. Coeremonlale ritas electionlB Bom. Pont Bom. 1621. Z«fuu2oro, B«Uiioa« d«]l« eortd
di Kotna. Rom. ed. 5. 1S24. 2 vols. 12.
/) A ug. Theiner, 8ch<>nkung der Heidelb. BfbL a. Ibre Yeneud. ntoh Bom. Miknoh. 1844.
g) liuUar. Hum. vol. IV. p. llSss. Le Bret (jx 811.) 1. 8. Tol. 2 «d. 1772.— iS Simonim, SylvM Ui^
banUnae & gesta Urb. Antu. 1687.
a) J. Mariana, de Kege et Bcgia InadtatioDe I III. Totot 1508. & often. BeUarmi$t^ de
tale Snmmi Pontif. in temporal. Bom. 1610. At often. SuareB, Def. fldel oath. adr. ai^Ua
rorea. Conimb. 1613. & often.
b) Be^ponsam facaltatis tbeol ParisienaiB. (A.ddiUooa an Jonnial da H«iU7 IIL ToL L pi 8170
Cn^P. YL OATH. CHTIRCH. % 887. LAW. POLITICAL BELATIONS. 459
tions, and under the sway of a king whom the pope had approved, this same
Sorbonne condemned the very doctrine (1694) which had produced the vio-
lent death of two kings of France, (e) Wherever Protestantism maintained its
existence under the government of Catholic princes, the power of the sove-
reign was limited hy the states, but no sooner did Catholicism obtain the
victory than he was freed from all such restraints. In Venice a system of
political science was composed without reference to religious creeds. (fT)
"When Paul IV. pronounced the election of the emperor invalid, because it
liad been held without his mediation, and by heretical princes, he perceived
that the Roman authority in such matters was despised by every one in Ger-
many, whether belonging to the new or to the old religion, (e) and the imperial
coronation has ever since been a high festival, which in the view of the na-
tion had no relation to Rome. The popes were well aware that their cause
oould not then dispense with the favor of the princes ; and although they still
derived regular revenues from the appointment of ecclesiastical offices, in-
stead of drawing money from the princes, these princes received large sums
from the hand of the popes. By such subsidies for maintaining the contest
against the Protestants, and by numerous gifts for the establishment of rela-
tives, the debts of the Roman court finally became so enormous, that under
Urban VIII. they amounted to thirty millions of scudi, and half the papal
revenues were consumed in the payment of the interest. (/) This burden,
however, by an artificial system of finance was rendered not unacceptable to
many wealthy persons, and a vast influence was acquired, since it now be-
came the interest of independent men of wealth to sustain the papacy. The
pope looked upon himself as far superior to any council, to whose decisions he
paid deference merely from his own free grace. He maintained that even
in doubtful matters the Church was bound to regard him as infallible, that it
might not act against conscience when going against his decision, (ff) The
appointment of nearly all prelates depended upon the will of the princes, and
the consent of the pope. It was in the German bishoprics that the influence
of the emperor was the least, but the popes generally found it expedient to
consult the wishes of the German princes in the appointment of their younger
sons. In the new form of their oath the bishops were obliged to swear obe-
dience to the papacy rather than to the Church, and that they would perse-
cute heretics to the utmost of their power, (h) In most of the principal
cities permanent nunciatures were formed, with high plenipotentiary powers*
that through them the influence of the papacy might become as it were uni-
▼ersal. The Gallican Church alone kept itself aloof from these agencies, (t)
e) Argentre (p. 851.) vol. II. p. 4S4.
ef) Comp. J. 0. de Jonge^ Nederland en Venetia Oravonhag. 180^
«) Dr. Sfld in Ooldast pol. Roicbsh&ndL toI. Y. p. 167.
/) Rnixk*^ Pilpste, vol. II L p. 10«.
g) Pallnvicini, XIII, !«. Le Plat, Monn. ad H. 0. Trid. toL TI. p. SOeas. SMarm, de Bom.
Ptmt IV, 5.
h) From the PontiJtcaU Romanum, Btimae 1605. In Elchhom, KBeobt vol. I. p. OQtei — {RaU'
imuh^uck) Abh. fL d. Eld, welcben die dt Biscbofe abzalegen baben. Ylen. 1781.
f) (F. V. MoMr) 0«scb. d. NnnUen In DentaobL Frkf: 17SS. 2 vols. (Weidenfeld) Entwickl. d. Dis-
ptna-n. NnntiatarstrelUgk. (Bonn.) 178S. 4 L, Snell, Gescb. d. Einfubr. d. Xant in d. Schwaii.
Bad. 1847.
460 MODERN CHUBCH UI8T0BT. FEB. Y. A. D. UlT-16ia
The Roman court also began now to bestow as a matter of grace, and for a
definite period (facnltates qninqnennales), especially upon the German bish-
ops, the right to grant, as the missionary interests of their present and pro-
spective dioceses seemed to require them, dispensations of marriage, and ex-
emptions A*om Catholic appointments, (k)
§ 888. Great GJuinge in the Character of Catholieism,
In the struggle then going forward new attacliments for the Church began
to be developed, and the hierarchy discovered that their salvation depended
principally upon religious considerations. Hence some of the worst abuses in
the admiuistration of the Church were removed, indulgences were no longer
exposed for sole, (a) it was found to be useless to threaten any one with the
papal ban, and it was only in Rome that excommunication was sometimes
resorted to as an assistance to the police. By a very gradual enforcement of
the Tridentine decrees, the clergy were compelled to live respectable lives.
In the principal sees of the Church, their worldliness was now exchanged for
a solemn and imposing splendor, piety generally took the form of a sentimen-
tal devotion, and as those who were known to possess it had reason to expect
the blessings of fortune and ecclesiastical honors, we may suppose that selfish
views and artifice were sometimes mingled with it. That which had for-
merly been done in the Church with no thought of opposition, now fire-
quently brought upon the actors a high degree of suspicion and persecution.
The same clergy to whom Gerson had once been a leader, now reftised to
tolerate Richer^ who sought to find in the liberties of the Galilean Church
protection for not only the rights of the state, but also for those of the gene*
ral Church, which he claimed to be subject to the Son of God as its only
supreme monarch. He was compelled to recant his opinion by Richelieu^s
assassins, and in the midst of his persecutions died (1631). (ft) Galilei (d.
1688) was obliged solemnly to retract his assertion that the earth moves
around the sun. (c) The Humanists were compelled to give way before the
inquisition, and the enthusiasm which had sprung up in favor of antiquity
was unable to maintain its ground against the rising spirit in behalf of the
Church. The instruction of youth in the higher departments of learning
was now in the hands of the Jesuits, who regulated it by the strictest rules,
gave it almost exclusively a spiritual direction, and confined the intellect
within certain definite limits. From a dislike to the universities, the hier-
archy began to prefer that the clergy should be educated in episcopal semi-
naries. The control which the inquisition possessed over books made them
k) O. Mej€r, d rum. Curie. (Richter a. Jaoobe. Zeitsch. £ Secht n. PoUt d. K. 1847. p. SlSa.)
Hid, Propaganda, vol. II. p. 2108s.
a) C-«»mp. Pfseheck, klrchengescb. MiscelL (Zt?Itsch. f. List Th. 1989. P. 8.)
b) De eco. et pel. poteetate. Par. 161L and oft Apologia pro Oersonio, denno Lb & 167a. 4. —
BaiUeU la vio d'Kdmond Richer, Doct de Sorbonne Liege. 1714.
c) Paulas, GaL KampC C d. Rationalism. (Beitrr. x. Dognien-, K. n. Re£. Oesch. 1887. p^ 8248a.)
Mohnike, z. Gesch. QaL (6tud. a. Krit 1882. P. 1. p. 845.) Der h. Stahl gegen GaL (Hist poL BL
184L vol. YII. P. 7-10.) [Life of Gal. in Lib. of ITseful KnowL pp. 6S-61. Lond. 188& li. Lifo of
GaL Galilei, Ac Boston. 1S32. 12. D. BrewtUr, Martyrs of Science^ Lond. ISIL & Edinb. Kev. (In
Eclectic Mag. Oct 1S41) April, 1S44 Art Martyrs of Science.]
CHAP. VL CATH. CHURCH. $883. FRANCIS OF 8 ALESL BORROMEO. 461
more powerful in Soathem Europe than they could be by any punishments
they could inflict. The censorship was rendered complete by the index of
prohibited books, the number of which was swelled by the well-contested
rivalry between the Roman and the Spanish inquisitions (after 1558). The
works of Catholic and classical writers were given to the world in mutilated
editions. Personal solicitude for the faith and ignorance far exceeded the
limits which the necessities of Catholicism required, (d) This dread of intel-
lectual activity produced a passionate, servile, and malignant spirit on the
part of the hierarchy. The religion of the common people, however, still
remained sincere ; and although persons were often canonized for political rea-
sons, and for their large fees, many genuine saints were found in the humble
walks of life. Francis of Sidea^ Bishop of Geneva (d. 1622), by the popular
cordiality of his mysticism, which called on men to renounce their own wills
even when directed to beneficence, and by an earnestness which concerned
itself with nothing but religion, was more efficient in the edification of be-
lievers than in the conversion of heretics. (^) The Castilian Theresa (d.
1582), after passing through many temptations to worldly pleasure, and
many sufferings, had her heart pierced as it were with the arrows of divine
love, possessed ineffable enjoyments during her seasons of ecstasy, and spent
her life in bringing the female department of the Carmelite order to the
severe discipline of ancient times. (/) Carlo Borroineo (d. 1687), a relative
and favorite of the pope, was elevated even when a youth to the see of St,
Ambrose, possessed great influence in the papal court, and at the Council of
Trent, was full of zeal against the heretics on the southern declivities of the
Alps, although he relied entirely upon the power of the divine word. By his
gentleness and strictness he bestowed great blessings upon his native province,
and his lofty fonn appears to look down upon it even now in the act of bless-
ing and guarding it. (g) But even that older form of Catholicism which had
prevailed in the time of the Councils of Constance and Basle, could not be
entirely extingmshed, for it bore a prominent part in the religious changes
which then took place, and in the reformations conducted by the partisans of
Catholicism. The former tendency was represented by Henry IV., and the
latter by Philip II., not on account of the accidental qualities which be-
longed to the character of those individuals, but because each of them was
like the summit of a mountain, the most prominent among his people.
d) Index expnrgAtorius. Antu. 1571. Arg. 1609. Indices librr. prohlbitomm ot expargandor.
1067. and others. [The Vatican Index Expnrg. ed. by /?. Gibbings^ DubL 1887. 12] Dan. Francm,
Dcq. de Papist indicc. libb. proh. Lps. l&sl 4. Mendham^ The literaty policy of the Cliarch of
Come exhibittrd, in an account of lior damnatory catalogues or indexes. £<L 2. Lond. 1880. [This
work is also embraced in Jfend/unn's Index of Pmh. Boolcs, by order of Greg. XVI. L«>n(1. 1S40.]
«) OeuTres de 8. Fr. de Salfs^ Par. 1S34. 16 vols. Baudry, Suppl. aux wuvres. Lyon. 1886. —
Leben ▼. C. A. SaUs, 16»i MarsoUUr, 1747. Reneing, 1S1& F. U. (Tub. theoL Quartalschr. 1342.
P. 1.)
/) 8chrr. d. b. Ther. t. Jesn, ed. by Gallu* Schtoaby Solzb. ISSls. 6 vols. Acta 8. Ther. ill. a. J.
Vandtrmoere, 1846. f.
g) 0pp. Milan. 1758. 6 vols. f. Oodeau, la vie de Ch. B. Par. 1747. Sailer, d. h. Karl Aagsb.
18S4 Giusaano, Leben d. h. K. B. trom the Ital. r. KUt^^ Aogsb. 1886s. 8 yoIs. Dierengar, d. b.
Bormn. a. d. KYerbeaa. sr. Zeit KOln. 1846.
462 MODERN CIIUBOn HI8T0BT. FEB. Y. A. D. 1A1T-1M&
§ 880. Fraternities for Instrttetum and Charity,
Aubertl Miraei Begnlae et Constltt Clerlcoram in oongregat Tiventiom. AAtv..l688L 4
The practice of orgaoizing public orders had been fonnd to be of great
importance in promoting objects of general utility in the Church. A few
Roman prelates associated themselves together to effect a reform among the
clergy (1524). They resolved to spend their time in the performance of
pious services, not for reward, nor for the collection of alms, but depending
on such voluntary offerings as might be sent them by Providence. When
one of their number, the Bishop of Theate, had become Pope Paul IV., these
TheatincSy in the capacity of preachers, missionaries, and attendants on the
sick, became almost exclusively a seminary in which the superior clergy were
trained, (a) Philip of Neri^ whose peculiar inclinations led him to spend his
days in churches and hospitals, and among children, and his nights in the
catacombs, formed in Rome (1548) a fraternity for religious duties, and rely-
ing upon the assistance of God and of pious people, he erected a large hospi-
tal, in the oratory of which (Oratorium) books of a devotional character
were read and explained. From this establishment proceeded the FatherM of
the Oratory^ an association of clergymen for mutual edification, but not
bound by formal vows. The French Oratory of Jesus was a similar institu-
tion established for the reformation of the clergy (1611) by Peter de Berulle^
a man who in an elevated earthly position sought to attain the extreme per-
fection which belongs not to this world, {b) After the publication of the
decree of the Council of Trent, requiring all independent monasteries to
nnite themselves into congregations for mutual supervision, a few French
monasteries formed an association (after 1618) for the restoration of the rule
of St. Benedict, and with this congregation most of the French Benedictines
became connected, in compliance with the expressed wishes of Cardinal
Richelieu. This society, which received the name of St, Maurus^ a disciple
of Benedict, devoted its efforts to the instruction of youth and the advance-
ment of solid learning. The Fathers of the Oratory soon after directed their
exertions in the same channel. Both orders, in consequence of the leisure
and freedom from care which they afforded to their learned men, and the
combination of various powers which they could effect, have accomplished
immense benefits for the cause of historical learning. Among their members
were found some whose names have been renowned in the literary world,
and who for their literary success and zeal have been models for all succeed-
ing ages, (r) Among the Minorites, the popular character of a mendicant
order was revised (1528) by Matteo de Bassi, apparently for no other purpose
than to restore the genuine costume of St. Francis. Even the old spirit of
a) CoJ. Thienaei Vita Col 1612. (AcU 63. Aog. toL IL p. 249.)
h) Bitron. Ann. ad a. 57. N. 162. Inntitata Congreg. Bom. 1612. A. Galloniu*^ Tito P. KerlL
Mog. 1602. Ifabert ds CerUy, Yio da Card. BeroUe. Par. 1646^ 4 TabarauA, H. d« P. de Ber.
Par. 1817. 2 vols.
c) Constitt pro directlunc reglminis Congr. 6. UaarL Par. 1646. {naudiqu4r) U. do t^o. dom.
Didler de la Coiir, Kufurinatear dee B^n. Par. 1772.— (TViaHn, H. lit da la oongr. de 8. Ifaar. Par.
1726. 4. Brux. 1770. 4. with Anin. (v. Meti9el) Frkt u. K ITTSa. 8 votai J. (?. Otrhtt: Verdieiistd
d. Maurlner um die Win. (TQb. Quartolschr. 188& P. 1&) Die liter. Lditangen d. Fram. OnL
(Tab. Quartalscbr. 183&. P. a)
CHAP. YL CATIL OHUBCH. % 889. CAPUCHINS. UBSULINES. 463
the Franoisoans was aronsed. Oeehino^ the vicar-general of the order, and a
preacher of repentan<3e in Italy, having vainly endeavored to satisfy his mind
by self-denials, whose ansterity continually became more severe, finally went
over to the Protestants (1542), and even beyond them in their peculiar doc-
trines. The Capuchins, however, cdhtinued to show a spirit, prepared for
the boldest sacrifices, for the cultivation and employment of which the Rom-
ish Church offers snob facilities. They were now also furnished with a gene-
ral exclusively for their order (1619). (d) Angela of Breccia (d. 1540), one of
those souls which move on earth as angels of consolation, established in
honor of St. Ursula an order of virgins devoted to acts of charity and kind-
ness in the domestic circle. The Ursulines also became subject to a monastic
constitotion (1612), and undertook tlie education of children of their own
sex. Francis of Sales, by the agency of his friend Francisca of Chantaly so
remarkable for her vigorous and glowing heart, founded the order of the
Vititants (1610-18, Ordo de visitatione Mariae Virginis), which thought that
in the visitation of the Blessed Virgin might be found a type of the manner
in which all virgin eouIs should wait for the visit of their heavenly spouse.
The PiaruU^ founded by Joseph Calasanza (d. 1648), a Spaniard then resid-
ing at Rome, soon became the rivals of the Jesuits as the fathers of the
rdigions schools, (e) John di Dio (d. 1550), a poor man and a native of Por-
togal, was constrained by Yna sympathy for the distressed to found an order
ibr the relief of such as were sick and poor, without regard to differences of
£iith. Its members were known in Spain as Brethren of Hospitality, in
France as Brethren of Christian Love, and in Germany as the Brethren of
Mercy. Vincent de Paula^ by birth belonging to the common people, at one
time a slave in Tunis, and a man who sympathized with all the iUs to which
the homan soul or body is subject, founded (1624) the congregation of the
JMmU of the Mission (Lazarists), the object of which was to convey Chris-
tianity with all its blessings to the neglected classes of Cliristendom, and at
the same time to constitute a school friendly to the Jesuits, and for the im-
provement of the French clergy. While a confessor for the widow Le Qras^
lie also instituted the society of the Sisters of Mercy (Filles de la charity,
grises), into whose gentle hands the French people have comniittcd the care
ci their sick and poor. (/) In connection with these various societies may
also be mentioned those associations of brethren and sisters to which per-
sons of all classes, especially in the Italian cities, belong, who still remained
in the ordinary walks of secular life, but according to a prescribed rule suc-
cessively and generally in a deep disguise, from no motive but a regard for
the will of God perform all needfhl ofiiccs for pilgrims, the sick and the dead.
d) AeU S8. Maj. vol. IV. p. 2S368. BoveHo, Ann. Ord. Mfn. qui C«poclnt, etc. Lugd. B. 1688m.
8 Tola, t M.a Tugio, Bullar. O. Capp. Rom. 1740fl& 7 voK f.—Ocehino, Dialog! XXX. Btt. IMS.
IfcCrie, Hiat of R«f. in It p. ISAk). 8628S. Trechsel, L. SozinL p. 2'>B8. 202ss.
O {Senferl) Ordensregeln d. Piaristcn. Hal. 1783. 2 Tola.
/) Leben d. H. Vine by AbMy, Par. 1664 CuU^ Nancy. 1748. Stdberg, 2 ed. Vienna. 181».
Sdkmi4cUr. (Et. K. Z. 1S82. N. 778S.) Ortlni, Par. 1S42. OahlUon, Vie de M. do Oras. Par.
1S76L (Clemena Brentano) Die barm. Schwestem in Bczug a. Armen- u. Krankenpf. Cobl. 1S81.
Oompk Et. K. Z. 188a N. 22«. 188& N. 18«. FUisehmann, d. Wirkcn d. barmh. Sohw. In Wien.
Vltuia. 1888L
464 MODERN CUUBCII HISTORY. PEa V. A. D. 1517-1C4&
§ 390. The Fine Arts.
Literatare in $ 2(>7. Kugler^ Oesch. <1. M»]. toL II. Olareanu*^ Dodecachordon. Bu. 1517.
Gerbfri^ de cantu et maidca. 8. Bias. 1774 S voDi. 4. JioohlUt^ OrundliDl^n za e. Oeseb. d. O**
aangsmua. f. Kircbe, Ac. (F&r. Freande d. Tank. toL IV. Lps. 1882.) KU9W€Uer^ Oeach. d. oar.
abendl. Maslk. Lps^ (1884.) 1S47. 4 •
It has been the interest of the Catholics of modem times to favor the
arts. Tlic imitative arts had however, at this time, reached the highest point
to which tliey were destined to rise, and the unrestrained power of genius
found no motives to return to its efforts in that direction. Correggio^ with
an overflowing heart and a magic richness of coloring, and Titian^ with all
the splendors of nature itself, painted also scenes from sacred history, (a)
Both of them, however, did homage without restraint at the altar of senso-
ous beauty. The revival of art in the school of Bologna was influenced
indeed by anatomical studies and learned attempts to imitate antique models,
and yet it was pervaded by the ecclesiastical spirit. The noble Caraeei ¥rith
his bold grandeur, Domcnichino with his gloomy fervor, and Guide Beni
with his enthusiostio earnestness, presented to the world the conceptions and
forms of the Church, while PouMin painted not only the ancient marble
figures as saints, but even landscapes seriously and solemnly as if they had
been for a divine temple. The hardy natural simplicity of the Netherlandic,
and the yet unbroken enthusiasm of the Spanish national character, raised
the imitative arts of the 17th century to the brilliant eminence which they
had formerly attained : Ruhcns made use of sacred things to represent most
skilfully the energy of passion and an exuberant sensuous life, in his eflfort
to adorn the sepulchral chnpcl of his family ; and Murillo^ the painter of the
Catholic faith, and yet distinguished for his spirited conformity to nature,
presents even those sacred things which he adored with rapturous devotion
sometimes in the most natural attractic^s and sometimes in the most un-
earthly and fanatical forms. The plastic arts sought to renew their infiuiey
by waxlike imitations of the ungraceful forms of nature. By such means,
Bernini with astonishing skill destroyed the taste of his contemporaries, and
the Christian character of these arts. It was at such a period that a Batbe'
rini, then on the papal throne, thought he could add to his reputation by dis-
figuring the Pantheon, which he despoiled of the ornaments which had
been spared by so many barbarians, that he might oast them (1632) into can-
nons and an ill-contrived high altar for the church of St. Peter. The poetry
of Italy was generally tedious and of a moralizing strain, until Torqnato
Tdsso (d. 1595), a genuine poet, though slightly addicted to the same style,
celebrated the great change which had recently taken place in Catholicism in
his account of the exploits of the middle ages, (h) Borne on by the medi-
aeval spirit which still survived among his people, Calderan (d. 1687), in hi»
sacred plays for festive seasons (p. 802), has brought forward the mysteries
of Christianity in a poetic dress, and celebrated Christian heroism and all
[a) A life of Corrcgglo and Parmeg. Lond. 1828. S. J. NorihcoU, Lift) of TltUn. Lend. 1890
2 vols. 8.]
[6) R. Milman, Life of Taaso. New ed. Lond. 1882. 2 vols. 8. SUmondi^ H. of Lit toI L
p. 27788.]
CHAP. YL CATH. CHURCH. 1 890. PALESTBIKA. ALLE6BI. KSBL 465
that then remaiDed of it as in a waking dream, (c) Modern mnsic first attained
the character of an art by which the devont heart gives utterance to its emo-
tions, in the Church of the fourtecntii century in the Netherlands. Its style
was at Uiat time serious, grand, and full of expression only when taken as a
whole ; and as the Church would not renounce the few melodies which had
long been used, art was obliged to exert its powers on the harmonies by
which they were embellii^hed. The consequence was that many imitators
adopted an artificial, dry, and learned kind of music, which derived all its
life from some secular airs mingled with them, (d) The Synod of Trent en-
treated the pope that he would devise some plan by which this state of things
might be improved. Marcellus II. accordingly disclosed his views to an
enthusiastic young man, and soon after under the papacy of Paul IV., Fala-
trina presented to the world his jUwki Marcelli (1555). This was the
commencemeut of a revolution in sacred music, which by his influence be-
came simple, thoughtful, aspiring, sincere, and noble, but destitute of pas-
sion and tenderness. (<) The most spiritual of all arts, it raised the heart
into immediate communion with the infinite, and while celebrating the
mystery of the divine sacrifice in the difierent parts of the Mass to which
it ftspecially was set, it found opportunity to express, and to elevate by its
Tarious combinations of sounds, every kind of Christian feeling. The centre
of this school was the papal chapel, and its last creative master was Gregorio
JLUegri (d. 1652), whose Miserere, composed for a double choir, expresses
iHrith wonderful simplicity all the calm and profound sufferings of a Christian
lieart beneath the Saviour^s cross. {/) The Opera was invented (about 1600)
l)y certain persons belonging to the Academy of the Medici, while attempting
in an antique style to represent the ancient drama. This secular yet serious
mnd dignified style of music delighted all classes. While the old ecclesiasti-
oal style was struggling in Kome to maintain its ground against this inno-
iration, the school of music founded by Neri began to perform in the orato-
riam pieces relating to subjects from sacred history. In this way came into
ezislence the Oratorio^ intermediate between the ancient and modem styles
of music, and more distinctly expressive of precise characters and situations,
mere agreeable in its melodies, and richer in its instrumental accompani-
ments, (j^)
§ 891. T7u Sdcred Scriptures, Cont. from § 286, 886.
The Complutensian Polyglott was followed by other similar attempts of a
literary character, with the aid of a larger number of ancient versions. The
Greek text by Robert Stephens (Estienne), (a) and after him, almost acciden-
^7) the beautiful impressions from the office of the Elzevirs, (/>) on the basis
^the edition of Erasmus or of the Complutensian Polyglott, were now
^Mished as an article of faith in both Churches (Textus receptus). Many
r«) nu. vol. IL p. 816a.] d) ManH vol XXIX. p. 107.
«) ^uini, Mtftnorie della ^iUdl O. P. da Palcat Kom. 1823. 2 vol*, i.
•^ 'A^ WUmtuiny Q. d. in d. piipsU. Kapelle Qbl. Litnrgle d. stUlen Wocbe. A. d. EngL r. Aztnger.
184a [The OfBoea of Holy Week. Lond. Svo.]
rt ^ink In ZeitBch. t hUt TU. 1S42. H. Z.
^) t*«r. 1U«. 16. EspeciaUj 155a t (ed. regliuL) I) Lagd. a 1624. U and oft.
80
466 MODERN CnUBCH niSTORT. PER. Y. A. D. 161T-1648L
also attempted to expound the Scriptures, but with no peculiarities of thdr
own, they generally depended wholly either upon Erasmus or the fathers.
Not only were the views of divine inspiration entertained by the ancient
Church expressly disregarded by the Jesuits of the Netherlands (after 1585),
but even the statements and ordinary intelligence of the Scriptural writers
were impeached. The shock which the Protestantism of that period received
from such expressions, encouraged many men to make known the more
recent results of the scientific studies of a liberal school, (c) Luther^s Bible
was extensively circulated under the name of his eqemies. (d) After many
animated discussions in the Synod of Trent, the object of which was to avoid
all dependence upon grammarians, and to secure themselves from the attacks
of Protestants, the Vulgate was declared to be authentic for all sermons
and expositions of Scripture. This ambiguous decision has been explained
by learned Catholics generally to mean simply that this translation was pre-
ferable to all others. (<?) Such a decree, however, never became effectual,
until in an official edition the various and corrupt readings of this version
were partially removed. Sixtus V. took charge of this work (1590), and by
virtue of his plenary apostolic power pronounced it authentic and unchange-
able. From the haste, however, with which it had been accomplished, it
soon became necessary that a new edition with important emendations should
be prepared under the authority of Clement VII L (1592). The merit of hav-
ing perceived these, and of making improvements with regard to some other
errors in the work, was not readily acknowledged by Protestants, but al)
were convinced that such measures were infallible in matters of faith. (/)
§ 892. Laws Respecting Doctrines and Internal Theological Cantrotersiet.
The doctrinal decrees of the Synod of Trent, the partial vagueness of
which was doubtless a matter of design, were generally acknowledged to be
the standard of Catholic orthodoxy. The phraseology used in the Fro/essio
Fidci Tridentina^ a confession published by Pius IV. (1564), and intended to
be binding upon all candidates for the clerical office or for academical honors,
was strictly conformed to the language used in those decrees, {a) Pius V,
published the Catechistnus Romanus (1566), not so much for popnlnr instruc-
tion as for the direction of pastors while engaged in that work. Both these
creeds presented some of the doctrines of the Tridentine articles in a more
definite form, and although they have been opposed in some quarters, they
have in practice been received as authority. The essential nature of Protes-
tantism was assailed by the Synod of Trent only so far as the interpretation
of the Scriptures was made to depend upon the decision of the Church, and
c) Rich. Simon, Hist crlL du tcxte da N. T. c. 88.
d) ( Wiilch voL XXL p. 811.) N. T. by Emser, Lp& 1527. H. 8. bj Bletenberger, Meotx. ISM.
by Eck. Ingolst 1587.— <?. W. Panx€r, Qesch. d. rGm. kath. dt Blbeiabem Kfinib. 1781. 4
€) 8e.<w. IV. Deer. 2. [Landon, Man of Councils, p. 607.] — L. v. Eaa. Docturam eath. Tridentinl
circa Viilg. decroti sensum tostantiam Hist Salisb. 1816w QraU, 1L d. Grftnxen d. Frelh. la £rU. d.
U. 8. Ellw. 1817.
/) Tfu JarM9, Bellam papale s. concordla disoors SIxU V. et Clem. YIIL Lood. 0900. 4.) 16S8.
[Jame«, Ou the Cormptions of Scripture, Councils and Fathers (Locd. 1848^ 8 ad.) p. ITlacv]
Schoelhom, Amoenn. P. IV. p. 48889.
a) Q. a F. MbhniJU^ urk. Qeecb. d. Pro£ Fidel Trtd. Greiftw. ISttL
CHAP. YI. OATS. OHUSCH. f 893. THEOLOGY. GONTBOYEBSIES. 467
the anthority of tradition is made equivalent to tliat of the Scriptures. The
most important principle it proposed in opposition to the Protestantism of
that period, was one which referred to the doctrine of justification. Even
among the prelates themselves there was a pious and respectable party favor-
able to the views of the Protestants on this subject, (h) Hence, after pro-
tracted debates, justification was declared to be a gracious state prepared for
by tlie Holy Ghost and the co-operation of the sinner himself, and is essen-
tiaUy advanced by works performed in obedience to the Ohurch. Hence the
doctrine which declared that man is justified only by a faith wrought wholly
by God, could be condemned with much consistency, (c) The dispute be-
tween the Thomists and the Scotists on the subject of original sin and divine
grace, was not and could not be decided at that time, since the controversy
maintained by those schools had now become a controversy between the two
orders of mendicant friars, and the deviation of the whole Church from the
principles of Augostinism rendered it indispensable that indefinite forms of
expression should be used. But when the efiTorts of Protestants had suc-
ceeded in directing the thoaghts of the Church toward these delicate points,
and the Jesuits, in consistency with the moral system of their school, had
adopted the views of the Scotists, the dangerous proximity of this dispute to
the dread abyss of Protestantism could not deter men from engaging in it in
many ways. The Franciscans succeeded in obtaining a damnatory bull of
Pins V. (1567), which was afterwards confirmed by Gregory XHI. (1579),
upon seventy-nine dangerous propositions extracted from the writings of
BajfiB^ a professor of Lou vain, who had abandoned scholasticism and had
tamed his attention to a scriptural and Augustinian Chrbtianity. (d) This de-
cree, however, never affected his personal standing in the Church. The
theological faculty of Louvain defended themselves by an aggressive move-
ment (after 1587), and condemned thirty-four propositions opposed to the
essential doctrines of Augustine, and to the absolute authority of the Scrip-
tores, from the writings of the Jesuits Less and Hamel, Sixtus V. endeavored
to allay the growing strife by an absolute command that each party should
cease agitating the subject (1588). But a general controversy between the
rival schools of the Dominicans and the Jesuits had already commenced in
Spain in consequence of a Pelagian work intended as conciliatory by the
Jesuit Molina, (e) Pressed by complaints from all parties, Clement VIH.
called together a congregation (1597) for the full decision of the question,
^ In what way is the assistance of divine grace concerned in the conversion
of the dnner ? " When both parties had submitted their respective views in
the most circumstantial manner before this tribunal, Paul V. dismissed (1G07)
tlie congregation, worn out by protracted labors, with the promise that a de-
cision should be given as soon as convenient, and commanded both parties to
maintain perpetual silence on the subject. (/)
&) Ranks, Pflfttte, vol L p. 19998. 160sa.
e) 8«tiL TL Deer, de JostUl [Landon^ p. 610.]
d^ Baji 0pp. Ck>L 1696. 4 Da Chetne^ II. du Bajanlrane. Donay, 1781. 4.
e) Liberi *rb. e. gntUe donis, dlv. pneeclentia, praedest. et reprobat coDcordia. OIjsslp. 1588L
Anto. 159ft. 4
/) Amg, U BUinc ijkrry\ H. congreg. de aaxllils gntlae. Ant 1709. t
468 MODEBN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. ▼. A. D. 1517-1M8L
§ 893. Efforts at Reconciliation^ and Controterties with the Protestants.
C. W. Hering^ Qoscfa. d. kircbl. UnlonBverancfae. Lpz. 1886-8. 2 vols.
Even wlien the popes began to despair of victory, they would admit of
no compromise with the Protestants for fear that the whole Church might
thereby become infected with the spirit of the Reformation, (a) Bnt as the
Protestant Chnrch had gone in some respects to an extreme, and as the
Catholic Church still needed reform, and as the former appeared only another
form of the latter, a hope was entertained that a reconciliation might be
effected which would be eminently beneficial to both parties. With this
view Ferdinand I. requested two learned men whose feelings were friendly to
the object, to draw up articles of accommodation and agreement. Cassander^
always an apostle of peace, conceded that the Scriptures were the only au-
thority for proving any doctrine, and thought that he might find a point of
agreement for the one-sided views of botli parties in the doctrine of justifi-
cation by faith and works. He was anxioDs to preserve the hierarchy, but
was willing to give up its abuses, together with a multitude of evils which
had grown up in a long course of time, or things which, like oelibaoy, had
once been beneficial, but were now antiquated. Wizel^ when a youth, had
been a zealous preacher of the Lutheran gospel, which, however, he re-
nounced (1581), because he regarded its doctrine of justification as injurious
to Christian practice, and he was anxious to preach nothing but the goepel
of Christ. He afterwards preached as a priest, though married, in the for-
saken Church at Eisleben, in behalf of the Catholic cause, and with many
complaints against Luther. At a still later period he sat in a council of
Catholic prelates, in which he still clung firmly to the hope that by follow-
ing the path which Erasmus had pursued, renouncing all scholastic subtleties
and papal abuses, by purifying the Church and returning to the Scriptures,
all Christendom might once more become united around its common Lord
Christ, (b) But although at these religious conferences an agreement often
seemed just at hand, and failed only because of the obstinacy of some indiyid-
uals, it was evident from the peculiar nature and historical neoessity of such a
religion as Protestantism, that all these negotiations must fail. In the Grer-
man conferences the principal topics of discussion were original rin and jus-
tification, though after the Synod of Trent the subject of the sole authority
of the Scriptures was most prominent. The Protestants reproached the
Catholics with having departed from the Scriptures and from Christ, and the
Catholics, on the other hand, reproached the Protestants with haTing de-
parted from the Church, with being revolutionary in their tendencies, and
yet contending that the wUl was not free, and with being afraid of good
works. Catholicism was assailed in the most earnest manner by Chemnits^
and Protestantism by Bella r mine, (c) The principal subjects debated by
a) Comi). Wiuaenberg, Klrchenwen. vol IIL p. 19S6S. p. 895u
h) G. Cau^ de artic reL inter Catbolicos et ProtesUntes oontrovenU «d Ferd. L et Max. IL Coo-
saltatio. CoL 1566. ed. If. Grotius, Lugd. 1648. G. Fitf. Tla regto. CoL (about) 1064. ed. OmWii^,
Holmst 1650. 4 Bulb : ed. Conring, Helmst, 1669. L—StrobO^ Beltrr. vol IL St Iil A. JTtand^,
de O. Tlcella Ber. 1889. 4 Also his Das Eine n. Mannieht d. ohr. Leben. Brl 1S40. jk ICTia.
e) Ch&mniM Examen ConcUii Trid. 1669sfli 4 Tolflw e± G, C JoannU, Fre£ 1707. £ and oltan.
BeUartnini Dap. de oontror. ohr. fldei adr. hi^aa temp, haerettooiw Bom. 1061«i 8 Tobb t and oftao.
CHAP. VL CATH. CHURCH. $ 8M. ATTEMPTS AT UNION. 469
these able disputants, however, were particular doctrines and nsagos. The
authorities to which the Protestant appealed were generally the literal mean-
ing of the Scriptures and facts in the past history of the Church, to which
the Catholic usually replied by appealing to the reasonable fitness of things
and primitive usage. Flacivs and Gerhard delighted in pointing out traces
of Protestantism in former times, that so they might overcome the Catholic
Church with its own weapons, (d) Zealous partisans, like liihus^ soon dis-
posed of the whole subject by contending that the party which could show
s prescriptive right of possession should be victorious, {e) The doctrine of
the Lord^s Supper, as it was maintained in both Churches, gave much occasion
on account of its supernatural sensuousness, on the one side to ridicule for
the scholastic subtilty of its form, (/) and on the other to a rude kind of poetry
for its strange figurative language, {g) But this controversy with Scriptural
weapons, especially on the part of the Catholics, was nothing but a faint
reflection of the extremely animated personal exertions made for the some
general object With the restoration of the Catholic Church sprung up the
hope that it was about to recover all it had lost. The liberal party in tliat
Church, as it had not yet entirely discarded the Protestant spirit, might
easily have tolerated that spirit in a more distinct form by its side. The
more zealous party, on the other hand, from its very nature could allow of
no terms in its opposition, and although its efforts were at that time directed
not 80 much to the persecution as to the conversion of their opponents, its
adherents were resolved to go to any extremes, and to demand every thing.
Vast plans were formed for future action. Once more the papacy felt that
it was destined to conquer the world. Intellect and eloquence, craft and
force, were put in requisition. The first object was to win those who were
ftill undecided, and the next was to overthrow Protestantism in countries
where Catholicism was in the ascendant, or at least where the govern-
ment still remained in the hands of Catholics. In both these objects they
were to a considerable extent successful, in consequence of the prodigious
aotivit^ of the Jesuits. But not only were large masses of people induced
to change their connections, but many individuals passed over from one side
to the other, and as long as the lines of separation continued indistinct, and
when hopes previously formed were disappointed, conversions were not
infireqaent on either side, (h) Vergerius^ the papal legate in Germany, when
he attempted to combat Luther's spirit, was himself carried away by it. {%)
To act upon Protestant communities, young men were selected from their
midst and imbued with all the enthusiasm of Catholic prosolytism, and other
d) Flaciua (p. 888) Gerhard (% 853). e) Are nova. Hildesb. 1682. 4
f) {C. O. JTold4r) Mus exentenitua, per fratrem With, de Stuttg., Onl. Minoram. Tub. 1598. 4
Lpa. 1617. 18.
ify For%r^ Bellam nbiqutsUcum. DHL 1627. 12. (Alter a. neucr Katzenkrieg v. d. UbiqnitAt
Ingolft 1629. 12.) Nothw. Vertbeld. d. h. rOni. Itoichs ev. Cliarff. tu StiLnde Aagapfel^diirch d. hlerzu
Tcrordn. Theologen. Lpz. 1628. 4 Brill a. d. ev. Auga{ȣ 1629. 4 Ev. Brillenpatzer. Lps. 1629. 4
( AndraM) W«r hat daa Kal. In's Aug geschlagen ? Dili 1629. 4.
A) F. W. Ph. V. Ammon, Oallvrie d. denkwCinL Peraonen, welche im 16. 17. a. 18. Jahrb. v. d.
•T. xnr kath. Kirche Qbergetreten Bin<L £rl. 1S33.
t) K T. PerViA, Or. pro P. P. Vergerio. Jen. 1S42. F. Jl. ScJi&nhuth, V. Btecbof v. Capo d'latria.
Chnd. d. ev. QdatL WOrt 1848. vol XIV. P. 1.)
470 MODEBN CHURCH HISTOBT. PER. V. A. D. 15iT-164&
principles which were found in the Catholic system. But the most strenuous
efforts were made to influence the Protestant princes, who were assailed on
the one hand hy all the arts of seduction, and on the other hj the weapons
of assassination and of insurrection, (k)
§ 894. The Propaganda.
I. Erectio S. Congrcgationis de fide catb. propafj^ndflL (Ballar. Rom. Th. IIL i». 42l8ib) — BnllariuiD
Pontir. S. Congr. de prup. fide. Rom. 1S89-41. 5 t<iI& 4.— II. Biiyeri H. Congr. de prop. fide. Reglom.
ITil. 4. Otto Jf^er, d. Prop., Ibre Provinzen u. ibr Recbt Mit beSw RAcka. a. DeatsdiL Gott
18S2a. 9 ToK
I. Lett edlflantes et cnrieiu«cs 6crit<f8 des Miaedons ctrang^rea. Par. (1717-76w SI vola^) 17S<K^ 2S
Tola.— Brown, H. of the pn)p. ofChr. among the heathen since the ReC Lond. 1S14. 8 vob. P. Witt-
mann. d. Horrllchk. d. K. in Ihrcn Miss. a. d. -Olaubenafipalt. Angab. ISHat, S yofx Bemrion^ VL
g^n. des Misa. catb. Par. 1S468. 2 vola 4.
There was no Church but the Roman which had means, opix)rtunity, and
willing instruments in the monks for establishing churches beyond the ocean.
All efforts to extend religion among unbelievers, or to recover apostates who
were looked upon as for ever belonging by right of baptism to the papacy, (<i)
were directed and sustained by the Congregation de propaganda fide (1622)
in Rome. With this was connected the College of the Propaganda (1627), an
institution admirably fitted by the gradual addition of a number of endow-
ments, for training the children of the Catholic Church to be missionaries to
all nations. The idea of this institution had been already realized by Ignatius
in the organization of his Collegium Germanicnm (1552) for the education
of a priesthood favorable to Rome, and to act upon the German nation. (5)
After its model colleges have been established at Rome for other nations, so
that on the festival of the Three Kings the praise of God is there sung by
the Church as it was on the primitive Pentecost, in the languages of many
nations.
§ 895. East Indies,
The commanieation and Investigation of original aathoritiee waa commenced bj JoIlc^ Cole>-
brooke, A. W. Schlegel, Bopp, Rainmobnn-Roy, Rosen, Lassen, and Brockhana For general viewa :
P. V. Bohlen^ d. alte Indien in. Rucks, aaf Aegypten. Kunigsb. 1S30. 2 vols. Th. Bef\ffy^ Indien in
d. HalL EncykL II. vol XVII. lioth in Zeller's Jahrb. 1S4«. P. ^,—J. P. Nitjei, Ilfetoriae Indic.
I XII. (Flor. 1&S8. t) Anta. 1605. La Croze, H. da Christ des Inde.<(. Hayo. 1791 9 Tola, with Anm.
T. BohruUdt, Hal. a. L. ITSTss. 2 vols. Norbert, Mem. bfet sor les miss, dea JteaUea anx Indc9
orient 6d. 8. Beaanp. 1747. 2 vols. PauHni a & BurihoL India or. chr. Rom. 1794. 4. [A Voyage
to the K L with an account, Jlcc. with add. bj Forster^ and transL by Johmtton^ Lond. 1800.] Jfl
M&Ubatier, Qcsch. d. katb. Miss, in Ostind. b. Mitte d. 1& Jhh. Mnnfcb. 1852.-74. }Va<M, Indian
Chorch's Ubtory. Lond. 1818. J. Hough, Hist of Christ in India. Lond. 1S89. 2 toIil [IF. Varti,
View of the Hist. Lit and Ret. of the Hindoos. Hartt 1824. 12. H. IT. WiUon^ Yiabna Parana, or
Hindu Myth, and Trad. Lond. 1840. 4. C. CoUman, Myth, of the Hindoos. Lond. 1S82. 4 I^rn-
ttema^ Theogony of the Hindoos, &c. Lond. 1S45. & U. B. MoMngUm, Hinda FhObaophj, IhwQ
the Tamil, with notes, Ac New Haren. 1854. &]
In India the gospel met with a mild, imaginative, and visionary people,
with minds conversant with the infinite, though actually existing among the
It) E. g. BanJce, H. of the Popes, vol. II. p. ICOs. comp. 451
a) M^yer vol. L p. lOsa,
b) J. CordarOj CoU. Oermanici et Hang. Hist Rom. 1770. £ Daa dfiulBdie CoUegliim in Soia
Lpiil84a.
CHAP. TL GATE. CHURCH. $ 89& EAST INDIES. BBAHMANISM. 471
ruins of primitive civilization. For nearly a thousand years they had been
the victims of servitude, first under Mohammedan despots, and afterwards
under a company of Christian merchants, daring which they had become
cowardly, fawning, and indolent in their natures. They however remained
remarkable for their powers of endurance, fearless and stubborn in matters
connected with their religion, and filled with recollections of their former
glory. The Brahmins were probably a foreign race, who at some former
period had descended from the Himalayan mountaiuss and being superior
to the natives, had introduced among them the refinements of religion. Ac-
commodating themselves to an organization which they found among the
people, they secured enormous privileges for themselves by an unequal appor-
tionment of the intellectual advantages they brought among the graduated
castes. In their own and in the people^s estimation, they were equal to the
gods, while the Farias were regarded as beneath the brutes. The limits of
caste, by which the fate of every individual was almost unalterably fixed
according to his merits, were supposed to have been assigned by the Creator,
so that what was lawful in one caste was a capital offence in another. All
the laws, the literature, and the arts, which existed among the people, were
traced back originally to the sacred writings (Vedas), which were said to
Lave been reduced to writing long before the time of Christ, as they flowed
from the lips of Brahma. Brahmanism was originally a benignant deifica-
tion of nature. In a philosophical sense, Brahma is the essence of all exist-
ence, his only attribute is infinity, and every thing possessing individuality
and a finite nature springs from Maya^ Appearance, or Illusion. The incon-
sistency between this original sense and its philosophical meaning may be
seen in the delicate recoil which is felt by the people from all contact with
nature. The higher castes therefore eat no fiesh, but the intercourse of the
sexes is looked upon as pure, and the services of the temples are connected
with the indulgence of the vilest lust, and yet the perfection of human wis-
dom is supposed to be an escape from the illusion of the finite, and an utter
loss of all personal consciousness. By contemplation and self-denials, carried
sometimes to the extreme of suicidal self-tortures, man is elevated until he
becomes a god. Their system of religion, perhaps a combination of several
different national religions, when fully developed, teaches that the original
Brahm manifests himself as Brahtna, Vishnu, and Siva — in other words, as
the Creation, the Development, and the Reabsorption of all things. Hence
Bometimes one and sometimes another of this Trimurti is regarded as su-
preme. According to their epic legend, VUhnu''s Deity, regarded as the
divine life of nature, has frequently become incarnate, at one time as a beast,
at another as a man bom of a virgin, in the form of Hama contending with
giants, in that of Krishna as a prince of peace crowned as a victor, and
finally he will yet appear in that of KalH^ on a white steed, for the removal
of all sin. But at the close of the world, Kala^ the great destroyer, will ap-
pear and swallow up every thing, and last of all even the three supreme gods
themselves, so that the essence of Brahma will exist once more alone. The
space between the chief gods and men is filled, as it were symbolically, with
a kingdom of inferior and fanciful divinities. The popular fiuth has regarded
472 IfODEBN CHURCH HISTORY. PES. Y. A. D. 151T-1UB.
all these as actual persons, and the dispute between different parties with
respect to the claims of Yishna or Siva to the supreme power has been
aggravated by the explanations of the sages and the embellishments of the
poets, until the spiritual world has become peopled with a wonderfully vari-
ous and confused race of beings, which have been divided into numeroua
sects. The greatest contrasts were here exhibited. A monkey was some-
times deified by the side of a god who was so spiritualized and so great, that
thought itself was too insignificant to conceive of him, and yet some many-
limbed monster was supposed to contain and to represent him. This faith,
which at one time converted the rocky mountains into temples, had so
thoroughly pervaded every relation of the popular life, and was so firmly
incorporated with the prejudices even of the Farias, that although the Chris-
tian preachers presented many points of doctrine which corresponded with
it, no great results could for a long time be expected from their labors. Bishops
were appointed by the Portuguese to take the charge of their possesions in
the East, but no congregations were collected there until Francis Xmier
(after 1542), with all the enthusiasm which his great success inspired, per-
formed extraordinary acts of piety among them, and baptized probaUy a
hundred thousand Parias and outcasts, {a) To preserve these in the fiuth,
however, it was found necessary to use the labors of the inquisition (1560).
The first labor of this court was directed to the extirpation of a few congre-
gations of the Christians of St. Thomas^ which had maintained an existence
there in the same condition in which they had been formed as a part of the
Syrian Church of the fifth century. These Christians, however, in the popu-
lar organization of the Hindoo people, had been embraced in the warrior
caste. The name of Nestorius was also once more solemnly anathematized
in India. The Jesuit Nobili (after 1606), in the character of a Christian
Brahmin, was not altogether without success in his appeals to the higher
castes, {h) The Islam of the early conquerors was too simple and powerfU
to be overcome without a desperate struggle. Still the efforts of the Greet
Mogul AJchar to establish a religion of reason (after 1578), produced a much
greater approximation to the religion of the Jesuits. In 1610, three impwial
princes mounted on white elephants rode to the place where they were bap-
tized. Victory, however, still remained on the side of Mohammed.
§ 896. Japan.
After the researches of Joinville, Buchanan, Klaproth, Mackenzie, Colebrooke, and Bitt«r : Onh
bm-. Art Japan in d. Ilall. Encykl. II. vol. XIII. p. SSOsb. comp. Ben/ey, Ibid. voL XVIL p. 1M«^
P. d« BokUii, de Baddhaismi orig. et aetate. Reglom. 1887. J. J. Schmidt^ (Mteiotres de I'Aead.
imperiale de Petersb. 1880. vol. II. Liv. 2. a 1882. toL II. Uv. 1.) Neumann, PIlgeriUirtMi Baddb.
Prieater. (Zeitach. f. hist Tb. 1833. 8t 2.) A. WutUce, de Baddbaistar. dlseipllDar. Ymt. 1848.—
Katmpfer^ Beechr. v. Japan, hrsq. v. Dohm. Lemg. 1777. 2 vols. 4 [H. of Japan, Ane. and Pr. State
of the Gov. ^bc transl bj SchencJuter^ from the Germ, of Kaempfer^ Lond. 1727. S rola. C] P. d§
ChaHwoix^ H. du Ghrbt dans I'Emp. du Japon. Bom. 17128B. 8 toIs. par H. D. L. O. Par. 188CL ft
a) Fr. Xaverii Epp. 1. IV. Par. 1631. 12. Briofe d. h. P. v. X. libera, u. erkl t. J. Butq, Weu-
wied 188«. Hor. Turulini, de vita Xav. Bom. ICM. and often. [DuboUy LMtera on Cbr. la lad.
Lond. & with Totonley't (Lond. 1824. 8.) and ITough'i (Lond. 1820. 19.) BepOca to Dnbote.]
b) FtaUl (Norb€rty, M6m. hist sur lea aflUr. dea Jds. Lisb. 176& 7 vols. 4
GBAP. TL GATE. GHUBCH. S896L JAPAIiT. BUDDHISM. 473
Total Cnmet^ H. de r«gL de Japu. Par. 1715. 4 Angsb. 1788. t-~mwfUn^ G. d. YerwandtBcb. d.
Lanudachen B«l. m. d. chr. (Arehir. t KGcsch. 1S14 vol. L 8t 8.) [C. McFarlane^ Geog. and Hist
Aec of Japan. New York. 1852. 3. 7! WdU, J. and the Japanese. New York. 1852. P. F. t. Ste-
hdd^ Manners and Castoms of the Japanese. New York. 1S40. 12. Ooloicnln^ Mem. of Captivity In
J. Lond. 1S52. 2 vols. & 2 ed.]
WLen Xavier reached Japan, he found that the Christian Church had
been imitated by the devil^ for already bells, rosaries, celibacy, monasticism,
a hierarchy, and apparently a spiritual monarch were there. The primitive
religion of the country was a mythical worship of nature, prompted by a
lively glow of sensuous pleasure. But for a long time the predominant reli-
gion had been a Buddhism which had been introduced from abroad. About
six hundred years before Christ, in Magadha, a province of India, arose Gau^
tama sumamed Buddha^ i, e.y the Wise, who enlisted with much zeal in the
work of refbnning his countrymen. By his wisdom and self-denials he be-
came an incarnation of the Deity, according to the sacred legends, the eighth
incarnation of Vishnu by Maya in the form of a pure virgin. In this incar-
nation^ the system of the world attained a self-consciousness. As he pro-
claimed the universal brotherhood of man, the system of caste was discarded
by him, but in its stead was gradually introduced a hierarchy, the existing
head of which was always honored as an incarnate divinity. The spirit
incolcated by Buddhism is mild and humane, since it requires that its fol-
lowers should sympathize with the suiferings of every living thing, and
instead of demanding bloody sacrifices, it calls upon them to sacrifice them-
selves for the good of others. Still the fundamental principle of this religion,
that the higher life can be attained only by a liberation of ourselves from all
the illasion of a personal existence, imposes the necessity of severe and cruel
struggles. The natural development, therefore, of this principle, is a lifeleflB
and haughty system of religion, in which the highest merit is attached to
human efforts, (a) About a hundred years after Christ, Buddhism was per-
secuted by the Brahmans, and after a protracted struggle was expelled from
Its native country. It soon, however, became the religion of nearly all the
neighboring nations, from whose peculiar characters it received many modi-
fications. In Japan, Xavier adopted, though in a higher and modified sense,
every thing in Buddhism which was considered holy, as a part of the faith
which he preached, and consequently soon succeeded in establishing a church.
But in his eagerness to penetrate still farther into heathen countries, this
Apostle of the Indies died soon after on his way to China (1552). Under
the direction of the Jesuits, a most splendid ecclesiastical establishment was
formed in Japan, and hopes were entertained that the whole nation would
9O0n become subject to its sway. But in consequence of some immoralities
on the part of the European residents, and the suspicion that Christianity was
only the precursor of foreign dominion, a series of sanguinary persecutions
(after 1587) was conmienced. Thousands even of the native inhabitants died
as martyrs for the new faith. About the middle of the seventeenth century
[a) JS. Bumouft Introd. a rillst da Bnddhisme Indlen. Par. 1845. vol I. i. R. 8. Hardy, Man-
lul of BoddblMn, Ao. Lond. 1858. a Xi Upham, Hist and Doot of Buddhism. Lond. 1829. t C,
W. Semmann^ Cctoehlam of the Bbamana, or Laws of the Bod. Prleata. (Ortent TransL Fand.)
IxmmL 1682. 8.]
474 MODERN GIIUBCH HISTOBT. PEB. T. A. D. 1517-1648.
evorj vestige of Ohristianity was obliterated from the oonntrj, and all inter-
oonrse with foreigners in Japan was strictly prohibited.
§ 897. China,
y. Trigaut^ de chr. expe<L apud. Sinas ex comm. RlcciL Ang: 161S. 4 and olten. Ji A. SckaUf
Relatio do initio et prog. tni»ionis See. J. apud Cliincnses. Vien. 166S. Rat 1672. Mlt Anm. t. Mai^
»egg, Vicn. 1:=^^ J)u Ihtlde, I>c«c de PEinp. de la Chine. Par. 1786. 8 toIs. 4. Uebern m. Moabelmli
Vorr. Ritst 174S. 4 vola. 4.— For tite recent investigational 8e« Joomal Asiatiqne. Ahei-Rimutat^
Melanges asiat Par. lS2.5s. 2 vols. Nuuv. Melanges. Par. 1829a. 2 vol& /S!(tfAr, chin. RelRbsrel. Bri.
1S35. u. rol. S^ysitoine «1. Or. p. 9ss. Nfumann^ d. Natur- XL Rel. PhIL d. Chin. Nach d. W. d.
Trichuhi. (ZeitM:h. f. liisL Tl). 1887. P. 1.) [Histories and Acouunta of China by T, ThomUm^ (Lund.
1844. 2 V. 8.) C. GutzUif, (New York. 1888. 1 v. a) JL Murray, (Edinb. 8 t. 12. 1S86.) J. P. Davis,
(New Toric. 15^ 2 v. 12.) J. Kidd, (Lend. 1841. &) and E. WiUiamt, (New York. 1818. 6.)]
In the extreme East, the Europeans found an innumerable people, whoee
historical accounts went as far back as those of the Jews, and who regarded
themselves as the centre of the world. Nearly all the mechanical arts which
had recently been discovered in Europe, were found to have been in exist-
ence among them from a remote antiquity, in connection with a rigid system
of civilization which had for thousands of years successively overcome all
their conquerors. The state was organized strictly as a single great family,
and all power was in the hands of the emperor, though limited by an inviola-
ble usage and an aristocracy of leai*ning. The consciousness of individual
freedom with respect to moral conduct had never yet been awakened among
the people. Three forms of religion existed there side by side in peace. The
first was the primitive religion of the empire, of which Confuciu» (Eong-fd-
DsQ) was honored as the founder. This was a simple adoration and worship
of the heavens regarded as a power of nature, and of certain genii supposed
to be subject to the emperor, together with a devout and well-arranged sys-
tem of moral conduct, (a) The second was the doctrine of TaOy a system
which directed men to adore the original source of reason, revealed and
incarnate on earth, Qi) but degenerated into a system of idolatry and magic
The third was the worship of Buddha (Fo-tho), a religion which had been
more recently introduced among the people, but unsustained especiaUy in the
interior provinces by a powerful hierarchy. The account of divine things
which these religions gave was intelligent and candid, but without reli^ous
enthusiasm, and bore no traces of fanaticism except with reference to the
customary rules of civility towards the gods and the dead, and with respect
to the etiquette of social life. As the natives regarded every thing foreign with
extreme contempt, the Christian missionaries who followed in the train of
commerce were at first totally unsuccessful in every attempt to convert them.
The respect of the people was however finally secured when they discovered
the superiority of the missionaries in mathematical science, the principles of
which were immediately appreciated. The Jesuit Ricei (1582-1610) obtained
high distinction among the people as an astronomer, and the favor of the im-
a) Schntt^ Werke d. chin. Weisen Eong-fki-DsQ. Ilal 1826. 6 vola. Confueii Chi King, ed.
J/bAA Stuttg. 1S80.
h) Le Tao-te-King, on le Ilvre de la raison sapidroef par LaoUtu, tradait aveo nn« Terrion latiiie
et le teste chinola, par G. Gauthier, Par. 1888. [A. l^ungtUdt^ Port. BettL and Mladons in Cfalna.
Boston, 1886. a]
CHAP. VL CATH. CHURCH. $ 898. WEST INDIES. PABAOUAY. 475
perial conrt. (c) After this the Jesuits established numerous congregations,
built churches, and translated the Scriptures, and even the Summa of St.
Thomas, but with a careful accommodation to the religious customs and
manners of the people. When reproached for this by the Dominicans at
Rome, they defended themselves on the ground that it was indispensable to
their success, and was as innocent as the apostles^ conformity to the Jewish
law.(d)
§ 898. West IndUs. Cont, from § 290.
Gonaalea d'AvUa^ Tlieatro ecc de las ij^lesias de las Indias. Madr. 1G49s8l 2 vols. Baurgoing^
Vertus des inlssionain on H. dea mira. d'Aiiior. Par. IGM. 2 vols. O, Baluffi^ I'America tin tempo
upainiuola si)tto Tvpetto religiuso (till 1S43). Ancon. 1S45. 3 vuls. Comp. Pbppig^ Indien In d. Hall.
EocykL II. vol XVII. esp. p. SSls*. — L. A. Afuratori, Christlanesimo folic© nelle misaionc nel Para«
guaL Ven. 1748. 2 vols. 4 (Abstract: RelaL des uiise. du P. Par. 17M.) CharUvaix, II. du P. Par.
175«L 8 vola. 4. Nurem. 176S. Paukttn Rel^e io d. Miss, nach P. edit by Fro«t, Viun. 1829. In an
unfHendly spirit: Ibagne*^ Regno Qiesuitico del P. Lissab. 1770. Uebers. v. Le Brft, K«iln. (Lpa.)
1774 [/?. Southfy, Talo of Paraguay. Lond. 12ino. Ibid. II of Brazil. Lond. 1810.-19. 8 vols. 4.
Abh« Raynal^ Phil, and Pol. Uiict of the Setrl. and Traile of Karopeans in the W. I. flrom the Freneh
by J. Jiutamond, Lond. 1787. 12. Views of the Planting of (Colonies and Missions In Mexico and
Pera may be found in the works of Pretcott^ Bei-nal Diaz^ (transl. by. M. Keating^, Lond. 1800. 4.)
JH SoU9t (tnuuL by TuumMnd^ Lond. 1724.) RobertaorCs America, and other works.]
In Brazil, baptism was administered to prisoners while dying, and
wherever it could be performed under the protection of the Portuguese
arms. A splendid ecclesiastical establishment was immediately formed in
every country conquered by the Spaniards. But although the natives were
generally protected by the laws and defended against the colonists by the
monks, they were hastening rapidly to extinction. Even where they were
subjugated to the Spanish yoke and Christianized (Indies aldeidados), they
did not renounce, but continued at the same time the worship of their an-
cient gods. The inquisition, however, took care that the outward semblauoe
of Cliristianity was maintained. With an heroic courage, the Jesuits and Qor
pnchins pressed forward into the open primitive forests of the country, and
along with the gospel, carried in their most simple and cheerful form the
blessings of civilization. But when the Jesuits urged at Madrid, that the
great obstacle to the progress of Christianity among the nations, was the
ornelties and evil examples of the Spaniards, they obtained permission to
establish Christian colonies among the Indians who were as yet independent,
and which no Spaniard was to enter without their permission. Such was
the origin of the republic of Paraguay (after 1610), governed by the Jesuits
in a patriarchal style. The converted savages were treated as children, but
as pious and happy children, and although much wealth was derived by the
order from the country under its subjection, the prosperity and happiness of
the people was entirely the fruit of its exertions.
6) WertKeim, Ricci (Pleta, nene thcol. Zeitech. ISSa P. S.)
d) PlaUl^ (p. 472.) I^ moral pratique des Jds. 16698& to1& IL TL YIL
476 MODEBN CHUBCH HISTOBT. FEB. Y. A. D. in7-1648.
CHAP. VII.— THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.
The orlgr. aathoiities for the Hist of tlie 80 yn War. (Monat»bL d. Allg. Zeitg. 1848e. Dta Jml
dnne,)—Lonfforp, d. K. Mi^. u. d. b. Rcicbs Acta pubL (Frk£ 10218&) Tub. 178988. 17 to1& t
(Pappuf) EpiL rer. Oemi. 1617-48. c. aniniadvv. J. G. Boehm, Lpa. 1760. Tbeatrum Europ. Frk£
1785*. vol. I.-IV. KhfrenhilUr, (p. 35S.)--5tA£tf«r, Gesch. d. drelaa. Kr. Lpa. 1791. 2 vota. and oft
Fortge^ T. WuUmann, Lpa. 1809. 2 voU [Tbirty Years* War, fVom tho Qerm. of Schiller bj A, J,
W. Jforri4on^ New Tork. 1847. 12.] K. A. Menul^ Gescb. d. drei-s. Kr. (Oe«cb. d. Deatsch. toL
YIm.) BrsL 1S35-9. 8 vols. SoUl, d. Bel. Kr. in Deutscbl. Uamb. lS40a. 2 vol& F. W. Barlhctd,
Oescli. d. d«utschen Kr. v. To<le G. Ad. an. Stuttg. 184288. 2 vols. [MfnaeFa Hist of Germany hM
been transl. by Mr*. G. Uorrock*^ Lond. 1848b 8 vola. 12. See al&o KfMrauteiCa Hist of Germ,
and CU. mtckelTa Life of Wallensteio.]
§ 899. Oceanians.
The Catholic and Protestant parties in Germany oontinued to stand in an
antagonistic and threatening attitnde with respect to each other. The hoose
of Ilapshorg, the head of the Catholic party, by the Yast extent of territoiy
which it had acquired, became, in fact, dangerous to the liberties of Europe,
but its power was thus far restrained by its divisions at home and its intel-
lectual inferiority. In Bavaria, and in most of the prelatical countries, Pro-
testantism, which had been in the ascendant about the middle, was nearly
suppressed at the close of the sixteenth century. That which had been
found impossible to be accomplished among the people, the Jesuits attempted
among the princes. Jaeob, Margrave of Baden (1690X and Wolfgang Wil-
liam, Count Palatine of Nevhurg (IG14), proclaimed themselves converts to
the Catholic Church, (a) In consequence of the early death of the Mar^
gravine, the conversion of the former was attended by no important results
among his subjects, and the Count Palatine^s own confessor was still a de-
fender of Protestantism. Political reasons were doubtless the reason for the
conversion of the count himself, but by means of it a country previously suj^-
posed to be lost became open to the efforts of the papacy. The ecclesiastical
reservation was respected according to the will of those who for the time
had possession of the government. Hence nearly all the property of the
Church in Northern Germany and Suabia fell gradually into the hands of
the Protestant princes, or was administered by Protestant bishops as electoral
princes. But when the Elector Oehhard^ High Steward of Cologne (aft^
1577), who had always been unfriendly to the Catholic party, gave himself
np to his passion for Agnes of Mansfeld, and sought to legalize his forced
marriage with her in the Reformed Church, he was deposed by the pope, the
Bishop of Liege, a Bavarian prince, was elected by the chapter in his place,
and he was abandoned even by the Lutherans (1588). {h) Sentence of pro-
scription was pronounced by the imperial aulic council upon DanauwHrthy for
improper treatment of a Catholic procession, and not only was the decree
enforced by Bavaria, but Protestantism itself was violently oppressed, and
the liberty of the imperial cities was impaired (1607). In view of the dan-
a) Unsere Jacobs, M. v. B. chriitt]. orhebl. a. wohlAindlrte Motiven, waram wir a. Trleb OM.
Oewisa. d. luth. Lebre verlaasen, darch Jo. Pvttorium^ Ciiln. 1691. 4 Reihing, Marl argilUU dvit
sanctae b. e. rel. cath. ftindamenta, quibus insistens Wolfj;. C. PaL in civit sanctam fkiuitnin pedem
IntuliL Col. 1615. 4. Uebers. v. VftUr, Col. 1615. 4.
h) J. D. KoeUr, de actls et fatls Gebb. Tr. Altort 1728. L F. W. Barihoid, Q. Tr. t. Waldbng.
(Baamer*8 hist Taachcnb. 1840.)
CHAP. TIL THIRTY YEARS* WAB. $ 899. CAUSES, f 400. BOHEM. WAB. 477
ger, the Elector Frederic Y, of the Palatinate induced a few Protestant states
to form a Union (1608). In opposition to this, Maximilian of Bavaria, a man
of a powerful and practical intellect, whose interest was identified with the
success of the Catholic cause, placed himself at the head of a league com-
pos^ of the ecclesiastical princes, {e) Saxony, as the representative of
Lutheranism, took sides with the emperor. As long as the Jesuits kept the
question of the religious peace in a state of suspense, the Union refused at
the Diet of RatUbon (1613) to submit to the decision of the majority in all
matters connected with religion, and when their complaints were not attend-
ed to, the members of it withdrew entirely from the diet.
§ 400. The Bohemian War. Cont. from § 857.
jmiUr^ fQnf B&cher ▼. Buhnv Kr. DthI. 1S40. liichter, v. Bohmen-Aaft-ahre o. d. dreisa. Kr.
Unadien n. B«gtnn. Erf. 1844.— CI A. Peacheck^ Qesch. d. Oegenrcf. in Bobmen. Dnd. 1844. 2 volsw
Under the influence of the heir-apparent to his throne, the Emperor
Matthias ventured to oppress individuals among the Bohemians, or allowed
the Catholic land proprietors to do so. A petition was therefore presented
to the emperor on tliis subject, by the Utraquists. His answer, however, was
of a threatening character. Two imperial counsellors, supposed to be the
• authors of this, were thrown from a window of the castle in Prague, and
the members of the diet favorable to the Utraquists seized the reins of gov-
emment. Ferdinand 11.^ a pupil of the Jesuits, and resolved to venture
every thing to bring about the triumph of Catholicism, had already sup-
pressed by a quiet exercise of power the Protestantism which had been pre-
dominant in his patrimonial inheritance of Carinthia and Styria, when on the
death of Matthias he was crowned emperor at Frankfort, {a) The Bohe-
mians pronounced him an enemy to the liberties and religion of their country,
and declared that he had forfeited the throne (Aug. 17, 1619). They then
chose Frederic V, of the Palatinate for their king. The League took up
arms in behalf of Ferdinand, while the Union and Saxony, from motives of
prudence and from a rigid adherence to the strict principles of Lutheranism,
remained inactive. Frederic knew nothing of royalty except how to enjoy
its pleasures ; whatever power he possessed in Bohemia was destroyed at the
battle of the White Mountain near Prague (Nov. 8, 1620), and the conversion
of Bohemia was effected by the Jesuits and the soldiers from Lichtenstein.
The Bohemian literature was committed to the flames by the commission for
the reformation of the people. John of NepomuV^ who had once been the
archbishop's vicar and confidant in a hierarchical controversy with King
Wenceslaus, and had been thrown during a fit of passion by that king into
the river from the bridge of the Muldau (1393), now became the national
saint of the new Catholic kingdom of Bohemia. The legend of his death
was intentionally enlarged, and he was looked upon as the martyr for
the seal of confession. The qualities and incidents which history has
attributed to John Huss were now transferred to this saint of the bridge, that
^ E.M.9. ArtUn^ Geech. Maxim. I. PasMa 1842. t 2 toUl
a) F, Bwier^ 0«ach. K. Perd. XL a. tr. Eltera b. i. Kronung in Fnukfl Sobaffh. 1850. 4 vola.
478 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 151T-iei&
the memorj of the reformer (Master Jan) might' be effaced from the minds
of the people, (h)
§ 401. The German War.
The emperor was resolved to destroy Frederic V. even as a prince of the
empire, and it was principally for this reason that he now kept up and
strengthened his army. The office of elector in the Palatinate was given to
Bavaria (1028). In all his patrimonial Austrian possessions the Protestant
religion was entirely suppressed. The Duke of Savoy had long since (1602)
consumed the revenues from the sale of the Jubilee indulgences, in maintain-
ing free companies for surprising the army of the Reformed Church, and the
people of Geneva merely instituted an annual thanksgiving in commemora-
tion of his failure (Pescalade). But in the Valteline^ on the Italian border,
the Catholics murdered their reformed fellow-countrymen (July, 1C20), and
Spanish and Austrian troops took possession of the country, as well as of some
parts of the Gray League, {a) When all opposition in Germany had been put
down by Wallenstein, the emperor proclaimed the Edict of Restitution^ (h)
that it might be an authentic explanation of the Religious Peace. According
to this, all those foundations belonging to the Catholic Church which had
been confiscated since the Treaty of Passau were to be restored, the Calvin-
ists were excluded from the privileges granted in the Religions Peace, and
Catholic states were not to be impeded in their efforts to convert their sub-
jects. The violent proceedings which ensued during the execution of this
edict were followed by others of still greater violence, until Protestantism
appeared once more on the point of utter extinction, (c) Bnt jnst at this
critical moment the Catholic powers began to contend among themselves.
France and Rome became alarmed at the formidable power of the house of
Hapsburg. Wallenstein reminded the pope that Rome had not been plun-
dered for more than a hundred years, and a passage into Germany was opened
by France for Gusfavus Adolphm (June 24, 1630), who both from policy and
religion espoused the cause of Protestantism, and re-established it by his
bold military exploits, {d) After his heroic death (Nov. 6, 1682) the war was
maintained by the Swedish generals, who were secretly supported by Itiche-
lieu. They, however, held out with great difficulty, since by the treaty of
Prague (1035) the Elector of Saxony once more forsook not only the com-
mon cause, but even the foreign policy of Protestantism, until France openly
came to their support. Neither party can be said to have been successful,
and Germany was desolated by a civil and religious war, by no means na-
b) The first Altar in 1621. Canonization in 1629. Life in Jo. Nep. by tbe Jesuit Balbi about
1670. (Acta SS. M^j. vol III. p. C67.) The history: PeUel, Oescb. Wenzela. vol L p. 86<L Urkna-
denb. p. 109. 154ss. The expedient of two jtcrsonB called Jo. of Nep. waa reaorted to eves In Aett
SS. p. 670. 67a.
a) {Cp. Waser.) Veltlini5ch Blntbad. Zar. 1621. 4 De Porta, Hist ret Ece. Rhaet IL pw SSOic
I) Londorp, Th. III. p. 1047.
c) Canijfa. de Genn. sacra restaarata. Col 1689.
d) Erinnerungen an O. A. Eigenhandige £inl z. Oescb. s. Leb. ed. by /?SAa, Hal. 1906L Jh^^
dor/, Ciuojtr. de reb. Saec ab exjiediL O. A. UItri\j. 1696. Frcf 1707. t J. F. O/rdr0r, Oescb. O. A.
n. sr. Zeit Stuttg. (1837-4a) 1S58. Gei}«r, Oescb. ▼. Scbw. vol. IIL HeiHng. O. A. In DeatschL BH.
18M. r W. Harte, Life of G. A. Lond. 1709. 8 vols. L J. F, BoUingM, Life of O. A. Load. 1888. 11]
CHAP. VIL THIBTT YEAB9* WAR. f 402. PEACE OP WESTPHALIA. 479
tional in its objeoto, but eqnivooal in its nature and prosecuted by the leaders
for varions subordinate ends.
§ 402. The Peace of Westphalia.
L InAtrnmentnm P. W. ed. Beminger^ Monast, 1648. Meiem., Gott. 1747.—^. Adami Areana
P. W. Fret 1698. 4. ed. JfeUm, Gott 1737. 4 Memolres de M. D. (07. du Me»tM (TAcattx.) CoL
Oren. 1674. J. G. v. MeUm, Acta P. W. publlca. Hann. 1784aflL 6 vols. f. m. Register. Giitt 1740. £—
IL FSUtw, Oeist d. W. F. Gott. 1795. Senkenberg, Darst. d. W. F. Frkfl 1S04 Woltmann^QtwAk.
d. W. F. Lpz. 1808a. 2 to1&
Those who had commenced the war did not live to witness its conclusion.
Austria was compelled to acknowledge that Protestantism and Germany
were not to be overcome by violence. With a formidable desperation the
people of the different nations demanded peace. After many tedious and in-
tricate negotiatioDs at Munster and Osnabruck, a peace was concluded in
October, 1648, to be henceforth a fundamental law of the German nation.
Under the guarantee of France and Sweden, Bavaria retained, besides the
electoral dignity, the Upper Palatinate, and an eighth electorate was formed
for the Lower Palatinate, which was now restored. France and Sweden were
recompensed for their trouble by certain territories of the empire. All dam-
ages were compensated by means of the secularized property of the Church.
The right of each state of the empire to form alliances with foreign powers,
provided it was not in opposition to the emperor and the empire, was formally
acknowledged. With respect to the controversy between the two churches,
the ^ve articles of the Deed of Osnaburg were adopted, in which the princi-
ple of a complete legal equality of both parties with respect to each other,
was assumed, and all ecclesiastical and political protests were rejected : ** The
Religious Peace of Augsburg shall be inviolably kept by each. In all impe-
rial courts and deputations the number of members from each religious party
shall be equal. In the Imperial Diet, if the two religious parties differ from
each other, nothing shall be decided by a majority of votes but by com-
promise. With respect to ecclesiastical property the possessions of all par-
ties shall be decided by the state of affairs, on the 1st of January, 1624.
Wherever a free exercise of religion was publicly tolerated in that normal
year it shall be continued, but where this was not the case liberty of domes-
tic worship shall be permitted. The relations of the Reformed Church to-
ward the Catholics are established on grounds similar to those of the churches
professing the Augsburg Confession. But the legal relations of the two Pro-
testant parties toward each other to continue precisely as they were at that
time, whether settled by treaty or by usage. A prince who may go over
from one Protestant party to the other, may grant religious toleration to those
who belong to tfie some creed with himself, but he shall allow the established
Church to remain unmolested." The evangelical Hungarians had received
support from Rakoczy of Transylvania, and in the treaty of Lim (1648) had
secured the restoration of their ecclesiastical rights. The Silesian principali-
ties, but none of the other Austrian patrimonial states, were included in the
provisions of the Peace of Westphalia. Through the mediation of Venice
and France, at the treaty of Milan (1689) the Gray League recovered its
Italian poeeessiona, but with the stipulation that the Protestants should be
480 HODSBN CHUBCH HISTORY. PES. Y. A. D. 1517-164&
exclnded. A peace without a genuine reconciliation was thos conolnded for
every part of Europe, and the balance of power between the Oatholic and
Protestant Churches was secured by the imperial constitution, but the em-
pire was divided and sacrificed to foreign influences.
CHAP. Vm. THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
CnMiiut. (p. 856 ) Lto AU. (p. 855.) R. Simon^ H. erit des dogiuM et oontroT. dc« ehivtieiu or.
Trevoux. 17U. Ifeinscciu»^ Abbild d. altern a. neaern gr. K. Lpa. 171L 4. M. Is Quien^ OrleDS«br.
Par. 1740. 3 vols. t. Libri symb. Eco. or. ed. J. Kimmd^ Jen. 1848. Appendix LL. sjinb. ed. 1f«<tt-
enhorn, Jen. 1850. [*/ M. NeoU^ H. of the Holy Eastern Chnrch. Lond. 1850. 2 voK & 7! SmUh^
Greek CbarcK its Dooo. At Rites. Lond. 1080. & John CofoiU^ Some Aoooant of tbe Oxeek Qmi^
Lond. 1723. f ]
§ 403. Connectifms with Protestants,
A Greek translation of the Augsburg Confession (a) and a letter of aaki-
tation to Joasaph II, (I) the Patriarch of Constantinople, was sent by Me-
lancthon, by the hands of a Greek, but no reply was ever received. By
means of a preacher connected with an embassy at Constantinople, the theo-
logian of Tubingen was induced to send another translation to the Patriarch
Jeremias II (1674). The answer of that prelate was written in accordanoe
with the very strictest forms of Greek orthodoxy, and as it expressed a desire
that the correspondence, if agreeable to them, should have no further dis-
cussion of doctrines, but be confined to an exchange of Iriendly civilities, the
intercourse was broken off (1581). (c) Cyrillus Luearis, a native of Candia,
who had been educated at Padua, formed connections when in Lithuania
with reformed clergymen, which were continued by means of Dutoh and
English ambassadors after he became Patriarch of Alexandria (1602) and sub-
sequently of Constantinople (1621). To prevent the further progress of the
Roman Church, and to infuse new life into the formal worship of his own
Church, he formed an alliance with the young Church of the West, and even
transmitted to Geneva the form of a Calvinistic Confession of Faith, (i)
This was enough, without the subsequent efforts of the Jesuits, to excite tiie
Greek bishops against him. On the ordinary accusation of high treason he
was strangled (1688), (e) and the Oriental patriarchs execrated his memory. (/)
a) *E^ofio\6yriait ri)s hp^oHS^ov T^crrcws. Basil 1569.
b) Corp. lief. vol. IX. p. 921.
c) Acta et scrr. TbeoU. Wirt et Tatr. Const Y it 1534. 4 f. Schnurrer^ de actis inter Tabu TbMfi.
et Tatrr. Const (Orr. acad. ed, Paula*. Tub. 182S.)
d) *AvaTo\iK^ 6fio\oyia rvs XP- iri<rT««y. Gen. (lat 1«29. JTimmel p. S4.) 168&
€) Aymon^ Monamcns authent de la reL des Oreos. Uaye. 1708. 4. TK Smithy CoUe^ de Cp,
Luc L<md. 1707. Bohnstedt, dc Cyr. Luc HaL 1729. 4 Mohniie^ Cyr. Lac (Stud. XL BWt 1882. P.
8.) Ticetsten Cyr. Luc (DeatscLe Zeltscb. t efar. W. 1850. N. 898s.)
/) Kimmel, p. 898. 40a 825.
CHAP. YIII. ORIENTAL CHUBCn. 1 404. RUSSIA. 481
§ 404. The Russian Church,
For Lit see S 2S2. SlraJJ^ Beitrr. t. nisst KGesch. Ilal. 1827. vol I. UUmann G. Stnhl. (Stud,
a. Krit. 1831. P. 2.) H. J. Schmitt, krlt Oesch. d. neiigr. u. d. riua. K. Majence 1340. A. N Mu-
raicUf, H. of tlio Chnrch of Russia, transl. (In lluwlan. Petereb, 18*?.) by Bhickmorf^ Oxf. 1842.
{P. Rycant, The present State of the Arm. & Greek Churches. Ix>nd. 1679. 8.]
In the course of political development the Russian Chnrch necessarily
became independent of the see of Constantinople. As the Patriarch Jere-
mias was much embarrassed for want of funds, it was not difficult to obtain
his consent that a patriarch sliould be appointed for Moscow, as the third
Rome (1589). («) The Russian patriarchs were however obliged, until the
middle of the seventeenth century, to obtain confirmation at Constantinople.
The Roman Church, ever since the time of Gregory, has had its eye upon a
union with the Russian Churcli. A hope of such a union was encouraged by
the Tzar Iwan WasiljeiDitsc\ as he was anxious to obtain the assistance of
the emperor and the mediation of the pope in an unsuccessful war which he
was carrying on against the Poles (1581). But in spite of the artful policy
of the Jesuit Posferino^ (h) the hope became extinguished in proportion as the
necessities of the Tzar diminished. The efforts of that emissary were, how-
ever, more successful in some Russian provinces, whicli fell with Lithuania
into the hands of the Poles. Michael liahosn^ the Metropolitan of Kiow, to-
gether with a portion of the clergy, at tlie Synod of Brzesc (1696), su omitted
to the pope, hoping they might share tlie advantages of the Catholic clergy,
and save the orthodox Church from the apostasy which had commenced
among the nobility. The Union was effected in conformity with the agree-
ment which had been formed at Florence, with a great respect at first for old
ancestral nsages. (c) But gradually the forms of worship became latinized
through the influence of the Roman monks, who entered the convents be-
longing to the Union, while all those churches which did not enter that con-
nection sunk under the temptations and persecutions to which they were sub-
jected. To confirm the views and feelings of the Orientil Church in
opposition to the encroachments of Roman and Protestant elements, a Ru.«?-
nan catechism was composed (1642) by Pctrus Mogilas the orthodox Metro-
politan of Kiew, and was confirmed by all the associated patriarchs of the
Greek Church, as the confession of the Oriental Catholic Chnrch. In this,
the doctrines of the Church are simply presented in the manner and style of
the ancient Church ; but in accordance also with the latent developments they
^ gradually attained, and as the reception of it was ranked among the three
f^inal theological virtues, it has become prominent in the practical system
^^ the Church, (d) The accession of the false Demetrius to the throne of the
Tftirs vas favored by the Poles on the ground of its being a Catholic enter-
I'lae, and failed at Moscow (1606) principally for the same reason. (<?) Ger-
") JCtiram$in vol IX. p. 181. h) Ant Poaaetini .Moscovia. (VUu. 15S«.) Antu. 1587.
irar ^^^"^ ^' privilegia gcnti IZuthenao oath, a M. Pontificibus Poloniaeque Kcgibos conceflsa. Lemb.
^ 0^iiSo|or buoKoyick rris iri<rT€«s t^s kcA, koX hucotrr. ^kkK, T^f kvaro> ktis.
IXimrnw p. 6«.)
*) ^ilii, U. dl M»sco\ia. p. llaa. G. F. Mueller, Samml rusa. Oescblchten. Petersb 1782m. vol. V.
^aram^in voL X. p. 109aflL [M. Mcrimee, The Bosa. Impoetors, or The False Demetrioa. Lend. 1S52. 8.]
81
482 MODERN CnURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 161T-1«48.
man colonists, Protestant as well as Catholic, sometimes entered Russia, and
enjoyed fall liberty with respect to private religion, bat seldom possessed the
privilege of holding public worship. (/)
§ 405. Abymnians and Maronites,
Job. Ludotjl n. aethiopiou Fret 16^1. f. k, Gmt ad H. aetb. Frcf. 1691. t VfywierB de la Croce,
n. do Chr. d'Ethiopie et <rArmenlc. Haye. 178"^ Danz. 1740. Ck)nip. C. W. Is^herg^ Abess. a. d. er.
Mission, bearb. v. C. J. Kitx«ch^ Bonn. 19-tt. 2 \o\%.—Schnurrer^ de Ecc Maroniticn. Tab. 1910a. S
P. 4 (Archlv. f. KOesch. vol. I. sect. 1.) N". Murad^ Notice hist aar I'oriplne de la nation Mar. et
Bar sea rapports avec la France. Par. ISU. \J. LudolphuHy IL of Ethiopia. Lnnd. IGSO. f.]
The attempt made by the Roman Church to make up for its losses in the
"West by a reconciliation with the Oriental churches, was encouraged for only
transitory and selfish purposes, or was used to conceal real designs. The only
country which appeared to come up to a sincere union with the Roman
Church was Ahyasinm, As a Christian land, this country had been almost
forgotten by European nations, and the Judaizing Christianity which once
prevailed there had now sunk so low as to be nothing more than a system of
magic. The Emperor Seltam Seghed was induced, by his peculiar relations to
the Portuguese, to break off the connection of the Abyssinian Church with
the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria (1621), and to accept of a Jesmt from
Rome as the patriarch of that Church. But the displeasure created by thfe
movement was so much increased by the influence of the hermits and monks
that it soon amounted to an insurrection, during which the Jesuits were ban-
ished, and all connection with Rome was broken off (1634). The Maranitet
still remained in connection with the Roman Church, as the possession of
their own patriarch, the use of their sacred language, the marriage of their
priests, the reception of the cup in the Tx)rd's Supper, and their other sacred
usages, had been conceded to them. Their college at Rome (after 1584) be-
came an emporium for all kinds of Syrian and Western learning.
/) J. C Grotf Bemerkungon Ql d. Rel. Frolh. d. Aasl^nder im mas. Reicb. Petersb. n. Lpz.l797Hi
8to1&
SIXTH PERIOD.
FROM THE PEACE OF WE3TPIIA.LIA TO THE PRESENT TIME.
L AcU bi.«tnrioo-ecc Wolm. 1786-n5a 24 vols. Nova Acta List ecc W. 175S-7& 12 vols. Act*
bUL eoGL nooCri tempi W. 1774-S7. 12 vol& Rep. d. nst KOesch. (Index to all the preceding.) W.
IiMl Acten, Urkunden a. Nachr. z. nst KOesch. W. 1789-98. 5 vols. Neoesta Rel. Qai^h. ed, by
Walek, Lenig. 1771-S.^ 9 vols. Fortge?. v. PUinch, L. 17S7-93. 8 vols. U Btet^ Maj;. d. Siaaten-a.
KGcsch. Uliii. 1771-8%. 10 vols. (K«>tor.) Die nst Rel. Begtbonholten. Gleas. 1778-95. 19 vols. UtnlM:
Arcblv. C fL nst KOesch. Weitn. 1794-9. 6 vols. Rel. Anna!. Brnschw. lSOO-2. 6 St u. Beitrr. z. nst
Geseh. iL Rel. Brl 180«u 2 vols. Arch! v. f alte n. neae KOesch. ed. by Sldudlin \l Taachirner L.
1918-22. 6 vols. Vater, Anbau z. nst KG. Brl, 1820s.s. 2 vols. Stdudlin, Tz«(rhlrn*,r u. VaUr, Klllst
Archlr. Hal. 1S28-8. 4 volst Acta hist ecc Saec XIX. (1S85. 86. 87.) ed. by RheiMcaVL ILimb.
ISSS-^a— Archives du Christianisme. Gen. et Par. since 1S17. Allg. KZeltnng, Darmst. etl. by E. Zim-
iMrmann since 1S22, by K. Zimm^rmann u. BreUchneider since 1S88, by Palmer fince 1850, and
by Schenkel since 1353. £v. KZeitting. Brl. ed. by IhngifUnherg since 1S27. Zeitachr. f. hi<<t Theol.
LfKL ed. by JUgtn since 1832. v. NUdner since 1846. Berliner allg. KZeitunp, ed. by Rhfintcald
ilnee 1688. v. Brun*. 184'i. — Jnno 1858. Among the polit Journals, especially the Angsb. allg. and the
Lelpric, more recently Deutsche, allg. Zeitung.
IL J. A. €. EinetM^ KOesch. d. 18. Jahrh. Lps. (177688.) 1732s& 8 vols. J. R. SchUgel^ KOesch.
4 18. Jhh. Ileilb. 178458. 2 vols, a v. Fraan, 8 vols. 1 Abth. (Both as Ucbers. u. Forta v. of MoHhelm.)
P. JL V. nut\ KOesclu d. 18 Jhh. Ang^b. 1807ss. 2 vols. Unparth. KOesch. A. u. N. T. v. Tlfintiu*
Aoth. Jen. 1735-60, 2-4 vols. Jlagenliach : Wesen a. Gcioch. d. Ref. 4 vols. Lps. 1S:39, Die KOesch.
d. 1& a. 19. Jahrh. Lps. (1842a.) 1S4SSw 2 vtAA.—Rofjiano, Oontlnuatlon de Tllist do IVgl. dc Beranlt-
Bercastel, 1721-1S80. Par. 1886. 4 voK Nenoste Oe^h. d. K. Chr. 1800-«8. from the Ital. 8 ed. Angsb.
(ISSte. 1S36) 1841. 6 vols. F. A. Scharpff, VoWess. (L neucste KOesch. (hince 1789.) Freib. 1852.—
Grigoire^ H. de Bectes religieases depais lo coramoncemcnc du sieclo dcrnior. Par. (ISIO. 2 volt.)
lS28sa.5voK In the abstract by Tt«chirn€r {KrchKy. f. KOof«ch. 1S13. vol. I. i>t Ls.) StdudUn.
WiggeriL (p. 5.) — F. C. SchlosM^r, Oesch. d. IS JalirU u. d, 19. b. z, Sturz d. franz. Kalserr. Heidlb.
19)6-44. 5 vols, till 1797. (The '.r.-noral view of lS2J< is rt' vised in the 1st & 2d vol. of the 8d e<L 1848.)
lScKU>s»er'$ Hist of the ISlh and a part of the 19th centt has been transl. by Z>. Dacidson, Lend.
1^ 6 vols. 8. ^m. Russell, Alison, De Koch, Lord John Rassell, and Rauiner, have written His-
^ries of Europe during this period.]
§ 406, Oerural View.
As the violence of the struggles occAsioned by the Reformation was now
xnuch abated, the secular tendency of the public life which had alre^idy be-
C3ome prominent in the departments of art and literature^ now extended its
l.nfluence wherever it could properly find place. The efforts of public men
"vrere at first confined to the enterprises of the princes to maintain the balance
of power, i. e., each state gained as large conquests as the power and jealousy
of other states would permit. The result of these contests was the division
^f the Southern States of Europe between the two Houses of ilapsbnrg and
Xk)iirbon, the violent interference of Russia in all the national assemblies of
Western Europe, the intellectual and military elevation of Prussia^ the naval
flopremacy of Great Britain, and the partition of Poland. But the Btnigc^e
484 MODERN CUURCH HISTORY PER. VL A. D. ie4S-18B8.
for national liberties which had commenced in England and the Netherlands
simnltaneously with the Reformation, became, through the influence of the
North American Revolution, the grand idea of the age, and by means of the
French Kcvt>lution tlio central point of all public affairs. The Church was
deeply affected by these convulsions, no longer, however, as the first, but only
as the second of those powers which were involved in these popular move-
ments. Its work now was to assist the people, sympathize with them, and
administer consolatiim. Indeed, within its own pale was completed the same
struggle which was reserved for the wliole world, a conflict between religious
independence and ancestral usages. Three great periods are distinctly
marked out by the gi*eat crisis of this struggle ; the supplanting of ancient
usages until near the middle of the eighteenth century, the overthrow of
the existing state of things until 1814, and the renewal of the struggle in its
most earnest form and the commencement of an adjustment of attairs until
1853. Still the mathematical limits assigned to intellectual influences conld
not be more importiint than the active elements originated during this pe-
riod, or those which attained to a complete sphere of activity. Both the
original forms of the Western Church passed through this contest, not so
much in conflict with each other as each by themselves, sfTuggling with their
own internal forces. Germany was the speci il battle-field of Protestantism,
and France of Catholicism.
CHAP. I.— THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH UNTIL 1760.
§ 407. German Orthodoxy.
Among those who belonged to the school of the strictest faith there were
still some persons of eminence who showed that they were truly sincere in
their efforts to live a life of piety. An example of an excellent Christian
prince was especially presented in the life of Ernest the Pious (1601-75),
who, with a royal solicitude worthy of St. Louis, healed the wounds inflicted
on his people during the thirty years* war ; and not only in the spirit of his
theologians, but in the higher spirit of an apostle, labored aflTectionately for
the welfare of the Church at home and abroad, {a) His brother, John Fred-
eric^ on the other hand, who doubted the existence of a God, but believed
in that of the devil, in consequence of the secret rancor and proselyting zeal
of the theologians, fell a victim to the darkest influences of the popular faith
(1628), (b) rivalling even that of the Catholic countries of that period, in its
zeal for burning witches. Paul Oerhardt (d. 1676), who committed his way
to God, and betook himself to foreign countries, because his tender conscience
would not allow him to remain in Berlin, where his Lutheranism was in dan-
ger, was the first of a vast chorus of harmonious voices to express the emo—
a) OeWke^ Ilorzog Ernst d. Fr. Gutha 1810. 8 Tola. comp. /funniu9^ Consaluth^ ob and wi«
die in d. lutli. K. schwebcnden R. Streitigk. bcilegen mOge. LflLb. (1682.) 168a
b) A RU&, Job. Friedricb VI. Netut 1S2T.
J
i
CHAP. L EVANO. CHURCH. §407. P. QEBHARDT. 485
tions of the Christian heart in all its relations to God, by popular hymns, (e)
Bat the German Protestantism of that period gave forth its sublimest utter-
ance in the severe, but harmonious and seraphic music of John Sebastian
Bach (d. 1750), the chorister of Leipsic. Though contented in the contracted
sphere of domestic life, he longed correctly to convey to others the unuttera-
ble feelings which were struggling in his own heart. The Passion-Oratorios
which he composed were the direct offspring of the Protestant mode of wor-
ship. Contemporary with him was Handel (d. 1759), whose ambition was
displayed both in private life, and in the style of his art, whose works are of
the richest and most brilliant character, and in whase celebration of the Mes-
siah was employed an array of musical instruments which had never before
been collected. Both composers lived in seclusion, but were highly honored
daring their lives, {d) In consequence of the war, however, and the exclu-
sive prevalence of an orthodoxy confined to the strict letter of the standard?,
there was nothing whatever of literature, or of its popular elements during
this period. The theology of the Form of Concord was developed entirely
in a controversial style with reference to opposing systems, and might be
ealled a new scholasticism, without the philosophical acuteness of the old.
This orthodoxy may have been the language of sincere piety, but it was vio-
lently maintained by means of a contracted education, by an unscientific
course of instruction, by oaths, and by censorships. As every deviation from
it was closely watched and threatened, all intellectual movements became
constrained, and were animated only when engaged in controversy, and in
accosations for heresy. Even Calovius, Koenig, and Quenstedt, who were
leaders, only transcribed the productions of their predecessors, and of each
other. But with all their subtilties one can scarcely refrain from thinking
that they have described God very much like some mighty Lutheran pastor
who is obliged to save his honor by blows, {e) The authority of the Scrip-
tures was actually felt only through certain passages much used in contro-
versy, the explanation of which was firmly settled by each party for itsel£
The pure and powerful prose which Luther had used was forgotten, men of
learning wrote in a tolerable Latin, and the sermons, though sometimes pow-
erfnl, unrestrained, and alarming, were generally disputatious, allegorical,
insipid, pedantic, or ordinary. (/) Orthodoxy, and the most unwearied eccle-
siasticism, were compatible with a worldly spirit and the rudest manners.
The zealots for orthodoxy assailed each other with reference to some atten-
uated definitions of subjects which lay beyond the bounds of human knowl-
edge, (g) and the exhortation to unity in essentials, freedom in non-essentials,
and charity in both, was only as a voice in the desert. (Ji)
e) X, G. Both, P. 0. Lp9w 1829. E. C. Langlecksr, Lebon a. Leiden. P. G. Bri. 1&41. 0. SchuU,
P. O. gcistL Andachten. Brl 1S42.
d) Forkel^ Lcben J. 8. Bachs. Li>s. 1S04 4 {C. Bumey^ Memoirs of Handel, and also by the
•MM, Gen. Hist of Music, Lond. 177ft-S9. 4 vnla. a, condense by T, BiUby, Lond. 1819. 2 vols. 8.]
tf) naritnann^ v. 8<!«g(>n8preclien. Numb. 16S0. p. 158. ISO.
/) SchuUr^ Gescb. d. Geschmacks im Pred. Hal. 1792. vol. I. p. 165s8.
g) A. Thauck : D. Gel5t d. lath. Theologen Witt im 17. Jhh. Umb. 1S52. D. akad. Leben d. 17.
Jbh. UaL 15.^1.
h) F. LUeke^ Q. Alter, Yerf orspr. Form n. Sinn das kirohl Frladenwpraobos, GOtt 1S50.
486 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 1648-1888L
§ 408. George Calixtm. 1586-1656.
De CAnsa hodiorni odil pbllosc et solidae eradSt Helimt 1619. Epit Theol Him. 1619. St oflea.
Commercii liter. Calixt. Fa5c 1-3. ed. E. llenkf^ Hal. Jen. Marb. 1S83-40.— CVi^r<i H. eyncrctistiea
it I. chr. Bedonkon u. d. lieben KFrlwIen. Ifi32 conflscirt (Gless.) 16S5. 4. HotW, Cimbrla llt*r.
IlafV). 1744. f. Th. III. j). 121sa. E. Ifenkti, d. Unlr. Holmst Im 16 Jhh. Hnl. 1S88L - FVi^dk, K. Str
ToL I. p. 216«s. IV, 66C-HS. Ptonck, GeKh. d. prot Th. t. d. Konkordicnt p. 90aa. // Schmid, Oeecfa.
(i »ynkrct »trcitif;k. in d. Zelt d. Cal Erl 1S16. W. Gasa, Cal a. d. SynkreL Brl. 1SI6.
The University of Ilehnstadt had been accidentally exempted from the
operation of the Form of Concord, (§ 851,) and by the protection which ita
princes had afforded it, it became for a long time an asylnm for the Homanistfli
Here contemptuous language with respect to human reason and philosophy,
Bucli Q» was ventured upon by Daniel Hoffmann^ was punished as an offence
against the philosophical faculty, {a) From this school sprung CalixtuSy an
upright and extensively educated man, who, for nearly half a century was a
professor in Ilelmstadt, where, in the spirit of Melancthon, be sought in the
historical method for a more unfettered form of theology. By his doctrine
of the necessity of good works, by his separation of ethics from theology,
and by his assertion that the doctrine of the Trinity was not plainly revealed
in the Old Testament, suspicions of his orthodoxy were awakened, first
among his pupils at Koenigsberg, and finally led to a denial of an honorable
burial to his lifeless remains. He endeavored to strengthen the power of the
Protestants in Thorn by a fraternal connection with the members of the Re-
formed Church (p. 420.) He was regarded by the Catholics as their most
sagacious oj)ponent, and the whole Catholic Church of Germany was invited
by him to escape from the power of the pope. But he had become ac-
quainted with a Christianity unfettered by the subtleties of the Form of Con-
cord, and made known in the Scriptures, in the primitive Ghurch, and id
Christian experience. Conscious that he had thus attained a universal Chris-
tianity, he demanded that the various churches should recognize it, and
thought that they might once more be united, or at least might mutually tole-
rate each other, if they could all be induced to return to the oecumenical
symbols and laws of the first five centuries. This plan was called by the zeal-
ous Lutherans Syncreti»m, C<iIorius, an exasperated but honest watchman
of Zion, with his colleagues in Luther's chair, furiously and indefatigably as-
sailed this heresy of one whom they regarded as a papist and Mamoluke, who
should be cut off from the body of the Church by a new creed, (b) But
Holmstadt adhered to it^ beloved instructor, he was also protected by hn
prince^ and Jena protested against the unreasonable reproaches of his adver-
saries, (c) These reproaches wore supposed to be justified by his assertion
that the Reformation was merely a particular mode of return to the ancient
Church, and by the references made to him by many then going over to the
a) De Boo et Chr. Hlmst 1.%9S. On the other band: J. Martini YermmnspitgeU ^ i Bericbl..
was d. Vft. t>ammt dr^ rerfectlon, Phil. sey. Witt 161SL— (7. TTiomaHttit d« eontror. IIoAoannlan^
ErL l&4i
b) Con!»enflas rcpetitns fldel vere Lntheranae. 1665. (Conailia tbeoL Wltt«nb. Frkt 1661 C toI U)
Denno ed. E L. T. mnke^ Marb. 1W6. 4.
c) MmaeuB^ want Erkl (L 98 Termeinte ReL Fragen. Jen. 1677.
CHAP. L KVANG. OHUBCH. § ^08. CALIXTUS. S 409. 8PENES. 487
Catholic Oharch. He was mnch respected by the higher classes, and his
repntation at home was much increased by the honors which he gained in
foreign countries. His inflnence upon the theology of his own times was al-
most imperceptible, bat ho seemed rather a type of what was about to pre-
vail in the aacceeding age.
§ 409. Fietism. Spener, 1636-1705.
L Spatter: Das getotl. Priestertb. Frkf. 1677. 12. and oth. Brl 1S30. Allg GoUcftgel. allor glSab.
Chr. a. rcchtsch. Thcol. Frkf. 1680. 12. at.d often. Die Freib. d. Qlunbigvn v. Anschn d. Men^chen
In Olaobenssacb. Frkf. 1691. TheoL Bedenken. Hal. 1700m. 4 voK Concilia et Jud. th. Frcf. 1709.
8 vula. 4 tsL u. deatKb« th. Bed. in zdtgnm. Au.sw. v. llenniek^^ IIul 1S3S. Wabrh. Erzuh). defl-
leo, was wcgen d. sogcn. Plot yor;:egAnKon. Frkf. (1697.) 1C9S. Ainst 1700. 12.— /.<>cAor, Timotb.
Verinus. Witt 1718fl8. 2 vols. u. Tides In d.Un5chuM. Nathrr. 1701-20. Work written to compose th«
strife of parties: {Buddtus) Wahrb. u. grundl. Erz^bl was zw. d. sog. Pict gescbebcn. Witnoat
place. 1710.
IL C. lf.T. CannUin^ Muster e. rccbtsob. Lehrers in d. Lebcn Sp. Hal. 17iO. SuabedUsen^ Sp.
(Bocblitz, Jibrl. Mittb. \<'m. vol. III.) W. HosHlnuh, Sp. u. s. Zdt Brl. (IS28.) ed. by G. Schtoeder,
1853. 2 vols. Knapp^ Leben n. Char, elni^cr fh)niincn u. gel. Mtlnner d. vor. Jhb. Hal. 1829. — W.
ThUa, Spu als Katecbot Brl \%Vi.— Walch, K. Str. vol. I. p. MOsa. II, Iss. IV, 1030^ V, Isol
Planeh, Gesch. d. prot. Th. p. ISOs.^. [A new Life of Si>encr bas been announced as in prepwatioa
bj K. HortbacK in 2 vols. Lim. 18A4.] Deutsche Zeitscb. f. cbr. W. 1S58. N. 28a.
Philip Jacob Sj/ener received a picas and liberal education in the city of
Strasbourg, and while yet a youth became the first among the clergy in
Frankfort (1666). He subsequently became the superior court preacher in
Dresden (1686), but fell into disgrace on account of his zenl as a confessor,
and was appointed (1091) Provost in Berlin. He was deeply impressed with
the conviction that practical piety was in danger of being lost in a conform-
ity to the outward letter of Christianity. By devotional explanations of the
Scriptures, and Christian conversation in private religious meetings (collegia
pietatis, after 1670), a high degree of religious earnestness was awakened.
His "Pious Desires" (a) encouraged the hope of reforming the corrupt
Church. In that work he showed that the Church should be once more
built np under the influence of the Scriptures, that the spiritual priesthood
of the congregation should be restored, and that the clergy slioidd be edu-
cated to live a life of personal godliness. Then Christianity would be
preached in apostolical simplicity, and become a religion of the heart and of
daily conduct. In Leipsic, where the exposition of the Scriptures had long
been discontinued, a society of educated young men was formed under the
influence of Spener, for the scientific explanation and practical application of
the Scriptures (July 18, 1687). (b) The German devotional lectures upon the
Kew Testament ojKjned (1089) by three men who had obtained the degree
of Magister, among whom was Aug. Herm. Francle^ were attended with
great diligence by large numbers of students and citizens. On account of
their excessive displays of piety in their outward conduct, these persons were
called Fietists^ and were accused of aiming to bring public worship and sci-
ence into contempt. They were therefore compelled by the theologians to
leave Leipsic (1690), and in connection with Thomasius they founded a new
a) Pla de^tderla o. hertzl Yerlangen nach gottgefall. Bessemng d. wahren er. K. (First pubL M
• praef to Arndi's Postilla ev. 1675) Frkf. 1675. lat Frkf 1678. 12.
b) C F. Ittgen^ Hist Collegll pbUobiblici Lips. Lps. 1886iL 8 P. 4.
488 MODERN CnUBCH HISTOBT. FEB. YL A. D. ie4fr-180&
salt-spring at Halle (1691). Aftor the first exhibitions of popular favor had
passed away, the rigid demands which Spener made in behalf of morality,
and his liberal bnt logical system of doctrines, raised np agaiEst him many
opponents not only among the worldly classes, but among the orthodox.
Once more Wittenberg, now enfeebled by age, defended its Lutheranism, {c)
and the theology of the schools with almost one voice exclaimed against
Pietism as against a new sect. The controversy, however, was carried on not
by seizing and attacking the thing itself, but according to the polemical fash-
ion of the times, by accusing it of many erroneous sentiments, and enlisting
in petty quarrels against it the passions of the people, the civil courts, and
even the divine decisions. Those tendencies which had been originated by
Spener, but which had been kept within due limits by the mildness of his
disposition, were soon carried to an extreme by his followers. They con-
tended that all true regeneration must be preceded by a high-wrought peni-
tential conflict, that none but a regenerated divine should be allowed to min-
ister in holy things, a proud sectarian spirit was awakened, injury was done
to the serious pursuit of literature by the pure devotional form which theol-
ogy then assumed, some were led to indulge in enthusiastic hopes of a mil-
lennial kingdom, and of the final extinction of hell, {iJ) and many high-
sounding pious expressions were introduced which really had no meaning. It
must, however, not be forgotten that the Orphan House was the result of
Francke's pietism, and will ever commemorate the triumph of his faith in
God and his benevolence toward men. {e) As soon, however, as the opposi-
tion began gradually to abate (after 1720), the energy as well as the free
reforming spirit of Pietism was gone, and it appeared to be merely a languid
religion of feeling, which, while it shrunk from every semblance of worldly
pleasure and splendor, regarded Christianity under the single aspect of a sys-
tem which proclaimed the naturally miserable state of man in consequenoe
of sin, and the necessity of justification through the expiatory death of
Christ. Protestantism, by its influence, penetrated the hearts of men more
profoundly, and the pious morality of domestic life was strengthened by it,
but especially in the courts of some of the inferior princes it degenerated
into a miserable system of legahty and ceremony before God. Registers
were kept for souls, and many idle persons supported themselv^ comfort-
ably by using the new language respecting breaking into the kingdom, and
the sealing of believers, while serious-minded persons were utterly unfitted
for their ordinary social duties, until in despair they committed suicide. (/)
The orthodox, on the other hand, in their opposition to such fanaticism, gave
their countenance to an extraordinary degree of cheerfulness, and thought
the condition of their Church was remarkably flourishing, {g)
r) ChrlAtlutb. Yorat in aafricht. Lehrsntzson n. Gottos Wort n. d. symb. KBCkehcm a. nnrieb'
tigen Gogensfitzen aas H. Dr. Sponer's Scbrr. Witt 1695.
d) J. W. Petfriffi^ Mv<n"fipiov inroKciTcurrda'ttos ircirrwv, d. L GchcimiL d. Wlederbr. tSln
Dinge. Offenb. UOls^ 8 vols.
e) A. II. Francke. hy A. H Ki^me^fer, Ilal 1794 by Guerike, Hal. 182T.
f) S^mler, I^bensbeschr. vol L p. 47t«.
g) Uwtshach vol. II. p. 126. Tholuek, Geiat d. lath. Th. p. 272aa. 274
CHAP. L EVANG. OUURCH. 1 410. PHILOSOPnT. LEIBNITZ. 489
§ 410. Philo9ophieal Influences, Cartesius to Wolf.
Although science received from the hand of Ricon of Verulam (d. 1626)
a tendency toward physics and the useful arts, (a) many divines long thought
it absurd to concede an authority to Copernicus which was superior to that of
the word of God. (h) The more modern philosophy had its origin with Des
Carter (d. 1650), in an inquiry proceeding from doubt, after something abso-
lutely true and certain, and which the reflecting mind might find in itself
alone, without reference to theology. It was, however, employed in the
Netherlands for the representation of the doctrines of revelation, and took
the place of the formulae of Aristotle. The consciousness of a knowledge
of God which from its own nature was satisfactory, was awakened there by
this philosophy, but as it soon became suspected of political liberalism, it was
prohibited by the Orange party (after 1650). (c) Tlie tragical philosophy of
Spincta was founded on a profound religious basis independent of all dog-
mas, but Christianity was utterly foreign to his speculations, and during the
century in which he lived he was regarded as an atheist, {d) In England,
the doctrines of a sound common sense were reduced by Loele (d. 1704) to a
philosophical system, which asserted for the experience of the senses at least
a paramount influence in the intellectual world, and demanded a complete
toleration for every kind of religious opinions. He himself, however, never
intended to advocate any sentiment inconsistent with the creed of his
Church, {e) In Germany, Leibnitz^ fully confiding in the primogeniture of
the human mind, rescued philosophy from the abyss of Spinoza by defending
a free individuality originally determined only by the prime monad, and a
necessary agreement of revelation with the everlasting truths of reason. He
however conceded that the historical mysteries of Christianity were beyond
the reach of reason, and with a character in its special peculiarities quite dif-
ferent from the ordinary German spirit, he kept aloof from all ecclesiastical
controversies. {/) His philosophy became intelligible to ordinary minds by
the labors of Wolf (d. 1754), who, though he lived in perfect harmony with
the Church, sometimes demonstrated its doctrines in a mathematical style,
and sometimes allowed them to pass as mysteries adapted only to the world
of sense. But on account of the dread which Pietism displayed toward the
a) Novnm Orpinon SrlentlJinini. 1620. ed BrQct. Lps. 1880. G/rdrer, Stuttg. 1S31. [B(tcon*9
Not. Or^, or Tnie 6tig)(e>tion!« for the Interpret of Nature. Lond. 1S50. S. Also \n Works, 8 vols. 8.
Philad. ISia Account of Bacon's Nov. Org. in Lih. of Us. Knowlodf^e. Lond. 1S27. 8.]
b) Calov. Syst voL III. p. 1033. IfoUaz. Exain. ed. TelUr, p. 8C9.
c) CurUsii Opp. Frcf. 1692*8. 2 vok 4.—J/MtU Ccnsura. Par. 16S9. 12. «1. 4. 1694. J. E. Erd-
rnana^ Darst a. Kritik d. Cart Ph. Rign. lS8t. C. F. Hock, Cart n. seine Gegncr. Vienna. 1885.
BordoM Demouiin^ le CarU>si.ini»tne. Par. 1643. [W. WhttotU, Hi»t of the Inductive Sciences.
Load. 8 ed. 1647. 8 vola. 8. TennemanrCt Manual, p. 806-& I!mry'» Trana). of the Hist of PblL
ToL IL p. 4&-«0.]
«f) Oppt ed. Paulw, Jen. 1802. 2 vols. G/rurer, Stuttg. 1S80. // C. W. Stfftcart, d. Spinoxi-
nras. Tub. 1639. Amand SainUa^ II. de la vie et des ouvr. de 8p. fbndateur de Texegese et de la
phiL modeme. Par. 1642.
«) Works of J. L. Lond. 1714. 8 vols. 1821. 9 vols. [Philoa. work& with prcL disc by SL John,
Load. l&48w &]
/) Opp. lat gall, gcrai. ed. Erdmann, Ber. lS89s. 2 vols. A.—L. Fmerbach, Darst u. Krit d.
Lelbn. Ph An^p. 1S37. G. E. GuKrau^r, O. W. v. Lcibn. BrsL (1642.) l»Ul 2 Toi& A. IIs^Hch,
Bpin. a. Leibn. Uomb. 1846w [J. M. MackU, Life of O. W. vom L^ Boston. 1643. IBmo.]
490 MODERN CHUBCH HI8T0BT. PKB. YL A. D. lUS-lSSa
doctrine of a pre-established optimism, and toward all philosophy, he was
driven from Ilalle (1728) by the mandate of a king who cared for nothing
but what lie regarded as useful. The result ot this philosophy, so far as tho
Church wn<^ concerned, was a natural theology whose essential principles were
derived from the Christian system, though it appeared to be independent of all
revelation. (.7) From this school proceeded the Wertlieim version of the Bible,
an insipid and impudent attempt to present the Scriptures in a form adapted
to what was said to be the demands of modern criticism. The power of tho
empire was found to be still sufficient to suppress such a work as this, (h)
§ 411. Peaceable Movements in Theology.
The French theologians contended for the palm of criticism with the
learned monks of St. Maur, but they could gain the prize only by the unre-
strained freedom of their historical inquiries. Among the theologians of the
Academy of Saumu}\ Amyrald (Amyraut, d. 1064) taught that the grace of
God was so universal that it was not withheld even from the heathen, and
yet in a certain sense was limited ; (a) Fajon (d. 1684), that its influence was
principally upon the understanding, through the medium of the Scriptores
and the whole course of a man^s life; (b) Placaeus (Laplace, d. 1665), that
original sin was a corruption to which no guilt was attached nntil it had pro-
ceeded to actual transgression ; and Louis Capellus (Chapelle, d. 1658) justi-
fied the freedom of his criticism upon the language of Scripture principally
in opposition to those who maintained the divine origin of the Hebrew vowel
points, (c) To defend their churches against these liberal views, the Galvin-
istic orthodox divines urged upon the Swiss a new confession of faith (1675),
the legal influence of which, however, had ceased even at the commencement
of tlie eighteenth century, {d) Cocc^lus (d. 1669), who had been educated in
t]ie school of Des Cartes, demanded that theology should be of a purely bib-
lical character, since in his estimation the Scriptures were every thing and
meant every thing, {e) Many literary men in France were driven, by the
persecutions endured by the Protestants, to foreign countries, where their
literature became the means of their support ; and taking advantage of the
freedom of speech enjoyed especially in the Netherlands, they addressed
themselves in a polished stylo to the educated classes. Bayle (d. 1706) col-
lected a treasure which those who came after him might use either for or
g) Theol. nataralis. Lp3 1736. 2 T0I& 4.— Cane, Ph. Lelbn. et W. usas lo Th. Frcf. «t L. (172a)
1749. 2 vols. Ludociei, Entw. e. Hist. d. Wulf Ph. 2 ed. Lpa. 1787. 8 vola. H. Wutke^ Cfa. Wolfs
dgiie Lcbensbcffch. Lj*. 1S41.
h) {lA)rfH2 Schtnid, d. 1751.) Die gott). Schrr. Tor deo Zeften desMeasle JesQS. One Tbeil Is tb*
hist of tlic Israelites. Werth. 1735.— .A A\ Sinnhold, aust Hist d. sogcn. Worth. BibeL FrkC 1789. 4
a) Traitu de la praedest et de sea prindpes diffcrenta. Baam. 1634. — C. E, Smignjf^ Moise Amjr.
Strasb. 1S49. A. ScAiceuer, M. A- {Zeiler't th. Jahrbb. 1852. H. Is.)
b) V. E. Loncher, de Clandii PiO- ^'^^- ct fatis. Lps. 1692. A. SchteeiMer, P^oolsm. {Zdlm't
th. Jalirbb. 1S58. II. \<)
6) Syntagma thesium theoL in Acad. Salmuriensl dispntatanim Salm. (1660.) 1664. 4
d) {J. U. Ifeid^gger) Form. Consensus Ecc Holv. (SUmeyer^ CoL Conff. p. 729.)— C M. J^^
de F. (\ Htilv. Tub. 172a 4. {Barnaud) Mem. pour senrir k Tliist des troubles en Suisse 4 Tooes-
slon du Cons. Amtit 1726. Em:her^ hclv. Cons, in d. UalL EncykL XL toL VI.)
«) Samma doctr. do foedere ot testamentis Del L. B. 164S.— Albert!, SivAovr tfJantOf CarttskB-
ism us et CocceJ. deacr. et reAitatL L. R 167& i.
CHAP. I. BVANG CnURCH TILL 1750. §411. BENGEL. WETT8TEIX. 491
against Christianity ; and he himself was the first specimen of that pecnliar
style of Protestantism which, wliile it is zealous for truth and freedom, sus-
pends its inquiries at the point where faith seems inconsistent with reason,
and contents itself with a statement of the arguments on both sides. (/) In
the Netherlands the Arminian congregations began to decline, for the spirit
of Zwingle was now evidently reviving in all parts of the Church there.
Even in England, where the literary spirit (Latitudinarianism) was especially
odious to the orthodox beneficed clergy, it became extensively j)revalent, ])ar-
ticularly in the diocese of Cambridge. By its distinction between what it
called essential and non-essential doctrines, it evidently intended to draw a
line between the doctrines of the Scriptures and those of the Church. The
Apostles' Creed was presented as containing every thing indispensjible to sjil-
vation, kindness toward those who differ from us in opinion wius much insisted
upon OS a Christian virtue, and a reconciliation with the dissenters was there-
fore regarded as practicable, (j) In (Jormany, Thomasim (d. 1728) became
connected with the Pietists because they were oppressed by the established
Church, but they soon found that the tendency of his instructions was to
form a bold and satirical spirit, and he became convinced that while they
professed to be seeking the honor of God, they were really influenced by a
desire for their own honor and power. This intelligent German had the
posthumous reputation of having turned the public mind against the trials
for witchcraft, (h) and yet even in the close of the century in which he lived
witches were occasionally put to death in Upper Germany. Pietism having
sustained a defeat in its conflict with the Wolfian school in the very place
where it was strongest (1740), now betook itself discontentedly to a quiet
obscurity. During the struggle, however, even the theology of the schools
had become penetrated by its fervent spirit. This was first apparent in the
case of Buddeus (d. 1729), who was historically familiar with philosophy, and
yet gave to theology a simple and scientific form. John Albert Bengel (d.
1752), whose pious hopes were founded on calculations not proved to be
erroneous until 1836, was not deterred by them from investigating with re-
ligious conscientiousness the original text and meaning of the Sacred Scrip-
tures, (0 while WetUUin (d. 1754) took delight in critical labors, and without
regard to received doctrines endeavored to ascertain which of the innumer-
able readings was the original text of the New Testament, and to illustrate
it by every thing resembling it in antiquity. He was never, however, per-
mitted to pursue his labors to their final results, for as his criticism was
even then suspected of being friendly to Socinianism, he was deposed (1730)
at Basle, and received with umch hesitation by the Arminians. (l)
/) Dicttunnaire hist et crit Rot 1696. 2 yoIa. f. and often. Amst 17408a. 4 voK fl Nouvellosde la
r6p. des lettre«. Amst 16S4-1715.— J/(ii«^ut<;r, Vie d. B. Amst 1730. 12. Z. Ftaerhach^ Pierre R
LpcSed. 1$44
g) {Arthur Bury) The Naked 0<v«pol. By u true son of the Chnrcb of Engl. 1690. 4.-— /». Jurieu^
hrel. da Latitudinairo. (Roter. 1696.) Utr. 1697.
h) If. Luden^ ThoinaKlua nach s. Sch{ck.«alen u. Schrr. BrI. 1S05. A. Eichttadii Or. de Thorn.
JeiL ISSS. 4. C. F. FritMche, de rationalisma Hal IS^IS. 4. Cm. I. p. 7.w. IS.
i) J. r. Burk, Bongel's Leben n. Wlrken. Stattg. (1S81.) 1882, Bongel's liter. Briefwecha, mlt-
geth. T. Burk, Stattg. 1886.
k) C. B, Hagenbach, J. J. Wett»t n. seine Qegner. (Zeitschr. f. hist T1). 1&S9. P. 1.)
492 MODERN CHUBCH UI8T0BY. PER. VL A. D. 1648-lSfi8.
§ 412. Law and Le*jal Vietc» in the German Church,
The deputies of the Protestont states at tlie permanent Diet of Ratisbon
(after 1663) formed a tribunal (Corpus Evangelicorum), which possessed no
real power, but was designed to secure the rights guarantied by the Peace, (a)
The jurisdiction over the individual national Cliurches remained with the
secular authorities, and wjis exercised by the consistories and ministerial coun-
cil, with the co-operation of the states of the respective countries, and, in
some provinces of the Reformed Church, with the aid of the minor synods.
Every ecclesiastical usurpation was therefore easily repelled, the Church was
sometimes used as a police for the execution of the laws, and the property of
the Church was sometimes used for secular objects. The press was the orly
organ by which ecclesiastical privileges and wants were made known, ;::«!
even this was i)laced under the restraints of a censorship. In the literary
works of that period, the fact that princes exercised so much ecclesiastical
power is variously explained. When the internal inconsistencies of the epis-
copal system (p. 441) had become evident, the formation of a Territorial ty»-
tern naturally followed from the right of reforming the Church which had
been assumed by the imperial diet, from the advancement of politicjil rights,
and from the ascendency of a worldly spirit. According to this system, flie
ecclesiastical was merely an element of the civil power. This legal view of
the subject was generally adopted about the commencement of the eighteenth
century, in consequence of the liberal use which Tkomasivs made of it, and
the judicious limitations assigned to it by Boehmer, Still the consciousness
of her own rights which the Church possessed, confirmed by the records of a
thousand years, soon occasioned a theological opposition to this view. Chan-
cellor Pffijf of Tubingen was the author of the Collegial System (1719), ac-
cording to which the Church is an independent corporation, whose power can
be lawfully assumed by princes only by treaty with it. Both views have
contended with each other side by side, and have alternately exerted an
important influence upon the administration of the Church, (ft)
§ 418. Legal liel/ition* to the Catholic Church,
Althoug]» the modern state was inclined to compromise the religious dif-
ferences among its subjects, both Clmrches tolerated each other only so far
as they could not invalidate a right actually acquired during the recent con-
flicts. In Germany^ this hostility was fostered especially by the oppressions
which members of the evangelical Church sustained ft-om their Catholic
rulers, and by the enticement of some princes to the Catholic Church, {a)
Catholic dynasties were established in the Electoral Palatinate when the
Catholic lino of the Palatine house of Neuberg came to the throne (1685),
and in Electoral Saxony when Frederic Augustus became convinced of the
truth of the Catholic faith on his becoming a candidate for the Polish crown
a) Schauroth u. Herrich^ Sftmml. aller Conclusorum n. Verhandl. d. Corpus Evt. Resenslx
1751-86. 4 voK f. // W. r. BQlow, Gesch. u. VerC d. Carpus Evv. Regeosb. 1T95.
h) NeUrfUtladi, do trihas Bystenistibns doctr. dc JureMor. dlrigendorom. (Ob6& Jnr.eec lIsL I7S8L)
a) Struve^ VxkA. Be»chwcrden zwisohon den Ksth. u. Evangellschen. Lpa. 172i. 8 toIsw Oeridt
roUst Cori>as grsvamm. ev. Regensb. 177Iss. 5 vols, t
CHAP. L EVANO. CHURCH TILL 175a §418. CONVERTS. 493
(1697). The oppression of the Protestants became legalized in the Palatinate,
when a clause in the Peace of Ryswick (1697) required that public worship
should henceforth he conducted in the same manner in which it had been
performed while the French occupied that territory. It was only by the
reprisals which Prussia made, that the Reformed Church recovered any por-
tion of its immunities, (b) In Saxwuj^ all the privileges of the Protestant
Church were maintuined by the zeal of the people and the states, so that not
even a verso in any of their hij^hly animated hymns would they sutfer to be
stricken out. The reigning family in its subsequent generations was sincerely
and piously attached to its Church, but its precarious and foreign throne was
purchased by a renunciation of its important position in Protestant Germany,
and its success in drawing over some individuals was gained at the expense
of the alienation of a loyal people. In i?rM w«/?/ci*-Wolfenbfittel, the Princess
EUzaheth was induced to forswear her vow at confirmation (1707), that she
might become the mother of an imperial family, and her grandfather ^Ai^Aowy
Ulrich^ whose counsel she had followed in this matter, embraced the same
faith with a policy which could then have referred to no consequences except
in anotljer world, {c) la Wurtemhurg^ when Charles Alexander went over
to the Catholic Church, the courage of a single officer was sufficient to give
a check, though in a somewhat tumultuous manner, to the progress of the
defection (1785). (^Z) In Salzburg^ certain peaceable congregitions which had
been inclined to the evangelical Church, and had been tolerated as industri-
ous subjects ever since the sixteenth century, fell under the notice of the
Archbishop Count Firmian^ who undertook their conversion by violent means
(1729). One hundred elders then assembled, at early dawn on Sabbath
morning, in a lonely cave of the Schwarzach, and swore on the sacred host
and the consecrated salt that they would be faithful to the evangelical faith
and the triune God, and that in every misfortune they would maintain a fra-
ternal affection for each other. An archiopiscopal patent of emigration (Oct.
8l8t, 1731) drove them under the severest circumstances from their houses
and their estates. Public sympathy was enlisted to console the sad train of
these confessors for the loss of their beautiful mountain homos, and twenty
thousand of them fonnd a hospitable reception in Prussia. (/) In Hungary^
few magnates long resisted the temptations to apostasy presented to them, in
the form of bishops* sees and offices in Church and State. The Protestants
of that country, although protected by the laws, were robbed by those who
professed to administer those laws, not only of their churches, but even of
h) J. J. Jfo4er, Bericht v. d. clausula A- IV. Pacls Rysu. Frkt 1782. 4. PaUer, syst DareL d,
tyf&k. ReL Bonchwerden. Quit 179S.
c) Codex August Th. L p. 846s. Acta hist ecc, vol. I. p. 1 ISss. Wef«8ii, neues Mns. C s&cha.
Oesch. vol. I. P. 2. F. Forster, Ft. Aup. II. I'otsd. lSS9.—Auff, Th^iner, QcBch. d, Zuruckk- d.
rwf. Ilans^r v. Brannschw. u. 8ach»en In d. Schooss d. kath. K. Einsied. 1848. To bo corrected by:
W. O. Soldaru, droisslg Jahro dee Pro!«elytism. in Sachs, u. Br. Lps. 1S45. W. IToeck^ A. Ulrich u.
EUa. ▼. Br. Wolfenb. 1845.
d) J.v. MoMr, Lcbens-Qesch. 8 ed. Frkf. xl Lpe. 1777. yoL L p. 184fl8.
<•) ScMhorn^ de rel. er. In prov. Sall^b. ortu et fatia. LpSw 1782. 4. M. Zua t. StUbiMr^ L.
1782. J. Mas^r, actenm. Ber. v. d. w?hwercn Vert d. Evv. in S. ErL 1782. 12 8t G&king, Emlgra-
tloDsgesch. FrkC n. L. (1782 ) 1787. 2 voU 4.— £1 Pantf, Qescb. d. Anaw. d. ev. 8. Lpa. 1827. Zeit-
echr. t hist Tb. 1S82. vol. IL P. 2.
494 MODERN ( IIURCU HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1648-1858.
their children. Once more at the Diet of Oedenbarg (1681) their religions
freedom was solemnly acknowledged, but with a reservation in favor of the right
of the proprietors of the soil. In order to break down the national aristocra-
cy, whose exorbitant privileges were principally maintained by the Protestant
nobility, a murderous tribunal was instituted at Eperies (1687), and the
Jesuits, by their crafty policy for conversion, destroyed the soul together
with the body. By the exclusion of its complaints from the general diet, the
evangelical Church was completely abandoned (1715), and reduced to less
than one half its former size by a process of bloodless martyrdoms. In the
other patrimonial countries of Austria the evangelical mode of worship was
utterly annihilated. The few who remained secretly faithful to their reli-
gion, and endeavored to transmit it to those who should come after them, as
soon as they were detected, were banished to Transylvania, the only asylum
now loft for evangelical Christians and exiles. (/) In Poland^ the Dissi-
dents, gradually abandoned by the aristocracy, gradually lost also their eccle-
siastical and civil rights. In 1717, a law was enacted which forbade them to
build any new churches, and another passed in 1788 excluded them from the
general diet and from all civil offices. The superior clergy, under the direc-
tion of the Jesuits, now went so far as to think of their complete extermina-
tion. The power of the Jesuits was exhibited in the terrible vengeance they
inflicted (1724) upon tlie Protestant city of Thom^ when the general hatred
broke out in a popular insurrection against the Jesuit college in that place.
Despairing of all other relief, the Dissidents threw themselves under Russian
protection (1767), from which they obtained a restoration of their rights.
They were, however, so persecuted on account of this proceeding, that they
never found peace until they obtained it under the favor of a foreign mle at
the dissolution of the Polish kingdom (after 1772). (^) As soon as Louit
XIV. began to reign independently in France (1661), tlie work of restoring
unity of faith was commenced. The lluguenots were deprived of many
churches and schools under the pretence of reviving the privileges granted
by the edict of Nantes. In a fit of repentance for his excesses, the king
allowed himself to be persuaded to atone for them by purifying his kingdom
from all heretics. Many conversions among the nobility to obtain the favor
of the court, and among the people for trifling sums of money, seemed to
promise an easy accomplishment of this undertaking. Children were taken
from their parents, ^^ booted missions " of dragoons were sent in every direc-
tion (after 1681), and the whole mighty power of the monarchy was enlisted
in the work of conversion. In spite of the terrible penalties denoimoed
against all emigration, the evangelical classes, wherever it was possible, fled
to other lands. A home was offered to the fugitives in every part of Pro-
testant Europe, but especially in Holland and Brandenburg. France lost
/) S 857. Acta htst occ voL XVIL p. 828. 47«s«. Waloh. net R. Gesch. toL IV. |i S27. YL Ml
IX, 1s8. OeHch. d. Prot in Ung. (Archlv. t KO. vol. L 8t 8.) Die Schliichtbank t. Eperieo. (/ t>
Ilurmayr, Tosclicnb. C vftterl Gesch. LpA. 1837.) [A Hist of the Prot Charch in Hang, to 1850^
« ith reference also to Transylvania, with Preface by D'Aablgn^, tnaaL by J. Craig; was pobL ia
Lund. 1854. 8.]
ff) S 84)0. {JahUnUky) Das betrubte Thorn. BrL 1785. LiUenthal^ 8 Aetna t. Tboni. Tntja^
Kunigsb. 1725. Walch, m^t B. Gescb. vol IV. p. L VII, 8ts.
CHAP. L EVANG. CHURCH TILL 176a 1 4ia LOUIS XIT. CEVENNEa 495
more than half a million of its most indnstrions and trusty citizens. The
edict of Nantes had long been disregarded, but it was at last formally re-
voked in the year 1685. In the Cevennes alone, a mountain tribe which had
descended from the Waldenses, and had been excited to enthusiasm by a series
of abases, took up arms against their king. A young artisan at the head of
his Oamisards exposed his naked bosom to the swords of the marshals of
France. Prophetic visions produced by an epidemic disease of the imagina-
tion and the boldest military exploits, were witnessed in the same persons.
But as many of these prophets and heroes as escaped the slaughter of the
battle-field and the axe of the executioner, wore allowed only the privilege,
which many of them scorned, of freely going into exile (1704). The former
were known in England under the appellation of the Little Prophets, pro-
claimed the approach of the age of the Holy Spirit, the subversion of the
pope and of the Turks, and created much astonishment among the people, until
with honest confidence they tested their pretensions by an attempt to raise
the dead. Two millions of the Reformed still remained in France, bereft of
all civil rights, and with no congregations except in the wilderness. The ter-
rible laws of 1724 could not be carried into effect upon a whole population,
but examples were made of individuals, and many pious preachers were
hung. But Protestantism heroically re-collected its ener^es, and again held
its first national synod in 1744. (h) In Switzerland y a civil war was the con-
sequence of the protection which Zurich extended to a few converts in
8chweitz. The evangelical party was beaten near Vilmergen (1656), but
without producing any permanent change in the strengtli of either party.
Once again the old grudge broke forth on account of the oppression of the
Reformed inhabitants of Toggenbnrg by the Abbot of St. Gall, and an un-
seasonable religious war grew out of an insignificant brawl respecting a
cburch. A second bloody battle at Vilmergen (1712) was decisive against
the Catholics, religious liberty was proclaimed in Toggenbnrg, and the super-
fluous wealth of the abbot was shared between Zurich and Berne, (i)
§ 414. Attempts at Union.
K. W. Iferingy (p. 46S.) Unioiuverauche 8. d. Re£ y. Q. £. O. (Deatsche Viorteljabrschr. Stattg.
1&I& N. 8188.) C O. NeudeckfT, d. Uauptvere. z. Paciflo. d. ov. K. in Deatsch). 1S46.
Some attempts at union were now made which proceeded sometimes from
the action of individuals and sometimes rather from circumstances. The
ultimate object of these, generally, was to effect a reconciliation between the
Protestant and the Catholic Churches, but the only result was to show how
K) % 86ft. Soulier^ H. dn Calvfni.<«nie, sa nalssance, son progi^ sa ddcadonce ct sa fln en France.
Par. 1080. 4.^/ittlhieres^ ^claircisMmentfl blst eur lea causes de la ruvocat do Tedit de N. Par.
1782. 8 ToK Ancillan, II. do r6tabli'wenient de Francois rcfugi6e dans les utats do Brandonb. Ber.
1190. — De la Baume, H. des rev. des Cevcnnos. Par. 1709. Brueytt^ II. da fanatlcisine on des Co v.
Par. 1718. 2 vols. 12. J. C. K. ITo/nian, Gesch. d. Aufruhrs In d. Scv. NOrdl. 1S87. CoinpL Wnlch,
BIbL Tol. II. p. 1068a.~CA. Coquerely H. des ^glises da desert depuis la fln da T^fuxQ de Louis XIV.
joaqa'k U pjv. Par. 1S41. 2 volow [(7A. FW««, O. (U Felice (p. 426). £«Unb. Review, April,
18M. in Eclectic Mag. Aug. 18M. p. 4348a. Memoirs of the Wars of the Cevennes, prolbssedly b/
Cavnllier bimaeir, and transl. into Engl. Dublin. 1826.]
t) IMttnger^ HelT. KGoscb. vol IV. J. v. JfueUsr't Scbw. Oeecb. fortges. ▼. VuilUmin, ZQr.
18401 ToL X. p. 48288.
496 MODERN CHUBCU HISTOBY. FEB. TL A. D. 1618-18981
profound was the gulf botween these bodies. A more immediate and practf-
cable object was to unite by more intimate bonds of association the Lutheran
and the Reformed Churches. The feelings of the Komish party were princi-
pally enlisted in the recovery of those who had departed from them, and
who on their professed return to their Mother Church were often obliged to
anathematize the objects of their former veneration, (a) while those of the
Protestants were directed to the attainment of national unity. Spinola^
Bishop of Tina, with a commission from both the emperor and the pope,
visited (after 1G75) many of the Protestant courts of Germany that he might
lay before them certain ambiguous proposals of accommodation, (b) The
only country in which any hope of success seemed to present itself was Ilan-
over, where the reigning family was anxious to live on terms of closer inti-
macy with the emperor. Leibnitz also, that he might give peace to the
world and advance the cause of science, availed himself of some plans which
had been handed down by tradition from Calixtus, and entered into some
negotiations with Bossuet. Tlie latter was willing to concede the marriage
of the clergy, the cup in the sacrament, and the mass in the common lan-
guage of the people, while the former thought the Catholic form of govern-
ment might be received as a human institution, and by the play of his fancy
wrought liimself into a belief of the Catholic dogmas, {e) He however was
anxious that the question of the reception of the decrees of the Synod of
Trent should remain open until the decision of a general coancil, in which
Protestants might have a seat, and their votes might be given respecting it.
As Bossuet was of course obliged to adhere to these decrees, and the pros-
pect of a succession to the British throne was opened to the bouse of Han-
over, all hopes of success iu such negotiations were necessarily frustrated, (tl)
John Fabricius^ who had token upon his conscience the responsibility for the
action of the Princess Elizabeth in going over to the Catholic {e) Church,
was so overwhelmed by the contempt of the Protestant world, that he was
obliged to resign his professorship in the University of Helmstadt (1709). It
was not long, however, before ho was abundantly compensated for this latter
step. For nearly half a century, John Dnraem (d. 1680), an Anglican cler-
gyman and an apostle of Protestant union, travelled about for the accom-
plishment of his great object. But each of the three great Protestant
Churches contended not only for a faith in the Christ revealed in the Scrip-
tures, which was the only basis of union insisted upon by him, but for all
those peculiarities which separated it from the others. An agreement for
mutual ecclesiastical recognition (tolerantia ecclesiastica) was formed on the
principles of Calixtus at the religious conference at Casscl (1661), and re-
d) Mohnlk^^ z. Oescb. <L ungar. Fluchformul. Qreiftwr. 1S28. Zeltsch. t blst Th. 1842. H. 1.
h) That wbicli was in&do public: Concordia cbristiana. Vion. 16S1.
c) Oouvres posthumes dc M. Bus«aet. Amst 1753. 4 1 vol— Systeraa thcol. LeibnltztL Fw. ISlft.
mit Ucbrs. v. Rd«» u. Weimt, Mninr. 1S20. 8 ed. 1825. comp. G. E. Schnltf, Q. <L EntddassL
KAthollk*gewe»cn. Outt 1827. PerU, u. L. kircbl. QL B«keDntn. BrL 184& [J/adHe, LUb oTL
P.20SSS.]
d) 0. G. &'.hmi(U^ pericnla coi^ungendarum Eoo. a Leibn. fhcta e. similibos noatrM aeUtis moll-
miDibn» cotnitarata. Orim. 1844.
e) ErOrtorto Frage Hn. Fabricii, dasa zwischcn der Augsb. Oonfl u. rOmiacbkath. BoL ktia foo-
derL Uotcntcbied sei. 170^
CHAP. L SYANO. GHUBGH TILL 17M. §414 UNION. LEIBNITZ. 497
suited in the transfer of the UniTersitj of Rintelen to the Reformed Church.
The members of that Church were always inclined to recognize others as
brethren, but the Lntheran divines would rather hold communion with the
papists, and regarded the hope that even Calvinists might be saved as a temp*
tation of the devil. (/) Frequently also, though not without remonstrance,
individuals of the Keformed Church participated in the sacred Supper in the
Lutheran churches, (g) After the Peace of Ryswick, the urgent importance
of fraternal connections between the Protestant nations as a security against
the dangerous exaltation of the Catholic powers, became still more apparent,
and upon the princes of the house of Prussia was especially devolved the
task of adjusting the dissensions which prevailed principally among the Lu-
therans, by a union of the two Protestant Churches. But as long as the
energies of Lutheranism continued unabated, every attempt at reconcihation
only seemed to widen the breach between them. (A) The appointment of a
few bishops constituted a port of the ceremonial at the coronation of the
first king of Prussia (1700), but this suggested the idea of a union by the
introduction of the form of government which prevailed in the Anglican
Church, (i) Temples of peace and union churches were however consecrated
in vain ; but although Leibnitz broke off the negotiations, it was in the full
confidence that the object would one day be brought of itself to a succeflsful
conclusion.
§ 416. The Engluh Retolution. Cont, from § 864.
K nyd€ of Clarendon^ H. of the Rebellion in Engl. 1649-66. Oxf. 1667. 8 vols. f. Bwntt, H. of
hfiown times, 1660-1718w Lond. 1724. 3 vols. 4. and often. [Becret H. of Charles II. Lond. 17S2. 8
Toia. Clarke^ Life of James IL Lond. 1S16. 2 vols.] CK F. Wurm, d. Engl. K. 1689-1702. Umk
ISM. F. C. IhiMmann, Ocsch. d. en^l. Rev. Lpa. 1843. 6 ed. 185a [II. of the EngL Rev., from the
German uf Dabloumn hy E. Uoyd^ Lond. 1344 ] T. B, MacatUay^ Tlist of Engl, from the accession
of James II. Lond. 1S48-0& 4 vols. [J. McTntosh, H. of the Rev. in Engl Lond. 1S84 4. A. Hi Tre-
vor^ Life and Times of William III. of Engl. Lond. 1885-6. 2 volai 8. P. Orimblot, Letters of
William III., Lonis XIV. and their Ministers, &c Lond. 1847. 8. J. Vernon, Court and Times of
WQIiam III. in Letters to the Duke of Shrewsbury, ed. by G. P. R. JamM, Lond. 1841. 8 vols. 8.
A. Curret^ IL of the Counter-Rev. for the Re-estab. of Popery under Charles IL and James IL, and
C /. F^ IL of James IL (in Rogue's Eur. Lib.) Lond. 1846. 8.]
On the death of Cromwell, the English people, weary of the tyranny of
a theocratic republic, recalled the Stuarts to the throne (1G60). Charles 11^
(hough he wavered between infidelity and Gatholicism, followed in the foot-
steps of his father, and the mtyesty of the kingdom trembled nnder the i^ju-
inflicted by a dissolute despotism. The Episcopal Established Church
restored, and the Puritans had to bear the blame for the blood shed dur-
the revolution. Bishops were forced even upon the Scottish Church,
if any royal favor was shown to the dissenters, it was only from a regard
TWtfcJt, Oelst d. Inth. Th. Witt p. 116. 169. 21L
0) JMd. p. 122m. and Deutsche Zeitsch. t chr. Wlss. 1852. N. Sx
^) Erlnnerangen an d. Kurfl v. Brandenb. n. KOnigo v. Preussen hin& ibres Verhaltens in Ange-
^*^ <1 Bel. u. K. Hamb. 1888. £. Ileltcinff, iL F. W. des grossen EurC reL Ansichten n. ViroW
Po*lUk. Lemgo. 1847.
^ Belatlon des mesares, qui fureni prises dans les annces 1711-18 poor introduire la Iltarglo
^^W. dans leR.de Prosse et dans TElect. de IlannoTTe. Extrait d'on mannsc. d. Dr. Sharp, Lond.
17^. 4. ffgnke^ Maff. 1796s. vol. IV. p. 168s& V. p. 21988. Darlegnng der im yor. Jahrh. wegen Sin-
^^^- d. angl. KVerC in Pr. gepflognen Unterhandl. Lps. 1842.
82
498 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1M8-I85a
to the Catholics. Tlie Teftt Act was therefore passed in Parliament (1678),
by which every one was prohibited from holding any pnblic office unless he
had acknowledged the king's ecclesiastical supremacy, and had received the
sacrament of the Lord's Supper in an Episcopal church. Leigh ton (d. 16d4),
who had always kept the gospel free from any connection with politics, re*
signed the archbishopric of Glasgow as soon as the violent measures of the
Episcopal Church had cut off all hope of its reconciliation with the Presby-
terians, (a) Milton, having published a treatise in which he endeavored to
justify the sentence of death which had been passed upon the king, gave in
his darkness and solitude a bright picture of his severe puritanic Cliristian-
ity in his poem of Paradise Lost, (h) James IL (after 1685) publicly pro-
fessed his adherence to the Catholic Church, received a Roman nuncio at his
court, proclaimed free toleration of all religions, imprisoned those bishops
who protested against it, called around him a retinue of Catholic officers, and
formed the design of governing a disaffected peoj)le without the aid of Par-
liament. That people, however, soon forsook him. Uis son-in-law William
III. of Orange, the groat champion of the Republic and of Protestantism,
became king by an agreement in which the constitution of the empire and
of the Church was distinctly settled (1689). England retained the Episcopal
form of government for its established Chnrch, Ireland was placed under the
jurisdiction of the Church of England, and most of the dissenters obtained
the privilege of public worship. Socinians and Catholics, however, were
excepted, and were never placed on a level with otJier dissenters until 1779.
The Test Act also remained in fall force. In Scotland, where the inclina-
tions of the people were in favor of it, a Presbyterian form of government
was maintained. The supreme ecclesiastical authority is vested in a General
Assembly, composed of commissioners from the fifteen provincial Presby-
teries, assembled annually at Edinburgh.
§ 416. Freethinkers or Deiftts,
J. T^liind, view of the Trlnclpal Pelstlcal Writer?. 1754. 2 vols. Triniu» Fr^ydenker-LexlcoD.
L. u. Brnb. 1709. Zucabe, 17C\ C. Thornchtnid, Vers. c. vollst cnjrL Fn^yd. Bibl. Hal. 176a«. 4
vols. G. L/>SM^ ncuste Gcsch. d. Ungl. {WaU'h, nst llel. Gc.*<'h. vol. II. p, 8s.5. Ill, 875m.) S'A/AMer,
Ge.«»ch. d. 18. Jahrh. vol. I. p. S82«. G. V. UvhUr^ Gcuch. d. ensrl. Delsmus. Statt^. 1S41. [Acnm*^
Die Freidenker in Engl. Lps. 1S54. 12. Hagenhach^ KGcsch. des la u. 19. Jhh. Vories. la vol
Lija. Ii48.]
It was in England that we discover the first efforts of the mind to b;
away from all traditionary theology. The struggle between the two Cliorclw
there was severe, and the established clergy did not hesitate to defend th
Catholic position directly in the face of their Protestant faith. But the c^ ^
freedom there enjoyed gave to every one full opportunity, not indeed wxtA-
a) Rob. Lolghton e. apost. Mann In stQnn Zelt Bri. 1S«5. [J^rment^ Life and Remains of L
Lond. J. Pearson^ Life prefixed to Works. Lond. 1846. Works with a Memoir, by Aitman^ E/dioh
1840. 8vo.]
b) Defenjilo pro popnlo Angllcano. Lond. 1661. Paradise Lost 166T. De Doctr. chr. L IL ed T.
R. 8umn^, Lpa 1S27.— TT. IlayUy. Life of Milton. Ixjnd. 1796. 4. O. Weber, in Banmer's bbt.
Taschenb. 1S52. [TodcTa Life of Milton. Lond. S. J. Jvimey, Life and Timeflof J. Miltoo. Titu
York. 183a 12.]
CHAP. L EVANG. CHUECU TILL 175a § 416. FREETHINKEBS. 499
out some danger, (a) to express opinions adverse to the established faith, A
series of authors with no official connection with the ecclesiastical establish-
ment, bnt within the pale of the Church itself, defended by arguments from
common sense, and in some instances with considerable learning, the position
that the natural consciousness of the divine existence and man's own con-
science was all that was necessary for a perfect religion. Christianity was
therefore regarded by some of these writers as of no value except as it con-
tained the germ of this natural religion ; by others it was resisted as priest-
craft; and by all its historical importance and origin was denied. Lord
Herbert of Cherhury (d. 1648), a statesman of considerable seriousness and
enthusiasm with respect to religion, was the first to develope this idea of a
natural religion, which he of course pointed out as an element in pagan-
ism. (&) Ilobhes (d. 1679), one of those vigorous thinkers who deny their
intellects and sell them to arbitrary power, endeavored to prove that Chris-
tianity was an oriental phantom, which had been raised by the influence of
Grecian philosophy to be an instrument of absolute monarchy, (c) The Earl
of Shaftesbury (1713), advocating a religion of mere morality, mingled in
bis writings an apparent reverence for Christianity with the most delicate
irony, (d) Toland (d. 1722) made an assault upon the Jewish character of
Christianity and the genuineness of its original records, and endeavored to
establish a pantheistic relij^on of a purely earthly nature, (e) The peculiar
▼ay in which Mandetille (d. 1783) represented the passions and vices of men
tt necessary to the prosperity of the state, made his work a satire upon the
morality and tlie perfect standard advocated by the Church. (/) Collins
(d. 1729) attacked the views of miracles, and the whole system of sensuous
metaphysics in vogue among the divines of that period, {g) Woohton resolved
the miracles of Jesus into a series of allegories, and died in defence of his
opinions in prison (1733). Qi) Tiudal (d. 1783) contended that the Scriptures
irere nothing but original documents of natural religion, that Christianity
iras as old as creation, and that the Church was an institution of the
a) Blanco White, Law of antl-relijrioas llhol. Dnbl. 1S34.
h) De verltate proiit dbtinguitur a Ilevol. (Par. 1621. 4.) Lond. 1683. 4. and often. Dc Kel. Gen-
tlllam. IM5. ed. ./. TWh. Anist 1700. [tran«l. Into Engl. Lond. 17(«. 8. Life of Lonl II. of C. writ-
ten by hlmwlf. Iy>nd. 1S24. 8.]
c) Lerlathan. Lond. 1651. C (in Lat de motoria, forma ct potestate civitatis ero, ot civil.') Ain«!t
ICTO. 4 and often. Hist ecc carmine elear. cominnata. Aug. TrlnobanL 1688. [Eng. Works, ed. by
Wiw. MiiUmcorth^ Lond. 1^89-48. 9 vols. 6. Latin woiks, t«l. by R. BlacJtbourne, Lond. 1S;W. 8.]—
7*Aoma<' //'>W'. Vita Carolop. 16S1. 12.
<f) Characteristic^ of Men, Manners, and Times. Ix)nd. 1783. 8 vola. 12. [Cooke^ Life of Stiaftes-
bo»y. Ix)n(J. 1S36. 2 vols. 8.]
e) Cliri>tlanlty not my*terIou!«. Ix>nd. 1C06. Adeisidaomon ». T. Livliu a t^uiien^t vin.lIoAtus.
Wag. Com. 17f:9. Naza^enu^ Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Chnstianity. Lond. 1718. rantlu'la-
Uoon- Co!»mopL 1720. [TolancTii MIscell. Works, with Account of Life and Writings by Det J/ai-
■vvctKr, Lond. 1747. 2 vol?. S.]—Mo9hfim, Vindiciae antiq. chr. discipL adv. ToL ed. 2. limb. 1722. 4.
ITheol. and Pliilol< g. Works of Toland. 1782. 8.]
y) Fable of the Bees. Lond. 1706. 2 volsw 12. with comm. Lond. 1714. [Free Thoughts on Kol.
^h« Ctiunh, dec. Lond 1729 12]
g) A dtocourw of Froethinking. Lond. 1718. Tlie scheme of literal prophecy considered!. Lond.
^"•Se. 2 vols. [HisL and Crit Eivay on the 89 Artt Ac Lond. 1724 8. Grounds and reasons of the
^r. ReL Lond. 1724 B.]—Thorechmtd, Lebensgesch. C. Drsd, 17M.
A) Disc on tlie Miracl&s Lond. 1727. with 5 oontinuations till 1729. Curll^ Life of W. Lond.
11^ LemJt^, Nacbr. v. W. Bchickiw Lpa. 1740.
500 MODERN GHUBCH HISTOBY. PER YL A. D. lU&-180a.
state, (i) Morgan (d. 1743), who under the influence of motives partaking
very little of a spiritoal character, had wandered through every variety of
the most heterogeneous parties in the Church, attempted finally to tear off
the mask from every thing historical in Christianity, and show that it was an
invention of priests. {Jc) Chubb (1747) maintained that Christianity was
originally intended to he a revelation of the moral law of nature, the viola-
tion of which was to he atoned for by repentance or punished at the final
judgment, hut that it had been misunderstood and misrepresented by the
apostles. (/) Lord BoUnghrolce (d. 1751), a man possessed of the most emi-
nent social qualities, pointed out to those who made a gain of religion, that
the same worldly policy which then directed the events of history had done
the same in all past ages, (m) The partial views which this author took from
his peculiar position, were expressed in a ridiculous representation of the his-
tory of the English kings, written in what he conceived to be the peculiar
views and manner of the Jewish chronicles, (n) Henry Dodtcell^ without
attempting any compromise with science, endeavored to prove that by its
very nature, religious faith excluded the exercise of all thought, (p) The nu-
merous treatises written by the clergy in opposition to the Deists, called also
Eationalists, exhibited a much higher degree of learning, (p) but as literary
productions, they were no match for the better class of the works <^ their
opponents. Concessions were made in them which rendered others abao-
lutely necessary, and suggested doubts in circles to which professed oppo-
nents could gain no access. Many apostasies from the Church under the
guise of indifference took place among the higher ranks. The noblest repre-
sentative of this class was David Httme (d. 1776), a pleasant philosopher, who
in the uncertainty at which he had arrived respecting all human aflSura, con-
cluded it best to be independent in all things, (q) Even after the most
flourishing period of Deism had passed, the absurd scheme of an association
of deists and atheists, or the mockery of a hell-fire dub, was commenced in
London (about 1780). (r) The great body of the people held firmly to the
ancient Christianity, in behalf of which a new enthusiasm was awakened
among the sects. In Germany^ some isolated persons still went forth in pur-
suit of adventures against the Church. Matthias Knutzen^ an itinerant can-
i) BightB of the Chorch ag^nst Botnlsh and alt other prieeta Lond. 1T07. and often. Chrittlantty
as old as the Creation. Lond. 1780. 4. and often. [Mem. of the Life, WrltingSi and ControTenka of
Tlndal. Lond. 1788. 8. and often.]
k) The moral philoeophor. Lond. 1787. 8 vols. Besurreotion of Jesna. Lond. 1748L
t) The true Gospel of J. Chr. asserted. Lond. 178S. and othersL
m) Letters on the Study and Use of Hist Lond. 1752. 2 vols. Bra Philoeophical worka^ Lond.
1754. 5 vols. 4. [Works with Life. Philad. 1841. 4 yols. ^^WarlmrtofCt (fip.) Tiew of tba Phfkn.
of B. Lond. 1766. 8.]
ft) Acta hist eco. vol. IX. p. 298. XL p. 2608iL
0) Christianity not founded on Argnment Lond. (1749L 1748.) 1746^
p) Especially NaiK. Lardner, Credibility of the Gospel History. Lond. (1727.) ITSa-Cfi. 8 Toh.
[Works with Life by Kippis^ Lond. 188S. 10 vols, a]
g) Inquiry concerning the Unman Understanding. Lond. 1748. Dialogues oonoenilnip Nat Bell-
gion. Lond. 177& Life of David Hnme, by himselt Lond. 1777. [PbfloSb Works. Edinb. lS26w 4 vols.
& Essayai Edinb. 2 volai &]~irakA, nst Bel Oesdi. vol. YUL p^ iOSflL Jatobi^ D. H. 1787.
(Werke, vol. II.) ZschiMchs, de Ilumto seeptico. HaL 1886.
r) Acta hist ecc noetrl temp. voL XXL p. 848Bik
CHAP. L EYANO. CHUBGH TILL ITSa f 41(k DIPPEL. EDELMANN. 501
didate for the ministry from Eolstein, asserted (1764) tliat a congregation
of persons calling themselves ConBcientiarians (conscientiarii) were exten*
sively spread in varioas parts, who maintained tliat the Christian Koran was
quite as inconsistent with itself, and as unworthy of confidence, as the Tnrk«
Ish Koran, and that we shoold, like Enoch and Noah, without the fahle of
Christ, depend entirely upon our reason. This they contended was the con-
science which mother nature has implanted in the breast of every man, and
which, as it is found not merely in one but in many and all intelligent per-
sons, teaches us to injure no one, and to leave all to the possession of what
belongs to them. Hence they taught that if any one despised this Bible, ho
must necessarily despise himself. They denied the existence of a God and a
devil, a heaven and a hell, except such as is created by conscience, and they
regarded married women and prostitutes as equally respectable, and all priests
and magistrates as useless. These sentiments were boldly and plainly pro-
mulgated by popular tracts extensively distributed among the people. (»)
The bitter railings which Dippel (d. 1784), under the name of the Christian
Democritna, published against what he called the Protestant papacy and its
yicarious atonement, were the offspring of a Pietism which he carried to
such a degree of refinement that every thing historical and external in Chris-
tianity vanished from his system. (J) Excited by his writings, and following
the path marked out by Knutzen, Edelmann (d. 1767) believed that he was
called to be a second Luther, and looked upon the Scriptures as a collection
of fragments, which were awkwardly put together after passing through hun-
dreds and thonsands of credulous lips. In rude but vigorous language he denied
the claims of every religion founded upon revelation, that he might like a genu-
ine freethinker, emancipated from the shackles of Christianity, prepare the
way for a religion corresponding with reason and experience. Such a reli-
gion he contended would make a Christ of every man, whom he regarded as
an individual though imperfect organ of the universal Spirit and the divine
Logos. His writings were burnt by order of the emperor (1750), but he was
protected by Frederic U. (u)
«) J. JTtfMMtfA, AbleinoDg d. Yerlenmbdung, ob ware in Jena e. neuo Secte d. Gew. entstandeD.
Jea. (1674.) 187&. 4. In the Append, to Kontzen's ** Cbarteqven.'' BerL Monfttscbr. Apr. u. Aug. 1801.
H. SosMd, In the 8tnd. a. Krit 1844. P. 4.
f) Collectioni of his writings : EruflTn. Wog z. Frieden m. Oott n. alien Crcaturen darch Cbr.
0einoa (1709.) Berleb. 1747. 8 vola. 4. Walch, R. Str. vol II. p. 71868. H. J. W. (Hoffmann) Leben
n. Me4n. Dip. Darmst. 1782. W. Klme, J. Dipp. (Zeitsch. t hist Th. 1S51. II. 8.)
«) Unjchnld. Wahrheiten. 17858& 15 St. Moses tnlt aufgcdecktcn Ange». Frcyb. (Berleb.) 1740.
t AablldKe. Die OutUichk. d. Vernunft. 1741. Sendscbr. den Vorzng. e. Frergeists vor e. annen
Sander leigend. Freyst 1749.— Selbstbiogr. (1752.) ed. by Klow, Brl. 1849.-^. II. J*ra0«, hist
Naehr. t. Ed. Uamb. 17fi& W. EUUr, £ria an Ed. in Bczug a. Stranaa. Clausth. 1889.
502 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1M&-1861
§ 417. The Quaiers.
Catecb. et fldei Cont Roter. 16T6l Lps. 1752. Roh. Burelay^ Th«K>L vere cbr. Apol. Amst 1676L 4. and
oft Penn^ Summary of the hist, ductr. and dl»cipL of Friends. 1692. ed. 6. 1707. m. Anm. v. Sfehohm^
Pynii. (1792.) 179S. Rnles of disclpl. of the Soc of Friend*. Lond, 178.3. ed. a 1S84.— (7. Croei,H H.
Qnakeriana. Amst (1695.) 1704. Alberti^ Xachr. t. d. Rel. d. Q. Ilann. 1750. Gtmyhnn^ H. of th€>
people called Quakers. Dubl. 17S9. 4 vols. F. Clarkson^ Portraiture of Qnakerisme. Lond. ]906l 3-
yoU //. Tukf, [Principles of Uelij^ion as hold by Christians eonimocly called Quakers, iu Germ. A;
Engl. L*jnd. ond Lpz. 1S2S. S.] J. J. Gurney^ Obss. on the society of Friends. Lond 1S24. ed. 7
18S4. [ W. Setc^lf, 11. of the Quaker?. Lond. and New York. 1840. 2 roh. 8. W. /?. WuffHaf, H. of
the Soc of Friends New York. 1SS& a]
George Fox (d. 1691), a shoemaker from the county of Leicester, who
felt called hy inward visions to become a reformer of the ungodliness which
prevailed around him, founded (after 1649) in the stormy times of tlie revo-
lution the society of Friends^ commonly called Quakers, (a) The essential
principle of their faith was that every thing of a religious character in man
is the result of an immediate operation of the Spirit of God, who would
come to all who quietly waited for him. They therefore look upon all exter-
nal rites as useless. This internal revelation proceeding from Christ ever
since the fall, and given to impart everlasting life to man, they regard on
of equal authority with the Holy Scriptures. They look upon the sacraments
as merely symbols of an internal state of mind, and therefore not necessary
to be received in an external form ; they reject the office of the regular
clergy, together with all systems of theology, on the ground of their being
human inventions, and they wish to have no church but that of the Spirit.
On religious grounds they decidedly refuse to render any military service, to
swear, to pay tithes, and to conform to the fashions of the world. In conse-
quence of the violent disturbances of public worship which Fox allowed him-
self and his followers to make, and their refusal to perform the duties ordi-
narily required of citizens, many of the Quakers were thrown into prisons
and lunatic asylums, until WillUim Penn (d. 1718), a man worthy of the
crown as well as of the cross, determined to establish a home for his com-
panions in the faith, as well as for religious freedom generally. He purchased
the lands situated on the Delaware, and formed, under the sovereignty of
the Englisli crown, and by means of colonies nearly half of whose citizens
were Quakers, the state of Pennsylvania, for a long time the cradle of Ub-
orty for the African and for the worid. (h) The same privileges as were
enjoyed by the Dissenters generally in England were acquired (1 686) by the
Friends, and their conscientious scruples were treated with the utmost indul-
gence. Only a few congregations still exist in Holland, in England they are
decreasing, in Northern Germany they have become extinct, and bnt a sin-
a) Collect of Cbr. Epistles vrritten bj G. Fox, Lond. 169S. 2 vols, t Joursal of the Lifb, TniTels
and Snffcrin;;:8 of G. Fox. Lond. 1691. and often. [Pbilad. 1836. & Complete Works of 6. F. TbUkd.
1831. 8 vols. 8. // Thikt, Memoirs of the Life of O. F. Lond. 12.]
h) Works. Lond. 1726. 2 vols, t (W. A. TtlUr) Lebensbeschr. W. P. BrL 1T79. Ci^irtson, Me-
moirs of the private and publ. life of W. P. ISIS. 2 vols. Memoirs of the Hist Societj of PeBosyl-
vanla. Philad. 1840. vol. IV, 1. [R IT. Draper, Life of W. P. Lond. 1826u 24.] Corren>oiuWnce •>!
J. Logan with W. P. collected by Hannah Penn, Pbilad. 1821. [J. M, Janney, Lift of W. P. and
8el. from Cor. and Antobiogr. 2 ed. Philad- 1862. a WeerM' Life of W. P. Philad. 12. W. JL
Dix<m, Hist Biogr. of W. P. fh)m new sources, new ed. Philad. 1851. 12]
CHAP. L EVANG. CHUBCH TILL 1750. |41& ZINZENDOBF. 503
gle congregation has become estcblished in Pjrmont (1791). (r) Govem-
ment among them is administered on democratic principles, by a series of
assemblies gradaally ascending to the highest, in each of which difficulties
between members are settled by arbitration. Those who, in the contest for
American freedom, in an admirable enthuj>iasm temporarily laid aside their
peculiar principles and took up arms for their country, and those who i)ar-
tially renounced the rude exterior required by the society, while moderately
enjoying their well-earned wealth, although tolerated by the society as fight-
ing, free, lukewarm, or wet Friends, are never elected as deputies to their
superior assemblies. The enthusiasm of an entire reliance upon temporary
inspirations is somewhat moderated by an education inculcating stillness as
one of its primary principles ; but the secret inclination which has always
characterized this system to bre^ik loose from all historical Christianity, has
been developed during the nineteenth century in many American congrega-
tions by Elias Hicks. This has, however, given occasion for an expression
of a more decided adherence to the Holy Scriptures on the part of the
other, and the most numerous portion of the members, (fl) In the com-
manion of tliis people, Elizabeth Fry found the strength and courage which
enabled her to penetrate the thousand prisons to which she conveyed the
contrition and consolation of the gospel, (e)
§ 418. Th4i United Brethren. Zimendorf. 1700-1760.
Zin»endorf: Gcgeuw. Gestalt des Krcuzreichs Jesii in sr. Unschuld. Lps. (1745.) 4 Htpi iavTov
0. natarelle Reflexione«. (1746.) 4. Jeremias e. Prcdigcr d. Ocrechtigk. new ed. Brl. 1880. Spnngen-
berg^ Leben d. O. v. Z. (Barby.) 1772n«». 8 vol.*. 7^ C. r. Schraut^ibach, d. Or. v. Z. u. d. BrQder-
gem. tr. ZelL (1781) od. by F. W. Kolhiug, Gnad. 1851. J. W. Verheet, d. O. v. Z I^ben u. Char.
Onad. 1645.— Varnhtigen von Em«^ Lebcn d. G. v. Z. (Bhtgr. Donkm. vol V.) Brl. 1830.— B&-
dlngische Sauiml. einiger in d. Kllist. oIn.<<<;lilag. Sclirr. Bud. 1742^8. 8 vols. Spnngenberg : Nachr.
V. d. gepenw. Vert d. ev. Hr. V. (^WalcJi, nst. Bel. Ocsch. vol. III.) 5. unip. A. Gnadau. 1S23. Idea
flde4 firatr. o. knrtzer Bgr. d. chr. Lchro. Barb. 1779. T^benslauf v. ihni solbst. {Henke'H Arch, t n*t
KG. ToL IL St 8.) Statntcn d. ev. Br. U. Gnad. 1S19.— Z>. Oranz^ alto u. nene Br.derlii<.t Barb.
1772. {lifgnrr) Forta. B. 1791-1S04. Gnad. 1816. 8 vols. Or. v. Li/nar. Naclir. v. Un<pr. u. ge^jrenn-.
Vert d. a U. 1778. 2 ed. llaL 1781. Ch. C. F. SchuUf, v. Kntst. u. Einr. d. ev. Brudtrfrorn. Goth
1928. L Schaaf, d. ev. Brudergem. Lpa. 1825. F. Litit*^ Blicko In d. Vorgangcnh. u. Gegenw. der
Br&derk. Lpa. 1846. {A. G. Spandenberg^ Expos, of tho Chr. Doct as taught in the Prou Church
<tf the U. B. with Pre£ by La Trobt^ Lon«l. 1796. S. D. Crantz, H. of the U. B. LontL 17S0. 8. JC
fftigenbach, KGeach. dcs 18. u. 19. Jabrh. 2 ed. Th. L Vorlcs. 18. Lps. 1S49. 2 Th. 12.]
Louis, Count of Zimend<yrj\ even when a boy at the orphan house, was
filled with the idea which Spener had inculcated, of reforming the Church
and establishing it among the heathm by planting it in their midst as a
grain of mustard-seed. His aspirations received a permanent direction under
the influence of the Moravian brethren, who had formed a settlement on his
estates at Berthelsdorf, to which other newly-awakened persons were added,
until he succeeded in laying (1722) the foundation of tho congregation of
Jlerrnhut^ on the Ilutberg. Under his influence the hostile spirits among his
people were conciliated, the ecclesiastical constitution which ho proposed to
c) J. E. Schmidt Qackkergomeinde in Pyrm. Bmschw. 1805.
d) Et. K. Z. 182a p. 805SS. 1S29. p. 7S2ss. 1S40. p. 141m.
«) Lebcn tL DenkwQrdigk. dor Frau Elia. Fry. Ilamb. 2 ed. 1S50. 2 to]& [J. Timpwn^ Memoirs
or £. Frj. LcindL 1346. Mew Tork. 1S47. 2 vols.]
504 MODERN CHUBGH HISTOBT. PER. VL A. D. 16IB-UN.
them was accepted (1727), and in a short time their missionaries wandered
fojth among the heathen. The religion which he tangfat was founded npon
the Bihle, but inculcated very free opinions respecting it, and consisted prin-
oipally in exercises of the most confiding love to the Savionr. This lore
exalted it above all distinctions in ecclesiastical creeds, hut prodneed no
anxiety to abolish them. Hence the congregation gradnally became organ-
ized into three different tropes, called the Moravian, the Lutheran, and the
Reformed. Their ordinary devotions were principally taken up with refer-
ences to the corporeal part of the expiatory sufferings of Jesus, and their
natural relations of conjugal life were strangely connected with those of a
religious character. With a mind remarkably inclined to extravagance, and
with inexhaustible powers for communicating with others on religious sub-
jects by oral discourses, and singing directly from the heart, (a) in the half
French court dialect of his time, and yet with a singular £Eu:ility for snggest-
ing the most exalted themes by the use of the most common comparisons,
Zinzendorf was fond of playing with allusions to the wounds of the Lamb,
and with the boldest images of sexual love. The offence which this gave to
the theologians of his day, was hardly capable of augmentation by the fan-
tastic notions which ho advanced respecting the persons of the sacred Trinity,
and various suspicious circumstances which became known in his commu-
nity, (h) It was with the utmost diflBculty that the count broke through the
prejudices of his order so as to reach the clerical office, but he was finally
recognized at Tubingen as a candidate, and ordained to the episcopal office
by a Moravian bishop at Berlin. But having attained this official position,
his rank and education were of important service to him in his spiritual du-
ties. After a ten years^ banishment f^om Saxony, he succeeded, as a Chris-
tian statesman, in inducing the ecclesiastical council of Electoral Saxony to
recognize the connection of his congregations with the churches professing
the Augsburg Confession (1748), and in obtaining from Parliament a regular
enactment which recognized them as constituent members of the Episcopal
Church (1749). Although the humblest of the humble, he demanded implicit
submission to his official power of binding and loosing, (c) and infused into hia
works so much of the principle of life, that it could very soon exist without
him. After a brief season of enjoyment, he generally withdrew ftom those
who were in various ways excited and inspired, (d) But although the Breth-
ren established settlements in all parts of the world, Zinzendorf was still pre-
pared with the most restless and extreme activity to labor to win p^aons of
every class in society to the love of his Lord. Each congregation is divided
into choirs according to age, sex, and matrimonial connection. Within the
general bond of the congregation is embraced at once all civil, and many
<i) Geistl Oedlchte d Gr. Z. geBammelt n. geelohtot t. A. Knapp, Btattg: 184&. Stud. u. Krit
ISiaiLS.
h) (After Fresenias, 17478& and BengeU 1751.) Das entdeokte OebelmnlM d. Bosh. d. Herrah.
Becte. FrkC 1749. J. SUnatra, Warnnng vor d. Fanaticism, from the Dntoh. BrL 1752. [Stin«ira*»
Pastoral Letter against Fanaticism lias been transl. into Engl with a Nair. of the Blaa and Pro^ of
the Moravians by liimim, Lond. 1758. 8. Motheim, Eoe. H. Cent ZYIII. § IT. nt I Maffmbaek,
KGeach. des la a. 19. Jhb. Erster Tb. Yorleaa. la & 19.
c) Acta hist eco^ yoL VL p. 5«9aa. d) Ibid, roL lY. p. Mlaa
CHAP. L SYANG. CHUBCH TILL ITSa {419. METHODISTS. 505
profflBsional and external relations, but some who ore called Friends may
also reside beyond the limits of the settlement (cV diaanopa). As the congre*
gation consbta only of those who are called the Awakened, it follows that
those who may become lakewarm fall under the disoipline of the Chniyh.
This ooDsists in admonition, ezclasion from the Lord's Supper, from church
fellowship, and finally from the congregation. The officers are deacons,
elders, and bishops, though these last possess no exclusive prerogatives.
Every settlement is under the government of a conference composed of its
officers, and the whole Unity is governed by a conference of the elders, the
seat of which is established at Berthelsdorf, and calls from every four to ten
years a general synod, at which its own vacancies are filled and all important
measures are decided upon. Every thing beyond the reach of human calcu-
lation is intrusted to a decision by the lot, as they believe that Jesus has such
a direct connection with their affairs, that in such a proceeding he directs the
result, (e) The system of government among the United Brethren is the
same with that of the Pietists, although the mild and cheerful disposition of
Ziozendorf could not accede to the requirement of penitential convulsions,
and he therefore was not on intimate terms with the Orphan House. The
objectionable expressions which Zinzendorf had used in the early part of his
coarse, were finally recalled by himself, and still more decidedly by his judi-
cious and learned successor, Spangenhurg (d. 1792). (/) The piety of the
Hermhutters soon degenerated into a peculiar mannerism, and it became per-
vaded by a commercial worldly spirit {g) Yet many a quiet or broken
heart found a home among them, and the genuine Ohrist of earlier days
found there a sanctuary in times of infidelity and unbelief.
§419. The ifethodists. Wesley. 1703-91. WhiUfield. 1714-70.
The works of J. WcAley. Bristol. 1771 ss. 83 y. i?. ScfvUhetf^ Life of J. W. At the rise an'l pro^res
or MetbudUm. ed. a Lond 184«. 2 vols, a JT. Moore^ Life of J. W. Lond. 1824«. 9 toK R. Watton,
Obm, on Southey's Life of W. Lund. ed. 4. 1833.— Life of G Wbiteflold. Edinb. 1S26. edited after thd
Eofl by Tholuck in Germ. Lpz. 1834. [J. GiUU*, Memoirs of G. W. Hartford. 1S85. S. R. PhlUp,
Ltfc A, Tlmea of O. W. Lond. 1887. 12. New York. 1833. 12.]-V. O. Barckhard, vollst. Gescb. d.
Mcth. In Engl N&mb. 1795. 2 volai J. Croicther, Portraiture of Mctb. Lond. 1815. J. W. Btum^ der
Meth. Z&r. 183S. T. Jachton^ [Hist of tlie Commencement, Prog, ds Present State of Metli. Load.
188Sl Imac Taylor^ Wesley k, Motli. Lond. 1851. 8. J. WhiUh^ad, Lives of J. & ( •. Wesley. Lond.
17WL 2 Tola. 8. Moore's Lives of J. & C W. k Accotint of Great RovlvaK Lond. IS'24. 2 vob. 8. J.
Ilampkon^ Mem. of Wealey it II. of Methodism. Lond. 1791. 8 vols. 8. Doa k, Hist Invest of Metb.
In Ita Conncctlonal Prin. k Pol. 2 ed. Lund. 1852. Minutes of Conferences in Engl. fh>m 1744 to
19M. Lond. 1824. 9 vols. 8. & Warren, Chronicles k Digest of Laws, ^ba of Metb. Lond. 1897. 8
A revival of great importance with respect to England and North Amer-
ica had its origin in an association of pious students whom John Wesley col-
lected around him at Oxford (1729), and who were called Methodists, on
aooount of their precise and strictly holy lives. During his long life the only
thought that seemed to fill the mind of Wesley was that of the salvation of
souls. In connection with him was Whitefleld^ under whose preaching the
«) Yet oomp. Allg. K. Z. 18S3. N. 118. aehratOenhack, p. 85s.
/) K. F. L&dderhoM, d. Leben A. O. Spang. Heldlb. 1846.
g) Die Herrnh. In Leben n. Wtrken, y. ei dbem. Mitglied«. WeUn. 1880.
506 MOD£RN CUURCH HISTOBY. PER YL A. D. 1MB-180B.
hearts of multitudes were shaken, and who felt that he needed more tongaes
and bodies and souls in the service of the Lord than was bestowed on men
for ordinary purposes. As he travelled from land to land, wherever the Eng-
lish languiigo was understood, this seraphic preacher flung his words like
firebrands amoiijx all classes in every extreme of society. The Methodists did
not at first desire a separation from the Episcopal Church ; but when they
were i)crsecuted in various ways in that church, they began to form a society
embraciii<r many congregations, subject to a rigid system of ecclesiastical dis-
cii)line, and under the jurisdiction of superintendents and synods. At an early
j)eriod they held some comnmnication with the Pietists and Ilerrnhutters, bnt
they soon withdrew from the latter, as their religious life did not commence
with a gentle <levelopment of the feelings, but with a violent assault upon the
selfishness of human nature, and a painful process of regeneration. They
therefore re()uired that their converts should be able to tell of a distinct time
in which they found divine grace, and they preferred to hear that that period
was one of even violent corporeal excitement. On this account their elo-
quence, which glowed with })ictures of hell, had the greatest succees among
those who had hitherto lived lives of irreligion, or at least were then incapa-
ble of feeling any higher appeal. As Wesley was Arminian, and Whitefield
Calvinistic on the subject of divine grac«, they finally separated from each
other (1740), but the Wesley ans were the most numerons. Their principal
danger was ])erceived and guarded against by Wesley, and consisted in on
indifference to the moral law while the mind was taken up with the ble^ed-
ness of a lively faith. It became most developed in the case of Fletcher^ a
man who may be truly called a mirror of a ministerial life, wholly loat in
God. {a) The special providential mission of this people was to act as leaven
in the midst of the Episcopal Church, then sunk in the deepest formality, and
to take an interest in the poor and neglected classes among the people. Hence,
although their number at the present time in both hemispheres probably
amounts to a million, their influence, principally by means of uneducated itin-
erant preachers, is probably still more extensive. The sacred struggle for
liberty which was so long sustained by Wilberforce, originated to a great ex-
tent among the Methodists, {b)
§ 420. The Church of the New Jeritsalem, Swedenbarg, 1688-1772.
Sitedenhorg : Arcana coclestla. (Lond.) 174988. 7 t. 4 «d. Tafel, Tab. ISSSn. 5 v. Yen ehr. ni
coupl. nnlv. Thool. novae Ecc Am5t 1771. 2 v. 4. A series of writings by h re.<^*cting Sw. comma-
nlcated by Imra. Tafel & Liidw. llofiwker, especially: Oottl. OiTeiibb. from tlie Lat Tub. ISStek 3
vols. Die Chrlstusre'. in ihrer Aecbth. Tub. ISSla. 4 vols. Katochismns u. d. Lehre d. N. K. Tttbt
1830. (.VAcr the Catechism of the General Conference Lond. 1S2S.) Taftl^ vergL Dmrst a. Benrth.
d. Lehrgegens. der Kath. u. Prot Zugliech. Dar»t d. Unterscheidungsl. 9w. TQb. 1S35. Tafil, S. v.
6. Gc?ner. Tub. 1^41. 2 voU— J/TjW^r, Tub. Quartalschr. 1S30. P. 4. r©vi.sod in his Symbolilc Oliler
matters in : Stdiullin, Idrchl. Googr. vol. I. p. 246«s. Latest liter, accounts in Kh^imcui*/^ Bep. 1SS4
vol. IX. p. 21 (MM. A. K. Z. Lit Bl. 1S36. N. 05s8. Ifaug, d. Lehro d. neuon K. (dtudien (L ev. GeistL
WOrt. 1&42. vuL XIV.) a F. Xanz, E. Sw. d. nord. Scher. Schw. Uall. 2 cd. 1850. [Many Works
a) Lebtn Fletschors, m. Vorr. v. Tbolnck. BrL 18.38, [J. Benson, Life of F. Lond. 12.— Ch«cks
to Antinom. by J. Fletcher. New York. Works of J. F. Now York. 4 v. S,]
b) Life of W. Wilb. by his sons. Lond. 1S88. 4 v. [Pbllad. revised by CL Monis. 1S41. % r. 18.]
CHAP. L EVAXG. CnUBCH TILL ITSa §480. 8WEDENB0RG. 507
of 8w. hare been translated hy different peiBons & publ. by O, Clapp of Boston. IS(S-&1. J. 0.
WiUtinton, Biogr. of £. Sw. Boston. 1S49. 12. A. CUmvIJ, Practical nat of tiie D'>ctt. of £. 8. Boet
1S89. 12. A'. Hagenhach, KOesch. (p. 49S.) Th. L Vorles. 21.]
Emanuel von Sicedenhorg^ who was an assessor in the Miners' College at
Stockholm, had been highly educated in many branches of science, and had
contribnted much to increase a knowledge of mechanics and mining opera-
tions in general. As ho was continually pursuing his researches farther and
farther into the mysteries of nature, during his internal religious conflicts,
he attached himself to every kindred spirit of whom he could learn any thing,
from the time of Birgitto to that of Jacob Boehme, and he came to the conclu-
sion that he was himself honored by an intercourse wnth the spirits of another
world, who manifested themselves to him inwardly, but with the necessary
semblance of an external form, {a) Sometimes in quaint, but sometimes also
in very ingenious language, in the style of a Northern Dante he described his
visions, in which were pictures of every terrestrial state, and in a few in-
stances of rare sagacity ho made it appear as if he really had such an inter-
course with spirits, (b) It was hot, however, until ho received a revelation
directly from the Lord that he felt called upon to attempt the deliverance of
Christianity from the corruption into which it had fallen from tlie time of the
Council of Nica'a, and to establish the Church of the New Jerusidom as the
third Testament of God to man, and the spiritual second advent of Christ.
A few congregations of this new church, principally formed on the basis of
his writings, which were regarded as sacred books, were collected together
in Enghmd and in North America (after 1788), and were represented in an-
nual General Conferences (after 1815). In Sweden his views have obtained
extensive prevalence among the educated classes, and in Wurtemberg they
have been promulgated by Oetinger^ (c) and revived by the enthusiastic co-
operation of the pious librarian, Tafel, The doctrines of Swedenborg are a
fantastic species of rationalism, which, in place of the expiatory sacrifice of
Christ and the Trinity, substitutes a three-fold revelation of the one God, who
was obliged to become man, that he might give a human character to the doc-
trines of faith, and drive back the powers of hell. There is an organ in every
man for communication with the spiritual world, which can be emancipated.
The secret and spiritual sense of th© sacred Scriptures are of no use except
to illustrate the truths derived from the literal sense, and to elevate them to
the view of reason, {d) The friends of this system, therefore, might on the
one hand be fond of every mysterious phenomenon in nature and in the
spiritual world, and on the other, receive Christianity as a religion of reason. («)
It was ])ossible also for them to regard their views as the gradual and con-
tinued development of Protestantism, and while they merely contended for
a) (Kant) Truumc einos Gelstersohcns eritiutert darcb Trdnme dcr Mctapbvsik. KSnigsb. 1766.
^ie^er. In ». Arc1.Iv. vol. III. St 1. VuL VIII. SL 2. J. Qorre%^ 8w. s. VLMonen u. Verb, z, K. Straasb.
1827.
ft) 8amml. d. Urkanden betr. Lcben n. Cbarakter Sw. m. Anm. t. Tafel. T&b. 1S:)9.
c) Ofting^r, Sw. n. andrcrird. u. hlniml Phil. Frkf n. L. 1765.
</) TifH, d. GottHchk. d. H. S. o. d. tfefere Schriftsinn. Tub. 1888.
e) La rel. dii bon-»ens, e.xpos6 prullm. k la doctr. de la nonr. Jdr. Par. 1882. Oegger^ noar. qnet-
tloDS i»blL Bern. 1335.
508 MODERN CHURCH BISTORT. PER. YL A. D. 16iS-1688L
the laying aside of creeds, they preached that theirs was the Johannic church
of the futnre. (/)
§ 421. Minor Fanatical Parties,
F. W^ KruQ^ krlt Oesch. d. prot rel. Schw&rtnereL Sectir. a. widerkirchl Nener im QroastL. Ver;^
£1b«rf. 1S51. M. Gobel, Gesch. dos chr. Lebens in d. rboin. weati>h. K. ISM. vol. IL F. W. Bar"
thold^ d. Erweekten im prot Deatschl Ansgang. d. 17. a. vnte H&lfte d. 18. Jtib. b«s. d. fyomiiMB.
Orafenh(iA). (Raumen hist Taschenb. 1852 A 58.)
1. John Labadif^ a canon of Amiens, dissatisfied with the Jesuits and
their opponents, soaght in the Reformed Church a people of God, who wor-
shipped Christ in sincerity (1650). He agreed with that Church in its doo-
trinal views, and he was anxious to revive the external organization which
prevailed in the apostolic age. The germ of his church was composed of
certain regenerate persons, whom he formed into a devotional family, and
which followed the deposed pastor of Middlehurg as an independent congre-
gation. The Mary of this community was the eminently gifted Schurman^ (a)
hut he himself was every where rejected, until an asylum was granted him in
Altona (1674). Deprived of its leader the congregation soon dwindled awaj
in the Netherlands, and hecame the forerunners of the Pietists in a sectarian
form, (b) 2. A gloomy flame was occasionally kindled in different places hy
the writings of Boehme. Quirintu Kuhlmann of Breslau, a poet^ whose life
was itself a continual poem, wandered over the earth full of glowing love for
the Redeemer, and urged on hy a vague impulse that he was to revolutionize
the world, until he was humed at the stake in Moscow (1689.) (e) Gichtel
(d. 1710) of Ratisbon broke up all his civil and social connections, that he
might, like an oriental saint, abstract himself from nature, and lose himself
entirely in the Deity. The results of his efforts among a class of persons
aiming to be a priesthood after the order of Melohisedek, to expiate the ana
of other men, and an angelic brotherhood striving to live free from earthly
cares, pleasures, and toils, have come down through a series of individuals in
Lower Germany to the nineteenth century, {d) Daniel Muelhr (1716-82)
thought that sacred history was intended to be an allegory to represent
general ideas, that Adam and Christ were the same human formation of the
one all-pervading Deity, that the sacred writings of all nations were equally
divine, and that he, like an Elias, was called to redeem the world from the
yoke of the letter. He travelled through the whole northern part of Ger-
many to announce that the external church was about to be subverted, and,
although he died under an impression that God had deceived him, he has even
now some followers who reject the historical Christ, look upon infidels as their
brethren, and are waiting for MuoUer^s return to set np a universal kingdom. {$)
/) G. A. Werner, since 1840: Ev. K. Z. 1845. p. 481s. Zeitsch. t unlrte ev. K. 1851. N. 81.
a) ZitKKr\pia n meliorii sortis electla Alton. 1678. Dess. 1782. 2 yols.
h) DeclAnttloDsch. o. Erkl. d. roinen Lehre. Hervord. 1671. Waleh, B. Sir. aoaaerli. toL IY. |k
858. MoeUer, Cimbr. lit vol. III. p. 858S.
c) Baylf, Art Kublou n. KublpMlter, Unsoh. Nsobriobton 1711. p. 755. 1748. pi 9656B. ffarmiUrg,
de Q. K. (Mas. Brem. Th. I. p. 651n.) Adtlung^ Oesoh. menscbL Narrh. toI. V. pi 8n.
d) KifuUrtater, neue Engelbradenoh. Nord. 1719. Btinbeck, Naeb. t. G. LebeasL o. Ltbrs.
BrL 1783. (IIstIms) O. Leben u. Irrtbamer. (Ev. K. £. 188L N. 11m.)
0) KdUr, Dan. Maeller, reL Sobwfirmer d. 18 Jabrh. Lpx. 1884.
CHAP. L KYANO. CHURCH TILL 175a § 42t SECTS & FACTIONS. 509
8. The Hi^rew9^ foanded by a candidato whose name was Verschoorer^ ap-
peared (about 1730) in Leyden, as quiot separatists* who held that every one
was bonnd to read the Scriptares in the original languages, and that the merit
of Christ was so great that his elect people were fVeed from all guilt. (/)
4. The peasant Jansun carried his notions of predestination to such an ex-
treme that he contended that every thing proceeded from God, and would
finally return to God, consequently, that even all sin was effected by God,
and that human guilt was only a fiction of the imagination. On his expul-
sion from East Friesland (1740) he returned thither professedly by the divine
command, and proclaimed that the country was soon to be reduced to desola-
tion. As the measures taken by the authorities were of no great force, he
succeeded in maintaining himself witti a small band of bold followers for sev-
eral years, {g) 5. Elias Eller^ criminally connected (1729) with Anna^ a
baker's daughter, afterwards converted by him, promised a pietistic circle of
epicoree at Elberfeld that the Messiah should be born a second time. She also,
in the character of the woman clothed with the sun, knew how, in direct con-
tradiction to the laws of nature, to show from the Apocalypse what her for-
tune was to be. The city of Eonsdorf was constructed by them, she was
much esteemed as the mother of Zion, and he died in the midst of the high-
est honors (1744, 1750). (h) 6. In Brueggle, in the Ganton of Berne, sprung
up on excitement among the children, accompanied by pretended prophecies
and visions. In this movement the two brothers KohUr^ who, while boys,
had been employed in various kinds of magical delusions, made themselves
known as the two witnesses mentioned in the Apocalypse, and fixed upon a
certain day in which they declared that Christ would return to the world.
This day, however, was subsequently postponed, as they alleged, in conse-
quence of their prayers. They poured forth the most abusive epithets upon
the Chnrch, and rioted upon the donations, and shamefully abused the wives
of those who were duped by them. Jerome Kohler was strangled at the gib-
bet for blasphemy (1758), and although he confessed himself an impostor, his
followers thought he was invulnerable, and they expected him to rise again
on the third day. (i) 7. From the conventicles still proceeded many persons
under the influence of religious excitement ; Prophets, to prepare the way
for the speedy return of Christ to the world ; Separatists, who protested
against the corruptions of the Church, and those who under the sensuous re-
action of pietistic feelings, abused the liberty of God^s children in the indul-
gence of the most unbridled licentiousness. The Counts of Witgenstein, fVom
financial as well as pious considerations, till almost the middle of the eighteenth
century, opened their little principality to all who were oppressed on account
of religion. There Socinians and inspired persons lived together, and those who
liad been awakened under the most diverse influences, met together with all
/) Acta hist t<», yoL I. pi 800. VI, lOeOsa.
g) AcU hist ecc. vol. V. p. 18. 812«. YI, 106Sml Mas. Brem. voL IL p. 144at.
K) Oriuel d. VerwOst. heiL Stltte o. d. Oebeimnitt d. Boah. d. Bonsd. Secta. Frkt 175a 2>.
SMtUrmacKer^ Apologtei Arab. 1750. J. tV. Kmc^ Otsch. d. Bosh. d. Eller^ecte sn B. Marb.
175L 9 Tok.
ij Dm sntd. Gek. d. Bosh, in d. BrOgglersecteu Zur. 1753. S vols. AcU hist eoc vol XVIL p.
106Ll06l8ii
510 MODEBN CIIUBCH HISTORY. FEB. YL A. D. 164d-165&
their peculiarities, (k) It was there that Mother Fee (of BuUer), as the new
incarnation of the three divine persons, with her sedacer and those whom she
had sednced, hoped to establish her empire (1702.) Even when snrrendering
herself to natural indulgences of the flesh, as well as to shameful crimes
against nature, she endeavored to lose herself in the wounds of Jesus, and
misused the words of Scripture in the boldest manner. The company which
she assembled were plundered by the counts police, and were soon lost In the
Oatholic Church, to which they fled for protection. (I)
§ 422. Spread of Christianity.
J. Wifffferti^ Qcscb. d. prot MLwion. Hamb. 18156. 2 rolfc
As long as the Catholic powers had the dominion of the seas, Protestant
missions were necessarily of a very limited extent. The United Brethren
formed a central point, from which went forth missionaries to every quarter
of the world (since 1732) ; but the gospel, as it was presented by the Herm-
hutters, could captivate only a few individuals, and could operate only in a
very narrow circle, (a) 1. The conversion of the aboriginal inhabitants to
Christianity was indispensable to the safety of the English colonies in North
America. It was commenced (1640) by John Eliot^ with the conviction that
all things were possible to those who diligently toiled and prayed with faith
in Christ. The Puritans, who then possessed the supreme power, established
a society for planting Christianity in foreign countries (1647), and the Method-
ists also forthwith crossed the sea. America, however, has become Christian,
not so much in consequence of its conversion, as of its colonies, (b) 2. With
the continual assistance of the Orphan House at Halle, Denmark has m;un-
tained (since 1706) a mission for its East Indian possessions at Tranquehar^
from which also were obtAinod the first missionaries to the English East In-
dies and the West India Islands. In the East Indies the success has not been
very great, and in the West Indies it has been confined wholly to the slaves, (c)
8. In Lapland missionaries had to be continually sent and sustained from
Denmark and Sweden to uphold Christianity against the severe exactions of
nature, (d) 4. Since the fifteenth century Greenland (p. 247) had been com-
pletely lost sight of by the nations of Europe. A Norwegian minister, ffan$
Eged€^ became possessed with a strong desire to win back this legendary
country to the fellowship of European and Christian society. He finally sue-
*) J. W. Witikel, Casirair reg. Graf zuS«yn-WItt Vlelefeld. 1S50.
t) Abstract of tlie public acts in : Vcrnunftige n. ctir. aber nicht scheintaeil Thomaslsche Gedanken.
Hal. 1725. vol. III. p. 209i«.— <?. F. KelUr, d. Bnttler'sche Rotte. (Zeltscb. t bist Th. 1S45. H. 4.)
rt) SpangenXttrg in Walcb, nst Rel. Oesch. vol. VI IL p. SSlMw Ueberslcbt d. Mbslonsgesch. d.
ev. Brudvrk. Gnad. ISSa \J. lIolmMy II. of Mlsdons of the U. B. Lood. ISIS. Periodical Aoooants
of the Ml>»i()ns of U. B. from 1790. Lend. 10 voU]
li\ Eliot^ Chr. Commonwealtb, or the rising kingdom of J. Cb. 1652s. 2 v. 4 Mather^ Eoc IT. of
New Eiigl. L(>nd. 1702. f. [k. Boston. 1858. 2 voK %,'\—J. G. HuUsr, d. yor«»t v. grosaen Oetste unter
d. Indiatiern. (Stud. a. Krit 1S49. II. 4.) [Life of J. Bitot, (Sparks' Am. Biogr.) Boeton. & P. Xmil,
IL of New Eugl. Lond. 1747. 2 voK 8.]
c) Hall. Mis-sionsbcricbte s. 1703 in vcrscbledener Geetalt bis Jctzt Waleh, nst ReL Geach. roL V.
p. U9as. [Memoirs of Chr. F. Swartz & II. of Rel. in India. Lond. 1826. 12.]
d) Acta hl!«t ccc. vol. XI. p. 1. XV. 23098. [J. SA^srut, IL of Lapland with Sketcbea, Ac Ozoa
1674. t] Uem, Lappen in Finnmork, from the Diln. Lpz. 1771. Budelbaeh in Snappy CbristoCerpe
1888.
CHAP. L EVANO. CHURCH TILL 1760. §422. MISSIONS. QBEENLAND. 511
oeeded in obtaining the support of the Danish government, and of a commer-
cial society (1721). On the western coast, the only part accessible, he found
a country bound up in ice, wlicre a few thousand Esquimaux, with no tra-
ditions of the past, wrest from the hand of nature the scantiest means of
subsistence. Egede dedicated Iiimsclf to the work of their improvement and
conversion. Since that time civilization and Christianity, as far as was pos-
sible in such a sterile soil, has been planted and maintained there, (e) 5. An
Institution was established (1728) by Prof. CaUenhurg of Halle, for the con-
version of the Jews and Mohammedans, but as its sphere of operations was
contracted, the results were of course inconsiderable. (/)
CHAP. II.— THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH UNTIL 1750.
§ 423. The Papacy,
QuamaeH, Yltae et res gestae R. Pontiff et Cardd. a Clem. X. nsqne ad Clem. XI. Rom. 175U8.
S Tola, t Buwer^ Rambach, vol. X. Th. 2. L, Ranke^ die riim. F&pste. vol. III. p. SSas. Rcspecttng
the memoirs of the Conclaves : Ibid. vol. III. p. 346ss.
When the hope of once more subjecting the world to the dominion of
Catholicism, and the enthusiasm which sprung from it had passed away, the
papacy gradually retired from the prominent position it had formerly held in
the afOiirs of the world, and assumed the station of an Italian principality.
And yet it could not bring itself down to a complete renunciation of the vast
claims which it had once set up. In civil affairs the political tendencies be-
gan to predominate over the ecclesiastical. Hence, nothing remdned for the
popes but to enter their impotent protest in opposition to the undeniable and
necessary facts of history. As they continued to urge the usual claims for
money and jurisdiction upon the states, which were then rearranging and
deciding upon their own affairs, they fell into perpetual conflict with the Cath-
<^c princes. The states of the Church inherited also the burden of a debt
which had increased under nearly every administration. According to the
selfish policy of the Conclave, and in consequence of the right of exclusion
always exercised by the crowns of France, Germany, Spain, and Portugal, no
cardinals could ordinarily be elevated to the papal chair except they belonged
to the great Italian families, had grown gray in the service of the Romish
prelates, and were not very powerful for good or for evil. Such, indeed, was
'vmiformly the case, except when the pious party were sufficiently strong to
<auTy the election. Innocent JT. (Pamfili, 1644-55) was made pope on the
ground that he had never said much, and had done still less. He commenced
e) IT Egedf^ Nachr. ▼. d. GroenL Miss. Ilmb. 1740. \llan% Eged^y A df?9crlp. of Greenland h,
XJfe of the Author. Lond. 1818. 8.] Paul Eged^, Nachr. v. Or. a. e. Tajrebuch. v. 1721-40. Copenh.
1790. (Extracts in the Acten I. nst KG. vol. III. p 1. 57?«.)— /?»«fWftrtcA, H. Ej?. Oronl. Bischof
CChr. BIngr. 1S50. vol. I.) [Iceland, Greenland, A the Faroe Isle^. New Yorlc. ISSO. 12.] Kdlbinfft
Qcaeh. d. Mis^ in Or. Gnad. 1731. I). Auslaod. ISU. N. 101 w. [Miss. Records ro^p. Greenland, La-
brador, Ac (Prea. Board.) Phil. 1880. 8.]
/) AecooDts of the Institation till 1791. St^ph, SchuU, Leltangen dos IlOcbsten n. & Rath. a.
Setaen d. Earopa, Asien. Atr. Hal 1771aa. 6 vola.
512 MODERN GHUBCH UISTOBT. PER. TL A. D. 1MS-I»a
bis reign with completely destroying Roman agricoltore, by granting to the
papal exchequer the entire monopoly of the trade in com, and by his depend-
ence upon Donna Olympia gave occasion for the taunt that the vicar of Ohrnt
was in petticoats, and that a new Joanna was in possession of St. Peter's
keys, (a) Alexander VII. (Chigi, 1655-67) lived to ei^oy the triumph of
welcoming the accomplished daughter of Gustavus Adolphus to the Otpi-
tol. This extraordinary woman had become tired of Protestantism and
of the Swedish crown, and had resigned them both, that she might inde-
])endently enjoy the glories of art and science in the midst of the natural Inx-
nriance of a southern clime. Though of a masculine temperament, she still
loved A system of faith which made a merit of celibacy, and while she
spurned all restraints upon thought, she nevertheless felt the need of a present
infalliblo autlu)rity. Hence, wliile she humbled herself to embrace with full
confidence the abstract notion of the papacy, her imperious disposition and
her keen wit came not unfreqnently into collision with the actual pope. The
negotiations of the papal court with Louis XIV. respecting portions of terri-
tory belonging to Parma and Modena, the royal prerogative of appointing the
superior ecclesiastical officers in the newly acquired provinces, and the iosolt
to the dignity of the French ambassador at Rome, were terminated of course
in the humiliation of the pope by the treaty of Pisa (1664), since the king
was already in possession of Avignon, and threatened to advance upon Rome
itself. During his pontificate he lost the reputation of a saint, but acquired
that of a poet, and was regarded by the Roman people as a great man in lit-
tle things, but a little man in great things. While the Jesuits attempted to
prove that the pope was infallible, even in matters of &ct, the Florentine am-
bassador decided that a true word never passed his lips, (h) Clement IX.
(Rospigliosi, 1667-69) filled once more the important position of a mediator
between the ecclesiastical and the civil powers. He endeared himself to the
people by the mildness of his disposition, but the afiEairs of government went
on as they best might, without his direction. Clement X. (Altieri, 1670-76),
a feeble octogenarian, was saluted pope by all parties, as if by inspiration,
after a long struggle, but did nothing except to weep over the administration
of his family favorites. Innocent XL (Odeschalchi, 1676-89) adopted vigor-
ous measures for the restoration of strict morals both in Church and state,
lie endeavored to relieve the finances, but seemed to think that nothing was
needful but to save as much as possible. A few iMshops in France had re-
sisted the royai claim to administer the revenues of ev^ those churohes
which had not been founded by the crown during a vacancy in the diocese
to which they belonged, and to appoint persons to the livings dependent upon
such vacant bishoprics. The pope gave his countenance to their a{^>eaL
a) RMHmuchtr, a Inn. X. Vit 1674. 4 Oualdi {LsUy, Vlte delU D. OlTmpU MaMtghtni
Without place. 1666. 12. tL \. Rlcheru^ Lps. 17SS, but not to be depended apon.
h) Philomati Ubores Javenilea. Par. 1666. t—Oo%rinff, U. elect. AL nimst 16&7. 4. (Opp. vol. V.)
—ArkenAoU, M£m. concern. Christine B. de Bodde. Amst 1761& 4 v. 4» &. y. ihifiMii, Lpi^
1758as. 4 vola. 4. Grau^ri, Chr. u. ihr. Hof. Bonn. 1887i. 9 toU.— Relation de tout oe qnl ae paaw •■•
tre le P. Al. et le Roi dc France. CoL 1670. 12. Dwrnarais^ H. des d^melsz de la eoar de FriMe
avec la oour de Rome. Par. 1706. 4. iLeti) II alndlcato dl AL eon U ano Tlaggio neU* altro mcodo^
Ocn. 1668. 12.
CHAP. IL CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1750. $428. POPKS. 513
Louis XIY. took possession of Avignon, and threatened to sander all connec-
tion between France and the Roman See. Innocent refused to grant canoni-
cal confirmation to all those bishops who had been appointed by the king.
That he might be master of his own city, and restore the administration of
justice, he abolished the privilege which ambassadors had sometimes exer-
cised, of making their quarters at Rome an asylum (la francliise). On this
the French ambassador, whose retinue was equal to an army, abused both the
ecclesiastical and the sovereign rights of the pope. Innocent 'died without
being moved from his purposes, hated by the great and by the Jesuits, cursed
by the people as a miser, and yet revered as a saint, (c) Alexander VIIL
(Ottoboni, 1689-91), who was elected through French influence, re-established
the whole system of nepotism and simony, supported his native city of Venice
in its war against the Turks, and obtained by the favor of France the aboli-
tion of the freedom of its ambassador's quarters, but he could come to no
agreement respecting the royal prerogative in the French Church. Innocent
XIL (Pignatel)i, 1691-1700) took the predecessor whose name he bore, for
his model, and endeavored to secure by laws the whole succeeding century
against nepotism and simony. His nepotes were the poor, and the Lateran
was his hospital. His efforts for the restoration of Church diMicipline ex-
tended to 80 high, and yet to such minute subjects, that some scoffers boaste<l
that he had reformed the Church in its head and members. In the peace
which he concluded with France the king kept possession of the royal prero-
gative he had previously claimed. Clement XI. (Albani, 1700-21), an inde-
pendent prince and a zealous pathetic preacher, endeavored without success,
in the complicated mazes of the war of succession, to obtain by spiritual or
carnal weapons some share in the inheritance. His protest against the as-
sumption of the crown by the Elector of Brandenburg, w:is regarded in Ger-
many as a papal extravagance. When the aversion of the bishops to the pre-
rogatives of the Sicilian monarcliy had come to an open rupture, the pope
imagined that he could destroy the ecclesiastical sovereignty of the crown by
Interdictfi. But the only effect which they produced was that ho was obliged
to support at Rome the three thousand clergymen who were expelled from
the Two Sicilies for their observance of the interdict. {J) Innocent XIII,
(Ck>Dti, 1721-24), a kind prince and a conscientious bishop, on the pledge that
he should receive the palfrey and the feudal quitrents, invested the emperor
with the sovereignty of Naples, vainly protested against the bestowal of
Parma and Piacenza as imperial fiefs, and from respect to Franco was obliged
to appoint a contemptible wretch to the cardinalship. Benedict XIII, (Orsini,
1724-30), who could be induced to accept of the papal office only by a regard
to his monnstic vow of obedience, seemed always to have regarded the con-
vent of the Dominicans as bis world, while his hypocritical favorite, Coscia,
bartered away both Church and state, until primitive Christian simplicity be-
c) ViU d'lnn. XL Yen. 1690. 4. Bonamici, de Titi» et rebus gesUs Inn. XL Kom. 1776. L*eUit
dn d^ de Rome. CoL 1767.
a) Oppc (Bulla, Dlscoarsefl, Letton) Ro*n. 1722. FrcC 1729. 2 toI& t-^Suder, Leben u. Thaten d.
khigen a. iMnUiinten CI. XI. FrkC 1721. 8 vola. (P. PoUdoro) L. YL de vitA et rebua ge&tis CL XL
Urb. 1727. 4 BtbouM, H. de CI. XL Avlgn. 1752. 2 to1& 4
83
5 1 4 MODERN CnUBCH HISTOBY. PEB. TL A. D. 1$48-180&
came utterly ridicnlons in a court so recklessly conformed to the world. A
peace was concluded with Naples, by which it was stipulated that the Sicilian
monarchy should be recognized, but that important cases of dispensation
should be reserved for the Roman Ouria. (e) Clement XII, (Corsini, 1780-iO),
who, after a brilliant career was raised to the throne when old and blind, was
the patron of justice, art, and literature, as far as he could be so through his
family favoqtes. He secretly favored the conquest of Naples for a Spanish
prince. (/) Benedict XIV, (Lambertini, 1740-68), a learned, well meaning,
and facetious master, but averse to public affairs, set an example to his people
of noble yet simple manners. As an author ho diminished the number of the
saints of the Romish Church, as a pope he abolished many of their festivals,
and lived in harmony with the great heretical king, (^) and endeavored to
preserve the dignity of the Roman court by judicious concessions to the Cath-
olic princes, that they might not become unwilling to present their petitions
there, (h)
•
§424. The OaUiean Church.
iPtcot) Easal hist sar rinflaenoe de U rel en France pendant le 17. 8. Par. 18S4. 8 Tola, tmnlatad
as Denkwurdigkeiten d. franz. K. by Rdu dc WeU, Frnkt 1828i. 9 Tola.
In France all the splendors of an absolute monarchy were developed under
Louis XIV, (1648-1716), in the midst of a wealthy and intellectual nation,
which found consolation for its secret wounds in the gratification of its vanity
and frivolity. During the contest with Innocent XI. the king convoked an
assembly of bishops and barons at Paris (1682), in which the legal views
which ordinarily prevailed in France were formally pronounced. It was there
maintained : 1. That Peter and his successors have received power from God
in spiritual, but not in secular affairs. 2. That this power is limited, not only
by the decrees of the Council of Constance relating to the authority of €ren-
eral Councils, but, 3. By the established prescriptions and usages of the GhJ-
lican Church ; and, 4. That the decisions of the pope, when not sustained by
the authority of the Church, are not infallible. These propositions of the
Gallican clergy were proclaimed by a royal ordinance, to which all the instruo-
tions of the schools were to be conformed, but in Rome they were pnblidy
burned by the common hangman. The whole power of the pope was founded
on the opinion that no bishop elect could be consecrated without the papal
sanction. All newly elected bishops were therefore very zealous for the re-
conciliation which was soon effected with Innocent XII. by the revocation
of the four propositions. Public opinion, however, in France, has never
drawn back from the positions assumed in them, (a) The prelates appointed
e) 0pp. theol. Rom. 1723. 8 vols. C— Icona et mentis et cordis Ben. XIII. Fret 1725. Leben. o.
Tbaten Ben. XIII. Frkf. 1781. AIm. Borgia^ Ben. XIIL vita. Uom. 17&i. 4.
/) Acta hIsL ecc. voL IV. p. 1008ra.
g) Aug. Thfiner, Zustinde d. katb. K. in Scbleslen. 1740-63. a. d. Archive d. h. Stohls. Batiib.
1892. 2 vols.
h) Opf). cd. Aztvtdo^ Rom. 17i7s8. 13 vols. 4.— Acta hist, ecc vol. IV. p. 106Sb.«. Tie dn P. Bta.
XIV. Par. 1788. 12. Hist poL BL 1858. vol. 81. H. &
a) K du Pin^ de pot. ecc et temp. a. dedaratio cleri galL den. rep. Vind. 1778. A. Mo^. ITSa 4 So*-
9uet^ Defensio declaratlonls. Lux. (Qen.) 178a 2 toU 4 A oft In bis Oeavresl886. voU IX Aium-
CHAP. IL CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL ITtM. $424 FRANCE. LOUIS XIY. 515
according to the vacillating policy of the king and his favorites, formed a
spiritual nobility in the conrt so completely submissive that even their liberal
position with respect to Rome depended entirely upon the royal will. Bat
when secalar literature became flourishing and subjected the intellect of Eu-
rope to its sway, the consequences of the restoration of Catholicism entirely
disappeared, and many learned, profound, and brilliant writers were produced
within the Church itself. As the great historical works published by the
monks of St Maur and in the Oratory at Rome, were generally undertaken in
an ecclesiastical spirit, and without a wish to sacrifice their learned leisure to
the prejudices of an inquisitorial tribunal, they seldom, and never intentionally,
contained any tiling displeasing to the hierarchy. Fetavius (d. 1652) com-
posed his work on the history of doctrines (p. 6, nt. c.) with the hatred to
heretics which is peculiar to the Jesuits, but the power of Catholicism derives
very little support from the medley of opinions he has brought together from
the ancient Church. Peter de Marca^ Archbishop of Paris (d. 1662), attempted
to justify the liberties of the Gallican Church by examples derived from past
ages (p. 6, nt. J). Mdbillon (d. 1707) wrote against the impudence with which
the bodies taken from the catacombs were honored and sold at Rome for
relics, (ft) France was so much beloved by this man of documents that even
the prayers of the hierarchy could only prevail upon him slightly to mitigate
the form of his expressions. Huet (d. 1721), at one time Bishop of Avranches,
tttemptod to prove the truth of Christianity by pointing out vestiges of it in
all antiquity, and the uncertainty of all human knowledge^ («) Richard Si-
mon (d. 1712), with a bold and subtle learning, ventured beyond the views
then commonly entertained respecting the origin, preservation, and interpre-
tation of the sacred Scriptures. He forsook the Oratory of his own accord,
▼as violently assailed by the Protestants, and although he could not survive
the loss, he burned his manuscripts on account of the displeasure of his con-
temporaries, and for fear of the Jesuits, (d) Salignac de la Motte Fenelan^
the swan of Cambray (d. 1715), apostolical in his spirit, intellectual, and
guided only by the impulses of his own affectionate heart, described an edu-
cation conformed to man^s nature, in contrast with the mode of training pur-
sued by the Jesuits, (r) Bosnuet (d. 1704), the eagle of Meaux, made conces-
lions to the conrt and to the world without injury to his own dignity or to
his Chnrch. In the service of the king he defended the freedom of tlie Gal-
lican Church, and for the advantage of the pope he attacked the Protestants.
His attractive representation of Catholicism was made to show that the lat-
ter had abandoned the Church only because they were ignorant of its true
ebariicter. Language was subject to his control as if he were its king, his
garUn, x. d. Freih. d. galL K. Ilal 1752. Origoire^ Essal lilsL Bar 1m liberies de Pegl. gallicane.
Par. 1817.
h) JSuM0fdi Romani Efx de cultii Sanctorum Ignotor. Par. 16SS. 4 ed. 8l 1705. A, Both In Oav-
ragee poathamee. P«r. 1724. tol. I. p. 209a9.
e) ITutUi Cotnroentar. de rcbos ad eum pertinent Amst 1718. 12.
d) H. crlt. do. V. T. (Par. 167a 4) Kot 16^55. 4. II. criL dii N. T. Rott 1«89. 4— Life prefaced to
LeUrea cholsiea de M. Simon par de la Martini re, Amst 1780. 4 vote. 12. K. IT. Oraf, CL B. 8.
(BHtrr. zu d. Th. Wisfl. Jena 1851. vol. I.)
d) Oeuv. Splritnellea. Antr. 1718. 2 ▼. dc often. Oorrespondanee de Thn, Par. 1827. 8 yola.— iZam-
•iiy, H. de Feu. Hay. 1728. 11 OobL 1821 1>€ Beauuet^ H. de F^n. Par. 1809. 8 Tola.
516 MODEBN OHUBCH HISTOBT. PSR. YL A. D. 164S-1858L
eloqnence was lofty, ingenious, on difficult snbjeots sometimes wonderfully
fine, and in consequence of a strain of sadness which prevails in it, generally
pathetic. (/) The pulpit orators contemporary with him were : Fleehier^
Bishop of Nisraes (d. 1710), whose cool considerateness made every exalted
thing on earth bow to the doctrine of the cross ; the Jesuit, BovrdaUme
(d. 1704), whose discourses, with no brilliant passages, and with no effort to
obtain applause, move all hearts by their vigorous beauty ; Ma$sillon, Bishop
of Clermont (d. 1742), who, while revealing in the noblest language of an
aooomplishod education, the secrets of the human heart, the captivating mid-
dle path between the extremes of good and evil, and the intricacies of daily
life, made virtue seem attractive, and even the king dissatisfied with himself;
and finally the missionary, Bridaine (about 1750), who, with popular vigor as
a messenger of God, gave utterance to the thunders of the eternal world, {g)
Jansenism.
Leydecker^ H. Jansenlsmi. Tn^. ad Rh. 1695. {Gtrheron) H. g6n6rale de Jana. Amst 1700. lu-
ehe^ini, H. polem. Jana. Rom. 1711. 8 vols. Abr6ff6 hist des d^tuurs et des TariaL da J»ur\ With-
out place. 1789. 4. Dotn. de Colonia, Diction, des livres Jansenlstes. Lyon. 1752. 4 toIh 1ft. [Art
in Kitto'5 Journal of Blbl Lit. vol. YII.]
§425. /. Port-Royal.
Fontaine, Mem. pour servir 4 TH. de P. R. Col. (U tr.) 1TS8. 2 vols. 12. J. RaeifU^ H. d. P. R.
Par. 1767. 2 vols. More complete in bis Oeuvr. Par. 1799. 4 vols. Relation de la palx de Tegl soo*.
CI IX. avec des lettrcs, nctee etc. 1706. 2 vols. (Quesnoll) La i*aix de CI. IX. Brux. 170L 2 vols. 12.
H. Reuchlin, Oesch. v. P. R. Hmb. 1389-44. 2 v. C. A. Sitinte Beuw, P. R. Par. 1810-2L 2 vols.
[Rol. Mag. vol. & p. 869. Art in Meth. Quart Rev. April. ISSa p. 191-212]
A controversy which had for some time been slumbering, was revived by
Jansenius, a deceased Bishop of Ypres. His work, which together with his
testament was edited by a friend, (a) contained an exact representation of the
Augustinian and Pelagian systems of doctrine, from which it appeared that
many of the scholastic writers and popes approached much nearer the heretic
than the saint. To the system of external accommodation which so exten-
sively prevailed in the ethical system of the Jesuits, was here opposed the
cordial sincerity of a spirit wrought by God, which, being freed by grace
from the power of concupiscence, and implanted in the soil of divine love,
cannot sin, and finds its freedom in the service of God. The Jesuits attacked
the book as soon as it appeared, and Urban VIIL directed against it the bull
In eminenti (1642). The University of Louvain, however, in behalf of the
Netherlandic clergy suggested the inquiry, whether the pope oondenmed the
rejected propositions as the propositions of Jansen or of Augustine? When
/) Ocuv. Von. 178688. 5 vols. 4. Par. 1744.4 vols. £ Oeuv. posth. Amst (Par.) 176& 8 rotai 4 Ocnv.
oompl. Par. 1886. 12 vols. 4.—De Beausset, H. de Bom. Par. 1814. 4 voI& 7^i&aro«uf, Snppltei. aax
H. do Boss, et de F^n. Par. 1S22. A. Oaillo*, Vie de Boas. Par. 1886. Respecting his allcced mar-
riage : ( WeU) Katbolik. 1827 P. 6 N. 1. A. K. Z. 1S27. N. 8& [A work bj M. Floquet on the Lift
dc Writings of Bossuet is announced in Paris in 1854, and is said to contain important diacoreriea]
Q) Mauri/, Essai sur I'eioquence de la cbaire. Par. 1810. vol I. Lit hist will be found in Am-
num, Handb. d. Kanzulberedts. N&rnb. 1S12. p. 48a. Examples: Musterpred. fhuix. Kanzelredatr-.
fibers. V. LIncke, m. Torr. v. KrehL Meiss. 1S88.
a) Angustinus s. doctrina Aug. do humanae naturae sanitate, aegrltodlne et medldaa adr. Pelts
et MaaRillensen Lev. IMO. t A often.
CHAP. II. CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1750. §426. PORT-EOYAL. 517
the goveniment had decided in favor of the bull (1647) it was generally re-
ceived in all parts of Belgiam. In France, the Abbot of St, Cyran (d. 1643)
the early friend of Jansen, a John in the prison of Richelien, and with a
higher ambition than that ancient preacher, had already collected a bond of
yonthM disciples, whose enthusiasm for the liberty of the Church had been
excited by a severe doctrine and discipline, (h) Anthony Arnault! (d. 1694),
the shrewd and profound Doctor of the Sorbonne, with an hereditary hatred
of the Jesuits, took his stand in favor of Augustine, (c) With him stood,
after a brief struggle in youth, his sister Angelica^ the Abbess of the Cister-
cian convent of Port-Royal^ and a convent-mother, whose gentle spirit was
pervaded by the most thorough earnestness of monastic life, {d) Engaged iti the
same cause was also a community of highly educated men, who lived in the
manner of the ancient anachorets in the vicinity of Port-Royal des Champs,
Innocent X, condemned five propositions taken from the work of Janscn
(1653). Amauld^s friends explained that the five propositions were not in-
tended by the author to be understood in the sense in which they were con-
demned by the pope. But Alexander VII, assured the world (1656) that
they were actually condemned in the sense intended by Jansen. The party
at Port-Royal and four bishops objected that this was a simple question re-
specting an historical fact (la question dn fait), on which the Church could de-
dde with no higher authority than science. This revival of Augustinism
originated in the same spirit which had induced the Reformers to revive it, a
deep religious earnestness in opposition to the extreme levity which prevailed
in the Church. The general ^^ty of seeking edification in the perusal of the
sacred Scriptures was defended, and the absolute recognition of the sove-
reignty of God was a shield against the absolute authority of the papacy and
the monarchy. But the Port-Royalists denied that there was any such affin-
ity between themselves and the reformers, and entered with peculiar zeal into
the conflict with Calvinism. They also acknowledged that the principle of
all good works must lie in a pious disposition, («) and yet they were models
of the severest penances and self-denials. Their devotional books, written in
the purest style of the most accomplished French authors, very soon took the
place of the Jesuitical literature. Pascal (1623-62), an eminent mathemati-
cian even in early youth, had his religious spirit awakened during a dangerous
illness, and in the midst of continual debility, to consider the natural condi-
tion of the Christian. In opposition to a sceptical world, and in brilliant
fashes of thought, he proved from the very contradictions of men the neces-
sity and truth of Christianity as a restoration of religion to those who longed
to know the divine will. By the enthusiasm and wit of his Letter-*, the ori-
^n of which was then so mysterious, but exhibited a perfect sympathy with
the Port-Royalists, the public mind was completely carried against the lax
piety and licentious confessional morality of the Jesuits, (/) although these
5) OeoTTM ehretiennes et splrltaelles. Lyon. 1679. 4 vols. lA.
r) Oearres d^Arnaald, Laos. 1778. 48 vols. 4 After Lanjuinaia dtades biogr. (Par. 1828.) £r«M>
MrM, in the Kllbt Archiv. 1824. vol. IL P. 1.
d) Eotretlens on conferencca de la mere Angi'liqae. Brax. 1757. 12.
e) A. Amauld, de la frC'quente communion. Par. 1643. A often.
/) Penadeo. Par. 1669. 1& A often. Brl 1886. transL into Oerin. {bj Kleaker) Brem. 1777, by Blecb.
518 MODEBN CHURCH HISTOBT. P£B. YL A. D. 1648-1898.
were the representatives of worldly interests^ and in some respects of eyen
sonnd common sense, (g) Clement IX, gave the Jansenists an oi^rtonitj,
by means of certain equivocal expressions, to reconcile thdr convictions with
the papal will (1669). Innocent XL was at heart not very far from them.
But Clement XI, and LauU XIV, were determined upon their extermination.
Most of them fled to the Netherlands, Port-Royal was abolished, and so com-
pletely destroyed that even the graves were rifled of their contents. (A)
§ 426. II. The Constitution Unigenitns.
AcU Const Unlg. od. J^aff, Tab. 1T21. 4. CoL novA Actt Const U. ed. DubaU^ Lagd. B. ITSSi
4.— Anecdotes s^cr^tes de 1a Const U. UtnJ. 178S. 8 toIb. Magd. and Lps. ITSSra. 6 y. La Const U.
d^fjr^ a I'egl. unlv. CoL 1T09. 4 yoI& [Papae Clemantia XL ikoMalsstnDa Bulla sle dkta Un%. 4c
Bom. 1718.]
The illustrations of the New Testament publi^ed by Faschasins QyetneU
(d. 1719), a Jansenist who had been expelled from the Oratory, was a book
much beloved by the people, and recommended by many high anthorifies of
the Church for devotional uses, (a) But the Jesuits deemed it of great im-
portance for the overthrow of Jansenism that this book should be con-
demned. The same thing was also demanded by I^duU XlV.y and Clement
XI, was finally induced to condemn, by the Constitution Unigenitvi (171 8X
101 propositions taken from Quesnell's New Testament as heretical, danger-
ous, or offensive to pious ears. Among these were many doctrines of the
fathers, and even of the Scriptures, but which were capable of a Jansenist
explanation. Hence a large portion of the ^ench clergy and people, with
the Archbishop of Paris, the Cardinal de Koaille* at their head, pnbhcly
resisted the Constitution. The king commenced the work of exeenting it by
force, and died, not without some misgivings that he might have gone too &r
in this matter. Under the regency of Orleans, who cared no more for the
pope than he did for Christ himself, many bishops, in opposition to the papal
enactment, appealed to a future council. But as the minister Dubois was
anxious to attain the dignity of Cardinal, the regency decided (after 1719)
against the appellants, and when Louis XV. undertook the government under
the Cardinal A. ff, Fleury^ those who had made the appeal were compelled
by depositions, imprisonmenta, and banishments, to withdraw it, and the
Constitution was by an* act of royal sovereignty enforoed as a law of the
kingdom (1730). The last attempt in behalf of Jansenism was by means of
miracles and wild convulsions at the grave of a popular saint, Francis of
with PrcC hj Neander. Berl. 1S40. Pens^es (hi their orig: form), ft-a^ments et lettrea pnM. y. Prot]^
FauQ r^ Par. 1S44 2 vola. Lee ProTfndales. Par. 165da. 4. A often. Lraigt». 1774. 8 ▼. OeiiTres.
Hay. 1779. D^Jon. 18d& 2 rola. [Paacal^s Tboogbts on Bel. ed. by Bickersteth. Lond. 1947. 8. New
Turk, & ProvlDcIal Letters. Edinb. 1347. New York & PhUad. 1»»7.}>-La vie de P. pw sa soesr
Mad Perler. (Prefixed to Pensoes. Amst. 16S4. & often.) Boswt, Discoare sur U vie ot lea otivr. do
P. (Oeuv. do P. 1779. 1819.) ZZ ReucJdin, P. Leben u. Geist sr. Bchrr. Stottfr. 1S40. Bbrdm J>e-
mmdin, Elogo de P. Par. 1S43. Neander in Wiss. Abt>h. Bri. 1S51. p, 748a. J. MuOUr is d. D-
Zeltach. f. chr. Wisa. 1853. N. 80. [Art in Kitto'a Joara. of Bibl. Lit vol IILJ
g) Duman^ II. dea cinq. pro(ioa& do Jans. Lidge. 1899. 2 toIi.
h) Mem. sar la dc^stniction de P. R. dee Champs. 1711. Origaire, loa mines de P. & Fv. 1809.
a) Partially publ. after 1671, bat the whole tssned: Le Nonv. Teat en Francois arec dea rilUc-
tiona moralea. Par. 1637. 2 toIbw 12. and often.
CHAP.il catholic GHUBCH till 1750. S 420. JANSENISM. 519
Paris^ who had died with the appeal in his hand (1727). Strange things
were related, which made a deep impression upon even unhelievers, hnt the
miracles found a grave in the dungeons which the government provided for
those who asserted then), {h) Beaumont^ Archhishop of Paris, gave orders
that all dying persons who could not prove in their certificate of confession
that they had accepted of the Constitution, should he denied the sacrament,
and it was accordingly refused to the Duke of Orleans. The archhishop was
summoned to answer for this act at the har of the Parliament of Paris (1762).
All interference in spiritual affairs on the part of that hody was then forhid-
den hy the king. The Parliament appealed to their oatb, which hound them
to assist every citizen in the maintenance of his rights. A peace was finally
mediated hy means of a mild pastoral letter from Benedict XIV, (1756). (e)
Jansenism has however suhsequently propagated itself in throe different
forms. In the Netherlands it has a peculiar form of ecclesiastical govern-
ment, with no connection with the Roman Church, hut with the Archbishop
of Utrecht presiding over the two Bishops of Harlem and De venter, (d) The
mystical element has been continued among a few enthusiasts (Convulsion-
naires), who, having elevated their feelings to a high degree of spasmodic
exhilaration by a certain amount of corporeal abuses, wounds and crucifix-
ions, pour forth predictions of the overthrow of the throne and of the
Church. («) The liberal element in the form of a theological spirit has ex-
tensively prevailed among a large portion of the clergy in France, Germany,
and Italy.
§ 427. MyHiciim^ Quietism^ and Pi&ys Humor.
Antoinette Bourignon (d. 1680) of Ryssel, proposed to God atfirst^ that
she would love him and his creatures at the same time, but afterwards, under
an impression that she loved him alone, and in the midst of a busy scene of
external confusion, she held continual conversation with God like a woman
in the society of her husband. She would consent to be judged by no other
authority than the Bible, although she herself professed to stand in no need
of a written word of God, and had herself saluted as the mother of all be-
lievers with a new revelation to man. She was persecuted by the Jesuits,
and had some connections with the Jansenists, but she was Iicrself indifferent
with respect to both Churches, and had many admirers and bitter opponents
in both, (fi) The Alomhrados. who may almost be regarded as the Quakers
b) Tie de M. Franr. de Paris Utr. 1729. and often. Kecueil des inir. sur 1e tombeau de P. Par.
nUa. 8 voK Montgeron^ la v6rit6 des mlr. (Par. 1787.) CoL 174588. 8 v<»k 4. Mem. de Me. de
Pompadour. Par. 1880. ^o\. L p. 57.— Procia verbaux des plusiears modocina, dres^(^ par ordre de sa
U^Jaste an sajet de qnclqnea pcrsonnes soidisantes agiteea des convulsione. Par. 1782. M<tHkHm Dta.
ad H. eccL vol. II. p. 807*8.
c) Apologle des Jugemens rendua cnntre le schtsme par les tribnnaux s^caliera. Par. 1752. 8 Tola
Walch, nst. Rel. (Jescb. vol. I. p. 5a 4Sthe.
d) Dupac de BeUegards, H. de T^L metropol. d'Utrecbt. Utr. 1784. ed. 3. 1352. Waldh^ nst
BeL 6e«cb. vol YL p. 8289w Tbeol. Qoartalacb. Tub. 1826. P. U Augu*ti^ <L Ersb. Utrecbt.
Bonn.lb8S.
«) Grigoire vol I. p. 87868. (Arcbiv. C KO. toL I. Bt 2. p. 189».)
a) Oeovrea p. P. PtHrei, Amst 1679as. 19 Tola. In tbe firrt voL is ber Life by herself and l^
Ftiret—Walck, Bel. Streit ansa. d. Inth. K. voL L pc 621. IV, 8918& W. Klof^ A. Bar. (Zeitach.
t blst Tb. 195L H. a) [Apol. for Mad. Boarlgnon. Lond. 1699. a Translations : Aoad. of Loamed
520 MODERN OIIURCH HISTORY. PER. TL A. D. 1M8-18S1
of Oatholioism, hare at different times (since 1575), but probably under the
^oitement of Protestant influences, made their appearance in Spain. Michael
Molinoi of Saragossa, a zealous curate at Rome, recommended as the true
way of salvation that the soul should seek to become aff^ectionately one with
Qod by quiet prayer and a complete annihilation of its own independent ex-
istence. The French ambassador, in the name of the Jesuits, demanded that
this Quietism should be rejected by the Church (1687). Molinos, after abjur-
ing the condemned propositions, died while suffering a severe imprisonment
in a convent ( 1 696). (ft) Madame Guyon of Paris (d. 1717) followed in his foot-
steps, and even went beyond him in some respects, but with a love to God
so exceedingly ardent, that few have equalled it even in their earthly attach-
ments, (c) Bossuet^ whose clear understanding could see nothing but a dan-
gerous fanaticism in a love which had so completely surrendered all regard
for self, that in its longings after God it had no desires even for salvation,
prepossessed the mind of the court against her. But Fenelon denied the jus-
tice of her condemnation, and showed how true mysticism was to be under-
stood in accordance with the models of Catholic antiquity, and how it dionld
be looked upon as the genuine worship of God in the heart, and therefore the
basis of all the external forms of the Church, (d) Twenty-three propositions
extracted from his book, Bossuet had condemned at Rome. FenelcHi received
a copy of this condemnation just as he was ascending the pulpit of hb cathe-
dral. With the humility so natural to his disposition, he immediately sub-
mitted to it, and exhorted his congregation to conform to its directions
(1699). (<r) In Germany, Angelas Silcsius (ScheflBer of Breslau, d. 1677), a
physician, but subsequently a priest, although he renounced the Protestant
Church and the friendship of Jacob Boehme, carried with him an intense
love of the Saviour. Although the extreme longings of his heart threw him
Into the abyss of Pantheism, his profound jpeculations are so transparent,
his bold expressions are so childlike, and his poetry is so delightful, intellec-
tual, and affectionate, that they have always been looked upon as sacred in
both Cliurches. (/) Abraham a S. Clara (U. Megerle, d. 1707) has given a
bold and ingenious expression of the popular humor which prevailed in Sua-
Dlvinefl. Lond. 170a Confusion of the Baildere of Babel. Lond. ITCa Light of the World ieS6L
Light risen in Darkness 17(V8. abridged, Lond. 1786. Reuov. of the Oosp. Spirit. Lond. 1817. 12.]
h) Ouida ^piritualo Kom. 16S1. In Spanish even In 1675. in Lat by Francke, 168T, and In Germ,
by yirnoW, 1699.— Rcciieil dcs div. pieces concernant le Quictisme. Amst 1688. Other tfafnfs In
WfiAnmann^ If. ecc. P. II. p. Ml. C. E. Scluirling^ Mystikeren M. Molinoe'a Laero of Sl^bne.
KJobonli. 1&52. 4
c) La Bible <le Me. Guyon. Col. (Amst.) 1715sa. 20 vols.— La vie de M. de la Motb« Gayoo, 6eitt«
par clle-mi^me. Col. 1720. 3 vols. 12. and often. Brl. 1826. 8 vols C. Hermety ZOge a. d. Lehen d. Fr.
v. G. Magdeb. 1S45. [7*. C. UpAam, Life, Opinion^ and Experience of Me. O. New York. 185L
2 vols. 12. Eclect. Mag. Aug. 1S5S. p. 431s8. Life and Kel. Opinions of Mad. G. and of Keodoo.
Lond. 1851. 2 vol*. 12. /.. J/. C%fW, Lives of Lady Kuasell and Mad. G. Boston. 1680. 11]
d) Explication des inaximes de Saints sar la vie Int^rieare. Par. 1697. 12. and often.
e) (JurUu) Jugement snr la ThcoL myst at sar lea demC'lez de TeTrqae de Meanz avee rareh*>
veque de Cambray. (AmsL 1699.) Bamuuft and Tabtiraud. (p. 616-16.)
/) Cherubinischer Wandersmann. BrsL 1657. and often. Manicb. 1816b 1827. BrL 1890. 180.
Heiligo Seolenlust o. geistl. Ilirienlieder der verltebten Psyche. BraL 1657. Manicfa. 1826. WItip
mann, A. S. als Converiit, myst. Dicbter a. Polemiker. Angsb. 1842. ( W. Sehradsr, A. 8. HaL 1861
i.) A. KahUrt, A. 8. Brsl. ISM.
CHAP. IL CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1750. %4S8. NEW ORDEBS. 521
bia and Vienna with respect to the perversities of the world, and in favor of
the pioos morality of his native land, (g)
§ 428. N^ewly Established Orders,
Bouthillier de la Rand (d. 1700), after a dissipated youth, became, in
consequence of a painful accident, dissatisfied with the world, distributed his
wealth among the poor, resigned all his livings except that of La Trappe, of
which he had been an abbot even in his boyhood, and betook himself to a
residence in that convent (1662). That he might revive the original rule of
Cisteauz, he imposed upon the monks there a terrible system of self-denial,
which deprived them even of the pleasures of conversation and reading. A
few oolonies of the Trappists were founded in Italy, Great Britain, Grermany,
and America, and some were formed for nuns, (a) In France, where popular
instruction was not regularly attended to by either the Church or the State,
the Society of the Brothers of the Christian Schools (Ignorantins) was found-
ed for that purpose by Baptist de la SaUe (1724), but more especially for the
education of future teachers. A Neapolitan named Ligvori (d. 1787), with
whom the will of the pope was equivalent to the will of God, formed the
Congregation of the Most Sacred Redeemer (Redemptorists, Liguorists), a
friendly variety of the Jesuits, and in subsequent times affording to them a
refuge and a hope, (h) In addition to the associations without regular vows,
were established sisterhoods for the Adoration of the Heart of Jesus and
Mary^ for the cultivation of a sensuous kind of worship which had been
recommended ever since the middle of the seventeenth centuiy by the Jesu«
its, at the suggestion of love-intoxicated nuns. The establishment of this
order had been frequently declined, but it was finally (1765) authorized
at Rome, and was introduced in some places. It was a subject of debate
among divines whether the actually bleeding heart, or a mere symbol of
divine love, was the object of adoration. By the people, however, these
votaries were often ridiculed as Cordicolatras or Marionettes, (c)
§ 429. Spread of Christianity, Cont. from § 894*j.
1. The Church in China continued to make some gradual advances, prin-
cipally through the assistance of the missionary seminary at Paris (after
1663). Instances of oppression were not numerous, and were generally of
short duration. But the mendicant friars were more and more urgent in
their complaints at Rome against the mingling of Christianity with idolatry.
g) JadM der Erzsehelm. Bonn. Salzb. 1687ffi. 4 vols, and often. Iluy ! n. Pftay ! der Welt Wlirtx.
1 707. 4. and often. Reim dich a ich liss dlch, d. L allerly Materten, Dbcurs n. Predigtcn. Salzb.
17S7. A. and often. Das Ocdiegensto a. 8. W. Blanbeuren. 1340fla. Werke, Lindnn 1846sa.
a) Rand : Lettres, pabl. par B. Oonod, Par. 1816. Tr. de la saintete et des devoirs de la vie monaa*
tjqna 16S8L 2 toI& 4. On the other side: MahiUon^ Tr. dea etudes monast 1691. and often. — Martol-
Her, Vte de TAbb^ de la Trappe. Par. 170S. 2 vols. 12. Chateaubriand^ Vie de Kancd. Par. 1844.
trim. 1845. L. P. a Hist civile, rel. et litter, de Tabbaye de la Tr. Par. 1824. Ritsert, Orden d.
*t>Bppiaten. Dnnst 188S. OaiUardin, lea Trappistea Par. 1844. vol. I.
h) Oeuvrea completofli Par. 1885. 14 vols. 8. and 12. A. Giatini, vita dt«l b. Alfonso Llg. Rom.
l815ii 4 Vienna. 1886. Jsancard, Vie da b. Alt Lig. Loavain. 1829.
e) BenedicU XIV. de server. Dei beatif. IV, 80. Archiv. t KO. voL I. St 2. p. 177b\ Wackier
tia Zeitseb. t hist Th. 18S4. St 1.
522 MODKBN CHUBGH HI8T0BY. PEK YL A. D. 1648-1808.
For a long time the Jesuits, however, sncceeded by oraft and power to de-
fend themselves against the orders sent to them from Rome on this subject
The legate Tournoii died while enduring a confinement at Macao, brought
upon him by their means (1710). At last their adversaries were successful
(1746). No sooner, however, were the sacred usages of the nation rejected,
than a persecution seldom suspended was commenced, from which only a few
unimportant fragments of the Church were' ever saved. 2. In the ^«t
Indies likewise, the hope of success depended upon the compliance of the
missionaries with the customs of the Brahmans, and their incorporation of
the religious and social usages of the people into the system of Christianity.
When the Jesuits at Pondichery represented in one of their sacred dramas
the destruction of the Indian gods by the Knight St. George (1701), a perse-
cution was immediately commenced in that country; and when the bull
against the admixture of heathenish customs with the Christian religion was
enforced (1742), the progress of the mission was at an end. (a) 8. In
Thibet^ the gospel was preached (after 1707) by the Capuchins, and they
were allowed to erect a hospitium there. But the worship 6f the Dalai
Lama was itself too much like an ascendant papacy, to present much hope
of success in the proclamation of a Roman Christianity, (b) 4. In South
America^ a splendid' church organization according to the European style
was developed. In a portion of North America, where the donunion of
France was extended, were also established component parts of the Oallican
Church.
CHAP, m.— ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH UNTIL 1814.
I. 2klATTBB8 PrEUMINABY TO THB REVOLUTION.
§ 480. French Philosophy. Cont./rom § 416.
Corr^epondance liter. phiL et criL par Grimm et Diderot, Far. ISlSas. 16 yoIa. Extracts: Bfae*
dcnb. 1820.— Walch, nat. ReL Qcsch. vol I. .p. 473a8. (.;: A. t>. Stark) Triumph d. phU. iin la Jahrh.
FrkC 1808. 2 vols, recently edit by Buchfelnsr^ Landah. 1884. {t. SchiM) Oewb. y. Stutaverandr.
unter Ludwig XVI. o. Entst. Fortscb. u. Wirka d. aogen. neuen Phil. Lpoi 1S26-^ 6 vola^ L. Ler-
minier, de rinfluence de la pbil. du IS. B. Par. 1S33. Lpai 1S35. ScMonter, vol L p. 477. II. 44888.— liter,
of the French Classics in Bbert. [J. D. Morell, IIlsL and Grit View of the Spec. PhiL of Enr. in
the 19th cent Lond. 1847. 2 ed. & New York. 1848. a P. Damiron^ Easai aor TH. de la pha a Fr.
•a XVIIe. S. 8 ed. Par. 1840. 2 vola. a O. If. Utcet, Biog. H. of Phil. Ser. IL voL lY. Lond. 1849l
4 Tola, la TetiMmann't U. of PhiL Lond. 1850. a]
The government of rojal mistresses (Pomocracy) in the court, the perse-
tiution of the Protestants, the maltreatment of pietj in the Jansenist oontro-
versy, the natural development of the national mind, and the inflnenoe of
English Deism, conspired to form in France an opposition similar to that
Deism, but such as naturally sprung up against an infalUhle Church in a des-
potic and corrupt state. Bodins Septiloquia recognized the daims of all
religions, that the religion of godliness and rectitude in them all might
a) S 897. nt. d,
b) Relatione del prlncipio et atato preaente della miaa. del Tibet Bom. 1742. 4 StdudUn
Arohir. t KOeach. vol L Bt a •
CHAP. IIL CATHOLIC CHUBCH TILL 1814 $ 480. FBENCH PHILOSOPHY. 523
acknowledged, (n) In a fictitious book of 'travels, Vairasse distinguished
between true Christianity and the hierarchy, against which his book was
directed, (h) Eren in the canting court of Louis XIV., who finally gave his
consent that even Tartufe should be performed in his presence, it was not
looked upon as inconsistent with the rules of good society to ridicule religion
as well as hypocrisy. VolUtire (d. 1778) was not quite insensible to the pos-
sibility of the existence of a God, in whose honor he erected a plain church,
nor to the beauty of Christianity, but in a series of sprightly essays after
1715), with the most nklve simplicity and ignorance of facts, he gave up all
its historical relations, and sacrificed the life of religion itself to a spirit of
universal scoffing. Montesquieu^ before laying the foundation of his future
government, presented the mirror of an unbiased common sense before the
received doctrines and the compulsory measures of the Church (1721). Phi-
losophy so entirely withdrew to the territory presided over by the five senses,
that the mind of man was finally regarded as a dream of the flesh, and love
as the hypocrisy of selfishness. This worldly philosophy was carried to its
complete results by Condillac (d. 1780), in Holbach's circle it was fearlessly
applied to practical life, (c) while Uehetiu^ (d. 1771) tempered it with an
elevated humanity. In this spirit, Diderot (d. 1784), whose religion it was
to destroy all religion, edited the Encyclopedie (after 1751), intended to be a
general survey of all human knowledge, clear and grand with respect to the
worldly tendencies of the mind and in its efforts against all kinds of slavery,
but hostile to all eternal realities and aspirations above the world. Besides
these were a host of inferior works, in which the oriental simplicity of the
Scriptures was made the subject of amusement either by bold derision or bj
sentimental wantonness, and all systems of faith were ridiculed as priestcraft.
Raynal deprived history of its true glory as a picture of a divine household ;
even in BuffarCs sublime researches, the Creator is placed far behind a self-
producing nature ; Lalande proclaimed the laws of a heaven without a God ;
and in fact the gospel was generally regarded as a mere astronomical
myth, id) The enthusiastic spirit of Bousseau (1712-78) found many things
in the gospel for which his nature had a vtrong affinity, but in consequence
of his rejection of all history, he was compelled to oppose every thing in it
of a historical character. By holding up a state of nature in contrast with
the artificial condition of human society, the Jesuitic education then in
vogue, and the supernatural revelation of the Scriptures, he contributed more
than all the scoffers to endanger the Church, since he thus showed how one
could speak with earnestness and even transport of divine things, without
being a Christian, (e) This opposition was powerfbl at that time, because
those who were the favorites of the nation, who gave laws to the fashion-
a) CoUoqalam hepteplomereB de abditis reram sublim. arcaolA. 1G08. GuKrauer, das HepUpL
des JemD Bodin. BrL 1841.
h) Hist des S«verauibes. Par. 16778flL 8 vols. 12. Snizb. 1689. 8 voK
e) Syst^me de la nature. Load. (A mat) 1770. 2 Tola, and often. Liegn. 1788. 2 void.
d) DupuiH^ Origine de tous les culte& Par. 179S. 8 Tola, and otlen. 1S87. In the Eztracta bj Bh6,
Stattg. 1S89.
e) Me. de Stail^ Lettrca sur lea oavr. et le caract^re d. B. Q^ 17S0. {Mueeet-Pathay) H. de Ia
▼to et dea oorr. de B. Par. 1831. 2 vola. ITooUer, blogr. Aoft. 188^ p. 81aiw
524 MODEBN CHUBCH HISTORY. FEB. YL A. D. 1648-18(01
able world, and were honored T^ith the friendship of the northern monarohfl,
were its principal representatives, and spoke of Christianity as a superannu-
ated stage of civilization. The measures adopted by the government against
them were but partial, and generally operated in their favor. As the hier-
archy, who had little else at command but learned lore, were no longer
allowed to burn the authors, they defended themselves by burning the books.
These works, however, expressed the general sentiment of the French nation.
On the side of the hierarchy were the civil power, inmiense wealth, and a
nobility with which it was in numerous ways connected. On the other side
was nearly a whole nation, including a minority oven of the hierarchy and
the nobility, with the conviction that their power was founded upon a de-
ception, and that their wealth had been ui\justly drawn from a heavily
taxed people.
§ 431. Clement XIIL (1758-69) and the Jesuits.
Bower^ RambacK, vol X. 2. p. SSlss. {Le Bref) S*mml d. Bcbrr. d. Aufbeb. d. Jesaltenord.
heir. Frkf. u. L. (Ulm.) 1778-84. 4 vols. [J. Poynder, H. of the Jeftultat Load. 1818. S Tola. S. A.
Amould, Les Jesuites, Histoire, Types, Moean, Mysteries. Par. 1848. 3 volt. 8L]
Clement XIIL (Rezzonico) was chosen pope through ihe influence of the
Jesuits, and with pious conscientiousness exposed the papal authority to the
most imminent hazard, that he might avert their fate. They had indeed
gained a victory over the Jansenists, but it was at the expense of the popular
(slvot. On account of their influence at courts they were hated by states-
men, their engagements in trade involved them often in diflSculties with the
merchants, and their power over the conscience made them obnoxious to all
classes. The very dislike which so many of that age felt toward Christian-
ity, and the whole spirit of the coming generation now making itself percep-
tibly felt, seemed to demand them as the first sacrifice. The result was by no
means certain, since all the nations of Southern Europe had been educated in
their school. On the request of the Portuguese government, Benedict XIV.
had forbidden them to engage in commerce, and when dying, he committed
to the Patriarch of Lisbon the w^k of reforming them. The order to this
effect was, however, revoked by Clement. By an exchange with Spain, Por-
tugal had obtained a portion of Paraguay (1753). The Portuguese were
however driven back by an Indian army, and although the Jesuits denied
any participation in an insurrection which then occurred, it was certain that
the insurrection was impossible without their connivance. Carvalho, Mar-
quis of PombaL, was anxious to withdraw the monarchy and the nation from
all connection with the hierarchy and the nobility. But although the minis-
ter possessed unlimited power, he knew he could not effect such a revolution
while surrounded by the Jesuits. An attempt to assassinate the king supplied
an occasion for impeaching them of high treason. The result was that they
were for ever excluded (Sept. 8, 1759) from Portugal, and their property was
confiscated. The pope interceded for them in vain ; his nuncio was sent out
of the country (1760), and all connection with Rome was broken off, (a) It
a) ^administration de M. de PombaL Amst 1789. 4 J. AnitK, Memoirs of the M. de Pom
Lood. 1848. 8 vola. 6.—{KlauHng) SammL d. nat Bchrr. d. J«iw In P. betr. A. d. ItaL Frk£ u.
CHAP. IIL CATHOUG CHURCH TILL 1814 $ 481. THE JESUITS. 525
was thns proved that the overthrow of the Jesuits was not impossible. The
bankruptcy of the Jesait la Valette in France, was seized upon as an occasion
for making the whole order responsible for the unfortunate speculation in
trade by one of its members, and for examining its constitution. The Parlia-
ment of Paris summoned the Jesuits before its* bar (1762), an apostolical
brief, in which the holy Father unburdened his heart of its troubles, and
Jesuitism was identified with Catholicism, was laid aside as if it were the
letter of a private individual, and when public opinion had been gained over
by the publication of the dangerous doctrines of which the Jesuits were ac-
cused, they were banished from Franco as dangerous to the state (1764). (b)
The other Bourbon courts ordered them to be hastily and violently seized and
transported beyond the boundaries of their respective territories (1767). It
was in vain that the pope issued a bull (1765), in which he showed that the
order was sacred, and indispensable to the interests of the Church. He only
ventured to annul the edicts of the Duke of Parma^ and to threaten others
with an excommunication (1768). France, however, took possession of Avig-
non ; Naples, of Benevento ; and all the Bourbon princes declared such fanati-
cal decrees of excommunication utterly unreasonable, (c)
§ 432. Clement XIV. (1769-74) and the Jesuits.
Lettres int^r^santes du P. Clem. XIV. trad, dii latin et do rital. p. 1e Marq. de Caraccioli, (not
•Itogethcr authentic.) Par. 1776s. 8 vols, and often, ital. u. deutsch. Lettcre ed. altrc uperc di GangaDclH.
Firenze. 1829. Clem. XIV. Epp et Brevia selectlora, ex. secret. Ubb. Vatic ed. A. Theiner, Par.
'iBOi.— WalcK, nst. Rel. Gescb. vol. I. p. a 20188. Ctiraccioll, Vie da P. Cltrm. Par. 1775. Leben
Clem. XIV. Fret u. L. 1775. (by liaumoiU) Gang., Clem. XIV. u. s. Zelt. Brl. 1S47. A. TheiMr,
H. da PonUC do Clem. XIV. Par. 1852. 2 vols. [J/. D'AUnibert, An Account of tbo Destmction
of the Jesuits In France, tram tho Fr. Lend. 176C. 12.]
In the Conclave there was a severe struggle between the parties of the
king and of the Jesuits. The Bourbons were however victorious, and se-
cured the election of Ganganelli^ a Minorite, who had always disapproved
of the measures of his predecessor, on the ground that they sacrificed the
mterests of the papacy itself to those of the Jesuits. Clement XIV, was of
low origin, his character was not very commanding, but he possessed consid-
erable talents, a noble manliness, and at the same time a general mildness of
disposition, and for a pope he was eminently liberal. He governed without
the aid of cardinals or nepotes, and instead of aiming to build magnificent
edifices, he endeavored to alleviate distress in cottages. He abolished the
reading of the sacramental bull (in coena Domini), and it was never after-
wards resumed, {a) By some concessions made to Portugal and the Bourbon
1759-62. 4 vols. Deductio cbronol et analytics, nbi horrendae manifestantur clades a Jcs. Soo. Losl-
taniae ejosqae oolonlis illatao, ed. J. de Seabra SilviuB^ Olislp. 1771. 2 vols. WalcK, nst ReL. Oescb.
vol. II. p. 5788. G. ». J^urr, Gescb. d. Jea in P. unter Pomb. Numb. 17S7. 2 vols. J. F. M. r.
Olfera^ u. d. Mordvers. gegen d. Kr)nlg Joseph v. P. BerL 1S89. 4
h) Ex traits des assertions danKercusoH ct pemiciensos, quo les Jos. ont enseigneea avoc Tapproba-
tion de lears Suporieure. Verifles par les commissairra du Parlemont. Par. 1672. — Choi^eul^ Staats>
Denkw&rd. r. ihm selb.<it from the Fr. Bern. 1790. Nova Acto hist ecc vol. XIIL p. 4SSkB, Taba-
raud^ £88ai aur Tutat des Jcs. en France, ed. 2. Par. 1828.
e) Walchy nst Rd. Oeach. vol. III. p. lO^ea.
a) At l«Mt not until Easter, 18S0, according to the aathor's personal obsenration.
526 MODEBN cnUBCH HISTOBT. FEB. VL A. D. 1648-186a
oonrts, harmony was once more established with them. When they nrged
him to abolish the order of the Jesuits, he hesitated fbr a while, debating
whether it were better to destroy than to reform it, but at last, on the 16th
Aug., 1778, the brief called Dominus acRedemtor noater(b) announced its abo-
lition, on the ground that the peace of the Church required such a step. In
Rome, the execution of this ball was secured by the employment of a mili-
tary force. The number of members connected with the order at that time
in twenty-four provinces was 22,689. Their treasures and papers had been
placed where they could not be found. The suppression was enforced in all
the Catholic courts, apd even Maria Theresa acquiesced in it when copies of
her own confessional secrets had been transmitted to her from kome. (c)
Frederic II., however, had so much pride that he would not put down the
order for a while in Silesia, and it was favored in the Polish provinces of
Russia, under a vicar general, (d) In other countries also the order main-
tained a secret existence, waiting for a revival which it was taught by some
old legends to expect, and individuals have every where been fonnd protest-
ing against the lawfulness of its abolition. The fate of the Jesuits, Uke that
of the Templars, was not altogether undeserved ; but like the latter, they were
condemned without a legal sentence or a process of law, and many merito-
rious persons connected with them were rewarded with a helpless old age.
The missionary and educational operations of all Catholic countries were
much embarrassed by their suppression. Avignon and Benevento were re-
stored to the pope, but he could not prevent the governments of SpaiA,
Naples, and Venice from doing as they pleased with the Church and its pro-
perty in those countries. He was well aware, that by the decree for the abo-
lition of the order of the Jesuits, he had signed his own death-warranty and
he died (Sept. 22) abandoned by nil, with some evidence of having been
poisoned. («)
§ 433. Pius VI. (1774-99) and his Age, until 1789.
Conclave. ( Walck, n»t BeL Oosch. vol. Y. p. 2S988.) {0. C. Ade) Lebens- u. BegierangigMeh.
P. VL Cesena. (Ulm.) 1781-96. 6 voU P. P. W(Hf, Oescb. d. rOm. K. unter P. YL Z&r. 1798ai Lpe.
1802. 7 voK {J. F. Bourgoing) Mum. but Pie YL Par. 1799. 8 voli— Ueber die gegenw. Laga d.
rom. Kath. {Plancke^ nst Bel. Oesch. vol. L)
The Bourbons consented to the election of Angelo Braschi^ because they
felt assured from his moderation that his partiality for the Jesuits would not
be sufScient to induce him to attempt their restoration. The treasures Pius
VI. acquired from the states of the Church during the first tranquil years of
his reign, were spent in building and in draining the Pontine marshes. His
liberality is extolled by numberless inscriptions. The convents were at that
time assailed by innumerable caricatures, and were regarded as no longer tol-
erable except as hospitals for diseased minds, (a) Many princes saw that they
V) Dated from Jaly 21. Acta hist eec. vol L p. 145m.
c) After Fesaler and Hormayr: A. K. Z. 1882. N. 160.
<f) LtUUroVi, RuBsL u. d. Jes. 1770-1800. TJebera v. Bin^ 'Lps. 1846c
e) Walch^ nst. Kel. Oescti. vol Y. p. 282s8. Le Bret, Mag. vol YL p. 14408L On the other haiiA^
V. : Wie lebte u. starb Gang., by J. RHchsfibach. (?) NensL 1881.
a) £. g. Troix est trop. Capitulation do la France aveo aes MoloeiL Haye^ 1767. IS. (by Borm:^
Natarge8ch.-d. Mdnobth. 178&
CHAP. III. CATHOUG CHUBCH TILL ISli. S 488. PIUS YL 527
might, witboQt the least infringement of their faith, and very mnoh to their
credit as friends of general improvement, take possession of the immense
wealth in the hands of the monks. The pope himself appeared to he a civil
prince, and the head of the Church merely from the favor of other princes.
The bishops, however, dearly saw that if they became independent of the
pope, they most become dependent upon the kings. The clergy foresaw that
the property of the Church would be quite as acceptable to the secular lords
as the wealth of the convents. Even those who cared nothing about the
matter, were of the opinion that barracks were not much more desirable than
convents. The faith or the superstition of a large portion of the people was
such as to make them entirely dependent upon the clergy for their religion.
Accordingly, the great masses were gradually formed into parties favorable
or opposed to a reform. In Portugal^ the system of things established by the
Tiolence of Pombal was immediately terminated when he was himself over-
thrown, on the death of the king (1777). In Spain^ Count Aranda, who, in
accordance with his French education, had made (after 1762) the inquisition
and the system of education dependent upon the government, was removed
from his station (1772), and Don Olatides repented in the dungeons of the
inquisition (after 1776) that he ever attempted to cultivate by Protestant
colonies the Sierra Morena, which was now restored to the robbers. But
germs of hostility to the hierarchy still remained in all parts of the penin-
sula, combined with a disposition to strive after a political constitution. In
Germany^ conflicting powers were measuring their strength, henhiehly who
had brought from Gottingen to Mayence his doubts respecting the Messianic
prophecies, was deposed and abused (1774). {b) Steinhuhler^ a young lawyer,
was imprisoned at Salzburg for some jest at the Catholic ceremonies, was
condemned to death as a blasphemer (1781), had his sentence commuted to
banishment from the country and ecclesiastical penance, and finally died
under his ill-treatment." (c) When the preacher Gattsner cast out devils (after
1773) in the name of Jesus, thousands of persona were found at EUwanger
and Ratisbon possessed and insane. Some of the patients appeared to be
cured, but few received permanent benefit. Those who believed in the mira-
cles, appealed to them as proofs against the Protestants and in favor of the
Jesuits. Most of the neighboring bishops, then the emperor, and finally even
the Roman court condemned the whole proceeding. (</) In Bavaria^ the
Order of the Illuminati was founded by Weishavpt (1777), on a Masonic
basis and with Jesuitic forms, by which an intelligence superior to, and irre-
spective of all ecclesiastical divisions might be diffused amon^ the people.
This powerful association was destroyed by the government (1785). (e) In
Nov. 1780, the Emperor Joseph I J, obtained the long-desired sovereignty
over the hereditary provinces of Austria. His administration was equivalent
b) Acta hist, ecc nost. temp, vol III. p. 902*s. Walch^ nst Eel. Oeech. vol. VIIL p. Tsa.
c) A(\er Muchler: MenzO, Relse n. Oestr. 1S82. p. lOa
d) General view and Literature: Walch, vol. VI. p. 871. 64188.
«) {WeUhaupt) Gewh. d. Verfolgung d. Ill Frkf. u. L. 1786. roL L and oth. Einlge Originalsch.
d. IlL O. auf hiichst Befebl. Municti, 1787. Anhang t. d. Originalsch. Frkt 1787. System u. Folgen
d. Ill O. Mnnicb, 1787.
528 MODEBN CHURCH HBTOBT. FEB. YL A. D. 164S.180&
to a reyolotioi^ in conseqaence of his dictatorial measures. With respect to
the Ohurch, his plan required : that it should be separated fixnn all foreign
inflaenoe, and made subject to the government ; that it should be made a
school for the instrnction of the people ; and that all institutions which could
not be made subservient to the public welfare shonld be destroyed. Law
upon law was enacted for the attainment of these objects, and the represen-
tations of the bishops and the protests of the nuncio were alike ineffectual.
It was then that the pope, a fine-looking and eloquent man, vain of both
these qualities, and confiding much in the power of his personal address,
resolved to conquer the heart of the emperor, and awaken the respect which
prevailed in former times among the people beyond the Alps, by the presence
of the vicar of Christ. He entered Vienna on the 22d March, 1782, with a
splendid procession. He could not indeed deliver by his intercessions even
one of the convents devoted to destruction as useless. But as the prelates
thought it better for them to obey the pope than the emperor, and as under
their influence the people valued their ancient ancestral usages more than
the liberty and equality which had been forced upon them, the dying empe-
ror (1790) found tliat all lie hod created was annihilated, and that only what
he had destroyed remained unchanged. (./') The feeling of constitutional
independence in Rome had gained a solid basis by the labors of Nie, r.
Hontheim^ and a recantation extorted from the frightened old man (1778)
could not invalidate the influence of his proofs with respect to the origin of
the papal power. (//) The four archbishops, offended at the establishment of
a new nunciature at Munich (1785), took ground against every extraordinary
jurisdiction of the pope on German territory, and associated themselves at
Ems on the principle of an independent national church (1786). They were
immediately sustained by the emperor himself. The University of jQSemn was
founded by the Elector of Cologne as a school for enlightened Catholicism.
The bishops, however, thought themselves safer in obeying the distant pope
than the archbishops ; the Bavarian Palatinate followed its ancient policy of
receiving advantages over the national Church directly from the hand of the
pope, and when the archbishops became frightened at the storms whidi took
place beyond the Rhine in behalf of freedom, tliey also hastened to become
reconciled with Rome (1789). (A) Leopold of Tuscany^ in the* same spirit as
his brother had exhibited in Austria, attempted by the agency of Scipio
Jiicci, Bishop of Pistoia and Prato, to reform the polity of the Church. At
a synod of his clergy at Pistoia (l7bC}, the principles of the Gallican Chnroh
/) Acta a Pio VL causa itineris Vindob. Rom. 17S2. (Acta blst eoo. nost temp. toL IX. p. SSS.
4i9!«.) A. F. Biiuer, Gesch. d. lieise P. YL Vien. 1782a. 8 to1& Walchy nst ReL Oofleb. voL IX. pi
llSss.— Codex J. ecc JoMpbinL Frkf. a. L. (Prsb.) 17S& Jot. IL Briefe. Lpa. 1S32. {CaraeeioU^
La vie do Jo». Par. 1790. Grms-Ifoffinget, Ge»ch. Jos. Stuttg. 18S&. 8 vola.
g) JuHtini Ffbronii de sUtu Kcc et legitima potestato Rom. PontiflcU L. ad reanlendos dtari^
denteA. BullionL (Frcf.) 1763-74. 4 voK 4. and often, in different furma. Commcntarlna in aaam r^—
IractaL Frcf. 17SI. 4. Watch, nsL Rcl. Gesch. vol. L p. 147. VI, 171. VII, IW. 4M. VIII, 5»«-
Brlcfw. zw. d. Kurt v. Trier u. N. v. Hontb. u. Febr. Frlit 1818.
7i) Reaultato d. Emsor Congr. in Actonst. Frlid a. L. 1787. 4. Pragm. u. actenm. Goach. d. Nod-
tlatur in Munclu 17S7. 8. Dom. Pii VI. ro^ionsio ad Metropolitanoa. Rom. 17S9. Paeca, (Htmortt
vol. IV.) hist Dcnlcw. Q. a. Aufenth. in Deutscb. 17S6-04. from the ItaL Angab. 188S. K «. MineA,
Qeach. d. Emaer Congr. Carlar. l&4a
CHAP. IlL CATHOLIC CIIUECH TILL 1S14 S 434 FEENCH REVOLUTION. 529
and of the most liberal Jansenbjii were adopted, all Buperstitious ceremonies
were abolished, and it was determined that public worship should be con-
ducted in the language of the people, and that the Scriptures should be circu-
lated among them. But those enactments were opposed by most of the bish-
ops in Tuscany, the populace in Pistoia stormed the episcopal palace, and
when Leopold ascended his brother's throne, the hierarchy obtained a com-
plete victory. (/) In Naples^ the convents were abolished, the prerogatives
of the monarchy were enlarged, and the feudal tenure of the pope was de-
nied. The controversy on these subjects was finally brouglit to a compro-
mise (1790), in which it was agreed that the feudal relation should be given
up, but that whenever a new king ascended the throne, he should present an
otfering to St. Peter of 500,000 ducats. (X)
II. The FBEN'on Revolution.
Vollst, Samml. d. Schrr, selt. Er.iffn. d. Relclist Fr. In RQcks. a. d. Cler. (according to Barruel,
CoL Eccl.) Kompt. 17956s. 4 xof^.—B'trnifl, U. dn Clerge en France pond. la rtW. Lond. 1794. 1804.
8 vola J. T. DtUttc^ Pie VI. et VIL consldoros dans lours rapports avec la niv. fran^ 8. Omer. 1889.
Jitger^ II. d. Tegl. dc France pendant la rov. Par. 1852. 8 vols. Com p. the poL histt of Mignet,
TkUrm^ and WachsmuiK, liaum^r, Dithlmann. [all of which, except the lost, have been trausl. into
Engl See aim : T. CurlylA, Michelet, Lamartine (QirondinsX Alison, and Scott (Life of Nap.
Prelim. Chap.)]
§ 434. The Xational Assembly (Constituent). 1789-1791.
Planch^ ncueste Bel. Gesch. 1793. vol IIL
The Revolution was not actually occasioned by the disorders which pre-
vailed in the Church, but without these it would hardly have been possible.
The superior clergy were the natural allies of the higher nobility, but since
even the court was obliged to demand great sacrifices on the part of the
Church, the electoral law was so contrived, that among the representatives
of the ecclesiastical estate the pastors had the numerical majority. These,
witli TtiUeyrand^ the Bishop of Autun, who never failed to discover on which
side victory was about to turn, at their head, at an early day and with hon-
est intentions became connected with the third estate. There was a philo-
sophical party which had entered into a conspiracy against Chrislianity, but
It had no idea of contending against the faith of the people. Its object was
to destroy the hierarchy only as a political power, and to effect the deliver-
ance of the state by the weidth of the Church. The very central point of
interest at the national festival on the field of Mars (Jnly 14, 1790) was a
high altar, and there were pious Jansenists, who hoped in the decrees of the
national a&sembly to realize their ideal of a Church. Such were the honest
Camufi^ who wished to bring every thing back to the simplicity of apostolic
times, the enthusiastic Carthusian Dom Gerle, who vainly demanded that
Catholicism should be acknowledged as the religion of the state, and Gri-
goire^ who, confiding in the democratic humane spirit of Christianity even in
0 Acta &jn. Pistolens. Tldn. 1790. 3 vols. Planet, vol, L pi 268. II, 22988, I>e Potter, Tie et
liiin. de RiccL Par. 1828. 4 vols Stutfg. 1S2G. 4 vols. [Memoirs of Sdpio de Bicci, Bp. of P. and
£e£ of Gatb. in Tuscany. Lond. 1852. 2 vols. 12. j
k) IValchy nst BeL Oesch. vol. Y. \t. 5ss. Planck^ vol. L p. Sas.
34
530 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. ieia-185&
the time of the most sanguinary outrages, did not shrink from exposing him-
self to derision and deadly peril in hehalf of the Church, (a) In the declara-
tion of human rights, which constituted the new gospel, freedom of religions
faith was proclaimed. The hierarchy, determining to snhmit with dignity to
what was now inevitable, proposed that their property should l)e proportion-
ally taxed, and that all superfluous vessels belonging to the Church should be
melted down. On the celebrated night of the 4th Aug., they also consented
that the tithes should bo discontinued, and the pastors agreed that the sur-
plice fees should be renounced. In the discussion upon the law relating to
these subjects, it was decided that the tithes should be abolished as soon as
the staters treasury should be in a condition to sustain the expenses of pnUic
worship. All ecclesiastical property was declared to be the property of the
nation (Nov. 2d, 1789). It was in vain that Monte*quiev^ with insinuating
moderation, and Maury^ with severe argument, urged the utt«r futility of
this proceeding as a financial speculation, the dilemmas to which a pecuniary
salary w^ould reduce the clergy, the inviolability of this kind of property, and
the sacredness of such (lious institutions, and that even Sieyes himself warned
the deputies that if men would be free they must be just. It was determined
(Dec. 19tb) that two hundred millions of the Church property should be sold,
and that the administration of every thing belonging to the Church should
be committed to the secular authorities (April 14th, 179(f). The state under-
took, on the other hand, the support of the Church and of the poor. A
house and garden, and at least 1200 livres, were secured to every pastor.
The salaries of the bishops were ample, but moderate only when compared
with the affluence which they formerly possessed. All sinecures were abol-
ished. Monastic vows, being looked upon as inconsistent with human rights,
and not needful to the public worship, were no longer protected by the laws
(Feb. 13th), but adequate annuities were provided for those who belonged to
the monasteries, and they were at liberty to reside in the convents. The
kingdom was divided into eighty-three departments of equal extent, to which
the Church was to be so conformed that each department was to constitute a
bisliopric. It appeared equally consonant with primitive Christianity and
the newly-established principles of freedom, that all bishops and paston
should be elected by the people. All fears of evils attending a popular elec-
tion which was not even then directly with the people, were answered by
appeals to the disgraceful concomitants of former elections. Every bishop
was required to be the pastor of the cathedral church, and in all legal mat-
ters to listen to the counsel of his vicars, the old system of the proviucia)
synods was revived, and all interference from neighboring bishops was pro-
hibited ; still the unity of the Church and its connection with a visible uni-
versal head was not impaired. The party of the bishops solemnly protested
against this spoliation of the Church, and this derangement of the episcopal
jurisdictions by the hands of the civil power. To destroy their opposition,
it was decreed (Nov. 27th) that all ecclesiastical officers, nnder penalty of
losing their offices, should take an oath to observe these laws as a civil <v»-
■ 1 ~
a) Mcmoires de Or. pr6oM6s d'une notice hist snr Tautear ^k M. H. Camot^ Par. 18S7. 9 rok
O. KHiger, Or. nach s. Dcuwiirdlgk. Lpa. 188a
CHAP. IIL CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1814 S ^35. OOBET. ROBESPIEKRE. 531
Mtitntum of the clergy. A large majority of the clergy refused to take this
oath until the Church should declare its assent to the laws. Miraheau lifted
I^> his prophetic voice, predicting that the selfishness of the priests would
bring down ruin upon the Churcli^ if Catholic France was induced to contend
against emancipated France. Some bishops, chosen in accordance with the
teiins of the new law, were consecrated (Feb. 24, 1791). After considerable
delay, Pirn VL declared (April 13th) that the oath for the constitution was
inadmissible, and that every one who took it should forfeit his office in the
Church, (t) From this time the Catholic Church became the avowed enemy
of the revolution, and when the pastors were obliged to choose between the
Church and their native land, they began to emigrate to foreign countries.
Avignon was declared a constituent part of France (Sept. 14th).
§ 485. Legislative Asseinbly and National Convention. 1791—95,
Origoir€^ vox les dlffaniAt^ars et pers^catears dans la rel Par. S. (1800.) Oarrcn^ lea ooDfeasenn
de la foi dam IVgl ga!L ii la fin da 18. S. Par. 1830. 4 vola.
The Legislative Assembly decreed that every priest who refused the con-
stitutional oath should be .excluded from the churches and deprived of his
salary. Those who excited the people to resistance were declared subject to
banishment or impi^sonment. The king refused to ratify these decrees as
long as it was in his power to do so, and priests who had not taken the oath
officiated in his chapel. Under the National Convention, when France was
betrayed by priests and barons into the hands of foreigners, and involved in
all the horrors of a civil war, when in this contest every venerable usage
was annihilated, when the sacrament of royalty was desecrated, and the su-
preme power was exercised by a Parisian mob, Christianity itself was
regarded as a mere usage hostile to liberty, and the doctrines of the French
philosophy were embraced and reduced to practice by the populace in its own
way. In the mean time, some noble-minded persons like the Girondists and
Charlotte Corday, found their ideals only in the virtues of the nncient Ro-
mans. A new mode of reckoning time was introduced (Oct. 6th, 1798), all
Christian manners and mdrals were abolished by actual legislation, marriage
was treated merely as a civil contract, liable to dissolution on notice by one
of the parties, all ecclesiastical utensils were sold as national property, and an
idolatrous worship of reason was solemnized, in which venal prostitutes were
the priestessas and goddesses. Gobet^ Bishop of Paris, appeared with his
priests before the bar of the Convention (Nov. 7th), to declare that their
previous lives had been a deception. The existence of God was publicly
denied, his vengeance was boldly challenged, and above the cemeteries the
inscription was raised, " Death is an eternal sleep." At last, Robavpierrt^
true even in this to his character, and believing that nothing could supply
the place of the religious feeling in the hearts of the people as a safeguard
for all civil virtues, induced the Convention to declare that the French na-
lio.n recognized the existence of a Supreme Being, whose highest worship
consisted in the faithful performance of relative duties, and the immortality
h) iffulct) Col Brevlam et Inatrr. PU YL ad praeflL ealL Me. eaUmltatea Aag. 17M 8 toIi.
532 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 1643-1868.
of the sonl. In honor of this Snpremo Being an absurd national festival was
celebrated (July 8th, 1794). After the subversion of the reign of terror,
liberty for the exercise of all kinds of religion was restored (Feb. 21st, 1796),
with a view to faVor Christianity, which had never been wholly suppressed
among the people, especially in the southern provinces of France.
§ 43C. The Theophilanthropists. 1796-1802.
Manuel des Tbdopb. Par. 1797. Ann6e religlease des Th6oph. (Recneil des dtsooan.) Par. 1797.
Grigoire, Ge»ch. d. Tbeopli. dbern v. Staudlin in a. Mag. toL IV. p. 2d7iw. and Hann. \%H)t. [Hist
des Sectes rel. Par. 1828. 6 vobk 8. J. EvanA, Sketch of Cbr. Denoin. witb an Oatline of Athetem,
Theophil. Ac 15tb cd. Lond. Amborst 1932. 12.]
As the state was indiflferent to all forms of religion, and the Republican
Directory was afraid of the Christianity which prevailed in the Church, the
increasing consciousness of the necessity of some religion led many to adopt
a form of worship adapted to a natural religion. This was gradually intro-
duced into ten churches of Paris, and became extended into most of the
provinces. God, immortality, morality, and the ever-changing life of nature,
were the objects of this system, which, as it was never sustained by any vigor-
ous religious character, was soon found unable t<T cope with either the Chria-
tianity or the spirit of indifference which existed in society. Hence, after a
brief period of success, when the First Consul declared that this mode of
worship could no longer be tolerated in the churches b^onging to the nation,
it was ridiculed by the public and entirely discontinued.
§ 487. The Roman Republic. Cont. from § 433.
Every kind of influence had been brought into requisition by Pius VI., to
foster by religious fanaticism the flame of civil war in France. BuonaparU,
who had become master of Italy by the complete destruction of the Austrian
army, demanded that the pope should annul all his decrees against France.
When the latter refused, and ventured to make preparations for resistance,
the French republican general threw himself upon the States of the Church.
At Tolenthio (Feb. 19, 1797), a treaty of peace was obtained at the expense
of all the possessions of the Roman court in France, of its legations in Fer-
rara, Bologna, and Romagna, of thirty millions of francs, and of an immense
selection from the Roman treasures of art. A republican form of govern-
ment was bestowed upon Lombardy. Even in Rome a party was formed in
fiivor of a republic. When a popular insurrection with this object in view
took place in the city, and a French general had been killed in the fray, Ber-
thier was sent into the states of the Church to obtain satisfaction from the
government. Under the protection of his arms a Roman republic was formed,
and the pope was informed that his civil authority was at an end (Feb., 1798).
The sympathy generally expressed for the misfortunes of the citizen pope
made him an object of suspicion, and led to his removal from Rome. Unallj
this mild and devout pontiff died a French prisoner at Valence (Aug. 29th,
1799).*
* Baldauari^ Hist de renldvement el de la captivito de Pie TL, trad, de Tltalien p^ ds Laccu-
ture. Par. 184a A. d. Fr. v. X. Stsck, Tftb. 1844.
CHAP. IIL CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1814. % 438. PIUS VIL NAPOLEON L 533
m. The Era of Napolkox.
§ 488. Pitts VII. and the He establishment of the Qalliean Church,
Stori» dl Plo VIL (with orig. docc) Ven. 1815. 2 vols. Simon, Vio polit et prlv6e de Pio VIL
Par. 18i3. Gnad^t, EiiquiaMS hist et polit Bur Pie VII. Par. 1S24. Jdger, L^ P. VIL in. Urk.
Frkf. 1S24 Artatul ds Montor, H. du Pape P. VII. Par. 18868. 2 v.>l«. ed. 8^ar. 1889. 8 vols.—
(Capnira) Conconlat entre 1« Gouvernemcnt franr. et le Pape. Par. 1S02. Cologne, 1802. ReinhHT'l^
Dene Organla. d. Rel. Wes. In Fr. CoL 1S02. Bttrnul^ da Pape et de ses droits rel. k Toccaa. du Con-
cord. Par. 1808. 2 toIa.
Pius VIL (Chiaramonti) was elected pope at Venice (March 14, 1800),
Qoder the protection of Austria. By his apparent concession to the revolu-
tion (a) while he was Bishop of Iraola, he had shown himself Ti man of a
crafty and ohstinate spirit. Under the armed escort of the allied powers he
was brought to Rome (July 3d), whore he was by the treiity of Luneville put
in possession of the States of the Church, but without the legations (1801).
He now turned his attention to the work of healing the wounds inflicted by
the revolution. Napoleon was at that time convinced that the true end of
fill his victories was to secure the liberties of the country by the establish-
ment of order, and to frustrate the consi)iracies formed against them in
Europe by extending them throughout the continent by wars of conquest.
Though personally perhaps indifferent toward all churches, he saw that it
was indispensable to the tranquillity of the country that Catholicism should
be re-established as the religion of the state. For the revolution had dis-
tinctly shown, that even after a nation has broken all bonds, it cannot exist
without a God ; and from the sea of blood into which the innocent and the
guilty had alike been plunged, the recollection of the Church of their fa-
thers emerged like the dawn of a brighter day. Hence, when the aims of the
future emperor were not satisfied at a national synod at Paris, of those bish-
ops who had taken the oath, a Concordat w^as agreed upon (July 15, 1801),
after mutual concessions, with the papal minister Consahi, Its stipulations
were : Catholicism is the religion of the majority of the French nation ; the
property of the Church shall not be restored, but the state undertakes to
Bustain the Church by a suitable and ample provision ; all priests who have
taken the constitutional oath, as well as those who have emigrated, shall
resign their offices, but be eligible for a re-election ; a division of dioceses,
conformed indeed to the political departments, but having reference to the
old bishop's sees, shall be made ; the first consul shall appoint the archbish-
ops and fifty bishops in France, but the pope alone shall have the power of
bestowing upon them a canonical confirmation; the pastors shall be ap-
pointed by the bishops ; the first consul shall possess the same prerogatives
as were possessed by the former government ; and the pope shall be the tem-
poral sovereign of the Ecclesiastical States, and the head of the Church. In
addition to 'these stipulations, Napoleon enacted by organic laws: the pro-
clamation of papal decrees depends upon the discretion of the government ;
there shall always be an opportunity for an appeal to the council of state
against the abuses of ecclesiastical power; the teachers in the seminaries
a) HoroeHe da cltoyen Card. Chiaramonti, 1797, trad, de I'ltaL par Origoire, Par. (1614) 1S1&
534 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1«43-189&
shall be bonnd by the four propositions of the Gallioan clergy ; and marriage
ceremonies shall be performed by the priests only after a previous act of the
civil authorities. The intro<luction of the Concordat was solenmized on the
Easter festival of 1802. The Democrats and the old companions in arms of
the first consujp ridiculed the new capucinade. But even while the work of
destruction had been J?oing on, St. Martin (d. 1804) had borne witness to the
mysteries of the human heart, and its aspirations after a Grod, who ooold
alleviate the disorders of the head, even after Christ had healed the distress
of the heart of our race. lie however labored only for certain iniUated per-
sons, leaving the Church to an inferior kind of prescriptions. (i») OhateaU'
hriand (d. 1848), in the midst of the sorrows of the revolution, had found
the Christianity which he had previously lost, and with many tears he now
believed. In the primitive American forests, under the Grecian sky, and at
the holy sepnl :hre, he extolled the beauties of Christianity, and what it had
accomplislied for humanity. Ilis inner life continued subject to the alterna-
tions of doubt and faith, and the faith which he possessed was always artifi-
cially excited, and tricked out with the tinsel of a worldly vanity ; but even
amid the ruins of the temples, his Genius of Christianity appears as a long-
forgotten spiritual reality, and a new glorification of an awakening as well as
a witnessing Catholicism, (c) Even Napoleon perceived that the imperial
crown he was placing upon a head already crowned by fame, would be more
firmly fixed were it consecrated by the pope, and accordingly he became one
of the Lord's anointed (Dec. 2d, 1804). The Catechism designed for the
youth of France, (//) enumerated devotion to the emperor among the divine
commandments, and it was in fact the religion of young France.
§ 439. Dispute between the Emperor and the Pope.
& Schoell, RcciKil doM pieces offlcielles. Par. 1S15. Pii^ces hist relstiv«e k PSe YIL Par. 1S14
(Arcliiv. f KOesch. vol. II. p. 172. 4Od0s.) Correspondance de la ooiir do Rome avecia France. Par.
1S14. Beauchamp, 11. dcs malhours de Pfe VII. Par. 1814 Rotation aath. de renl^vcment da P.
Pin VI I. de rital. p. Ltmierre (TArgy, Par. 1814 Metnorie del Card. Pacea^ Onrieto. \tS2S. ed &
1883. 1-3 vols. [Notes on Uie Mlni-^try of Card. B. Paced, Sec of State to P. YIL DmR 1SI& &)
It was in vain that the pope demanded, as the price of his obedience, that
the Church in France should be entirely under his control, and complained of
the violation of the Concordat by the organic laws, and of the infringement of
the canonical laws by the Code Napoleon. That he might cope with the superior
power of France, he formed a league with the enemies of the emperor, and pre-
vented the union of all Italy for common measures against Austria and Eng-
land. Tliis induced the emperor to send troops to take possession of the
h) Des errears et de la v6rtt6. 1775. Edinb. 1782. 2 vols. L^omme do dealr. Lyon. 1790. Em*
hotna Par. 1792. Lps. 1S19. De Tesprit des cbosee. Par. 1800. 2 vola. Oeavree ]M8Ui«mc& lV>on
1807. 2 volsw comp. Vamhaffen, Denkw. LpB. 1840. vol. Y. p. 126. 191ae. •
c) Atala ou les amours de deux saiivages. Par. X. (tSOl.) Le G^ie da Chriatianiame oa bcaato
de la rel. chr. Par. 1802. 5 vols. Les martyrs. Par. 1809. 8 vol^ Itln^raire de Paris 4 JerosaL Ptf.
181 1. 8 voK Oeuvres. Par. 1830. 22 vols. Mcmoires d'oatre-tombe. Par. 184a (BerL lS4SaB.) li roll
[The Gen. of Chr., The Martyrs, The Itinerary to Jertis., Congress of Yerona, his Memoirs ty him-
self. Sketches of Eng. Lit. and various other works ijf C. have been transl. into Engl and pubL In
Lond. 1846'&0. His Kecollections of Italy, Engl, and Amer. were transl. and pabL Philad. 181& &]
d) Catech. k Tusago de toutca les 6gL de Tcmpire; Par. 1806.
CHAP. IIL CATHOLIC GUDRCH TILL 1814. S ^^ PIUS VIL NAPOLEON L 535
States of the Church (Feb., 1808), and after many acts of violenco to declare
that the donations of his predecessor, the Emperor Charles, were tlien re-
voked on account of thd abuse which had been made of them (May l7th,
1809). He however allowed the pope, as the supreme head of the Catholic
Church, to have possession of all domains belonging to the Roman Curia, of
a palace in Paris, and of two millions of yearly revenues. Pius VII. rejected
every offer of a salary as an insult, depended for his support entirely upon
the alms of the Mthfnl, and declared every one who laid his hand upon the
patrimony of St. Peter, excommunicated from the Church. He was then
arrested (July 6th), taken to 6avona, where he opposed to the prayers as well
as the threats of the emperor an inflexible resignation, which could do noth-
ing while he was not at liberty, and while deprived of the counsel of his car-
dinals. He also refused to confirm those who had been appointed bishop^.
Jh connection with the Cardinal Maury ^ then Archbishop of Paris, who
thought an honest reconciliation of the Church with him into whoso hand
God seemed to have given the world was absolutely indispensable, (a) Napo-
leon now attempted, by means of a synod at Paris (1811), to render the im-
perial Church independent of the pope. The bishops, however, perceived
that their own protection against the arbitrary power of the emperor was to
be found in the obstinacy which the pope then maintained, and the synod
was therefore dissolved, {b) As far as the sovereignty of France extended in
the Spanish and Italian peninsulas, most of the convents, together with the
inquisition, were abolished, the property of the Church was confiscated, and
the liberal form of the Gallican Church was introduced. It was for this rea-
son that the Spanish clergy placed themselves at the head of the national
movement in which the first resistance was made against the emperor, and
that they might gain their point, they took part with the advocates of a lib-
eral Constitution, and with England. The same reason induced Cardinal
Buffo (d. 1827), among the southern peaks of the Apennines, to bestow his
blessing upon the arms of the robbers. After his misfortunes in Kussia,
Napoleon was obliged once more to pay some deference to public opinion.
He then gained the heart of the pope, and concluded (Jan. 25th, 1813) a Con-
cordat at Foutainthleauy by which the investiture of bishops was made no longer
dependent on the arbitrary papal will, and in which nothing was said of the
temporal government of the pope. It was not long, however, before the
heart of the holy Father was seized by a paroxysm of deep despondency on
account of this surrender of his last weapon, and following the counsel of the
liberated cardinals, he revoked all that he had done. On the very next day
(March 25th), the emperor published the Concordat as a law of the empire.
But the nationalities which had been destroyed by liim now rose up against
him, and this military prince began to totter from hb eminence. Then it
was that he concluded to liberate the pope, and restore to him the possession
of the states of the Church.
a) From the Life of Maor. by his Nephew. (Stod. n. Krit 1831. P. & p. 663ss.)
h) MelcAer$j Nationalconc. zu Paris m. Actcnst Munich. 1814.
536 MODERN CHURGH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1M8-1868L
§ 440. Ocerthrow of the German Ecclesiastical Constitution.
Martent^ Rfcaeil des princ. trait6a. vol YII. {k 6886S. SuppL vol III. p. S4d8iL Reicbsd«pntatioM-
HaQptscliL ed. by Cumtnfrer, Ratisb. 1S04. 4. GuBjtari, d. K. D. Rece«0 m. Erliiutr. Hmb. 180& %
Tols.— /TiirZ, DeiiU'chl. n»t Stuate- u. K. Verinder. Brl. 1804. Planck, Betr. 0. d. nst Ver.indr. d.
kath. K. Hann. ISOa {Paulm) Beitir. z. Gesch. d. kath. K. im 19. Jalirh. Ueklelb. (ISIS.) 182&.
Kopp^ d. kath. K. im 19. JUb. Mayenoe, 1880.
»
The ecclesiastical Electorates, which had been places of rendezroDS for
the emigrants, and for all who wished to devise intrignes against France,
were swallowed up in the republic, and by the Peace of Luneville (1801) the
left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France. The secular princes, who
were losers by this arrangement, or who for other reasons had found favor at
Paris, were indemnified by the gift of territories belonging to the Church.
To accomplish this, the ecclesiastical principalities and charitable foundations
were secularized by a recess of the imperial deputies (1808). Dalherg^ the
electoral arch-chancellor, who enjoyed the esteem of the conqueror for his
pliancy, of the German people for his goodness of heart, and of artists and
learned men for his sympathy with them in their studies, and his freedom
from all petty cx)n8i derations, was the only one who maintained his elevated
ecclesiastical and political position ; and in his episcopal see at Ratisbon, to
which the metropolitan rights of Mentz had been transferred (1805), he en-
deavored to reconcile the Church with the spirit of the new age. After the
papacy had been secularized, Napole<^n declared (1810) (o) that the princi-
pality belonging to it possessed only a secular and personal character.
Although the nobility were more affected by the loss than Catholicism, yet
the Church was in these various ways obliged to expiate the offences of the
empire. It was however obvious that the ecclesiastical constitution was dis-
solved. Tlie dioceses had been dismembered, the chapters and convents had
been abolished, the ecclesiastical princes of the empire had even thrown away the
crosier, Protestant princes claiming to be the heirs of the bishops had nsuiped
the right of patronage, bishops were not appointed to vacant offices, nor were
the dioceses re-organized, and finally, with the quiet subversion of the holy
Roman empire, there were no more securities for the laws of the empire. In
this way the ecclesiastical constitution was completely terminated. Even in
Bavaria (since 1799), the spirit of Illuminism destroyed the monasteries, and
induced the government to issue enactments against every thing it regarded
as superstition. (/>) In consequence of the extravagant claims set up by each
party, all negotiations between the princes of Southern Germany and the
Roman court, which always insisted that heretical princes, instead of gaining
ecclesiastical property, should lose their own, (c) were utterly fruitless, and
provisional ecclesiastical governments were formed according to the spirit of
the civil authoriti^.
a) {Dalherg) Dc la paix de T^Iise dans les 6tats de la conf&ddratlon rb^nane. Fre£ ISlflL BadiK
1810. A. Kramer, Karl Theod. Dalb. Lpa. 1821. Dalberg. Die letxten LebeosUgtt c dratacktf
Bischof^ by //. M. E. Carler. 1846. Liter Nacblaas d. Frsu t. Wolzogeo. vol. IL p. 66iL
6) Ihnkei Kel. Ann. vol. I. p. 127. II, 20l8«. A. Z. 1808. N. 258, 1804. N. 15L
c) InstwictioDB to the Nuntiua, in Vienna, in Pav/tM, Beitrr. 1828. p. 87.
CHAP. IV. BYANG. CHUBCH TILL 1814. %UL BEIMAKUS. BAHRDT. 537
CHAP. IV.— THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH UNTIL
1814.
§ 441. Th^ Age of Enliglitenment. Cont, from § 416, 430.
{G. U. Braatberger) Erzahl. u. Beurth. d. Veraodr. d. Lebrbeg. d. Prot In Deutsclil. Hal 1790.
J. A. IT. nttmann, pragm. Oe»ch. d. chr. R. u. Th. In d. prot K. 2 Hiilfle des 18. Jahrh. Brsl. 1805.
(New Title) Lp«^ 1824. only 1 vol. Ote»«Ur, RQckbl. a. d. klrchl. u. th. Rioht n. Entw. d. letztf n 50
J. Qott 1887. TkUuek^ AbrisB e. GeMh. d. Umwalzang 8l 1750. a. d. Oebiete d. Th. In DeutschL
(Verm. Schrr. Hal 1889. vol XL) [ITagenbacA (J 416.) vol. L Vorleaa. 11-17. vol. II, 1-9.]
The same spirit which was in other places breaking loose from all re-
straints, attempted in Germany to overthrow Christianity. Tlie Wolfenbflttel
Fragments, originally composed by Reimarui (d. 1768) for himself and a few
friends in a town zealous for ancestral usages, and edited by Lessing, con-
tended with much intellectual acuteness against the habit of decrying reason
which prevailed in the pulpit, and against the possibility of a revelation
which should possess sufficient evidence to render it worthy of universal con*-
fidence, and represented the undertaking of Jesus as an unsuccessful attempt
at an insurrection which finally gained credit by a pretended resurrection, (a)
Among other decisive conclusions respecting Christianity, Mavtillon put
forth one in which not only its divine origin, but even the moral principles
of the gospel were assailed. (&) Bahrdt (1741-92), always clever and light-
minded not only in his scientific pursuits but in his daily life, having gradu-
ally broken loose from the restraints of the ecclesiastical creed, endeavored
by strange fancies sometimes to destroy the Scriptural history, and sometimes
to make it harmonize with the views and sentimentality of the age by repre-
senting Socrates, Jesus, Semler, and himself, as equally the instruments of divine
providence, (c) He addressed himself to the common people ; others en-
deavored to move the middle classes of society ; the higher classes had im-
bibed the same spirit in a more ingenious form from France ; while those who
were intellectually of a still higher order, though they looked from a position
of an entirely secular character, regarded the efforts of these modern Titans
with derision and mockeries. This merely destructive school was not over-
come by the numerous replies its productions called forth, nor by the petty
persecution to which its adherents were subjected, but by the free develop-
ment of German theology. German literature, with some respect for the
blessings of Christianity and what were called tlie dreams of its youthful
days, prosecuted the discovery that the doctrine of the Church was perhaps
different in important respects from that of primitive Christianity, and
indulged the expectation that when theology should be properly developed,
a) [K. JTaM^'\ Leben Jeso. p. 81. (ZQr. Gflscb. n. Lit. a. d. Sohitzen d. Wolf. BIbl. Beltr. 8. 4.
WoUenbw 1777.) Fragm. d. Wold Ungenannten, hr»g. v. Lenlng, 4 ed. BrL 1885. t^election of all
Important papers fh>in the Hamburg MSS. : Apologie o. Schutzsch. fur die Vem&nft Ycrebrer Oottes
V. H. S. Reim. ed. by W. Klof. (Zeitsch. f. biAt Th. 1850. U. 4. 1651. IL 4. 1852. IL 8.)
h) Das einzig wahre System d. chr. R«l. BrL 1787.
c) [A". //<(«<•,] Leben Jesu. p. 81. K. F. Bahrdt, Glaubensbok. Hal 1779. K. n. Ketzer-Alm*-
sacb for 1761. Hireeiopel. Gesch. b. Leben^ by hlmselC BrL 17908. 4 vols. ^It Bericbtgg. v. Vot-
land^ Jen. 1791. Q. Laudthard, Ilal. 1761. Briefe anges. Gelehrten, BtaatsmtLnner u. a. an den b«*
r(U)mt«n M&rtyrer Bahrdt Lps. 1791. 5 vola.
538 MODEBN CHURCH HISTORY. FEB. VL A. D. 164a-186&
it would be consistent with the dictates of a matnre reason. HiehaelU
(1719-91), from the Orphan honse, with BOine assistance from England, pre-
sented an historical estimate of the original text of the sacred Scriptures, and
inter]>r6ted the Old Testament bj T>riental illustrations, and the Mosaic laws
by the principles of Montesquieu. His diffuse and easy style was very agree*
able to the Germans ; in his best days he had the reputation of being an
innovator, thou{]^h when an old man he was considerably behind his age, and
he himself, without moral courage, assures us that he always conformed his
instructions to the doctrines of the Church, (d) Eme»ti (1707-81) applied
the results of classical philology to the settlement of more precise rules for
the interpretation of the Scriptures, to which he once more conducted the
creed of the Church, {e) Sender (1725-91), who had by extreme diligence
advanced from the pietistic and contracted spirit of his youth, when he ex-
hibited neither fancy nor genius, to a maturity in which he displayed im-
mense treasures of an independent, but irregular and undigested knowledge,
presented various examples fortified by all the weight of the original histori-
cal documents, of the misunderstandings, the delusions, and violence in which
he thought the doctrines of the Church in many instances had originated.
In his estimation, the Bible was full of many minor ideas peculiar to the
places in which it was written, and he seemed to think it was proper to admit
any doctrine into it which might serve to improve the morals of men. He
never imagined that he was doing any thing calculated to produce a revolu-
tion, and he was pervaded by the pious feelings which formed the habit of
his youth. Hence, when the very system for which he had contended and
suffered became triumphant (1779), and he saw how far beyond aU bounds
it was carried by Bahrdt, he was alarmed at his own course, and came into
conflict with the very spirit of the age which he had done so much to pro-
duce. For in his subsequent works he maintained that in public the doctrines
of the Church were to be absolutely npheld, although in private each one
was to be allowed full freedom in his religious views, {f) Frederic 11^ the
German hero with a French education, who would have nothing to do with
the Christian faith, although he was not without some regard for Christian
morality, for the strength of religious feelings, for Protestantism as the reli-
gion of his country, and for every individual of ability in the Church, de-
spised every thing like priestcraft, gave all the influence of his great name to
those who were opposing the doctrines of the Church, and allowed every one
full liberty to be saved after his own fa^on. (g) The General Gernum
d) Eichhorn, J. D. Mich. (Allfr. Bibl. d. bibl. Lit 1799. v. IIL p. 8278S.) Lebensbeechr. von ibm
s«1b5t m. Anm. v. Ilaaaenkamp^ Rint & L. 1798. [Introd. to the N. T. from the Qerin. of J. D. Mich.
by AfarsK Lund. 181S. 6 vuls. Comment, on the Laws of Moses, transl. ttom the Germ, of J. D. Mich,
by Smith, Lond. 4 vols, a EichKom'» Life and Writings of J. D. M. has been transL Edinb. ISaS. 1&]
<j) A. Ti'lUr, Ern. Verdienste um Th. u. Eel. Lps. 1783. SamUr, Zna. in Toller. Hal. 1788. J. r.
Vor»t, Or. do Ern. optimo post Qrotium duce interpretnm N. T. Lngd. B. 1804. 4. [Smmti, Be-
inent* of Interp. tranal., with Notes and App. by M. Stuart, Andover, 1827. 12.]
/) Lf'bensbeschr. von ihm selbst. Hal. 17818. 2 vols. Niemeyer^ S. letzte Aenssemngen. HaL 1791.
EichJwrn, Sonil (Allg. Bibl. 1793. vol. V.)
g) Preiunt, Fr. d. O. Brl. 1S828S. 6 vols. F. v. Raumer : Yt. IL n. 8. Zeit (Beltrr. i mb
Oesct). Lp9. 1R36. v. IL) Redcn z. GedacbtnissC Fr. IL Lpai 1818. & 1847. J. a JohannmK Fr. d
G. Bel u. Toler. (ZeltscU. £ hist Th. 1849. U. 1.) [£ MoriaHy, H. of Fr. Tb«oL Lond. ft rhitod.
CHAP. IT. EVANO. CHURCH TILL 1814. f 44S. BEACTIOX. 539
Library, which under N^icolai, during the first ten years of its publication
(after 1765), exercised an absolute sway as a tribunal of literature, always
exerted its secret influence in opposition to the ancient system of faith, (h)
and rejected every thing which exceeded the limits of its own bald intelli-
gence and morality, on the ground of a liability either to the reproach of su-
perstition or the suspicion of Jesuitism. (/) It professed to regard Christian-
ity only as an historical development of natural morality and religion, and a
popular system of instruction in the best way to become happy in this world
and the next. In consequence of the power possessed by the opposition
among the influential classes, and its continued adherence to the general basis
of Christianity, it would neither be discarded as a heresy, nor attempt to set
up a peculiar Church of its own, but on the principles of Protestantism it
was looked upon as simply one among many theological views, and as hetero-
doxy by the side of orthodoxy. Besides, the sacred Scriptures were -upheld
by it in opposition to the fallible doctrine of the Church, although the de-
velopment of the experimental sciences made many doubt whether the whgle
of the sacred text could be the immediate word of God. Enlightenment, by
which was meant an elevation above the childish prejudices of education by
a courage which induces one to rely upon his own understanding, now be-
came the watchword of the age, (k) and Germany once more saw its sanc-
tuary of faith torn down by the hands of its own priests.
§ 442. Christian Reaction. Prussian Religious Edict.
Societies were now established for the maintenance of the ancient faith,
by publications, by schools for the education of the young, and by fraternal
admonitions. One of these was formed at Stockholm, 1771 ; another at the
Hague, 1786 ; and a very extensive German society for the diffusion of Chris-
tianity was started by Urlsperger (after 1779), with its principal seat at
Basle, and without regard to differences of creed, including all who acknowl-
edged Jesus as their God and Saviour, {a) The Suabian prelate Oetinger
(1702-82), whose mind was inclined to every thing mysterious and fanciful,
and yet was always practical and fond of general principles, was unwearied
in turning the attention of the people of Berlin to that of which they knew
nothing, and proclaimed the mysteries of God as a sacred philosophy, in which
all material things were pervaded by spirit. (6) Those, however, who con-
tended against the innovations in an fntelligent manner, were themselves
afl«cted by the general literature of the day, and forsook many fundamental
principles of the old Protestantism. Individual instances of persecution were
9 voK OtmpbelPt Life, Jtc of Fr. the Or. Lond. 4 vols. 8. 2 vols. p. 8. Lord Dov«r^ Life. &e. of
Fr. the Gr. Lond 2 vola^ 8. D. Thiebauli, Orlg. Aneodd. of Fr. the Or. ftom the French. Philad.
160ft. 2 vols. 8.]
h) Briefe an Joh. Mueller, ed. by Mitnrer-ConKtwt SchaflTh. 1840. vol. IV. p. ISss. esp. 23.
i) F. Nic. l%*ber nieine Oclohrte Bildung. Brl. 1799. J. O. FleJiU, Nic. Lcben u. sonderb. Meiii-
ungen. Tub. 1S()1. Govhingk^ Nic Leben u. ML Nachlasa. Brl. 1820.
k) Kant, Was tst Aufkldrung? (Berl. Monatschr. 1734_Dec.)
a) J. A. UrlMf. Beschaffenh. u. Zwecke e. zu errlchtenaen deutschen OesclUcb. thStlger Beford.
reiner Lehre' u. Gottaolligk. Baa. 1781.
b) Bibl. Wtirterbuch. (1776.) ed. with Explan. by Hamhtrger^ Stattg. IS 19. AntoDiog. ed. tb«
Hune Stuttg. 1845. A'. A. Auberlin^ d. Theoaophie Oet with Praet by R. Rothe, Tub. 184Sw
540 MODEBN CHUBCH HISTORY. PER. YL A, D. 1M8-186&
not indeed wanting, and the legal censorship and the pnblic prosecutor were
sometimes appealed to ; but generally instead of a resort to the civil or the
ecclesiastical sword, the most timid intrigues were carried forward, and the
people were indifferent to the whole matter. An attempt to snpprese the
new freedom of instruction at the University of Jena (1794) was qnietly sup-
pressed by Charles Augvstus. (r) The most decided hostility was displayed
in the very place where the professed enlightenment originally found a home.
Frederic William 11.^ painfully impressed with a sense of the position of his
illustrious ancestor with respect to the Church, and himself under the infla-
ence of a faction, was anxious to aid what he regarded as the cause of Chris-
tianity, and published, by the advice of his ecclesiastical minister Woellner^
a religious edict (July 9, 1778), which, for the protection of the congrega-
tions, threatened every clergyman with deposition, and even with severer
punishments according to circumstances, who should presume to teach any
thing inconsistent with the symbols of the Church to which he belonged, {d)
The execution of this edict was to be secured by a national catechism, and a
commission for examination (1791) under the immediate direction of Woell-
ner. (^) But even the law passed at the same time for the censorship of the
press, (/) could not prevent such a general expression of disapprobation, {g)
that Woellner, to escape the reproach of having established a Protestant
inquisition, only ventured on the execution of the edict by way of experi-
ment, since he called in the high authority of the chancery to aid him against
the opposition of the superior consistory. The decision in an individnal case
was to settle the validity of the threatened rule for all others. The supreme
court was directed by an order of the cabinet (1791) to inquire whether
Schnlz, a preacher of Gielsdorf, (/) who had assailed the fundamental truths
of Christianity, (A) and in accordance with the new fashion of the times
wore a queue, was to be regarded as an evangelical preacher? Although
many influences were brought to bear upon the court, and it was threatened
in various ways, it refused to act inconsistently with its long-established repu-
tation, and decided that the Christian conduct of this preacher, and the love
which his respectable congregation exhibited toward him, would not warrant
his removal from them. As the accused was however deposed, and an order
WiOs issued by the cabinet directing that those members of the court who
gave the obnoxious votes should be punished, the general dissatisfaction was
much increased, {i) It had now become evident, on the one hand, that the
Church was established on no legal basis, and was dependent on the arbi-
trary caprice of a minister ; and on the other, that no external force was suf-
ficient to repress the intellectual power of this development. When Frederic
William III. ascended the throne (1797), the edict lost all the power it ever
c) (Rohr) Wio Karl Augost Bich bel YerketzerrangsvenTichen gegen Hkad. Lebrer befiahm.
Ilann. ISSO.
d) Acten z. nst KOesch. toL L p. 461b8. Das prauM. R. Edict Eine Oeaeh. ik d. 18. Jahrb. fSr
d. 19. Lr*. 1842,
t) ( Wald) Ann. d. Pr. Rel. Wes. 179^toL I. 8t 4. /) Aoten %. nat KGeaeh. roL IL p. 154»
g) Henke^ Beurth. allcr Schriften welcbe darch daa pr. }fL Edict veraidaaat sind. Ktal, ITM.
h) Erwels d. hinamelweittin Unterftcbieds d. Moral u. d. Rel. ▼. e. nnenehrookenan WabrtMili-
frennde Frk£ 1788.
0 Uenke^ Arch. rol. L Qa. 8. p. 84flB. VaUr^ Anbaa, toL L p^ Vlwk.
CHAP. IT. EYANO. GHUBGH TILL 1814. {448. LESSING. HEBDEB. 541
pofleessed, and it was proclaimed by this pioos king, that as religion was ex-
olasivelv an affair of the heart, it needed no compnlsory enactments, and
that with reason and philosophy for its inseparable companions, he could not
donbt that it would by its unaided energies maintain its . existence in the
nation, (k)
§ 443. Betolution in German Literature.
The affectionate reverence with which Gellert (1715-69) was surrounded,
notwithstanding the contracted and sickly spirit he possessed, showed that
the simple utterance of a pure Christian heart found much that was conge-
nial in the minds of others. The admiration also with which the first cantos
of the Messias were received (1748), could never have been awakened if
there had not been a general confidence in*an incarnate God, who had given
himself a sacrifice for man. At the same time, however, in which this
theological revolution took place, the intellect of the German people be-
came much elevated. No longer unmindful of its former glory, nor de-
voting itself to the pursuit of monstrosities and miserable imitations, its full
and profound spirit now awoke to a consciousness of its powers, and began
to form a polished national literature, by means of which the nation once
more assumed an important position in the history of the world, (a) Among
the leaders in this intellectual movement were some who stood foremost in
the theological world. Lemng (1729-81), who never aspired to the charac-
ter of a theologian, but only to that of an amateur in theology, with power-
ful native talent and character, threatened to overthrow the formal principles
of the old Protestantism, by proving that Christianity rested not upon the
Bible, but upon the internal experience of men. Although he entertained a
profound respect for the religion of the people, and the serious earnestness
of genuine orthodoxy, he annihilated the pretensions of the Lutheran pas-
torate by the most terrible weapons of thought and learning, {h) He was
unwilling to accept of a religion on the veracity and faith of others, and by
his Nathan he persuaded the whole nation to elevate itself, as he had done,
above all regard for historical traditions. Herder (1744 1803), as long as he
was in advance of his age, and after a season of prophetic youthful extrava-
gance, became animated with the same enthusiasm for the Scriptures whicli
he had felt Tor Homer and Ossian, and having redeemed the gospel of human-
ity from the dogmas of the schools, he announced and gave a personal repre-
sentation of it among his fellow-men. {c) And yet this triumphant literature
was merely a glorification of the world, and in its most ardent efforts after
ideal excellence had no very definite relation to Christianity. From holding
*) A. K. Z. 1827. N. 25.
a) JI. GeUer^ d. deutsche poet Lit 8. Klopst Nach ihren ethischen a. reL Oesichtspnnkten. Lps.
1841. Comp. Gervlnus and Yilmar.
h) £ine Parabel neb»t e. kleinen Bitte a. eventualen Abeagungschreiben. Antl-Goeze. 1773. and
oth. in the 10 and 11 v. of Leseinj^'s Sohrr. 6d. by Laehmann, BrL 1839.— i?&Ar, Leaa. In theoL Bo-
ziehiuig. (Kleine theoL Sclirr Schleus. 1S41. vol L) Ri^ndckw^ Q. Itoas. ab Hregebr. d. Wolfcnb.
Fn^;min. (Stud. n. Krlt 1S44. II. 4.)
c) (Cbristl. Schrr. Kig. 1794aa. 5 Samtnl.) Werke z. Bel. a. Th. ed. by JI (?. Mueller, T&b. (ISOSasw
12 T.) 18276a. IS r. Z>ans a. Gruber, Cbaracteristik H. Lpa. 1806. If. C v. Herder, Erlo. an d.
Leben H. TQb. 1S20. 2 vola. Welmari!«be9 Herder-Album. Jen. 1845.
542 MODERN CIIUBGH HI8T0BY. PER. YL A. D. 164S-18S8L
a seraphic kind of orthodoxy, Wieland suddenly embraced a lax system of
freethinking (after 1760), not only in matters of faith, but in those of morals.
Goethe took some interest as a poet in the various manifestations of the Chriflr-
tian spirit, occasionally he himself assumed a pastoral style of address whilo
defending practical and sincere piety principally against the reckless spirit of
the innovators, {(7) and he abhorred all negative criticism with respect to the
original authorities of antiquity ; but the idea of any interruption of those
natural laws by which the Deity reveals himself to men, was higjily repug-
nant to his feeling of exclusive sympathy with nature, and fhe decoration of
a single bird of Paradise was inconsistent with his views of the multiplicity
\n which all, things appear. For himself, therefore, he never felt the need of
such a system as that of Christianity, (e) Schiller has sometimes used strong
language respecting the inconsistency of Christianity with the adoration of
an independent Ruler of all things, with which the age had made him ac-
quainted, yet in his mature years he himself postponed die categorical impera-
tive to the religion of free inclination, and perceived the important part
which the gospel sustains in the history of the world. His own hopes of the
world's salvation, however, were built wholly upon the influence of moral
freedom and beauty. (/) But by the side of these highly endowed children
of the world, the prophets also found a friendly position on account of the
kindred spirit of enthusiasm which they seemed to possess. Among these
were : Ilamann (1780-68), a powerful child of nature, and yet one filled with
the spirit of the Scriptures, who, with a style as abrupt and fragmentary as
was his actual life, poured forth his prophecies against the Babel of the
Enlightenment on the Spree ; {g) Latatei' (1741-1801), who with a magical
versatility of talent ingeniously mingled the earthly and the heavenly ; (h)
in his better days, Jung- Stilling (1740-1817), idyllic in his style, powerful
in prayer, and credulous with respect to modern miracles ; (/) and Claudiut
(1743-1815), with his humble and yet humorous sincerity. (Q
d) Brief d. rasters ♦ • an den nciicn P. zu ♦ ♦ Zwo blbl. Fragen an ©. Landgelstl. in Scbwabeo.
Fragniento.
€) Coinp. e. g. Oiithes u. I^v. Briefw. od. by llineL^ Lpa. 1883. and Qothe^a last loiter to Aogiatt
V. Stolberg In tho Urania. 1S39. [Autoblog. of GocUie, transl. by P. Oodrcin^ New York. 1846. t
vols. 12. Works, transl. into Engl. Lond. 1852. 4 voK 8.]
• /) R. Binder, Schiller Im VerlL z. Chrlstenth. Stuttg. 1889. 2 vols. Comp. C. tfUfnann and 6.
Schwab, d. Ctilius d. Genius. Ilamb. 1840. p. 81.<«^ Tendency to Christianity : F. J. G&tM^r, Seh.
Lied V. d. Glockc. Elbrf. 1858. [Worship of Genius, trannl. ftx>m the Germ, of C Ullniann. Lood.
1845. 12. Life of Schiller and Exam, of Works. Loud. 1825. 8. CarlyU^ Life of S. Lend, and New
York. 12.]
a) Werke. ed. by RoVuf, BrL 182188. 7 vola. and 8 vols. (Nachtr. n. Erlautr.) r. O. A. WUmt.
BrL 1S42. Moller, chr. Bekenntnisse u. Zeugn. t. II. M&nst. 1828. F. Jlerbst, BibL chr. Denker
Lps 1S30. vol. I. W. Sttuer, de Ilara. vita et Scrr. Vrat 1842.
h) Gehcimes T.ngcbuch. Yon e. Beobachter sr. selbst Lps. 177288. 2 vola. Aosgewiblta Schrr. ed
by OrfU, Zur. 1841s. 6 vols. F. Uerhit, Bibl. chr. Denker. 1882. vol IL Gbth«, a. m. Lebea.
(Nachgol. W. 1S3.3.) vol. YIIL p. 142sa. U. FTegner^ Beitrr. z. Kenntniss. Lav. Lpa 18861
t) (.Tugend, JQnglingsJ. Wandersch. 1778.) Lebensgescb. new ed. Stuttg. 1885. (vol L d. aamintL
Schrr. ed. by OroUmanti.) Sendschr. geprilfter Christen an J. St Carlar. 1888. Schwartt, St Alt*
u. Lebeni^ende. Ildlb. 1817. Goethe a. m. Leben. (Werke. 1829. 12.) vol XXY. p. 245. Jacobft
Brr. vol. U. p. 4S7. [Stilllng's »* Childhood," "Interesting Talea," and " Poenmatologj,*' have be«
translHtod by Jackson. Lond. 4 vols. 12. Autobiogr. New York. 1888. 8.]
I) SiimmU. W. d. Wandsbeeker Botben. 1774-1812. 7 ed. Hamb. 1844. 8 to1& 16L Oorop. Hist pol
Blatter. 1889. vol lY. P. 668L
CHAP. IV. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1814 §444. KANT. JACOBL FICHTE. 543
§ 444. jReformation of Philosophy in Germany,
C. M. MicheUt, Oescb. d. Phil. v. Kant b. He^l BrL ISSTs. 2 vols. If. 31. ChalyhaeM^ hist
£ntw. d. Spec PhiL v. Kant b. Hegel. Drsd. (1887-89.) 4 ed 1848. [transl. Into Engl, by A, Edersheim,
Edlnb. 1854.] K. BUdermann, d. deatsche Phil r. Kant, b. a. nnsre 2«. Li)S. 1843.
As the mind was acknowledged to be the highest of all powers, the spirit
of the age pressed most ardently forward in its efforts to ascertain its nature.
In view of all that Wolf and Hume had said, Kant (1724-1804) went into a
carefal investigation of our faculty of understanding, and arrived at the con-
clusion that we cannot know things in themselves, and things above the
reach of the senses, but that the only thing certain in itself is the moral law,
which conducts us to a practical faith in God and immortality. He also ac*-
knowledged that it is our duty to connect ourselves with Christianity, on
the ground that it is a popular school for moral education, and because its .
sacred books, as well as its received doctrines, are an excellent explanation
of the great object of morality, (a) Jacohi (1743-1819) agreed with Kant
respecting the limitations of all knowledge, but he shrunk from the direct,
strict way of reason, which that philosopher had marked out, and pointed
out in a dilettantic and exalted style the certainty of those religious ideas
which are found in the sentient part of man^s nature, and which neither
have nor need any proof. He was himself profoundly studying a problem
which has employed the mind of man as long as it has had an existence, with
the heart of a Christian but the understanding of a heathen, (b) A theo-
logical school was founded by Eant, but as his influence on philosophy con-
sisted principally in the scientific and moral earnestness of the movement
commenced by him, some more popular results have been produced in the
department of theology, \)y the combination of the critical philosophy with
the philosophy of faith. Fiehte (1762-1814) showed that the ultimate point
toward which the critical religious philosophy tended, w^as faith in a univer-
sal moral government. But as he was not satisfied with the resignation
which both Kant and Jacobi required, he conceived of all exbtence merely
as the voluntary creation of the mind. Having been accused of atheism in
Electoral Saxony, his self-respect, which identified his own person with the
cause of science, led him to use an incautious expression which produced his
dismission from his professorship at Jena (1799). It was not, however, the •
existence of God, but the existence of the world that he denied ; and the
omnipotence of the / in the religion of cheerful virtue, together with his
confidence in the approaching end of Christianity which he assumed in all
a) Krilik d. rclnen Vernnnft 1T81. Kr. d. prakt Vft 1788. Kr. d. Urthellakr. 1790. BeL
inoerh. d. Grenzen d. bl. Vft Kunfgsb. 1793. and often. Summtl. Schrr. e«L by Ronenkranz^ Lpa.
18S7S8. 12 vols. IfartenaUln, Lps. lS3Ss. 10 vols. DUlUin, Bedent d. Kant. Phil. XQr d. neacre Tb.
(Stud. u. KHt 1847. H. 4.) [KaiU:» Crltlck of Pure Reaj^on. Lond. 1S8S. 8. An AnalyMs of the C
of P. R. Lond. 1844. 8. Logic with Life, by liickardwn, Lond. 188$. 8. Metaphyslc of Kthic^
tran»1. by StmpU^ Edinb. 1888. 8. Prolegomena to every futare Mctaphy»ic. Lond. 1S88. 8. and
Theory of Eel. iransL by SempU^ Edinb. 1887. 8. A. F. M. WiUich, Tho CriUcal Phil, of Kant
Lond. 179a Tr<r^»/»flfin, Prince, of tlie C. Phil. Lond. 1824]
b) ifume &. d. Glaiiben. 1787. Von d. gotU. Dingen u. Ihrer Offenb. Lps. (1811.) 1822. Werk«.
I4ML 18128i. 6 V0I5. Brlefw. Lpa. 182568. 2 Y0I& Briefvr. zw. Goethe a. Jac Lpai 184^ J, Kuhn^
Jac: o. d. Ph. sr. Zelt Mentz, 1824
544 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. B. lM»-lSaiL
liis speculations, became finally transformed into the omnipotence of loTe.
Christianity was recognized by biin as the gospel not only of freedom md
eqnality, but of inditference to the world, though he always expressed a spe-
cial )>reference for the writings of John, (r) His school is of importazioe in
the history of the Church only because it was an important point of progren
in philosophy, and because it imparted an heroic strength to the homan mind.
§ 445. Bationalhm and Supernatural ism,
Staudlin, Ge^cb. d. lUt a. S«pr. Gntt l$e6. E. & Pm*ep, Caqsm of Um late ratiaaalls ek«r>
UT ofthv Tbei»L in Gtrniany. LAtnd. IS2n-«^ 2 vols. Anutnd Saint^ Uiat, criL da mbooaBmrnttm
Alleniapie^ P.r. O'^J) !>*«. ni. Anmert u. Excur»«n. v. C. G. FicJur, Lpa. ISIT. [A Crit Htac
<>f nAtiortalbm in Germ, from it5 Oridn till uow. tnnsl. from tbe French d Am. SaintMt hj Ji M.
Btard, Lon<L l!!49. <k Art. in Kitto's Joamal of BibL Lit toL L]
Tlic theolog}* which now had the ascendency in the German Church, had
avoided an open rupture with that which the Church set forth in her creed^
and yet had appropriate<l to itself all which it thought intelligible and oseliBl
in them. A living representation of it was exhibited in the person of tbe
mild and venerable .S)><i /«//;»(/ (1714-1804). (/i) But the original oppositioii
wliich will always be found to exist between a merely sacerdotal reSgiiia
and a religion of mature rea.-^on, became developed near the commence-
ment of the nineteenth centurj* as the principal subject of contPOTersy in
the Christian world, under the scholastic names of Rationalism and Super-
naturalism. This, instead of l>eing a discussion respecting some peculiar
doctrines of religion, referred to the primary principles which lie at its (baa-
dation. In general, Hatiomdism found the supreme law of all religion in the
reflecting mind, which it regarded as a natural revelation from Crod; whereas
Sni>ernaturnliNm found it in a s;icre<l tradition, which was looked upon as a
suj)ernatur&l revelation. The tendency of the age was nnqnestioDabiT
rational, and it was contending for liberty and intelligible ideas in opposiDon
to merely prescriptive usages. But so far as liationalism constituted a as-
tinct school, it maintained the supremacy of a sound common sense, as it was
defended by Wolf, Kant, and Jacobi ; it appropriated to itself tbe natural pbB-
pion and earnest system of morality found in the Scriptures ; and it regarded
this as all that was essential to Christianity. Every thing else in the Khle
it set aside as the various kinds of outward covering which the truth assumed
during the process of its birth. The last representatives of this school were:
Paiihts (1701-1851), the influence of whose character as an expounder of tbe
Scrij)tures, and hL« conscientious earnestness in the formation of his specuk-
tive creed, was precisely the same in various directions as if he had been an
avowed freethinker; (h) Wcjschevhr (^1771-1849), who as a didactic theoio-
r) Vor^ o. Kritik aller OffcnK Kiinig^b. 0^^^> 1?^ Gmndl d. WiaMiMchaftsL Wcim. im
A; \*c\\. an <L Pnbl u. <!le ibm bc{::pnie»5<ncn itthf i$t Aeosser. Jena. 1799. Anw. i. wA Lebes. Btl
1S<^ J. II FUhtf, J. G. Flcl:te'5 LiN n u. Briefw. ISSOsl 9 rob. GoHh«y W«rke. toL TTTI ^
l.Vl P,:hIum^ Skinon. p. KiHw. J. 11. FUMf, P*nla5 u. FIcbte. ^Frelhafen. ISia P. i) PwImIb
N. S»i>ln.n. \<i\. vol I. P. 1. [Flchtes IVs'.inaUon of Man, The Katnre of tbe Scholar. Tb« T«e»-
tion of the Scholar. Tlie War to a Ble»9o<i Lifi\ anU CbaracterlsUcs of tbe Age, have be«a traML aad
publ. \» Ith a MoTiu»ir of tbe Aathor. Li^nd. IM&ft. >.]
<f ! J. J. S[K lA»ben»be9cbr. r. ibm 9elb»t, cO. by bis wn. ITaL 1901
b\ Skinon a. m. Leben^geMb. z. Andenken an meln Oi>)ihr. Jabtt. Heidelt. 1811. X J. i
Un-M^degg, II. E. 0. Paalaa a. i. Zeit 8tnUg. ISSSL 9 toU
OUAP. IV. EYANO. CUUBCIl TILL 1814. $ 445. RATIONAUSM. 545
gian, (e) together with lidhr (1777-1848), a high oflBcer in the Church and a
popnhir author, showed how this style of speculation can he made consistent
with an ecclesiastical professorship, (d) On the other hand, Sapematuralism
ahandoned the fundamental principle of the fonner orthodoxy, hut firmly
maintained, though with many concessions, that the historical contents of
Christianity were a supernatural revelation from God, and employed itself in
Buhstituting a hihlical for an ecclesiastical orthodoxy. In the department of
German literature, the older Tubingen school, which collected together out
of various authors the mildest views respecting the writings transmitted by
the hands of the Church, (e) appeared to he the only support by which the
cause of Supernaturalism was preserved from an entire defeat. In the ranks
of common life, however, and in churches of other countries, this system waa
the prevalent mode of communication between ancient and modern times.
§ 446. The Eedmiastical Party in Germany,
BreUcKneider. d. Unkirchlichk. dicser Zoit Goth. (1820.) 1S32. A. KZ. 1828. N. lia.
At the commencement of the new century, the pious morals and manners
of the preceding times had become seriously impaired in consequence of the
sudden relaxation of the former system of faith, the unrestrained mode of
life which the revolution had produced, and the universal tendency to mate-
rial or political interests. The religion of the Bible seemed to have no ele-
ments in common with the modern views of the world, and the religion of
the cross was utterly estranged from the new pleasures and glories of human
society. Tlie school, as established by Basedow (1723-90), who attempted in
a rather awkward manner to realize the plan suggested by Rousseau, (a) was
inclined to assume the position which properly belonged to the Church, since,
instead of contending against an innate tendency to sin, it put confidence in
the general goodness of human nature, and instead of instructing its pupils
in the Christianity of the Catechism, it educated them as reflecting beings,
by agreeable entertainments and by pleasant views of actual life. Pestalozzi
(1746-1827), on the other hand, devoted himself so thoroughly to his employ-
ment, that in receiving him to their affections they also accepted of
Clirist. iji) The Church, indeed, still possessed the confidence and love of the
great body of the people ; and some were yet firmly attached to ecclesiastical
principles, and scattered blessings all around them. The best among many
of a similar character were: Rcinhard (1753-1812), who presided over the
Saxon Church, preaching the gospel with a scholastic and precise rhetoric^
with many concessions to the new spirit of the day, but with an earnestness
worthy of the former times of the Church, doing justice to every order of
e) litf titntiones Th. Dogm. Hal. 1815. cd. & 1844
d) Briefe u. d. CAtionalism. Aach. {Zeita) 1813. Erit Predlger-BlbL 1. 1820.
e) Tub. ZeitHch unter vcrscb. Titel 1796-40, cd. by Flatt, Suskind, Bongel, SteadeL Ck>mpi.
KiMfnw. liep. 1833. p. 174. 190. 2iid. 21668.
a) (Jfeyer) Has. Leben u. Charakter. Ilamb. 1791.
h) Ltenbard a. Oertrnd. Zur. (1781.) 179088. 8 vola. Bach d. Matter. Ifert 1808. [Aotoblogr.
Secnee of my Life at Bergdorf and Tferdun. Load. 1880. S, Biber^ Memoirs of P. and hia Plan of
Kd.LoDd. 1831.]
85
546 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 16I8-19S8.
talent, and moderating every injnrioQS influence from without ; (c) and O&ar-
lin (1740-1826), the pastor of the Stein thai, and a Protestant saint, who
showed how mnoh an active, fervent, and simple-hearted man can do, with
the divine assistance, for the spiritual and temporal welfare of a congrega-
tion, (d) 6nt the educated and the half-educated classes turned silently
away from God, or at least from Christ ; and even those who, like all truly
exalted minds, had at least some longings after eternal things, congratulated
themselves with the author of the Titan, that they could penetrate much far-
ther into the Infinite than could either Peter or Paul, (e) Rectitude of ex-
ternal conduct, in connection often with great self-complacency and easy
conformity to usage, was now substituted for justification by faith. Many
sermons were nothing but moral lectures, or sought for the practical in some
region far beyond the province of religion. The lifeless condition of the
Church may be seen in the vandalism with which the old hymns were muti-
lated. (/) Many pious persons, as well as freethinkers, were apprehensive
that Christianity was about to be subverted.
§ 447. Small Fanatical Parties.
A strange mode of divine worship practised by the Jumpers^ a dass of
persons who sprung up among the Methodists of Wales (about 1760), now
made its appearance, and consisted in a wild leaping upward in honor of the
Lamb. This enthusiasm received a regular form from Anria Let^ who, in
consequence of the oppression she endured in England, emigrated with her
adherents to New York. Although her prediction that she should, as the
Lamb's wife, give birth to a new Messiah, remained unfulfilled at the time of
her death (1782), her followers continued to praise God by chastity, commu-
nity of goods, and by dances like those of David before the ark of the cove-
nant. These Shakers have their principal settlement in a few busy and neat
villages near the Hudson, where men and women lodge in the same dwell-
ings, but most strictly separated from each other, witli countenances immova-
ble, eyes dull, trusting to immediate inspirations, and as the only true Church
waiting for a wonderful development throughout the world, (a) Jaarma
e) Gestundniase a. Predigten u. s. Blldang z. Prediger betr. Sulzb. (1810.) 131L K. H. L. PHUt^
F. Y. Relnhard nach 6. Leben u. Wirken. Lps. 1818mw 2 ?ol&.
d) Notice 8ur Ob. Par. 1826. Strattb. 1826. // Schub€H^ Zuge a. d. Leben Ob. N&rnb. 18ML 6 ed..
1888. Ihid. aiis d. Nachlasse efnee Vielonfin. Lp& 1887. Ob. Lcbenfge^eh. n. G««irom. 8ehiT.
sammensrestellt v. W. Burckbardt, Btattg. IfrlS. 4 vols. [Memoirs of J. F. Oberlin. Lond.
Mark WilkfS, The Ban de la Roche and Itfl Benefactor, J. F. Ob. L«)n<l 1820. 8. L. Balsey^
of J. F. Ob. PittKburgh. 1882. 18. //. Ware, Hem. of J. F. Ob. Boston. 188S. 11 Artt. in
Bev. 1S31. and Eclectic Rev. 1828. in Rcl. Mag. 1828. and LittelFs Mns. Pbtlad. 1S81.]
e) Briefw. zwl^chen. II. Voss a. Jean Paal. Ileidelb. 1888. p. 188. 6a [Antobiogr. of J(tan
Richter, n-om the Ocrm. Lond. and Boston. 2 vols. 12. E. Lm^ Life of J. P. B. Boston, 1842. S v
12. Must of his works are translated.]
/) Billroth, Beitr. z. wlasensch. CYitik d. hcrrscb. TheoL Lpa. 1881. R, SU^r, die
noth. Lps. 1888.
a) Iffiike, ReL Ann. P. 1. p. lOSss. Archiv. f. KOesch. vol L 8l 1. StdudUn, Beitr. vol T. Vl
899. Duke Bernhardt Roise nach Nord-Am. p. ITSss. Blatter. £ lit Unterb. 1888. N. €1. Fred. BfU
1844 V. 25. P. 6. [Calvin Green A Seth Y. Wellt, Millennial Charch, or View of the Sodetjr ctXed
Shakersw Albnnj. 1828. 12. T. Brown, Aecoont of the people oallsd Sbakem Trox. 1911 IS. W./.
JTackeU, Shakerism unmasked, &c Pittsfleld. 1S8&-12.]
CHAP. IV. EVANG. CHUECH TILL 1814. f 44T. SECTS, HAUGE. 647
Southeote also promised tho people of England that she would give birtli to
one who was to be the Shiloh of the world, and made it the duty of beliey-
ers to observe the Jewish law, that they might receive the Messiah in a wor-
thy manner. Althoagh after waiting for a long time she cUed (1814) in her
delnsion, and the splendid cradle which had been prepared for the Messiah
still remained empty, tlie Nev) Israelites continued till 1881 to observe the
Jewish Sabbath, in hope of the future Messiah. (Ji) Among the peasantry
of Norway a powerful religions movement was produced by NieUen Hauge
(1771-1824), who felt called to be a prophet like the herdman of Tekoa (after
1795). The law of God was the principal theme of his discourses, and he
judged of others as well as wished himself to be Judged, exclnsively by the
Scriptures, and the catechism. Community of goods was required only on
the principles which he believed to have prevailed in the Apostolic Church,
and whatever property was intrusted to his hands he employed in objects of
general utility. He became odious to the clergy on account of the suspicions
which his conduct threw upon their order, and under a law of 1741 he was
severely abused by heavy fines and a long imprisonment for preaching with-
out a license. Tliis law was finally abolished by the Storthing (1842), and
the law of 1845 gave full toleration to all Christian sects. A powerful party
has sprung up under Hangers influence, which contends earnestly against the
ecclesiastical authorities on account of the laxness they exhibit with respect
to the terms of salvation, {e) In Sweden the special need of family worship
on account of the great extent of the parishes led to the formation, after 1808,
of a party, which from its perusal of the Scriptures and Luther^s Postilla,
were called Laemre, Their pious zeal was proved by their Lutheran ortho-
doxy, their rigid morals, and their devotional meetings. A few zealots
among them who claimed to be infallible, on account of their possession of
the Holy Sjiirit, and therefore dealt out their curses upon all, and especially
upon the clergy who thought differently from themselves, who burned the
books of devotion they had previously used because such works were useless
to those who had the Bible, and who paid no regard to the edicts of the eccle-
siastical authorities were fined according to law, and many of them endea-
vored (after 1846) to find their Zion in America, {d)
§448. Citil Relations of Protestants vnder Catholic Governments, Cont,
/row §418.
The indifference which generally prevailed on religious subjects had the
effect to bring about what the reason of the age demanded. From inclina-
tion as well as from policy, Frederic II, placed himself at the head of Pro-
testant Gennany. As an individual event it was of no great importance that
b) M^mtyer, B*ob. a. ReU^n. E<1. 2. vol. II. p. 988a. A. K. Z. 1881. N. 67. [P. MatMan, J. South-
cote's Prvtpheries nnd cane stated. Lood. 1880. 12.]
c) ./>»« Mo^lUr : Archlv. f. KQesch. vol. II. p. d&4a& Bch abort: Ibid. vd. V. p. 28Tt8. Kv. K. Z.
1881. N. M. 1834. N. 57. 61. (i7. Sarwey) Oodaoken e. S&ddoataehen 0. d. K. Norir. (Stud. a. Erit
1849. n. U.)
d) Sehuhert : Archlr. t KOeseh. vol. IV. p. 62488. V, »788. A. K. Z. 1821 N. ». 1880. N. 8a~BrL
K. Z. 1846. N. 98. 1849. N. 4. D. A. Z. 1862. N. 167.
548 MODERN CHUBCU HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1M»-186&
the oppression of their Protestant subjects by the princes of Hoheulobe was
prevented by the imperial troops (1750), (a) but German I'rotestantism gained
once more by the proud position maintained by Prussia a consciousness of its
political power and security. Jotteph 11.^ full of philosophical zeal for the
general rights of man, gave to the Evangelicals in all his dominions the com-
plete privileges of citizenship, and the freedom of a quiet worship (1781). (b)
This edict of toleration was not accepted in Tyrol and Hungary. But the
Hungarian Diet of 1791 recognized the religious freedom of the Protestants
by the restoration of all their former privileges, although the Catholic ma-
jority would never allow complete justice to be actually administered in this
matter, (r) As late as 1762 religious intolerance was still so strong in Tou-
louse that sentence of death was ])n.vcd upon the honest John Calas. Then
it was that Voltaire came forward in defence of murdered innocence, and
convinced the French nation that Christianity was not a barbarous religion,
but one that enjoined toleration ui)on all its votaries. (f7) Tlie Parliament of
Toulouse in 1769 recognized the legidity of a Protestant marriage, and the
civil rights of Protestants were acknowledged in 1787 ; but the complete
equality of the rights of the Protestant with those of the Catholic Church
was not fully proclaimed until the revolution. Napoleon granted the Pro-
testants a Synodal Constitution (1802), though he subjected it to great limita-
tions and a rigid supervision. When the Gernian empire was broken up, the
permanency of the peace of Westphalia became doubtful. But the right of
possession, which had been acknowledged for years under it in the individual
states, was maintained until the higher ]>rivilege of a complete legal equality
was received and enforced by Napoleon, esi)ecially in favor of the Catholics,
as far as the terror of his cannons prevailed, {e)
CHAP, v.— THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH UNTDL 185S.
§ 4f49. Development of ProtestantUm,
GieaeUr. (p. 537.) A. Neander^ d. vcrfloasene halbe Jahrk. In 8. Verb. d. Qcgcnw. (IXentsdie
Zeitsch. t chr. Wiss. 1850. N. 1-4.)— {/fundashagen) Der deutache Protcstantlsinus. Frkl 1S47. 8 eJ.
ISftO.
In times of extreme trouble and great commotion, when the insufficiency
of all human aid was evident, the people sought consolation and safety in that
which was everlasting. From the retirement of quiet families and sects a
love for the Church of former days was openly proclaimed. When the Ju-
bilee of the Reformation was celebrated (1817) the hearts of the people were
turned to the faith of their fathers, and Luther was looked upon as something
more than a mere hero of freedom. German theology had gone forward to
a) Saramlang der hohenlohischen Rcl. gravaminnm. TTeilbr. 1751.
h) ffia/eri, Kechte u. Verf. d. Akathollkeii in Oestr. Yfen. 1927.
e) 7VM«oan««, Rel. Beschwerden d. Prot In Ung. Lpe. ISSa p. 1908a.
d) M6moire de Donat Galas pour son pere. 1762. Voltaire^ TraiU aar U toliranoe k PoecM <!• ^
mort de J. Cala& Par. 1768. Bri. 1739. [ffagenhach ($ 416) voL I. Yorlea 8.]
«) KlUb^r, 5fL Becht d. dentachen BnndM. Frkl ed. S. 1888. p. 849.
CHAP. V. KVANO. CHURCH TILL 1858. $ 449. MODERN PROTEST A^TI^M. 549
express the negative side of Protestantism, with none to obstruct its progress
or embitter it by opposition, and it now lost its interest in mere negations. In
all departments of intellectnal elfort a new liistorical spirit had been awakened,
and had drawn the hearts of men to subjects connected with past times. It
was therefore not surprising that this spirit should have had an influence upon
tlie common feeling of the Ohnrch. The old Protestantism, seizing the wea-
pons of tlie new age, endeavored once more to win the empire it had too soon
given up for lost "While engaged in conflict with it the opposition first ex-
hibited its bitterest earnestness, and like the warrior spirits after the battle of
the Uuns, they once more entered the deadly strife. Many persons were of
course painfully wounded in this contest, and act2d inconsistently with their
own former course, (a) But a fresh feeling of life now pervaded the Church,
the poetry of the old Church hymns was appreciated, (b) the system of popu-
lar schools was carefully formed on a Christian basis, and theology disclosed
her most ample treasures, especially in Germany. Holland, Denmark,
Sweden, and America participated in these blessings with joyful emulation ;
but England did so with caution, and even resistance. This progress of the
new age, however, could not be arrested ; and it was found, therefore, that the
established forms of the ecclesiastical creeds which had been for a time aban-
doned, could not OS such be re-established. Hence, as Protestantism was
obliged at some time to discover the essential contradiction which existed in
its original form, and to develope its nature as the Christianity of freedom,
tlic true ideal of this development was presented in the religious indepen-
dence whose power was rooted in the Church. But the perfected idea which
could not be realized by the age without many a severe conflict and extrava^
^nce, was exhibited even then in a few personalities, types of the future,
which, though deeply agitated in the struggles of science and piety, stood
firmly established in intellectual freedom in the church of their fathers. Thus
Tzdchirner (1778-1828) openly abandoned the precise letter of Luther's theo-
logical system, but in the very spirit and honesty of that reformer, conducted
the cause of Protestantism, aroused the common sentiments and feelings
which had slumbered in the hearts of its friends, and showed in his polished
and stately discourses that every thing truly human in the past or present
should be considered as having a relation to Christianity, (c) In like man-
ner De JVetU (1780-1849) investigated the Scriptures with an independent
spirit, allowed the understtinding full liberty in his judgment of the creeds of
the Church, and in morality laid great stress on the right of a subjective con-
viction. He has aL^o pointed out with a judicious spirit the peculiarities of
antiquit}', and the style of sacred poetry which the received doctrines of the
Church must necessarily assume, that they may be accommodated to the ordi-
nary feelings of the Church. He did not fail also to show how real Chris-
tianity had proceeded in the form of the practical spirit uid life of the
a) LUtseiberger^ d. Orfinde d. frelw. Niederl. m. Ainte& N&rnb. 1888.— (ri«M, Bekenntnlaw einen
Freipew<ir(lnen. Altenb. 1846.
b) (C. Or&neL<ten) Die Oesangbucbsreform. (Stuttg.) 188&
e) POliU, Tzsch. Abri» k Lebens o. Wirkens. Lpti 1S28. J. D. (ToMAonn, Mltth. ft. Tneh. tetartrn
AmtA-und Leideiujfthren. Lpn. 1823.
550 MODERN CHUBOH BISTORT. PER. YL A. D. 1US-180&
Ohiirch without disturbance, through all the changes of human speculation, (d)
Above all, Sehleiermacher (1768-1 884) pointed out the various revolntioni
through which the age had passed, by proving to the self-complacent party
of the Enlightenment, to which he was always a match and sni>erior in
every thing which they regarded as supreme, that even on their own ground
and when every thing untenable had been boldly conceded, a life withoat
€rod and Christian communion was utterly unsatisfying. Having q>ent a
portion of his early life at Hermhut, piety toward the Redeemer, even in its
peculiar features, was the predominant trait of his cliaracter. He was, how-
ever, familiar not only with Plato but with Spinoza, and in the full conscious-
ness of his freedom, and with the highest esteem for genuine character
wherever he found it, his piety was exercised toward every thing in the uni-
verse. It did not, however, assume a Ohristian charact^ until his own eccle-
siastical relations were developed. Hence the fundamental principles of the
Reformed Church he drew fh)m the living fountain of universal Christian
feeling. This was an experience acquired in a domain inaccessible to philoeo-
phy. And yet he never surrendered his rights to exercise his analytical criti-
cism upon those enactments of the Church in which it had gone aside from
the truth, and even upon those portions of the sacred Scriptures which he
regarded as fallible. Those portions which were addressed to the feelings he
held under the most absolute control of the understanding. («)
§ 460. The Philosophy of the Absolute and its RamificatUnu.
In direct opposition to the philosophy of faith Fichte had exalted human
knowledge until it took the place of divine. When Schelling (b. 1775), start-
ing from this position, had construed nature as if it were a shadowy reflection
of the spirit, he became deeply interested in its actual living movements, and
as his highly gifted mind was engaged in the contemplation of them, he came
d) Idee (L d. Studlam d. Tbool. (ISOl) ed. by Stieren. Lp& 1850. Com. CL d. Psalmen. II<>ldIb
1811. 8 eiL 182». I^hrb. d. bebr. Jnd. ArchSol. Lps. (1814.) 1880. Ue. Rel. u. ThooL Bil (ISlSi) IML
Etnl in d. A. T. BrI. 1817. 4 ed 1 S:38. in d. N. T. Brl. 1828. 4 ed. 1842. Tbeodor. o. d Zweiflera Welb*.
BrL 1823. 8 ed. 1828. Lehrb. d. SittenL Brl 1888. Die H. S. iibersetzt. Ildlb. (IdOtfea.) 8 ed ISSdi.
8 ▼. Ezeg. Handb. z. N. T. 1880-48. Das Wesen d. chr. OL Baa. 184&— ActensanmiL o. d. Eatlati-
nng d. ProC de Wette v. tbeol. Loliratnt zu Berlin. Lpfl. 1820. F. Luckf, z. Erin, an de W. (Stod. «.
Krit 1850. n. 8.) [Unman Life or Practical Ethics. traiMl. bj & O*ffood, Boetoo, 1842. 2 v. 12. Theo-
dore, or tbe Slceptic's Conversion. Boston. 1841. 8 v. 12. iDtrod to tbe Oi T. tr. A oalaiged by Tknd,
Parker. Boston. 1848. 2 v. 8.]
«) (Vertr. Briefe &. d. Lucindc. 1800. first pabl in tbe Athenaenm with Yorr. by (rutcifcMr, Ilainb.
1885.) Ue. d. EeL Beden an d. Ocbiidcten nnter ibren Verfichtem. BrL 1799. 5 ed ISia MeoolayfB.
BrL 180a 6 ed 1848. Die Weihnacbtsfbier. BrL 1808. 8 ed. 1837. Ue d sogen 1 Br. an ThMtb. BrL
1807. Dartjit d theoL Stadinnis. BrL (ISll ) 1830. Der. cbr. QIaube. BrL (1821&>1S80& 2 ▼. Weikc
s. 1881. in 8 Abth. Brief w. m. J. Oass, ed. by W. Qass, 1852. Deutsche Zeltsdi. C chr. Wi»a 18S^
N. 61. SelbetMogr (in Ills 26th year) communicated by Lommatiscb. (Zeit^cb. f liist, TTi. ISM. H. 1.)
—Rtumffarten-Crtudus, fi. SohL Denkart u. Yerdienst Jen. 1884. L&clce Erhi. an SchL (Stud. u. Krit.
ls84. P. 4.) SchueiUer, SchL KigenthumL als. Prod UaL 1884 7%i>i, ScbL d Dam. d Idtv <». ^i«I.
Ganicn anstrebend BrL 188S. K Delbruck, ScbL Bonn. 1887. J. Schaller^ VorL (L SehL Ilal M«.
G. WeUuenborth, u. ScbL Dial. u. Dogm. llaL 1847. 2 vols. BUndcker, lu Ebren ScU. (Stod a.
Krit. 184a H. 1.) [Eng. translations of S. are : Crit Essay on Luke by a Thirhoiill, Lond lBi.\ H-
Introd to Plato's DialL by Dodson, Lond 1827. a Obsfli on Sabellill^ with notea^ by Ji. Si^'trt, m
Bib. Bepos. voL Y. p. 265i«. YJL lesi and OatUne of the Stody of TheoL with LOcko'a £4;mial^a•»cvs
of SchL by Farrar, Edinb. 1850. a]
CHAP. y. EYANO. CHUECU TILL 1861 %4Ba. 8CHELLINO. HEGEL. 551
to regard the whole hifitorj of the uniyerse as the process by which divinity
was developed in the parallel spheres of natare and of mind. In his subse-
quent researches after truth he viewed the world as an apostasy, and as-
suming that it was originally in op])osition to God, he explained its origin in
God, and its distinction from God. In the estimation of this philosophy re-
li^n is the immediate coming of the deity to self-consciousness, Christianity
divested of its scriptural simplicity is the turning point of human history, and
the system of faith which the Church has formed respecting revelation, the
Trinity, and reconciliation, is the explanation which it makes of the great
problem of the universe, and by which it expresses its presentiments with regard
to the final resalt. (a) Closely resembling Schelling in the reflective and tranquil
manner of his life, Ile(fel (1770-1831) assumed that the law of logic was the
law of the universe, according to which all opposites are elevated until they
beeome lost in a higher unity, — until, in fact, they become merely an idea,
which, that it may recognize itself as spirit, places the universe as an object-
ive reality apart from itself, and by constantly thus raising and separating
new oppoeitee which occur in the hbtory of the world, it reveals to itself its
own infinite abundance of life. In the view of this philosophy the popular
religions which have existed in the world have been the several points by
which the divine self-consciousness has developed itself. Christianity being
the religion in which the unity of the divine and the human is presented, con-
tains the ultimate point of all truth, but in the lower form of the idea, as it
rem^dns essentially to those who see things at the stand-point where God and
the world, tlte present and the future, remain in opposition, and general ever-
lasting truth is possessed only in the individual facts of Christianity, (b) The
personal influence and manner of Schelling after the briUiant period of his
residence at Jena, was powerful on society in the south of Germany ; while
Hegel, as a Prussian state philosopher, even when idealizing the actual world,
produced a profound impression upon the theology, principally of the north.
The Kationalists were astonished to find themselves assailed by opponents
quite eqaal to them, both in freethinking and in science, and who yet gave to
Christianity an historical importance and an ecclesiastical form far superior to
what they were willing to concede to it. They therefore accused their an-
tagonists of a pantheism which concealed its inconsistency with morality and
religion under the semblance of ecclesiastical orthodoxy. To this it was re-
plied, that Rationalism was a stage of improvement which had now, with
Kant, become utterly obsolete ; and that although it extolled reason as the
supreme law in matters of faith, it had never attempted in a scientific man-
ner, even in its most elaborate works, to inform men what reason is, and what
a) LIL In MicAelet, vol. II. p. 212!«. A esp. in Zeltschr. f. specnl. Phyrfk. 1801. vol XL P. 2. Me-
tbode d. ak«d. Stadiums. Tub 1S08. 2 e<l. 1818.— Phil. u. Eel. 18W. PhlL Schrr. Lamlsh. 1809. Denk-
Dud d. Bchr. v. d. gottllchen Dlngen. Tub. 1812. [3foreU, Hist. A crit View of Spec. Phil, in the
19th cent (New York. 15^8.) p. 48368. £|>iL of the H. of Phil. transL from the French, Sichy CS.
Henry, (New York, 1841. 2 v.) v. IL pt 1958.-*.]
h) Lit. in MicheUi, vol. IL p. 61lRa. Diffcreiiz d. Fictc«cben n. Scliell System!*. Jena. 1901.
PhMnomenologie d. QeisteA. Bamb. 1807. Encyklop. d. phil. Wii^ Hdlb. 1817. 8 ml 1S81. Vorlcsn 0.
4. PhiL d. BcL BrL (1882.) 1810. 2 v. Werke a. 1832. 17 vote. Jlo^enkraru, Uegers Leben. BrL 1844.
552 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. lM»-18BaL
is its province in roligioD. (e) After HegePs death his school became divided
into those who used an orthodox, and those who used a heterodox mode of
expression. The former class explained its theological views in the spirit of
its original master, (d) The latter contended that it was only giving greater
distinctness to the original sense of its master, in opposition to the ordinary
mode of representation, when it proclaimed that an everlasting life exalted
to the absolute idea is in fact the gospel of an everlasting death, that religion
when carried to its perfection by reason, is only a God worshipping himself,
and that a God-man is one who never had an existence as an individual upon
earth, (e) Thus, from the modern attempt to exalt the old orthodoxy, has
sprung up a severe struggle for the fundamental principles of Christiaaity,
and the Hegelians were accused by the friends of piety, of atheism, the anni-
hilation of the biblical history, the denial of immortality, and a hypocritical pro-
fession of Cliristianity. (/) They replied by reproaching their accusers with
a shallowness which could only think of God separate from the universe, a
selfishness which never disengages itself from its own little I, a hatred of all
philosophy, and an apostasy from Protestantism, (g) In some philosophic
researches under Hegel's direction, and to carry forward the system which
he had commenced, the proof of an immortality of individuals, and of a per-
sonal and if possible a triune God, was attempted on the basis of the idea of
personality, (k) Schelling^ himself, was called (1841) to the professorship left
by Hegel, that he might heal the wounds which had been inflicted by philoso-
phy there. lie despribed the logical structure by which his predecessor had
attempted to complete his system, as a mere episode of that system by a
later hand, and as a philosophy looking only at negative results, but without
power to escape from its ideal to the actual world. He therefore placed by
its side a system of positive philosophy, which, as an hypothesis respecting the
play of antemundane potences assuming in the actual world the form of trini-
tarian personalities, presented some hope of a complete union of science with
a future Johannic Church. But the age had no taste for this second part of
Faust. (0 The original moderate Hegelian school was represented by the
c) E. g. MarJieinekf, Dogmatlk. 2 ed. Vorrodo. Ilega, Phil. d. ReL 1882. v. IL p. S$l [Mordi,
(p. 456S8.) «& Ilftiry (ji. 20S*s.) as above.]
d) G. A. G'lftUr, de verse phil. crga rel. pietato. Ber. 1836. Goachel: derMonlsmas dMGedank-
ens. Zur. Apol. d. gegenw. Phil, am Orabe ihres Stiftera. Naomb. 1882. Die siebcnfalUge Ottar-
fhige. BrL 1836. [Motell, p. 47S«.]
e) Coinp. MicMK v. II. p. 637. Die dt Phil. 8. Hegcls Todo. (Die Oogenw. Lpa. 1851. voL VL
Ch. Buob, la Phil, de TAbsola en Alleinagne dans ses rapports avcc hi doctr. chret M<»itauban. 184i
[.VoreU, p. 480.]
/) If. Leo, di«) Hegelingen. Hal. (1S83.) 1839.— ^a/ini«, Rago n. HcgeL QnedL IdSS. Rheinv. Bepc
v. XXXI. p. 2Sa8.
0) A. Rugf, Prenssen u. A Reaction. Lpa. 1833. G. O. MarhacK Anfrnf an d- prot DentaebL
wider nnprot Umtriebc. Lps. 183Sa. 2 II. (A Bauer,) Die Posaane d. J&ngsten Gerichts iL IXcfeld.
Athei»tcn u. Anticbr. Lpa. 1841. C, Zachieeohe^ 0. d. Gott d. Prufl Leo a. d. Atheism. & Gegner. HiL
1839.
h) J. If. Fichte ' Beitrr. r CharacteriaUk d. neuem PhiL Sulzb. 1929. Ue. Oegena., Wedep. a.
ZieL d. Phil. Ildlb. 1632. Ue. d. Beding. e. apecnl. Theism. ElberC 1885. C. H. WeiitM .* Ue. d. g«-
genw. Staudp. d. phiL Wias. Lpa. 1829. Idee d. Ootth. Drad. 1888. OrundzOge d. Metaphja. Hmk
1885.
i) J. V. SeheUlng, Yorrede ca Coiuin, &. fir. & dontsohe Phil from the Frenoli hj Beckers, Stottf.
CHAP. v. EYANO. CUURCn TILL 185& § 490. BOSENKBANZ. STRAUSS. 553
noble individuality of Rosenhranz^ and sot np the motto that true reason must
lead to Christianity, that Christianity roust be reasonable, and that its found-
ers were the perfect individual realizations of the idea. {Jc) But when its
true principles were exposed, and the State whicli had once brought it into
notice had withdrawn its favor, it could no longer sustain itself against the
general neglect it received. Its essential principle, however, continued to
struggle in different departments of literature against the various prevalent
systems. Strauss (bom 1808) represented the gospels as a mass of fragments
composed by th^ primitive churches as the natural development of their own
views and feelings, and yet he looked upon Christ as the ideal genius of gen-
uine religion, and as the highest form in which religion has appeared. He
did not, however, conceal his conviction that a collision was inevitable be-
tween science and the popular systems of Christian theology, whose advocates
had raised the question whether he could consistently belong to the clerical
profession. Hence, when he was called to the theological faculty of Zurich,
the people rose np in behalf of the old system of faith, and the government
of the Canton, though willing to make concessions, was overthrown by a
committee on religious faith (Sept. 6, 1839). In this affair, however, religious
zeal was made in some degree subservient to political objects. (/) When
Bruno Bauer^ who had been thrown from one extreme of the Hegelian party
to the other, and proudly scofied at all theologians, analyzed the ditferent
gospels as mere works of art, originating in a purely literary way, and
taking their form and materials with various degrees of success and skill from
the prevalent views of the people long after the events of which they speak,
it was found that even the freedom of teaching allowed in a Protestant coun-
try could hardly tolerate the propagation of a doctrine which totally under-
mined the Church. A decided majority of the Protestant faculties of Prus-
sia whose opinions were asked was not obtained, but the civil authorities
formed their decision on the ground of the views then expressed, which were,
that the sentiments maintained in Bauer^s writings were inconsistent with
the position of a teacher of theology, (w) Indeed, his own advocates pro-
claimed that the new principle was atheistic and sans-culottic, and that phi-
losophy had given notice of its complete secession from the Church, (n) When
a professor of aesthetics acknowledged himself a Pantheist, and attempted
no concealment of his hatred for his opponents, the whole body of the clergy
1SS4 Schellinjr'* errte Vorles. in Berlin. Stuttg. 1841. Paulit^ dieendlfch offenbar puxronlene PhlL
d. OlTenb. (Sch. VorleAangen Im Winter 1841.) DarnisU 1843. Vorwort zu II. SteflTens nachgel, Schrr.
r. SchoIIlng. Brl. 1846.— JTarAWn^ifc^ z. Kritlk d. Sch. Offenbarunpphll. Brl. 1813. (Kupp.) F. W. J.
T. S^rh. v<»n e. vieljahr. Beobachter. Lp.s. 1943. Sch. u. die TheoL (with the Literatim') Brl. 1S45.
*) EncykL d. the«»I. Wi,-*. llaL (IS81.) 1845. KriL Erl iut d. Heg. Systems. Kunijwb. 184<>.
I) [//rtiw.] I-eben Jesu. p. a4. J). F. StrauM, FricdL Blatter. Altona 1839.— Awf**', Stranss u. d.
ZQrch Kirche, with a Vorr. by De Wetto. Ba*. 1839. A. Bodcn, Oesch. d. Beruf. d. Dr. Str. Frkt
IBVi. Der Kampf d. Princlpien Im K. Zurich. V. o. Augenxeugen. (Zeltsch. f. hist Th. HtO. II. 8.)
If. G^^Mtr, die Strauss. Zerw&rfhisM in Zur. llamb. 1848. [Strauss' Life of Jesus, ft-om the Qerm.
Lond. 1846. 8 vok 8. Letter to Hirzell, Ac Lond. 1844.]
m) [//tf*»,] Leben Jesn, p. 85. Bauer, die ev. Landeskirche Preoss. u. d. Wiss. Lp«. 1840.— Ou-
tecbten d. ev. theol. Faeultaten d. Preuaa. Univ. CL d. Licent B. Baaer. Brl. 1842. For Lit see Brun^
Bep. 1S4& vol II. p. 97sa.
n) Edgar Bauer, B. Baaer, u. a. Gegner. BrL 1842. Deutsche Jabrbb. 1842. N. 8s. Opitt, B.
Bauer n. b. G«gDer. BrsL 1846.
554 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 1648-18Sa.
in the country rose in opposition to the Anticbristianity of Tabingen, and the
government censured, but protected him by a sospeosion of two years, (o)
Lewis Feutrhach having pkced the old, genuine gospel, which had conquered
and despised the world, in direct contrast with the modem system of pro-
gress, declared Christianity a fixed idea, and all religion a dream, from which
when man iiwnkes ho finds only himself. Ilis baptism of cold water was not
unacceptable to such youth as had ])reviously fallen out with the notion of
the divine existence, {p) Near the close of the eighteenth century an enthih
siasm for the glorious life of the ancient Greeks reappeared aShong the poets.
The great (lerinan poet, who had been profoundly affected by the world^s
mighty convulsions, now proclaimed the new gospel of the rehabilitation of
the flesh in contrast with a Christianity which had been especially designed
for the spirit in its horror at a nature peopled with spectres, and which had
for 1800 years coa^led men in all their sorrows, {q) He was soon surrounded
by a literary circle belonging to a young Germany, which either wished to
remove the schism which Christianity had made known between God and
the world by means of Christ born on earth as the world^s legitimate child, (r)
or thought that men would have been happier had they been entirely ignorant
of God, and hence declared that the vicars of heaven were not needftd for
the most exhilarating enjoyments of existence. ($) This youthftd poetry was
destroyed as it were in a night, not by the police, but by the serious morality
of the German people. (Q The more talented among them directed their atten-
tion to a nobler intellectual chivalry, and though the poet who had led them,
after long keeping swine, like the prodigal son, among the Hegelians, returned
to his forsaken God, he never lost the inclination to Jest at holy and unholy
things, even on a hopeless sick bed. (u) But the poetry of a Pantheism which
leads men according to their moral dispositions to adore either the universe or
themselves, and sometimes to worship the Son of God as a son of the peoi^
has often, without being recognized in its true character, prevailed extensively
among the half-educated multitude, (p) But as Christianity had been accused,
in quarters where poetry had not joined in the reproach, of a secret worship
of Moloch, and of cannibalism as well as of other crimes, it was resolved that
in place of this barbarous and slavish religion a pure HumanUm should be set
up, as the autonomy of the spirit resting upon its own authority alone, a new
religion looking distinctly to earthly interests, or triumphing over all religion
o) F. Viwher^ akad. Redo z. Antrltto d. Ordioa^Ut«^ 21st Not. ISU. Tut. 1841 Lit ia BniUi
Rep. 1S45. vol. IV. p. 189»a.
p) Phil. u. Christenth. Mannli. 1839. Das We^en d. Cbristenth. Lps. (1341 -ISw) 1SI8. Yorltfli. fi.
d. We^en d. Rcl. Lps. 1S51.
q) JT. IMne^ Ge^ch. <L ncliooen Lit. in DcatschL Par. 1883. vol L p. 6w 83. 6ea. Zar Octeh. d. Bel
u. PhiL iSalon. Hamb. 1S85. vol. II.)
r) Th. MundU Madonna. Untcrhaltuncren in. o. Ileiligen. Lpa 1885^
«) CiUtkow, Vtirrede za Schleierm. Briefen u. d. Lncinde. Hamb. 1885w
t) (J. P. iMngf) V<^ d. Rehablliuition d. Fleischea. (Ev. K. Z. 1885i N. SSflik) ((?. &3kwMby)\dkom
CL d. junge D. Stiitts. 1S36. K. Hane^ d junge D. ParcbinL 1S8T.— AiuZim, d. Ilo^erlchU n Mau*
lieim motiv. ITrtlioil iL d. in d. Romane Waliy angckL PrDftvergehn. Udib. 1886.
u) IL Ihine, Kumanzoro. Ilamb. ]S«M.
«) L. Sch^ffr, Uii^nbre\ ier. Brl 5 ed. 1846. Das hobe Lied v. Titos Ulilch. Bri. 184&. F,9,Sa^
lei^ Laienevangeliiim. Lps. 1842.
CHAP. y. EVANO. CHURCH TILL 1808. f 451. OBTHODOX PIETISBL 555
80 a eonqnered territory, (w) A coarse political liberalism, from an extreme
hatred of the clergy rejected also the God whom they served, that it might
nave its own God of this world and of freedom, (x) This plan of a com-
plete ruptore with the whole historical development of past times, led the
nne^ucated classes to confound in one general mass their own wants and de-
sires with the dregs of philosophy. Boon God was annihilated and tlic peo-
ple were deified, patriotism was despised that all pions reverence might bo
obliterated with it, and Christ was made prominent only as his name could bo
used to sonctioxi democratic and revolutionary principles, (y)
§ 451. Orthodox Pietism and it^ Extremes,
The romantic poetry which prevailed in the beginning of the centur}- was
a shadowless picture of the piety of the middle ages. Notalis (v. Hiirden-
bnrg, 1772-1801) found a religion in poetry, wliich, having destroyed its own
I in its ardent longings over the grave of Protestantism, and over the ruius of
Rome, indulged in fond dreams of a new church of the all-pervading deity, (a)
The national feeling which had been awakened during the wars for freedom,
and, after the victory had been defrauded of its natural development, and re-
pressed until it became once more nothing but a pitiful Germanism, now
longed to recover the pious manners of earlier days. This longing still re-
mained, even when a portion of the youth had ceased to hope for any thing
from political agitations. A religious pleasure was derived from an investiga-
tion of the mysteries of nature, and of the spiritual world, and from an
effort to break through the limits prescribed for man. if) In connection with
such a disposition, the revolution which then took place in the religious life,
in accordance with the laws which regulate intellectual movements, called
forth an extreme reaction against the rationalism which prevailed even in the
third decennary of that century, and then against the philosophizing Anti-
christianity. By means of conventicles and tracts a zealous party was soon
formeil, and an energetic organ of communication with the public was estab-
lished in the Evangelical Church Journal (1827). (c) Its essential character
is pietistic, (c/) though it is more liberal and better accommodated to ordinary
«>) Daumtr: Die Gchcimn. d. chr. Altorth. Ilitnib. 1S47. Die Rel. d. nenen WelUltera. Ibid.
1850. 3 voK A. Ruge^ Gesomm. Schrr. Monb. 1S4C-3. 10 vula.
e) Rhelnwald R«p. 1831 vol. V. {>. TU
y) Xaos Stimer, d. Elnzlc^ a. b. El^ontb. Lp^ 1819. W. Jfan\ d. Junge Deatscbl. in d. Schweiz.
Lpa 19Mw «/. Frdbfl, Syvtera d. social. Politlk. Ziir. 1847.
<i) Scbrlften, ed. by Tleck A Schlegol, Br 1. 1804. 6 ed. 1887-40. 8 vols.
b) IMo Stjberln von Prevorst. Stuttg. (IS29.) 1888. 2 v. [Tbo Seereas of Prevoret, or Revelatt of
th(> *.nnoT life of man. New York. 183S. S.] Geschicbten Beacasener. Garlsr. 1834. Maglkoii, od. by
J. Kerner. Statte. 1840. 2 H.
c) />. SchiUz, d. Wesen u. Treiben d. Berl. ev. K. Zeltong. Biri. ISSSai 2 P. (On tbo otber aklc:
Die ev. Kircbe u. d. Conaiatorialrath 8cbulz. BrL 1S39.>— i/. Swald^ die Ungeacbicbtlichk. ev. Gelst-
Mciien. TQb. \^^>. L. B. K (unij;.) II. Uongstonb. Braanachw. 1845. Der Oeiat d. ev. K. Z. 2 ed. BrL
184& (On the otber aide: Die Partel d. Ev. K. Z. Yon e. Laien. Ev. K. Z. 1840. N. 158. 18a. SOaa.)
C Ztehieschf, d. Ev. K. Z. n. ihr Treiben. Lpa. 134&
d) BrfUehruUltr^ d. Grandlage d. ev. Piet Lpa. 1888. C JfdrlUiH, Dar^t u. KriUk d. mod. Pict.
Btnttf^ 1839. Comp. Vomer in d. Stud. n. Krit 184a P. 1. Lit. Survey : Bhelnwald, Bep. v. XXVIL
p. 4:^ l.'Maa.
556 MODEBN CHUBCH HI8T0BY. PER. YI. A. D. 164S-1868L
life than was the pietism of the eighteenth centary. It has also been more
disposed to enter into the toils and honors of secular life, and in various de-
grees it has become connected with the old Protestant orthodoxy, and as-
sumed its controversial character, (e) As to its religious elements it embraces
the greatest variety, from the genuine piety exhibited by Luther or Speper,
ftiU of a joyful faith in a God bom of the Virgin, down through the several
gradations of pure party zeal, pride, and mental imbecility, until we reach
the hypocrisy which uses the language of ardent piety to gain selfish ends, or
even to cover the most criminal designs. (/) Although the principal leaders,
whenever they expressed themselves in a literary style, committed serious
offences against the old Lutheran or Calvinistio theology, and when confessing
their sins adopted many rationalistic excrescences, (g) they regarded the theo-
logical views advanced in those systems as that by which alone men could bo
saved, and all other views of Christianity, except some fragments of truth
among the Catholics and Supernaturalists, as unchristian. It was on aooount
of this exclnsiveness that even such theologians as Neander felt compelled to
withdraw from their connection. They also erected a literary inquisition, the
object of which was at first disavowed, but was afterwards acknowledged to
be indispensable, and which, when it condemned individuals, clothed its veF-
dicts in the language of Christian intercession. (A) As a complete return to
the position of former orthodoxy was impossible, without denying the reality
of the secular progress which lay in the retrograde path, they pronounced all
these improvements heathenish, and with a puritanical and stupid assurance
they condemned every cheerftil expression of genius, (i) and sighed over the
whole development of the Church as an apostasy. From an extreme dread
of the revolutionary spirit of the times, those especially who belonged to the
higher classes now turned to every thing old, even in matters of faith. The
Church Journal reproached an honorable clergy, anxious for their inherited
rights and for their country, with being favorable to a perjured insurrection,
and in the style of von Ilaller (k\ by means of a patriarchal theory of state,
advocated the absolute divine right of rulers, and yet announced the ove^
throw of a government favorable to rationalism by a popular insurrection, as
a victory for the cause of God. (Z) Journals of the same complexion, also, in
France and North America, were in the habit of using the boldest democratio
forms of language in the style of the old Puritans, (w) In Grerman countries
divines of a liberal culture gradually died, almost every professorship and
ecclesiastical ofiice of an exalted influence was filled by persons favorable to
the new orthodoxy, and those inclined to free researches were intimidated
from pursuing theological studies by the hopelessness of all such efibrts. A
f) E. g. Rdhr, Prod. BIbL 1831. P. 6. NotizenbL N. 6.
/) PwK>ft In Schulz, I. p. 11. 17. 85«s. ff) Jbid, II, 184m.
h) Ev. K. Z. 1880. N. 109S. 1831. N. 6788L 938& Conip. Af. {7dM, knrze aber notbw. Brin. ft. dLiI*
den d. jungen Werther. lUmb. 1T75.
€) Ev. K. Z. 1S50. N. 24 25. 44 46. 1851. N. li.—J. 0. K. ffqfinann, die sehleswig-bolst Oebtliet
u. d. ev. K. Z. Erl. 1350.
*) Ev. K, Z. 1881. N, 18m. 80s. 105. 183a N. 81. On the other ride : A. K. Zu 1888. N. 1b& &*«^
I. p. 70»^ II. p. 41a8. A. Widmann, poHt Bedenken wider d. Ev. K. Z. Potsd. 184«.
0 f 450. nt *.) m) Ev. K. Z. 1830. N. 86. 1881. N. 18a. 80. Sli. 1888. N. 48. 69.
CHAP. Y. EVANQ. CHURCH TILL 1S58. 1 451. 8EPABATI6M. BAPP. 557
•
younger dorgy was therefore raised np, inclined to the new party, and ani-
mated by the energy of a principle newly asserted, but derived from great
examples in former times. The artificial work of sustaining this party de-
volved in Germany upon those established churches which were under Oath-
olic guardianship, and after the suppression of the revolutionary movements
of 1848, it became a principle for the administration of government. The
Evangelical Church Journal then contended bravely against the storm,
with only trifling concessions, and the few clergymen who became excited
by the popular movements acknowledged that the}' wore not sustained by
their congregations. It is not probable, nor, if we look at the whole process
of German culture, is it credible, that the mass or the true nobility of
the German nation will renounce all that it has inherited from the last cen-
tury, and become converts to this precise form of theological doctrine which
has always become most prominent when its political objects were most im-
deniable, {n) and which has in public life violated all obligatione and truth.
Still, with all the disturbance which this party has often caused in the affairs
of various congregations, and the many troubles or extravagances which it
has produced in individuals, until in some cases they have been driven to
madness, it has been the means of accomplishing much good. It has soft-
ened many obstinate dispositions, and had an important influence in the de-
velopment of the Church. It has strengthened the confidence of the Church
in her possession of a form which is primitive and divine, brought to light
the defective nature of modern Superuaturalism, introduced new investiga-
tions of subjects Avhich would otherwise have been too hastily given up,
denounced many an exhibition of a narrow superficial spirit which obtained
favor under the garb of reason, and by way of warning has shown what
must be the result of a zeal for the mere externals of a system which has now
passed away. Only a few isolated instances occur, in which this pietistic
spirit could not find satisfaction in the ordinary ecclesiastical connections, or
has assumed any extraordinary appearances. Among the Suabian tribes these
excited persons seized upon some peculiar sentiment of some eminent eccle-
siastical teacher, or induced some individuals to become their advocates
among the people. Their disposition was in some instances melancholy, and
in others cheerful. Although in this region also the clergy generally adhered
to ancient usages, many innovations had been made in their mode of instruc-
tion, in the liturgy, and in the hymn-book. The opposition therefore be-
came distinctly organized, and a few Separatists refused to perform their
ordinary ecclesiastical, and even their civil duties. Punishments and force,
in some instances carried so far as to take persons by violence to the Church,
were of course in vain. The civil authorities in Wurtemherg finally permit-
ted those who were discontented to assemble in a congregation at KorntJial
(1818), with a peculiar ecclesiastical and civil constitution conformed as near
as possible to the type of the apostolic Church, but under the inspection of
the civil authorities, (p) Others wandered away (after 1805) to North
«i) £. g. Cotnp. A. K. Z. 1861. N. b&
o) Archiv f. KG. vol IV. p. 4S»e». & C. Kaj^^ d. Wurtcmb. Brudergcmeinden In Kornth. n.
Wilhelmadorl Stuttg. 1889. BrL A. K. Z. 1346. N. 82.
558 MODEBN CHURCH HISTOBT. PER. TL A. D. 164S-180iL
America, where, under the name of Harmonisfs, they formed a oommnnity
near Pittsburg, in which the peasant Rapp (d. 1847) exercised a patriarchal
authority. As the society professed to hold their property in common, the
whole direction of it was committed to him. Even marriages could not be
formed without his consent. ( jf) The peace of the original congregation was dis-
turbed (1881) by Bemhard Moller (Prolf)^ who had formerly lived in splendor at
Offenbach, had predicted a spiritual universal monarchy, and when threatened
with a legal investigation, had gone to America. There he had been received
by Rapp as a prophet, and promised the younger members of the association
with a true community of goods and liberty of marriage. Rapp was obliged
to purchase a separation for a large sum, with which Proli laid the foundation
of his New Jerusalem, and then called upon all believers to hasten thither to
escape the vials of divine wrath. But when the money was all spent, this
vicegerent of God announced that each one might escape as he could (1888). (q)
Edward Irriug (1792-1884) was a Presb3rterian preacher in the Caledonian
chapel in London^ with a powerful fancy and a wild antiquated style of lan-
guage, with some resemblance to that of the ancient prophets, as well as to
that of Byron and SUakspeare. He soon became the favorite preacher of the
higher classes, for he contended against the wisdom of the age, which he sud
was elevating the fallen archangel Liberalism above Christ the morning star.
When his mind became absorbed in the doctrine that the Son of Crod assumed
our sinful nature, although without detriment to his holiness, the &shionable
world began to forsake him. His extreme longing and praying for the spirit-
ual gifts Avhich had been afforded to the apostolic Church, as the signs of the
approaching kingdom of Christ, seemed at last to call them forth. As in for-
mer days at Corinth, individuals spoke with tongues, in unintelligible expres-
sions (»f a religions ecstasy mingled with exclamations, which generally closed
with prophecies (1831). The Scotch Presbytery excluded him from the Cale-
donian chapel on account of these disturbances of public worship (1882), and
by a decision of the General Assembly he was deposed from the ministry for
doctrinal errors. He now established a church of his own, (r) but in conse-
quence of a new outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and a re-establishment of all
those ecclesiastical offices which were instituted in the apostolic age, this
soon denied its original founders, and arranged itself under twelve apostles
and an order of prophets. This constitution was established not merely for
the present, but for all future times, and the body thus constitnted claimed to be
the true Church delivered from its past corruptions, and adorned for the second
advent of its Lord. In England this movement met with but little soocea,
but in Geneva a class of persons inclined to such extravagances became dis-
turbed by it, and an accomplished orator connected with the German ortho-
p) A. K. 2:. 1882. N. 9. 1828. N. 87. J. Wagner^ Oesch. d. narmonlegMensch. Watbincen 1881
D. A. Z. 1847. N. 251. 286. BrL K. Z. 1850. N. 49.
9) A. K Z. 1882. N. 6& 188^ N. 186. Der Wandemuuiii d 19. Jhh. ftx>m tb« EngL of Ki«ide-
burg. II»n. l$.3a. C. v. Bannhorst^ Scliildernng d. Abentlieurera ProlL Frk£ 18&4. [Wins^rmntr't
Kel. Denoinlnations In the U. 8. (Harrlsburg, 1S49.) p. 9.]
r) .}f. Ilohl, Bruchst a. d. Lebcn a. Schrr. Irv. 8. 0«1L 1889. Et. KZ. 1889. N. SSm 97«. empi
1697. N. 54811. AcU hist ccc 1887. p. 798s8. {Jonu^ Biog. Sketch and Bennon of Ed. bv. Lond.
1885.8.]
CHAP. V. SVANO. CHURCH TILL 1861. §451. IRVINGITEB. WILDENSPUCH. 559
doz and pietistic school embraced its principlee. (») Attaching themselves -to
this school, the angels and vice-angels of the new Church founded a few
chapels in Northern Germany, with a great display of primitive forms. (One
of tJieee established in Berlin was closed in 1851.) Their followers, however,
never hesitated to receive the sacrament in the established churches, on the
ground that their general Church was to be gathered fVoin all existing
sects. (0 On the other hand, those appeals which were sometimes hoard in
« few Swedish parishes (1841-43) among the young people of both sexes, and
even among children, were only simple and often affecting calls to repent-
ance, pathetically spoken or sung in the Scriptural language of the Chorch.
Those who were about to utter them were at first seized with a violent pain
in their heads and hearts, accompanied with an extreme agony on account
of sin, and others were affected in a similar way by imitation and communi-
cation with each other. But with the exception of some who counterfeited
these things by imitation, the speaking was generally involuntary, and the
speakers were unconscious of what they uttered, in the midst of convulsions,
huntings, and visions. The country-people were much edified by such scenes,
and took offence at what they regarded as attempts to drive away the Holy
Ghost (Joel 8, Is) by medicines for the body, (u) Although in other places
a love of sin was sometimes concealed under the profession of extraordinary
degrees of grace, (r) there are no instances of positive, sanguinary or lascivi-
ous excesses, except where the authors of them passed from this general class
into other sects. Margaretta Peter^ the daughter of a peasant in Wildeni-
ptichy of the canton of Zurich, became powerfully excited by her intercourse
with persons professedly awakened, and by tracts of an enthusiastic charac-
ter, till, in her anxiety for the spiritual salvation of the world, she looked
forward to the occurrence of extraordinary events. Her intellectual energy
and decision of character induced many pious persons of the surrounding
country to honor her as a saint, and even the consequences of a night spent
in adultery did not destroy her confidence in herself. This feeling of her
own importance induced her with her followers to contend with Satan, by
means of carnal weapons, to have her own believing sister slain, and with
wonderful heroism to have herself crucified, according to what she deemed a
divine command, that she might save thousands of souls by the sacrifice of
Christ once more in her person (1828). (?f) It was rumored in Konigsburg
that two clergymen, who professed the exclusive kind of Christianity, had
introduced shameless mysteries into a pietistic circle. The legal investigation,
which was attended with great difficulties on account of the distinguished
persons accused (after 1835), brought nothing to light, except that sensual
•) ThUrtcK, Yorlesa. CL Kath. u. Prot 1S4& 2 Abtli. [Kling, Thiersch. (Stod. ii. Krit 1&49. If.
1.) O. ReicK, d. Irvlnglsm. u. a. ro). Charakter. (Ibid. p. 19dss.) Ev. K. Z. Dec. 18(7. and Jan. 1843.]
0 Ue. d. Rathscbhira. Gottea m. d. Erde. Schaffh. FrkC 1846«. 2 vol& J. Hooper, d. Entruekang
n. YermandL d. lebonden Heillgen. BrI. 1947. Acten«tucke d. Minist d. geistl Angcleg. Brl. 1850. p.
Mmw— Tboluck'a Lit Anz. 184& N. 81. Brl. K. Z. 1849. N. 88. 7& 1850. N. 18.
tt) Dl« PredigtKrankh. (with the Liter, in Bruns. Rep. 1845w vol IIL pi 170. 270a8.) £▼. K. Z.
VMIL N. Mn Cr. 1846. N. 19s8. Brl. K. Z. 1847. N. 18a.
«) Bhelnir. Rep. 1885. vol X. p. 49.
ui) J. L. Meyer^ schwinn. Oreaetooeneii in Wlldensp. Zur. 2 ed. 1824. A. K. Z. 1828. N. 2S. 418l
IML St. K. Z. 1881. N. 26m.
560 MODEBN CHURCH HI8T0BY. P£K TL A. D. 1648-1386.
passions bad been excited under the forms of devotion, in order to regain the
innocence of the original Paradise. It also appeared that the preacher Ebel
(b. 1784), as the highly privileged chief nature, had exercised a despotic
control over the consciences of the others, and tliat the fundamental princi-
ple of their faith was a philosophic fancy produced by a pious but eccentric
being named Schoenherr (1771-1820), respecting the origin of the universe
from the mingling of two primordial beings of a spiritual and sensuous na-
ture as Eloahs. (j) In Saxony^ was Stephen (1777-1846), the pastor of a
Bohemian church in Dresden, a stranger and an enemy to the polite litera-
ture of the age, but familiar with the Scriptures and the old Church of
Luther, who knew well how to excite ordinary minds by his simple and im-
pressive eloquence, and to rule them with keen intelligence and firm decision.
He became a centre for pietistio Lutherauism, at that time new in this region,
but propagated there by means of young clergymen and foreigners. Wherever
it prevailed, every natural bond was relaxed for its exclusive interest. When
the government (after 1830) ceased to favor this class of persons, and Ste-
phen found himself threatened with prosecution, professing to speak by divine
direction, he commanded his followers to leave the country, as they oould not
there maintain the Lutheran faith in its purity, nor transmit it to theur pos-
terity. Most of the clergymen who had been connected with his society now
renounced his doctrines, on the ground that they were identical with ancient
Donatism, and enjoined a flying from the cross. Others followed Stephen
with about six hundred members of their congregations, in the autumn of
1838, from what they considered as the land of Egypt to North America.
When he had, as their bishop, established a system of unlimited despotism
both in spiritual and secular atl'airs, he too soon gave a loose rein to his licen-
tious passions. No sooner was his scandalous conduct made known by means
of women who had fallen or been abused by him, than his government was
at an end. After his deposition and expulsion (May, 1839), the clergy at-
tempted to seize the reins of power, but the ideal of a Wittenberg on the Mis-
sissippi had become nearly effaced from their minds, and the better dasa, on
witnessing Stephen's fall, became conscious of their ovm guilt. They firmly
adhered to Lutheranism as the only true form of Christianity, and, after a
long period of distraction, those who survived formed a general connection
by a synod, but maintained a bitter controversy with those clergymen who
were exiles for the same faith, (y)
§ 452. Undecided Co jit rovers ies leticeen Old and New Protestantism,
The controversy which had previously been maintained principally on
scientific principles, and with an acknowledgment of a conmnon Christian
ground between Rationalism and Supematuralism, was now so far changed
cr) A. K. Z. 1835. N. 177. Ev. K. Z. 183ft. N. 10. (^4. F. r. WeffMm) ZuverL Mltth. 0. Schanb.
Lcbcn u. Ttiea'*. sowie u. d. eccUr. Umtxiebe zu Konlgsb. (Zciisch. t hist Th. 18S&, P. 2.) Kogsbi
1839.
3^) L, r. LutkemvUer^ Lehrcn u. Umtrlebe d. Stepbanisten AltcDl>. 1S88. O. PUistner^ dio FnMti-
ker iui Muldenthalc AIt«nb. 1839. /^ i^t«cA4*r, d. falscbe M&rtyrertb. LpA. 1880. («. iV><«iM) IM» d£
Meinang u. Slopb. Ibid. 1840. C. E. Vehse^ d. StephanBche AiuwuideruDg. Drsd. 1840. Bii K.
Z. 1811. N. 7. 83. 86. 1845. X. 85. Uaue, meissn. KGeecb. Lps. 1847. vol. IL pi 881 410ia.
CHAP. y. EYANO. CHURCH TILL 1858. i4Si, HARMd. CLAUSEN. 561
that it was carried on among the common people, and was a contest for the
very existence of the Church. It was also so arranged, that on one side were
involved many principles of Christian freedom, and on the other those of •
ecclesiastical piety. Many irrelevant matters were introduced into the de-
hate. The Church party brought forth a murderer, who confessed that his
rationalism had been the occasion of his crime ; and on the other hand, it
was obliged to hear its religious conversions ridiculed, and to see many pain-
ful things in the domestic life of its members held up to public gaze, (a) The
rnic ground of the contention, however, was the revolution taking place in
public feeling. Even a liberal-minded statesman expressed a wish ^^ that
about a dozen Rationalists might be placed extra ttatum nocemUy (h) On
the part of the Rationalists, a new symbol had been brought forward, which
the orthodox declared to be inconsistent with a standing in the Church, (c)
1. Clans Harms of Kiel (b. 1778), an imaginative, popular preacher of the
old coclesiastical school of piety, and endowed with a remarkable facility of
expression, (d) celebrated the Jubilee of the Reformation by propounding
ninety-five new theses, in which the doctrines of the total depravity of man
and the indispensable necessity of faith were maintained in opposition to the
unbelief and rationalism of the age. The various forms in which these were
opposed, revealed how utterly foreign this system of faith was to the temper
of the age, and how far even those who at first seemed pleased with this
attack upon the contemporary spirit had embraced Pelagian sentiments, and
were estranged from the doctrines of Luther. The power of the orthodox
party became gradually established in Holstein, and its adherents found con-
solation in the Oath of 17G4, which avowed a strict adherence to the original
Confession of Augsburg, while the more liberal interpreters of the Scriptures
appealed to the Agenda of 1797, and a series of legal enactments put forth
since that time in the same spirit, (e) 2. In Denmark^ the new Theology
had been quietly propagated, when Prof. Clausen^ in a clear and learned
work upon the conflicting opinions prevailing in the churches, pointed out
the spirit of Protestantism as the proper independent development of the
religions spirit. (/) On the other hand, Grundtvig, a man of a poetical tem-
perament, well versed in the ancient history of his country, violent and yet
liberal in his disposition, in the name of the Church protested against the
positions token in that work, and maintained that Clausen had placed himself
at the head of all those who were hostile to the word of God, and that his
Protestant Church was merely a self-constructed castle of pleasure, and a
temple of idols. When he was brought before the civil courts to answer for
tliese assertions, he resigned his pastoral otfice, and was condemned for libel
a) A. K. Z. 1823. Lit BI. N. 77. Ev. K. Z. 1830. N. 100. 4a (B«richt CL d. Umtriebe d. Fromm-
ler. io Halle. Altenb. 1880.)
b) Freih. ▼. Slain an Oagern. Stuttg. 1S83. p. 804. 815. 846.
e) Bdhr, Orund- a. Olaobcns-SuUe d. ev. prot K. Neost (1882.) 8 ed. 1848.
d) Stad. a. Krit 1S88: P. 8. K. l/arm§, Lebensbesclir. v. ihm aelhet. KieU 1851.
4) SckrddUr, Archiv d. Ilarmsclion Thc«en. Alton. 181& £v. K Z. 1829. N. 59. 8088.— /te«A<Mr
K. Q. Schnlbbtt a. 1844. Norddeutsche Monatsscbr. zur FOrder. d. fVoien Protestant sl 1845. Comiii
Reri. K. Z. lS4e. N. loa Ev. K. Z. 1S4& N. 22.
/) Kathollclsm. og Protest KirkcforfenlDg, Lare og Bitna. KJobenh. 1825. 8 vols. aben. r. JWet,
StxuL 1898«. 8 Tola
86
562 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 164»-165a
(1826). The orientalist Lindherg accused Clausen of the violation of his
ordination vows, and held every person responsible for the consequences
" who were witnesses of the corrupting influence, without opposition to it."
For this he was accused of an attempt to excite discontent against the gov-
ernment, but Avas acquitted in the courts of justice (1880). Although this
party obtained but little public favor, it was much promoted by the holding
of conventicles, and at last Grundtvig received permission to hold ser-
vices for divine worship (1832). A leader of the opposition in the Diet then
endeavored by some liberal means to get the control of this church of the
people for himself alone, and vented his rage against every thing of German
origin, {g) 8. In an academic disputation at Leijmc, it was asserted that the
Rationalists were actually dismissed from the Church. This assertion was
afterwards modified, and it was said that they were bound in conscience
voluntarily to leave the Church, but in the replies it called forth, even thb
was shown to bo inconsistent with Protestantism and with Christianity
itself, (h) But the object of its authors was more perfectly discovered by
an article in the Evangelical Church Journal, in which Gesenins, the distin-
guished founder of the modern school of oriental literature in Germany, and
Wegscheider, wore denounced for ridiculing Christianity, and for perverting
the minds of the youth. Though this article was evidently designed to
induce the civil authorities to interfere in the cose, nothing but an admoni-
tion addressed to public teachers in general was ever put forth from that
quarter, and not only the assailed professors, but the most highly esteemed
writers and speakers in behalf of nearly the whole body of Protestant
divines, protested against such a turn of the controversy, and advocated the
freedom of scientific discussion. On the part of those who had raised the
complaint, it was said that the freedom of instruction claimed was nothing
but oppression, when its bearing upon the congregations was regarded, and
that the Church could not endure that its future pastors should be taught the
very reverse of what they were afterwards bound to preach. (/) 4. In Ifenf^
Cassel^ the orthodox party lost its political support when the ministry of
Hassonpflug was overthrown. When the government, in concert with the
consistories, imposed upon ministers about to be settled the obligation to con-
form themselves to the Scriptures, " with a conscientious regard to the au-
thorized standards of faith "(1838), a learned and practical jurist came for-
ward at the bead of a party, demanding the very reverse. To save the unity
and even the legal existence of the Evangelical Church, which he believed
would be endangered by an arbitrary change in the existing law, Bickell de-
manded that an authentic interpretation should be given, according to which
g) Ev. K- Z. 1827. N. 51a. 1828. N. 55a. 1880. N. 978a. 104. 1881. N. 69aa. 1882. N. 49». A. K. l>
1828. N. 193. 1830. N 49. 1S81. N. 428s. 1882. Lit Bl. N. 101. 1884. N. 111. Stnd. u. Krit 1S84 P. 4
^ 995S9. Rudelhach in d. Zeitsch. f. luth. Thcol. 1841. P. 1.— BrL K. Z. 184S. N. 6a
ti) Ifahn : de rationaHsml vera indole. Lps. 1827. And. ev. K. zunichst In Prennen xl Saobarn. Lpft>
1827. ( V^olkmann) Der Rationalist kein ev. Christ L. 1S2S.— (/Aim) Die Leipz. DispaUtlon. I4& ISJT.
K'nig, phil. Gntnchten in Sachsen d. Rat n. Sapern. Lps. 1827. (CUttt^n) Llcht o. Schaften. L|* IW'-
I) Ev. K. Z. 1830. N. 6s. 15. 18s. 84. 54s. 59. 69. 8488. 948. A. K. Z. 1881. N. 9. VoU by Bret-
Schneider, Neander, Ullmann, Schott, B. Crasiiia, Schnltz, Culln. Q. a. On theotfaer ^e: Budd-
bach^ d. Wescn d. Rational Lpo. 1880.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1858L 1 4S2. ALTENBUBO. HAMBURG. 563
the authorized confessions should be acknowledged to be in substance the
standard of doctrine. HenJcel declared that the Avgustana was as anthorita-
tive as the Carolina^ and appealed to an assembly of his fellow-citizens (Ang.
14, 1839), which presented a petition to the electoral princes, praying for
some explanation which should tranquillize the public mind, and for the con-
vocation of a general synod. By these means they hoped that all authoritative
creeds might be abolished, that the doctrines preached by the clergy might
be made negatively dependent upon the will of their congregations, and that
all parochial compulsion in these matters might be taken away. But not
only the views of the government, but the sentiments of the people were
opposed to both these demande. When Hassenpflug undertook the re-estab-
lishment of Old Hessia (1850), the ancient form of oath was introduced, and
every thing received the precise ecclesiastical coloring of the old Covenant
of Fidelity (Treubunds-Farbung). {k) 5. In Saxe Altenhurg^ a Consistorial
rescript was addressed (Nov. 13, 1888) to the Ephori of Ronnebnrg, in which
the emigration under Stephen was traced to the dissatisfaction produced by
an unauthorized mode of performing parochial duties, and the preachers were
admonished to instruct their people in the essential and fundamental doc-
trines of Christianity. The explanation of this document by persons from
without, provoked the patriotic spirits of a few clergymen to a lively oppo-
sition. The opinions of four theological faculties were solicited by the gov-
ernment, with regard to the conduct of the consistory and its opponents.
The only reply favorable to a rigidly orthodox sense was sent by the faculty
of Beriin, and even that body was by no means unanimous. As these opin-
ions were published with a noble confidence by the government, and every
attempt at legal proceedings on the subject was suppressed, the minds of the
people were tranquillized. (0 6. In Hamburg^ an excitement was created by
an attack by sbme Pietists in a literary publication upon what was called the
pretended Christian life of the multitude, and upon Rationalism, which was
denominated a snake in the house of the Lord (1839). When two candidates
presented themselves, and an opportunity was thus given for an attack, the
party favorable to the old faith used all the means which could be employed
in a free state to piocure their rejection, on the ground that they had vio-
lated their oaths. But when they declared that they would, as hitherto, con-
form according to their conscientious convictions to the Bible and the Cate-
chism, both the ecclesiastical and civil authorities were satisfied, since it
could not be denied that the usage of a half century was in opposition to the
legal authority of the symbolical books. One pietistic candidSite was sus-
pended until he should pledge himself to observe in future the respect due to
the ecclesiastical ministry, and which had been disregarded in the course of
t) J. W. Blekdl, Q. d. Yerpflicht d. Gebtl. k. d. symb. Bchrr. Cam. (IS39.) 1340. On the other
Aide: K. T. Buyrhofferin 2 krit Belenchtangen. Lp& 1889. F. IT. Meurer, e. Wort Q. LehrfreUi.
in d. ev. K. Cass. 1839.— W. Viimar, d. Kurhesa. K. Kasa. 1845. W. MUntcher, Gesch. d. faesn. T«f*
K. CasA. ISSO. Brl K. Z. 1851. N. 47.
I) Berl K. Z. 1889. N. la. 81. C. W, KldtMner, z. Ehrcnrettnng e. veranglimpften chrlBtL GL
a. Predi^weise. Lps. 1839. J. Schxideroff, an den H. Dr. Ilt^sekiel In Altenb. Lpa. 1889. Bedenkea
d. theoL Fmc. Jena, Berl. Otitt a. Ueidelb. Nebat Actenst&cken. Altenb. 1889. PaxUiu^ Motlv. 6iit>
ftchten. Maimh. 1839. a UUmcmn^ d. Alteak Angelegenh. (Stad. a. Krlt 18Mi P. %.)
564 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 164S-1868.
this controversy, (m) On the other hand, in Bremen^ when the yonnger
Krummacher, in the fervency of his zeal against those whom he called the
priests of Baal, pronounced the apostle's cnrse (Gal. 1, 8) npon the whole
antichristian spirit of the age, although the liberal Protestantism rigidly
secured its rights against a new priestly and Jewish system, the m^ority of
the clergy in the city and country, to distinguish themselves from such as
tliey regarded as unbelievers in Christianity, formed an orthodox confession
(1840). {it) When the Reformed congregation at Liebfrauen, during the
spring- tide of popular feeling in 1848, and in a popular election without the
ordinary established forms, called Dulon of Magdeburg to become its pastor,
and when he was installed without pledging himself to any creed, the char-
acter of the candidate (o) and the object of the congregation could no longer
be concealed. The old priest-church was derided as a corpse, from whose
grave alone new life could be expected, and the faith of their forefathers wad
estimated only in the light of circumstances tlie reverse of what originally
existed. A small amount of intelligence, and a popular style of eloquence,
were sufficient to enable such a man to become a religious demagogue, who
professed to preach a Christianity which knew no vulgar class, and whoso
apotheosis he completed, and whose holiest service he performed, when he
endeavored to inspire men with a burning hatred to despotism, and to enlist
them in an enthusiastic struggle for a free state, a secular redemption, in
which every enjoyment of life might be shared by all. {p) An accusation
was preferred against him (April, 1851) by twenty-three members of his con-
gregation, who demanded that the Church should be protected against him
as an enemy to Christianity. Dulon denied that the Senate, which in similar
circumstances (1845) had decided that a preacher should never venture in
his public instructions beyond the degree of intelligence which prevailed
among his people, had any right to interfere in theological controversies. He
alleged that, according to the Constitution of 1849, and the laws of the Re-
formed Church, in which no obligation to a particular creed was required, t
pastor was responsible only to his congregation, and that the great m^oritj
of his people were opposed to the accusation, {q) The Senate applied to tbe
theological faculty of Heidelberg for an opinion upon the case, and when this
sustained the accusation, (r) Dulon was deposed (April, 1852), on the groond
m) Rheinw. Rep. vol XXVII. p. 286fl& XXXY. ISSes. Et. K. Z. 1839. N. 686i S7. 134a N. 14&
51& A. K. Z. 1S40. p. 66. M. U. IluflttcaUksr, Protest in VermnlaasaDg d. neaesten kirchL EreigiL
in Hamb. Umb, 1839. // SchMden, d. prot K. n. d. eymb. B. zunicbst in Bez. a. If amb. Hmb. ISHX
n) Berl K. Z. 1S40. N. 76. 82. 85. 91. F. W. KrummacKer : Paalas kein Mann naeh d. SinM
anserer ZeiL S ed. Brem. 1840. TheoL Eeplik an PanieL Elbif 18401 Dor ScbeinbeiL Ratiooalim.
vor d. Richterstahle d H. 8. Ibid. 1841. J, GUdemeUUr^ Blendwerke d. volgaren RattonaL i. Be-
•citignng d. Paul Anathema. BerL 184L— /*. IT. PanUl: 8 Sootagspr. S ed. Bert lS4a * Ubtct*
holene Benrth. d. sogon. tbeoL Replik. BerL l&4a W. JS, Weher, die Yerflocbangiea. S ed. BerL
1840. Bremisches Magazin £ ev. Wahrh. v. Paniel, Rothe, Weber. 184188. 8 P.— BekenntoiaB Brem.
Paatoren in Sacbsen d. Wahrh. BerL 184a Rbeinw. Rep. toL XLIL p. 97. MaOtt, ftkr Stepbaai
Gemeinde. Br. 1860.
o) R. Dulon, d. Gel tang d. Bekenntnisschr. in d. re£ K. Magdeb. 1847.
p) Yom Kampfe d. Vulkerfireih. e. Lebrb. flirsdeutBche Yolk. Br. 1849& 2 H. 6 ed. 185L Die re£
K, n. Mallet a. Ich. Br. (ISSa) 1S51. Der Wecker, ein 8onntagsbL & Sept 185a
q) BrL KZ. 1850. N. 81 45. 59.
r) Gatacbten d. theoL Fak. d. UniT. Heidelb. 0. Dulon. with PraeC by BchankaL Heidclbi 189i
the other aide: Dvlon^ d. Gatacbten d. Tlor. beid. Theologw. Br. V«(k
CHAP. V. EVANO. CHURCH TILL 185a $458. DULON. 81NTENIS. 565
that his course led to agitation, and was dangerous to public safety, and he
was forbidden the performance of any duties as a preacher or an instructor
within the bounds of the republic. (*) Even if this proceeding be regarded
as of questionable propriety according to the legal ordinances then in
force, (0 it was certainly the natural result of the revolution which had then
taken place in public affairs. 7. In Magdeburg^ when a work of art was ex-
hibited, Sintenis^ the pastor of the Church of the Holy Ghost, maintained in
a public journal that the worship of Christ was a superstition not taught in
the gospels (1810). This was generally regarded as a gross impropriety, but
a few distinguished persons in their zeal denounced it in the pulpit as a trea-
son against the CJjurch. When the consistory required that Sintenis should
acknowledge his views to be inconsistent with his office in the Church, and
promise that he would in future preach nothing which should not, as far as
he could ascertain from the authorized creeds, be consistent Avith the doc-
trines of the Bible, under penalty of a suspension from his office, the city
thought that Protestant freedom of instruction was impaired, and that the
whole was intended to place exclusive {)Owcr in the hands of the pietistic
party. The ecclesiastical superintendents and the magistrates therefore
brought a complaint against the consistor}' before the Bureau of Public Wor-
aliip, on the ground that it had treated human enactments as if they were of
equal authority with the sacred Scriptures, and that consequently the Pro-
testantism of Magdeburg, once so dearly purchased, was in peril. But when
this department censored the conduct of Sintenis as a pastoral indiscretion,
and admonished those who were zealous for orthodoxy to abstain from every
thing inconsistent with existing rules, the excitement was allayed, (u) — In
all part« of Germany it was only needful that some inflammatory word
should be uttered to produce a local explosion. The old Protestantism in its
renovated form, had in its favor the written law, the religious enthusiasm of
the people, and sometimes also the protection of eminent civil authorities,
while the new Protestantism had the usages of almost a century, the mod-
em improvements in science, the revolutionary principles started at the
Reformation, and generally, where freedom of conscience was threatened, the
masses of the third estate, who rose in defence of such freedom. The ortho-
dox style of preaching had become so strange in particular cities, that some
pastors who used it fell out with their congregations and were dismissed from
them, (v) and sometimes a city otherwise diligent in the practice of religion
and in its works of charity, protested in a legal form against the Apostles^
Creed, on account of its antiquated character, (tr) In the principality of
»
#) Brl. KZ. 1859. N. 20. 21. A. KZ. 1852. N. 70.
0 DiUenberger, Votum in d. tbeol. Fac d. U. Ileldelb. CL D. Hdlb. 1852. On the other sido:
Bchenktl, d. Schntzpfllcht d. Staats gegen d. ev. K. Ileldelb. 1852.
ti) Er. K. Z. 1840. N. 208. 43. Mjjl 67a. A. K. Z. 1840. N. eiaa. {TKeune) Urkonden 0. d. Ver-
&liren d. Constat, zn Magd. gcgen Sintenis, v. e. Frennde (L Wahrheit Lpa. 1840. Mittbeilungen u. d.
YeraoL d. kirebL Aofreg. za Magd. Darmat 1841.— Der Biscbof Dr&fleke a. & actjihr. Wirkcn iiu
Preaaa. Staat v. G. v. C. {Kf'miff.) Berg<>n. 1840.
«) Tkoluck, Liter. Anzeigor. 1885. N. 47. Acta hist ecc 1885. p. 4418& Rheinw. Kep. vuL V.
p. 129b«. vol. XVIII. p. 2S8S. ISIm.
to) BrL KZ. 1844 N. 28. 1845. N. 23. Ev. KZ 1844 N. 4fi. 54 Rudelbach, tL d. Bedeut d. Ap
gjrmb. Mit Bez. a. d. Leipziger Confeasionawirren. UaL 1844
566 MODifiN CHUBCn UISTOBY. FEB. YL A. D. 1M&-186&
Lippe^ five preachers, who had demanded the re-introdnction of the Heidel-
berg Catechisro, instead of the liberal catechism which had been used for a
generation past, and had protested (1844) against the sparions official oath
respecting the creed which had for some time been publicly administered,
and against the limitation of the ecclesiastical power of the keys, were gam-
moned before the consistory as ecclesiastical demagogues, and after humbliiig
themselves, they were admonished carefully to observe the regulations of the
Church. Private members were also informed that it did not belong to
them, with their limited knowledge of such subjects, to give a judgment
respecting them, (x)
§ 458. Pruma, ilie Union and the Agenda till 1840. ^<mt. from § 414.
J. JacobBOfi, Oesch. d. Qucllen d. ev. KKeclits d. Pror. Preiusen n. Poa. Kra^esb. 1S39.
V. MiihUr, Qcfch d. ev. KYerf. d. Yark Brandenb. Weim. "iSit—Bdclul^ Ireneon. BrL 182 Im. 8
Tola. K. F. Gaitpp, d. Union d. dcutachen K. BrsL 1S4& K. SemUch, &. d. UBionsTifTSQelie b«&. in
PreuaseiL Orel&w. 1S52. C. J. KiUsch^ Urkundenb. d. ev. Union. Bonn. 1859.
Under Frederic II., Prussia had become, in consequence of its natural
position, the most prominent of the Protestant powers. Fredtric William
II. (1797-1840), having found consolation under his severe losses in the sta-
ble word of God, wished, after his government had become re-established,
and he had become rather jealous of its free development^ that the Church
might be thoroughly regenerated. Though he felt some dislike to tlie unsta-
ble character of Protestant freedom, and especially to the high-wrought ^irit
of Pietism, he was sincerely attached to Luther's honest and steadfast faith,
and with pious conscientiousness, under the influence of the writings of the
reformers, sometimes conducted the affairs of the Church with his own
hands. He was, however, generally assisted by the gentle Altenstein, his
minister for public worship, with whose prefei'ences for the Hegelian phi-
losophy in the Church and in the schools he was often displeased, but whom
ho never would quite abandon, {a) When the civil power bad absorbed all
authorities peculiarly ecclesiastical (1809), the king established (1817) pro-
vincial consistories, whose duties were confined to matters exclusively spirit-
ual, and did not include the location of clergymen ; district and provincial
synods, composed only of clergymen, and restricted within a narrow circle
of duties, but intended to be an introduction to an imperial synod ; {h) and a
ministry for public worship, which was to be the organ through which the royj
authority was exercised owr the Church. The oath*which the clergymen
were to take, bound them to be the servants of the state as well as of the
Church. As Protestantism gradually developed itself the contrast between
the two Churches became less and less prominent before the minds of the
people, and other antagonisms of far greater importance than those between
Luther and Zwingle appeared in each. Hence, when the king sent forth a
ce) Urkunden z. Bearth. d. kircbL Yerii. im F. LIppe. Lpfl. 1S45. Kv. K. Z. 1S48L N. lOd 1S4& 5-
28. 87. 72. 1844 N. 12. 65. 1845. N. SOsa. VL 1846. N. 9s. 88. 5SL Ha. 97. 1851. N. 78aw
n) Eylert, Oharactenuge a. d. Leben Fried. Wllh. IIL Magdeb. 1S48-6l esp. & toI. [lih aad
Opinions of Fred. Will. III. fh)ra the Germ, of Eylert, by J. Birch, Lond. 18*4. a]
h) Acta in WachUr, theoL Nachrichten 1817. SchMsrfnaeher, (L d. einsorkht SjraodalTtfil
Brl. 1817. A. KZ. 1828. N. 44.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1858. |45a. PBU88IA. UNION. 567
call for a voluntary union at the Jubilee of the Reformation, (c) the union of
an evangelical Church fell into his hands as the ripe fruit of the age. No
attempt to produce uniformity by artificial creeds was therefore necessary.
On the one hand, an internal union was effected by the conviction that those
controversies which had now ceased, or which still continued, were not
inconsistent with Christian love and fellowship ; and on the other, all that
was needful to an external union was accomplished by an agreement respect-
ing a constitution, church property, and ordinary usages. It was also con-
cluded that the Lord^s Supper should be celebrated in the manner proposed
by the Synod of Berlin, by a mere breaking of the bread and a faithful reci-
tation of the wor^ used in the original institution. But while this work
was in process of cheerful accomplishment in the several ecclesiastical corpo-
rations^ sometimes by public enactments and sometimes as the government
directed, by a practical acceptance of the breaking of bread and an ac-
knowledgment of the authorities of the united Church, it was considerably
disturbed by the introduction of the Agenda. The development which had
taken place in the principles of Protestantism, and the modes of speech
occasioned by the new scientific and literary education of the people, ren-
dered some alteration of the language of the Church indispensable. New
liturgies were therefore introduced into some established churches without
attracting much attention. A common form of worship seemed to become
necessary by the union. The theological commission appointed for compos-
ing such an instrument in Prussia accomplished nothing. The king then pub-
lished an Agenda which had been adopted by his cabinet (1822) for the use
of the court church, gave orders that it should be introduced into the garri-
son churches of his kingdom, and recommended it to all the congregations
of the realm, instead of the conflicting and arbitrary forms which had pre-
viously been used in the different provinces, (d) Objections against it were
urged by some who fancied that it partook too much of an old ecclesiastical,
and even of a Catholic spirit, and by others who complained that it was not
sufficiently orthodox, and was too much reformed. Some, also, were displeased
with a heterogeneous political element which they discovered in it. But no
general opposition to it (^) was apparent until the government took some
steps to draw over the churches by various temptations or by coercion, and
some authors contended that a strict conformity to tlie liturgy should be re-
quired by a law on the territorial system. (./") In the midst of this confusion
no synodal constitution was carried into effect, for even the victorious politi-
cal party took no pleasure in a measure which so forcibly reminded them of
the promised representative system. It was only in Westphalia and the
Rhenish provinces that a synodal form on the basis of ancient usages was
introduced (1885), but even there the system left as much to be desired as it
c) Sept 27, 1817, In NiUtch, p. 125«.
d) Kirchen-Agenda t d. prot Uof- a. Domk. in Berl. BrI. and oft A. KZ. 1S22. N. 17. 6a
e) (Schleiermacher) Ue. d lit Keclit ev. Landcefureton, r. PaciC Sincerus. Gott 1S24. Acten-
•Uieke, betr. d. Pr. K. A. ed. by Falck, Kiel, 1S27.
/) AuffwtL, Kritik d. PreuM. A. Frkt 1928. and Erklar. u. d. Majestiltareclit in kirclil. DIngen. F.
1S2S. m. Neclitr. Bonn. 1826. MarhMneke, 0. d. wabre Stelle d. lit Recbta. BrL 1S25. C. F. «.
Amman, d. Einfuh. d. BrL A. gescbicha u. kircbL beleacbtet Dnd. 1826.
568 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PEa VL A. D. 1M8-I85a
aotadlj fulfilled, (g) The appointment of general superintendents (1829),
with means at command for a very extensive sphere of personal influence,
was looked npon as a restoration of the titular hishops to their former pre-
latical position, and hence as the commencement of a Protestant episco-
pacy, {h) The king showed a great predilection for the Agenda as a work
of his own, and he even wrote a very modest defence of it with his own
hand. (/) But this difficult controversy was finally settled principally by an
arrangement proposed by the Bishop Nctinder^ according to which a new
revision of the liturgy was to be made by the ecclesiastical authorities, with
special reference to the most important objections (1829). As this presented
to the worshippers a choice of several forms, and paid re^)ect to provincial
usages, and as the rights of the Church were preserved and were duly hon-
ored by the government, it was accepted without difficulty. Accordingly,
since 1880, the Agenda has possessed the authority of law, and but one evan-
gelical national Church has been known in PruMia. (k) In all the other estab-
lished churches of Germany the royal appeal was favorably received, and w^s
carried into execution by means of enactments in the synods or the congrega-
tions. In Kassau (1817), this was accomplished by a formal recognition of a
previous unanimity between the two parties in the essential articles of their
creeds. (I) In Bar arm on the Rhine ^ it was effected (1818) by a general vote
ou an edict which proposed that the evangelical Church should properly
respect the symbolical books containing the ordinary Protestant concessions,
but should have no authoritative rule of faith but the Holy Scriptures. In
Baden^ the same result was secured by declaring (1821) that the Augsburg
Confession, together with the Lutheran and Heidelberg Catechisms, should
be regarded as an authoritative rule of faith only as far as a f^ee investigation
should discover their consistency with the Scriptures, the only sure source of
Christian trath, and as far as the pure principles of evangelical Protestantism
were found in them. It was also agreed that the Lord^s Supper should be
celebrated there in the form which had been accepted by Melancthon (p.
407). (7/2) Wherever the union was not then effected, it was on account of
some local difficulties in the respective congregations. In those national
churches within the bounds of which very little more than a single Pro-
testant Church existed, as e, g., the Lutherans in the states of the Grerman
Confederacy, and the Reformed in Switzerland and the Netherlands, there
was no necessity or object of such a Union, but even there it was accepted
as an ideal, and was recognized wherever an individual case required it.
The principal remonstrance against it was from a few Supematuralists who
possessed no doctrinal agreement among themselves, (n)
ff) Acta hist ecc. 1885. p. 8758. 1836. p. 450aa. Yerhandll. d. S rheln. Prov. Bjaodal-YeKammL
Barmen, ISSSw
h) Auffusti, Beitrr. z. Oesch. u. Sutistik d. ex. Kircbe, pi 7S8s&
i) Luther in Boziebung a. d. Preuss. KAgende. Bri. 1887.
k) A. KZ. 1S29. N. 140. 1880. N. 9a Et/Urt^ CL Werth n. Wlrkong d. Agendo naeb d. Besnltite
e. zehnjabr. Erfahrung. Potsd. 1880.
t) Archiv f. alto u. neue KGescb. vol IV. p. 18988. m) XiUsch, p. lS4a.
n) Tittmann^ Q. Verelnigung. Lpo. ISia Steudel^ ft. Yereinigang. T&b. 18S1.
CHAP. Y. EYANG. CHUBCH TILL 1861 1 454 UNION. LUTHEBANISM. 569
§ 454. Lutheranwn as a Sect under Frederic William III.
The spirit of orthodoxy which had now heen once more awakened, per-
ceived that it would soon lose its principal power, il* those portions of the
symbolical books in which the different charches opposed and condemned
each other were no longer binding upon the people. So strong, indeed, was
the feeling now aroused, that in men of a reckless spirit it resembled Luther's
horror at all fellowship with the Reformed Church. That which in other
places was a coDsoieutious conviction in opposition to the Uniou, or a theo-
logical opposition, (a) in Prussia necessarily came into collision with the lively
interest which the government took in the united and uniform Church.
When the Union and the Agenda were accepted at Breslau (1880), Dr. Schei-
hel remained the pastor of a church which rejected the Union as a work of
Indifferentism, a compact between Christ and Belial and the Agenda, as a
part of the same scheme. After many efforts at accommodation, he was
suspended from the ministry, and when he insisted upon a final decision, he
was dismissed (1832). (6) Guericke announced that he had returned to the
old Lutheran Church, from Avhich he had unconsciously and involuntarily
been removed, and he now obtained a secret installation for himself as the
pastor of a congregation in and near Halle (1834). After many disturbances
of divine worship in his house by the police, he was deprived of his profes-
sorship on account of a rash attack which he made upon an order issued by
the government (1835). (c) A few pastors connected with the established
Church in Silesia produced an excitement among the ignorant people of their
congregations, by preaching that Luther^s precious faith, the religion of their
fathers, had been superseded by the theology of the king. To hush up these
disturbances, an order was obtained (Feb. 28, 1884) from the cabinet by the
piedstic party then forming in the court, (d) which assured the people that
the Lutheran Church, with its various confessions of faith, was not abolished
by the Agenda and the Union, and that nothing but that Church was estab-
lished by law ; and that the sacraments were to be administered according to
the usages of the old Lutheran Church to all who desired them in that mode.
The Lutherans, however, could not comprehend how the Lutheran confession,
condemning the doctrines of the Reformed Church, could really be received
in a united Church, or how the same liturgy could be received in two
Churches which were essentially so different. These pastors, who had re-
nounced the Union and the Agcndii, and would no longer yield obedience to
tlie consistory of the united Church, were suspended. When Kellner^ the
pastor of the church in Honigem, was about to be suspended (Sept. 11th,
1884), the congregation while singing and praying presented an unwearied
passive resistance to the opening of their church, being resolved to do noth-
d) OlMeUr^ nenester UnlonsTen. in Bremen. Bonn. 1SS4. BudelbacK, Grandvesto d. lath.
Kirchenlebre u. Friedenspraxis. Lpa. 1840.
b) Stffena^ wie ich wieder Lntheraner wnrde, nnd was mir Lntberthum tot BrsL 1S8L (Ifusehke)
TheoL Votum e. Jarlsten In Bacbsen d. preuaa. Hof-Ag. ed. by Scbeibel, Nrnb. 1882. Scheibtl^ aoten*
mai«ige QftcYu d. net Untcmebmang e. Union bea. im preusa. Staate. Lpa. 1884. 2 vela.
c) Einige Urknnden betr. d. Oeach. d. latb. Ocmeinde in n. nm Halle, Liis. ISSSi
d) Comp. £▼. KZ. 185& N. fi.
CHAP. y. EVANO. CHURCH TILL 1898L $ 454. FREDEBIC WILLIAM IIL 57 1
of oondemnatioD, and ceased to imprison according to law those private mem-
bers who had refused to testify against their ministers with reference to offi-
cial acts prohibited by the authorities. (A) Frederic WillUim HI. always
acknowledged the rights of conscience in matters of religion, but with a
mind remarkably fond of order, he loved to bring every thing to uniformity.
In spiritual things he generally thought it safest to refer to father Luther, but
he esteemed a man a rebel who adhered to Luther's sentiments with Luther's
obstinacy. He felt himself, and he proved himself to be the protector of the
evangelical Church far beyond the limits of Prussia, and he even bestowed
many favors upon the Catholic Cliurch of his kingdom. And yet, in the
evening of his life, he found himself involved in acts of arbitrary violence
against each of these Churches. His time on earth was spent in disquietude,
^nt his trust was in God.
§ 455. Legal Vietcs and Legal RehitioTU in German Countries,
L. RichUr, (p. 441.) AT. Ifa»e, cL ev. prot K, d. deutschen Bdchs. Lps. (1^43.) 1862.
In a time of ecclesiastical exhaustion there was no disposition or ability
to construct a peculiar system of laws for the Church. Schuderoff (176^-1843)
almost alone then contended for a collegiate system, but his zeal against
Jurists in the Church had rather a hierarchical tendency, (a) As soon as the
ecclesiastical life exhibited its former vigor, general complaints were heard
that the Church was subject to an arbitrary foreign influence, and that its
members excused themselves from all interest in its affairs on account of the
bureaucratic interference of the civil authorities, and their exclusion from all
share in its administration. Hence, when the union with the Reformed
Church took place, attention was turned to the fragments of the old ecclesi-
astical establishment, preserved in the latter in the form of ecclesiastical
elders and synods, and to the union by means of consistories under the sov-
ereign of the country, (h) In the literary controversies between the advo-
cates of the different legal views, those who believed that the Church was
purchased by the blood of the God- man maintained that its territory was
manifestly beyond the reach of the secular powers. But a disinclination for
all theories of natural liberty, and a dread of popular suffrage as the domin-
ion of the flesh, then prevailed, and gave great advantage to those who advo-
cated the predominance of the princely, or at least of the spiritual powers, (c)
K) Schfihel: MittbeilDngen d. list. Oesch. d. lath. K. Alton. ISSSss. 6 H. Archlv f. hist Entw. n.
ntt Gefich. d. luth. K. Numb. 1S41. 2 P. u. A. K. Z. 1S88. N. 191& 0. F. Wahrhariy meine Snspen-
dirang, Klnkerkerung. u. Ausvrander. Lps. 1Sd9. J. D. Loewenhurg^ PenecnUon of the Luth.
Church in Prussia (roin 1331. Lend. 1S40. Bcrl. K. Z. 1889. N.89. 46. ST. Stffens^ vras ich eriebte.
Tol. X. p. 71. 72458.
a) Ansichten u. Wunsche betr. d. prot KWej»nn u. d. Qeistlichk. Lps. 1814.
b) J. Sihuiffrofl Grundz. z ev. prnt. KVert Lps, 181T. E. Zimmennann, Grundz. z. ev. KVerl
In sr. Monatsch. vol. L II. Is. I*aU, d. ofTenU. Becht d. ev. lath. K. Id Teutschl Tub. 1S27. On the
other side: F. v. Bulotr, u. d. gegenw. Vcrh. d. ev. KWes. in Deatschl. Mgdb. (1818.) 1819. Bret-
9Chneider^ Votutn u. d. repraea. Verf. d. K. Lps. 1832.
c) £v. KZ. 1832. N. 2. RudelbacJi^ 14 Thesen u. Presb. u. Syn. Lps. 1882. Pttchia, EinL in d.
Becht d. K. Lps. ISiO. F. J. Stahl, d. KVerfl nach Lehre u. Becht d. Prut £r!nng. 1840. C Jlotfif,
d. wahren Grundl. d. ev. KYcr£ BrI. 1844.
572 MODERN CnUBCH HISTORY. PER.' YL A. D. 164S-186&
The Hegelian school once more hrought forward the territorial system in
connection with their higher view of the state, according to which the
Church, as a distinct society, entirely disappears, and hecomes merely the
religions element of the state, (d) But the more the importance of the state
in a popular and patriotic point of view was recognized, the more the right
of the Christian congregations to develope hy their own energies the constitu*
tion best suited to their progress in cultivation, was also acknowledged. The
relation of these congregations to the state was to be that of mutual assist-
ance, but in the existing organization of the German state confederacies, they
were to be dependent only upon the widest national limits, (i) Baden re-
ceived with the union a synodal system, but the general synod was to be con-
vened only at the suggestion of the sovereign^ and then simply as an advisory
council. (/) In 1845, Zittel, a pastor of a congregation, proposed to the Diet,*
that instead of the past religious intolerance, under which Christianity had
found no peace, they should try the effect of religions liberty, under which
every form of worship should be tolerated, and no civil penalties should be
exacted unless a failure in the performance of civil duties appeared probable.
A complete storm of petitions principally from the Catholic sections of the
country, against the majority in the chamber which was ready to concur
with the proposition, was the result. The Union Church was here ao strictly
constituted, that when the pastor EichJiorn felt constrained in conscience,
from his attachment to exclusive Lutlieranism, to give notice (1850) of his
secession from the united Church, and had received the permission which he
had asked, he was punished by imprisonment, or was directed by the police
to leave the country, because in some instances he afterwards performed min-
isterial duties for those who like him had forsaken the Church. These per-
sons, according to their own confession, knew but little of their former or
their present creed, and had in general been involved in the revolutions of
that period, but they have hitherto received no permission to form any Lu-
theran congregation, (g) The evangelical Church in Bataria^ by an appen-
dix to the national constitution (1818), was allowed the privilege of managing
its own internal affairs, under the supervision of the supreme authorities of
the state. In the Rhenish Palatinate, as soon as the Union was formed,
parochial councils with power to fill their own vacancies, district synods and
a general synod, chosen partly by and from the congregations themselves,
were organized, and it was for this reason that the rationalistic party in that
country was able to maintain its ground in the long conflict with the superior
consistory at Munich, which was essentially Lutheran, though occasionally
under Catholic influence. The order for the election of elders in the congre-
gations on the eastern side of the Rhine (1821), was so indefinite with respect
, ■
d) Hoth^^ d. Anfange d. K. a. Ibrer Veit Witt 1887. 1 vol Die ex. Landesk. Prenssens n. d.
Wisa. Lpji. 1840.
e) a UUmann, t d. Zuk. d. ev. K. DeutochL Stuttg. 1845. JuL MOUer^ dlo nichsten An^aben
t d. Fortbild. d. deutM:h-prot KVert. Brsl. 1S45. C. C. J. Bunsen, d. VerC d. K. d. Zakunft Uambi
1840. [Const of Uie Church of the Faturi^ «kc. ttom the Oenn. Lend. 1848. 8.] JT. Hate, d. gate
alte Rccht d. K. Lpe. 2 ed. 1847.
/) A. KZ. 1S82. N. SOI. 1S85. N. 9a 1848. N. 101. 117fl. 170flL Acta hUt ecc 188S. p. 414aaL
0) ActenmaM. Dant betr. Past Elchh. (Allg. KBIatt 1853. N. 16&)— C Eickkom^ geach. AhriM
d. Entsteh. ev. lath. Gemeinden Im O. Baden. Stattg. 186&
CHAP. y. ETAN6. CHUBCH TILL 1858L $46S; BAYABIA. WURTEMBERO. 573
to the peculiar duties of tbese officers, that many feared a hierarchical
discipline was intended, and hence such a unanimous expression of public
opinion was raised against it, that the government withdrew the plan, (h)
The subsequent establishment of the synodal constitution (after 1825) took
place under many suspicious limitations : each of the two dioceses were to
have a separate general synod ; the representatives of the congregations were
to be chosen by the pastors ; one half of all elected for the general synod by
the district assemblies were to be set aside by the superior consistory ; all
acts were to be merely advisory, and even from such deliberations the hyper-
catholic ministry of Abel had power to exclude at pleasure precisely those
things which were of any interest to the Church. (0 In Wurtemberg^ the
Church was represented in the diet by prelates nominated by the king, and
through these its principal eflfort was to recover the ecclesiastical property,
of which the recollection of the people was still fresh. After 1880, when
most of the middle German states received representative constitutions, it
became necessary to make many changes in the administration of ecclesiasti-
cal affairs, and the Church demanded securities for its established rights, (k)
But the theory of the serai-liberal constitution of that country was not favor-
able to a peculiar department of laws for the Church, and when the clergy
set up new claims, they lost their old privileges, until the power and the em-
barrassments of the religious interests (since 1840) have combined with the
kindred improvements in political and ecclesiastical jurisprudence to strength-
en their demands and call forth partial promises, for the oppressions of the
people in civil life have compelled them to seek freedom in ecclesiastical agi-
tations. (0 The National Assemlly in St. Paul's church (1848) had no idea
of jeopardizing the unity of the nation of which it was then dreaming, by
engaging in the old ecclesiastical disputes ; but in forming a theory of the
original rights of the German people, it was driven by a recollection of many
civil and ecclesiastical aggressions upon mental freedom to put forth a declara-
tion respecting the true relation of the state to religion. During the delib-
erations upon this subject, it appeared that some were opposed to every kind
of church, but the co-operation of these extreme parties in favor of the com-
plete independence of Church and state, was held in check by the hesitation
of a middle party, which feared to open the door for an unlimited ecclesias-
A) A. KZ. 1S22. N. 84. 8t. 34. 43. Works bj Lehmns, KalMer, Fuchs. On tho other side : Togal,
Oertel, and others. — Paultu, wi'.l d. Balencho Landesk. nicht mundig werden ? (Sophronlzoiif 1824.
VOL VI. U. 1.)
f) SUphani, kan. Kecht. Tub. ISW. p. 6l8a. F. J. Kiethammery Nacbr. v. d. er»ten YersaroniL
d. Oen. SjrnodeD in B. Salzb. 1S25. Fucha, Zust d. prot K. In R Ansb. 1830. (Printed) Mann-
script: Die Gen. 8yn. za Ansbach im J. 1844. Without place, f. Another revision of this document
printed at Ulm.
k) BickM XL Ilupfeld, iL d. Bef. d. KVerf in bos. BQcks. a. Kurhcssen. Harb. 1S81. WQnscbe
d. ev. Oeistlichk. Sachs. L. 1S81. GroMmann^ {L Bet d. KVerC in Sachs. L. 1888. For lit see Stud.
0. Krit. 188& H. 28.
/) G. V. Weher, die Umgeetaltung d. KVerC in Sachs. L. 1838. Brdunig^ constitntlonelles Leben
In d. K. Lp& 1888. C. Wolff, dif< Zukunft d. prot K. Stuttg. 1840. C. R Kdniff, d. nst Zi'lt In d.
ev. K. d. Preoaa. Staats. Braunschw. 1843. B. 3foUy d. gegcnw. Noth. d. ev. K. Pron.^ Pasewalk,
184&— AcU bbt eoc. 188& p. 419s8. BrL KZ. 184S. N. SSss. eSi.—iOundMhagen) Der deutsche Pro-
test, a. Tergangenh. n. bentigt^n Lebensfh^n. FrkC 1S47. J. Wiffgerg, die kirchL Bevrcg. in
DeutMshl Beet. 1848.
574 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. TL ▲. D. 164S-1898L
tical iDterference from abroad. Accordingly, all were allowed foil liberty to
believe in any form of religion, or in none, without affecting their civil or
mnnicipal riirhts : no special political privileges were allowed to any reHgiov
societies : permission was given to form new religions societies, and all w«t
independently to manage their own affairs, subject only to the general liwi
of the state. A general form of an oath suited to any religions opinions wai
also pnnide*!. and the validity of marriage was made to depend entirely apot
a civil act. With respect to the schools there was much contention between
the diiferent parties, for the Protestant teachers especially demanded a cooa-
plete emancipation from the bonds of the Church, while the Catholic ptrtr
with it5 [iienstic adjunct endeavore<l to attain an opposite result by a free
election «f the teachers by the congregation. The majority, however, whik
it held to the principle that all science and instruction in it should be free,
plaoe^l the whole j«chool system under the supervision of the state, and rt-
ii:oved :Ve schtx>ls from the inspection of the clergy as such, without forWd-
diui: the employment of skilful clergymen in the supervision of theoL(iii)
In the composition of the Prussian fundamental laws at Erfurth, these prin-
civlvs wore essentially retained, with the exception only of the article re-
sj^viiiiiT sj»ocial p«»litical privileges, which the state wished to have power to
jn^nt to religious societies whose general aims might specially correspcffid
wi::i its ov. n. Tlie establishment of a state Church, however, was espeeiaDy
g;iardixl aL-ninst, and all charitable institutions were secured from anj
iiifringt-me:u. These principles were indeed incorporated in the oonstitn-
tional chartvr of almost every German state, but the revived diet (rf the
oi>nfo<'.or:iiion declared (Aug., 1851) that these pretended fondamental law?
novi-r |H»SM>N'.e<l any legjil authority. Very little was done even when the
power txi^toil to onfi»ri»e them, for the masseSs of society were interested oatj
in j^»liiio;;l questions, and the clergy were jealous of mtgorities supposed to
Iv unfriiiblly to the Church. In almost every place committees were np-
|H>intod hv moans of the previous ecclesiastical authorities, by whom ont-
lint*^ ol' oonsiitutions were prepared, which conveyed the executive power<rf
the Chunh into the hands of a series of representative synods, rising through
several gradations from the ccaigregation, with an unequal number of secular
and clerical doputios, and subject, as before agreed upon, to the control of the
ovangvlionl sovereign through certain officers. All contemplated at some
ftuure porioil a great evangelicd Church of the German empire. These plans
wore of ct»nrs«» laid aside when the political party of the reaction became
ovory where triumphant. A few national churches like those of Wurtem-
borg and Weimar have nevertheless been allowed to have councils chosen
l^artly by the congregations for the administration of their ecclesiastical
atVairs 0^*^!^^ which have since been actually elected, and been engaged in a
limited sphere of Christian activity. In Bavaria^ the two divisions of the
i^hmoh on the eastern side of the Rhine, by the free choice of the congrega-
tions at a pri>visionnl election, united under one General Synod at Anspach
^ISI'.h, and obtained from the government (1850-^8) an electoral law, ac-
«>mling to which those who possessed the confidence of the congregations
m) Fond. Law of Dml 21, 184a Artt 5 uidl
CHAP. V. £VANO. OnURCH TILL 1858. $ 455. OERM. CHARTER OLDENB. 575
oonld be appointed to manage their ecclesiadtical affairs, and a donble number
of clergymen could be elected to the general synod. («) The General Synod
of the Rhenish Electorate assembled in October, 1848, and received from the
goYemment a release from the control of the superior consistory, and the
grant of an electoral law. (o) A committee appointed by this synod, in a ra-
tionalistic spirit and without much consideration, changed the original record
of the Union of 1818, which, after the overthrow of the revolution, called
forth the opposition of the minority, and received the censure of the Pro-
testant faculties of Germany when their opinions were asked respecting it. (p)
The General Synod of 1868, in terror of the sword of dissolution, in face of
many dishonorable elections of elders, and in consequence of the appointment
of a number of clergymen from the division on the other side of the Rhine,
returned to the patriarchal electoral laws of 1818, went, in fact, beyond
them, and decided with respect to the creed, that the consensus which exists
in the principal confessions of the evangelical German Church, of which the
Church of the Palatinate is a part, is best to be found in the Augsburg Con-
fession of 1540. A reservation, however, was distinctly put forth, that no
compulsory obligation of an ecclesiastical or political nature was thus asserted
in behalf of the symbolic books, (q) In Oldenburg alone the favorable mo-
ment was improved, and an ecclesiastical government was actually set up
(1849) by a synod chosen by the congregations. Here the ecclesiastical au-
thority of the sovereign was set aside, and the affairs of each congregation
were committed to an assembly of its adult men, and a council chosen by
.them ; tlie common business of the congregations was intrusted to an annual
general synod, chosen directly by the people, and one half composed of cler-
gymen ; and the administration was placed in the hands of an ecclesiastical
council chosen by and responsible to the synod. Though this constitution
had no connection with the civil power, it was proclaimed by the Grand
Duke ; and as men of an ecclesiastical spirit were chosen, it was not unwor-
thily carried into execution, and was capable of throwing off any defects
which might be found in it. (r) But by its separation from the state, the se-^
curity of ecclesiastical property was gone, it was soon left without support in
consequence of the hostility of the civil oflBcers, tlie suspicions of the orthodox
party for the indefiniteness of its creed, (*) and the dislike of the clergy on
' account of their dependence upon the congregations, and in a time of general
political reaction, few would defend it against the reproach of its revolution-
ary origin. A change in accordance with the terms of the fundamental law
of 1862 was effected (April, 1853) by the Grand Duke, after an audience with
the general synod and the supreme ecclesiastical council, on the ground that
the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Oldenburg should independently admin-
n) Brl. KZ. 1649. N. 1A. 80. S4. 89. 48. 1850. N. 84. A. K. Z. 1S58. N. 149.
o) Bri. KZ. 194a N. 6«. 91. 104. 1849. N. 6. 27. 48.
p) Gatachten deutsclier ev. th. Facalttltcn Q. den der K. d. bay. Pfalz zugcdacbten Yerfimungs*
entw. Frkt 1851.
q) A. KZ. 1858. N. 178.
r) Verbandll d. Syn. 0. d. Vcrf. d. Oldenb. ov. K. Oldenb. 1849. 4. Yorbandll. d. 1. Landerayn.
ISIM). 4.— <]. 9, Landc8»yiL 1851. 4. Qesetz- a. YerordDangsbl. d. er. KIrcbe. toL L St. 1.
t) Der Notbatand d. ev. K. Oldenb. 1852. £▼. KZ. 1861. N. 908.
576 MODESN CUUBCH HISTORY. PES. YL A. D. lMS-18Sa
bter its affairs in scriptural correspondence with the confessions of the Re-
formation, that it ought not to infringe upon the laws of the state, and that
the Grand Duke, who adhered to the evangelical confession, should have the
same control of ecclesiastical affairs which was usually conceded to the evan-
gelical princes of Germany. This control was, however, to be limited by the
constitution, which, in addition to a supreme ecclesiastical council appointed
by the Grand Duke, establishes a triple synodal system regularly ascending
from the congregations. No ecclesiastical law can be enacted without the
consent of the national synod, which is to be composed of twelve clergymen,
seventeen laymen chosen by the district synods, and five persons nomina*
ted by the Grand Duke, but elected by the supreme ecclesiastical council. (0
§ 466. The Prussian National Church and its Branches since 1840.
When Frederic William IV. ascended the throne which a century before
had been occupied by Frederic the Great, the pietistio orthodox party ex-
pected to have complete control. Although he had been educated in a school
too intellectual and modem to sympathize with every kind of literal orthodoxy,
he found spiritual benefit at the baptismal font of the Prince of Wales, and at
the laying of the foundation-stone of the portal of the cathedral of Cologne. But
the zeal of that party for orthodoxy he regarded as only an excess of commend-
able fidelity, while he looked upon their opponents as perjurers. He fully
understood the feelings of St. Louis when he co-operated with the Arch-
bishop of Canterbury in the establishment of the bishopric of St. James in
Jerusalem (1 841), but so unanimously was public opinion against what was
supposed to be a new attempt to transfer the English ecclesiastical system to
Prussia (§ 414), that this pious foundation was obliged to be brought back to
its essential object, which was, to be a spiritual union in spite of ecclesiasti-
cal differences, and to be a mustard-eeed of Protestantism on Mount Zion,
which has since sent forth its first shoots under Bishop Grobat (since 1846),
though not without some danger of Anglicising and languishing, (a) When
*the king bestowed his special favors upon the priests of a mediaeval Church,
men began to think there was some truth in a prophecy invented near the
close of the seventeenth century, but ascribed to an aged monk of Lehnin
(about 1300), that after the many wrongs inflicted upon the old Church by
the rulers of the house of Ilohenzollem, the last should be the king of all'
Germany, and should then re-establish the convents and restore tho Church
to its former unity, (l) Indeed, the royal assurance was not needed to con-
f) Yerbandll. d. 8. Landessyn. Oldenb. 1853. 4. Gesetz- n. YerordnnngsbL d. ev. lath. K. toL IL
St l.— Th. V. Weddtrkop, die Vert d. ev. lath. K. Oldenb. 1858.
o) {Schneckeriburger and IIunde»hagen) Das anglo-preoss. Blsth. za S. Jacob n. was dam
hiingt Freib. 1S42. {Schneckenh.) Die orient Frage d. deatschen ev. K. Berne, 184a Ihid. dl« aT.
KZ. Im. Kampfe f. d. Blsth. In Jcnis. Berne, \^iL—{Ahek€n) Das ev. Bistb. za Jenic gMohlehtL
Darst m. d. Urk. Brl. 1842. Briefwech9el (zw. Gladstone a. Bnnsen) CL d. deotsche K., das Efrfsco*
pat u. Jeras. Ilarob. 1844.—/*. C. Bwald, Joarnal of M158. Labors In the Citj of Jeraa. Load. ISll—
Brl. KZ. 1848. N. 6. 184«. N. 62. 63«8. 1847. N. 7. 1852. N. 4 1858. N. 8. IS.
b) L. de Bouveroty Extralt d'nn mnnascrit rclatif k la prophetic da trin Ilermann de Lah&ia
Brux. 1846. Jleinhold, in d. N. Prcoaa. Ztg. 1849. Append, to N. 64.— GUmUt, d. Lehntsechc
Weiss. Erf 1849. Comp. M. W. n^ffUr, Gescb. d. KL Lehnin. Brandenb. 1801.
CHAP. V. EVANO. CIICBCU TILL 1853. f 45d TKUSS. NAT. CJHURCIL 577
vince the people that ho was firmly established in the faith of his fathers, (c)
From his regard not only to justice, but to what was ancient and peculiar, he
had the last of the old Lutheran imprisoned clergymen set at liberty, (d) At
a general synod held at Breslau (1841), these Separatists formed a Lutheran
Church of Prussia, under a well-constructed constitution, but rigidly exclu-
sive with respect to the established Church and the civil government, (e) and
they were recognized by the state as congregations of Lutherans sepiirated
from the national Church. (/) Since the cessation of persecution they have
increased with less rapidity. They now consist of about thirty ministerial
charges, and we hear not only of appeals for aid for the " Lutheran Church
involved in debt," but confessions that the love of many has waxed cold, and
that the word of God is no longer heard with zeal, (y) In consequence of
internal dissensions, sometimes amounting to mutual excommunications, their
ecxilesiastical ideals have been carried to the new world, and there continued
with brighter prospects. (//) But even within the established Church, a de-
cided Lutheran teudencj', like that which has risen in other German coun-
tries, has made its appearance, under the direction sometimes of great learn-
ing and judgment, subjecting all theological principles to its standard, (/) and
sometimes of a shallow fanaticism. (I) At an early period of his reign, the
king had expressed his detennination to allow the Church, over which the
crown had acquired supreme power during the Reformation, freely to form
for itself its own external organization. The transfer of a part of the eccle-
siastical administration from the provincial governments to the consistories
(1845), (0 might be construed as an expedient to get an easier control of the
Church by the appointment of persons of a particular party. But when the
provincial synods had a&-:embled in 1844, composed of the superintendents in
each of the six eastern provinces, and a clergyman chosen from each dio-
cese, (///) the king cnlled a General Synod at Berlin, not of representatives,
but of distinguished persons in the Church, thirty-seven of whom were cler-
gymen, an<l thirty-eight were laymen. Under the presidency of the minister
for public worship, during a session continued from June 2, to Aug. 29, 1846,
this body, which made no pretensions to a legal authority, but had no re-
straint on the expression of its opinions, and acted on conclusions drawn from
the proceedings of the provincial synods, presented its views of the existing
w^nts of the Church. (//) Its pLm for a future ecclesiastical constitution
combined the consistorial administration proceeding directly from the crown,
c) D. A. Z. 1851. N. 4at. BrI. KZ. 1S51. N. 74. d) K. "RT^ 1340. N. 168.
«) lk>.^blu58e d. V. d. ov. lutli. K. In Pr. gchaltenen OeneraUyn. Lpa. 1S42.
/) BrI. KZ. 1845. N. S4.
g) Dcr gfgonw. Stand, d. ov. luth. K. in Pr. Tom ObcrkirchoDColIegiam. Lps. 1S47. Latb.
KBlatt 1SV2. N. 77. Brl. KZ. 1S52. N. 93.
A) Kv. KZ. 1S4:5. N. «3. A. K21 1858. N. 15.
i) Ztlt.Th. f. d. posarnmte Intli. Tli. u. K. v. Rudelhach u. Guerick^ since 1840.
k) K. M. Ift't/n, dit' in d. S4.Mno Notz d. Union geratbcne ev. lulh. K. in bcs. Bez. a. Hamburg.
Ibid. 1S44. /) Brl. KZ. 1S45. N. 66.
wi) Protocol U' d. im J. 1844 in d. oof-XV Prov. d. Pr. Monarchid abgeh. Prov. Synoden. 2 II. i.
Bruna, \ie\>. 1S4»). vol. VL p. 25:3«». vol. VIl. p. 473*.
n) G. Kruger, Borichtc G. d. ti>te ev. Gen. Syn. Prcuas. Lps. 1S46. Yerbandlangon d. ev. Gen.
SjTD. zu Berlin Amtl. Abdmck. Brl 1S46. 4, L. RlchUr^ d. Vcrhandlangen d. preuss. GcnerabTn.
UobcreichU. Darst. Lps. 1847.
87
578 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A, D. 1648-18581
with the synods proceeding directly from the congregations in regularly
ascending circles, (o) This assembly had not been convened without some
reference to its nature, and only a single voice was raised in it in behalf of
undisguised rationalism. But as the great mtyority there, as well as in the
previous provincial synods, declared itself against not only unconditional free-
dom of instruction, but the compulsory obligation of creeds, (p) the party of
the Evangelical Cliurch Journal found itself in a decided minority. The
moral impossibility of compelling men to adhere to the old creeds (q) was con-
ceded, and yet it was thought indispensable to the completion of the Union
that a confession of faith should bo formed, to serve as a formula for ordi-
nation. But the confession then composed expressed only those sentiments
wliich are essential to Protestant Christianity in Scriptural language, and
without the precision of theological science, (r) The orthodox minority (14
to 48) therefore had reason to complain, notwithstanding all that was said
for their satisfaction, that the adoption of the new confession was a virtual
abrogation of the old. It was, however, decided that those congregations
and patrons who were esi)ecially attached to the Lutheran or the Reformed
type of doctrine or worship, should have full liberty, without endangering
the development and existence of the Union, to use their respective confes-
sions, if they wished in a regular manner to bring those clergymen whom
they called under obligation to some creed. (/*) But the orthodox opp(^ition
from without, in whose eyes such a body seemed a Robber-Synod, in which
Christ was denied, {t) was powerful enough at least to postpone the execution
of these enactments, although the ecclesiastical authorities had given them a
unanimous concurrence, and had pronounced them of urgent importance.
The sujierior Consistory was the only court finally formed under them (Jan.,
1848), but as this was not sustained by any contemporary synodal regula-
tions, it was looked upon as a mere party-authority. In opposition to the
various combinations formed by the pietistic party, a free association of Prot-
estant Friends was organized to promote the interests of rational and prac-
tical Christianity, and in the spirit of the Scriptures, and with all the means
afforded by the nineteenth century, to secure both Christianity and the im-
provements of the age as equally inalienable and inseparable possessions. In
the district of Middle Germany reached by railroads, this association soon
increased from a small conference of clergymen (1841) to a large popular
assembly under the presidency of Uhlich^ a country pastor of simple but lib-
eral views, and possessing a remarkable and continually developing talent for
presiding over such a multitude, (m) The rationalism which appealed wholly
o) Hu'fitfr, p. &58ML
p) INnliw in Bruns. Rep. 1846. vol. YI. p. 272s8. Comp. Ev. KZ. 1845. N. 6.
tf) (^)Tnp. Brl. KZ. 1846. N. 65. 66. 1847. N. 1. a~1846. N. 81. 86. 1847. N. 80. 44 46.
r) /i'*(7t/xr, p. 8S26a.
«) Krftu^r, p. 12888. l«5s. Verhandll. p. IJUsw. 86S88. 527. Eichter, p. 8598&
0 Ev. KZ. 1*46. N. 77. 78. 81s. 83s. 65. 868. 95. 968. 100. lOBs. 1847. N. 888. 14a. 26a. 29. 80iL *••
tUlharJi, in (i. Zfcltsch. f. luth. Tlieol. 1847. H. 8. C. Tlater, Beleacht d. Ord. Form. Bmrmem \^^
Comp. BrL KZ. 1847. N. 47.— AiK)U.getical : Domer, In the Liter. Z. 1847. N. S9a. JhL Jt&Uer,t
d. erstt* Prcus8. Gen. Syn. Bral. 1847. On the other side: Sander, die modomc TheoL a. d unft*
bl8l. Gl. KlLcrf. 1847.
II) A. KZ. 1841. N 187. Brl KZ. 1842. N. 44. 10& 181& N. 47. 82. 1845. N. 40i. 45. 51. 1844 K.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHUKCH TILL 1858. { 45«. FRIENDS OP LIGHT. 579
to a sonnd common sense, hard pressed as it was in the domain of science,
found its natural theatre for action among the middle classes, and in these
assemblies exhibited itself as a popular power, on which even the friends of
the Hegelian philosophy, now almost discarded in Prussia, leaned for support
At an assembly held at C6then in the spring of 1844, Widieenm started the
question whether the Scriptures or the Spirit was the rule of our faith, and
tlien, in opposition to the common self-delusion of the rationalists, CAme to a
decision exclusively in favor of the Spirit. But by the Spirit, he meant the
spirit of truth and love which always animates every man, and especially
every Cliristian, and by which the Scriptures were themselves essentially pro-
duced. Guericke therefore accused him and the Friends of Light generally
of having renounced Christianity, and in order to uphold the absolute author-
ity of the Scriptures, ho did not hesitate, when pressed with the inquiry
whether he believed in the story of Balaam's speaking ass, to answer
promptly in the affirmative, (r) Although a general Protestant feeling even
among the Protestant Friends was averse to an abandonment of the Scrip-
tures, this establishment of a large party, and this discussion of abstract doc-
trines before a multitude entirely incompetent to sit in judgment upon them,
appeared to most persons of doubtful expediency, (tr) When the ministry
of state in Saxony had, in accordance with their oath, prohibited (July 17th,
1845) all efforts and public meetings to call in question the doctrines of the
Augsburg Confession, and other creeds of the same general character, (j) a
royal interpretation of the law against popular assemblies in Prussia, applied
it to the promiscuous meetings of the Friends of Light. The consequence
was, that they soon lost their importance, and became once more nothing but
pastoral conferences. (//) The Evangelical Church Journal in public adver-
tisements announced that Wislicenus and his associates had been virtually
excommunicated, by the declarations of ministers, who in some instances had
made public confession, and in others had openly renounced the communion
of the Church, {z) Hundreds of tliese were opposed by thousands of pro-
tests from persons of all classes, against the spirit of the Evangelical Church
Journal, {n) Tlie school of ScldciLTiiiacluT, and some other friends of the
Church, thoujrh nor belonging to the orthodox party, threw themselves be»
tween the combatants (Aug. 15), with the assertion that the doctrinal formula
of the free development from Christ to Christ belonged to the same basis with
78. Thi^ir Orinm.*: lil.tror f. cliristl. Erbauung, by /?. Fiicher, Zeltscb. t prot GelatL by II. Nie^
tMytr ami /'/ ankf.
r) i;»erl<'':e in d. Kv. KZ. 1S44. N. 40. h\ 57. 63. I'J. 7». 71& 102. G. A. WiiUirtrttuM, ob Schrlft,
ob Ofi.-t. Vi'iaiitw. ce^ron AnkIa;;iT. Li)*". lst.5. C. /?. A7;;«i(7, d. recht© SUndp. Mag«!fb. l«?-t4. On
the otiior puh* : /'. SchettUr^ KiinJ;:-* unruliluv? Wort u. nnrechtor Btandp. Lp8. 1844 Guericke, ob
Sclir., ob Gtl^t? Kin Coniltat f. d. Dachpn-dlt't d. WlsL llal. 1845. Comp. £. Sohwart, in d. Jen.
A. I^ Z 1S44. N. ISlas. 1845. X.7s8.
ir) Vv. d. Verelnd- prot Freun«lo. Dftnn*t. l^iia A. H. Findei^ tL d. OescUsch. d. prot. Fr.
Ma^'.l-1i. 1M4. Guericke^ Llcbtfrcundthum ii. Kirchenth. Lpa. 1847.— C Ztchie^chf, <\W prot Fr.
Ein.? ;*c-Ibhfk!ltlk. Altenb. 1846. Krltik d. prot Fr. Berne, 1845.
y) V.rV K. Z. N. CO. D. A Z. 1<45. X. 2S3. A'. JfaUhea, kurze Betr. Q. d. neaesto Bekanntm.
J, ?tn:it"'tnlnht iin K. Sach«. Altenb. 1845.
u) IJrl. KZ. 1845. N. 75. 1846. N. 61. 1847. N. 52.
i) Ev. KZ. 1S44. N. 68. 7a 79. 849. 60. 90. 92s. 95. 97. 102. 1845. N. 9. 17. 21 St
a) BrL KZ. 1845. N. 59. 63. 6a 75.
580 MODERN CHUKCH HISTOKV. PEE. VL A. D. 1648-1S68,
tbat which asserted that Christ was the only gronnd of salvation, (h) Soch
a declaration was immediatelj denounced as tlie of&pring of personal uneasi-
ness, as the creed of the friends of twilight, and as a duel in the day of hat-
tie, (c) J-Jir/ihom, the minister for public worship, had once belonged to the
circle of Sohloiermacher's friends, but he was urged forward by the party of
the Church Journal, and according to the expression used by that party, he
sought the welfare of the Church though in weakness. It was thought that
all appointments to higher offices of instruction or of administration, were
made in accordance with the views of that party at the expense sometimes
of even the municipal rights of election, (d) Solemn addresses from the mu-
nicipalities of Berlin, Breslau, and Kunigsberg prayed for protection against
the threatened encroachments of the party in whose spirit the ecclesiastical
authorities appeared to have acted in opposition to the religion of the great
majority of the educated class among the i)eople and the legitimate results
of the Union, and they entreated that the freedom of Protestant instmction
might be secured so far as it was not inconsistent with public morals and the
security of the state. In the king's reply, the interference of the petitioners
was repelled, their accusations were reproved, and their anxieties were dis-
pelled, (e) In Kunigsberg, Hvpp^ a chaplain of a division in the army, held
that Christianity was not a peculiar form of religion, but a nniversal princi-
ple of life. He therefore declared from tiic pulpit that bo renounced the
damnatory clauses of the Athanasian creed, on the ground that they were
unchristian. Having been deposed by the consistory of that place (Dec,
1845), he resigned his office in the consist oriul church, and in the midst of
frequent alternations of good and ill fortune, established in a place which had
previously been the scene of political agitations, a free evangelical congrega-
tion (Jan. 16, 1846), w^hich recognized the Scriptures as a merely human pro-
duction, but found in it the basis of a faith in the unity of God, and a
supreme rule of moral conduct. As this congregation had assumed all power
over its own religious aiiaira, its preacher found that he was opposed by a
party in this very ideal of a fraternal congregation of the nineteenth centory,
which would hardly allow him to administer baptism even when requested
by the parents, though using the apostolic formula modernized by himself. (/)
WuUccnus was accused of elevating himself above the Iloly Scriptures, and
in his ordinary ecclesiastical practice, of virtuaUy dispensing with the use of the
apostolic creed. But since he, according to the ordinary legal usage of rational-
ists in the established Church, and the annihilation of their legal connection
I) Brl. KZ. 1S45. N. 75.
c> SUihl^ zwei beuclschr. an dio Untcrzelchnor d. Erklur. t. 15. Aug. BrL 1S45. BengUenherg:
Ev. KZ. 1S45. N. 64da. I/anns: Brl. KZ. 1845. N. 77. On the other side: {K Henke) Beoierk. &.
Stalils Scndschr. Brl. 1845. Further Lit In Brun^ Rep. 1S46. vol. VI. p. 8288.
d) {EilerA) Zur Beurth. d. Minbt«:riuni8 Eicfah. v. e. Mitgltede desM.>ll>. 1S49. Das gebtL Minhl
In Pr. u. d. Min. Eichh. (Bruns, Hep. 1S4S. voL XV. II. a vol XIX. IL 1.)
0) Brl A. KZ. 1S45. N. 6d. 89. 1846. N. IG. Die Theologie des BerL Maglstratea. Munrt. 1S4&
/) BrL KZ. 1S46. N. 6. 9. 11. 40. 54. 94. 97. 1M7. N. 12. 48. 47. C7. 70. 75. UlHcA, d. VertUiwn
gegen Bopp. In d. RecurMnstanz v. s. Dcfen.'or. Lps. 1S46. II Bertholdi^ KrlUk d. RuppiaolsmoiL
1846.— ^tf/)/) ; Ue. d. christL Staat K<.nlgsb. 1S42. Die Symbolo oder Oottes Wort Lpa. IS46^ Off-
ner Brief an Dr. BonBch. LpA. 1S47. Die frele ev. K. in Vcrbind. m. GleldigMiimteo. Altenl». 1S41
P. 1. Christl ErUanngsbuch t froie er. Oemeinden. Kunigsb. lS46ii 8 Tola.
CHAP. V. ETANO. CHURCH TILL 1858. $ 4M. FREE CONQREGATluNS. 58 1
with any poblio body, was nnwilling to bo controlled in his doctrine and
osages by any authority but that of the majority of bis congregation, he was
deposed (April, 1846) by the Consistory of Magdeburg from the pastoral office
which he held at Halle, for gross violations of the established order with
respect to the liturgy and the doctrines of the Church. (</) He collected a
small congregation professing to believe in an always [)rogressive revelation,
and constituting a serious moral association with agreeable forms of social
life, in which baptism was left to every one's own choice, and no one claimed
any ecclesiastical character. (//) Merely as an attempt to form a congrega-
tion at Marhvrg^ a few Friends of Light in that place proclaimed (Feb., 1847)
that they had emancipated themselves from the dualism of humanity and
divinity, and of time and eternity, exemplified in the person of Jesus, and
had planted themselves on the universal foundation of Christianity and Prot-
estantism. They professed that they had abandoned the fanciful world em-
braced in the Church, which had become disgusting to them, and that they
had now advanced to the more fraternal union of a free humanity. (/) But
free congrcgntions sprung up at first in the Prussian towns through the efforts
of pastors who had either been deposed, or were hard pressed by the author-
ities. They recognized no definite confessions of faith ; their Christianity
was a mere humanity; the only renmant of the Church which they retained
in various degrees, was a system of morality free to all who were disposed to
receive it ; and they looked upon themselves as a particular family of the
groat human race, which was to be united at some future day in the bonds
of pe.'ice. They kept up a voluntary form of association, although at an
aft*cmbly of their deputies at Nordhausen (Sept., 1847), the representatives
from Marburg and llalle proposed to give up the name of Christian, thus
reducing to practice the fanciful idea of the PhiJalethea of Kiel, who only
wished to ignore Christianity, and to use the most general forms of piety, (k)
The consistories maintained their jurisdiction over those separated congrega-
tions, and punishment was inflicted upon particuhir individuals for an unau-
thorized performance of ministerial acts, and the marriages solenmized by
them were treated as illicit until the Edict of Toleration (March 80, 1847),
which, on the one hand, defined the existing law so as, in the spirit of Frederic
the Great, to permit any number of licensed chapels of another faith to be built
around the Evangelical and Catholic national churches ; and on the other,
declared the principle that certain civil rights were not dependent upon cer-
tain religious acts of a religious society recognized by the state. (/) Tho
orthodox party was pleased with this law, because it proposed a way by
g) O. Eberty, Schutrsclir. f WW. (lurch r crwublten Verthoi<lIsrer. AUenb. 1S46. Die Aint«ent-
Mti. d. Pfiirrera O. A. Wbl. ActcmntUvi;: (largest durcli. O. A. Wisl LpA. Ib4^
A) Brl. KZ. 1S4G. N. Mrt. Sa. 1>47. N. 7. Letter to K.inijjsborg : ///*'/. 1S4C. N. 41. Orfran :
KlrebL Reform. Monatsachr. f. frcio Protestantcn. Hal. ISlCsa.— /2. Arn/oy, (L rroU Freumle u. •!.
Joden. LpiL 1S47.
0 BrL K25. 1846. N. 6S. 1847. N. 7. 15. Bayrhqfer^ d. wahre Wesen d. pegcnw. rel. Ret In
DeotachL Mannh. 1846.
*) Brl. KZ. 1845. N. »a 90. 1846. N. 102. \%\1. N. 4. 6. 9. 63. 67. Ed, Bitltzer, d. deuUJie K. Son-
Jmb. 1M7. 2 H.— Entw. e. Bittschr. an deuti«che Fftrhten. Kiel, InIO. Grunds. d. n-l. Wahrholth-
(V«nnde. K. 188a VorluuH Nuchricbt v. d. iin Miirz 1812. gestifteten llolrt. Pl.IlHletljenv.Teln.
iZeitach. t hist Tb. 1S39. IL 2.) /) BrL KZ. l!>47. N. 29s.
582 MOD£SN CIIUBCH HISTORY. FEB. YL A. D. 1648-1808.
which the Rationalists might leave the Church. AcoordiDglj, UJdich (ajfter
1845), the preacher in St. Catharine^s church at Magdebnrg, was thus pro-
voked to leave the Church. He however at first refused to do so on account
of the beneficial influence which he hoped to exert upon the Great Churck
as his exemplary character was zealously vouched for by his congregation,
and the city in which ho ministered. But when he was asked by the consd^
tory, whether he would subsequently conform with punctuality to the require-
ments of the Agenda, and in no way assail the creed of the Evangelical
Church, he hesitated to give an affirmative answer without some conditions,
and prayed for Christian forbearance and indulgence. Ho was then suspended
(Sept., 1847), that by a regular process of discipline he might be legally de-
posed. Referring to the publicity of his instructions and his example, he
appealed to the Evangelical Church in Germany, in opposition to a coik^istory
which, under the influence of party zeal, he said was about to rend the
Church into a variety of sects, (m) and as a defence in case of nccesaty
against the present ecclesiastical government, established a more numerous
congregation than had before been formed (in the time of its highest prosperity
it numbered five thousand members). The legal existence of this congregation
was secured by a compliance with the terms of the Edict of Toleration (Jan.,
1848), and its permanency by a well-devLsed congregational polity, through
which it became rich in works of charity. In its original charter it bore also
a decidedly evangelical character, {n) but this was endangered by its connec-
tion with other free congregations, and by the different parties which had an
existence in it. — The great storm of Marcli, 1848, soon destroyed the odious
name of an ecclesiastical administration. Count Schweririy the minister for
public woi*dhip, admonished the consistories, in accordance with the princi-
ples of religious liberty adopted by the royal government, to give the pref-
erence to no dogmatic or theological party whatever, and to look only that,
in the spirit of evangelical charity. Christian truth be promoted on the basis
of the word of God. (o) He dissolved the Superior Consistory, and gave
orders for a committee to devise a synodal constitution, to be submitted to an
imperial synod which should soon after be convened, that thus the Church
might, according to a frequently expressed wish of the king, construct her
future organization for herself, (p) The outline of the electoral law for the
appointing synods, was published and defended by counsellors of the crown
versed in ecclesiastical law. It proposed that the deputies should be elected
by the congregations, but that the existing synods should be made use of in
the Western, and that district and provincial synods should be arranged so as
to serve for electoral bodies in the Eastern provinces, (g) But during the
patriotic movements which so happily corresponded with the ideals the king
had formed, his piety was deeply wounded by the pedantic outrage which
ni) Vtdich: Bckcnntnlsse. Lps. ISiS. Christenth. u. K. Lpa. 1S46. IT Satze in Betngr •• d. Ver
pflichtung>formel d. Syno^le In Berl. Wolfenb. 1S47.— Amtl. Verhandll. (dU July »; 1347.) betr. d*0
Pred Uhllch. Mapleb. 1S47. Weltere MlttbeDI. in Sachen d. Uhlich, ed. by blmsdC Wolfenb. 1S47.
BrL KZ. 1S47. N. 19. 65. 1852. N. 16. A. KZ. 1S47. N. 151 D. A. Z. 1847. N. 19». 816. Sift. UhL Ppd-
teJ.L: A. Z. f. Chrbtonth. u. K. 1S47. N. SI.— Moeli^r n. Uhllch. Lps. 184T.
n) BrL KZ. 1S47. N. 94. o) Of April 24 BrL KZ. 1848. N. 88.
/>) Ibid. N. 81. 86. q) U liichter, Vortrag CL d. Boruftuig t. ev. UndeasyiL Bri. 1848L
CHAP. y. SYANG. CHUSCH TILL 1858. $458. LADENBEBG. SAUMEB. 583
aimed to deprive royalty of its claim to exist by the grace of God. Before
the appointed synod could actually come together, the revolution was over-
thrown, and the Evangelical Ohurch Journal denounced the clamor for a
synodal constitution as an ill-concealed enmity to Christ, and the whole
scheme of an election by the people as a denial of God. (r) The provisional
ministry of Ladenherg inquired (Jan., 1849) of the consistories, faculties, and
select men of learning, what measures should be taken to secure to the Evan-
gelical Church, by a constitution, the independent management of its own affairs.
The numerous replies which it received, were tilled with doubts jih to the ex-
pediency of any synod which might be chosen by the people to form a constitu-
tion. (<r) The constitution of Jan. 81, 1850, granted by the crown, contained
many criticisms on itself, but the deputies united in it. and swore allegiance
to it. With respect to religion, the whole essential spirit of the German ftm-
damental laws was retained ; but as the opi)osite parties, the ouo rejoicing
and the other lamenting, had fallen into the notion that the state, by its sep-
aration from the Church, had become unchristian and atheistic, it was added,
that whenever the state made any regulations with reference to religion,
they should be on the basis of Christianity. A collegiate sujironie council
for deciding upon the internal atlairs of the Church, was formed, by the
order of the king, from the evangelical i)ortion of the ministry of public
worship, and a system of rules for the regulation of congregationid atiairs,
was bestowed upon the six eastern provinces. (0 The supreme ecclesiastical
council from that period governed the Church in the king^s name, and tan
Rainner^ the minister for public worship, in the presence of the Chambers
declared that the new doctrine was, that the Evangelical Church exercises
her constitutional right independently to regulate and administer her atfairs,
by its entire separation from, and consecjuent independence of the state, and
its government according to its ancient constitution, by the sovereign as its
most prominent member, (w) By this happy thought, anxiety for the inde-
pendence of the Church was tranquillized, and the Chambei-s succeeded in
repelling all complaints about violations of those articles of the fundamental
law of the state which relate to the independence of the Evangelical Church. (/•)
The plan for congregational government, which was looked upon as the basis of
true ecclesiastical freedom, contained a suspicious limitation of the power of
choosing the vestries, and an extraordinary requisition that the private mem-
bers should be bound by the three principal creeds, the confessions of the
Reformation, and certain general laws for the Church which were yet un-
known. In some of the Ciistern provinces, this plan was i>rotestod against
by parties opposed to each other, but it was at last gradually admitted into
r) Brl. KZ. 1S49. N. a
•) Amtl. GutachU'n cL VorC il. ov. K. in Pr. Iwtr. Iin Auftrage f^urch L Klchtcr. Brl. 1S49.
0 Of Jan. 26, ls49. and June '29. 1&5<1 Allorh«.clister Erlasi. botr. <L Orumlzau't' e. Geinclnde-
Ord. u. d. Einsotz. d Ev. OlK-rkircheur. neb>t Aktenst. Brl. laiO. Cuuip. J. JtuUer^ DcuUcbo
Zeltflch. f. chr. WL>«. 1S51. N. Iss.
«) Feb. 8. 1S61. Brl. KZ. 1«C)1. N. IS. 15. 17.
r) Die Sclbj'Undigk. d. ov. Lande»k. a. ihro VoUzichung darcb das Cultui>iiiln. Aktrnmasslg dar-
gest iL der zwcitcn Pr. Kammer aebcrrcicht v. Jonas, 8yduw, Eltc&ter, Krau»e, IJago, Mueller.
BrL ld51.
584 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. l«48-165flL
most of tlie congregations, (tr) The supreme ecclesiastical ooTmcil added
many salutary provisions for the order, discipline, and temporal wants of tlie
national Church, but under great disadvantages on account of its origin, and
in the midst of much opposition to its jurisdiction, (r) As a natural result
of the political reaction, the power of the orthodox party was increased, and
its eloquent legal advocate endeavored to show that the revolution was the
appropriate consequence of Rationalism ; that the essential spirit of both was
the alienation of man from his God ; (y) that authority should henceforth take
the plac« of the majority ; and that the king might, under certain pious
forms, be properly exonerated from his sinful oath to support the fundamen-
tal civil laws, (z) Some ecclesiastical authorities at ordinations demanded a
stricter adherence to the articles of faith than had been usually required ;
and even pastors, who could receive the confession in only some i>eculiar
ideal sense, were subjected to examinations which had long been discontinued,
and which terminated in their deposition, (a) Questions were also proposed to
candidates for theological professorships, which could not be answered, as was
required, in the affirmative, without a renunciation of all theological investi-
gation, (h) The free congregations (numbering about forty in Prussia and the
contiguous countrie:^), which had in 1848, like almost all associations, taken
some part in politics, and whose leaders had to some extent been involved in
the movements of the day, h.nd nearly all their houses of worship closed by
the police under the new law against political societies. These proceedings
were partially confirmed by the jurlioinl courts, but some measures of the
police seemed so inconsistent with the freedom of conscience guarantied by
the fundamental laws, that inquiries were instituted respecting them even in
the Chambers (1852), where the government had avowed its determination
to exterminate by every legal means the whole system of dissent, (c) The
supreme ecclesiastical council excommunicated all the free congregations,
without reference to the various tendencies among them, and pronounced
their baptisms invalid, {d) yet the civil courts punished every official act of
their ministers as an invasion of the clerical office, (e) But no mere liberty
without religious energy, nor connections with even impious men, who denied
the existence of a living God, nor popular adulation, to which their best lead-
ers felt constrained to resort, nor persecution itself, have been found sufficient
for the salvation of those people. (/) i?w/>/>, however, endeavored to obtain
a higher degree of purity, by a legal dissolution of the old, and the formation
K) Alljr. KBlatt £ d. ev. Dcutachl. 1S,')2. N. 83»8. 1853. N. 86ss.— (?. Schueriti'9 Protest: BrL
KZ. 1851. N. 65.
a*) Aktonstucke a. d. Verwalt d. Abth. d. Mlnist t d. innero ev. KSftchen. Brl. 1850. Aktenit
a. d. Verw. d ev. OKKaths. BrL 1851s. 5 11.
i/) F. J. Stahi, was bt die Kov. ? BrL 1852. Yet Comp. Ibid. d. FrotestaDt. als pollt ^rind^
(Ev. KZ. 1S.")8. N. 28.)
«) Brlefe ii. Staatskunst BrL 1858. Yet Et. KZ. 1858. N. Is.
a) W. F. SlnUni*^ Moelh-r's Wirken In Consist u. In d. Gen. Super. Lps. 1849. J, H. Balbtr, «.
Qlanbf nsgerlcht In dc-r MItte d. 19 Jalirh. Lps. 1850.
h) Z<Ii8ch. f. unlrte K. 1S53. vol XV. N. 83. c) Brl, KZ. 1852. N. 6. 9.
d) Aktcnst d. OKRaths. II. 2. p. «6.««a e) Brl KZ. 1851. N. 87. 77. 1S62. N. 11.
/) WftBsgerber, Donai's none rel. Meuselw. 1851. C. ZtchUscht^ d. ftt;ie Gemelnde, fhre WIrk-
samk. u. Ihre Stlmujfurer Jn d, Pr. Sachscn. Ualbrst 1860.
CHAP. V. ETANG. CnURCH TILL 1853. $ 456. LUTHERANISM. 585
of a new but small congregation (Oct., 1853), in wliich the Bible was re-
garded as the original source of tmth, and the imitation of Christ was made
the snprcme end of life, (g) The orthodox portion, on the other liand, which
had recently become so artificially prominent, was compelled once more, and in
more general relations, to be as exclusive as Luther himself. But these Luther-
ans were so confident of success, and so little troubled with conscientious scru-
ples, that although they had before formed an association at Leipsic composed
of clergymen behmging to the different national churches, and in friendly
connection with the Separatists for the maintenance of the Lutheran confes-
sion ; and although, according to this association, the modern notion of union
in the fundamental doctrines of the two confessions was nothing but a syn-
cretism of many chameleon forms, (//) they refused to attach themselves to
the Church of Luther which the Separatists had formed, but under the con-
duct of the fugitive president of the Consistory of Magdeburg, they consti-
tntcd over the graves of the Reformers a league (Sept., 1849) for carrying out
the Lutheran confession, even in its provif^ions for public worship, congrega-
tional order, and the government of the national Church. (/) In the king-
dom of Saxony, they had in their favor tlio letter of tlie law, and the coun-
tenance of the rulers, and in Electoral Hesse they had at least the latter
advantage. In Bavaria, although the younger clergy on the eastern side of
the Rhine had been educated at Erlangen under their influence, the more
zealous portion declared that they had already taken the staff to leave a
Church whose altar had been polluted by the admission of the members of
the united Ciiurch, and that they only waited to see if it could not be freed
from this impurity, (l) In Prussia, they demanded that the Union, which
they declared had never been legally formed, and denounced as confu.'»ion and
revolution, should be utterly dissolved. Internal dissensions, like those
which usually distract a triumphant party, began already to prevail, princi-
pally with respect to the question, whether those invested with the clerical
ofiice were endowed with special grace as the solo depositaries of ecclesiasti-
cal power. (/) By the separated Lutherans their whole course was declared
to be a lie. Ouericle^ the confessor of Lutheranism, and afterwards much
abused as an apostate from it, once more abandoned the fellowship of the
rigid Lutherans, where he had vainly hoped to find a Christian spirit and
freedom for a Lutheran conscience. (///) While those who were faithful to
the Union charged the supreme council with having sacrificed it, prayer was
offered in a Lutheran pulpit for an orthodox supreme council, and even then
the existence of that which then ruled the Church was declared to be a
sin. (u) It however agreed that it regarded only those congregations in
g) D. A. Z. 1S53. N. 253. h) Ev. KZ. 1849. N. 61.
0 BrL KZ. 1S4S. N. 94. 1549. N. 77. -Die Lcipzeiger Konforenz am 81. Aug. an.l 1. Sept 1S53.
(X<iAn/«, &. d. UnlonsdoctriD.) Lp& 1S58.
k) Brl. KZ. 1850. N. 65. 1852. N. 1. JTommel, Recht d. K., Union u. d. baj. prot. Landeak.
An»p. 1S58.
/) J. W. r. mtfiing, Orundafitz* ev. luth. KVerf. Erl. (185a) 1861.— JTKrlv, t, Lehre v. d. K
(Zeltuch. t Inth. Th. 1S52. U. 1.)
m) G\*€rivkf^ Ven()hnllches Q. brennende KFragen d. Oegenw. Lps. 1852.
n) Brl. KZ. 1S52. N. 94 Otto, Sup. in Naugard, in d. Denksch. d. luth. yert*ln.<« in Poznincrn, a.
d. Antwort des OKBaths: Aktcnat. II. & i>. 898a. C<nni>. Otto, Monataachrift. 1861m.
5SG MODERN CUUBCU HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. tM8-1858L
Silesia as truly united in the Confession, which conld show the original docu-
ments relating to the Union ; it delivered the whole of Pomerania, which
really possessed them, over to the exclusively Lutheran Confession ; and it
conceded that particular pastors might dispense at will with the breaking of
the bread, which was looked upon as the symbol of the Union, and that the
Silesian consistory might separate into three parts, so as to form a Lutheran,
a Kcfortned, and a United division, with a council for' each Confession, (o)
Even the Evangelical Church Journal had already long doubted with regard
to the enthusiasm it had displayed for the Union under Frederic William III.,
and it found an occasion for a cliange of course in its opposition to a Union
which absorbed all the Confessions. (;>) The king made known to the Lu-
theran association (1850) his desire to establish consistories and superior
authorities in tlie Church, which in the eastern provinces should be Lutheran,
with Reformed assessors ; (q) and ho gave orders that, in order to preserve
the independence of the two confessions in the Union, the supreme ecclesias-
tical council should consist of members from both confessions, and that all
business which could properly bo decided by but one of the confessions,
should be left to the votes of those who belonged to that confession. The
same division was also to be made in the consistories, (r) The supreme coun-
cil separated into two divisions, according as they were members of the
Lutheran or tlie Reformed confessions. Dr. NiUsch alone preferred to adhere
to the consensus of the two confessions, and was therefore released from all
participation In the decision of confessional questions, but he was held up as
the patron df the congregations united in the confession by the original docu-
ment. 0 These proceedings were regarded by the Lutherans as a legal dis-
solution of the Union, and they now therefore demanded in Luther's name,
that the monster of the authorities of the united Church which still existed
should be completely abolished ; that purely Lutheran faculties, or at least
professors, should be appointed ; and that the patrimony of the Lutheran
Church should be restored, {t) Even those advocates of orthodoxy who had
formerly been moderate in their demands, now raised the watchword that
those who governed the Church appeared to give their countenance not to
the Union, but to its opponents, and that the natural result of this should be
the separation of clergymen and congregations, until finally the royal regeat
of the Church would be the only individual belonging to the united body, (tf)
Indeed, the old traditions and necessary policy peculiar to the Hohenzolltfn
family seemed entirely forgotten in the pleasure which all seemed to feel in
the separation of the confessions. The king then avowed his just displeasure
at the unfair interpretation given to his orders of the previous year. He de-
clared that he had never intended to disturb the Union, and thus produce a
6\ Aktcnst IT. 1. p. 4068. VL. 2. p. 14»s. Brl. KZ. 1853. n. 80. Aktenst d. Abth. d. Minis! pi 7(lK
p) First in 1S44. N. 2a. 1847. N. 1.-1849. X. Sss. 1851. N. 4
q) Printed by //uw, K. d. dt Reicha. p. 277. .
r) Order of the Cabinet, March 6, 1852 : Brl KZ. 1852. N. 88. InstmctioDS for the conslstoriM:
Jbid, N. 41. h) Ibid. N. 63.
0 0[>en Deolar. in the Monatsschr. Jane, 1852. Lath. Ocn. Conf. at Witt S«pt 1853. : BrL K&
1852. N. 82. A. KZ. 1852. N. 105.
V) Brl KZw 1852. N. 61. 90. Deutsche Zeltsch. C chr. Wisa. 1858. N. Isa. 10m.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1853. § 457. BEBLIN EVANO. CONFER. 587
division of the nationtd Church, nor to renew the old controversy about the
confessions. The ecclesiastical authorities were therefore directed to oppose
all attempts to separate the two confessions, to allow no synods, or even indi-
vidual clergymen or congregations, to lay aside the name of Evangelical Con-
gregations, or the ritual prescribed for the Union ; and only on the united
request of a clergyman and his congregation, after all proper means and per-
suasions had been tried, to permit particular congregations to deviate from
the regulations prescribed for the Evangelical National Church. (') Two
views of this proceeding were expressed among the Lutherans : one was that
of painful disappointment from a conviction that this order of the cabinet
was a complete renunciation of the previous legislation ; and the other looked
upon it as a mere check to the wavering course of tlie whole policy for the
Union, (/r)
§ 457. Comhinatiojis.
The Evangdicnl Conference assembled at Berlin in consequence of a wish
expressed by the Kings of Wnrtemberg and Prussia, that the Evangelical
Church of Germany might be more perfectly united, and continued in ses-
sion from January Gth to February 14th, 1846. Some hopes were enter-
tained in it of forming a union by a stricter construction of doctrines, and
Bome violent measures were proposed for the accomplishment of such an ob-
ject. But as the great miyority were only in favor of securing, on the basis
of the confessions, the two fundamental doctrines which asserted that the
Scriptures were the only source of the knowledge of saving truth, and that
justification was by faith, this diplomatic assembly from its nature could
only exchange views and make arrangements for an intercourse between the
different parts of the common church by annual assemblies, (a). The Church
Conference^ which had been for a while suspended, was resumed at the sug-
gestion of a private company of persons, and of a journal used as an official
organ by the ecclesiastical authorities of all Germany, (h) It was held after
Pentecost 1852 and 1853 at the foot of the Wartburg, and was intended to
be a meeting of deputies from the supreme authorities of most of the national
German churches for confidential conference, but with no legislative powers, (c)
But although these spiritual and secular authorities of the Church stood in
this independent position with respect to each other, some of them believed
in the development of Protestantism and in the Union, while others saw no
reality in either. But as all were anxious to preserve the blessing of some
visible form of unity for the whole Protestant Church of Germany, questions
of a deeper and more dreaded nature were held at a distance. The expe-
rience and the wishes of different individuals were here compared, and a
c) Cabinet Order of July 12, 1S53 : ZcitBch. t unlrte ev. K. 1858. N. 85.
tr) Lmh. Gen. C^onf. at Witt. ScpL 1S58: Ev. KZ 1S58. N. 83. Comp. 73. T9a. Counter asacrUon
of the kitif: to tlu; WiiL Conf. of Oct 11 : D. A. Z. 1858 N. 2Ta
a) Literur. rro^ainine: C. UUmann (p. 572. nt. e.) Official action : Loccumcr Artlkel. ^I)lo Vor-
■eliliijre d. Dr. Snothlagc k Kappetoln z. Verein d. ev. K. DeuUichL mit^etheilt y. Perez, Grim. 1S46.
BrL KZ. IS 16. N. 7. 11. 2*^. 33 )— Account in Biedcnnann, ansre Gcgcnw. a. Zuk. 1:140. II. S. Die Kc-
•nltat4! d. IWrl. Kunf L|>8. 1846. Comp. Bruna, Kep. 1S46. vol VL p. 229iw.
I) WXiz. Kirchenblatt fTtr d. ev. Deut!^^hland, ed. by C. 0. Moaer. Stiittg. I. 1>52. II. 1S53.
c) Protocola : KUUtt 1652. N. la 1853. N. 29aa. BrL KZ. 1S52. N. 17. 86. 89. 45a. 1858. N. 4A. 47.
588 MODERN CnUBCH IIISTOET. PER. YL ▲. D. 1»4S-195&
choice collection of hymns for a general hyinn-book was adopted, (d) thongh
not till, in the committee of invited persons conversant with such matters,
one party contending for the adoption, at every hazard, of the old text, had
been excluded, and another, wishing to preserve the ecclerfastical poetry of
the eighteenth century, had been set aside without a hearing of its peculiar
views, (e) A desire which had been expressed at a secular festival on the
field of Lutzen, to erect a monument to the heroic death of Gustavus Adol-
phus, by obtaining minute contributions from the people, was so modified,
when tlie sovereign himself erected a monument over the Swedish stone, as
to lead to the idea of a charitable institution bearing his name, to sustain those
evangelical congregations which, in the neighboring Catholic countries, were
unable to endure the expense needful for their ecclesiastical support. The
Gustarus Adolphns InHitution in Saxony, with some assistance from Sweden,
collected (after 1834) a small capital, the interest of which was barely suffi-
cient to render the necessity of such aid more apparent. Finally an i4>peal
from Darmstadt (Oct. 81, 1841) produced another effort in connection with
the Saxon institution, though in a superior style (1842). An assembly was
then held at Frankfort (1843), at which a wise division of labor was made
among various auxiliary associations, with a central committee at Leipsic, and
a superior movable assembly of deputies returning at fixed intervals. The
result of all these proceedings was the establishment of an Evangelical Society
of the Gustavus Adolphus Institution, which, as a Protestant German popular
cause, collects the means for sustaining and building churches for many poor
and almost extinct congregations. (/) The German governments, though in
some cases with reluctance, yielded to the popular influence of this associa-
tion, though in Bavaria it was proscribed until 1848, on the ground that it
was hostile to the Catholic Church, and inconsistent with the German char-
acter, {g) As it was founded principally by the liberal party, Ilengstenberg
pronounced the association a great lie, {h) and the Prussian crown was unwil-
ling to sustain any but an independent Prussian society under the patronage
of the king, (i) But as every effort was likely to be paralyzed by this sepa-
ration, the government finally yielded to the popular will, and at the assem-
bly at Gottingen (1844) the Prussian deputies extended to it the hand of
brotherhood. (Jc) The internal importance of the society, in spite of the lim-
ited nature of its external objects, resulted from the fact that it was a neutral
holy ground on which all parties in the Evangelical Church could meet, and
on which that Church could once more be seen as an undivided power. When
therefore, at the assembly at Gottingen, it was asked that more definite quali-
fications should be named for admission to the association than a mere agree-
d) Dtfutscbes cv. KlrchenjreKangbuch in 150 Kernliedcrn.
«) J. G^fcken, d. all?, ev. OcMngb. n. d. dar&bcr gefuhrtcn YerbandlL Hamb. 18S8L
/) I-tipz. Z. 1832. N. 164. 1838. N. 11. A. K. Z. 1985. N. 9. 66. 1S41. N. 19. 80. 172. 139. «08L 1941
N. 107. 133. 1.39. 174. Orsran. since the Assemb. at Frankfort : Der Bote des ev. Yerelns d. O. A. Stlf
tang. Issued by K. Zlinmermnnn.
g) A. K. z! In 14. N. 34. 45. Brl. K. Z. 1549. N. TflL
h) Kv. K. Z. 1M4. N. rt yet romp. 7j». A. K. Z. 1844. N. 41.
0 Cabinet cr.l. r c.f r,!.. i \. 1^44 : Report of the O. A. Bt L p. 88s.
*) Ibid. p. 2M)w. V.x>r\ K. Z. 1S4L N. 16. 17. W.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CIIUECII TILL 1853. § 457. GUSTAVUS AD0LPHU3 SOCC. 589
mont with the principles of tlie Evangelical Church, the request was at once
rejected. (/) Dr. Rupp was sent by the superior association of Konigsberg as
its deputy to the assembly at Berlin in 1846. A vote being taken on the va-
lidity of his credentials on the night of September 7th, a smjdl niiyority ap-
peared against recognizing him as a member of the assembly, (m) Although
the general sentiment was averse to a perversion of the society to objects
foreign to its nature, yet the ortliodox party demanded his exclnsion us an
apostate, and they were joined by some of the liberal deputies. This was
done by tlie latter either because they wished to prevent the society being
made an authority in matters of faith, and therefore allowed the Evangelical
Church to be postponed for the Established Church, or they had a superior
regard for the success of the society which seemed of special imporLance in
that particular locality. Immediately wiis heard in every part of Protestant
Germany a cry of extreme disi)leasure at this acticm, and an immense ma-
jority appeared in the local societies in various ways, ofiering protests and
asserting that the decision at Berlin was based upon a false idea of the Evan-
gelical Church, and that the free alliance of love had degenerated into an
inqnisitorial tribunal {n) On the other hand, the other party tlireateued to
withdraw, and even then Gustavus Adolphus Societies with separate ec<;lesi-
astical connections had been formed at Koenigsburg and Berlin, and were
readily licensed by the government, but never exhibited much life, (o) The
new elections threw the power in the assembly at Darmstadt (1847) into tlie
hands of those opposed to the decision at Berlin ; but as all dreaded the im-
piety of a schism, )is Rupp had withdrawn, and as the subsequent course of
the free congregations themselves was such as to render their right to a mem-
bership in the Evangelical Clmrch very doubtful, the parties agreed that with-
out reconsidering the decision at Berlin, whenever it became necessary to
act npon the exclusion of a deputy for his want of a membership in the
Evangelical Church, the decision should belong to the superior assembly un-
der such regulations as would give no room for temporary passions and preju-
dices, and as would allow the true m^ority at tlie time to show itself. It
was resolved that no deputy from a society unconnected with the established
churches should be entitled to a seat, (p) After a decline in consequence of
the sway of tlie political spirit of 1848, the interest in this cause annually
increased as in former times until 1853, when the yearly revenue amounted
to $38,000. Numerous churches have been erected, those which were decay-
ing have been repaired, and those outposts of Protestantism which seemed
almost lost have had their confidence revived. The idea of an Evangelical
/) Report of the O. A. St I. p. 869»s.
m) Pnjtocoll u. d. Sttznnsj d. 5, Ilanptvcrs. Lps. IS 10, 4. Comp. Brl. KZ. 1846. N. 74s. 76sw J.
Gffvl-^ti, Berfcht u. die zn Rorlin {reli. llauptven. Hanib. 1S46.
fi) Keport <»f the 0. A. 1^6, p. 29.'»s!«. Brl. KZ. 1*46. N. 93. 95. C. ScAiairz, Dr. Rupp's Auaschllesi.
1£aI. ISId. TheiU^ Uiipp's Au».scliIios.s. Lp^ 1$4(>. Ritpi*. d. G. A. Vcrein u. d. ev. K. Altonb. 1S47.
Eltei-Ur n. Kraim^^ 1st d. (J. A. Y. cin Landoskircbl. o. o. er. protc«tantl8chor ? W. DitUnbfrger^ &.
d. AuMchL V. R. Hcidclb. ISiT. Fur tho decision : C. Lampe^ u. d. Auaaohl. d. Dr. Rupp. L|«. 1S46.
Ukcke a. CUmann^ u. d. Nictitatinuluiie il. Konigab. DepuUrt^n. Ilainb. 1S47. De Wette^ d. Au9(K:hL
d. Dr. Rupp. Lpa. 1<^*7.— KrLsIs d. G. A. Vereins. Wecbaclreden. v. F. Mallet u. IT. JIuji/eld. Hal.
1M7. coDip. Reuter, Rep. 1^7. II. 6a.
0) £y. K. Z. 1347. N. 6. Brl K. Z. 1S17. N. 9. 63. 63b. 75. p) Ibid. N. 79.
590 MODERN CirURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 1649-1858.
Chvrch Alliance was started in a circle of friends at the Sandhof near Frank-
fort, but the association itself was formed by persons of a similar spirit, called
together by a public appeal in the Castle church of Wittenberg (Sept. 1848).
Its general aim was to constitute, in a time of fearful division, a firm bulwark
for the faith, and the two special objects which it had in view have been well
represented in the persons of the two jurists ton Befhmann-ffoUtreg and
Stahl^ who have been annually but regularly elected the Presidents of its
yearly meetings. One of these was to satisfy in some practicable form the
desire then generally felt for a Gorman National Church, and the other was
to modify the Union, for which the new Prussian regulations had left no other
distinction than the permission for each confession to follow out its own pecu-
liar system of government, until it should become a mere confederation, (q)
Hencx?, in the original charter, the Cliurch Alliance was declared, on the one
hand, not to be a union in wliich the confessional churches are to be abol-
ished, but a confederation of all those ecclesiastical bodies which stood on
the basis of the reformed confessions, viz., the Lutheran, the Reformed, the
United, and the Moravian Churches, for the promotion of certain common
interests, without impairing the complete independence of either particular
church ; and on the other, to have no actual existence until, in compliance
with the request of a committee afterwards to be chosen, the authorities of
the rosi)ective national and confessional churches should send deimties whose
special business it should be to form the true Ecclesiastical Council of the
Evangelical Church (of Germany). StahPs object was frustrated by the
power which still remained in the Union, and that of B. Hollwog found no
support, and nothing to draw men together during the j)olitical revolutions
then tiking place. The only effects of their efforts were, the separation of
the Prussian supreme ecclesiastical council into its different confessions, and
the meeting of the Conference at Eisenach. But the assemblies annually
convened by the invitxition of the permanent committee became, like the
movable assemblies of the Gustavus Adolphus Society, though with far more
comprehensive objects and ecclesiastical results, great pastoral conferences, to
which distinguished preachers were invited for the discussion of the practical
questions of the day. (r) With no other limitation than the equivocal con-
dition that all should stand on the Reformed Confessions, here were collected
for free co-operation and sympathy those two parties especially which, at the
Prussian General Synod, and with respect to that synod, stood in such hos-
tile relations to each other. At these Bcclesiastieal DieU the members not
only poured forth the warm feelings of their hearts and uttered many devo-
tional sentiments without reference to each other's peculiarities, but many
maxims and plans of Christian wisdom were presented. The divided state
of opinion and the hesitation apparent in it, made its decisions of but little
q) Dormer Q. Reform d. ev. Landeskiroben Im Znsammenh. mit Hentell. e. ev. deatsohra K**
tlonRlk. Bonn. 1848.
r) Die Vcrhandlungen d. Witt Vereamml. by Kllng. Brl. 1848. Verb. d. 2. Witt KTtgM. R
1JW9. 2 H. Verb. d. 8. deatschen KTagcs za Stnttg. ed, by Lecbler, B. 1860. 3 H. Verli. d- 4 KTi««i
t\\ Elbcrffld, e<l. by Krafft B. 1851. 2 11. Verb. d. 6. KT. zu Bremen, ed. by Toel, B. laa « H.
Verb. d. 6. KT. za Berlin, ed. by Rendtorff, B. 1858.— Entstehang a. bisher. G«Beh. d. dentaebeD «▼•
KTage«L Bil. 1858.
CHAP. V. EVANO. CUUECn TILL 1658. § 45T. DOMESTIC MISSIONS. 591
avail, but they were generally pnt forth against the unbelief and partial faith
of the times. Propositions of an extraordinary character \Vere generally
modified, or allowed to remain as rash threats ; (j») but the partial reports
which particular parties sometimes gave of the proceedings of some assembly,
acting without duo preparation or skill, were in danger of conveying state-
ments or hasty representations to the minds of evangelical princes, and thus
suspicions might be thrown upon the efforts of more liberal persons, and the
natural development of their plans might be disturbed. The propositions of
a committee at the Ecclesiastical Diet at Berlin, to leave undisturbed the pe-
culiar confession of each church, but to acknowledge the Augsburg Confes-
sion of 1680 as the common record of evangelical doctrine in Germany
(according to the programme, as the fundamental creed of the whole Evan-
gelical Church of Germany), was almost unanimously adopted, and every
attempt to modify or explain it was repelled in a dictatorial manner. From
the first every invitation to co-operate in this movement had been declined
by the separatist Lutheran Church. A few Lutheran doctors of Erlangen,
Leipsic, and Rostock, gave their testimony against the resolution of the Assem-
bly at Berlin, on the ground that it was a deceptive act^ and injurious, not
only to the Lutheran Church which claimed the Augsburg Confession as its
exclusive property, but to the Confession itself, and that it obliterated all
those distinctions which God had placed between truth and error, (t) The
ecclesiastical diet, from its first organization, was principally engaged in plans
for domestic missions to relieve the spiritual and temporal necessities of evan-
gelical people by means of evangelical instruction and fraternal supplies. The
Church had indeed always been an institution for affording such relief, but
the doctrine of the merit of works had made the Catholic far more efficient
in such matters than the Evangelical Church, and the practical activity of
the Reformed had always exceeded that of the Lutheran body. "With the
increase of life in the Church, Christian love manifested itself also more ener-
getically in those various associations which had been devised against the
miseries of social life, and entered with more or less earnestness into mea-
sures for the spiritual welfare of all who wore alienated from God. (m) Wp-
chern, a licentiate, and the superintendent of the Rough Uouse near Ham-
burg, for the rescue of neglected children (after 1833), succeeded by enthusi-
astic speeches and writings in making the cause of Domestic Missions a
popular object even in circles of fashion, and the hesitation of the Luther-
ans on the ground that it might be an interference with the clerical office,
through the unrestrained activity of associations, and that it was a develop-
ment of the doctrine of the universal priesthood, has been insufficient to
check its progress.(r) The centralization of the quiet but complicated action of
«) Ev. KZ. 1852. p. 904.
/) DaA B<>kenntnbs dcr lutb. K. gegen d. Bek. d. B^rl KTagA gewahrt von etilchon Lehrcrn d.
Th. 11. d. KUechtsL ErL 1S5S. Coinp. W. F. Bi9Htr, Union u. Confoed. (Zvltsch. f. lutli. Tb. 1S49.
1L2)
u) Diac-nnUsen-Anstalt za KaiserswGrth. (.V. KZ. 1S39. N. 135. 1310. N. 41.) Die bannb. Schwest-
ern d. ev. K. (Deut'^he Vicite\jabn»cb. 1842. N. 19.)
c) lilc fltegenden Blatter defl rauben IIaii»e!S Ilaiub. & ISIS. Die innero Mission d. deutscben ev.
K. Denkachr. an d. dt NaUon. Hamb. 1849.
592 MODEEN CnURClI UI8T0BT. PER. VL A. D. 1613-1858.
the local associations which soino havo attempted, will, perhaps, only give
greater importance to the whole by the increase of counsel, and by the pro-
posed education of well qualified laborers ; (if) and the ecclesiastical diet,
while it serves to inflame the hearts of men to afford on ample supply for
the abyss of neglected wretchedness which it discloses, will make the Church
Alliance a voluntary aUiance of faith working by love. The progress of Catho-
licism in England produced such a spirit of co-operation among the Protes-
tants of that country, that many were prepared for a plan of union embracing
all truly evangelical communities. After a preliminary meeting at Liver[jool
(1845), and after much discussion of various propositions at an assembly in
Loudon (184G), an Ecangelical Alliance visa formed with groat rejoicings, in
which, on the basis of nine articles as a common platform of faitli, any per-
sons in their individual capacity, and without interfering with their ecclesias*-
tical diflbrences, might extend to each other as Evangelical Christians the
hand of fellowship. Even CJermans took part in these proceedings, and
Northern and Southern CJcrmany were marked out for auxiliary societies.
But such was the nature of the articles that no union based upon them could
be of much importauce except for Groat Britain and North America, to re-
mind the numerous s:cts of tliose countries, who are divided by certain rigid
literalities, but are united in the many fundamental doctrines of primitive or-
thodoxy, of their higher unity, (x)
§ 458. The Scriptures. Contfrom § 879, 411.
Dr Wettif, Elnl. in das A. u. N. Te< (|>. N"V>.) [Int 1«» the O. T. transl. fhrni the Oenn. of De
Wett^, with copious ailcL by TIkhmI. Parker. B<>»t. 1S43. 2 vols.] In <J. N. T. \>y Credner^ H«L ISSta.
by Xfutiecter^ Li>s. 1S40. liftnut, (k*sch. <1. II. Scbrift. (p. 44C.) [Some notices may also befoDnU ia
7'. II. Homes ic Davidmn'H Intrcxliictions.]
The peculiar nature of Protestantism was exhibited in the fact that all
parties, in i)roportion as they had a living connection with the Church, met
on the common ground of tlie Scriptures. Although these had lost some-
thing of the venerable majesty they onc« possessed as a holy book, modem
Protestantism made it easier to investigate them f\& original documents. With
respect to the New Testament, Griesbach (1745-1812) examined all the libra-
ries of Europe, and laid down the principles for ascertaining the most proba-
ble reading by a careful weighing of testimony and a preference of the older
Alexandrian manuscripts, {a) Lachmann (d. 1851), without regard to the
sense of the passages, merely sought for the most ancient reading, (&) and
Tiachendorf recovQred manuscripts which had been lost, and restored otherB
which had been defaced, (c) In the historical investigations for determiniog
ir) Entatth. n. Gosch. <L KTaffS. p. 548L BrL KZ. 1852. N. 17.
ar) E-ssays on CJir. Union, K.linb. IS 15. Br). KZ. lS4rt. N. 4l8S. 45. 50. 68* 71. 74 81. S7. S9. 1347.
N. 11. 84. ('. Jiitnn &. TA. PlitU d. ev. Bund. Baa. 1S47. E. Boefimer. d. ev. Bundoatag in LnodoB.
1851. (l)euU.>tio Zeibch. f. clir. W. 1S51. X. 4ds ) Journals of the Alliance: £vani;elical CbriatcA-
dom, «b Bulletin du Monde chrvticn.
a) J. C. ir Auffuttti, u. Grlesb. Venlieaate. Bresl. 1S12.
b) N. T. Brl. ls31. Stud. u. Krit 1S:)0. il. U 1S32. H. 4. N. Test gr. et lat C. Laehmuuuk^no.
Phil. BuitmannuH^ ^r. lect auctoritates a])poi»ait, Ber. 1842-50. 3 Tola.
c) Gtd. Epbraeini rescr. Lpa. 1848-5. 2 vols. 4 Monuoini. sacra N. T. I^iSw lSi6b 4.
CHAP. V. KVANO. CnURCII TILL 1S58. $ 46S. WINKK. LUCKE. 593
the genuineness of the writings of tho Old Testament, especially of those
which bore the names of Mjses and Daniel, then generally regarded as the
work of later authors, every effort was made by the newly awakened ortho-
doxy to prove that they were composed by those whose names they bore, (d)
Besides those books of the New Testament which had been subject to some
suspicion in ancient times, the first gospel lost the name of Matthew, (e) the
pastoral epistles were called in question, (f) some painful but easily re-
tracted doubts were raised respecting the gospel of Jolin, which had been so
highly extolled for its theology of feeling, (g) Xo sooner was the interpreta-
tion of the Scriptures released from the service of Orthodoxy than it was
taken up by the party of the Enlightenment. The ultimate result^* of their
efforts may bo seen in the ethical expositions required by Kant, and the
rationalistic explanation of the miraculous history. Wlicn science itself suc-
ceeded in overcoming this feeble effort, the object of all true interpretation
was generally acknowledged to be a faithful representation of the literal
sense intended by the sacred authors. Wirier (b. 1789) made use of the de-
velopment given to classical philology for determining the idioms of the New
Testament, that he might terminate all uncertainty about the meaning of
particular words by the highest degree of grammatical accuracy, (h) Liicke
(b. 1791) was the first who, in the spirit of tho recent free investigation, re-
ferred once more to the religious element as it may bo learned through the
sympathy which tlie interpreter shouM feel with primitive antiquity, and as
it is indicated by ecclesiastical tradition, (i) and enriched by a strong predilec-
tion for the explanation given by the ecclesiastical fathers and reformers.
The Hegelian school insisted that it was the highest duty of an interpreter to
bring out the ideas which lie unconsciously at the basis of the biblical repre-
sentations and figures, (l) This practice was afterwards accommodated to
the heterodox method of mythical interpretation which, so far as relates to
the application of antiquities to the primeval history of the Old Testament,
was for a long time in vogue, and mot with almost universal opposition when
it substituted an ideal general truth for the original facts of the Christian
historj'. (I) Two parties were at last arrayed in direct of)i)osition to each
other ; the one regarded the Scriptures entirely as the work of man, and tho
other looked ui>on them as a direct revelation from God. The new Tubingen
$ehooIj particularly, lias endeavored to show that the writings of the New Tes-
ff) Iffng^tenherg, BeUrr. %. Einl. in d. A. T. BrI. IS^l-^O. 8 v. [Tlip 8 first T0I5, of Contributions
on Zcoh. «h Don. and on Pentateuch, trans, by liyland^ Jc publ. in Clarke's For. & TheoL Lib. Edinb.
1^17. 3 V. S.]
e) S!*'f>fi. u. (1. T'rspr. d. er.«ten kan. Kv. Kocni^'sb. ISC'i.
/) $ 440. nt <f. /! C. Baur, <lIo sojjcn. Pastoralbr. Stuttfr. 1S85.
g) JirfUdtneiiUr^ Probabilia do Kv. et Ei»p. Jo. indole et orip. Lps. 1S20.
/i) GraiDinalik d. neiitest S|>raclii<ll«im:i. Li». 1822. 5 cd. 1S44. [(irani. of tho Idioms <tf the Or.
I^ij;, of the X. T. from the Germ, of G. IJ. Winer, by ,/. If. Agn^w & O. G. Khbfke^ Plillad. lS40.a]
i) GrundriM d. nnutcst Hormcncutlk. Gott 1S17. Brl. tlieol. Zeit^ch. 1^22. IL 8. More ftilly In
his CiimiiK-ntar u. d. Schrr. d. Job. Mnce I'^'ZU. [Zuc-X'tf on the Kpp. of John is trmnsL & pubL In
ClArk*s Bibl. Cab. Edlnb. ls4C ]
k) Billroth, Conini. lu don Brr. an d. Cor, Ljjs. 1S83. [Billroth on tho Epi». to the Cor. is tnuisL
k pabL in Clnrk^a Bib. Cab. E<1 18:38.] BrL Jahrbb. 183S. N. 03.
/) K. ITa*^, Leben Jesu. § 22. nt a.
88
594 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. lMa-186a
lament were the result of a series of conflicts and attempts at compromise be-
tween the Jewish Christianity of Peter and the Gentile Christianity of Paul.
Certain points of development following each other at regular periods, are
supposed by these writers to be discoverable in the doctrinal contents of the
sacred writings, and principally on the basis of these the Revelation of John,
and the four great epistles of Paul, are alone regarded as genuine monaments
of the Apostolic Church, and the first gospel is looked upon as a collection of
apostolic traditions made very near the same period. The original Gospel of
Luke they endeavored to find in that of Marcion, though in this they have
been corrected by their own disciples, and in the fourth gospel they have dis-
covered a dogmatic and figurative composition formed from materials sup-
plied by the synoptic gospels, to reconcile all ecclesiastical parties in the second
century, during the latter part of which the notion of the Logos was applied
to that of Christ, and so attained ascendency in the Church for all subsequent
ages, (m) We have at last a criticism from this school which seems to have
originated more in a love of offence than of truth, for even the four epistles
of Paul are tlirown by it into the general abyss, {n) On the other hand, the
new orthodox school professed to take a higher view of the whole sacred his-
tory ; it was convinced of the genuineness of aU the books of the Bible ; it
found in every part of them not only divine truth but the Lutheran theology,
and the only danger was that the theosophic fancies in which many indulged
might carry them beyond even this. In their fondness for the supernatural
they delighted in extending the work of God's Spirit, and of redemption, to
material things ; and while they conceded that the account of creation is
perhaps poetical, and addressed to the outward vision, they not only regard
it as a veritable history, but have discovered that before the day of creation,
and before the fall of the angels, the earth was the habitation of Satan and
his angels, (o) Their views of general history are occasionally full of interest,
and exhibit some traces of the Hegelian philosopliy, for the whole history of
man is represented as a gradual revelation of Christ. But on an intermediate
ground between these schools, some men, and e$i)ecially some learned divineb
have arisen, and have long been tolerated among the faithful by the Evangel-
ical Church Journal, w^ho make a distinction between what is divine and
what is human in the Scriptures, and have sought reconciliation with the
natural science of modern times, not merely by ironical compromises, but by
limiting divine inspiration to that which is strictly religious, and even de-
scribing it as nothing more than a remarkable tact in religious matters, (p)
Although they feel bound by their own religious consciousness to regard the
Scriptures as a divine revelation, they endeavor to treat every one as an evan-
m) F. C. Btiur, d. Chrlstenth. d. 8 ersten Jahrhh. T&b. 185a Earlier points p*. 24. Comp. Tb«oL
Jahrbb. ISM. H. 3. p. 294ss.
fi) B Biiur^ Kritlk d. paul. Briefe. Brl. 1850s. 8 H.
o) Thi^i Mr'h (p. 2i.)—R. Stier, Andeatt f RlSub. Schriftveretfindn. Kftnlgsh. Lps. ISdiaa. i toU-
F. Dri;t-ft, A, Ge5ch. d, proph. Th. s. Croslus. Lpflc IMS. J. C. IT. ITofmann : Wrlwa^ n. EifiUl.
Kordl. 1S41-4. 2 vols. Scbrlflbeweis. Ibid. 1852. voL I. J. II. Kurtz, Geach. d. alien Bundsa BrLl
ed. 1853. 2 vol».
/>) T/ioluck : Komm. 0. fL B. an d. Ilebr. Hmb. 183a p^ 83ss. Dentsoba Zeltaoh. t obr. Wlft
1850. N. 16ea. 42a8.
CUAP. y. EVANG. CHUBCn TILL 1858. $ 4S». CALVINISll M0MIEB8. 595
gelical companion in the faith who truly believes, even if he does not believe
correctly in the authority of the Scriptures, and in justification by faith in
Christ Iq)
§ 459. Cahinism as a Sect
Sebickedans, <L K. v. Genf im 19. Jalirh. (Arcliiv f. KG. vol V. St 1.) J. S. ChmevUfey Precis
det debaU theol. qui depnis quelqucs annecs out agltC'S la villc de G6n<'.ve. Gen. 1824. A. Bo«t^ D6-
fense dw FIdcles de IVgl. do G6n., qui sc sont constltuos en iSgl. indt'pendant Par. 1S25. Hl«t verita-
ble d«8 Moniiera. Par. 1824. 2 vols. Ba% 1S'2A 2 IT. Mtilan. le proems da mdthodlsme da Gun. G6n.
1885k Gen& kirchl. ZuRtande. (D«ntsche Zeiftch. f. cbr. Wtss. 1S50. N. Slss.) Also Beinerkk. by L.
Tkomns. (Ihi^ \85\. y, n.) Die frnhern rel. Zut(tande d. Waadtl. (R«uter, Rep. 1847. H. 2s.)— 7!
Ftiedner^ ColIectenreiM n. Ilollanil. Essoii. 1S:31. 2 v«»l8. AuquhU^ Botr. (L d. Zust d. K. n. Tlieol. d.
NIederi. (Bcttrr. z. Gesch. n. Statist, d. eir. K. Lpa. 1897. voL II.) Die Unruhen in d. niederl. ret. K.
188a-89. By X. edit by Gieseler. Ilamb. 1S40. comp. Acta hist eco. 1886. p. 5618a. Ev. K. Z. 1888.
N. 88hi [K. R. Hagmbach, (p. 416.) Vorles. 19. Th. 2.]
Even in the time of Rousseau the ministers of the Church in Geneva
shrank from answering the question whether Christ was God. The venerable
Society of Pastors enacted a law (1817), by which it was announced that
every minister would be required at his installation to promise that he wonld
abstain from the discussion of certain principal points of Calvinistic ortho-
doxy. After 1813, however, some persons zealous for orthodoxy became ex-
cited, and were strengthened by the influence of Mad. de Krudener (1766-
1824). The attention of thi^ lady was now turned from palaces to cottages,
that she might preach repentance in the wilderness of civilization, and col-
lect and establish out of all churches a kingdom for the Lion of Judah. (a)
This class of persons became numerous in the Pays de Vaud, and under the
direction of some suspended ministers many Separatist congregations were
formed, with various individual peculiarities. According to a popular witti-
dsm they were called MomierSy but a more respectable appellation was that
of Methodists. The people, who were reproved by them even for innocent
mirth and harmless usages, not unfrcquently rose upon them in acts of vio-
lence, and the leaders of the new church were punished by the government
with imprisonment and exile. Under the feeling that they were thereby imi-
tating the primitive Christians, they endured these persecutions with much
conrage. After the Re volution of 1830 the conviction became nearly univer-
sal that it was unbecoming for a free people to persecute men for any reli-
gious creed whatever. An Evangelical Society for the restoration of Calvin-
ism after a Scriptural model was then formed (1831), by which a theological
seminary has been established (1832) for orthodox students, (b) But although
the Church of Cleneva had been accused by the Momiers of apostasy from it-
self, the jubilee of the Reformation was triumphantly celebrated there, (c)
and the Grand Council of the Canton of Vaud, after a protracted debate,
tore in pieces the Helvetic Confession (1839) because it was the standard of
q) CdnrerMtloo saloons : Stadien u. Krit cd. by Umbreit A Ullmann since 1828. Deutsche
Zeltach. f chr. Wiso. a. chr. Lcben since 1850. Coup. O, F. KrauM, die sogen.nenere Tbeol. (TbeoL
4ahrbb. 1658. H. 2.)
a) {//urUr,) Fran ▼. Krndcner in d. Scbweiz. ITelvet 1817. Zeitgenoasen. Lpa. 181& vol. TIL
t) A. K. Z. 1831. N. 92. 1838. N. 59. Ev. K. Z. 188L N. 84 1832. N. 54. Deatache Zeitsch. t cbr.
W. 1S50. N. 50.
e) Jubil« de la Bet de Gdo^Tei Qin. 1885. 8 to1& AeU biat ecc 1885. p. 448at.
596 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 164S-1858.
the Momiers. (d) The Revolution of 1846 overthrew the Calvinistic aristo-
cracy of the pastors, and a Consistory, elected by the congregation, and with
a majority from the congregation, was placed at the head of the National
Church, (r) The various congregations of dissenters formed themselves
(1848) into an Evangelical Church, whose wants have been supplied, and
whose pious eiforts have been sustained with a generous liberality from Eng-
land, in a noble rivalry witli the Established Church. (/) — The Church of the
Netherlands was completely re-organized during the occupation of the coun-
try by the French. By the fundamental law of 1816 the synodal form of
government was renewed and concentrated, but the old church discipline was
abolished, and the influence of the state retained. The disposition of the
people was favorable to a merely practical Christianity, and the educated
clergy were partial to a Scriptural supernaturalism, which now retained no
repugnance to the Remonstrant^j. In cousc'iucnce of the poetic interests in
the Netherlands of former times, created by the poet Bilderdyk, many began
to long after the orthodoxy of tliosc times, and two Israelites who had been
converted by him, displayed much zeal in opposition to the constitution, to
vaccination and the Remonstrants (1823). Gradually a party was formed
which demanded that every thing should be restored to the condition re-
quired by the constitution and tlio creed of the Synod of Dort. The leader
of this party, a young minister whose name was De Cock, was at first sus-
pended by the ecclesiastical authorities because he would not refrain from
interfering in the spiritual atfairs of the parislies of others, and for calling his
niinisterial bretliren wolves, and the hyums which had (since 1807) sup-
planted the Psalms the songs of SireiLs, and was finally deposed (1834). A
portion of his congregation forthwitli declared themselves separated with
him from an Established Church in which they believed so many heresies were
mingled, and in a short time their number was increased by the accession of
four ministers and four thousand people. Even in the Established Church
many were alarmed at an open rupture with the decrees of the Synod of
Dort, but the General Synod refused to explain the legal oath respecting the
public confessions of faith in such a way as to take from each one the right
of judging for himself whether they were conformed to the Scriptures or not
(1835). The Separatists were fined and imprisoned by the civil courts as dis-
turbers of public worship, and for violating the law which forbade more thai
twenty persons to assemble without permission from the authorities. They
at first claimed protection on the ground that they were the old orthodox
church, and not a new sect, but they finally presented their statutes to the
king, together with a renunciation of their claim upon the property of the
Church, and obtained the royal permission to form themselves into separate
Christian congregations (1839). The Synod of the National Church, which
met in 1850, in view of the numerous changes which had been made in the
fundamental law of the state, formed an independent synodal system, ic-
d) Ev. K. Z. 1839. N. 26. 1S40. N. 9.
e) Rapport da Cuzulst d. TcgL nationale de Ocn. 1349. R^glement organlqne poor V6gl nit O^Q^
1849.
/) EgL dvug. k Q^n. 1848. AB8embl6e gin. do U Boo. ^y. G6d. 1S49.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1858. §460. CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. 597
cording to which the general affairs of the Ohnrch were to be niannged by
the Greneral Synod, which met annually at the Hague, and consisted of dele-
gates from the ten provincial synods, and from the three theological facul-
ties, and by a commission chosen by the General Synod to act in its name
dnring the intervals between its meetings. (<7)
§ 460. Dicmon of the Church in Scotland and in the Pays de Vaiid.
A. F. Gemb^rg, A. ftcbutt Nationalkirohe. Haiiib. 1S2S. K. U, SucA', d. K. v. Schotttand. Heidib.
1S44. 2 voU B. W. Xofi, Case of the Free Clmrcli nf ScDtlarid. T»nd, 1844. 8. Ad. Siid<rtP, tl.
schott Kinrhenfraffe. PoLs«l 1315. J. A'oHUfn, d. scbott K. Hainb. 18.*i2 —With respect to the r»ublic
BCtd of the Ctmncll of State, and the comment!) of the Pres. Drufy : AIl:r. Z. Monatsbl. Febr. 1S46. Dor
waadtL KStreit by X. (Schweglora Jahrb. d. Gegi'nw. Febr. 1946,)— Proci:* d(« fails qui ont amcne ot
Baivi la dtSmiiMUtn du la majoritt^ dos pastenrs v.t ndnisirci* de I'^l. du canton de Vand. Accomf>. dvn
dociim. oflTic. recufll par Ch. Riup. Latis. 1846. Alw on this subject: Leopold in ZSeitAchr. f. hl>L Tl*.
1S46. II. 4. 1847. H. 1. S.—AL Schwf.izet\ d. kirchl. Zi-rwarfnisso Iin Kanton Wa.idt Zur. 1846. E. F,
Gdpk^. d. kircbi. Iiewe<;. Im K. Waa<lt. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1S5(». H. S.) {Ifeth^rington^ Hist, of tlie
Chb. <»f Scot. Edinb. 1S48. New York. 1844. p. 3Ga«. Ifajina, Life of T. Chalmers. New York. 1650-
«. 4 V, W. L. Alerander, Notes of a Tour & Notices of the Rel IJodica of Switz. Olaag. 1S46. 8.]
The Church of Scotland always felt a peculiar jealousy in behalf of its
independence in all spiritual matters. The right of patronage was therefore
abolished in the fundamental law of IGDO (revoluti(m settlement.) When
this, however, was restored by secular violence (1712), the protests of the
Church were generally quieted by those (Moderates) who found their own
comfort promoted by the existing state of things. But when the religious
life of the Church was revived, and the puritanic element became powerful,
the whole energy of the party then formed (evangelical party) was concen-
trated in the etfort to destroy the power of patrons to impose upon congrega*
tions ministers who wore not acceptable to the people. In 1834 the General
Assembly conceded to each congregation the right to reject such ministers
(veto act). When, however, the royal courts took under their protection the
rights of the patrons, and in consequence of the resistance made by the Gen-
eral Assembly, interfered in various ways in the sjiiritual affairs of the Church,
and finally, when redress had been sought in vain from the imperial parlia-
mentv, on the opening of the General Assembly, May 18, 1848, the friends of
ecclesiastical freedom (Nonintrusionists), including a large and the most influ-
ential portion of the clergy, with the noble-minded Dr. Chalmers (d. 1847)
at their head, separated themselves by a solemn protest from the Established
Church, on the ground that violence had been done to their consciences, and
dishonor had been inflicted upon the crown of Christ by the civil power. All
their churches and revenues wore abandoned by these seceders with no other
hope than their reliance upon the free-will ofl:erings of the Scottish people.
As on the one hand some proprietors refused to sell the necessary ground and
materials for building now churches, so particular congregations, on the other,
attempted by violence to exclude from their churches those mini.«*ters who
were obtruded upon them by patronage. Millions of pounds, however, amply
g) A. KZ. 1851. N. 808. Comp. Ibid. 1858. N. 16. Brl. KZ. ISSa. N. 9. UUmann, t. CharakterL^u
tlk d. hull. Th. (Stud. a. Krit 1844. IL 8.)
598 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1648-18S&
sufficient for all the ecclesiastical wants of the people, were oontribnted, (a)
and with the utmost worldly prudence, as well as the most earnest piety, the
Free Presbyterian Church was founded, and became the real National Church
of Scotland. — In the Canton of FtfM</ the spirit of the methodistic piety bo
far penetrate<l even the Rstablished Church, that sometimes when its minis-
ters had performed the duties of public worship many would hold devotional
a'^omblies in the evening (oratoires), which were attended especially by the
higher classes. In direct contrariety to the traditional doctrine inculcated
ft-ora Berne, that the Cliurch was strictly dependent upon the state, the idea
that the Church was absolutely independent of the state was diffused among
the clergy, more especially by the labors of Vinet. (ft) After the overthrow
of the comparatively aristocratic government (1845) the provisional regency
of the sovereign people prohibited the clergy of the Established Church from
attending the oratories which had been already threatened by the populace,
and some clergymen who dl^beyed were suspended. When the new demo-
cratic constitution was about to be submitted to a vote of the people, the
government, wishing to recommend it by proclamation, sent it to the clergy
to be read from their pulpits. Abotit forty clergymen refused to comply with
this request, and in justification of their act ap])ealed to a law which ap-
peared to give the use of the pulpit to the goveniment only for the publica-
tion of acts relating to religion. For this refusal they were accused before
their ecclesiastical courts, and acquitted, but they were punished by the civil
government in a suspension for one month from their spiritual duties. To
extricate the Church from this thraldom it was proposed (Nov. 11, 1845), in
an assembly at Lausanne of the clergy belonging to the establishment, that
every clergyman should resign his office, when a majority immediately re-
nounced their charges and their salaries. But as they po6*sessod no hold upon
the popular mind, they were only able by foreign assistance to start a iVee
Church in small conventicles, which were persecuted by the police until
1850. In the mean time the government found but scanty means for the
spiritual support of the Established Church.
§ 461. The Anglican Church and the DiMenten,
Bogue & Benntit, H. of DLssentciK Lond. lSOS-12. 4 vols. (ArchW f. KQ. voL IL p. Ml. HL ^
804. 497. IV. 1. 237sa) Lond. ISa). 2 voU J. Bennett, H. of Dias. during tbo last ai) yearx LundlSSH
K. II Stick, u. R*L u. K. In Engl. Bri, 18ia Funlr, Organlslrang d. ongl. Stiiatsk. Alton. 1989. M
Roo»A, Ecclesiastfca, or, The Church, hor schools and her clergy. Loml. 1^2. & If. F. Uhden^ d. Zs*
Btiinde d. angl. K. Lps. l$4a 0. V. GfrUiv\ &. d. rel. Za»tand. d. angL K. Potad. 1S4& C. SckctO,
d. kirclil. Zastande in Engl. (Oelzer. prot Munatsch. 1S53. May.) [J. Grant, 11. of the Engl Cbutfa
«!ic of tbo Sects whidi have departed fh>in hor Com. Lond. 13I1-2G. 4 vols. 8.]
The principal religious activity of the country was found among the Dis-
senters, who constituted about one third of the whole population, and in
Wales the miyority. But as they possessed no common centre, they became
broken up into a great variety of sects, among which might be seen, in their
a) Brl. K. Z. 1S4C. N. 8a 1S50. N. 49.
h) £»al snr la manifestation dos convictions relig. ct »ur la a^paraUon d« Pcgl. et da Tetat FK-
1$42. Iidlb. li^. Considerations dediees a Mss. Ics mlnbtres d<iiiiteionalrea. Laos. 1SI&
CHAP. y. EVANO. CHURCH TILL 1858. f 461. ENGLAND. 599
extreme forms, every grade of religious life, from the most enthusiastic exal-
tation down to the most sceptical rationalism. Some of the principal sects
among them, however, have recently attempted to unite together in more
intimate fellowship. They were protected and mtide subservient to various
party purposes by the opposition in Parliament, but with all his eloquence,
Fo^ was unsuccessful when ho pleaded (1790) for their civil rights. (//) But
with the increasing spirit of general freedom, public sentiment became
changed, and after many attempts at partial relief the test act was finally
abolished in 1828, and the exclusive right of the Episcopal clergy to solem-
nize marriage and baptism for dissenters was taken away in 183G. They were,
however, still compelled to pay taxes to the Established Church, and the
House of Lords thought it necessary, by lifeless orthodox forms, to protect
the Universities under the patronage of the State against the intrusion of dis-
senters. (&) But many powerful associations avowed their deterniination to
promote the principle of religious freedom, not only in England but in every
quarter of the world. (<•) A charter was obtained for the University of Lon-
don (1836), the object of which was principally the education of dissenters.
The £stabli<«hed Churcli became almost a sinecure, w^hile the actual duties of
the pastoral office were either evaded, or performed by poorly paid pastors
and hired vicars. ((/) For a long time the bishops in the House of Lords,
with the aristocracy, set themselves in direct opposition to the wishes of the
people, and persons of worldly sagacity lost confidence in tlie spiritual privi-
leges of the bishops, as well as in the divine right of tithes. Tlie injurious
influence of an Established Church was demonstrated by the dissenters, and
the bishops were warned by the government to set their house in order.
They appealed to the oath t^ken by the king at his coronation, that he would
maintain the inviolability of the Church, and by virtue of which he held his
crown. But an evangelical party had now been developed wliich especially
represented the Protestant^ as the High Church ])arty did the Catholic ele-
ment in the Episcopal Church. This evangelical party expected deliver-
ance only in such a reformation as was demanded by the times, {t) Certain
literary men at Oxford, of whom the principal were Newman jmd Pusey
(after 1833), raised the Catholic element to a still higher j)osition. The ob-
ject of these persons was avowed to be the revival of genuine Catholicity.
Protestantism was disavowed, and many Catholic but old ecclesiastical usages
and statutes, so for as they were consistent with the thirty-nine articles, were
brought once more into practice. These ettbrts were favored by the High
Church party, until their gradually developed tendencies to Roman Catholi-
cism aroused the Protestant spirit of the nation, and Pmcyum was rejected,
even by the bishops. Since that time many persons have passed over from
a) Staftdlin^ Ocogr. a. Stat vuL I. p. IG'iss.
b) After BeterUy ; A. Z. isai. N. W2. 229. Rhelnwald, Re^ vol. XXIX. p. 9283.
c) A- Z. 1S*L N. 150. </) A. K. Z. 1S31. p. 812.
<) Lord UenUy, A Plan of Church Itcform. Loud. e<L 4. 1S82. [K<Unb. Review, vol. XXXVIIL
p. 14.-). \\h. 1S23. XLIV. p. 490. Sept 1S26. (ScL from Kd. Rev. Par. 158.^. voL V. p. 4..M-3-24.) B. W,
Jioel^ Union of Chb. dc Stole. Lond. & New York. 1:J49. 12.J Further Reform LiU-raturo: iV. K. Z.
IbSa Lit. BL N. 49. Stud. u. Krit 1S88. P. U
600 MODERN CHUBCH HISTOBT. PER. TL A. D. 1M8-18081
the Established to the Catholic Church. (/) During this collidon of parties,
and in consequence of the serious spirit of practical piety excited among the
people (after 1820), a new and fresh life was awakened in the bosom of the
Church itself. The hierarchy gave up a portion of its tithes that they might
not have the whole wrested from them. In 1836 a bill for the reform of the
Church was introduced into Parliament by Lord Russell. It diminished the
prodigious ine(|ualities which had existed in the revenues of the bishops, im-
proved and increase<l the parishes by means of a portion of the sinecures, and
placed restraints upon pluralities and the performance of pastoral duties by
hired proxies. Some further concessions were made even by the aristocracy,
when a Commission for Inquiry was appointed by Sir Robert Peel. The
ministry, however, admonished the reformers that they should be satisfied
with what they could get, rather than attempt radical changes. The conces-
sions wore accepted with much reluctance by the majority in the Lower
House, and constituted the commencement of a reform, which was subse-
quently carried out in the same spirit in the Ecclesiastical Revenue Bill
(1840). (g) When a number of bishops had been consecrated for foreign
countries the ministry began also to endow dioceses in England with the sav-
ings of the hierarchy (1847), without connecting with them seats in the
House of Lords, (h) The Church Pastoral Aid,Society, with the assistance
of Parliament and munificent voluntary contributions from the people, erected
numerous churches in the commercial towns, and sent forth assistant preach-
ers to supply the spiritual wants of an increasing population. When Gorham^
a vicar, was accused of teaching that the grace of regeneration does not ne-
cessarily accompany the act of baptism, and when the Bishop of Exeter, who
was favorable to Puseyism, refused to admit him to the benefico to which he
had been presented by the crown, he was instituted (1847-50), in accordance
with the verdict of the privy council, the highest ecclesiastical court (after
1883), in s{iite of the protest of his bishop, on the ground that his views
were not incon<%istent with the articles of the Englisli Church. In this affair
was exhibited on the one hand, the stubbornness of episcopal orthodoxy even
when not much sustained by public opinion, and on the other, the impropriety
of submitting theological controversies for decision to the civil courts. But
all atteniptit springing out of it to raise the assemblies of the clergy from their
nominal existenco to the real spiritual powers which they formerly possessed
(p. 442), or at least to transfer the decision of controversies on ecclesiastical
doctrines to the episcopal courts, were frustrated either in Parliament or by
the ministry, (i)
f) Neiomah) Tract** fur the ttmos, espec No. 90 ; Remarks on certain pMaages In the 89 Aitt ISif.
(Brl. K. Z. 1811. N. 8i. 3G. 42.) E. B. Puaey, The Articles treated on in Tract 90 rooonsiilored. Oil
1841. H. Aheken^ lA-'ttor to K. B. Pusey, in reforenco to certain charges against tlie Germ. Church.
Lond. 1842. M. Pftri, Bfitrr. z. Wurdlg. d. Pus, Oott 184a « II. C. Fock, d. Pns. (Schwcfler,
Jahrbb. 1S44. p. 742ss ) R. Weaver, d. Pub. A. d. Engl y. Amtbor, Lps. 1844. Bnina, Rep. 18M. roL
VI. p. ISlss. vol. VII. p. 89S8.
g) A. Z. 1836. N. 198. Sapplera. N. 211. 216. 288. Brl K, Z. 1840. N. 78.
h) Brl. K. Z. 1847. N. 85.
i) Zeltsch. f. hist Th. 1S53. II. 1. [Jndguiont of the Dean of the Arches* Oonrt in the ease tf
Oorhain v. tlie Bishop of Exeter. Lond. 1849.]
CHAP. V. EVANO. CHURCH TILL 1858. $462. NORTH AMERICA. 601
§ 462. Ecclesiastical Affairs in the North American Republic,
A. Rfed and J. JfathMon, Visit to the American Churcheii. New Yoric. \SS6. 2 vols. (Kv. KZ
1887. N. Sw.) If. Camoell, America and the Anier. Church. 2 cd. Lond. 1S53. (Ev. ICZ. 1839. N.
6««.) J. D. Riipp, He pasa EkkleMa, or HisL of the Eel. Denominations In the U. S. Plill. 1S44.
Jt B(tird, Religion in the IT. S. Kdlnb. 1S44. Revised as KOesch. n. klrchl. Statist, by C. Branden,
BrI. 1*44. [Ibid. Chr. Retroupcct and Register. N. York. 1850. 12. Ibid. Rel. Denouwn. in the U.
8. (in Amer. and For. Chr. Union, vol. I. N. 2.— vol. III. N. 4.) Rel. Dcnomni. in the V. S. by vari-
ous authore. Ilarrljiburg. 2 e<l. 1849. P. D. OorrU, Churches and Sects in the V. S. N. York. 1S.V().]~
J. O. BUttner, Briefe aas u. CL N. A. Dresd. 1^*45. 2 vols. F. v. Ranmer, [America and the Amer.
People, from the Germ. N. York. 184«. 8.] Lps. 1845. 2 vols.- IK. Klo»e, d. chr. K. in d. Veroin. St
N. A. (Zeitsch. t hisL Th. 1848. II. 1.) {J. Dixon, Tour through the U. S. N. York. ll>48. 12.]
[A peculiar form of ecclesia.stical life has been developed in tlie United
States of America. The religious spirit has there been allowed unlimited
freedom to assume every variety of external organization, and has found full
scope for its utmost zeal. The national and State governments are prohibited
by their constitutions from all interference with religion, but Christianity is
generally recognized as a part of the common law, stringent regulations are
in force against blasphemy and the profanation of the Sabbath, and public
prayers are daily offered in connection with all logi.slative proceedings, (a)
Error is permitted to contend on equal terms with truth, no civil disability is
imposed for opinion's sake, and all may propagate their views in public and
in private as long as the riglits of others are not invaded. As yet, there is
no evidence that in such circumstances Christianity will not triumph. In the
exercise of its free energies, it has contended with a highly stimulated
worldly spirit and a multitude of errors, which have here found their best
and often only asylum ; and not only is it almost universally received, but its
most prevalent forms are those of the strictest evangelical piety. From the
peculiar origin and history of the nation, we should of course expect to find
that its ecclesiastical organizations and usages resemble those of the Old
World. But the Puritan and Methodistic elements have been especially
attracted there, and have become prominent in the national character. The
zeal engendered by an earnest Christianity thrown into such powerful conflict
with the world, has led. its friends to an intense use of ordinary and extra-
ordinary means for the conversion of men, and the religious revivals which
have sometimes been witnessed in other lands, have here become frequent, (ft)
Accustomed also to rely much upon the power of numbers, great societies
have been formed for the removal of social evils, and for combined effort to
plant the institutions of the gospel among the destitute at home and abroad.
A majority of the whole population have abandoned the habitual use of
intoxicating drinks, and seven States of the Union have already prohibited
the Side of them as an ordinary beverage. More than 8,000 ministers of the
gospel are sustained principally in the older States, to labor among the newer
a) Constitutions of the several States, and of the U. 8. Ac N. York. 8. J. Stort/, Exposition of
the Const, of the U. S. N. York. 1S4T. J/! McKinney, Amer. Magistrate. (Pliilad. 1S50.) p. 680. IIW.
tO& G. T. Curtis, Hist of the Const of the U. 8. N. York. 1854. 2 vols.
b) W. R Sprague^ Lectt on Revivals. Albany. 1882. 8. A. Airn^, On Revivals. N. York.
1M1. C. Finney, Lectt on Revivals. N. York. 1885. Colton, Hist and Char, of Amor. Revivals.
Lond. 1882.
602 MODEBN CHUBCH HISTOBY. P£B. YL A. D. IMfr-lSSflL
Bettloments of the West and South, (c) There is one bonse of worship for
every 646, and one minister for every 600 of the entire population, (d) As
each denomination of Christians, in case of general disagreement or grieT-
ancc, fin(L<^ its ultimate remedy in separation, numerous sects have sprung up,
without important distinctions in doctrine or organization; but the evils of
disunion arc in many instances much mitigated by an interchange of corre-
j^ponding delegates through their superior assemblies, by the free reception
of each other's ministers and members on prescribed terms, and by co-opera-
tion in many of the national charitable associations. The Boman Catholic
Church has in some instances attempted to ingraft upon itself popular traits
and usjtges, but its general spirit of uniformity has resisted them, and its pre-
vailing character here is the same as in the Old World. Its growth in this
country has been for a few late years remarkably rapid, almost exclusively
by Catliolic emigrants from Europe, multitudes of whom, however, are for
ever lost to the general Roman fold, (e) The vast funds, numerous clergy,
and other laborer^s with wliich foreign societies have supplied it, have ena-
bled it to establish many institutions for education and charity, and erect a
splendid hierarcliy, which give it great power for proselytism, and have
raised the hope tliat Rome might recover its life by appropriating to itself
the youtljful enerj^ies of this growing nation. (/) But by its conflicts with
educational establishments, by its unity of action in behalf of political inter-
ests, and by its sympathies and connections with foreign and anti-republican
influences, it luus awakened against itself a powerful political and religious
feeling which has sometimes broken forth into unlawful violence, {g) It
probably has under its control, principally in the large cities, in Maryland and
in Louisiana, about one in twelve of the whole population. The Epi$eopal
Church, though the oldest (1607), is still among the smallest of the Protes-
tant sects, but its progress has recently become accelerated especially among
the wealthy and conservative classes. It differs from its parent English
Church by its want of a connection with a civil establishment, by an exten-
sive participation of the laity in the legblative and administrative power of
the Church, and by its synodal constitution under annual diocesan and tri-
ennial national conventions, (/t) The CongregationalisU^ whose first church
was formed in the ship which conveyed the pilgrims to America (1619), and
who are principally descendants of the English Puritans, believe that each
congregation possesses all ecclesiastical power in itself; but in the exercise of
this, they form occasional Councils, composed of neighboring ministers and
the delegates of contiguous churches, for the ordination, the settlement, and
the dismission of ministers ; District Associations, composed of a few minis-
ters and churches who may permanently associate for mutual counsel and
c) R. Rnrd, Retrospect, p. 218s8. 259aa. d) Abstract of Censoa. pi 29.
e) Amor, and Yor. Clir. ITnion. Aug. 1852. p. 251. N. York Observer, Jnne 10, 1852.
/) Catholic Almanac for 1S54. Bait. 1854. Foreign CoDsplrMj. New York. 1S8S. 2f. L Riot,
Bomanisin, the Knoiny of Education, Free InstitaUons, d&a Cindn. 1852. 12.
g) Uonianl>in incompatible with Kepublican Principles. N. York. 1884 18. Our Goaotrf.itl
Danger, dec. N. York. 1S4(). 18. O. R Chetwr, Right of the Bible in Schoola. N. York. 185a \L
h) a Wilberfurcf, Hist of the Prot Episc. Church In Am. Lond. and N. Y. (1S44) ISM^ tl
)i: White, II. of Uic Church. N. York. 1854. %. A. R Chapin, in Hist of £eL Denoin. p. MIml
CHAP. Y. EYANQ. CHUBCH TILL 185a S 468. NOBTH AMEEIC'A. 603
fellowship; and General Associations or Consociations, comprising all the
ministers and churches of a State. Such bodies, however, liave only advi-
sory power, and their decisions have the force of discipline only by their
moral influence. The intelligence, the systematic benevolence, and the sober
piety of this people, have rendered them especially influential. They prevail
principally in the six Eastern States, in New York, and north of the Ohio.
They acknowledge the absolute authority of no uninspired creed, but great
respect is paid to certain Calvinistic Confessions of Faith and Catechisms
which are used among them, and some of their divines have exerted a deci-
sive influence upon the theology of the age. (/) Near the close of the last
and the commencement of the present century, a number ot the Congrega-
tional ministers and churches of Massachusetts were known to believe Uni-
tarian doctrines ; but a general separation was not efleoted until (1815) the
orthodox party were startled by some announcements respecting the progress
of Unitarianism in America in an English publication, and immediately with-
drew their fellowship from all who were suspected. (A-) After an excited
controversy, the Unitarian Congregationalists were left in a distinct body,
which has since extensively prevailed in the vicinity of Boston, with an ele-
gant literature, a high standard of morality, and a liberal philanthropy.
There are said to be in the United States not less than 250 congregations
especially connected together as Unitarians ; but a still larger body who call
themselves by the simple name of Christians, the Universalists, and a seced-
ing portion of the Society of Friends, agree with them in the distinctive
article of their faith. The Baptists follow next in the order of time (1639);
and if we include under the appellation all who deny the validity of baptism
except by immersion, and on the professed faith of the subject, they must bo
regarded as the most numerous denomination but one in the United States.
With but few exceptions, they are rigidly Calvinistic in doctrine, but they
agree with, and even exceed the Congregationalists in their rejection of all
human authority in matters of faith, and in their practical maintenance of
the independence of the congregations. They, however, have their occa-
sional Councils, their Associations for small districts, their Conventions for
States, and until the recent separation of the Northern and Southern sections,
a Triennial General Convention for the whole nation. A large number of
Baptist churches are never represented beyond their district Associations,
and difler from their brethren on many important articles of faith and prac-
tice, (l) Many minor sects have seceded from the general fellowship, on the
ground of questions connected with tlie Sabbath, missions to the heathen, the
nature of the faith and obedience to be professed before baptism, and the
i) G. Puru'hard. View of Congregationalism. Andover, 1888. Ibid. IIl5t, of Cong. And. 184SL
Cambridge and Saybrook Platforms of Cburch I>i9c Boeton. 1889. %. T. C. Uphnm, Ratio Di»-
ciplinae. Portland. !d29. L. Bacon^ Man. uf Church Members. Ne^r Haven. ISSS. R. Baird^
Sketches of ttio UeL Denom. in Am. and For. Chr. Union, vol. L N. 8. ix 123.
k) BfUham^ Memoirs of Lindsoy. Lond. 1812. Boaton. 1S15. A. Lamwn^ in Tlol. Denom. p. &S6.
Letters on the Introd. and Prog. *A Unitarianism in New EngL, in Spirit of the Pilj^riios. vol II. and
III. B<«ton. lSi9-8n.
t) J). B^ifdict^ Hist of the Baptists. N. York. 1824 W. Ilaguf^ Bap. Chiircli Transplanted, Aa
K. York. 1S46. 12. F. A. Cox and J. Iloby, Baptists in America. Boeton. 1839. 12.
604 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 1MS-185&
general doctrines of religion, (m) Of late years, some portions of this de-
nomination liave done much to redeem their order from the reproach of in-
difference to education, and they have now under their control fourteen
colleges, and eight tlieological seminaries. The Preshi/terians are also sepa-
rated into many minor divisions, among which the Dutch Reformed (since
1619), the German Reformed (s. 1720), the Associate (s. 1750), and the Re-
formed Presbyterian (s. 1752), have always maintained a distinct existence
since tlieir first settlement in this country ; and others, as the Cumberland
(1810) and the Free Presbyterian (1846), were offshoots from the main body.
In 1838 this main body was itself divided into two nearly equal portions,
each claiming to be the true Presbyterian Church, but differing from each
other in their construction of their articles of faith, and in their views of
ecclesiastical policy, (n) With a slight exception with respect to the Cumber-
land body, (r>) all these members of the great Presbyterian family claim to be
Calvinistic in d(x;trine, and most of them are in fraternal correspondence with
each other through their highest judicatories. Their form of government is
essentially the same with that of similar European bodies, and they are dis-
tinguished for their intelligence, tlieir stability, and their attachment to truth.
The Lutherans have retained the faith even better than the language of their
ancestors ; they arc beginning zealously to cultivate the orthodox literature of
their Fatherland, and are providing an ec<jlesiastical home for the multitudes
of a kindred faith who are landing on their shores, (p) The Methodists have
ndoi>ted the doctrines and discipline of the English Wesleyan connection, with
no 08-<ential change. Their Episcopacy is not prelatic, but presbyterian, since
its powers originate in, and are continued by the eldership, and its duties are
simply to pre.'iide in the conferences, to station the elders and preachers, to
ordain bishops and deacons, to travel through the connection, and to oversee
the spiritual concerns of the Church. They have been especially successful
in reaching and reclaiming the great masses of society, in carrying the truth
in its living power to even the most retired districts ; and though they were
the last to commence their labors, seventy years have been sufficient for
them to become the most numerous class of Protestant Christians in the Uni-
ted States. Their ardent zeal, their active energy, their numerous institu-
tions of learning, their earnest literature, and their thorough system of polity,
must exert a powerful niflnence upon the future character of the nation. A
division nearly corresponding with the geographical boundary between the
Northern and Southern States, has taken place within their Church on ac-
count of slavery, and a number of fragments have fallen away from it on
account of its government and discipline, but its general usefulness and sta-
bility have not been apparently impaired, (y) Among other minor bodies,
f/?) History of the various Baptist socts In Rd. Donomm., by aathors Wlonging to them. See alio
Gorrie's Churcbcs ami Sects, p. 1328s. Baird, in Aracr. and For. Chr. Union, vol 1. p. ?<)Sa*. SOSsaL
n) IIl^tt)ry of the Division of the Prcsb. Church, (by a Com. of tlie Syn. of N. York and X. Jer-
sey.) N. York. 18.^2, J. Woodi*, Old and Xow Theology. Philad. l&4a 12. A". L, Bice, Old and New
School*. CMndn. ISM 12. o) L. Jomh, Plea for the Cumb. Presb. Church. LoubviUe. 1S4:. 12.
p) Ev. KZ. ISU. N. aatw. Conip. Brl. K. Z. 184S. N. 45. Butter, Briefe. Dresd. lS45i 2 rob.
Conip. Rluinw. Ilcp. v<.l. XLIV. p. 182*1.
q) A. StereuH, ()|, C'liun.h Polity. N York. 1S50. 12. Memorial of Methodism. N. York. 1S5I. 11
If. Banffk, UuL of the M. K. Church till liUn. N. York. 1S86. 4 vols. 12.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1858. $ 462. NORTH AMERICA, 605
there are about 6,000 Moravians in twenty-two congregations, under as many
ministers, and two bishops claiming apostolical succession ; (r) about 150,000
Friends^ whose orthodoxy and eflBciency have been increased by a recent
secession, and who, in spite of some decline in their numbers, quietly main-
tain their ancient doctrines and usages under a regular system of Preparative,
Monthly, Quarterly, and ten independent Yearly meetings ; (.v) about 6,000
Shahru^ who, since the decease of the " Elect Lady " (p. 546), have formed
sixteen communities in which all things are held in common, and endeavor
to find the purity and bliss of Paradise in perpetual virginity, and a wild
mode of worship ; {t) about 8,000 Sicedenhorgiam^ with an extensive litera-
ture, and a number of highly learned and eminent advocates ; ('/) and above
1,100 societies of Unhersalists^ who have formed a regular organization under
a regular ministry, and a General Convention, and have collected a respect-
able literature, (r) — A system of education, from which all sectarian pecu-
liarities is excluded, except with the consent of the local inhabitants of a
district, is provided for by law, in some States, with great liberality and intel-
ligence, and in all with increasing emulation and zeal, so that already one in
five of the whole free population are under its instruction. In many denomi-
nations of Christians, candidates for the ministry are required by ecclesiastical
rule to pass through what is equivalent to a complete course of collegiate and
theological instruction, and in nearly all the usage is more and more in
accordance with such a rule. In no part of the world are the clergy more
respected and laborious; and though in most instances sustained entirely by
the voluntary contributions of their people, their position and comparatively
small number render them independent of popular caprice. The piety of this
people, being entirely spontaneous, is remarkably sincere and fervent, and
many of its exhibitions, which seem peculiar and even grotesque, will be
found not ill adapted to the wants of a peculiar population ; but we need not
be surprised to find that an aristocracy of wealth, and a regard for numerical
power, should sometimes divert attention from the refinements of a graceful
humanity.]
§ 463. Legal Conditions with respect to Catholic Oorernments.
The Congress of Vienna could not agree with regard to the expressions
by which the constitution of the Catholic and Protestant churches of Ger-
many were to be placed under the protection of the Alliance. The sixteenth
article of the Act of the Alliance was therefore merely so formed, that no
differences between the parties professing the Christian religion were to create
any inequalities in municipal or political rights. The perfect equality of both
Churches, so far as relates to the law of the land, has accordingly been more
or less expressly acknowledged by most of the states connecte<l with the
Alliance, (a) In Bavaria^ however, in addition to other violations of Prot-
r) L. D. von SchiceiniU, in the Hist of ReL Denomm. p. 8508&.
«) 71 Eearui and W. Gibbons, Hlj^torlcs in Ibid. p. 279s«. 290891
f) a Gre€n and .SL Y. WtlU, A Summary View of the Millennial Charcb. N. York. 1828w 18.
u) New Jerusalem Magazine. B<x<ton. 26 voK 1S27-1S54.
V) T. Whiti^more^ Mod. Hist of UnivcrsaliKm. Borton, 1880. 18.
o) Kluber, Uobersi d. Verb. d. W. Congr. Abth. & p. 897. Ulaa. TiUmann^ Qua«ea de art. 16
606 MODEBN JlIUBCn HISTOBV. PER. YL A. D. 164S-1858.
estant privileges, an onler dictated by a new zeal in favor of Catholicism,
required all persons connected with the army to bow the knee to the sacra-
mental host (Ang. 14th, 1838). Tliis was regarded by the Protestants as a
measure intended to compel them to commit what seemed to them an act of
idolatry, or at Ie:ist as an illegal imposition upon their consciences. Although
it was described to them as legally only a military ceremony, it was practi-
cally adhered to as if it were a triumph of the Catholic Church ; and after a
long series of forced and partial concessions, it was not completely yielded
to the bitter complaints of the whole Protestant population, until (Dec. 12th,
1846) the diet threatened to adopt the grievances of the Protestant deputies
as its own. (b) In the Austrian hereditary states, Protestantism was but par-
tially tolerated, and until the movement of 1848, its churches were inter-
dicted the use of names and spires, and were deprived of important rights, (e)
To take from them the necessity of going to foreign universities, a theologi-
cal school was opened for them at Vienna (1821). In Bohemia, recollections
of the Hussites were awakened with the revival of the national spirit of the
ancient Czecheu. In the Zillerthcd^ certain ancient traditions preserved at
Salzburg, and evangelical influences upon some Tyrolese travellers, produced
a party strongly opposed to the CathoKc Church. This opposition was still
farther increased by the perusal of the Scriptures, and finally induce<l a few
families to make application (1826) for liberty, in conformity with the spirit
of the Edict of Toleration, to join the Evangelical Church. But as the states
of Tyrol were oppose<l to a Protestant form of worship in their country, and
contended that the Edict of Toleration was never published for such cases
and as the evangelical party continued to increase even under the oppression
of a decidedly Catholic population, and with no services for public worship,
the emperor finally commanded them cither to settle in some other province,
or to emigrate to another country. In these circumstances they addressed
tliemselves to the King of Prussia, who erected for them a church and pri-
vate dwellinj^s on his domain of Erdmansdorf in Silesia. Thither, in the
autumn of 1837, about four hundred of them removed, although a hundred
never became settled there, or in 1838-39 left their new Zillerthal, to connect
themselves with some of the Lutherans who had separated themselves from
the established churches. (</) In Hungary^ when the partial privileges con-
ceded by the law respecting religion had been in many ways violated, and
the complaints of throe millions of Protestants had been for a long time dis-
Foc<1orifl Germ. L. 1830. W. v. Uofienthal, d. Faritut d. Eechte zw. d. kath. a. nichtkath. Unterth.
d. Bundcsst L. 1881.
h) Kv. K. Z. 1S44. N. 6TBeL— {AT. t. Oiech) Die Kniebeng. d. Proteotanten vor d. Sanrtlsfflraiiin d.
kath. K. Ulin. 1841. With *'Offenon Bedenken'' of 1844-45 against later insufficient modlflcatloafc
A. IIarl€M: Offeno Antw. Munch. 1843. a. Zeitschr. f. Prut a. K. 1848. vuL VI. F. ThUr»ek,i.
Protest n. Knieb. 8 Sendschr. an Dr.llinger. Marb. i$U.—J. DdUivger : Die Frage y. d. Knieb. 4
ProL V. d. rtl. u. 8taat*rcchtL Seito. MQnch. 1848. Der Prot In Baiem o. d. Knieb. Kegcnsb. IStt.
Lit Ucbors. by Schoder in d. Jen. Lit Z. 1840. N. 202aa. Brans, R•^ 1S4S. vol IIL p. 84m. Bri.
K. Z. 1846. N. 15. 2.'is.
c) J. Hrt/t-rt, d. Rochte n. Yerf. d. Akatholiken im (istr. Kalserst Vlen. (2 ed. 1887.) 1848.
d) (nMntcald) Die Evangdiscligesiiinten im ZillerthaL Bri. 1887. In 4 ed.: Die er. Zillertbslff
In Schlesien. 1888. AcU hist ecc 1887. p. eUes. Bbeinw. Rep. toL XXXVIL p. 84ml [Kxikiof
ZillenbaL (PubL by the Am. and For. Chr. Union.) N. York. 1840. 1&]
CHAP. V. EVANO. CnUBCH TILL 1858. $ 4«8- HUNGARY. FRANCE. 607
regarded, their oanse became identified in public estimation with the free
development of the state. At the Diet of 1833, the great majority appeared
enthnsiastic for justice to their Protestant fellow-citizens, but the State-Table
preferred entirely to dispense with the mutilated bill of religions grievances
proposed to them by the magnates, and rather than take up with a partial
grant, to trust to their chances for the future, {e) At the Diets of 1839-40,
both Tables united in presenting to the crown certain bills by which the
members of the Evangelical Church were guarantied absolute freedom, and
equality of legal privileges. But when the papal brief of April 80, 1841,
against the ecclesiastical confirmation of mixed marriages without security
that the children should be educated in the Catholic faith, had received the
royal sanction, the courts began to infiict penalties upon all bishops and pas-
tors who acted in accordance with this measure. At the Diet of 1843, bold
voices were raised in both Tables in opposition to this system of mediaeval
Church polity ; and although there was still an episcopal miyority among the
magnates, which succeeded in modifying the demands of the other Table,
both houses were opposed to the royal order of July 6th, respecting mixed
marriages. They declared, that while they were agreed with regard to the
principle advanced in that enactment on the subjects of freedom of con-
science and complete reciprocity, the only proper application of it, as well as
the only way to satisfy the minds of the people, which they could discover,
was the enactment of a law by which the children should be disposed of
according to the religion of the father, except where special promises had
been conceded by one of the parties (reversales) to the contrary. Accord-
ingly, the whole subject was virtually disposed of by the royal ordinances of
March 26th and Nov. 11th, 1844, which left the education of the children of
mixed marriages to be determined by the agreement of the parents, acknowl-
edged the validity of marriages solemnized in the Evangelical Church, and
prohibited the clergy from arbitrarily interfering when persons were dis-
posed to pass from the one to the other Church. (/) But the storm which
since 1848 has passed over Hungary, has for a while committed to the mili-
tary power the Church as well as the country of the orator from whose
mouth issued a sword, {(j) In the south of France^ the long-restrained
hostility of the Catholic populace broke out on the restoration of the Bour-
bons (1815), and for three months, in Nismes and its vicinity, the members
of the Reformed Church were robbed, murdered, and driven from their
dwellings by the flames. No notice of these excesses was taken by the gov-
ernment until expressions of indignation from all parts of France and of
Europe found their way to the throne. Individual instances of outrage were
repeated in 1816, the perpetrators of which were never punished ; and the
Protestants were always treated with contempt, until they recovered their
privileges at the revolution of 1830. (Ji) But their Church was never able
tf) Benwicty, Nachr. Q. d. Zaf>t d. Evr. in U. Lp«. 1922. FriedricK, Br. 0. d. Lage d. er. K. in
JJ. Lpa. 1835. Die ReIlgionsbeechw«rden d. Prot in U. a. d. Reichst im J. 18Sa. edit by BlUiM
TibUcftnuA^ Lps. 1888 [Hist of the Prut Church in Uun{;. from Uie Ret to 1850, viith reference
also to Transylvania, from Uie German by J. Craig^ Lend. 1854. 8.]
/) J.v. MaWith, d. Rel. Wirren in U. Ratisb. 1845. 2 vola Nachtr. RaUsb. 1840.
g) BrL KZu 1890. N. 17. SO. 185L N. «. 9. 1892. N. M.
A) D^nae des ProCettana da Daa-LaDfuedoc 1819. 4. (Areblv t KG. toL IIL p. S25fla) WWt9,
608 MODEBN CHURCH UI3T0BY. TEE, YL A. D. lUS-18S8w
to come together in a general synod, and by a decision of the Court of Cas-
sation (1843), notwithstanding the fundamental law of religious liberty, no
evangelical congregation could be established nnder the statute respecting
associations, without the arbitrary permission of the government and the
local authorities, (i) Under the republic, the Lutheran Church, especially in
Alsace, at a freely elected General Assembly in Strasbourg, and the Reformed
Church at a Synod in Paris, deliberated about the best means of developing
in an independent manner their old established constitutions (1848). (1)
Louis Napoleon ordained (March 26th, 1852) that the congregations should
be governed by presbyteries, and their districts by consistories, freely chosen
by them, but both under the presidency of chosen pastors approved by the
government ; that the ehurclies of the Augsburg Confe,ssion should have for
their superintending and legislative authority a supreme consistory, to be con-
vened annually, and to be composed of the presidents and lay-deputies of all
the consistorie^i, and fi)r their administrative authority, a directory, half of
whose members were to be appointed by the government, and half by the
supreme consistory ; and that the Reformed churches should have a Central
Council at Paris, with indeliuite powers, and consisting for the first time of
distinguished ProtesUuits, and the two oldest Parisian pastors. (Z) In the
elections held under this edict, all persons were allowed to vote, and the pres-
byteries which had been previously iu existence were confirmed. The Ecan-
(jtlknl Societi/^ a free association formed under English influence, undertook
to evangelize France from Geneva (p. 505) and from Paris (since 1838); for it
endeavored, by its colporteurs and evangelists with Bibles and tracts, not only
to win the Catholics, but to bring back the Reformed Church to its original
principles, (///) while the Society for the General Interests of Protestantism
aimed only to unite the orthodox portion of the Church in the pursuit of
genenil objects, {n) Although the Reformed Church has since increase<l, not
only by [)ersons coming from other bodies, but by the accession of thoee
whose i)references had either been unformed or concealed, in these intellec-
tual contests its spirituality has been exposed to great hazard. When the
Synod of 1848 resolved to disregard all confessions of faith, that it might
keep the Church practically united, pastor Fred. Monod and Count Gasparin,
the noble champion of French Protestantism, abandoned it. On their invi-
tation, thirty congregations which, from a desire to possess a more rigid disci-
pline or a purer faith, had previously been independent, now united in a Synod
at Paris (1849), and formed a Union of evangelical congregations on the baas
of a new confession, whose articles were merely devotional, in the style of
the apostles John and Paul. These congregations had been formed with a
distinct creed, received no support or assistance from the state, and were
n. of the Pcr?ooutlons cntlarcd by the ProU of the Booth of Franco. Lond. 1821. 2 vols. (Kflkt
Arcliiv. 1S23. II. Ss,)
0 II. lieucMin, d Chrlstentli. in Fr. llainb. 1S87. p. 88788. I^ proces de Svnnoville. MStixt^
libcrt* do8 cultes, plaidoe par Odillon Bar rot. Par. 1S43. (^4. Mader) Die prot K. Fr. 17ST-lS46i ei
by Gicseler, Lpj^. 1849. 2 vols.
k) Brl. K7. 1549. N. 75. 89. 90. 98. 102.— 76. 95. 1S49. N. 7.
t) Brl. KZ. l.sr>2. N. 2S. A. KZ. lS5a N. 14a m) Organ : Archive do Chrteaanianet
n) Aginor df Gatparin^ Les Int^r^ta g£*n6raux da Protest fran^. Par. 1848. Easen. 1848.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CIIURCH TILL 1863L $ 468. FRANCE. ITALY. 609
independent in government and worship ; but they now resolved to maintain
unity by means of a bienni:J synod, and a synodal commission for the inter-
vening period, (o) But even in the Reformed National Church there are two
opposite parties : the Evangelical, under Ad. Monod, agreeing in doctrine
with the Separatists, and anxious to preserve, as far as possible, the old con-
fes?ion and the old customs; (;/) and the Liberal under Goquerol, rejecting
every creed except the Scriptures as the word of God, and before the altar
of the Lord. The number of ministers in each of these parties is nearly the
siime ; they remain united, and both are rich in works of pious charity, (q)
The theological faculty at Strasbourg maintains an intimate fellowship witli
German science, and the other at Montauban, with a clergy trained by
rhetorical rules and with a practical spirit, is conversant principally with de-
votional subjects, (r) By its acquisition of territory in 1815, and by its Gon-
stitntion of 1842, Geneva lost its Protestant independence. («) In Itahj^ an
evangelical public worship was needed only for foreigners residing there.
The policy of the goverimients of Milan and Florence did not lead them to
oppose the formation of particular congregations. A regard for England,
Prussia, and America, disposed Naples and the ecclesiastical states U) tolerate
Protestant chapels ; and after the old prophecy had been twice fnltiUed, Ger-
man Protestantism found an abode in the Capitol. (^) When the national
desires of the Italians began to come in conflict with the hierarchy, an incli-
nation towards Protestantism showed itself here and there under English
influence, and the pope found himself threatened by a host of reforming
spirits and Italian Bibles. After the re-establishment of the legitimate au-
thorities, the revolutionary religion wtw put down, and many a victim was
sacrificed in the prisons. (//) But when the Mailini family in Florence were
condemned (June, 1852) to an imprisonment for several years, on a charge
of endeavoring to make proselytes to Protestantism by reading the Bible, the
zeal of their Protestant friends in England became powerfully excited against
this anachronism. In opposition to the deputation of the Evangelical Alli-
ance, and the intercession of the King of Prussia and the English govern-
ment, the Grand Duke asserted the independence of his judicial courts, and
his obligation to protect the religion of the state ; but so menacing became
the popular excitement in England in support of the ministry, that tlie Tus-
can government thought it best to get rid of their troublesome prisoners by
sending them out of the country (March, 1853). (r) In consequence of this
affair, an association was formed in Hamburg (Aug. 1853), under the presi-
o) Union de^ egl. t'vnng. do France. Par. 1850. //. JlnUmar^ Eutat d. Uulunsklrche in Fr.
(Zeit*cb. f. hi*t Th. Is51. H. 5.)
p) Adoljfhe Mono'l, iK»ur«iuoi Jo donicurc dans Tepl. ctabllu. Par. 19-19.
q) A. Dam man, d. [»rut K. in Fr. (Zt^itsch. f. hist. Th. 1850. H. 1.) E. 8. CL d. rel. Zust Fr.
(Oelzer, pnjt M<»natBt'h. 1^53. Aug. -Oct.)
r) £. ReuH», d. wIm. The<»l. untcr d. ft. Prot (Stud. u. Krit. 1S44. II. 1.)
9) Comp. IJrl. KZ. 1S42. N. 26. A. KZ. 1S53. N. 149. E. Cunitz In tl Jen. T.. Z. 1S43. N. 242-*s.
t) Jfi«bvhr'h Bricfe. vol. II. p. -KJG. FUck, wisa. Eel?e Lps. 1S85. vol II. 1. p. 124as. It. £aird,
Sketches of ProtesiantUm In Italy, past and present. Ba»ton. 1846. 12.
i#) BrL KZ. 1849 N. 7a 96. 1S50. N. 21 Ev. KZ. 1S52. N. 93. A. D. Z. 1S53. N. 264
f?) Ev. KZ. 1S52. N. 102. Brl. KZ. 1S53. N. I6.-IIIj»L poL Bll. 1963. vol. XXXI. p. 7S8sa. [Story
of the MadlaL N. York. 1858. Amcr. and For. Chr. Union. toL II L p. SOTaa. voL IV. pi «5esa.]
610 MODERN CHURCH HISTORT. PER. YL A. D. 16iS-18B8.
dency of Lord Shaftesbury, with an execntive committee in London, to assist
by every means sanctioned by the gospel all who might suffer persecution for
their confession of Christ, or for reading and distributing the Holy Scrip-
tures, (tr)
§ 4G4. Old and Xeto SicU.
1. The Waldenses^ who were connected with the Hussites by fraternal
ties, recognized finally in tlie Reformation (Synod of Angrogra, 1532) the
very objects which their ancestors had been obscurely seeking, (a) They
were therefore exterminated in France, with the exception of some remnants
living in the High Alps of Dauphine, but they have been preserved under •
synodal system of pastors and elders in tliree Alpine valleys in Piedmont
Here they came sometimes under the influence of distinguished persons be-
longing to the Genevan Church, though generally they retained the character
of great pious simplicity. They have been much oppressed by their own
authorities, but since the time of Cromwell, they have received i)ecuniary aid
from the English government. Napoleon favored them, but after the restora-
tion they were thrown back under their former oppressions, and confined to
the narrow valleys of their ancestors, (h) The flag of liberty on the throne
of Piedmont opened to them the whole country (Feb., 1848), the inclination
generally felt toward Protestantism found among them a primitive legal form,
and a great Waldensian church was dedicated witli much solemnity in the
city of Turin itself (1853). (e) 2. Among the Menuonite$ in Holland, the
Arminian party obtained the ascendency, and when the different factions of
the Gross became united, all distinct creeds were abandoned (1800). {d) The
BaptUts of England and North America had their origin principally among
the Independents (since 1630). The largest portion adhere strictly to CJal-
vinistio orthodoxy and discipline, but a part are Anninians (General Bap-
tists), and some have no ecclesiastical discipline. Some minor communitieB
among them have originated, in some instances, from their adoption of the
Jewish Sabbath (Sabbatarians) ; in others, from their inculcating opposi-
tion to the slave-trade as a religious duty (Emancipationists) ; and still in oth-
ers, from the principle of abstinence from all controversies on the ordinary
orthodox doctrines (Christians). («) In Germany, persons sometimes became
Anabaptists from pietistic scruples, or from some religious extravagances, and
a few small congregations have here and there been baptized by the English
missionary Oncken, of Hamburg (since 1834). (,/*) In Denmark, they were
tr) A. KZ. 1853. N. ITSsj.
a) I/ereoff, rum. Waldcnser. p. 8338S.
h) W. DleUrici, d. Wald. u. ibr Verb. z. Preasa. SUtt Brl. 1S81. Ifayerh4ff^ d. W. in nnstn
Tagen. Brl. 1S84. Fleck, Eelsc. vol II, 1. p. Slsa. [K Henderson, Tour in the VEllejsof PW-
mont, in 1844. Lond 1845. 8.]
c) J.n. JTtfiM, d. KVerf d. Ploni. W. ZQr. 1844. Brl. KZ. 184a N. 21. T7. A. KZ. 1858. N. ITSL
d) Fliedner, CoUectenrelsc. vol I. p. 188»
e) Rtcku*, H. of tbe English- American Baptists Boston, 1772-S4. 2 vo1& [/>. Doufftoi, H of
Bapt Churcbe? in tbe North of Engl. Lond. 1846. 8 ] A. F. Cox and J. Bahy, (p. 608.) Arebir. £
KG. vol II p. 576«a. KHlst Arohlv. 1824. St 8. Ev. KZ. 1882. N. 95. 1S89. N. 91«.
/) Pupiknftr, d. neuer K. in der Schweiz. St. Gall- 1S84. C. GrSneUen, Abrias e. Oesch. 4 rri.
Gemcinschaften in WQrtcrab. m. bea. B&ckSL a. d. neuen Tanfgesinnten. (Zcltach. t hL< Th. 1S4L
H. 1.) BrL KZ. 1840. N. 71 1841. N. 79. 87. 1851. N. 84. 8T.
CHAP. V. EVANG. CIIUBCII TILL 1S58. S ^L UNIT. PLYMOUTH BRETH. 611
at first punished by fine and imprisonment ; but when this course was found
to be inetfectnal, they were allowed to liave a single congregation in Froderi-
cia (1842). It was, however, found impossible to confine them within tliis
limit. ((/) 8. As Unitarian imi could be propagated simply as an opinion, it
had less (ffccasion to be extended as a sect. In Transylvania, the Unitarians
have mainUdned a well constructed ecclesiastical system, and have developed
their views in consistency with their supernaturalist concessions. (/<) In Eng-
land they lived legally subject to the axe of the executioner, and although the
laws against them had long since ceased to be enforced, even in 1792, Parliament
refused formally to abolish the statutes against them, and it was not till 1813
that they were finally tolerated by law. LinfJfey (d. 1808), whose gentle
spirit led him voluntarily to withdraw from a congregation connected with
the Established Church (1773), and the natural philosopher Priestley founded
a few Unitarian congregations, and an academy for free theological inquiry.(i)
When Priestley was obliged to retire to America before the storm of the pop-
ular will (1794), he there encountered every kind of opposition. But after
his death (1804), a kind of Rationalism began to spread in opposition to the
prevalent sentiment of the people there, and found a peculiarly favorable
home in the general isolation and freedom of the churches. Several hundred
congregations among the Independents and Baptists have embraced it, and
for some time it has had tlie ascendency in the State of Massachusett*^. (h)
In England, the greater part of the Presbyterian and General Baptist congre-
gations have adopted the same sentiments. When they thus denied the doc-
trine of a Triune, incarnate God, the orthodox Dissenters maintained that
they had forfeited their right to all ecclesiastical property derived from foun-
dations estiiblished for the promotion of the Christian faith. This view was
sustained by the civil courts, and many congregations were deprived of their
fonner splendor m public worship, until by a new law (Dissenters' Chapel
Bill, 1844), which gave a legal title to such as had enjoyed immemorial pos-
session of the fund, a termination was given to this scandal. (/) 4. The
Plymouth Brethreiiy a society founded by Darby, an English clergyman, and
propagated from Plymouth to the Canton of Vaud (1840), felt constrained to
abandon the Protc^^tant Church, on the ground that it also had become a
Babylon, but they remained strictly Calvinistic in doctrine, and were diligent
in religious labors. Regarding themselves as the elect children, and there-
fore universally the priests of God, they relied on the promise of our Lord
(Matth. 18, 20), dispensed with a regular clergy, and in small domestic
churches waited for the approaching second advent of Christ. (///) 6. A
Q) BrL KZ. 134a N. 9. 1846. N. 18. 80. 1S47. N. 12.
h) {G. MarkoB^) Bumma Thcol. anlv. Fee. rnltarios. Claadiopoli, 1767. Archiv f. KGoscb. vol
IV. SL 1.
I) Th. Bfl-sham^ Memoirs of Llndwy. Lend. 1820. Memoirs of J. PrUntUy, (by htmitcif and hte
»>n.) I^)nd. ISOCs. 2 vela. W. Turner^ Lives of Eminent Unitarian^ Ix)nd. \S40f*. 2 vo]\
*) n'alcA, nst rel. Oesch. voL V. p. 175. VII, 347m. Archiv t KG. vol. I. p. 88. IV, 149m. Ev.
KZ. ISm N. 13. 1881. N. 40.
0 J. March, IIIsL of the Trcs. and Oon. Baptist Churches in the West of Engl. Lond. 1835. JT.
A. Crfti7ter, ItJrchl. Zustinde. (Heldlb. Jahrb. 1845. H. 1.)
m) J. J. IlertoQ, les Fr^Tes de Plymouth et John Darby. Lauji. 1845. Ev. KZ. 1844. N. 28. 28.
Bri KZ. 1S51. N. 90. [C F. Leopold, in the Stud. n. KriL 184S. H. 4.]
612 MODERN CHUliCn lIISTOliY. PEP*, YL A. D. 1WS-13M.
romonco founded on the story that the ten tribes of Israel had been driven
to America, and been converted under the personal ministry of our Lord
there, was turned into a holy book whioli Joseph Smith (b. 1805) claimed to
have discovered by revelation, and found to be an historical record by Mor-
mon, an old prophet among that people. Professing to be himself dn inspired
prophet, ho collected around him an active host, which were driven from a
number of places, but at last commenced the erection of a city and a splen-
did temple in the State of Illinois. Their pious claims upon the property of
their neighbors soon armed a multitude of fanatics against them, by whom
their temple was destroyed and their prophet was slain (1844). During two
subsequent years, and in the midst of indescribable troubles, the Muruwrn
went through the wilderness and across the Rocky Mountains to the great
ocean, and founded on the Salt Lake (Utah Territory) a city and a flourisliing
state, which is preparing to take its place under the starry banner of the United
States. From this point their messengers are going forth, full of faith in old
and new i)rophecies, into all parts of the world, to baptize the Latter- Day-
Saints and to assemble them in their new Zion on the Salt Lake. Their
Catechism has an evangelical and almost an orthodox tone ; they take some
pains to deny the limited polygamy which is practised among them, and theii
comnmnity of goods is limited to one tenth of all property and annual rents,
to be used for objects of common utility. The purpose of their theocratic
government is to establish a firm social and military system, and it offers
those who have come to them, especially from Scotland and Scandinavia, the
prospect at least of a temporal kingdom. (//)
§ 465. Mmionary amJ Bible Societies.
The ordinary Annual Reports c5ii. of the London, Eilinbur^b, Basic, Halle, and Berlin Bible So-
cieties. For a Gen. Vit-w: Knapp, Abrisa e. prot. Missionsji^fscl). (HalL Jahre>b. ISld SL 66.)
ForUchrlttc d. cv. Mi»lon.sw. im 1. Viertel d. VJ. Jahrh. Ba». IS'ift. F. I.uckfy MU»lonflstndieiL
Gott. 1S41. F. W. Klumpp^ d. cv. Mi^sionsnesen, k Meltgtrsch. u. nation. Bedeut. Stuttc IWl. J.
Wiggers^ (\y. 510.) J. 11. H'-aue.r, d. Miwionswcsen d. ev. K. Statistlk. Hainb. lS47-d1. L vol 1. *i H.
A". J. NitoHch, d. Wirk. (L ev. Chr. auf kulturlofee Volkcr. Brl. lSft2. Contp. Wi9fmann^ d. Un-
fhichtbark. d. v. Protestanten untcrnoininen. Mtas. Augsb. 1S85.— «/i Ovcen^ IIl^L of tlie Grig, and first
ten years of the Bible Soc, Lond. 1^16. 8 voK Lps. lS2i. Archlv. t KG. vol. IL pi «9ml IIL 171»
A. KZ. 1925. N. 128. TS28. N. 25. lS>y. N. Sfl. [F. Schobert, Present State of ChrUUanity, and of Um
Mi<^ £.<ablishiuent& Lond. 182S. VI. J. 0. ChouUa, Hist of Missions Bost<in, ISSS. 8 vob. R R
EiluHirdfu Miss. Gazetteer. Bost l^'.Vl. 12. C. WillUtma, Miss. Gar. Lond. 1S2S. 12, J. Tracy, IL of
the Am. Board. Boston, 1S8S. 12.]
In the spirit of the present age, which accomplishes great enterprises bj
means of private voluntiiry associations, the extension of Christianity has
become a popular cause, lioards for missionary societies, each of which is
peculiar and distinct in its character, were organized at London in 1795, (a)
at Edinburgh in 1796, at Boston in 1810, at Basle in 1816, (b) at New York
n) Book of Mormon. Book of Covenants. The former work has been several times printed dacf
1880, even in German. Pratt, e. Siinime d. Warnung a. Belch, t alle V6Iker. fW>m the EngL Hamk
1858.— 7^m<r, Mormonism in all A^es. N. York. 1S43. CaetccU^ The Tropbetof the 1W» Oal
Lond. 1842. Raunur, (p. 601.) vol. II. p. 154ss. BrL KZ. 1S51. N. 69. 1852. N. 100. 1858. N. 6L 4t 4S.
A. KZ. 1858. N. Sss.
a) W. EUU, Hist of the Lond. Miss. Soc. Lond. 1844 vol. 1
h) W. Hqffmann, £ilf Jahre in d. Miss. Stuttg. 1S58.
CHAP. V. EVANO. CHURCH TILL 1868. §465. MISS. A BIBLE BOCIErifc::^. 613
in 1820, at Berlin in 1823, at Barmen in 1828, and at Dresden in 1836.
Wherever Protestants were found, anxiliaries to these societies were formed,
and about ^ve millions of dollars are annually collected for the education and
support of five thousand native and foreign laborers in the missions of nearly
fifteen hundred stations on the globe. Every party in the Church, especially
in England and America, contributes of its money and its prayers, under the
conviction that the more a Christian gives for objects abroad, the more he
will have of spiritual blessings in his own heart. The English missions aim
to make their converts thoroughly English, but the American missionaries
avow that they wish to become national pastors, wherever they may be sta-
tioned. In consequence of the peculiar organization of the London Society,
it was obliged to confine its attention to the simple proclamation of Chri^-
tianity, and to leave the ecclesiastical connection to be determined by the
converts, or rather by the missionaries them^•elve8. The Church Missionary
Society recognized indeed only the system of Christian Mth professed by tl.o
Epissoopal Church, but it employed even German missionaries, and allowed
them to manage their ecclesiastical aftairs in their own way. The difficulties
experienced by Rhenius (d. 1838), so remarkable for his powerful faith, and
who was the first that fell out with the society, sprung entirely from his de-
cided literary tendencies, (r) The North German Missionary Society (1836)
was much endangered by its controversy about the Lutheran and the Re-
formed Confessions, but with resi)ect to niissionarj' operations it always per-
ceived the necessity of a union. ('/) The missionary societies of all countries
where the German language was spoken, were united (1846) into one gen-
end body, that concert in missionary operations might be secured by
means of periodical general assemblies and a central Board, whose location
might be changed according to circumstances, (e) But when the Dresden
mission was transferred to Leipsic (1847), it placed itself decidedly on the
ground of the Lutheran Confession, and the Bavarian Lutherans pronounced
all contributions to the society of Nuremberg sinful, until it received a
Lutheran name and character (1862). (/) As most of the missions were
commenced under the management of what was called the Methodistic party
and the Moravians, it was found that none but those of a kindred spirit
would enter heartily into the work of conducting them. Gradually, there-
fore, a certain degree of coolness with regard to them sprung up among the
Rationalists, (ff) Although the doctrines of many of the missionaries may
have reminded one more of the Formula of Concord than of the gospel,
there were certainly some missionaries, tis <•. j/., those who proceeded from
the school of the sincere Jacrdke of Berlin (since 1800), whose virtues and
sacrifices remind us of apostolic times. (/<) Not only ministers with a regu-
c) Rh^mcaUi, Kcp. vol. XXIV. p. ISIs*.
d) Report of the Nordd. Mi£s. G. Ilamb. 1889. A. KZ. 1647. N. 152. Allg. Misslcmszeitung, ed. by
Brawr^ Hamb. 1845^
<•) Brl. KZ. 1S4T. N. 70.
/) L. A. Pftri, d. Miiv. a. d. K. Ilann. 1841. X. Graul, d. ev. lath. M. zu Dresden an die latli
K. Lpa. 1345. £v. Inth. Missionsb). Dr. a. l.\>n. s. IfyMn.
g) Ruhr, Pred. BlbU toL XIL H. i. NoUzenbl. and oft. A, KZ. 1880. N. 88a.
A) £y. KZ. 1881. N. 9a
614 MODERN CnURCU niSTOBY. PER. YL A. D. 164^18nL
lar education, but in some cases mecbanics of an elevated religions spirit,
were sent fortb. Tbeir principal influence bas been exerted bj means of
popular schools, and generally none bave been admitted to baptism until
tbeir fidelity has been proved. — When the Pietists of Halle had begun (1712)
to provide cheap Bibles, (0 this attempt to supply those who in different
places were found destitute of the word of God, suggested to some benevo-
lent people in England tlie idea of supplying every nation on earth with the
Holy Scriptures in their own language. The British and Foreign Bible Society
at London was the first and the most important of all these enterprisea. The
single penny of the poor soon became a million, and innumerable Bibles are
now distributed in more than a hundred languages. That the whole power
of all parties may be combined for the accomplishment of this object, nothing
is printed by this society but the word of God, in a faithful, and, when it is
possible, in an ecclesiastical translation, without note or comment. The rela-
tions of the English society to foreign societies were disturbed by its resolu-
tion to withdraw from all co-operation in the circulation of the Apocrj-pha
(1827) ; but althougli the difficulty was nearly settled by mutual conces-
sions, (I) it was made the subject of controversy in the orthodox party in
Germany, because those who maintained the divine authority of the Scrip-
tures were against, while those who regarded them as merely traditionary
records were in favor of the Apocrypha, and the practical interest might
therefore be so explained as to be on either side. (/) The proposition in Lon-
don, to banish from the society all who did not believe in a Triune God, was
voted down with great unanimity (1831), but its advocates withdrew, and
formed a separate society, (m)
§ 466. Spread of ChrUtianity,
In consequence of the revolutionary wars in the south of Europe and
America, the dominion of the seas had fallen into the hands of Protestant pow-
ers, and all the shores of the earth were open to their missions. Hence,
when peace was concluded, the gospel was proclaimed in all parts of tLe
world with more power than ever before, and with a powerfnl popular sym-
pathy in its favor. In the South Sea Inlands, even among the milder tribes,
Christianity had to contend with the most licentious practices, and the terri-
ble sanctity of the Tabu. At Tahiti, the dissenting missionaries, since 1797,
never despaired even in the most hopeless seasons, and have finally obtained
possession of the native children. King Pomare II. learned to read and
write ; an insurrection in favor of the old religion was quelled after a san-
guinary struggle (Nov. 12th, 1815), and the magic work of the first printing
press was hailed (1817) with the most joyful anticipations. At the Sand-
wich Islands, king Riho-riho had already destroyed the old gods when the
American missionaries first landed on his shores (1820). {a) Since that time,
most of the Society and Sandwich Islands, as they could not escape the vices
0 A. If. XUmeyer, Gescb. d. Canstein, Blbelanst Hal 1827. *) A. KZ. 182T. N. 12. 1S30. X. «*
0 IJrl. KZ. lSft3. N. 43. m) Ev. KZ. 1881. N. 688. 1882, N. 84 95.
a) E. ProtU, Mem. of tho Life of J. Williams. Lond. 1848. W. J. Be—er, J. W. d. Ap-wUl <L
8fidi«ee. Brl. 2 ed. 1847.
CHAP. Y. EVANO. OHUBCH TILL 1858. $466. EAST INDIES. 615
of civilization, Lave accepted also of the virtues of a Puritanic form of
Christianity, and submitted themselves to the theocratic government of the
missionaries ; (h) but the English missionaries have been driven from the
Marquesas, and the evangelical churches of Tahiti have been wasted by
French ships of war with Catholic priests (since 1842). (c) The old land of
wonders, the land of Bralima, had now become subject to the merchants of
England. The East India Company has sometimes favored Brahminism be-
cause it believed that the security of its dominion might be promoted by the
jealousies of the Brahmins and tlie Mussulmen. But public opinion in Eng-
land demanded that the government should act in consistency with the
Christian religion, and accordingly, in 1829, the suttees ceased to receive the
protection of the laws, and in 1831, all offices open to any natives were made
free to Christian Hindoos. The system of caste still presents very groat
obstacles; the manner in which the Brahmins have been educated enables
them to propose objections (d) which an uneducated missionary finds it hard
to answer ; the number of converts is small, and the missionaries^ native
helpers have very little influence with those whom they have forsaken. The
Anglican Church is tlie only body which has laid the basis of an external
polity there. The diocese of Calcutta has been established (1815), and the
suffragans of Bombay and Madras have been since attached to it (1833).
But the foundations of the old temples have been powerfully shaken by the
quiet influence of Christian dominion and improvements, by the schools, a
free press, and trials by jury. In the promotion of these objects, Bishop
ffeber (d. 182C) 8[)ent the brief day of his administration in his immense dio-
cese laboring principally for the Christian education of the people, {e) Bishop
WiUon has declared all distinctions of caste abolished among such as profess
the Christian religion (1838), since the gospel has placed all men of every
nation and condition on the same footing. (/) On the other hand, the great
Rammohiui'Iioy (1780-1833), in possession of the treasures of Indian and
Christian learning, has proclaimed that the purely moral worship of the one
V) E. TT. Lnh-n^ G. d. Rel. d. Polyncsier, a d. TapnlSnder. (Zeitsih. f. Iiht Th. 1S42. II. 4.)— a r.
KoUehxu^ Reise urn d. Wflt Weiin. 1830. (/?<iAr, Pr. Blbl. vol. X. 11. 5. XII, 4. XIII, 5.) To be
modified by: AV/m, Polynesian KoPt-archca. I^)nd. 1S80. 2 vol*. (Kv. KZ. 1S8«). N. SOsa.) [N. York.
1981. 2 voK] F. Krohn. d Missionsweson d. Sftdsec. limb. 1833. J. WiUiairut, Narrative of Mias.
Enterprises In the South Sea L&lands. Lond. 1S87. C. E. JfrhiUi'e, d. Sudsoevolker il d. Chrlstenth.
PrenzL 1S44. //. Wegener^ Gescti. d. chr. K. a. d. Oc8ell.«icbafl»-Arcliip<*L Brl. 1344. vol. I.
e, If. Lutt«roth^ Oescb. d. I. Tahiti, u. ihrer Bcftitznahme durcli d. Franzoscn. from the Fr. by Briins.
BrL 1S43. W. F. Benaer^ d. Miswionfir u. s. Lolin. (from Pritchard^ The Missionary's Reward LoncL
1S44.) Hal. 1S46.— £1 Mickaelia, d. VOlker d. Sudsee u. Gesch. d. prot u. kath. Mi8.\ unter dens.
Muuet. 1S47.
d) An Aj)ology for IIcalhenL'Oii, and Controversial Treatises against Clirlstianity, by a Brahmin.
Translated, wltli notes by Bp. Wilson. Bombay, 1832. (Mitgeth. v. Poret In Stud. u. Krlt 1853.
IL 2.)
t) Buchanan, nst Unters. u. d. Zust d. ChrlRten in Aj'ien. A. d. E. Stuttg. 1S13. [Ghrlrtian Re-
■earcheft In Asia. Lond. ISll. 8. and oft.] Xiemeyer^ neuere Gesch. d. ev. Miss, in Ostind. (Hal.
l>id<». St. 77.) Ifeber, Journal. Lond. 1S26. 2 vols. 4. Life of Heber. Lond. 1880. 2 vols. 4. United
In: Krohn, Hebers Lebcn u. Nachrr. u. Ind. Brl. 1831. 2 vola. J. Hough, Hbt of Christ in India.
Lond. 1889-45. 4 vols. Die £ntw. d. chr. Miss, in Ostind (Baa. Mag. 184L II. 1. 2. 4. 1842. H. 1. 8s.
l&ta II. 1s8l 1844 H. 2a. 1845. U. 2.) J. J. Weitbrecht, d. prot. Mlsai in Ind. m. bes. RQcks. a. Ben-
l^en. Heldlb. 1844.
/) £t. KZ, 1884L N. 788.
616 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER VL A. D. 1MS-1808L
God is merely the restoration of original Brahminism, and that this doctrine
constitntes the unity of that system with the essential principles of the gos-
pel. Oz) At Malacca, a Christian school was opened for the education of the
Chinese residing there, and Morrison (d. 1844) translated the Scriptnres for
their use. English cannons have compelled the Celestial Empire to open its
gates for the reception of the gospel as well as opium (1842), and the Hessian
Missionary Society has avowed its special interest in the conversion of China.
Giitzlaff (1808-51), born a missionary, and trained in the school of Jaenike,
in the full costume of a native, and sometimes in connection with English
merchants, has penetrate<l with some violence into the interior of China
(since 1881). At first he was obliged to communicate Christianity to the
Chinese only in a manuscript form, but after a time he succeeded in sending
forth in every direction a large number of native preachers from the Anglo-
Chinese seminary, which has been removed from Macao to Hong-Kong, and
finally, as a friend of China, has pleaded its cause in the different countries
of Germany, (h) The insurrection created by the new Son of Heaven
(Tien-ti), has already destroyed the idols (since 1852), threatens to over-
throw the Tartar dynasty, and has adopted many ideas peculiar to Christian-
ity. (?) Missions of all denominations have been established among the
colonies on the coast of Southern Africa^ where, in consequence of the rev-
erence which the negro generally feels for the white man, the difficulty has
been not so much with the decided opposition as with the indifference of a
stupid barbarism. The Rhenish Missionary Society looks with pious expec-
tations to the miniature likeness of its own native valley in the Wupperthal
belonging to the Colony of the Cape, but when the Hottentots rose against
the white men (since 1850), they forgot their catechism. At Sierra Leone has
been formed the germ of freedom and of Christianity (since 181 C), at an
expeni^ of millions of money, but it is continually threatened by a most
noxious climate. (X) To secure the benefits of European civilization for his
subjects, King Radama allowed Christianity to be freely Introduced into
Madagascar (since 1818). The queen who succeeded him, however, com-
manded her subjects to think no more of the new doctrine ; the missionaries
abandoned the island (1886), and the native Christians wore impaled alive,
g) Translatiun of several principal b(K>kB of the Ycds. cd 2. Lond. 1882. Appeal to CbrisdaDa^
Calcutta, 1S2(K 2 vols. Correspondence relative to the prospect of the reception of Christ in IndU.
Lond. 1S24. A. KZ. 1S24. N. 43. Gesch. d. ev. Mias. Hal. 188T. St 88. p. 956& [Christ Enm-
incr, Sept an<i Oct 1S26. Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. II. p. 2708S. North Aroer. Review. voL
XX. p. 398sa]
h) W. If. Jfedhurst, China, Its State and Prospects. Lond. 1388. Freely revised. Btnttg. ISia-
Gutzlaff, Sketch of Chinese Hist, Anc. and Mod. N. York. 1840. 2 vols. 11— (T Guldtiff, Journal of
Three Voyages along tlie Coast of China. N. York, 1S83. Lond. 1884. (Ev. KZ. 188a N. 5«. 1884. N.
798S.) Galhan's (Gutzl.) chin. Borichte. 1841^6. ed. by the chin. StlAong. 1850. A. KZ. 184& N.
181. 1*^7. N. 148. 1S50. N. 2n288. 1851. N. 40. »
0 Boitrr. z. Kunde Chinas in Bez. a. d. Mi8& ed. by JT. Z. A'«nuiteH, Cass. 1858. roL L E 1
A. KZ. lS5a N. 180.
k) {0. V. Gerlach;) Gesch. d. ev. Miss. !m sttdl. Afr. BrL 1882. (T. and a Rep. of the Berl Sot)
Reports of the KhcniMi Miss. Soc. Barm. 1880sa. Hist of the avillzation and Christianlxatioo of
Southern Af^. Edinb. ISSO. Some circulars sent from South Afr. to Bishop Neuder, ed. by G. OebcL
Hamb. 1S40.
CHAP. VL OATH. GHUBCH TILL 1853. |4«7. PIUS VIL CONSALVL 617
bnt Chriatianity was by no means extinguished. (I) The remnants of the
aboriginal tribes of North America betook themselves to the deeper shades
of their primitive forests ; and although some of them acknowledged the
God of the whites, others replied to the solicitations of the missionaries, that
they had previously lived happily under the protection of the Great Spirit,
and that what they had witnessed in their white brethren had only made
them doubt the expediency of any change. — About sixty-five millions of
people are at present adherents of the Evangelical Church.
CHAP. VL— THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CIILTlCn UNTIL 1858.
§ 467. Re-e9tahlishment of the Roman Ilierarchy. Cont. from § 439.
With the restoration of the Bourbons, a party bound together by the
most intimate relations, and ramified in a great variety of forms, became dif-
fused in all parts of Southern Europe, and formed a secret connection until
1830 with the apostolical congregation as the nucleus of all their operations.
The object of this party was to obliterate all vestiges of the Revolution, and
under the name of the absolute monarchic system, once more to divide the
world between the Priests and the Barons. Their watchword, tliat the altar
cannot full without the throne, and the terrible experience of the few past
years was suflScient to draw toward them the hearts of the princes. The
result was, that the state received an ecclesiastical, and the Church a politi-
cal element. By this dangerous connection, the hierarchy obtained many
unexpected concessions, but the Church was involved in all the changes of
the i)olitical system, and its true power was much impaired. And yet the
newly-awakened religious zeal which now took possession of the leading
spirits of the age, sometimes the result of enthusiasm, and at other times of
deliberate purpose, was beneficial to the cause of Catholicism, and raised up
many a dilapidated and fallen pillar for its support. Plus VII. once more
entered his capital (May 24th, 1814), which, having been reduced to a mere
French provincial town, now received him with acclamations, {a) The
Ecclesiastical States had their former limits assigned them by the Congress
of Vienna, with the exception of a small district beyond the Po. The pro-
vinces beyond the Apennines were exposed to the rapacity of Auntria, now
the dominant power in Italy. The Diplomatists of Vienna smiled when
Consalvi solemnly protested against the dismembennent of the country on
the Po, the Austrian occupation of the castle of Ferrara, the refusal to sur-
render Avignon, and the secularization and dissolution of the German em-
pire, {h) The nations heard with amazement that the pope had pronounced
the Bible Society a pestilence (1817). (r) The bull Sollicitudo Omnium (Aug.
7th, 1814), in compliance with what it called the almost unanimous entreaty
/) EUi»^ H. of Madiu^. Lond 1S8S. 2 vols. (Ev. KZ. 1S89. N. 15«s.) BrL KZ. ISAl. N. 29. Fdd'
ner^ d. Kv. a. Madag. Konig^b. l!^.
a) Pueca, Memorie. Orv. 1883. vol. V. Angsb. 1884 vol. V.
b) Kl&ber, Acten d. Wiener Congr. vol. IV. p. 825. VI. 44180.
e) Wakt, DecreU, qaib. socieU. blbL ■. P. R. damnantur. Reg. 1818.
618 MODKBN CHUBCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1M8-18ML
of Christendom, restored the order of the Jesnits througbont the world.
Nowhere, except in the Ecclesiastical States, however, was it able to regain
possession of any portion of its former property ; hot it received from the
former society an inheritance of suspicion and hatred, which its members
sought to remove from the popular mind by a course of strict morality and
mannei*s. In Naples, Belgium, Ireland, and in most of the American States,
they were tolerated ; in Sardinia, they were richly endowed, and intrusted
with the education of the youth ; and in some of the cantons of Switzerland
they erected edifices for instruction, which were resorted to by many chil-
dren of tlie French and Genuan nobility. Austria, after a protracted refu-
sal, opened a few of her provinces to them (after 1836). They were excluded
from Russia for their abuse of confidence (1820). (d) As they became, under
General Itoothaan^ after 1820, more and more decidedly the prominent cham-
pions against all freedom both in Church and State, not indeed from any
warmth of natural character, but by cold calculation and untiring diligence,
their intrusion into the western states of Europe depended upon their uncer-
tain victory over liberal institutions, (e) Every condition which they had
desired in behalf of the new order of things in the Church, had been con-
ceded to them by the Roman court, and by the governments of Turin (1814,
1817) and Naples (1818), since every limitation of the hierarchy was sus-
pected in those countries as a democratic element. (/) Every ecclesiastical
measure indicated that it was the design to bring all things back to the con-
dition in which they were before the time of Clement XIV. In the civil
administration, Consalvi endeavored to strike out a middle way between the
hierarchical and liberal parties. A Motu-Proprio of July 6, 1816, confirmed
the legal equality of all citizens, just as it had been introduced by the French
when they abolished all municipal and provincial privileges. But when the
French cede had been abolished, nothing was substituted in its place ; the
prelates once more seized upon all the civil offices, the privileged classes were
opposed to a re-establishment of the financial system, and even robbers col-
lected annuities. It may therefore with propriety be said, that there was no
security for the government but in the pious recoUections of the people,
and in the proper management of the confessional, {g) After experiencing
such extreme vicissitudes of fortune, Pius VII. died (Aug. 21, 1828), his last
days having been beclouded by the burning of St Paul's church, and the
threatened approach of a new revolution. (7t) Although he was a theologiao,
his education was by no means extensive ; he had no great confidence in his
own abilities, displayed great powers of endurance, and his countenance was
that of a saint, and an image of a noble soul.
d) Vatffr, AnUu. toL II. p. 898& KHist Arcbiv. 1828. T. 2. p. 2tew Wetienrieder, ft. d. Wie-
derh. d. Jei. ISIS. Cretineau^oly, Qefch. d. Oeaellsch. J. from the French. Vienna ld456& 6 Tolfl^-
n. Luttei'oth, la Riissio et Ics Jesultes. Par. 1S44. iL v. Birch, Stuttf. lS46w
€) Das lunere d. Gescllscb. Jean. LpA. 1$U5. Der Jesi O. u. 8. UnvertrSglichk. m. d. deatscbco
Verb. Stuttg. ISIQ.
/) Orig. Docc. in Vatcr'a Anbau. vol. I. p. flSea. 14l8s.
g) Tournon, Etudes statisiiquea hur Cume. Par. 1631. L, Ranke^ Rom. 1815-28^ (Hist poL
Zeitscbr. 1S32. P. 4.)
A) P. Bul<J(i9Hitri, Kelazionc delle aversiU g patimentl del P. Plo YIL negU nltinil trt anni id
tno pODtit od. 2. Bolog. 184a
CHAP. VL CATU. CHURCH TILL 185a §468.LEOXIL GBEOORT XVL 619
§ 468. The Popes he/ore the Lnnt.
(ATitt*',) Kom itn J 188a Stuttg. 1684. E. Mvnch, Ri'in. Zu^tAnde n. KirchcnIVasren d. neaesten
Zoit Stuttg. 1S8S. (//. Rfuchlin,) Bildor o. Sklzzcn a. Rom. Stuttg. 1844—^. G. K(V,erlf : Roin nnter
den letzten drd Papaton, u. d. zvrdte Ref. in D«>utschl. Lp«. 1846. 8 voli.— A rtautl dA JlonUir, Hist
da P. Leon XII. Par. 1S48. revl<e<l by Ch. &heffr, Schaffh. 1844.— <lu P. Pli* VIII. Par. 1844.— Aus
d. Lel)en P. Greg. XVI. Vion. 1831. 4. Bernh, Wajner, P. Greg. XVI. Snkb. 1846.
Leo XIL (della Genga, Sept. 28tli, 1823-Feb. 10th, 1829), wlio belonged
to the party opposed to Consnlvi's libernl policy, endeavored to regulate the
nfFairs of the Church beyond the Alps and the ocean, and to supply it with
bishops distinguished for piety and science. He also improved the system of
education in the Ecclesiastical States, canonized the Minorite Julianus, who
had ordered fried birds to fly away, ('/) and appointed the year of Jubilee to
be a season of general expiation and grace, in which believers from all parts
of the earth might come up to the metropolis of the world, to thank God
for the victory which had been obtained over the gi*eat conspiracy of this
century against all human and divine rights, and to pray for the extermina-
tion of heretics. (/>) lie had not been distinguished for his abstemiousness in
Germany, where he had resided as a nuncio, but when he became pope he
was extremely temperate. On his accession, he was received at Rome with
great rejoicings, but at his death he was hated for his strictness and indepen-
dence, not only by the officials of hb court and the cardinals, but by the
people. Pirn VllL (Castiglioni, March 31st, 1829-yov. 30th, 1830), a
favorite of his predecessor of the same name, a sickly, benevolent old man,
and always afraid of the machinations of the philosophers, the Bible socie-
ties, and the Carbonari, (c) put forth his last and best energies to confer bless-
ings on his city and the world. The longings of the Italians generally after
national independence and a popalar constitution, had become powerful espe-
cially in the EcclesLvstical States, quite as much in consequence of the decided
opposition made to them, as of the weakness of the government. Even dar-
ing the session of the conclave, an insurrection became formidable, and deter-
mined the vote in favor of Capellari von Belluno, the General of the Camal-
dolites, Grefjory XVI. (Feb. 2, 1831-June 1, 1846), who had once celebrated
the triumph of the holy see over the assaults of these innovators. (</) The
insurrection, relying upon the aid of France, broke out in the Legations,
extended beyond the Marcjuisate of Ancona, and finally reached Rome, where
its object was to compel the pope to abdicate his temporal sovereignty.
From this he was preserved by the uiterference of Austria. He however
paid only an apparent attention to the admonition of the European powers,
to conform his administration to the spirit of the age. The rebellion had
been indeed suppressed, but was by no means radically exterminated, and
hence it was soon awakened to new activity (Jan., 1832). The troops sent
forth to quell it, being wholly composed of banditti and criminals, ravaged
peaceable towns and sacred spots, until finally it bec4ime necessary to call io
the Austrian military to rescue the papal government and its territory from
a) A. KZ. 1825. N. 70. h) Ibid. 1824. N. 88^
c) Kii^enschmid, rittn. Bnllar. Lpa. 1881. vol. II. p. 809s(V.
Trionfo della SadU Sede. Rom. 1799. Ven. 1882, and oft Aogsb. 1888.
620 MODERN CnUBOH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 16IS-1S{ML
its own soldiery. To prevent Austria from obtaining complete sovereignty
over Italy, tlio French fleet took possession of Ancona by a single blow (Feb.
23, 1832). The Roman court protested against this violation of national
law, (le'-larcd the city of Ancona under an interdict, and thus Anally availed
itself of the weak side which necessity offered. There was no denying that
the deficit in the revenues was annually increasing. An attempt to intro-
duce a new code of civil law was defeated by the opposition of the provinces.
Ancona wns given up by the French and Bologna by the Anstrians simul-
taneously, Dec. 8d, 1838. Tlie Legations were disturbed by an almost per-
petual guerilla war during the years 1848-44. {e) The inhabitants of Rimini
(Sept., 1845) demanded with anns in their hands, since every other form of
petition and complaint was denied them, the very moderate concession of the
legal forms of a civilized state. The Swiss regiments and a fanatical band of
papal volunteers stifled this insurrection in blood, and a great part of the edu-
cated Roman youth sighed in prisons, or in the mere possession of life in foreign
lands. The pastoral epistle of Gregory (Aug. 15, 1832) is full of expressions
indicating that the author was conscious tliat the Roman Church stood on
the brink of an abyss, and that it could be saved only by the Arm union of
all true believers in opposition to modem science and popular freedom, but
that his unshaken reliance rested upon the protection of the Holy Virgin. (/)
Gregory lived to witness, on the other side of the Alps, both defeats and
triumphs, but he seemed always to understand with firm moderation what
the papacy miglit according to circumstances demand or endure from others.
The festival of the canonization of five saints (May 26th, 1889), was a cele-
bration of victoi^ and a season of excitement, (if) Gregory lived, according
to his own convictions of duty, the abstemious life of a cloister, or at least
under all the restraints of a monkish spirit, but he could not control the ava-
rice of his subordinate courtiers ; he had no confidence in his people, and
therefore put himself under the counsels of a gloomy party ; and he finaDy
left his personal servants and his nepotcs rich, the country impoverished, and
the government distracted.
§ 469. PiitM IX. {June 16, 1846) and Italy.
Pfafl IX. n. B. Refi>nnen. Lps^ 1647. H. StUglit*^ Erinn. an Rom. n. d. KStut Im eraten Jabr. sr.
Ycij&nf. Lpe. 1648. Curci, d. Paptt als Staateoberb. u. d. D^magogie, fhmi tbe ItaL ot Rt. JToy,
Iuj«b. 1S49. Fil. di Boni, Pio dodo. Torina 1850. Die QcgeQwart Lpa. 1849s8. vol III. p. 149, fiOlMi
vol. VII. p. 45sa.
The election was for some time undecided between the Genoese, Lambrus-
chini, who had been the real ruler during the last years of Gregory ^s reign,
and Mastai Feretti (b. 1792), of Sinigaglia, once a resident in Chili, and when
a prelate much interested in the establishment for the poor, and a father to
all orphans. The influence of the Roman nobility to which he belonged, and
the perilous condition of the ecclesiastical government, finally determined the
choice of the conclave on the second evening, in favor of Feretti. Piu» iX
was regarded by his intimate acquaintances as the friend of moderate progress,
e) A. Z. 184S. K. 280. /) A. KZ. 1881 N. ISSs.
g) A. KZ. 188i». N. 101. Rbeinw. Rep. roL XXYL p. 91ssl
CHAP. VL CATIL CIIURCII TILL 1SS8. S «^- PIUS IX. OIOBEUTL 62 1
bat his raind was raised to a consciousness of a divine vocation to be the re-
former and deliverer of the Ecclesiastical States by the enthusiasm of the Ro-
man people in his behalf, and the opposition he had to encounter. His popu-
lar manners won the hearts of the people even when his reforms appeared to
them too tardy and incomplete. An amnesty for all who had been imprisoned
or exiled for political offences was merely in accordance with what had now
become estabhshed usage on the accession of a new pope, but he pronounced
the word of grace with so much cordiajity and good-natured confidence
(July 17) that an act which brought such consolation to thousands of families
filled all Italy with joy. (a) lie commenced his retrenchments in his own
household, allowed the press to indulge in a much greater liberty, strength-
ene<l the commissions previously appointed for digesting a code of laws and
forms of judicial proceedings by the addition of approved men, granted per-
mission for the construction of railroads, opened to the laity the path to the
higher ci\'il offices, decided upon a general taxation of all convents in the
Ecclesiastical States, gave a liberal municipal constitution especially to the
dty of Rome, invited men from the provinces in whom the public liad con-
fidence, to his council of state, entered upon negotiations for the dismission
of tlie Swiss troops, and took initiatory steps for a confederation of the Itidian
states. Ilis kind intentions with respect to the Jewish quarters in the city
were frustrated by the opposition of the Christian population, (b) A portion
of the clergy sincerely ranged themselves on the side of the pope, his elo-
quent preacher, Ventura, proclaimed that genuine Catholic piety must neces-
sarily become reconciled with political freedom, (c) and even the Jesuits de-
clared themselves the friends of progress. But so numerous were the injuries
committed, and threats received by those who lived upon abuses, and espe
cially by those who had formerly sustained, offices (la setta Gregoriana), and
80 complete was the change of position from that which the modern papacy
had hitherto occupied with respect to the politicid parties, that an open and
a secret opposition to this '* devouring genu and chief of young Italy " was
unavoidably called forth. (</) As there were two political powers on the op-
posite confines of the Ecclesiastical states threatening his government, because
they were threatened by the spirit emanating from it, thw opposition formed
a coalition with them. To overcome this whicli was magnified by the popu-
lar imagination until it assumed the character of a murderous conspiracy,
Pius ventured to place w^eapons in the hands of the citizens (guardia civica,
July 5, 1847). (e) By this act he placed himself at the head of the Italian
national movement, and was obliged earnestly to protest against the Austrian
occupation of Ferrara, and he seemed actuiUly to be, what the learned Abbot
Qiohirti had dreamed that the papacy might become, the head of an luilian
confederacy of princes, for the unity, national independence, and civil liberty
of Italy ; and by reconciling faith with intellectual improvements, the peaceful
umpire among the nations, holding up the cross as the standard of freedom. (/)
a) D. A. Z. 1S46. N. 220. b) IbitL 1S47. N. 195.
c) EIo^o funebre dl Doniello O'Connell. Roma 1847.
(0 I>. A. Zu 1846. N. 297. 800. e) Ibid. 1847. N. 199. 2^S.
/) Prlmato morale e civile degli ItallanL Par. 1843. Dellu condizionl presente e fUtare (I'ltal I^oii'
dn 1848. Comix. J. F. X^igehaur d. Papst u. a. R«lch. Lpa. 1847.
622 MODERN Ci:rRCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. l«4»-186aL
His position with respect to the Church was strictly Catholic. When he
came before the public his appearance was thoroughly sacerdotal, and ho
made even the pnlpit subservient to his designs, (g) His pastoral epistle
(Nov. 9, 1846) was an echo of that of Gregory, only his complaints respect-
ing the press and popular freedom were confined to those books which tempted
men to sin, and to what he called communism, (h) His personal inquiries
into the condition of convents and hospitals, his circulars to the generals of
the orders (June 17, 1847), and the commissions appointed with reference to
the convent««, were intended to re-establish the canonical regulations, and to
bring the monastic life to its former flourishing state, by enlisting it in pious
offices and learned labors, {i) All the Italian states had caught the spirit pro-
ceeding from Rome, when the French revolution gave free scope to all the
hopes and passions of the nations. In spite of the opposition of his conscience,
the pope yielded to the importunities of his people by giving them a constitu-
tion, providing for two chambers, one chosen by himself, and the other by
the people, but reserving for his inviolable authority all matters relating to
the Catholic faith and to morals (March 14, 1848), (k) and by appointing for
his minister a layman who had just returned from exile. Gioberti accused
the Je»:uits of being the authors of all the distress and disgrace to be found in
Catholic nations. (/) They were generally driven from the streets by the
people, and although the pope steadily refused again to abolish the order, he
was obliged to witness their expulsion from the Ecclesiastical States. When
Lombardy rose against the Austrian dominion, and Charles Albert, the sword
of Italy, to gain the Lombard crown put himself at the head of the insurrec-
tion, Pius refused to take any part in the national war. In spite of his dis-
approbation, however, 12,000 modern crusaders (crociati) went forth to a
holy war, in which they found neither wounds nor honor. The pope de-
clared that the Father of Christendom should never participate in a war be-
tween brethren belonging to Catholic nations, and ho allowed the Austrians
to enter Bologna, and the people there to defend themselves as they could.
Since tlien, the people who had so often sung hosannas before him, forsook
him, and the republican party under Mnzzini^ which at that time aimed at an
indivisible republic of all Italy, under the presidency of the pope, came into
power. (?«) In Lombardy national independence, and in Naples civil liberty,
wore overthrown by cannons ; in Rome a club (circolo popolare), and in the
provinces unrestrained licentiousness, bore rule, when Count Bossi, once a
professor in Bologna and a fugitive because ho had hoped for the freedom of
Italy, and afterwards an ambassador of Louis Philippe in Rome, undertook
the ministry, and held the parties under his firm control. He was assassi-
nated (Nov. 15, 1848) while ascending the steps conducting to the Chamber
of Deputies, and on the next day the people demanded a democratic minis-
Q) I). A. Z. 1847. N. 25. Comp. N. 140.
?i) Die Erwartuugen d. kath. Christen!), im 19. Jahrb. t. b. Stable. Z&r. 1817.
t) Brl. KZ. 1847. N. 67. 69. k) Ibid. 1548. N. 87.
I) II Gosuita mtidorno. Cosanna. l!M7. S vols.
m) La Gio\ iDc Italia. 1832. 88. De Tltalie dans sea rapports areo la Ubert6 et la ci\iUMtioo mo^
denitf. Lp& 1846. 8 vols.
CHAP. VL CATH. CHURCH TILL 1858. % 469. ANTONELLI. SICCARDI. 623
try, a constituent national assembly for the Ecclesiastical States and for
Italy, and a participation in the national war. The pope besieged and at-
tacked with cannon in the Quirinal, finally yielded with a heavy heart, was
guarded as a prisoner, and escaped into the Neapolitan territories (Nov. 25).
A provisional government ordered that the constituent national assembly
should be chosen by the popular voice, and although the pope at Gaeta ex-
commnnicited all who should take any part in the matter, the people elected
their deputies, and the National Assembly on the night of Fob. 9, 1849,
decreed that the temporal sovereignty of the pope was at an end, that the
government of the Roman state should henceforth be a pure democracy, and
that the Supreme Pontitf should receive full security for his independence in
the exercise of his spiritual powers. All ecclesiastical possessions were de-
clared the property of the nation (Feb. 18), to be distributed on perpetual
leases. But the European powers offered their assistance to the holy father,
the French Republic anticipated even Austria, a French army under the
appellation of allies of the Roman republic, after an heroic defence by the
people, entered the city of Rome (July 8), and an Austrian army took pos-
session of the Legations, (n) A committee of cardinals by order of the pope
undertook the government (July 15), and began the work of vengeance. The
pope promised (Sept. 12) some municipal and provincial limitations to the
absolute authority restored to the priests, but the amnesty which he pro-
claimed was so full of exceptions that it gave opportunity for all kinds of
persecution. When Pius IX. finally returned to Rome (April 12, 1850) his
heart was embittered, the patriotic ideals he had once formed were broken,
and the people received him in gloomy silence. His sovereignty, under the
able management of Cardinal Antonelli, his Secretary of State, is sustained
entirely by French and Austrian garrisons. As an ecclesiastical prince his
feelings may have been touched during his restoration, but he received from
Tuscany a Concordat full of concessions to the ecclesiastical authorities, (o)
he has issued jubilee indulgences, (p) he has encouraged the Catholic world in
the hope that the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary to whoso pow-
erful protection he ascribes his deliverance, will soon be established, (//) and he
has once more committed to the Jesuits the business of public education, (r)
In Piedmont alone the Jesuits are excluded, not only by the people but by
the king (March 8, 1848). Here, where Gioberti himself in difficult times
stood at the head of the ministry, they could not be received, for the suc-
cessor of Charles Albert, in harmony with the educated portion of the na-
tion, adheres firmly to the free development of the state as their best conso-
lation for misfortunes in the battle-field. (*) To carry out the article of the
constitution which j)rovides for the equality of all citizens before the law,
and for the independence of the state upon the clergy, the laws proposed by
Siccardi^ the minister of justice, and accepted by the chambers, abolished
the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the clergy in civil and criminal causes, and
ft) C. Rifconi^ la repablica Romana del 1349. Tor. 1850.
o) A, KZ. l&fil. N. 120. p\ BrL KZ. 1852. N. 28. q) Ibid, 1S49. N. 87. 1S50. N. 47.
r) ibid. 1860. N. 12.
$) F. CHtger, d. Konigr. Sardin. (Gegenw. 1853. toL YIIL jx. BMol)
624 MODERN CnU.BCU HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1648-1866.
their control over cliari table establishments, abrogated the right of asylum,
and gave some reason to expect tliat marriages by a civil act would be recog-
nized as valid, (t) Franzoni,, Archbishop of Tusin, whose pastoral epistle
complained of these laws as sacrilegious, was summoned before the civil
cuurt^ and on his refusal to appear ho was imprisoned and condemned to per-
petoal exile for resisting the law of the state, and for exciting others to rebel-
lion against the civil authorities (Sept. 1860). (w) Pius IX. extolled his martyr-
dom, and protested against a legislation in conflict with legal concordats, and
the subversion of the sacred rights of the Church, (v) The government replied
that concordats were not international treaties between independent powers,
but concessions made by the state to its own established Church, and there-
fore so far as related to its own department, might be revoked by a legislative
act. As the Roman court persisted in its established policy of resisting in
one country as a violation of the inalienable rights of the Church as long as
any hope of success rouiained, what in another country had become law by
the force of circumstances, the only point on which the two parties could
come to any agreement was witli respect to a diminution of the number of
festivals. The masses of the people in ditl'erent places were kept in an un-
hapi)y state of excitement against the government by the perpetual clamor
of the clerical party under the direction of Franzoni from his place of exile,
against the laws of Siccardi, against the civil marriages, under which all births
were declared to bo illegitimate, against the courts which took any action
against priests, and which were immediately excommunic4ited, against lay
professors in the university, against even clergymen who ventured to obey
the government, and against the whole process by which they declared that
the state was to be Protestantized and unchristianized. The king himself
was threatened with excomumnication, and the Church with a division, (mj)
The state, on the other hand, is continually holding forth its signals of free-
dom in a seductive manner, and whenever a revolution tlireatens Italy, to
which Giohcrti (d. 1852) has bequeathed the lessons and the hopes to be
gathered from her not altogether undeserved misfortunes, (i)
§ 470. The Gallican Church.
1. The Charter with which LouU XVIII, entered the land of his fathers,
recognized Catholicism as the religion of the state, but guarantied to every
form of public worship the protection of the government. The priests who
accompanied him, the martyrs of the Revolution, had become by long absence
estranged from the people and the spirit of tlie age, and now, while they
demanded the proper reward of their fidelity, they promised to secure the
throne of their sovereign, and to regenerate their country. The youth who
had grown up in the midst of the revolutionary heathenism stood in need of
the gospel, the people longed for the blessings of the Church, even polite
usage regarded all ridicule of religion as disreputable, and De Lamartint^ at
0 Brl KZ. ISSn. N. 3:). «) D. A. Z. 1850. N. 22(1 24(1
«) BrL KZ. 1S50. N. 89. 51. 04.
to) Brl. KZ. 1851. N. 41. 66. 103. Utet pol. Bll. 1860. voL XXYL H. e*.
cp) Del rinnovamento civile dllAlia. Par. 1S61. 8 Tola.
CHAP. YL OATH. CnUBCH TILL 1868. S'^Ta FRANCE. CHARLES X. 625
that time still a knight devoted to royalty, succeeded hy the pious sadness of
his harmonies in becoming the favorite poet of the liigher classes, (a) De
Lamennais (b. 1781) defended the doctrine of the absolute necessity of an
infallible Church as the objective manifestation of the divine reason in oppo-
sition to the frenzy of this individual reason of man, contrasted his own
glowing feelings of love and hatred with the indilference which prevailed
around him, and in his honesty did not conceal his position that he regarded
the theocratic right of the papacy as superior to the foundation on which the
monarchy rested, (b) Count de Maistre (d. 1821) proved that infallibility
belonged as necessarily to the pope as sovereignty to the king, (c) But the
clergy, instead of endeavoring to reconcile the discrepancies of the past with
the present, seemed determined to render both more prominent. Religious
enthusiasm once more beheld the cross of Constantine in the sky, and intoler-
ance founded a kingdom of its own in the name of God. Priests of the mis-
sion traversed the land in great pomp, contending not only for the faith, but
in opposition to every thing which Franco had purchased at such prodigious
sacrifices, (d) The principles of freedom which formerly prevailed in the
Gallican Church were now inveighed against as heresies. The apostolic con-
gregation in connection with the heir-apparent and the illustrious daughter
of misfortune, by persevering obstinacy, and in opposition to the inclinations
of the prudent king, obtained a Concordat (1817) by which the Concordat of
1801 was revoked, and that of 1516 was substituted for it. So decidedly was
public opinion expressed in 0]>position to this ghost of former times that no
one ever ventured to lay a plan of the law before the Chamber of Deputies, (e)
Without the consent of the Chambers, however, the government did as
much for the clergy as was in its power. But no sooner had the Cathedral
of Rheims witnessed once more a royal coronation, for which even the Holy
Chrism was once more found (p. 166), than the hierarchy received from the
chambers a pledge of its victory in the law against sacrilege (1825), which,
in the true spirit of the middle ages, threatened with terrible punishments
every injury done to the Established Church. (/) Once more, however, the
government listened to the demands of the popular will expressed even iu the
Uouse of Peers, and a royal ordinance (June 16th, 1828) closed the schools
against the Jesuits who had intruded into them in the character of fathers of
the faith, (g) But Charles X, allowed himself to be hurried into violent
measures, for which he was obliged to atone by tlie loss of his throne (1830),
2. Instead of a king anointed and appointed by God, a citizen-king was now
«) Meditat poet Tar. 1S20. normonies po«t et rel Par. 1880. 2 voU
I) E«5ai 8ur rindiffcrenco en niaticro de la rol. Par. ISlTa. cd. 4 1822. 4 voIa. Dufenae do TEfiaaL
Par. 1$21. De la rel dans 868 rapixirts avec I'ordre politique. Par. 1525. ed. 3. 1S2G. Dea progrus de
la rev. et de la gaerre coutre Tegl. Par. 1S29.
c) Do Pa|)c. Par. 1820.
d) Die Hicr. a. Ibre llundesgen. in Fr. Aar. 1923. Coap-d'oetl aur la altnalion actaelle •! lea vrain
Intert-ta de IVd. fr. Par. 1S25. Carori, Kol. u. PhlL In Fr. OiitL 1S2C
e) De Prudt, lea qiiatre Cone Par. 1819. vol III. (Archlv. t KOesch. vol. IV. p. S79aa.)
/) A. K. Z. 1925. N. 82. 44. Du Loiret, lliat Ahrvgie du aacrilcge. Par. 1825.
g) Montloteier^ Memolre k conitultcr Biir on fTsteme rel et poL tendant ik renverscr la rel, la so-
ciet^ et le tr:>ne. Par. 1826. With Vorw. by Paaloa, Stattg. lS2e. A. K. Z. 182e. N. 189. 1827. N. 80.—
1828. N. 104. 148. 174. 1829. N. 9. 11.
40
626 MODERN CUURCH HISTORY. PER YL A. D. 16>IS-18{nL
chosen by the people. The Jesuits and Trappists fled, the palace of the arch-
bishop, and a few churches in Paris which had been used for political purposes,
were stormed, the crosses together with the lilies were removed, the salaries
of the prelates were diminished, and Catholicism lost the prerogative of being
the religion of tlie state. (A) But an intimation from the pope (i) determined
the clergy to offer their prayers for the new kingdom, although their minds
were ftill of rancor toward it and they were connected by many pious bonds
with the family of the exiled king. Louis Philippe made as great concessions
to the hierarchy as the origin of his own authority would allow, that a moral
basis and a peaceable form might be given to his own dynasty. The Arch-
bishop of Paris, ff. de Qu^len (d. 1889), an honorable priest and a father to
the poor, ijc) was yet willing to deny Christian burial to the honest Oregoire,
who died immovably faithful to his ecclesiastical character (1831), (I) and
the Bishop of Clermont refused the last consolations of the Church (1838) to
the Count Montlmier^ who had once heroically defended the cross of Christ,
but had appealed to the laws in opposition to the Jesuits, (wi) The recollec-
tions of all that is great in the past history of the French nation stand in
striking opposition to the views of the Church, {n) and the abyss between
Catholic and secular France is daily becoming more profound. Lamennai*^
consistently with his general opinion that ecclesiastical piety is to be valued
above every thing else, perceived the compatibility of Catholicism with the
sovereignty of the people, and demanded that the clerg}' should not only give
up all their salaries but all interference in politic4il matters, and so be once
more poor and free. The Journal of the Future (PAvenir, 1830s.) was pow-
erful in France until it struck upon the rock of a contradiction between the
freedom of the mind and the Roman infallibility. Lacordaire^ the intelligent
disciple of Lamennais, submitted himself to the pastoral epistle of Pope
Gregory (§ 475), became a mendicant friar, {o) and was apj)arently willing to
bring the sacrifice of obedience. But in his solitude his spirit became in-
flamed, and he sent forth to the world the words of a true believer. As
Christianity had previously been abused to throw a sanctity around despot-
ism, he here attempted to give the democratic side of the gospel and of the
theocracy, that he might in anticipation of a mighty revolution, announce in
prophetic and apocalyptic imagery the overthrow of the monarchy and the
universal equality of the children of God. But even this revolutionary
prophecy is pervaded by a spirit of profound and sincere piety. (/>) As La-
mennais in his visions of the dead had never mentioned the name of the
A) A. K. Z. 1831. N. 155. 1S82. N. 87. 97. 167Mt
€) After Ro*eU, Cbronlque de JuUlct : Minerva. 1883. Apr. p. SSas.
I:) Rlicinw. Rep. 1841. Tol. XXXIII. p. 98sa.
I) Chr. Antiroinanns, d. sterb. Greg. u. d. verd. Erzb. Neust 1881. Kr&g€r^ (p. S80) p. 8T3«.
m) A. Z. 1889. N. 854. Append. N. 692. 889. N. 2.
n) Knnstblatt 1S87. N. 99. AcU hbL eco. 1887. p. 67.
o) Lacordaire^ Mumoire pour lo retablissement en France de Tordre des fr^res prechcun Ptf.
188& Augsb. 1589.
p) rarolcs d un croyant Par. 1888. (In the Bmneb pirated inapresalon, 1834. 12. also Baotain,
d^EcIcstein & &ainte-Bouve.) Bantain^ Response d un chr^tien auz paroles d*QQ croyant StrasK 1SU
Baumffarten-CruHtu, Betracht (L einlge Scbrlften y. de la Menn. Jen. 1884^ [Artiela in Hcf0
Chr. Instmetor, in Eclectic Mag. for Oct 185a p. 860aB.]
CHAP. Vt CATH. CHURCH TILL 1858. % 470. LAMENNAI8. CHATEL. 627
pope, 80 in his rejection of the " Words of a Believer " (June 25, 1884), the
pope never used the name of Lamennais, but as a sorrowing father spoke of
the man whom France once esteemed as the last of the ecclesiastical fathers.
Bnt Laraennais found himself urged on to a position in which he saw the
pontificate with its antiquated claims on the one side, and the human race
with its ever fresh religious energies upon the other, (q) Instead of the
Church he has put the universal reason of man, and instead of the propitiatory
death at Golgotha, an oblation of the deity commensurate with the ithi-
verse. (r) He has been declared by the civil courts guilty of attempts to
excite hatred and contempt with respect to the royal government (1840), (*)
but he has now been abandoned by free as well as by Catholic France. After
an attempt to revive the sect of the Theophilanthropists by a decree which
numbers the years from the time of the martyrdom of Socrates, the Abb6
Chaiel i)reached (Aug. 1830) in the spirit of an extravagant liberalism a
French Catholic Church. In consequence of the strong dislike felt by the
great body of the people for the Romish hierarchy, a few congregations were
collected together with this view ; but the modern, useless, political and nega-
tive character of this system made it soon dwindle away, and the doors of its
advocates were finally closed by the police (1842). {i) In the spirit of the
new monarchy, Ovizot^ an earnest Protestant literary man, once more estab-
lished a plan of national education, in which a system of schools was carried
out (1888), except that no one ventured to introduce into it the education of
the clerg}', nor to assert the universal obligation of attendance on the schools.
He also proposed that France should become the protexstor of Catholicism in
every part of the world, though without prejudice to the freedom of religion
under it The clergy demanded as the price of their reconciliation, the free-
dom of education, i. e., liberty to control it. The University, which had the
general direction of this whole business, was described by them as the Mo-
loch to whose antichristian instruction the youth of France were sacrificed, (u)
When the two parties had measured their relative strength by a discussion in
the Chamber upon instruction in the gymnasium (1844), they did not venture
to come to a vote on the law relating to it. (r) A few bishops threatened to
deprive some obnoxious institutions of the blessing and countenance of the
Church. On the other hand, the old system of Jesuit morality which had
been used for the instruction of the clergy, made up as it was of ambiguities
q) Affaires dc Rome, Par. 1S36. Le livre da peuple. Par. 1S3S. 12. Le pays ct le Rouvcrncment.
Par. ISIO.
r) EMjiilMe d'ane Phllosoplilc. Par. 1841. 8%'oIa. Par. A Lpa. 1841. 8 vola.— Am»clMM«paiidn ot Dar-
▼andfl. Par. 1S43. Ijes Evangilc& Par. 184^.
«) BrI. K. Z. 1841. N. 11.
0 Unl Deo. A. K. Z. 1829. N. 208.— Profession de foi de Vtgl calh. fran raise. Par. 1881. Catc-
chlsme k I'usajfe de lYgl. cath. ft-. Par. 1887. li^uchlin, p. 29868. IfoUapfd, d. K. de AbW Chatel.
(Zeitschr. C hist Th. 1844. P. 8.)
II) Code UnivcrslUIre ou loi* et rrplemens de I'UnlversltA do Franco. Par. 1585. jyianz, p. n».
118. Reui-'hlin^ p. SCsi*. BrL A. K. Z. lS4a N. 62,—DftigarfiA, le Monopolc aniversltalre. de«tructoDr
de la rel. et des loK ou la Charte et la llbertt^ de Tenselgnement Lyon. 1848. Vidrin^^ simple ooap
d*oel1 siir les doalours et les esp^rances do Fegl. aaz prises avec Ics tyrans des confdenoes et les vicea
da XIX. Steele. Lyon. 1843.
o) (C Reuii) Rec d. betr. Scbrr. io d. Jen. L. Z. 1846w N. 86-10.
628 MODERN CHXJBCH IIISTOBT. FEB. VL A. D. 1648-1988.
and obscenity, was again brought to public notice. MicheUt^ to whom all the
dreams of the middle ages were quite familiar, and Quinet^ who regarded
everj authorized creed as a direct promise on the part of all who profess it,
sent forth ft-om their Mount St. Genevieve to the whole French nation in op-
position to the Jesuits who had now become more numerous than under the
Restoration, full pictures of all that these fathers had done for the destruction
of freedom, and of what other nations had become under their influence. (?«)
When Thiers caUed up in the Chamber of Deputies the laws still in existence
jigainst the Jesuits, they were enforced with the utmost possible mildness by
the government, and through the mediation of the pope the General of the
Jesuits was induced, apparently at least, to dissolve all the houses belonging
to the order in France, and to recall from that country all who were not na-
tives (July, 1846). (j) At this time, when the Church was not in the service
of the court, and when Affre^ Archbishop of Paris, demanded not ecclesiasti-
cal protection but liberty, the influence of the Church became very consider-
able, in behalf not only of the hierarchy but of general Christianity, in con-
sequence of its works of practical piety and spiritual learning, {y) 8. In
Feb. 1848, when France was surprised by the sudden introduction of the re-
public, the Church felt bound by no ties of gratitude to the dethroned royal
family. One party beheld in that event a mere point of transition to a le-
gitimate monarchy ; the dispersed school of Lamennais hailed in the new
watchword of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, which the state now pro-
claimed, nothing but the old principles of the Church ; the aspiring lay-leader
of the Catholic party discovered that the Catholic Church might be con-
nected with any form of civil government from which it could expect ecclesi-
astical freedom, {z) and even the priests did not hesitate to bless the tree of
liberty, and pray for the sovereign people, {a) The Constitution of the Re-
public promised freedom to every creed, protection for every form of public
worship, and salaries to the ministers of every form of worship recognized
by the government, (b) The law respecting instruction (May 15, 1850) gave
the clergy so much influence in the supreme council for education, and so
much freedom in the establishment of the schools, for the formation of which
a great independent association, much lauded by the pope had been organized,
that the Catholic party willingly accepted of it as an earnest of greater fa-
vors, (c) The Archbishop Affre fell in the performance of the duties of his
vocation, at the barricades (June 28, 1848). ChaUl celebrated Christmas by
w) Decouvcrtes d*an bibliophile, oa lettres snr diffl&rents points de morale ensclgnds dans qnelqnM
Bcminairos. ed. 2. Strasb. 1843.— The organ of the clergy: VUniverte^ and that of the Unlvendtj:
Journal dea Debats, esp. for May— Nov. 1S48. De Lamartins^ T^tat, r6glise, et renselgneinent Par.
I&IS. L. A. Wamkonig, d. K. Frankr. a. d. Untcrrichtsfrcib. Frelb. 1S45. Des J^oltea, par Mi-
cheUt et QuineU Par. ISia. in 5 cd. Uebera, by Stuber. Ba& 1848. [MickeUi, Priest^ Women, and
Familic^ transl. by Cocks^ Lond. I&IS. The People, transL by CacJa, Lond. 1849. QuiMl, Ultra*
montanism, transl by Cock*^ Lond. 1845.]
e) Der Process Affenacr vor d. Pariser Assiseo. Brl. 1845. L. Ilahtu, Oeeeh. d. Anfluft. d. Jea. Ckia-
greg. in Frankr. Lps. 1840.
y) jyiana, d. reL n. kirchl. Leben in Fr. Stattg. 18dd. R^uchUn, (p. 608.)
z) C. de MorUaUmb«t% dcs int*>rets catholiques an XIX Sl&cle. Par. 1852. In 8 ed.
a) BrL KZ. 1848. N. 80. 62. 1849. N. 2. h) Ibid. 1848. N. V^
c) Ihid, 1849. N. 61. 1850. N. 78. 1851. N. 85.
CHAP. YL CATH. CIIUSGH TILL 1858. S47a NAPOLEON IIL $471. SPAIN. 629
a Socialist banquet in honor of the sansculotte who was once born in a sta-
ble. When the dread of the red republic could be so turned as to favor the
clergy on the ground that they were friends of social order, (d) the priests
made use of it to secure millions of votes for the President and the Emperor
by the grace of God and the will of the people. Louis Napoleon increased
the salaries of the bishops, (e) richly endowed the chapter of St. Denys, re-
stored the Pantheon to the service of St. Genevieve, (/) brought the Holy
Father back to Rome, and would have been glad to be crowned by the papal
hands. Without reference to the organic articles (p. 633) the emperor re-
gards the Concordat of 1801 as having the force of law. The strict Catholic
party are anxious to banish modern paganism by the substitution of the ec/cle-
fliastical fathers for the classics in the schools of learning, (fji) they reject all
philosophy of reason, and they advocate the government of the Church by the
civil power, and the government of the Church by the pope. Sibour, the
now Archbishop of Parw, took decided ground against this party, and the
*' Universe," through whose columns its influence was exerted, but an open
controversy was avoided through the mediation of Pius IX. (h) Even under
the reign of Napoleon I. who despised it, philosophy had desisted from the
deification of the flesh, and by the influence first of Scotch and then of Ger-
man metaphysicians, confidence was gained in the supremacy of the mind.
But the literature of each of the three revolutions, whether it be regarded as
a prophecy of the future, or a reflection of the past, has something terribly
destructive and relaxing in its nature. It is not the cold scofl[ing of a self-
complacent and satisfied spirit, but the offspring of a torn and lacerated
heart. For this very reason it has much that is seductive to the present age,
and even in its general corruption is not without some germs of life.
§ 471. Spain, Portugal. South America.
{rfeiUtehifter.) Die klrchL Zustfinde in Spgn. W&rzb. 1842. Manuel rezonado de hist j legida-
Hon de la iglesia. Mmlr. 1S4.\ 4 Blocks l'£«pagne en 1850. Ma<lr. 1851.— (?. Atlujfl, T America an
tempo spagnuola isotto I'aspetto reli^'ioso Rlno al 1S43. Ancona 1845. 8 vols. Uebers. v. F. M. M. 19480.
8 vols.
1. When Ferdinand VII . tore up the constitution (1814), the clergy ral-
lied around the throne, the Inquisition was re-established, and the Jesuits re-
turned. The cause of the Church then represented by those who were called
the Apostolicals, and that of liberty represented by the Liberals, appeared to
be completely separated from each other. Hence, when the latter obtained
the victory (1820-23), all hierarchical measures were entirely frustrated, (a)
An army for the defence of the faith was then collected by the clergy, with
a Trappist at its head, which, after the victory obtained by French interven-
tion, produced a sanguinary reaction. As the Apostolic party had connected
itself with Don Carlos^ then recognized as the legitimate heir-apparent, Queen
Chrintina^ who desired to obtain the government for herself and her daugh-
<f) Citmot, le minii>t<:^re de I'lnstraction pabHqne et des caltea. Par. 1843.
e) BrL KZ. 1S52. N. 47. /) If4<i. 1853. N. 2. oomp. 1S51. N. 24
g) J. Gaume le ver rongeur des sodetue mudernes ou le paganisme dans I'edneation. Bnix. 1851.
A) BrL KZ. 1852. N. 48. lS5a. N. 81. 82.
a) A. KZ. 1822. N. 1. 9. 11. 16. 19. 28:^ 58. 74.
630 HODEBN CHUBGH niSTOBT. FSB. YL A. D. 1648-18S8L
ter by the abolition of the Salio law, was obliged (1830) to nnite ber interests
with those of the Liberals. After the death of the king (1833) Don Carlos,
who was powerful through the support of the clergy, by whom much had
been sacrificed in his behalf, made a desperate efifort to obtain possession of
the throne. But some horrible events which then took place evinced that
even the old veneration of the people for religion was now wavering. A
number of convenU in Madrid were destroyed (July 17, 1834) by a mob ex-
cited by reports of poisoning during the prevalence of the cholera, and no
punishments were inflicted on the perpetrators, (h) A more general insurrec-
tion broke out in the summer of 1835, in which many convents and monks
were consumed in the flames as auto-da-fes of the revolution, until finally it
seemed necessary to abolish the convents to save the monks, (c) By a decree
of July 25, 1835, nine hundred houses belonging to the several orders were
dosed, that by means of their wealth and the property of the Inquisition and
of the Jesuits, which had previously been confiscated, the public debt might
be liquidated. {(I) The government accused the clergy of sowing disseusions
among the people, and required that every candidate for future appointment
in the Church should produce a certificate from the civil authorities vouching
for his patriotism, (e) As the revolution rolled on and the necessities of the
state became urgent, all the convents were confiscated (1836) and token pos-
session of by the government, and the sacred utensils were sold to cover the
expenses of the civil war. (/) The Cortes abolished the tithes, and declared
that all the property of the Church belonged to the Spanish nation (1887). (g)
In the ruin of Don Carlos, which occurred principally in consequence of the
demoralization of his court (1839), a portion of the clergy were inextricably
implicated. Gregory XVI. had not recognized the queen, and bad rejected
the bishops appointed by the regency, but the act by which this was done
was accompanied by an expression of desire that the existing relations of the
country might not be disturbed. But when the nuncio, who then represented
the poi)e, wished to guard the rights of the Church, Espartero, the victorious
soldier who had driven away the queen-mother, ordered him to be transported
beyond the borders of the country (Dec. 29, 1840). (A) The pope hereupon
declared in an allocution dated March 1, 1841, that all those decrees of the
Spanish government by which the Church had been despoiled of its property
were null and void. (i) While Christina obtained for herself absolution in
Rome, (k) the Spanish Regent treated every recognition of the papal allocu-
tion as a crime, wished to abolish all intercourse with Rome and all foreign
jurisdiction in Spain, because the regent in Rome was disposed to sacrifice
his secular to his ecclesiastical interests. (T) The Cortes determined upon a
new organization of the clergy, by which the bishop's sees were much dimin-
ished, the sinecures were abolished, the property of the Chnrch was sold, and
moderate salaries to be pmd from taxes which it was hard to collect were
assigned to the clergy, (m) Nothing now remained for the pope bnt to caD
b) AZ. 1884 N. 214. c) Ptid, 1885. N. 22T. 287a.
d) Acta h\sL ecG. 1S85. p. 258a. e) A. Z. 1885. N. 84a
/) AcU hist ecc. 1S36. p. 5188. 1837. p. 10. gr) A. Z. 1887. N. 228. Acta hist. ece. 188T. (l la.
A) A. Z. 1341. N. 2488. {) A. Z. 1S41. N. 70s. 1^) A. Z. 1841. N. 80.
I) Bri. A. K. Z. 1843. N. 13. m) BrL KZ. 1841. N. 48. 09.
CHAP.YL CATH. CHUBCH TILL 18B8. $471. SPAIN. POBTUOAL. 631
npon the whole Church to pray for the distressed condition of the Church in
Spain, with the promise that all who would comply should receive plenary
ahsolution. (n) AU priests who gave attention to those acts of the pope were
deposed and banished by the regent, (o) But even the liberal prelates now
began to withdraw from the country, the afflicted Church succeeded in m-
ducing the nation to abandon Espartero, and Queen Isabella 11.^ not yet of
age, was declared (1848) competent to govern. Her ministry soon perceived
the necessity of reconciling tlie Church with the new legal system created by
the revolution. The expelled priests were reinstated, and the papal rights
in Spain were acknowledged. As the price of his recognition of the queen
the pope demanded what was now shown to be an imposdbility, the restora-
tion of the property of the Church. But the sale of jill that remained being
about one fourth of the whole, was now suspended, Gregory conferred the
canonical investiture upon six of the bishops appointed by government (1846),
and Pius, in compliance with the wishes of France, rather hastily bestowed
a dispensation upon the queen for her marriage with her cousin. After a
long period of vacillation according to the political complexion of the fre-
quently changing ministry, (;>) a concordat was agreed upon (1851), by which,
notwitlistanding the bibles sent from England, (g) the Ciitholic religion, to the
exclusion of every other form of worship, was recognized as the religion of
Spmn for all future time ; the instruction of the young was committed to the
supervision of the bishops, to whom a pledge was given tliat the government
would co-operate in the suppression of ii\jurious books ; the country was di-
vided into new dioceses, of which there were six less than before; all that
remained of ecclesiastical or monastic property was restored ; all new acqui-
sitions by the Church were allowed ; and to provide agunst any deficiency a
support, moderate only when compared with their former wealth, was secured
to the clergy from the sole of the Church property, and from the contribu-
tions in the diU'ercnt communes, (r) 2. It was not till the Cortes had
threatened the wealth and privileges of the clergy (») that the sanguinary
reign of Dom Miguel (1829-38) was possible, and accordingly his principal
support was derived from that body. Hence Dom Pedro could indulge in no
hope of gaining the patrimonial kingdom for his daughter, except in the
name of liberty. Through tlie exertions principally of the clergy the people
were induced to take up arms against him, and hence, wlien Pedro obtained
the victory, the age of Pombal returned to Portugal. The government de-
chired all prel-itic sees filled by appointment at Rome on MiguePs presentation
vacant, and placed all the rights of ecclesiastical patronage in the hands of
the government (Aug. 5, 1883). All ecclesiastical orders were dissolved (May
28, 1834), all monastic property was confiscated, and nothing but friars truly
mendicant were left, {t) The tithes were also abolished, and when the pas-
tors could not obtain tlie salaries assumed by the state treasury, they were
ft) Of Feb. 22, 1S42 : Bri. K. Z. 1S42 N. 22. o) Ibid. 1S42. N. 31.
p) Ibid. 1S«. N. 81. 89. D. A. Z. 1S44. N. 288. 1845. N. 61. 823. IS 16. N. 22. 1347. N. 21. 183L
98ft. 297.
q) O. Borrott, The Bible In Spain. New York. 1945. 8. Lond. od. 8. 1940.
r) BrI. KZ. 1951. N. 44 47. 87. i) A. K. Z. 1822. N. 49. 182a N. 48.
0 A. Z. 1884. N. 178.
632 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER TL A. D. 1648-1858L
nnfortunately directed for them to their congregations, (ti) The pope threat-
ened to place the king under the ban, and the exiled nsarper was received by
him as the lawful king. But the property of the convents found purchasers,
and the dioceses were administered by the capitulary vicars. The dread
which Gregory felt lest a complete separation should be produced, conspired
with the conscientious scruples of Donna Maria herself to induce both par-
ties to come to an agreemeut (1841) under mutual pledges. The golden rofse
was presented by the nuncio Oapaocini to the queen, as a godfather^s present,
and a few bishops appointed by the government received canonical investiture
from the pope (1848). (v) But the vast demands of Rome and the commo-
tions of an unsettled constitutional government delayed the conclusion of a
concordat. 8. As the idea of independence first awoke in Spanish America
(1810) when the mother country was oppressed by a power which had no
Mendly connection with the Church, the clergy were generally partial to the
cause of freedom, and remained in the unmolested possession of their wealth.
In most of the republics religious toleration was proclaimed merely from re-
spect to liberty and the English, but Oatliolicism still remained the religion
of the state. In the mean time the privileges of the clergy necessarily came
in conflict with the demands of liberalism. In Chili and Peru the number
of holy days and convents was diminished, the Congress of Central Ameriea
pronounced monastic vows of no force in the eye of the law (1880), the Con-
gress of Mexico t^ok into its own hands the right of patronage, banished those
prelates who protested against tlieir proceedings, and seized upon their reve-
nues (1834). A powerftil party, however, in the latter country, arose in op-
position to every interference of the state with the privileges of the clergy.
During the war with the United States of North America, when the necessi-
ties of the country were extreme, Congress resolved (Jan. 1847) that a por-
tion of the ecclesiastical property (15 millions of dollars) should be sold for
the deliverance of their native land, (w) The keys of the old Jesuit College
in Buenos Ayres were presented, August 26th, 1886, to six priests belonging
to the Society of Jesus. After a brief dream of freedom, Paraguay was ty-
rannically but patriarchally governed by Dr, Franeia (1814-40) with as great
a seclusion as was maintained by the former Jesuit government. This dicta-
tor broke the power of the clergy, converted all property belonging to the
convents into state property, and declared cannons better safeguards than
saints, {x) From respect to the crown of Spain, Pius VII. was deterred from
recognizing the republics wliich had thrown off its authority, and accordingly
he refused to bestow canonical investiture upon their bishops. Leo XII., as
late as the year 1824, enjoined upon all American prelates to adhere to the
u) A. Z. 1833. Append. N. 447.
V) BrL KZ. 1841. N. 51. 54. 60. 81. 1842. N. 53. 1848. N. 43.
to' P. <r. Kohbe^ Ocsch. d. Frolheitskampfcs im i>paD. a. port A. IlanD. 1832. K 3iuMenpJbriU
Scbilderang d. Rep. Mexico. Hann. 1S44. 2 vols. £v. E. Z. 1881. N. 85. A. Z. 1834. N. 805w D. A
Z. 1847. N. 75. 77.
a*) Rfngger & Lonpchatnp, <L Rev. v. Parag. n. d. Dlctatorialreglerang d. Dr. Franda. Stnttf.
1827. RJ.P,& W. P. RoberUon, Letters on Parag. Lond. 188a 2 vols. [Francia's Keign of Tenor.
Lond. 1887. a Carlyle'$ Essays Crlt as M1& p. 547. (Fur. Qaar. Rev. 1848. & Edeo. Mag. 1848.
Sept p. 75.)]
CHAP. YL CATH. CHUBGH TILL 1868. $471. S. AMEBICA $472. BELGIUM. 633
Intimate government. But as there was danger that in this way the people
wonld become completely alienated from the noly See, the principle was
finally recognized at Rome (1825) that in matters relating to the Church, ne-
gotiations shonld be conducted with any government actually in power, with-
out thereby deciding any thing with respect to it^ legitimacy. When the
pope refused to confirm the appointed Bishop of Kio Janeiro, he was re-
minded by the Regency of Brazil that he had mistaken the age in which he
lived (1884). (y) In New Grenada the priests were made subject to the civil
authorities (1845), tithes were abolished, the Jesuits were expelled (1840), all
who forsook the convents were promised the assistance of the state, the con-
legations were required to choose their own pastors, and the Archbishop of
Bogota was banished (1851). Pius IX. held a sorrowful allocution (Sept. 27,
1852) with reference to these proceedings, and in opposition to the wild lib-
erty which every one in that country eigoyed, to publish through the press
every wild abortion of the brain, (z) But the popular faith in South America
dung to its connection with Rome.
§ 472. Belgium and Holland,
8ophronlxon. 182& P. 2. Tub. Qnartalschr. 1S26. P. 1. Rom n. Belg. Neust 1881. Le livre nolr.
Brax. 1S87. 8 e<l. ilbere. (by Bfudh) m. Beiuerkk. by Uheinwald Altenb. 18:iS. Kheinw. Bep. vol.
XXIV. [1. 76. 169. 276. XXV. i>. 178s«. XXVI. p. 71a«. IllaL \h,1 Bll. vol. VII. p. 627. vol. VIII. p.
4& 2t0. 411. fiOl. 781. IX. p. 7S3><e. //. /AfM^A, Notices of Uie SUt« of Bel. in Geneva and Bclgiam.
Edinb. 1S44. Juniut, d. Je»uitisinas in Bel^. Lpa. 1346.
1. Against a Protestant government which had affixed the effigy of the
traitorous Bishop of Ghent to the public gallows, had closed the schools of
the Jesuits, and hod attempted to educate a liberal clergy by means of a
philosophical school in the " College of the Pope" at Lou vain, the apostoli-
cal party did not hesitate, although the Concordat of 1827 was formed
according to its will, on the model of that of Napoleon, (a) to conclude an
alliance with the revolution by which Belgium was to be separated from
Holland (1830). Catholicism was thereby obliged to accede to liberal forms,
and to a free toleration in matters of faith as well as of education. After
the victory, however, these parties again separated, since the bishops held in
their hands the fate of the lower clergy, by the power of arbitrarily deposing
all who were sincerely inclined to connect themselves with the interests of
liberty. As both parties were well aware that ultimate victory was to be
decided by the education given to the next generation, the Liberals founded
by their own contributions a university at Brussels, and the bishops a f^ee
Catholic university at Malines, which was afterwards removed to Louvain,
and was solemnly opened in the College of the Pope, tliat the old Louvain
might once more be restored, (b) By the law of 1842, the clergy were
allowed to exercise much more than a religious influence upon popular edu-
cation, but the State-Gymnasia were guarded (1851) against it, and were
y) BrL KZ. 1840. N. 28. «) Ibid. 1850. N. 69. 1851. N. 48, 1852. N. 70.
a) A. KZ. 1827. N. 165. 1829. N. 109. 174fl.
b) A. Z. 1884. Suppl. N. 465flw 1885. Buppl. N. 518. 515. DlaciUBlon de la lot sar Tenseignement
tapMetu de 27 Sept, 1885, et de la loi aar le jury d'examen da 8 Avril, 1944 ; prec^ee d'an aper^n
hkL §ai Forgan. oniveraitaire en Belgiqae. Braz. 1S44 <
634 MODERN OHUBOH HI8T0BT. PEB. YI. A. D. 1M8-18B8.
therefore deprived by the Archbishop of Meohlin of the oustomary masB at
All -Saints. The Bishop of Liege refused to grant absolution to the Liberals
by withholding it from the Freemasons (1837), (c) and the ardent efforts made
in behalf of missions aroused all the elements in the state in opposition to
each other (1888). When the Catholic party, by means of the liberal law of
elections, the effect of which was to give a controlling influence to the people
from the country, hod obtained for the most part a migority in the Chambers,
the cities collected tlieir strength, and from the altered position of the Cham-
bers proceeded a liberal ministry (Aug. 1847), which pronounced the state
entirely a secular (laique) institution. The Protestant king has hitherto
understood how to govern the two parties with much prudence, by balancing
their powers against each other. 2. In Holland^ the Concordat of 1827 was
never fully carried out, and the Roman Catliolic population, amounting to
more than a million, were called the Dutch Mission, and were under the ad-
ministration of an apostolic vicar, (it) The Constitution of 1848 secured
complete freedom of faith to every one, and equal protection to all religions
societies in the kingdom. Accordingly, the government declared that noth-
ing prevented a systematic arrangement of Catholic affairs under its super-
vision. But without reference to this supervision, Pius instituted a hierarchy
for Holland and Brabant, consisting of four bishops under the Archbishop of
Utrecht (Moi'ch 4, 7, 1853), placed it under the conduct of the Propaganda,
and solicited for it the alms of the faithful. The consequent storm of popu-
lar rage among the Protestants accomplished only the overtlirow of the lib-
eral ministry of Thorbeckc. Tlie Netherlandic government made known to the
Roman Curia the unhappy impression produced upon it by the language of the
allocution in which these proceedings were announced, and made some inqui-
ries respecting the oath which the bishops had taken. Cardinal Antonelli
promised to erase from the latter the offensive passage respecting the perse-
cution of heretics. In the Ilague, the opinion gained the day that protection
was to be found in a well-guarded system of freedom, and after some very
excited discussions in the Chambers, a law was passed, Sept. 10, dechuing
that all ecclesiastical societies were entirely free to arrange their own eccle-
siastical affairs, and were merely bound to inform tlie government of their
proceedings, and were subject to the approval of the civil authorities only as
fur as the co-operation of such authorities was necessary ; that the royal con-
sent should be required with respect to the place in wliich the business of the
synods should be transacted, the place in which its supreme authority should
reside, and the acceptance of an ecclesiastical ofSce by a foreigner, but that
this consent should generally be refused only when the public tranquillity re-
quired it ; and tliat no ecclesiastical titles or offices should be allowed to con-
flict with the dignities or interests of the civil powers, or of the other religiooi
societies. (/)
c) AcU l»l8t occ 1887, p. 22a. BrL KZ. 1S41. N. 7.
d) O. Mf)^^ Propag&nda. vol. II. p. 80§sl
«) The orig. Docc : BrL KZ. 1868. N. 81 86. A. KZ. 18d8w N. 7U 118a. US. 121a. IMi
CHAP. YL CATH. CHUBCH TUX 186& S47& GEBMAN CHURCU. 635
§ 478. Restoration of the German Church,
Nen^te OnindUgcn d. tentschkath. Klrchenverf. Id Actenst Stnttg. 1821. Supplom. in Yater's
Aobaa. vol. II. p. 61uw Orig. Doco. In MUneh^ Cunc vul. II. Droide-Uldkhof, KKecht M&nst
1828. Tol- L O. M*jtr^ Propaganda, vul. IL p. 8S5sa.
An ecclesiastical constitution for the whole of Germany was not perfected
at the Congress of Vienna, {a) Austria had preserved her ecclesiastical con-
dition untunclied, and had just quietly modified the prominent points of the
laws which Joseph II, had given to the Church. (?>) The ecclesiastical rela-
tions of the small number of Catholics dispersed in various parts of ^Saxoin/^
were arranged by the civil laws. These could easily be maintained in the
Grand Duchy in spite of the complaints of the Vicar-General at Fulda (1823),
and in the kingdom, notwithstanding the royal favor toward the Catholics
there, the acceptance of an apostolic vicar, and the displeasure of the papal
court (1827). (e) In other places, the legal doctrine prevailed that the eccle-
siastical constitution was to be arranged by special treaty with Rome. The
papal court avoided establishing a German national Church by negotiations
with the German Confederacy. The first power which separated from the
others was Bavaria^ by which a Concordat was concluded in 1817, which,
after much debate whether it was consistent with the constitution of the
country, was introduced in 1821. Negotiations were entered into by Prussia
with reference to the ^ve millions of Catholics residing especially in the bor-
der provinces ; and in the treaty which was concluded, the mere form of a
Concordat was guarded against, (if) This example was followed by the king-
dom of U:mover (1824). An association of the other states situated generally
in the southern part of Germany, was formed, after many great schemes had
been rejected, and the parties had become wearied with a series of negotia-
tions continued through many years, and was called the Ecclesiastical pro-
vince of the Upper Rhine ^ with five bishoprics, and Freiburg as an archiepis-
copal see (1827). When the princes made a condition with respect to the
Roman enactments on this subject, reserving every thing which might seem
to be demanded by their sovereign rights, the national peculiarities of the
Church, and the equal rights of Protestants, Pius VIII. reminded the bishops
concerned (1880), that when opposed by laws tending to destroy the souls
of men, they should obey God rather than men. {e) These treaties are princi-
pally confined to the new limitations of the episcopal dioceses, to the boundaries
of the provinces, to the endowment of the Church, and to the appointment of
the higher ecclesiastical officers, which was to bo divided between the sov-
ereign and the pope. The various measures necessary for this division of the
appointing power, was the principal subject of negotiation. That which
o) Klvhtr, Uoben. d. dIpL Yerh. d. W. Congr. Abth. III. p. 458ca. a. Aeten d. W. Congr. toI L
P. 2. p. 23ita. vol IV. p. SlOm.
h) J. L. E. r. Barth-Btirthenheim, Ocstr. geistL Anpelegcnh. In pf>llL admin. Bezleh. VIen. IMl.
c) AcWnstficke u. d. Verb. d. kath. Glanbfnsgenoseen im K. Sacbsen. Dresd. 1S81. DrovU-
HStUhof. p. 417. 8S2.-«. A. KZ. 1824 N. 1898a. 1825. N. 86.
d) KluWr, xaL Elniicbt. d. katb. KlrcbenweaL in Prouaa. Frkfl 1829. A. AtuiUr, Pr. o. Baicrn
Im Cone. m. Rom. Ncu&t 1924.
s) gisenschmid, Bullariam. vol IL p. SlSaa. Ig. Longnett DarsU d. RechtaverbiltniaM d.
Beacbdfe in d. obenh. Kirchenprov. T&b. 1840.
636 MODERN CHTJBCH HISTORY. PES. TL A. D. 164fr-1888.
conld hardly have been expected at that time from Protestant princes, bnt
which was nevertheless demanded in the principal article of the imperial depu-
tation, was accomplbhed tlirongh the mediation of the pope, and the superior
clergy were richly endowed with worldly property ; but as the Church itself
was not represented in these negotiations, no peculiar legal jurisdiction was
secured for it. The manner in which WeMenberg was abused and dispos-
sessed of his episcopal authority, proves that no degree of merit for services
done for the Church can be sufficient to obtain pardon at Rome for a free
and German spirit, (/) even when a quiet and genuine piety was not excluded
from the episcopal sees, (g) The whole of Protestant (Germany was looked
upon as missionary ground. When an apostolic vicar was sent by the pope
to the North, to take up his residence in Ilamburg, preparatory to the erec-
tion of a bishopric of Hamburg, the governments concerned forbade all per-
sons to hold any official intercourse with him (1889s.), and this vicariate was
attached, as it had been at first, to a Westphalian bishopric, (h)
§ 474, T?ie Ecclesiastical Controversy in Prussian Germany,
lAup^yrfSy Gesch. a. beatlge Yerf d. katb. K. Preoas. HaL 1S40. vol L— Acta btot eeei 1886L p.
264fis. 1S87. p. 87988. Die kath. K. in d. prean. Rheinprovinz a. d. Erzb. Clemens kxxg. FrkC 1888L
(GUnel^r) Ue. d. coin. Angelegenb. v. Irenaeaa. Lpa. ISSS. Die offentl. Zaati&nde ixn Groaahen,
Posen. Ha]. 1889. Jl. ITaa^, d. b«iden Enbisch. LpA. 1S89. Pcrsnnen u. ZasUnde a. d. Urcbllcb poL
Wirrcn in Pr. Lps. 1S40. Lit Snmmary : A. KZ. Lit Bl 1683. N. 10698. 1889. N. S2aflL lS4a K. SObb.
89. 1 1398. 1S41. N. 40s. [A: R. Ilageribach, KGescb. des 18. a. 19. Jabrb. YoHm. XY. toU IL]
Frederic William III. had bestowed upon the clergy an ample amount of
wealth, and he had established schools and built churches for them. But the
dislike felt by the Catholic Church to its subjection to a Protestant state
where it had once borne sway, was increased to new religious fervor as it
recollected the state of things during the middle ages, and it found an open
expression in Prussia when the ecclesiastical and civil laws came into coUisioD
on the subject of mixed marriages. The Catholics had been in the habit of
applying to the case of Protestants the long-established usage condemning all
marriages with heretics. But after the thirty years* war, the custom of
mixed marriages had become established among the people. According to
ordinary German usage, where no marriage compact determined the matter
otherwise, the children were educated according to the faith of the parent
with whom they corresponded in sex. A peculiar legislation, based on the
principle of a certain legal equality, was gradually formed in the dlffisrent
states on this subject, with respect to which nothing was said by the Roman
authorities. In Prussia, the common law was so changed, that where the
unanimous wish of the parents was not opposed to it, the children were re-
quired to be educated in the Church of the father. By an order of the
Cabinet issued in 1825, this requisition was extended to the province of the
Rhine, and to Westphalia, by declaring that any obligations of betrothed
/) Denkacbr. {L d. Yerflibren d. ronL Hoft. Carlsr. 1818. Wees. AngeL Lps. 1890. On tbe eootm*
veny, for and againBt: Puvitut, benrth. Ancoige. Hdlb. 1818w and Hermea 1819. Sect 1. 18S0. Seet i
BUU later: A. KZ. 1S27. N. 175. 1828. N. 10.
a) £. g. A. KZ 1883. N. lis. K v. SoKeni, d. Blsohulb Sailer n. Wittmann. Batiab. 1889. It
A) BrL KZ. 1810. N. 48. Jftjar, vol IL p. 607i&
CHAP. YL OATH. CHURCH TILL 1358. S474.DBOSTE. HEBMES. 637
persons to the contrary were not binding, and any requirements made as con-
ditions of the marriage rite by the Church were unlawful. But the cere-
mony of marriage, without a promise that the children should be educated
in the Catholic fdth, had previously been performed frequently in Eastern,
and rarely in Western Prussia. (</) In the latter country, therefore, the
Catholic clergymen now generally refused to solemnize marriage unless such
promises were voluntarily offered. At the same time, the Catholic bride had
her scruples of conscience so excited, and was so much terrified by what she
must meet at the confessional, that she was never satisfied with a Protestant
ceremonial. When requested by the government in some way to accommo-
date this matter, the Western Prussian bishops addressed themselves to the
pope, to know whether there was any way in which they could comply with
the law of the state. Pius VIII., in an apostolical brief of March 25, 1830,
pronounced all mixed marriages improper, but valid ; he did not forbid the
ecclesiastical benediction where securities were given for the Catholic educa-
tion of all the children, but in all instances permitted the parties to enter the
marriage relation in the presence of the pastor, without any ecclesiastical
rites (praesentia passiva), though without ecclesiastical censures, (b) The
government did not publish this brief, until, by a secret agreement, the bish-
ops interested in the matter had granted what had been refused at Rome,
viz., that as a general rule, marriage should be solemnized according to the
forms of the Church, and that only in rare cases, easy to be evaded, the
limitation of the passive assistance should be applied, (c) This agreement of
1834 was denied by the bishops in Rome, until a written confession of the
dying Bishop of Treves brought the truth to the full knowledge of the pope
(1836). Clemens Droste^ the suffragan Bishop of Vuchcring^ who had pre-
viously defended tlie unconditional freedom of the Church, was made Arch-
bishop of Cologne (1886), after giving a promise that he would peaceably and
sincerely conform to the agreement entered into with respect to the Brief of
1880. {d) With him, however, a party came into prominence, determined at
all hazards to deliver the Church from what they called the yoke of the
state. («) When the archbishop came to know the contradiction which ex-
isted between the agreement of the bishops and the papal brief, he forbade
his clergy to solemnize the marriage rites of the Church without a promise
that the children should be educated in the Catholic faith. In vain he was
reminded by the government of the promise he had made previous to his
appointment. The offence he thus gave was much increased by his informal pro-
ceedings with respect to the Hermesians. In opposition to the doctrine of con-
fidence in authority, which it was said could never rise above doubt, Ilermes
(1776-1881) had attempted to find proof of the doctrines of the Catholic
(Thnrch in the absolute necessities of human reason, (/) and left behind him a
school which extended itself from Bonn, and prevailed in all the institutions
o) •;: RuUchker, d. gem. Ehen v. kath. Standp. VIen. (1887. 188a) 1841.— (7. F. JacobBon, (L
d. gem. Ehen in Dentschland, lo»b. in Pr. Lpa. 1888. C/i. F. 9. Ammon, d. gem. Ehen. Dreed. 2
•d.1889.
b) Acta hist eoo. lSd& p. lOes. c) Ibid. 1887. p. 4288B. d) Ibid. 1836. p. SlSsa.
e) Beitrage z. Kirchengesch. d. 19. Jahrb. in DeutschL Aagsb. 1886l
/) EinL in d. cbr. kath. TbeoL MOnat. toL L (1819.) 1881. voL IL (1629.) 1884. Cniriitkath. Dog-
638 MODERN CHUBCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1«48-1808l
for edncation on the Rhine. The opponents of this school ohtained a hear^
ing at Rome ; and in conseqnence of a trial, the most responsible actor in
which was afterwards found to be ntterly unacqnaint«d with the G^erman
language and literature, (g) the writings of the deceased Hermes were con-
demned in an apostolical brief of Sept. 26, 1835. As his system had not been
explained with much precision, and a distinct deviation from the doctrines
of the Church had not been proved, the Hermesians were not without hopes
that they might convince the Holy Father of the orthodoxy of their instruo-
tor. Archbishop Droste impaired the influence of the theological faculty at
Bonn, by forbidding the students at the confessional to hear lectures from
the Hermesians. (h) In the negotiations of the government with the arch-
bishop, an amicable understanding was obtained on this subject ; but with
respect to the mixed marriages, he adhered to the declaration that he could
comply with the agreement of 1834 only so far as it was consistent with the
Brief of 1880. He was therefore threatened with a suspension of his oflScial
duties, imprisoned Nov. 20, 1887, and finally brought to the fortress of ICn-
den, on the ground set forth in a ministerial decree, that he had violated his
promise, undermine<l the laws, and excited the minds of the people under the
influence of two revolutionary parties. Gregory XVI., as early as Dec. 10,
protested against the violence thus committed against the Church, extolled
the martyrdom of the archbishop, and rejected the illegal evasion of the
Brief of 1830. (/) The Prussian ambassador declared that the measure
against the archbishop was merely a temporary act of self-defence, and ac-
knowledged the pope himself as a final judge in the case, (i*) The pope,
however, demanded that before any negotiations could be entered upon, the
archbishop must be restored to his former position. Both parties then ap-
pealed to public opinion, by presenting to the world representations of the
original grounds of the quarrel. (/) Gorres^ as a voluntary advocate of the
archbishop, made an attack upon Protestantism, and the whole official body
of the Prussian government. (/«) The party on the other side regarded the
controversy as a struggle between German liberty and Roman dominion.
Every existing element of discontent was for the time involved in this reli-
gious contention. The sullen humor of the Catholic people on the Rhine
and in Westphalia, was exhibited in individual acts of violence. The other
West Prussian bishops announced their renunciation of the agreement ; and
although the government refused to receive it, the Cabinet declared that it
never intended to compel a pastor, contrary to his conscience, to solemniie
matik, ed bj ActUerfOdt, Mfinst 1S34. 2 vols.— (7. O. yudner, Philosophiio Hermeeil e^Iicatloit
exlstimstlo. Lps. 183S. Perronfy z. Oesch. d. Ilermeatanisin. A. d. lUl. Efttisb. 1689.
g) Acta hist eco. 1886. p. 307m. Perroninfl, Theologus Bomaniu Tapalana. Col. 1840. Shmiek
d. Herinu!«ian{!«inu8 u. Perrone. Bri. 1S44.
h) Eleenich^ Acta Hermeslana. Gott 1S86. Braunti Elwnieh: Meletemata theoL Lpa. 18S&
Acta Rotnuna. Han. 188S. (by Ref\fueH) Die Wahrh. in d. Uennea'scben Sacbe. Darmst 1SS7 Xd»
Acta antihcrm. Ratisb. 1S89.
0 Acta hist eoc 1SS7. p. Sn. k) Ibid. p. 576e8.
t) Darlegnng d. Verfahrcns d. Prenss. Begiening gegen d. Enb. v. Koln. BrL 188S. 4. EtpORlrioM
di fHtto doctiinenlata su quanto ba precednto e segnito la deportazione di McMwigDor Drottn £«■>%
1838. Katisb. 1S88.
m) Athanaaiaa. Ratisb. 188a 1. ed. in Jan., 4 ed. at E«ter.
CHAP. VL OATH. CHUBCII TILL 1858. % 4T1 DUNIN. FEED. WM. IV. 639
mixed marriages, or to forbid him to make discreet inqniries respecting the
edaoation of the children (1888). (w) Dunin^ Archbishop of Gnesen and Posen,
bad even in 1887 besonght the government, in order to correct the abuses
which had gained gronnd within his jurisdiction, that either the Brief of
1880 might be published in his diocese, or that he miglit be permitted to
apply for a decision of the apostolic see. On being refused both requests, he
aeoretlj issued a pastoral epistle (Feb., 1838), in which he declared every
priest suspended who should thereafter solemnize a mixed niarringe without
a security that the offspring should be Catholic, (o) The government de-
prived this order of all force, promised its protection to every priest who
should be threatened on account of his non-observance of it, and arraigned
the archbishop before the superior court for high treason and disobedi-
ence. (/>) He denied the competence of the court, but complied with a cita-
tion to Berlin. After ineffectual negotiations, a judiciid decision was here
pronounced (April, 1889), which deposed him, and condemned him for dis-
obedience to a six months^ imprisonment in a fortress. Tlie king, however,
condescended to regard a letter of the archbishop as a request for pardon,
and therefore suspended the sentence of deposition, and remitted the punish-
ment of imprisonment, though on condition that he should not leave the city
of Berlin. He immediately fled from the city to Posen (Oct., 1839), where
he was seized, and brought to Oolberg. All the churches in his diocese were
hang in mourning, {q) Frederic William IV, found this complicated state
of affairs still unsettled at his accession. All the Prussian bishops had
adopted the views of the Roman court, except the Prince-bishop of Breslan,
who was compelled, by the conflict between his convictions and the circimi-
stances in which he was placed, to resign his pastoral staff" (Aug., 1840). (r)
The Archbishop Dunin (d. 1842) was allowed by the king to return to his
diocese ; and having exhorted his clergy to be lovers of peace, he gave orders,
that as they were forbidden by law to require securities for the education of
the children ; in all mixed marriages they should abstain from every act which
could be construed as an assent to them. («) The king established a Catholic
department in the ministry for public worship, renounced tlie Placet in mat-
ters of faith, and gave full liberty to the bishops to hold intercourse with the
Roman see (Jan. 1, 1841). Negotiations were |ilso opened with the papal
conrt, in consequence of which. Archbishop Droste, with his own consent,
on account of his ill health, was appointed coadjutor, with the right of being
the successor, to John of Oeissel^ Bishop of Speyer. By an open royal letter,
the archbishop was honorably released from his confinement, and from all
imputations of a guilty participation in revolutionary movements. (/) He
f») A. Z. 1S88. N. 70. SuppL N. 87. Suppl.
0) A. Z. ISSa N. 88. SuppL
p) A. Z. 1S38. N. 20Sd. Prensfl. Staatsz. 188a N. 862. A. Z. 1889. N. 85. Espodzione di diritto e
41 fkttu onn antenticl doeumentL Roma, 11 Apr., 1889. Ratisb. 1889. Jiintely Yertbeidlgung d. Enb,
DqdId. WQrzb. 1889.
q) Bit KZ. 1889. N. 88. 102.
r) A. Z. 1889. N. 2a A. KZ. 1841. N. 81. D. A. Z. 1845. N. 5.
«) Bri. KZ. 1840. N. <4. 69. 74, F. Pohl, M. v. Dunin. Marienb. 1848.
1) BrL KZb 1S41. N. 14 9. ooxnp. 61. 1842. N. &
640 MODEBN CHURCH HISTOBT. P£B. YL A. D. 164a-iaB&
0
now declared that be only wished henceforth to spend his life in praying for
hid diocese (March 9, 1842), (i/) and as an anthor, somewhat awkwardly but
honestly defended the liberty of both sides, and the mutual friendship of
Church and State (d. 1845). (r) The Ilermeeians had already given up their
own cause; and when their two last advocates maintdned at least that
Ilcrmes had not taught what the papal brief had imputed to him, on an ap-
plication from the coadjutor, they were dismissed from their offices (1844).
Even Pius IX. repelled their reference to his Circular (§ 475) as an act of
insolence. ('/*) With regard to mixed marriages, the most rigid interpretation
of the Brief of 1830 has been adopted as the rule of action, but the possibil-
ity of a ceremony performed by Protestants is conceded and acted upon, (x)
In this controversy the Catholic Church has exhibited a powerful self-reli-
ance, (y) which might proceed so far as to threaten once more a division of
Germany. In other countries, where the circumstances were similar to those
which existed in Prussia, the clergy were obliged to make use of the same
influences, (z) In Wurtemhcrg^ when the ministry proclaimed that all those
priests should be displaced who refused to solemnize mixed marriages accord-
ing to the law of 180G, which provided that both Churches should be placed
on an equal footing, Bishop KtUcr of Rottenburg (d. 1840), an old and faith-
ful servant of the gc)vernment, was induced to present a proposition (Nov.
18, 1841) in the assembly of the states, in which the grievances of the differ-
ent parties were set forth. This provided that the free exercise of those
rights which the civil authorities, in direct opposition to the essential objects
of the constitution of the Catholic Church, had exercised, should now be
restored to the Church and its bishops. In both Chambers, though in differ-
ent ways, the full right} of the government were acknowledged, and a con-
fidence was expressed that it would remove every well-founded complaint
But an anonymous letter filled with threats was repelled with disgust even
by the Catholic party.*
§ 475. The German ChitrcJi since 1848.
From the revolution, the clergy obtained charters which were partially
fulfilled even when the reaction took place, in consequence of their agree-
ment with political parties hostile to each other. Although the expulsion of
the Jesuits and their allies from Austria, and their exclusion from all Ger^
man territories, had been resolved upon in the first glow of popular feeling,
u) BrL KZ. 1S42 N. 86.
v) Ueber don Friuden unter d. Kirclie n. d. Staaten. Miiost 1848. 2 ed.
?r) Bonner Zeitschr. 1S4S. P. 4. Actenstucke x. gob. Oesch. d. Uermesfan. by Elvenid^ BnL
1S45. Stupp, die letzten Hcrmesianer. Siegcn, 1S44. Comp. Brans, Rep. 1S46. toL YIL pi 209aBL—
BrL KZ. 1S47. N. 72,
or) Brl. KZ. 1S41. N. 87. 1S42. N. 81.
y) J. V. OorreA, K u. Staat nach Ablauf d. Coiner Irmng. Weissenb. 1S42.
c) Die kath. Zustiinde in Baden. lUtiab. 1S41. On the other ride: Kebenius, die katb. Zastandt
In Baden. Carlsr. 1$42. Der Btreit u. gem. Ehen. u. d. KHoheitsrecht im O. Badeo. Karlar. 1S47.
• A- KZ. 1842. N. 08. 108. 114-116. 128-126. Brl. KZ. 1842. N. 6. 28. 80. 6(». 6& JT. J. Matt,
CaUiolica, Mlttlieill. a. d. Qesc!i. d. kath. K. in Wurt Tab. 1841. Briefe zweier Freunde a. d. Motion
d. B. V. Kott. Stuttg. 1842. 2 ed. Xcacste Denkscb. d. WOrt Btaatsrcg. an d rum. StohL Belenebtct
8cbaffb. 1844.
CHAP. YL GATH. CnUBCH TILL 185a. $ 475. OEBMANT SINCE 1848. 641
it was regarded as a permanent law of the Grerman nation. Jesnit missions
then traversed the ooantry (after 1850), and penetrated districts densely
populated by Protestants. («) With the view of forming an imposing author-
ity for determining political and social questions on Catholic principles, a
popular society was commenced at Cologne, and named after Pius IX. (Aug.,
1848). At the suggestion of the pope, and in consequence of the altered
state of the times, though not without some resistance and occasional relapses,
the political and democratic tendency of these Pius- Unions on the Rhine
was given up, and their general object becune the promotion of all Catholic
interests. Branches of this organization were extended to a great distance,
bnt they had no permanent place of meeting, and their annual assemblies
itinerated from place to place. (/>) But the General Assembly at Vienna
(1858) found that the masses were not attracted toward them, and that the
spectators at their meetings were always the same, {c) The German bishops,
at a conference in WarUburg (Nov., 1848), proclaimed that the Churcb, in
living connection with its Holy Father, had not abandoned the work of re-
generating their native land ; that it accepted with confidence the assurance
that all should have liberty of conscience ; that it would now enter upon the
full enjoyment of the independence which had so long been crippled ; and
that while it maintained its divine right to educate its members from the
common to the high school, it would devote itself to the advancement of
true progress by tlie elevation of science, the establishment of ecclesiastical
discipline, and the restoration of the synodal system. ((/) Accordingly, trust-
ing to a sacred influence pervading the present age, and which no secular
power could withstand, they put forth a series of demands upon the govern-
ments, that in spite of the existing law and the modern state, the ideal of the
canon law which had never been renounced should now be realized, (e) In
Atuftria, the ecclesiastical law of the Emperor Joseph was abandoned in the
attempt to carry out the idea of the two Schwartzenbergs, according to
which the mutually conflicting nationalities were to be held together under
the house of Ilapsburg by the interest of the episcopate, and all that was
Catholic in German countries was to be rallied around the throne of his
apostolic migesty. (/) The imperial patent of April 18, 1850, (g) dispensed
with the requirement that all papal and episcopal edicts should have the con-
sent of the state to their promulgation, made the clergy independent of the
secular authorities and proportionally dependent upon the bishops, and abol-
ished every thing which had impeded the exertion of the penal powers of the
Church. The right of nominating the bishops was reserved by the emperor
to himself, as one which had descended from his ancestors, and which he
promised to exercise for the good of the Church, and with the counsel of the
a) K. A. /.eibhrandy d. Miss. d. Jes. a. Bedomptorlsten in DeatschL o. d. ev. Wahrh. Stattg.
1851.
h) Brl. KZ. 1S4S. N. 64. 77. 1849. N. 41. 618. o) D. A. Z. ISSa N. 251.
d) BrL KZ. 1848. N. 92. 99. 101. A KZ. 184a N. SOOai
e) O. Mejer, d. dt KFrclb. u. d. kQnfllge kath. Partel. Lpa. 184SL C, KnUa, d. kjUh. Hierftrohit
in d. dt StMten a. 1848. IlaL 18.^2.
/) ActenstQcke, d biechofl. Ventamml. za Wlen betr. Wlen, 1850. (by Lonotict^ IHr Joaephift-
moB XL d. kalB. Verordn. v. 18b Apr. A d. Ung. Wlen, 1851.
g) BrL KZ. 1860. N. 84iL
41
642 MODEBN CHURCH HI8T0BT. PEB. ¥L A. D. l<4S-196a
bishops. The prospect of a more perfect regnlation bj a ooDcordat was also
held out. And yet such was the state of things during the wars in Hungary
and Italy, that bishops were sometimes imprisoned, and priests were hnng.
In Bavaria^ the national bishops demanded (A) the complete execution of the
concordat for the adjustment of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, for on
this they professed to think the welfare of Europe depended. For this pur-
pose they asked for the recognition of certain rights as inalienable to the
Church, the possession of which would have threatened to render the clergy
not only independent^ but superior to the civil power. In its reply, (J) the
government refused to surrender its position, that the royal assent was indis-
pensable to ecclesiastical edicts, to investitures of livings by bishops, and to
missions by foreigners, and demanded that no change should be made in the
administration of Church property, and that every member of the Church
should have a right to appeal to the sovereign for protection against sU
abuses of ecclesiastical power. Only such decisions of the ecclesiastical
courts as exercised no influence upon civil relations, were exempted from the
necessity of having the royal confirmation ; and with respect to the royal
patronage of benefices, and to the school system, it was agreed that the opin-
ions of the bishops should be consulted. The Catholic party thus found that
the government had conceded only non-essential points, and had maintained
a position which had been abandoned even in some Protestant states. After
Prxtma had proclaimed the independence of the Church (Dec. 6, 1846), the
bishops, instead of complying with the invitation of the Minister to enter
into some definite arrangement with the state, published a memorial (Aug.,
1849), {I) in which they claimed, as the necessary result of the independence
granted ; that all Church property should be transferred to their hands ; that
the state should exert no influence in the appointment of ecclesiastical offi-
cers ; that the complete direction of the education of the Catholic clergy, and
of Catholic schools, should be committed to tliem ; and that the sacrament
of man'iage should be allowed to be administered without any reference to
the civil law. The Constitution (Jan. 81, 1860) left the principle of indepen-
dence as it was, and allowed all persons freely to hold intercourse with eccle-
siastical superiors, but subjected the promulgation of ecclesiastical edicts to
the same restrictions as were imposed upon all other publications, and relin-
quished the investiture of ecclesiastical officers only so £eu* as they did not
depend upon patronage, or some special legal title. But since that time, the
government has made a series of concessions, (/) some of which relate even
to the oath of allegiance to the constitution, (m) The limitation of theo-
logical studies in foreign Jesuit institutions, and of the Jesuit missions, wis
again discussed (1852), and the mildest construction given of it which the
language would allow, (n) A small Catholic party was formed in the Cham-
h) DenkBch. der v. 1-fiO. Get 1850, za VtejtAng Tenammelton Enbiachufe a. Bkeh. Bajtni'
Manicb, 1850. 4 0 Of April 8, 1850: AUg. Z. 18S8. N. 11&
k) Printed in tbe KAtholik. Msyenoe, Prooeedings of the Cfaambera in S«pt : Brl. KZ. IStt. H.
84m. S& S9. 1800. N. 4
0 //(!««>, ev. prot K. d. dt Belcha. p. 899n. JTniM, p. 18&
m) Bri. KZw 1850. N. 4 88. 808. Der Confltct d. preosfli Beg; m. d. kafth. Btaoh. In Belr. d. yl^
CuMingKidefl. Lpa 1850. n) Bri. KZ. 1862. N. 68. 80a. 108.
CHAP. YL CATH. CnUBCH TILL 1998. % 475. PRUSSIA. MEOHLKNBURO. 643
bera, which did not scruple to connect itself with the Right or the Left,
according to circnrastances ; and as the government were obliged to mle by
a party, these were often strong enongh to give the preponderance where
they pleased. But a complete independence of the clergy was not effected,
for a general dislike was felt to the establishment of an independent sacerdo-
tal power, subject only to a foreign sovereign, whose decisions were formed
by divine authority, and were regarded by the bishops as their rule of right,
to which the heretical ruler of so many ancient ecclesiastical countries would
be tolerable only as a matter of necessity, and by which a portion of the
people would be so educated, that very soon a second Westphalian Peace
would become indispensable. Even the complaints from Posen respecting
the non-Ailfilment of the conceded right to spiritual jurisdiction, the admin-
istration of Church property, and the Protestantizing and denationalizing the
schools, (o) were not regarded. When Arnoldi^ Bishop of Treves, required
(March 12, 15, 1858) the pastors under his jurisdiction to allow of mixed
marriages only when the non-Catholic party promised upon oath to have all
the children to be educated in the Catholic faith, and even then to withhold
the ecclesiastical benediction, {ji) a general astonishment was expressed at
this extravagant application of the papal enactment of 1880. The king pro-
cLiimed, that every officer of his army who contracted marriage under such
dishonorable conditions, should be immediately dismissed from service. The
general belief that an apostolical brief of such a tenor had been issued to all
die Prussian bishops, was partially corrected at Treves ; and it was shown
that an attempt had been made to ascertain whether such a proceeding would
be then tolerated in Prussia, by such a limitation imposed upon each bishop
by the Propaganda at the renewal of his quinquennial faculties (p. 460). [q)
In Jff^A/^/iftwr^-Schwerin, the return to orthodoxy which was favored by the
higher classes, was in some instances carried too far ; and a landed proprietor
who had recently become a Catholic, employed a priest of Mayenoe as his
domestic chaplain. This priest was conveyed, by order of the government
(Sept., 1852), out of the country, on the ground that the stated employment
of a priest was not implied in the privilege of domestic worship, and that
the Catholic worship was tolerated merely by an arrangement with the sov-
ereign (1788, 1809, 1811), under certain local restrictions, (r) A complaint
with respect to this proceeding, founded upon the sixteenth article of the
Act of Confederation, was sent back by the diet in accordance with the ex-
isting law, ond by the Diet of the Confederation on the ground of incompe-
tencyi («) The five bishops of the Ecclesiastical Province of the Upper
Rhine {t) disclosed also to their respective governments what they regarded
as essential to the ecclesiastical independence promised them, viz. : free inter-
a) Promomf>rla betr. d. Bceintrucht d. kath. K. im O. PoAen. Poa. 184S. t
/>> UrL KZ. 1S5A. N. 83. 86. 45.
q) I). A. Z. 1658. N. 161.-A. KZ. 1958. N. 184.
r) {A. W. a. iSihroeUr,) Die kath. Rel. Uebang in Meckl. Geschichtl. n. rechtllch. Jena, 1S59L On
the (ither band : J. T. B. v. Unde^ Q. d. recbU. OleicbstelL d. cbr. BcL Parteien in d. dt Bnnde«t
intb. in MeckL Oieas. 1891
«) BrL KZ. 1898. N. 100. 195& N. 50. D. A. Z. 1892. N. 4AL
<) For them : M. £<tf^er, in Sacben d. oberrb. KProT. m. Actenat Frefb. 1806. F, JHem, kireb-
644 MODEBN CHURCH HISTORT. FEB. VL A. D. 1018-1898.
course with Rome ; the validity of papal and episcopal edicts, without the
concurrence of the states ; the unrestrained adminbtration of Church pro-
perty ; the necessity of the consent of the hishop to the instruction g^ven in
schools of all kinds ; the establishment of seminaries under the caro of the
bishop ; an alteration of the academical studies, and of the chapter, so as to
make them conform to the principles of the canon law ; a recognition of the
episcopal right to examine their clergy, to the exclusion of an examination
by the state ; the investiture of all clerical ofScers by the bishop, as far as
was consistent with a well-established right of patronage ; the restoration of
the episcopal right to control priestly functions and popular missions ; and
the unrestrained exercise of the power of punishing all members of the
Church, without being subject to an appeal to the civil authorities, (u) The
government of Darmatadt refrained from enforcing the institution of the
candidate whom it preferred fur the see of Mayence, and who had been
elected by the chapter in the informal way sanctioned by a frequent Roman
usage, (r) allowed a bishop to be invested (1849) who, it well knew, would be
the leader of the opposition, and saw the very last student forsaking its own
theological faculty at Giessen, in consequence of the constitutional freedom
of studies proclaimed in the seminary he re-established at Mayence (1851.)(w)
When the commissioners of the government assembled at Carlsruhe made
them no reply, the bishops remarked that they would in any case act as if
their demands had been complied with (Feb. 22) ; and when these demands
were finally for the most part rejected (March 5, 1858), {/) they declared
that they should obey God rather than man ; and that, in accordance with
the doctrine generally received in their Church, and the law founded upoa
it, they should oppose the regulations prescribed by the government, on the
ground that their supreme ecclesiastical head had long since condemned
them as anticatholic and illegal (April 12). (//) It was determined that an
attempt, which should be an example for idl other places, should be made in
Badai, where the revolution had been most radical, and where the youth of
the ruler presented the greatest hope. Herman of Vicar i^ Archbishop of
Friburg, who, contrary to all precedent, had prohibited the funeral solemni-
ties proscribed by the government for the late Grand Duke, on account of
the course that prince had pursued toward the Church (1852), (z) by his own
authority nominated a pastor for Constance and an ecclesiastical council, had
the seminaries examined without a commissioner from government, and thrett-
ened to excommunicate the members of the supreme council of the Church, un-
less they would either act according to the episcopal memorial, or resign their
ofinces. Ue was admonished by the minbtry (Oct. 31, 1858) to revoke thew
licb-poL Blatter a. i oberrh. KPr. Stuttg. 1858. Against: & R Leu, Wamang v. Neuer u. Ueb»-
trolbnngen. Lnz. 1858. BIscbufl. Theoricn u. posit Kecht Stuttg. 1S53.— A. A, Wamhdnig, 0. <L
Conflict d. Eplscopats d. oberrb. KProv. Erl. 185a
u) Memorial of Marcb, 1851, in Lieber, p. ISss. Abstract: BrL KZ. 1S51. N. 45.
v) Leop. Schmid, Q. d. J ungate Mainzer Bischofswahl. Gieaa. 2 ed. 1850. Comp. Ibid, QfUL d.
Catholicism, o. grundl. d. chr. Irenik. Oioss. 1848. vol. L
IT) BrL KZ. 1851. N. 45. or) Decree of the Baden Gov. In Lieber, p. 47s».
y) Brl. KZ. 1858. N. 88. Tlie reasons for the Act of Jnne 18: Denksch. d. Episcopates d. obcni
KPr. in Bezng a. d. WOrt Bad. Ucas. u. Naas. EntacbUeasnng y. 5. Man. Fr«ib. 185a.
a) Brl. KZ. ISn. N. 88flL 40. 69.
CUAP. VL OATH. OHUBGH TILL 185a S 475. BADEN. S 476. SWITZERLAN D. 645
actfi, which were opposed to the laws he had sworn to observe, and the eccle-
siastical constitution which had been peacefully in force for half a centnry ;
but he replied, that he coald no longer yield obedience to laws in conflict with the
right of ecclesiastical self-government guarantied by international treaties, and
which annihilated the order Christ had bestowed upon the Church. The
government then appointed an officer (Nov. 7), whose indorsement was made
indispensable to the validity of all archiepiscopal edicts ; those clergymen
who ventured to obey such edicts, regardless of this arrangement, were threat-
ened with punishment by the police, and those who obeyed the government
were assured of its protection. Tlie archbishop dismissed the officer of tho
government with his excommunication (Nov. 10); published a haughty pastoral
epistle (Nov. 11), in which he expressed a desire of martyrdom; openly chal-
lenged the ministry — though, as was proper under a constitutional govern-
ment, only the ministry — to a war ; protested against this ministerial inter-
ference, proceeding from Protestant views, with his holy office ; uttered an
excommunication, to be read from every pulpit, against each member of the
supreme ecclesiastical council (Nov. 14); and gave orders that this matter
should be explained to the people in the parish churches on four Sundays, on
the basis of tho episcopal memorial and tho pastoral epistle, (a) The govern-
ment did not venture to lay hands upon the aged archbishop, but the subor-
dinate executors of his will were fined and imprisoned. These imprison-
ments, however, often involved the members of the congregations, and could
not be carried out against the multitude. Contributions also flowed in
from abroad, amply sufficient to make up for all fines, and for any retention
of revenues. But the Catholic people could not be aroused by the fanatical
pamphlets scattered among them, (h) to make any very imposing demonstra-
tion ; the councils of the congregations, and even clergymen, prayed to be
excused from the not very edifying four discourses, and the archbishop was
obliged to depose a number of deacons. The pope, however, higlily extolled
his remarkable firmness against a government which was continually worry-
ing the Church ; (e) and almost all German, Belgian, and French bishops
have expressed their joyful approbation of the archbishop's course, and
joined with him in directing that solemn prayers should be ofiered up in
their chorches against the persecutors of the Church.
§ 476. The Su^iss.
L. SneQ.^ C W, Qikck^ il A. Utnnt^ pregrn. Erzahl. d. kirobl. Ereifrn. In d. kath. Schw. Mannh.
185<K 2 yol&— Die Kizn. Curio u. <L kirchL Wlrrcn d. Schw. Offenb. 1841. Die SchwetztT Jenalten-
ftago Id Ktaato- n. volkerrechtl Bodeut (Scbwegler, Jabrb. 1845. H. 8.) QeKrb. d. Je«ult«iikitnipre8 Id
d. 8«hwe1z. Z&r. 1845.— TQb. Qtiartalscbr. 188(\ P. 4. F. Ilurttr, d. Befdndang d. kath. K. In d.
Schw. K 1831. 8chaffh. 1842& 4 Abth.
According to ancient usage, the Swiss had a metropolitan connection,
some with Besanqon, and others with Mentz, and of course sympathized with
these churches in their tendencies to freedom. The connection of the former
portion in the western part of Switzerland with the Galilean Church, was
a) Orig. Docc : D. A. Z. IS.'M. N. 258. 968. 27a 279. Append. 280. 80SL A. KZ. 1868. N. 18«(i&
b) " Katholiken, habt acht I *<
e) Allocution of Dee. 19 : D. A. Z. 18M. N. &
646 MODEBN CHUBCH HISTORY. FEB. YL A. Di 1M8-18Q&
broken off by tbe revolution. The most important part of the confederacy
belonged to the bishopric of Constance^ and had received from that source
not only an economical administration of their affairs, but protection against
the claims of the nuncio at Lucerne. Tlie people in this part were now en-
joying much prosperity under the influence which Wessenburg exerted for
the improvement of the people and the clergy. Hence, when a political
reaction took place in 1814, the nuncio thought a favorable time had come
for effecting a separation of Switzerland from Constance. Pleased with the
promise of an independent national diocese, the Confederates applied for a
division at Rome, and in violation of every canonical form, Pius VII. hastily
rent asunder a connection which had existed for a thousand years, (a) As
almost every canton was anxious to have the national bishopric within its
bounds, and hopes were secretly encouraged in each, the administration of
ecclesiastical affairs came into the hands of a vicar-general appointed by tbe
pope, the Jesuits got the control of all education in Freiburg and in the
Yalais, and Switzerland became the headquarters of the hierarchy. KelUr
of Lucerne, who about this time swore that this party should never obtain
the victory as long as he continued a magistrate, was soon after foond dead
in the waters of the Keuss (181C). After tedious intriguer, it was decided
that a few small dioceses should in some instances be continued, and in oth-
ers bo newly formed (1828) ; and all of them, instead of being placed under
an archbishop, were made directly dependent upon Rome. This victory soon
became of but little importance, in consequence of the revolution of 1830.
In the midst of many controversies between the lay and the clerical author-
ities, the cantons of the progressive party united at Baden (1834s.), to effect
by common measures the establishment of a national archbishopric; or the
formation of a German Metropolitan connection, a powerful supervision of
the Church by the state, a free national education, and the ^propriation of
the aid of the convents to pious objects of general utility. (6) Gregory XVL
condemned these articles adopted by the conference as an attempt to subject
the Church to the laity ; (c) the nuncio withdrew from Lucerne, and took up
his residence at Schwitz (Nov. 14, 1836), and Catholic associations excited
the people against the new constitution of the state. But the Roman party
found in the decided popular will which had been awakened by this agency
among the Catholic or mixed cantons, a pious but rude sovereign, while in
the overthrown aristocracy of the reformed cantons they found an important
ally. The Catholic insurrection in Pruntrut (1835) was suppressed by Berne.
The Catholic clergy in Glarus refused to take the oath of allegiance to tbe
new constitution, except with a reservation in favor of their ecclesiastical
obligations, which was finally allowed to them (1837). {d) St. Gall unaai-
mously abolished the convent of Pfaefer (1888), the Catholic population
merely insisting that the property of the convent belonged exclusively to
their charitable institutions, {e) Aargau undertook the administration of th«
property of its convents ; and when the convents protested against such a
a) Archly, t KG. toL II. p. 661a& h) AoU hist eo& 1885. pi 48U.
c) IbicL p. 898. d) Ibid. \^m. p. 12508.
€) A. KZ. 1S8S. N. 46. A. Z. 188a SnppL N. 817. Bil. A. KZ. 1889. N. lOL
CHAP. YL OATH. CHUBCH TILL 185& S47& SWITZ. SONDEBBUKD. 647
oonrae as an icjory to themselves, the gOTemment replied that tlus was
apparently the first step for the aholition of oonyents which had been gaaran-
tied in the treaty of the leagae (1837). (/) Bat an insurrection of the
Catholic minority, in opposition to the constitution revised so as to make it
conform to the views expressed in the articles of conference, was made use
of as a reason for taking possession, by a decree of the great council (Jan.
20, 1841), of eight convents, especially of the wealthy monastery of Muri,
which had been founded by the house of Hapsburg. It was alleged that
these convents were used as places of rendezvous for those who were en-
gaged in insurrection, and their revenues were now appropriated to objects
connected with education and charity, (g) The complaint and petition for
the re-establishment of the convents was under discussion for a long time in
the diet with doubtful success, until more than twelve cantons declared
themselves satisfied with the concessions made by Aargau for the establish-
ment of three nunneries (Aug. 31, 1843). On the other hand, Lucerne, at
the head of those cantons favorable to Rome, protested against them, on the
ground that they were an infraction of the terms of the leagae. (A) For in
Lucerne, at the revision of the constitution, the Romish party, under the
influence of the robbery of the convents of Aargau, had obtained the as-
cendency (May 1, 1841), and the nuncio returned with great pomp (Jan. 22,
1843). Switzerland was now divided into two hostile parties, distinguished
by their apparently external, though really internal affinities and antipathies
of Jesuitism and Radicalism. In the Valais^ the liberals were overthrown at
Trent (May 1, 1844) in a sanguinary battle by the sacerdotal party, and the
ofEairs of the canton were then directed according to the wishes of the vic-
tors, (i) In Lucerne^ also, a majority of votes was obtained by means of the
country people, in favor of a recall of the Jesuits, and intrusting the theo-
logical schools to their instruction, (k). The party which had previously held
the supremacy, was now supported by the voluntary assistance of those
Catholics who were of the same views, and by Protestants from all the can-
tons. This undisciplined host of volunteers, which attempted to wrest Lu-
cerne from the possession of the Jesuits by a single blow, were entirely dis-
persed (Dec. 8, 1844, March 31, 1845) by the army of the original cantons,
and all domestic opposition was overthrown, (l) In view of this victory, as
well as of the dangers which threatened them. Lucerne immediately con-
cluded a military alliance with the three original cantons, and with Valais,
Freiburg, and Zug, for mutual protection agdnst invasion or internal commo-
tion, and the allies then demanded in a threatening manner the restoration
of the convents of Aargau. (m) The liberal party demanded the general
/) AcU hist ece. 1687. in ISTm.
g) Die Aaf hebung d. Aarg. Kluster. Denkschr. an d. Eldgenusa. Stinde. Aarao, 1841. 4. (BhdDw.
lUp. vol XXXIII. p. 170. 264*6.) Brl. KZ. 1841. N. 14.
h) Ibid. 1848. N. 10& A. Z. 1843. N. 178. 247. 297. 884.
{) Die EreignisBe im WalL TransL of the work: la oontre>r6vc^ en Yalala, by J/1 Barmann^ with
Introd. by L. Snell, ZOr. 1844. (a partisan pubL)
k) BrL KZ. 1844. N. 93. 1846. N. 1.
0 D. A. Z. 1844. N. 852. Brl. KZ. 1849. N. 81. Das rotbe Bftehleln a d. Frcischaarenzug Bern.
184a m) D. A. Zb 1848. K. 27.
648 MODERN OHUROH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 164S-186&
expaldon of the Jesuits as indispensable to the tranqnillity of the Confed-
eracy, and after many negotiations, the diet declared ( Jnly 20, 1847) by a
small minority that the separate alliance (Sonderbund) was inconsistent with
the general confederation, and was therefore dissolved, and that the seven can-
tons should be held responsible for its continuance, (n) To this division into re-
ligious parties was added, on the one side, a struggle for a more efficient unity
of the states, and on the other, for the maintenance of the sovereign rights
of the separate cantons. Pius IX. still exhorted them to the cultivation of
peace, (o) but he did not venture on the recall of tlie Jesuits as tiie measure
most likely to reconcile all parties, but it appeared probable that a decision
could be attained only by a civil and religious war. A superior army was
called into the field by the diet, and the miraculous pennies purchased from
the Jesuits to secure the immediate protection of the Virgin against the bul-
lets of the enemy, (p) were found insufficient. The foreign aid was too
scanty; Freiburg capitulated; the small affair near Gislicon (Nov. 28) be-
came as important for the Protestants as that at Cappel once was for the
opposite party, and all the cantons were obliged to renounce the Sonderbund,
and submit to the diet. The Jesuits universally had fled, and from the pro-
perty they left, the conquered cantons paid a part of their quota for the
expenses of the war. (q) These events produced an important change in the
administration, for in Lucerne, in consequence of a revolution in public sen-
timent, the party which had for years been trampled under foot now gained
the ascendency, and in Freiburg, the faction which had long governed merely
by the aid of foreign arms, was now obliged to defend itself agdnst a series
of revolutionary attempts. In 1848, Switzerland availed itself of the oppor-
tunity, wlien Austria and France had enough to do at home, to form itself
into a confederacy. In the new constitution, was secured liberty of con-
science for all the confessions recognized by the state, and equal rights for all
citizens ; the order of tlie Jesuits was excluded from the country, and every
governmental guarantee for the monasteries was withdrawn, (r) The federal
authorities, by a special law respecting mixed marriages (1850), have entirely
divested them of ecclesiastical restrictions, have made the education of the
children dependent upon the will of the father, and in every instance have
permitted a Protestant clergyman to solemnize a marriage, when a Catholic
priest has refused to do so. (s) In many cantons, monasteries have been
either abolished, or condemned to die by a gradual process. Freiburg, m
connection with the four cantons in its diocese (Lausanne), concluded a con-
cordat containing the essential principles of the articles of the Conference
of Baden. (0 The Bishop Marilley sent forth secret and public admonitions
against the new constitution. When asked if he would unconditionally sub-
ject himself to it, and submit his public acts to the approbation of the gov-
ernment^ he replied that he would prefer death to such a servitude. Chillon
became once more the prison of an illustrious captive (Oct. 29, 1848), who,
n) D. A. Z. 1846. N. 87. 1847. N. 208. 252. 2W. 299.
o) Ibid 1847. N. 808. p) Ibid. 1847. N. 850.
q) Ibid. N. 844. r) Art 44-48. 5a
9) BrL KZ. 1850. N. 8a bat oomp. 1851. N. 89. 1) Ibid. 184a N. M.
CHAP. VL CATH. CHURCH TILL 1858. ) 477. IRELAND. 649
however, soon exchanged his confinement for honishment. (u) The holy
father wept with him, («) appealed to the federal law with respect to freedom
of conscience, to Jostif j his attempt to secure the independence of his clergy,
and protested against all aggressions since 1847 upon the rights of the
Church, (tp) For the sake of a general reconciliation, the Bishop of Basle
recommended what had also been proposed in a popular society, that the
remainder of the debt for the war of the Sonderbund should be paid by a
voluntary offering, (x)
§ 477. Ireland arid England.
Iriflche Znetnnde. (Rheinw. R«p. vol XIII. p. 26888. XIV, GSss.) F. ff{urier\ Iii Zust&nd. (T&b.
QoarUlacb. 1840. II. 4.) K F, Vogtl^ pragm.'Gesch. d. poL n. rel Yerh. zw. EngL n. Irl. Lps. 1842.
B. Murray^ Irel. &nd her Church. Lood. ed. 8. 1845. 8 vols. — 0. M^er^ d. Propaganda In EngL
1651. — 0. de Beaumont, Tlrland socialc, politique ot rellglcuse. Par. 1889. 2 vols. [Ireland, from the
French oC Beaumont by Taylor, Lond. 1840. 2 vda.]— V. O. Kohl, [Travels in Ireland, from the
Germ. New York. 1844. 8. F. v. Baunur, EngL in 1885. in Letters from the Germ. Lond. 1889. 8.]
The iniquity of the fathers had descended in the form of a curse of mis-
ery and hatred to the sons both of the spoilers and the spoiled. The im-
portance of reconciling seven millions of its subjects to the state under which
they lived, was fully acknowledged by the government. But the first attempt
which it made to relieve them of their burdens, led to an insurrection in
London (1780). Every mitigation of their lot was obliged to bo carried
through Parliament with the utmost difficulty, in opposition to the selfishness
of the privileged classes, and the passions of the Protestant multitude. The
Irisli people were under the direction of CTConnell (1809-47), a demagogue,
but one who aimed at what was indispensable. By the aid of the priests, he
kept the people in a state of tremendous excitement, which he alone could
restrain within the bounds of the law. The spirit of justice finally obtained
the victory in the bosoms of the English nation, while the aristocracy were
alarmed at the threatening state of despair in which they beheld the Irish
people. Constrained by this necessity, Wellington was able and was obliged
to accomplish what even Canning could not effect with all the magic of his
eloquence in behalf of universal freedom. An act of Parliament, passed April
18th, 1829, presented a citizen's oath compatible with the Catholic faith, by tak-
ing which, every Catholic became eligible to a seat in Parliament, and with few
exceptions to all offices in the state and parish, (a) But a people who lived
as tenants in their own country, with a foreign hierarchy and aristocracy,
and in terror of starvation every winter, could see only a distant hope in
concessions like this. When they found the fulfilment of this hope still de-
layed, the whole nation entered into an open conspiracy (1831), the tithes
were refused, and whoever dared to act contrary to the known will of the
people, was secretly tried and executed. The expense of collecting the tithes
was greater than they were worth. The government received extraordinary
u) Snell, yoL IL 2. p. SOOss. Der Terrorismns im K. Freib. (Hist poL BIL 1858. toL XXXL p.
749ml) f>) BrL KZ. 1649. N. 18.
to) Ibid. 1848. N. 86w 108. 1851. N. 28. m) Ibtd. 1852. N. 20.
a) Wy9^ Hist of the late Cath. Assoc Lond. 1829. 8 toIb. A. TKHn€r^ SammL wicht Aetenst
X. Oeeeh. d. Emana d. Kath. in EngL Mayence, 1885w
650 MODERN CHUBCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. ltia-18Q&
powers from Parliament (18d8) for putting down these Tiolent prooeedinga,
and ])ropo8ed to reform the Protestant Church of Ireland. The changes con-
templated in this reform, were : the abolition of taxes for the erection of
churches ; the transfer of the tithes, with an abatement of their amonnt,
from the tenant to the proprietor ; the diminution of the number €i the
bishoprics ; a tax upon all livings according to their yalue, and the abroga-
tion of all sinecures, (b) In the Ilouse of Lords, however, the inyiolabilitj
of the property of the Church was resolutely maintained. The cause of fre^
doiu in general became identified with that of justice for Ireland. The lib-
eral ministry was divided upon the proposition (May 27tb, 1884) to apply the
surplus of ecclesiastical property to objects of general ntihty in the state,
under tlio direction of Parliament (c) £ven the Tory ministry und«r Sir
Robert Peel acknowledged the necessity of a reform, but contended that it
should be without depriving the Church of its property. The tithes were
again collected at the point of the bayonet, and the only son of a widow was
shot down (Dec., 1834). ('/) The Peel ministry retired, and then Russell carried
a proposition in the lower Ilouse (April 7th, 1835), (e) which required that all
ecclesiastical proi)erty not really needed for the support of the established
Church, should be applied to the education of the people. This principle of
appropriation was rejected in the upper Ilouse as a robbery of the altar, and
a commencement of the work of destroying the establishment. When the
Irish Church Bill was returned to the lower House, it was so mutilated, that
this body preferred to leave every thing in an alarming uncertainty to
attempt inj^ any change then practicable (Aug., 1836). (/) Lord Lyndhunt
wished to know nothing of justice in behalf of aliens in faith, in blood, and
in manners, (y) Tlie tithe bill was finally passed (Aug., 1838), without the
clause for the appropriation of the surplus. It transferred the tithes in the
form of a ground rent, with an abatement of 25 per cent., to the proprietor
of the soil, and the previous arrears were to be paid firom the treasury of the
state. (A) Even O^Connell advocated this law, although it was merely an
acyoumment of the question respecting the existence of a Protestant Church
supported by a Catholic people. To assist the people in the work of deliver-
ance by their own exertions, the Dominican Father Matthew (since 1840) his
excited a prodigious enthusiasm in favor of total abstinence from all intoxi-
cating drinks, (/) and during the spring of 1843, O'Connell was able to collect
around himself hundreds of thousands of people, at what he called lus mon-
ster meetings. The object of these assemblies was to demand justice for
Ireland, with threats that if this were denied them, the union of the legisla-
ture of the two countries should be legally dissolved, and the jurisdiction of
the Anglo-Saxons should be thrown off (repeal). For language used on these
occasions, he was sent to prison by the Ilouse of Lords, but Ireland was no
less governed by him in his confinement than before. The ministry of Sir
b) A. KZ. 1888. N. 88. 4a A. Z. 1S84. N. 220. 229.
c) A. Z. 1S31 N. 155. cO A. Z. 1385. N. 4. SappL N. 9.
e) A. Z. 1S8-.. N. 110ft.
/; A. Z. 1835. N. 245. 1S86. N. 223. A. KZ. 1886. N. 18«. g) A.Z. 1884L 8appL N. STT.
A) A. Z 1S8S. N. 191. 199. 206. 2oa 212. 282.
i) Brl. KZ. 1S40. N. 4. 16. A. Z. 1848. Supplem. N. 148i.
CHAP. TL CATH. CHUBOH TILL 1868. ) 477. IRELAND dt ENGLAND. 651
Robert Peel introdaced the Legacy Bill, which allowed the Catholic Church,
with the exception of the monastic orders, to acquire property in its own
name, (k) and carried through an act for bestowing a splendid endowment
on the seminary at Maynooth, for the education of the Catholic clergy
(1845). (/) A system of common schools supported by government, but care-
fully avoiding all distinction of churches, had been some time before (1834)
established, and now four royal colleges were founded by Parliament (1847)
for higher education, but no provision was made for religious instruction,
each sect being left to secure its own foundation for that purpose by volun-
tary efibrts. The opinions of the Irish episcopacy were divided respecting
these schools, but the Archbishop of Tuam excited the prejudices of the
pope against them on account of their destitution of religion, and they were
rejected (1851). (m) Even the proposition of the government, after having
abolished the last of the old penal laws against Catholic worship, (n ) to grant
a salary to their prelates, on condition that it should have a right to an influ-
ence in their election, was declined. Emigration to the New World since
the last famine has entirely removed the surplus population from the coun-
try. The real estate of the great landholders, which had been brought to a
public sale in consequence of enormous poor rates, came to a considerable
extent into the hands of a Protestant middle class. A mission of a hundred
preachers, belonging to different Protestant sects from London, in the sum-
mer of 1853, and preaching in the streets as in a heathen country, was the
occasion of more offence than of edification to the people, (o) But some per-
manent missions have labored during the last ten years with no inconsidera-
ble success, by scriptural instruction from house to house, by the distribution
of tracts, and by schools in different sections of the country ; although, in
consequence of their supply of food and work to a hungry people, the con-
verts were stigmatized as soup-eaters by the Catholic population, and many,
whose consciences had not been carried, returned after a plentiful harvest, or
when dying, to the Church of their fathers, (p) The hopes of the Catholics
in England were much awakened in consequence of the ecclesiastical stand-
ing of some Puseyites who went over to them, and the popular basis supplied
by immigrants from Ireland, for the number of these converts was for oppo-
site reasons much exaggerated by Protestant and Catholic public journals.
Relying upon such hopes, Pius IX. once more took possession, as it were, of
this lost territory, by appointing, instead of the four apostolical vicariates
which had previously governed the English Catholics, a complete episcopal
hierarchy for all England (Sept. 29, 1860), under Cardinal Wiseman, the
learned and ingenious defender of his Church, as the Archbishop of West-
minster, (q) and contributions were invited for the erection of a splendid
church of St. Peter in the very heart of London, (r) Parliament could not
but yield to the indignation of the Protestant community produced by this
jfe) D. A.Z.1S45.N 11. 11 0 A. KZ. 1345. N. 82.
m) .V. I). Z. 1S47. N. 809. Synod of Tbnrles: Brl KZ. 185a N. 80. 85.
n) Brl. KZ. 1S47. N. 28. o) A. KZ. 1853. N. 161
p) Ag«in»t one-9ided Prot. acconIlt^ but still not \t§a one-sided Itself: Hist poL BU. 1868. toL
XXXII. H. 6. oomp. Ev. KZ. 1S52 N. 92. BrL KZ. 1858. N. 10.
q) BrU KZ. 1850. N. 9a r) Ibid. 1851. N. 65.
652 MODEBN OmJRCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 1648-18S8.
proceeding, (ft) but it was difficult to devise any legal measure ag^nst the
papal aggression which would not apply equally to Ireland. After a pro-
tracted contest^ however, the matter was terminated by the adoption of Ru9-
soirs proposition (1851), providing that all papal edicts, and all jurisdictions,
rank or titles created by them in the United Kingdom, should be null and
void ; that every person who, without legal authority, accepted of any eccle-
siastical title derived from the name of any place in the kingdom, should be
fined one hundred pounds for every instance in which he should make use of
it, and that complaints might be received fh)m any private individual with
respect to ofifences of this nature. (0 A serious diflSculty, however, appears
to have been discovered in the way of substantiating such a charge, (u)
§ 478. Forms of Catholicism,
The special friends of the Roman Curia and of the bishops have become
more decidedly opposed to one another, under the name of Ultramontanittt
and LiheraU, Tiie former defend the infallibility of the pope, and the im-
possibility of improving the Church, by planting themselves on the ground
of established usages, and of the necessity of an external universal authority.
This Romish Catholicism was not long since popular among the lower classes
in Spain, and was there embraced with all the earnestness and energy of the
national character. But in consequence of the festivals of the inquisition,
and the political parties of the day, it there assumed a gloomy and passiou-
ate character. It appeared in the most harmless form, until the revolution, in
Italy, especially in the south, where even the i)er8onal ridicule heaped upon
the hierarchy, and the more dangerous opposition of the commercial inter-
ests, were not generally prejudicial to the ecclesiastical system. The sensu-
ous form of a system of saint-worship was there a matter of necessity.
Illuminations, rockets, and the roar of cannons, form necessary parts of
divine worship, and the miracles must annually be repeated at the joyful
festivals. The Epistle of the Virgin Mary to the people of Messina must be
read, {a) the domestic animals must be sprinkled with holy water under the
direction of St. Anthony, (h) and the lambs from whose wool the pallium is
woven, must receive a benediction at the altar of St, Agnes. Every thing is
there connected with some joyous festival, and Mary's tears are regarded as
at least equally efficacious in the work of atonement with the blood of
Christ. The Church has not done much for the intellectual improvement and
morals of the people, but it has kept up a certain kind of discipline, pro-
tected cheerful and pleasant customs, and never repressed the natural talents
of this higlily intellectual people. The clergy, with their oflScious but pleas-
ant inefficiency, are only the culminating points of the popular life, and as
long as they are undisturbed, they are kindly disposed. But in Grermany and
France, where this party, as a peculior section of Catholicism, has been made
•) BrL KZ. 1S50. N. 928. 94 101a.
0 EcclesUstlcal Titles Act: BrL KZ. 1851. N. 55. v) Ibli N. TO.
a) Deutsche Zeltachr. f. chr. WIsa. 1852. N. 49.
h) A. KZ. 1823. N. 192. Tb« matter was prettjr mnob as it Is tb«r« related, althoagh I mw doUh
Ing ** blasphemous *" in it.
CHAP. YL CATH. CHUBCn TILL 185& f 47a ULTBAM0NTANI8TS. LIBERALS. 653
to feel that the spirit of the times is fatal to its interests, it has come into
conflict with every kind of intellectaal freedom, and every where is abhorred
by the friends of liberty. Hence the Ultramontanists look with horror upon
all universities, the freedom of the press, philosophical studies, and the read-
ing of the Scriptures, and they often intentionally encourage superstition, or
at least mere excitements of the fancy, (r) In consequence of old traditions,
much impaired however by modern intelligence, Bavaria became the prin-
cipal home of this enthusiasm, and after 1888, its ministry fell completely under
its sway. The mild earnestness of the dying Bishop Schwaebl, and of the king
himself, was sometimes indeed aroused against the rigid Ultramontanism of
this ministry, when its zeal against every thing of a Protestant nature did
violence to their feelings, but it was not till 1847 that it was overthrown by
a travelling danscuse. {d) The Liberals possessed much influence in conse-
quence of the education which the clergy of Germany received at universi-
ties where Protestants and Catholics were taught together, the protection of
the governments, and the total disinclination of the spirit of the age to all
forms of mental slavery. They demanded that public worship should be
conducted in the language of the people ; that the Scriptures should be freely
circulated ; that instead of inculcating dependence upon mere outward forms,
the education of the people should receive a spiritual tendency ; and that
national churches and synods might be so constituted, that the rights of the
pope might remain merely honorary, or definitely determined by the consti-
tution. Such views were sometimes expressed only in literary works, and
sometimes through petitions and associations. From Silesia, they generally
came connected with disclosures of all kinds of abuses, by the learned
brothere Theincr^ the theologian and the canonist, (f) The principal object
against which almost every kind of disposition and plan was directed, was
the celiba^'ij of the clergy. Petitions for its abolition have been presented to
the episcopal authorities by pastors in Silesia (1826), and associations have
been formed against it in Southern Germany (1830). These eflbrts, however,
have been sternly repelled by the bishops and by the government of Wurtem-
berg. (/) The chambers of Southern Germany (since 1824), to whom ad-
dresses on this subject were sent up, declared that they had no jurisdiction
in the case ; until finally the Chamber of Deputies in Baden recommended that
the government (1831) should adopt suitable measures for the abolition of the
law relating to celibacy, (y) In France, priests were married who had pre-
c) Miraculoas Med&Is : PJUtrut^ d. rel. L. in Frankr. p. 222. On the other side : ActA hist eoc.
1887. p. 814. 6. Benedict's pence: D. A. Z. 1847. N. 120. oonnp. ( 480.
d) & Suffenheiin, Baierns K.- u. Vollcs-Ziistilnde, Gieas. 1842. BrL KZ. 1841. N. 22. 41. 47. 6&
1845. N. 8-2. D. A. Z. 184«. N. 18. A. KZ 1847. N. 40.
«) If. Amman, Bostreb. d. Hochschale Freiburg im KKechte. Frelb. 1882-6. 2 Beitr. {WetmeH'
b0rg,) Die deutache K. (Zur.) 1815. FtUer, Deutschl. u. Rom. Frkt 1880. Kopp, d. kath. K im
19. Jbh. Mentz. 1880. Mer«y, sind Reformen in d. kath. K. notbwendig? Beantw. ▼. d. Pmtoral-
confer, za OfTonbarg. 1882. 2 ed. verm, durcb Belencht des dsraaf erfolgten Erlassra des erzb. Ordi-
nariata. Oil'onb. 1888. {Ant. n. Auff. ThHntrr,) Die kath. K. Schlea. Altenb. 182S. and often, comp
Ant Thelner, ret Bestreb. in d. kath. K. Altenb. 184S. P. 2. p. eew^^J. R Uafen^ Miibler a. Wes-
■enb. o. Strengkirchllchk. u. Liberalism. Ulm. 1842.
/) Erster 8ieg des Licbtcs u. d. Fin^emiss. Han. 182A. Merkw. Umlanftchr. d. FnTstbirch. t.
BresL Hao. 1827. Ueber d. Bildong e. Ycreins fl d. kirchl Anf heb. d. C libatge*. Ulm. 1881. A. KZ
188L N. 7a 121 174. 19a g) A. KZ. 1828. N. 78. 108.-1881. N. 174a. 18L 188. 1882. N. & 147.
654 MODEBN CIIURCn HISTORY. FEB. YI. A. D. 1MS-189&
viously taken the vow. The French courts declared, that even the marriage
of priests who had given np the duties of their office was invalid, (h) The
Lihernis, in some instances as Protestant Catholics, were the first who took
part in Protestant literature and science. As Fehronins had assailed and
shaken the fundamental principles of ecclesiastical law, BI<ih also undermined
the principles of ecclesiastical faith. (?) In place of the only saving Church,
he wislied to substitute the only saving religion found in every pions heart, (h)
Others labored with honest intentions in behalf of Catholicism. Instead of
the religion of the monks and the virtues of the saints, WerJcmeister (d, 1828),
who had acquired an education of an entirely Protestant character in the
Benedictine convent, held up the religion of the gospel and the moral system
wliicli Gellcrt had taught. (/) Uirseher presented the simple faith of the
Bible, in contrast with the scholastic system of the Church, but he submitted
to the ]>apal judgment upon his treatise for the reconciliation of the Catholic
Church with the science of the present day. (m) Hug vied with the Protes-
tant theologians in ingenious investigations with regard to the canon of the
New Testament, (n) and Schoh turned attention once more to the manuscripts
which had been recently obtained from Constantinople, (o) Occupying an
intermediate position between the Romish and the Liberal form of Catho-
licism, inclining sometimes toward the first and sometimes toward the latter,
according to the personal preferences, (/?) the position, or the sincerity of the
individual, an Ideal school began to make its appearance, which pointed out
the religious ideas involved in the Catholic dogmas and usages, and endeav-
ored to reconcile Catholicism with modern science and improvements, (q) It
proceeded from France in the form of a poetic and artistic glorification of
the Church (§ 444). German philosophy was, sometimes in the spirit of
faith, and sometimes in the allegorical strain, incorporated with the Catholic
doctrines, (r) GOrres (b. 177C), who possessed powerftil original talents, and
united with them a poetical and philosophical temperament, attempted, with-
out regard to historical truth, once more to conjure np the spirits of the mid-
dle ages. Wherever a thorough theological discipline was permitted, this
Catholicism vindicated itself by showing what the Church had been to past
ages, and what it always may bo to the human mind. In Germany, this ten-
h) A. KZ. 1829. N. la 88. 183. 1888. N. 44. 65.
i) Kritische Qeach. d. kircbl. Unfehlbarkeit FrkC 1791.
k) (KtU^r,) Katholikon. F&r alle unter Jeder Form das Eine. 8 ed. Aana. 1883.
0 An d. unbe!<cheidenen Verehrer d. Heiilgeo, beSL Maria. Uanau. 180L Predigten. Ulm. ISlte
8 vols.
m) Ue. d. Verb. d. Er. zu d. tbcol. Scbolastik. Tub. 1828. Die klrchllcben Zaattnde d. Q«geDW.
Tub. 1849. 8 ed. Brl. KZ. 1890. N. 10.
n) EInl. in d. Schrr. d. N. T. BtuU^c a. Tab. (180&-21.) 1826. 2 vols.
o) Gosch. d. Textes d. N. T. Lps. l<aa N. T. gr. Lpa. 1880-B. 2 Tlu 4.
p) T^schimer, Briefe iL Btl n. PoliUk. Lpa. 182a Kahier, Bdtr. t, d- Ttfvachen, d«ii Kath. n
idealiairen. Kngab. 182a A. KZ. 1882. N. 15S.
g) P. B. Zlmmer, phll. ReligionsL Landsb. 1806. O. M. KUin, Darat d. phU. ReL u. Slttonl
Barab. 1818. F. Bander, spccuL Dogmat Stuttg. 1828aa. 2 P. F. A. StawUnmutUr, £B<qrU. 4
theoL Wiss. Mentz. 1881 [J. A, MoehUr, SymboUsm, or Ezpoa. of the Dod I>Ufereiioea betwatf
Protestants and Catbolios. Lond. 8vo.]
r) Pftge 66. A 111. SymboUk. Mayenoe. 1882. ed. 4 1886. Tflh. QoartalMh. 188& H. 1
CHAP. YL CATH. CHURCH TILL 188a ) 478. IDEAL SCHOOL. 655
denoy was represented by Moehler (1796-1888), who had been aroused by
Schleiermacher, and at one time had been pervaded by enthnsiasm in behalf
of ft'ee investigation, bnt gradually he had been mastered by the majesty of
his Ohorch, and now infused a confiding spirit once more into the department
of Boienoe. In France, since Lamennais has retired from the public scene,
its principal representative has been Bautain^ who learned to distrust his
reason in the school of Kant, until he was prepared to surrender himself to
the direction of the Scriptures and of ecclesiastical tradition, the infinite
nature of whose principles was unfolded and evinced by their power in the
human heart. In opposition to him, the Bishop of Strasburg defended simply
scholastic reason (since 1884). («) Gunther wished to substitute for the hea-
thenish philosophy of the scholastics and the ecclesiastical fathers, a Chris-
tian philosophy, whose mystical and profound spirit would play about its
rational nature in the manner of Jacob Boehme, like an aurora borealis or
an ignis fatuus, and might be regarded as the equal sister of the system of
fiiith found in those established doctrines of the Church which always ap-
proach nearest to the truth. But this " Romish Court Philosophy" of Treves
was forbidden by an order from Rome (1852), and was threatened by German
denunciations from the same quarter. (Q The same disposition and views
which originated and sustained an old orthodoxy in the Protestant Church,
were here also favorable to the Roman Jesuitic Catholicism ; and now when
the hierarchy, with its extensive possessions, had lost also its splendid posi-
tion, it received, instead of the distinguished worldly prelates it formerly pos-
sessed, and who often opposed the pope, were very independent, and were
restrained only by their political position, a class of bishops whose personal
characters were eminent, who were entirely dependent upon Rome, and who
used the unbroken power of the episcopacy to educate a clergy of a similar
spirit The literary conflicts of these three parties were especially exhibited
in the German periodicals, (t/) since in countries where every Church was
protected by law, the privileges of the Catholic Church were sufficiently
npheld by a censorship of the press and deposition from office. Rome did
not prove itself the seat of any very extraordinary theological learning, and
wherever it allowed itself to be drawn into literary controversy, it interfered
by means of rather rough weapons, (r) Still even the pope prohibited only
the reading of certain books, and exhorted all to collect their energies against
«) Biitdain : de l*enBelgnement de Ia phll. en France. Stnsb. 188S. Phil du ChristUnlsme. 8tr.
183S._AcU hist eoe. 1885. p. SOSss. 1887. p. 68ml C F, Mnge, L. Brat (Zeitachr. I hist Th 1887.
▼oL YIL pi S.) BrL KZ. 134S. N. 8&
I) A. G&ntfter : Vonchule z. speo. Tb. Tien. (18288.) 1848. 2 toIs. Der letzte Symboliker. Vlen.
1884. and Pttbtt; Janiiskopfe. Vlen. 1884. and Veitk, Phil. Taschenb. Yien. 1849s.— OiacA'n^tfr, d.
ebr. PhiL vertheldigt Munich. 1858. F. J. CUtnena, d. spec Th. Oanthem Colog. 1S&8. BrL KZ.
1852. N. 6t
it) 1. Klrcbenfrennd by Benkert, Athana^ia, d. Kathollk bj Well kath. Lit Z. by Kerz, Lazemer
EZ., 6ion, hist poL Slitter, by Phlllpps, J. G< ^re^ J. E. J<3r^ deatsche (Kulner) Volkshalle. S.
FnAm. Blatter Q. TheoL o. Klrcbenth., by Pflanz, kan. Wichter by A. M Oiler, constlt K. Z. by
Leratranm&Uer, Stlmmen a. d. kath. K DentschL 8. T&b. tbeol. Quartalsehrlft, Zeltach. t d. Erxb.
Fralborg, K. Z. by Sengler, Jahrbb. t Tbeol. a. PhlL
v) Braun, d. Lehren d. Hermeslanlsmns gutgehelssen u. die ent|regensteh. Anslehten Terworibii
T. d. Blschof T. Straasb. nebst e^ Breve Orvg. XVL Bonn. 188B. F. BaatUr^ (L d. Emandp. d.
KnlboUc. T. d. rOm. Dietatnr. NOmb. 1889.
656 MODESN CHUBCH HISTORY. FEB. YL A. D. 164&-185&
those who for selfish ends, but under the pretence of reform, had conspired
against ecclesiastical and divine rights, (w) A few were wise enough to be-
come reconciled in a proper manner ; others did not return until they were
obliged to do so OS penitent forlorn children, and still others fell out entirely
with the Church, (x) The Great Union of 127 Catholics at Dresden (1831)
declared that the gospel, explmned by the light of reason and of the age,
was the only rule of tlieir faith, and among their festivals they reckoned one
for the Sun, but none for the resurrection of Christ. On the other hand,
Caroxi insisted upon the literal acceptance of the ordinary doctrines, drove
Catholicism back to its principle of an infallibility by which alone men oould
be saved, and then tormented himself and others by practical difficulties in
the way of it. {y) The Abbe IleUen of Brussels, in the spirit of the Cath-
olic apostolic Church, exhorted men to turn from the Roman Antichrist to
Christ, but it was not long before he died, abandoned by all, and with no
confidence even in himself (1842). {z)
§ 479. German Catholicism,
Ednin Batier, Gesch. d. dout5ch-kath. K. MeU«. 1345l W. A. Lampadius^ d. deotscb^kAth. Be*
weg. Lps. 1$46.— Kath. KBcfonn, Monatacbr. cd. by A. Maur. JfUlUr, BrL a. 1S45. FOr ftvies nl
Lebon. Materialien x. Gescb. u. Fortbild. d. chr. Gemelndcn Insb. d. freien kath. ed. hy T. Jlt^rldk-
Ur and F. Kmnpe, Bral. a. l&iS. Literary Gen. View : by Ilase and Schwarx : Jen. A. L. 2L iStft. M.
181. 1S8. 221. 23S. 209i». 1847. N. 68$a. 1S4S. N. 187i«. [Saml Laing, Not«s on tbe BIm, Ac of Ui«
Germ. Oath. Chh. Lond. 1S45. Cercinu*, Mission of the Ger. Catholics, trana). from Germ. LoixL
1S4S. Dabl. Univ. Mag. (in Eclectic Mag. Jan. 184A.) OcL 1846. art on Oenn. Cath. Chh.]
The Prussian ecclesiastical controversy was finally celebrated in the
Cathedral of Treves (Aug., Oct., 1844), by the festival of the seamless coat
of Christ (§ 200). More than a million of people went thither to adore this
garment of our divine Lord ; and when the grand niece of the Archbishop
of Cologne had experienced a partial cure there, thousands made trial of its
miraculous power, with a few instances of apparent success, (a) The rejoic-
ings occasioned by this pilgrimage (b) were in some degree disturbed by a letter
from Laurahatte against the idolatrous festival at Treves, and addressed to
the resident bishop as the Tetzel of the nineteenth century, {c) The Tigoroos
and bold tone, and the signature of a Catholic priest which this letter exhib-
ited, made it a standard at which both friends and enemies directed their
attention. The writer of it was John Eonge (b. 1818), a chaplain who had
been suspended for disobedience, and excommunicated by the episcopal aa-
ir) Gegen Offenburg y. 4. Oct 1838: A. KZ. 1884. N. 174.
0-) Chr. Fucbs: Schweiz Bepablikaner, 1884. N. 78. (comp. Alois Fncba fL a. SaapenalonigcMb.
m. ActenstQcken. Bappers^v*. 1833.) Aug. Thein$r^ Gesch. d. geistL Bildungaanatalten. MayMoa.
ISCd. A. KZ. 1885. N. 238. C A r. Heichlin-Meldegg : A. KZ. 1882. N. 59. Fischsr : BrL KJL
1841. N. 15.
y) Die gros50 Elnh. d. 127 antirum. Kath. LpR. 1881. A. KZ. 1882. N. G. JI IT Caro^ d.
albinaeL K. Frk£ 1826. Die letzten Dinge d. rum. Kath. Lpa. 1882. Bom. Eatbolla in d. PapiMadL
Lps. 1851.
«) Ev. KZ. 1888. N. 101. Brl. KZ. 184a N. 11.
a) J. Marx, d. AoaatelL d. h. Bocka. Treves. 1845. [John Bonge, or tbe II0I7 Coat <rf Trtreik
New York. 1845. 18.] V. JIanaerk, actenmasa. Darst wanderb. neilongeii b. Aoaat. d. b. Boek&
Trevea. 1845.
b) J. V. Gdrrt9, d. WalUl ▼. Trier. Begenab. 1845.
c) At first in tbe Sichalacbe Yaterlands BliUer, of Get 16, 1844
CHAP. TL CATH. CHURCH TILL ISSa. ( 479. GERMAN CATHOLICISM. 657
thoritie.<« at Breslau. After tbcee proceedings against him, he had published
at Brealau some polemical writings against Romish abominations, and in favor
of the establishment of a German national Church. His style was rather
declamatory, but his sentiments had all the pathos of a decided convic-
tion, (d) In SchneidemQhl, a town belonging to Prut^sian Poland, the vicar
John Czentki (b. 1818) had been suspended because he would not renounce
a young Polish lady to whom he was attached. He however now gave
notice (Aug. 22, 1844) that he would hold no further connection with the
Roman court Church ; and without renouncing his Catholic priesthood, he
proceeded, with some members of his congregation who believed as he did,
to establish what he called a Christian apostolic Catholic congregation, (e)
On the plan of this congregation, many Catholics dissatisfied with their
Church collected around Ronge at Breslau, as Christian Catholic congrega-
tions (March 9, 1845). (/) Persons of similar sentiments in nearly twenty
of the towns of Northern Germany presented addresses of concurrence to
Ronge, and united together as German Catholic congregations. They were
agreed in their opposition to the Roman Church, against which the Reforma-
tion had protested from the very first, so fur as to demand a free use of the
Scriptures and an administration of the affairs of the Church by the congre-
gation. But those congregations which were established by Czerski firmly
adhered not only to the fundamental principles of old ecclesiastical ortho-
doxy, but to some institutions peculiarly Romish in their origin, while those
which proceeded from Breslau were of a rationalist tendency. To give unity
to this Church, without much previous concert, a council was held at Leip-
sic on Easter, 1845, at which deputies appeared from fifteen congregations,
and provided especially for the liturgy to be used, and the general order of
the societies. The papal hierarchy was unconditionally renounced, and the
Holy Scriptures were recognized as the foundation of a faith which must be
modified by the spirit of each successive age, and explained and compre-
hended by a reason pervaded by the general Christian idea. Nothing was
retained of the second article of the modernized Apostles' Creed except a
declaration of faith in Jesus Christ as our Saviour, and a special stress was
laid upon works of love as the true evidence of faith, {g) Czerski consented
to this triumph of the Breslau party, as the particulars of the creed were
left to the free choice of each congregation ; but at home he adopted a con-
fession which embraced the doctrine of the divinity of Christ and the Apos-
tles' Creed, and renounced the companions of the Leipsio confession as the
worshippers of reason and the enemies of Christ, (/t) During two tours
which Ronge took as far as the borders of Switzerland, he founded many
congregations. A few attacks were then made upon him, but generally he
d) An (1. nledcre kath. Oeistliclik. Jena. 1840. An d. kath. Lehrer. Alt«nb. 1S45. Rocht&rttg.
Lpa. 1SI5. An meine Olanbeni^nosaon n. Mltb&rgor. Altcnb. 1S4fi.
e) Kechtfert melnos Abfalles t. d rum. Hof kirche. Bromb. 184Sl Offlsnes Olaabenabek. d. cbr. ap.
kath. K. za Schncldem. Danz. 1S45.
/) Die clirlstkatb. Gemeinde za Brcolan. BresL 8 ed. 184&.
g) Die entte allg. KVenamml. d. deutacb-kath. K. za Lelpaie, ed. bj R. Blum and F. Wigard^
Lpa. 184S. [A day with Bongo. DabL Unir. Mag. (in EcleoUc Mag. April 1844.) Jan. IS48:l
A) Caertki^ SendBchr. an alle chr. aposl kath. Oemeinden. Landab. 184S.
48
658 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1M8-188a
was complimented along his journey with pnblic dinners, as if he were a
second Luther, (i) Gzerski, whose believing tendencies foand acknowledge
ment only in a much more limited sphere, and even there came sometimes
unpleasantly in contact with some of Ronge^s adherents, (l) was induced, at
a conference assembled at Rawicz (Feb. 8, 1846), to acknowledge his other
fellow-combatants as brethren. Tliis he did notwithstanding his undeviating
and cordial adherence to the standard of the unabridged apostolic Creed, on
the ground that it might tend to confirm religion to recognize the common
basis on which their faith rested, and with the hope that they might recog-
nize each other again as brethren. (/) The congregations which acted on
these Yiews at a synod convened at SchneidemQhl (July, 1846), adopted t
simple biblical confession, with the concession that the old Apostle' Creed
might bo used in the churches and schools, although they acknowledge that
it contains some historical matters of minor importance for the Christian
heart, (m) In England, a short time after this, Czerski himself avowed that
his views on this point had been radically changed, (n) but the only congre-
gation which thoroughly represents his theological system, is one which has
been collected at Berlin for the very purpose of a protest, and which has even
gone beyond his exclusive position, (o) Ronge, on the other hand, anxious
to ennoble Christianity, and exalt it to a complete religion of humanity, has
shown himself inclined to unite with the free Protestant congregations
(§ 467). (p) The proposal for such a union, however, was quietly laid aside,
when it was made in the two ecclesiastical assemblies held in Berlin at Whit-
suntide, 1847, representing a hundred and fifty-one congregations, and
thoroughly adhering to the Leipsic resolutions, (q) German Catholicism has
carried out its forms of public worship and its constitution in smaller synodal
associations, (r) the former with Protestant simplicity, and tho latter with a
decided stress laid upon the rights of particular congregations, not only with
respect to their own pastors, who are supported by voluntary contributions,
but with regard to the powers of synods, and in some instances the women
possessed an equal right with others to vote. A few clergymen with their
adherents, who went over to the new association, were excommunicated by
the bishops under whose jurisdiction they had lived, but generally the con-
troversy was merely of a literary, though sometimes of a disgraceful charac-
ter. (j») Ronge has proposed himself as a reformer even to the Protestant
Church, where the chief point of his reformation consists in bringing Christ
down to the brotherhood of human poverty and suffering. (/) A few licen-
0 RonsA's ei9to Randreise. Bnl. 1845. (Schumann,) Ron|»>*8 Fabrton. Rndolst 1846w
k) J. H. F. Romberg, d. Spalt d. christ-kaUi. Yerefns zn Bmmberg. BrombL ISIS.
t) CcerfiH, zweltos Bendschr. an alio christ-kath. OemelDden. Bromb. 1840.
m) BrI. KZ. 1846. N. 6a 68.
n) Kath. KRofurm. Nov. 1846. p. 141. £r. KZ. 1847. N. 8Si.
o) Q1anb«n»bek. der nach d. Protest v. 15. Mai za Berlin slob bildenden christkath. Gen
BrL 1845.
P) Brl. KZ. 1847. N. 8. 11. 15.
q) I)ii> zweite chriBtkath. KYeraamml. za Berlin, ed. by R. Blum and K Wiffardy, Lpa. 1SI7.
r) GnindKugo d. OlaubensL, d. Oottefld. u. d. YerC genehm. t. d. Syn. in Bredao. BnL 18fi
Organ. Statut f. deutKb-kaUi. Oem. ▼. F. Wigard. Dread. 1845i.
«) Offenea Sendachr. der Wltwe Anna Cierska an Ihren Sobn, den raq>end. Prieator. RaUib. 180
0 Range, Neae a doch alte Folnde. Deaa. 1&45l D. Weaen d. ftelen chr. K. Hamb. 1847.
CHAP. YL CATU. CHUBCH TILL 1898. ) 479. OEBMAN CATHOLICISM. 659
tiates found an earlier field of labor in German Catholic congregations, and
two Protestant congregations in the country found it convenient to connect
themselves with the German Catholics on account of difficulties in their local
circumstances. But the Protestant population has almost unanimously offered
the new Church the joint use of their own churches, a considerable assistance
in money, and the power of their daily press, with no wish to draw away its
members, and at first with great expectations of national results, (e/) So far
as their relations to the state were concerned, the German Catholics claimed
all the privileges which had been conceded to the Catholics, without modifi-
cation. By prohibitions and expatriations, the governments of Austria and
Bavaria nearly succeeded in entirely excluding the sect of Ronge from their
territories. The smaller Protestant states allowed the Catholic dissenters to
proceed without molestation. The governments of Hanover, Saxony, Baden,
and Wurtemberg, opposed them ; the two latter impaired their rights of citi-
zenship, and in Hesse Cassel they were oppressed with still greater severity.
In every country, however, their rights were sustained by the lower legisla-
tive chamber, (r) At first, Prussia declared that it would not then interfere
in their favor, or in opposition to them ; afterwards, the displeasure which
it felt at the peculiar Christianity of the age was stronger than its pleasure
in seeing the injury to the hierarchy, until finally the natural current of
affairs brought it around once more to the policy of non-interference, (to)
German Catholicism has prevailed almost exclusively among the middle
classes of society, but the learned Regenhreeht^ a professor of canon law at
Breslao, gave in his adheaon to it when the congregation was formed in that
city, and Theiner^ at the frequent solicitation of different parties, contributed
his established reputation to the new movement, {x) Both these men, how-
ever, have since been estranged and separated from all connection with any
congregation, principally in consequence of the course which Ronge has pur-
suecL (y) Near the end of the year 1846, it became evident that the leaders
in this movement were beginning to sink in public estimation, and that their
cause was deficient in religious energy. It could not therefore be concealed
that the movement itself had come to a dangerous pause. The new Church
then numbered about CO, 000 members, nearly half of whom were in Silesia.
Where the Catholic population was compact and unbroken, scarcely any
inroad was made upon it ; but the remnants and advanced posts of the Cath-
olic Church in Protestant countries, which had been gained or maintained
with difficulty for centuries, were either lost or much endangered, and seri-
ous apprehensions were entertained at Rome that another Reformation was
about to proceed from Germany. March, 1848, brought complete freedom to
If) Gerrintu : d. Mission d. D. Kathollken. H^th. 1845i [G^rvinw^ MInton of the Qnrm. Catho-
lics. Ix>nd. 1844. 12.] (A RcKenkel, d. proL Geistlichk. a. d. D. KathoMken. Z&r. 1846.) D. prot Oeist-
lictik. n. d. DK&thoHken. Heldelb. 1S46.
r) Di« Sprecher t d. DKatti. in d. sfichs. St'lndevers. Lps. 1645. 2 P. F. Jlecker^ die !>tut8ri>ehtL
Verli. d. DKatboL m. be& Hinblick. a. Baden. Heldelb. 2 ed. 1840. a FHsdrioh, Die dentsebkath.
Frage in Kurhessen. Lpa. 1847.
«e) Cab. Ordre t. 80 Apr., Minist Veril t. 17. Mai, Cab. Ordre ▼. 8. Jali, 184& L. RicMer, d.
Staat u. d. DKatbollken. Lpa 1S4«.
m) Erkl. d. Pro£ Refenbreeht an d. Bisth. Venreaer iL a. Aoaaeheiden a. d. rftm. K. Bral. 184BL
^Jniom rJMiur, d. nt Beatrebongeo in d. kath. K. BnL 1849a. 2 P. y) Bri. KZ. 1847. N. 1&
660 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. IMfr-lSHL
the new Ohurch : in Saxony it was recognized as a civil corporation ; (z) the
most rigid Catholic countries were thrown open to it ; in Vienna and Mnnich
it was received with a curious interest ; in Austria it was tolerated, and in
Bavaria it was recognized, though the Archhishop of Frejsingen would not
allow German Oatholicism to be property either Catholic or German. It was,
however, soon found that the religious element within and beyond the con*
gregations became less and less prominent. Ronge, as a deputy of the demo-
cratic unions, published a manifesto, in which he denounced the election of
an irresponsible imperial officer as an act of treason to the people; and
Dowiat perhaps did injustice to the excitements of his youthful &ncy, when
he declared that he had looked upon the religious movement as only the
means of a social agitation, but thnt he now r^arded such a mask as need-
less. The authorities of the Silesian congregations were anxious to guard
against the power of mere brute force, but they wished also to sanctify
democracy, and make socialism a religion, (a) Probably no complete congre-
gations, but some individual preachers who had some Hegelian views, hoped
to find on the ruins of the Catholic and Protestant churches their new reli-
gion of humanity, a true theocracy in democracy, and Grod himself in the
congregation, (b) The German Catholics, and those attached to the free con-
gregations, naturally felt a sympathy with each other, and had therefore
associated together to a considerable extent, (r) before the proposition for
their union had been discussed in the third German Catholic ooondl, and a
free-congregational diet at Leipsic-Coethen (May, 1850). Some hesitation
was felt by the German Catholics on account of the freedom from all forms
which characterized the free congregations; and the free congregations
were not altogether pleased with the want of freedom which prevailed among
the German Catholics, but they were finally united in the presence of the
police of both cities, so as to constitute a religious association of free congre-
gations for mutual assistance in their religious efforts, but on the basis of a
complete independence of each congregation. These were to have an execu-
tive committee, to be chosen by a triennial assembly of deputies, but to have
no power except to express its opinions, and to make proposals to the congre-
gations, (d) Most of the congregations which had originated in the Catholic
Church refused to agree to a union of even this loose character, (e) They
could not therefore escape the fate of the free congregations (p. 584). The
peculiar turn which events took in Catholic countriea was such as to render
this result inevitable. In Austria, after a long delay, the government refhsed
(Jan., 1850) to recognize the Free Christian congregation at Vienna, on the
ground that the negative character of its confession gave no sstisfactory evi-
dence that it was called for merely by the religious wants of the people. CO
When all women and minors had been excluded from the German-Catholic
•) Law of Not. 2, 1848 : BrL KZ. 1S4S. N. M,
a) Of SepL 15^ 1849: in Kampe, (nt h.) ^ 816as.
h) F. F. Kampe, d. WeMD d. DK&th. m. bes. BQoks. a. 8. Terfa. s. Polltik. Tfkt. 185a
c) A. D. Z. 1847. N. 811.
d) Th. Eqfferichier^ d. Union d. f^len Oemelnden d. K&th. a. Prot Lpc ISSa Bri. KZ. 1890.
N.4e.48.
e) Ibid. I860. N. 88. 8S. 18U. N. 16w /) Ibid. 18B0l N. M. 40. 1851 N. 6i 1061
CHAP. YL CATIL OQUBCH TILL 1858. |480. 8AILEB. EMSiERICU. 661
eongregations of Bavaria, they were dissolved as political associations (Nov.,
1851). (g) But even in Protestant countries, the dread of the evils of reli-
gious liberty, or a desire to please the hierarchy, generally led to their sup-
pression. In Prussia, where the constitution rendered any measure to pro-
duce their general abolition impossible, individual congregations were dis-
persed, and their preachers were expelled from the country by the police,
and contributions from the common fund, even where they had been granted
for a series of previous years, were withheld, because the government pro-
fessed to have discovered that they were political rather than religious asso-
ciations, aiming at the subversion of civil and social order. (A) In Hamburg,
the concession which had once been made them, was revoked on account uf
their departure from the confession of faith adopted at Leipsic. (i) Internal
dissensions, the return of their ministers to former connections, and a want
of worldly means, or a want of liberality in the use of what they possessed,
have hastened their gradual decline.
§ 480. Mystics and Wonder' Workers,
A. circle of young persons was at one time assembled around Bishop
Sailer (1761-1882), whose Christianity was confined to the simple doctrine
of salvation, and whose religion consisted wholly of certain fervent exercises
of feeling. They therefore had no very high regard for ecclesiastical forms ;
they earnestly commended the works of Fenelon and Lavater, and were
much attached to the Pietists of Wurtemberg. As they were persecuted by
the Romanist, and despised by the Liberal party, some of them became dis-
satisfied with the Church itself (1796ss.) When Poeschl^ a pastor settled near
Linz, was compelled to leave his congregation, every other minister was
rejected by the people, and on Good Friday, 1817, a young girl was actually
killed, that she might thereby follow the example of Christ, in dying for her
brethren and sisters. Sailer humbled himself before the hierarchy, and
renounced mysticism, but even as a bishop he never ceased to make efforts to
extend the kingdom of love, (a) The wonderful prodigies in which some
believed were the result either of harmless and sickly excitements, or of a
settled purpose. Emmerich (1774-1824), a sister belonging to the Convent
of Agnetenberg, within which all her desires were bounded, gave herself
completely up to the contemplation of the sufferings of Jesus, from whose
hands she had selected the crown of thorns which she bore upon her body.
Just as St. Francis had borne the five wounds of our Lord ; and frequently,
when those days recurred on which Christ^s passion was celebrated, the
wound was opened. (6) That which appears to have been effected here by
an active and plastic imagination, in other instances was evidently the result
of deception, with or without the knowledge of the subjects of them, (c)
g) BrL KZ. 1851. N. 99. A) Ibid. N. 14 88. 1852. N. 14
0 Ibid. 1858. N. 17.
a) J. M. SaOer, Biimtl. Werke. Snlzb. 1880-85. 28 vola. JSalat^ CL Mjit m. hist AafkhlQMen 0.
Hyst in Baiern. Sulzb. 1822. Cumpi { 474 nt ff.
b) (d «. SrtfUano^) Das blUre Leiden unaen Heim. Nach den Betrr. d. mL A. C Emm. nebst
d. Lebenaumatioden dieser Begnadlgten. Snlzb. 1888. 6 ed. 1842. Tholuck^ verm. Schrr. roL I. p. 1 llaa
voL II. p. 477a.— Yolkaheilige za Kaltern : A. KZ. 1888w N. 175. BrL KZ. 184a N. 99.
e) BrL KH 1849. N. 7a 184a N. 68. 87.
662 MODERN OUUBCH HISTOKT. PER. TL A. D. 16I8-19(ML
The miracQloas cores accomplished by Prince Hohenlohe (about 1820, d.
1849), then a canon at Bamberg, were, it is true, much extolled among the
common people, but they had too little importance and character to make
much way against the police and the prosaic spirit of the present age. In
Rome, the conversion of a wealthy Jew was effected by an appearance of
the Virgin Mary (1842). {d) She also made her appearance in other places.
In Rimini, thousands of pilgrims were convinced, to their great edifioatloD,
that the Mother of mercy moved the eyes of her image there np and down,
and even some partisans of Mazzini were converted from their errors by the
sight. («)
§ 481. Orders.
Napoleon remarked, that the holy zeal of the Sisters of Charity led them
to bestow a much better and clieaper attendance upon the hospitals, than the
rewards which he could offer to mercenaries. He therefore collected their
scattered numbers into a general chapter, over which the mother of the em-
peror presided (1807), provided them with a rule, and supplied them with aH
needed assistance. The predilection which the pious sisters exhibited for the
conversioi) of Protestant patients, prevented their introduction in some
instances into tlie German hospitals, (a) But more especially in France,
where a convent for nuns had become an habitual want, they were renewed
in various forms, (b) When the last monk of St. Manrus died a member of
the Institute of France, a few friends of Lamennais, under the protection of
the Bishop of Mons, purchased the old abbey of Soleme (1838), that they might
revive within its tranquil seclusion the devout learning of the congregation
of St. Maurus. {c) A congregation was established at Rome for the purpose
of rescuing the orders which had been despoiled of their property, and in
some of the concordats a number of convents were promised ; but the pious
wishes of the several governments were generally thwarted, when an attempt
was made to restore the property which belonged to them. In Biavaria alone
more was accomplished than had been promised in the concordat, (d) The
various orders of knights had for a long time entirely lost all importance
with respect to the Church. The KnighU of St. John ceased to possess any
power when Malta passed from their hands (1798), and in the treaty of Paris
(1814) was recognized 2& a fortress for the protection of Enghsh com-
merce, (e) The German Musters (Teutonic Knights) also lost all their politi-
cal importance in consequence of the loss of Mergentheim at the peace of
Vienna (1810) ; and although their application for its re-establishment was
seconded by the general voice of all Europe, their appeal to the EnropeaD
<f) Bri. KZ. 1342. N. 67. 1848. N. 46. e) Brl. KZ. 18D0. N. 4a Glss. 60a.
a) {C, V. Brentano,) Die bannh. Schw. CobL 1881. Sheinw. Sep. tuL XYIIL pi S86aft. C. Btm,
d. O. d. barroh. Schw. Schaffh. 2 ed. 1847.
b) Reuchlin, Chiistenth. in Frankr. p. 22688.
c) A. KZ. 1883. N. 14d. AcU bbt eoc 1S87. p. 6. SpicUegtom SoIesmeDS^ enr. J. R PUra,
Par. 1852. vol. I.
d) AcU hist ecc 1887. p. 854. Brl. KZ. 1846. N. 10.
e) Vic. de ViUeneuve-Bargemont^ MoDaroens des Orands-Maltres de Tordr* d* & Jc«d. Par.
1829. 2 V0I5. [L, d€ Boisgelin, Anc. and Mod. Malta, and H. of tb« Knlgbts of St John. Lond. IVA
8 vols. 4]
CHAP.YL OATH. OHUBCH TILL 1808. S4SL OBDEfiS. $ 483. If ISSIONS. 663
OongKfis for the restoratioii of their poflsessions was disregarded. (/) These
orders are now kept up, and in some places are re-established, especially in
Austria and Italy, merely for the decorations and pensions which the nobility
derive from them, (ff) Such Knights of St. John are to be found since 1812
in Prussia, but no longer as a Catholic institution. They have been obliged
to return (1852) to the care of the sick, in accordance with the original de-
sign of the order, but they are allowed to do this by the payment of money
for that object, (h) An order of Templars attracted some notice in Paris
since the commencement of the eighteenth century, as a secret lodge, but
since 1831 it has publicly claimed to be the original Christian Cliurch. (t)
According to them, an original revelation was conveyed and cultivated in
the Greek and Egyptian mysteries, from which it was derived by Moses, was
renewed and re-established by Jesus, and was transmitted to John as the head
of the Church, and to his successors, among whom are the Grand Masters of
the Temple. This revelation was a religion of reason, and proclaimed that
God consisted of three Powers, viz.. Existence, Act, and Consciousness, and
that the world was distinct from Grod, but uncreated and divine. A gospel
of St. John accommodated to this view is in the possession of the order,
which possibly had its origin in the fourteenth century, (k) The order, how-
ever, has nothing in common with Catholicism but a hierarchy to which the
most imposing titles are given. It knew also how to give the most enlight-
ened interpretation of the vows of the old Templars, (/) and announced that
it would St some future period overthrow the Roman Church. For a while
the Parisians were much amused by the splendid costumes which the male
and female members of the order exhibited in their processions.
§ 482. Spread of Christianity.
As the Catholic nations of Europe were distracted by the revolutions of
that period, they lost their colonies, and were obliged to curtail but not en-
tirely to abandon thair missions. When the Church began to recover its
strength, the desire to promote missions to the heathen revived. The Society
of the Faith at Lyons, which became more influential than even the Propa-
ganda, grew up from a very humble origin (after 1820) by means of trifling
weekly contributions from a small circle of persons who read the Annals of
the Propagation of the Faith, until the annual income it expended for mis-
sions amounted to millions, (a) The first object of the missionaries for the
establishment of the external Church continued to be the baptism of the
heathen. China was adhered to with the utmost tenacity, even when all
/) A. KZ. 1822. N. 6fi. g) BrL KZ. IMa N. 18.
h) Ibid. 1Sd& N. 2. a D. A. Z. 18da N. 180.
i) (Manuel des CheTallen do Tordre du Temple. M. & Par. 1825. 12.) Levitlcon. Par. 1881. £glifle
ehret primitlTe. Lettre pastorale de M. Tevvqae de Naocy. {L'/ldtc.) Naacy. 1882. — Carov^, d. Mes-
slanlsmns, d. nenen Tcmplcr. Lpe. 1884. J. P., Eechercbee hist rar les Teinpliers. Par. 183Sl
k) BPtirUer^ Notitlacod. graed Er. Jo. variatnm continentls. Ilafn. 1S28. ThUo^ cod. apoer. vol.
Lp. 8198S.
t) BrL KZ. 1S89. N. 8a
a) The receipts for 1845 were ^575,775 franca. Annales de la propagation de la foL lSS4u. pnbl.
also in tfao Oerm., Engl, Flemish, ItaL, Sfianlsh, Portug., and Dutch hinguagea. A. KZ. 1S48. N. 100.
BwLKZ.1847.N.0a
664 MODEBN CHUBOH UI8T0BT. FEB. TL A. D. 1MS-186&
reason for hope with respect to it seemed extinct Once more the Chnrcfa
began to enlarge its territories there, when a map of the oonntrj, which the
missionaries intended to send to Rome, was intercepted. This produced a
renewal of the persecution (1806). Bishop Dufre»ne was beheaded (1815).
A martyrdom quite anfavorable to enthusiasm was inflicted by means of the
bamboo and the gangue. The missionaries were subsequently persecuted or
tolerated, according to the caprice of the goyemment. The crime puniriied
was not so much a profession of Christianity, as a connection with foreigners.
At last, however, the victories of the English gave protection even to the
Oatholic Church. The priests are generally natives, some of whom are edu-
cated in the seminaries of tlie country, and others at a branch of the Propa-
ganda at Naples. About one in two thousand of the population of Central
China have been baptized, (h) From the Ecutt Indie$^ where frequently the
oonversions consisted principally of mere changes back and forth between
the Catholic and Protestant missionaries, the candid DuhoU returned to
Europe (1828) with the conviction that life was uselessly spent in labors to
convert the people, and that there was no ground for hope that the gospel
would ever overcome the prejudices of the Hindoos, {c) The King of Cochin
China, where Christians, under the French Bishop Adran had attained con-
siderable political importance, extolled the wisdom of the Emperor of Japan,
who had got rid of the European doctrines, and accordingly, in particular
instances, he oppressed them after 1881. By a decree of Jan. 6, 1838, a gen-
eral persecution, modified indeed by the local authoritiea, raged ' especially
agiunst the priests until 1842. The memory of the martyrs in this persecu-
tion was celebrated at Rome by the pope, {d) The Abb6 Sehofjfler, at the
head of a mission to the interior, died like Cyprian in 1851. Under the free
toleration enjoyed in North America, the Catholic Church has acquired con-
siderable strength principally by immigrations from Europe, but also by its
judicious management of its internal affairs, (e) The Algonquim and Iro-
quois made (1881) a present of a piece of wampum and some moccasins of
their own work to the holy Father, who had sent to his children of the wil-
derness the man in the black coat, by whom they had been instructed and
induced to acknowledge the unknown God, and to live in peao^ with one
another. (/) A French diocese has been formed (1888) in Algiers, and an
arm of St. Augustine was solemnly brought back to Hippo (1842). (^) In
the islands of the South Sea, a missionary bishop has attempted to gather
the harvest where others had sown the seed (§ 478). — ^The Catholic Church
numbers about a hundred and fifty millions of adherents, organised into
seven hundred and sixty-three bishoprics. (A)
h) Geecb. d. kath. Mias. In ChlnA. Tien. 184068. Bhelnw. Bep. yoL XXYIIL p. SSlss. XXX.
188W. D. A. Z. 1S45. N. 8M.
e) IhtboU, Letters on the State of Christ in India. Lond. 189& U. t. Hoffknaan, Keost 1S34
Comp. KHlst Archiv. 18^ P. & [Dubois was answered by Hoogh, Townley, and others. Stt
p. 472, nt a.]
d) A.Z. 1835. Snppl. N. 108. lS4a N. 148. BrL KZ. 1889. N. 78. A. KZ. ISiO. N. M. 208L
e) Vogt, d. katli. K. in d. Verein. Staaten. (Tab. Qnartalschr. 1841. P. 1.)
/) A. KZ. 1882. N. ea
Q) Bhelnw. Rep. vol XXIII. p. 78b. A. KZ 1889. N. 68. 184S. N. 2.
A) CharU«o/SL Aloyn, d. kath. K. in Ihrer gegenw. Ansbr. a. d. Erde. Battsb. 1845k GiflU
Petri, Oerarchia della p. Chlcsa catt. apost Komana. Lps. 1851.
OHAP. TIL OBIEMTAL CHURCH. { 48& MECHITHABI8T8. NE8TOEIAN8. 665
CHAP. Vn.— THE ORIENTAL CHURCH.
§ 483. Catholie and Protestant Influences.
Greek and Armenian congregations composed of exiles or of persons en-
gaged in mercantile pursuits in Catholic countries, were obliged to purchase
public protection by an acknowledgment of the papal primacy, and of the
procession of the Holy Ghost from the Son as well as from the Father. In
return for this the pope conceded to them the usages of their countr}*, to-
gether with the cup for the laity, and the marriage of their priests. Among
the Armenians the MeehitharUts were confirmed by Clement XL as Benedic-
tines (1712), and after the fall of Modon (s. 1717), in imitation of their
founder Meehithar (Comforter, 1676*1749), they founded a monastery at St.
Lazarus among the lagoons of Venice, which was designed to be a medium
of literary intercourse between their native country and Europe. A branch
of it was established at Vienna, which has confined its pious literary views
to Germany, (a) In Tranayhania the Wallachians were induced by the Jes-
uits to enter the Union (s. 1697), but a holy monk who came over the moun-
tains (1744) filled the people with horror at this alliance, (b) As soon as the
liberty for which the Hungarian Protestants had contended (§ 470), was con-
ceded also to the United Greeks, the result was likely to threaten their union
with the Roman Church. When the American missionaries opened schools
(since 1831) among the Armenians in Constantinople and Trebizond, and dis-
tributed bibles among the people, many have been opposed to all worship of
creatures, and to some other portions of the Armenian forms of service, and
have finally been excommunicated (1846). Separate congregations were
therefore indispensable, and when formed they experienced the most bitter
persecutions, in consequence of an order from the patriarch requiring that all
persons should withhold from them the ordinary intercourse of social and
commercial life. But^ in consequence of the intercessions of others in
their behalf, and the favor of the Turks toward a form of worship dispensing
with images and pictures, they have gradually attained a tranquil state, (c)
The American missionaries have likewise succeeded in confirming (since
1833) in the knowledge of the Scriptures those remnants of the Nestorians
which still exist in the mountains of Kurdistan, and which had become mere
petrifactions of the Church of the fifth century, and so far as they had not
become subject to the pope, established them as the Protestants of the East (d)
In many other countries where the Oriental Chnrch prevails, schools have
been established and the Scriptures have been distributed by Protestant mis-
a) (Klnver) YiU deir Abate Mechltar. Yen. ISIO. Compendloee notizie 8iilU congregazlone dd
MechiUriHtL Yen. (1819.) 18S5. WindUehtnann d. J. In d. TQb. Qoartalachr. 1S85. P. 1. Bheinw.
Bep. ToL XXVIII. Ik 168m. XXX, \61n.
h) Acta hist ecc toI X p. 110m.
e) BrL KZ. 184& N. 8ft. 77. 1S17. N. 86. 42. 6S. A. KZ. 1847. N. 186a.
d) A. Grant, The Nestoriana, or The Loet Tribea, New York A Lend. 1841. 12ma (On the other
hand: K Robinson, [in Bibl. Rep. fur 1841.] Review of Grant'a Nestor. New York. 1841.) [O. P,
Badger^ Neetorlann and their ritnals, Ac Lond. 1851. S Tola 8.] BniD& Sep. 1845. roL I. p. ISSea. II,
90W. UI, 8408. 18M. Tol. Y. pp. 107, 198^ 89tei. YI, 86ml
666 MODEBN CHUBOH HIBTOBT. PK& YL A. D. 1M»-1861
Bionaries, until the Oriental Christians have themselves hegnn to test the doc-
trines of their Church hy the Word of God, and oomplaints have heen made
that the authority of the Church has been impaired. («)
§484. JSussia. Cont. from ^ ^18.
King, Tito ritos of the Greek Churcb in Raasla. Land. 1732. 4 Rlf. 177a. 4 (Act* hist ecc iio»-
tri temp. vol. I. p. 1. ISTss.) //iip«l, klrchl. StaUsL r. Ross. (Nord. Mlac Rig^ 1786. Sect. 11 ae.) BelUr-
mann, Ahr. d. ICum. K. Erf. 17S9. A. cU StourdMii^ Considerations soria doctrine et I'esprit de TegL
orthtNi. Weim. 1816. Q. by KuUebtu^ Lpfl^ 1S17. Pinkerion, RoasU. Lond. 1838. (Er. KZ. 1884 N.
71^A.) Briefe Q. d. Qottesd. d. morg. K. a. d. Rust, (by Mnrawfeff) by E, «. Jfurait, Lpii 1S83. with
Krkl:ir. Anltang als Lcxidion iL morg. K. by Ibid. LfM. 1838. [A. Kic MuratcUf, Hist of the Church
of Russia, transl. (from the Rnssian. Petersb. 1838.) by Blackmore, Oxt 1842.] Die Staatak Rossi.
Im J. 1S89. by a priest of the Oratory. SehaflTb. 1844 Die Bedent d. nusi K. flir d. gegenw. (Deotaehe
ViertelJ. 8chr. 184V. N. 19.) JHo^a, Rossi Iclrchl. SUtlst (Renter, Rep. 1850. H. 1.) He/eU, d. nus.
K. (Tub. Qnartalsch. 1S53. H. &) A, v. IlasBikawien^ Stadien fL d. Innem Zost RoaeL Han. 1817. 2
vols. [De Cnntine (MarqnisX The Empire of the Czar, or, Obes. on the 8oc PoL A Rel. aiate and
Prospects of R., ft-om the French. 8 vols. 8. Lond. 1847. R. W. Blaeknun^ Doot of the Boaiw Chnreh,
transL fh>m tlie Slavono-Ruas. Orlginah. Aberdeen. 184S. 8.]
The orthodox emperor was now the natural protector of the orthodox
Oriental Churcli, with a power in hoth hemispheres such as no successor of
Constantine ever possessed. After the death of the patriarch, Hadrian
(1702), Peter the Great allowed his see to remain vacant until the people had
become accustomed to see its duties performed by a college of prelates, which,
under the name of the Holy Synod, was declared to be the supreme author-
ity in the Church (1721). (a) This synod is dependent upon the emperor,
but the dignity of the clergy and the peculiarities of the ecclesiastical polity
are determined by the national character. But Catharine first took posses-
sion of all the property of the Church, and then settled upon nearly all eccle-
siastical offices and institutions a permanent but very moderate revenue. On
the other hand the convents were relieved of the charge of invalids, and sem-
inaries were established for education. The clergy are in the habit of filling
their ranks from their own families very much as if they were a spiritual
caste. Sermons were at one time prohibited, so that no new doctrines might
be propagated among the people, but many primitive and symbolical usages
Lave been tenaciously preserved in the affections of the people. The eccle-
siastical language is the old Sclavonic. Many persons were dissatisfied on ac-
count of the innovations made in the liturgy by the patriarch, Nieon^ and
withdrew from the Established Church (1666). By those from whom they
thus separated they were denominated Bo$kolniki^ but by themselves thej
were called StaroterzL They conscientiously adhere to all the institutions
of their ancestors, abominate the fashions and articles of luxury which have
been introduced in modem times, and do not recognize the Czar as the con-
secrated head of the Church. Many new sects have sprung from them, and
in consequence of the persecutions they have endured, many of them have
become the victims of a gloomy fanatical spirit The Duchoborzi believe in
no ecclesiastical connection except that which exists between kindred minds,
but they are friends of the strictest morality. Others have adopted a mode
€) Hist pol. Bll. 186& vol. XXX. H. 6.
a) KHiat Archiv. 18-28. voL L sect. 4 p. 87aL
CUAP. YIL OBIENTAL OUUBCH. $481 RUSSIA. ALEXANDER. 667
of worsliip iDtermediate between the extremes of abominable lust on the one
hand, and of ennuchism on the other, (b) While endeavoring to elevate the
intellectnal character of his people, Aleicander did much to improve the con-
dition of the National Church. On all lands belonging to the crown village-
schools were established, the seminaries were improved, and the priests were
exempted from the punishment of the knout. The national struggle against
Napoleon subsequently became a war for religion. In mature life the pecu-
liar fortunes and plans of the emperor iuolined him (since 1812) to a melan-
choly style of piety. (<;) When the British and Foreign Bible Society was
formed in London, at the emperor^s request a general auxiliary was established
at Petersburg (since 1813), and under the supervision of the Holy Synod an
edition of the New Testament was published in the Rnssian language (1821),
and was afterwards gradually sent forth in almost every dialect of every na-
tion in the empire. Wiih simple confidence the Bible was placed by the
people among their sacred pictures, but an ecclesiastical opposition was ex-
cited against it throughout the nation, which was strengthened by observing
certain erroneous applications of passages of the Scriptures made by the peo-
ple. The emperor was therefore finally induced to abolish the Bible Society
in Russia (1826). (d) And yet the imperial government felt constrained to
do something for the conversion of his heathen and Mohammedan subjects in
three distinct quarters of the world. Ecclesiastical institutions were estab-
lished for the education of missionaries, and inducements were held out to
those who might become converts to Christianity. Under Nicolas a plan has
been formed ond generally favored by the people (since 1825), according to
which the whole Russian nationality is to be civilized by efibrts from within
itself, and all the tribes subject to its government are to become one in lan-
guage and in creed. By the conquest of a portion of the Persian territories
(1828) Russia obtained possession of a great part of Armenia, including the
convent of Echmiadzin, the principal seat of the Catholicus of the Armenian
Church, by whoni alone the bishops and the holy oil could be consecrated.
Measures were however taken by the Armenian Church to prevent its incor-
poration with the Russian, (e) Peter I. gave freedom of worship to both
Catholics and Protestants, but this indulgence was confined to those foreigners
who resided in the country, and were needed in the public service. When
Catharine II. acquired possession of the Polish Russian provinces, a part of
the i)opulation became members of the United Greek Church (p. 482), and
another part united with the Russian. But even those who were deeply im-
bued with the Roman element finally yielded to the prevalent inclination, and
b) Strahl, Sectenw. d. rius. K. (KHlst Archiv. 1334. Sect 4. p. Mm. 193A. SMt 1. p. 42sa.)
Letu, de Duchoborzis. Dorp. 1329. P. L (Jen. I«. Z. N. 1660.) £r. KZ. 1828. N. Ofiss. 1885. N. lOss.
Rhelnw. Rep. vol. XXII. p. 9T08S.
e) Specially Pinkertan: H. H E. Notiz (L Alex. Jonft. 182a [Lond Weekly Ber. for Majt,
1829. (In LlttellV HeL Mag. vol III. p. 5028A. Pbllad. 1829.) SehnitMUr, 8ecr. H. of the Coart <k
QoY. of BnralA under Alcsc. ^ Nioulaa. Lond. 1847. 2 rola 8l]
d) Knp. Pinkerton : A. KZ. 1822. N. 70. 1840. N. 40. llOaa.
«) VaUfr, Anbau. vol IL p. lllas. KIIIsL Arch. 1828. P. L Knrze hist Darst d. gegenw. Zatt d.
arm. Volkn. Petersb. 1821. Smith & Dwight, Researches In Ann. Boat 1888. 2 roK TholHck^ lit.
Anz. 1582. N. 17. [ JV. ChamtcK, H. of Armenia, tranaL di cent to the prceent time bjr J. Ardall,
Calcutta. 1»27. 2 vols. 8.]
668 HODEBN OHUBCH HISTORY. P£R. TI. A. D. 164S-18B8L
after much preparation, the higher olergy of Lithoania and White Rnasia at
the Synod of Polotsk (Feh. 12, 1889) declared that their people were anxious
to return to the ancient mother Church. By order of the emperor the Holy
Synod received them, together with their congregations, as those who had
heen separated hy violence and were now reunited hy love. (/) Gregory
XVI., after having condemned the Polish insurrection (1881) and having suc-
ceeded in persuading Gutkoroski, Bishop of Podlachien, (g) who had heen
imprisoned for his fidelity to the Russian Ohurch, to ahandon it (1840), now
beheld the schools in Poland closed against all ecclesiastical influence, the
confiscated property of the Ohurch given to a Greek nobility, the real estate
which had belonged to the hierarchy taken possession of by the state, all in-
tercourse between the bishops and Rome prohibited, and the Catholic princi-
ple with respect to mixed marriages turned against the Catholic Church.
Nothing was now left him but to lift up his lamentations over the distressed
condition of the Church, and the loss of two millions of Catholios, and to
expose to the world the means by which this had been accomplished, (h)
Macrena Mieszlawska, the late Abbess of the Basilian convent at Minsk, ap-
peared at Rome with a shocking account of these means, but there were
enough who knew how to render it doubtful whether she was a martyr or an
impostor, (i) But the pope and the emperor had occasion to enter into an
agreement (1847s.), according to which a new diocese of Cherson has been
formed, whose bishops are to be chosen by the emperor, but oanonically insti-
tuted by the pope ; whose consistorials and teachers of seminaries are to be
appointed by the bishops, but with a reference to the pleasure of the govern-
ment. These bishops had also the management of the spiritual affairs of
their diocese in canonical dependence upon the holy see. Other matters re-
specting which they could not then agree were left, in hope of some future
arrangement. (Ir) A constitution has been given (1883) to the Lutheran Church
by the emperor, which is well fitted to preserve order and exclude all innova-
tion. {I) Protestantism, although secured in the interior of the empire by
long established concessions, and in the German provinces on the Bdtic sea
by treaties, must nevertheless lose ground with each generation on account
of the many laws and civil proceedings in favor of the Established Church, (m)
In the year 1845 when the Letts and Esthonians were reduced to extreme dis-
tress, a rumor became current among them that those who would pass over
to the orthodox faith should obtain possession of the landed property of their
/) XJe. d. WiederTereIn, d. Unlaten m. d. reclitgliab. K. (from the Nordtsehen Blene) 0. v. A. r.
Oldekop. Stattg. 1840. A. Z. 1889. Sappl. N. 828sb. 1340. N. Iftl.
17) A. Z. 1840. N. 157. 169. 171. A. KZ. 1&40. N. 66.
h) AllocuUon of Not. 82 : A. Z. 1889. N. 887. of July 28 : Brl KZ 1842. N. 6S. Esposidone cor-
redato di docnmenti salle InoeasanU care delta steasa Saotttd saa a ripAro del gravl tnali, da cat e af'
fllttalarel cattollea negli Imperiall e reall doinlnil di Raasla e dl PolonU. Bom. 1842. t Eioaied.
1842.— (^. ThHner) Die nenst Zuat d. katb. K. belder RItiu In Polen u. Raaal. a. Kathar. IL Auf^
1841. 2 voI& {Sausfn) Der Czar n. der Nachfolger d. h. Petruib Mayenoa 1848. Brans ; Rtp. lS43k
▼oL L p. 179w. II, 273SS.
0 D. A. Z 1846. N. 86. 8nppl 67. 7a 118s.
k) Alloc of jQly 8, 1848 : Bri. KZ 1848. N. 62. A. Z 1848. N. 208. SappL
I) Ev. KZ 1834. N. 5«. Rdhi', Pr. Blbl. 1884. P. 4 p. 657a8L
m) Comp. A. Z 1S40. SoppL N. 153a. 168a.
CHAP. YIL OBIENTAL CHURCH. |48Si OBEECE. 669
German landlords, and some fanciful hopes were held up to them connected
with the Grand Dake Michael (according to Daniel XI, 89. XII, 1). Fifteen
thousand peasants were accordingly confirmed, and churches were huilt by
the government for these new converts in all parts of the country, (n) Ger-
man princesses, when they became connected with the family of the Czar,
were obliged to convince themselves that the Evangelical Church was in
error, (o)
§ 486. Greece and Turkey.
IfMnder, Progr. d. BIbelgeflL BrI. 1S80. JTM; de Ecc graeca, Hv. proTldentlae teste. Lngd. 1881.
IfartUy, Researches In Greece. Lond. 1881. (Ev. KZ. 1882. N. ISas.) F. Fenger^ om det NygraetOce
Folk og Sprog. KJobenh. 1883. (Ev. KZ. 1882. N. 878.) F. Thiertch, Esaai 8ar I'etat actocl de la
Or6ce. lda& 2 vols. O. L. «. Maurer^ d. griech. Volk in offentl. klrchl. n. privatr. Bozleh. Hefdlb.
1585. 2 vols. J. Wtnger^ Beltr. z. Kenntn. d. gegenw. Oelstes n. ZusL d. gr. K. In Or. u. d. TQrkef.
Brl 1S89. Rheinw. Rep. vol. XV. p. 16898. XVII. 185. 255ft9. XVIII. 177s9. XXVII. 173. 276a9w (Ae-
cording to Brandts. Lps. 1643. vol. IIL) XXXVIII. p. 187. 28998. K^gl. orthod. d'Orlent AUien.
1858.— TT. Klone, d. Christen In d. Tarkei (Zeitach. f. hist Tb. 1850. H. 3.) [S, O. IToiee, Hist Sketeh
of the Or. Rev. New York. 1828. 8. T. Gordon^ H. of the Or. Rev. Ac Lond. 1843. 2 ed. 2 vols. 8.]
In the spring of 1821, when the Greek people awoke from their long slum-
ber, the bishops pronounced their blessings upon the insurrection. The exe-
cution of the aged patriarch, Gregory^ on Easter Sunday, before the gates of
his own palace, tore asunder the last link which connected a down-trodden
people with their tyrants. It is true that a policy quite foreign to all Chris-
tian sympathies prevented an earlier termination of their sanguinary and
tedious troubles, and allowed Greece to receive boundaries which nature
never intended for it ; but it soon entered unavoidably into the magic circle
of European improvement, and with all the energy of an independent nation
endowed with noble capacities were produced the first shoots of an ecclesi-
astical literature, (a) In the zeal of the people for liberal views, the civil
and judicial authority of the episcopal court was speedily broken down, (b)
As it was impossible that the Church should continue dependent upon a pa-
triarch appointed by the sultan, an assembly of bishops at Syra (Aug. 1888)
was directed by the government to declare, that the orthodox Church of
Greece acknowledged no head but Jesus Christ, that the administration of the
Church belonged to the king, and was to be carried on under the direction
of the sacred canons by a Synod of Bishops permanently appointed, but an-
nually renewed by him. (c) By this measure on the part of a Catholic gov-
ernment, and by the abolition of the inferior convents, to obtain an ecclesi-
astical and school fund (1884), the feelings of the nation in behalf of its
Church were wounded. The first exhibition of its displeasure with respect
to the new improvements was made against the schools and books of the Eng-
lish and American missions, (d) The conspiracy of the orthodox Hetairia
n) A. Z. 1845. N. 2188. Bri. KZ. 1815. N. 89. lOOs. 1848. N. 4 1817. N. 67. 1849. N. 97. 99.
o) £. g. Rheinw. Rep. vol. XXXIII. p. 8668L
a) RiMo NerouloM^ Conrs de literature greoqne modeme, pnbL par J. Humbert, Oen. 1827. Wie*
deranfinge d. tbeol. Lit in Oriechenl. (Stud. n. Krlt 1841. P. 1.) Surroy/xa r&v ^timv koL ltp&¥ lea-
y6vtȴ, ed. G, A. RaUi9 et M. BottU, Athen. 1853. 2 vola. d) GHb, (p. 867.) p. ll&a.
e) A. KZ. 1833. N. 191.
d) A. Z. 1887. Snppl N. 184. A. KZ. 1887. N. 82. D. A. Z. 184fi. Buppl N. 8«2. The chteT organ.
1^ f ^oyyc Aiicf^ viKwiylt edited bj the monk Oennanoa.
670 MODERN CllUltCn HI8T0ET. PER. VL A, D. 1648-18Sa.
was designed to destroy every thing of a foreign natnre which had been forced
upon the nation, and to place the Ohnrch (1889) nnder the jurisdiction of the
patriarch Gregory VI. (e) This prelate published a challenge ag^nst Lu-
ther, prohibited the circulation of translations of the Scriptures, (/) and for-
bade the nuptial benediction upon mixed marriages in the Ionian Islands. For
these proceedings he was, at the request of the English ambassador, deposed
(1840). (g) The revolution of 1843, professing to act in the name of national
freedom, threw away all the supports of German education and improve-
ment. The Constitution of 1844 recognized the orthodox Oriental Church
as established by law, required that the successor to the throne should be a
member of that Church, and while it gave free toleration to other forms of
worship, it forbade efforts to proselyte in their favor. The ecclesiastical sta-
tute of 1845 gave to the Synod a position much less dependent upon the
government (A) It was recognized by the Patriarch of Constantinople
through the mediation of Russia (1850), on the condition that its holy ofl
should always be obtained from the mother Church, but it was itself to be
chosen by the clergy, and the Bishop of Attica was to be its perpetual presi-
dent, (i) The city of Athens, then the principal town, was dedicated to an-
other Virgin, (h) but there is a prophecy current among the people that at
some future day the cross will be fixed upon the Church of St. Soplua. A
tranquil existence has finally been secured to the Christians under the do-
minion of the sultan, in consequence of his enfeebled condition, the European
reforms which he has introduced, and the dependence of his empire upon
Christian powers. By the Hattisherif of Gtilhane (1889) a promise was given
that the life, honor, and property of all should be secure, and that Moslem
and Rayah should be equal in the eye of the law, (I) but the government is
sometimes unable to prevent individual instances of abuse from the corrup-
tion of the inferior authorities, and the fanaticism of the people, (m) It is,
however, the i)ower under which all the difiTerent parties of the Oriental
Church, and the Franks under their respective consuls, find a residence, with
no power to iryure but only to hate each other. The position of the porte
even with respect to the holy places, for the keys of which Russia, in behalf
of the newly acquired rights of the Greek Church, and France, in behalf of
the long established rights of the Latin Church, contended with each other,
is only that of a mediator, (n) But when Russia claimed to be the perma*
nent protector of the orthodox Christians who constitute a large minority of
the population of European Turkey, it has, relying upon the aid of Christian
powers, indignantly repelled the demand as a virtual requirement that it
should resign its sovereignty, and the Czar has therefore proclaimed against
it a holy war (1858).
0) A. Z. 1840. N. 27. 80. /) AcU hist ecc 1887. pi SSlaa. g) A.KZ. 18ia N. 8«i
h) A. D. Z. 1845. N. 198. 0 BrL KZ. 1851. N. 8«. I;) A. KZ. 18S2. N. 48.
1) Beitrr. z. e. Oesch. d. neosten B«formeii d. o«in. Beiohen In Verbind. m. Kftinte EfendL ed. hf
Petennann. Brl. 1842.
m) (C Pncaek;) Die Chiisfen In Bosnien. Vienna. 1858L
A) Brl. KZ. 1850. N. 94. 1851. N. 82. 1852. N. 98. 1858. N. 4L oomp. 47.
CHAP. VIII. GENERAL AFFAIRS. 1 436. CATHOLICISM & PROTESTANTISM. 67 1
CHAP. VIIL— COMMON DETAILS AND MUTUAL RELATIONS.
§ 486. Catholicism and Protestantism,
In Gennonj and in France where the Catholic and Protestant churches
stand side bj side in the CDJoymont of equal rights, and whore the national
character has no decisive inclination for either, there must naturally be an
intellectual conflict between them, frequent attempts at accommodation, and
mutual aggressions of a proselyting spirit. In the polemical writings of Prot-
estants, Catholicism is represented as a system of priestcraft, or at best as an
antiquated form which could have had no existence except when the mind of
man was in a state of pupilage. The Catholics call the Reformation the
second fall of man, and revive the old but now especially obnoxious reproach
that the Reformation must necessarily end with a revolution. On the other
hand, the advocate of Protestantism shows that whatever is true in this as-
sertion threatens no danger to any legal form of civil government, but only
to Catholicism, and that as far as it is untrue facts show that the home of
revolutions is in Catholic countries, (a) This subject was discussed with
more calmness by literary men among Protestants, since, instead of contem«
plating it simply as a polemical matter, they investigated the respective
creeds, taking a purely historical view of the different systems of faith, and
regarding them as points of development for the Christian spirit. The learn-
ing of a Church which regards all beyond itself as only a falsehood, and un-
der condemnation, could never entertain such a train of thought except in
appearance only, (b) Besides, that was often attacked which no one ever
defended, on the one side unchangeable Lutheranism, and on the other an
in£Edlible papacy. The controversy was also much embittered by the exagger^
ated ecdesiasticism which prevailed in both parties. Even a Judas-literature
became connected with tlie controversy between the two churches, (e) To
such as had become dissatisfied with the creeds of both sides it seemed easy
to become reconciled. Such was the origin (1797) of a party, Christo sacrum^
in the French Reformed Churcli at Delft, the object of which was to form a
common ground on which all might unite, by setting forth a few general doc-
trines relating to the divinity of the Scriptures, and redemption by Christ,
without requiring any to renounce the Churches in which they had been re-
spectively bom. It went indeed so far as to assemble after its public recog-
nition (1802} a few members of different churches in their house of worship,
but it was universally rejected by all churches, and never became any thing
but a very inferior sect, {d) The Freemasons^ Lodges originated among the
Societies of architects of the middle ages, and even in the new spiritual-
ized form which their craft received fVom England, where it was ex-
tensively proi)agated (1717), it kept aloof from all tlie contentions of the dif-
a) TUehimer, Prot. n. Kath. a. d. Standp. d. Polltlk. Lps. 192S. 4 ed. 1SS4
b) MoehUr^ (p. 6K.) On the other hand : Baur, Nttzseb, Marhelneke.
c) Der Protesuuitbmos In a. tklbaUaflusung. Schaffh. (1848.) 1816. S vols. comp. BrL KZ. 18ML
d) Archiv £ KGecch. voL L seet 2. p. 170«l Mct & p. 190sa. KHist Arch. 1828. sect 1. p. 12m,
FUsdner^ Collectenreise. toL IL p. 074s8.
672 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. I<i6-18B8.
ferent churches, and professed in a region far above them to construct the
temple of Humanity. For this very reason it was condemned (p. 634) in va-
rious papal decrees (1738, 1751, 1829,) which were, however, enlorced only
in Southern Europe. («) The Evangelical Church Journal also condemned
them, and received an answer through an act of the royal family (Nor. 5,
1853). '(/) The Rationalists on account of their Pelagian tendency, and the
Pietists on account of their rigid ecclesiasticism, were accused of an approxi-
mation to Catholicism. A few regarded every kind of anion as impractica-
ble except by the absorption of one party into the other ; (g) some believed
in a higher development of the present ecclesiastical system, in which the
distinctions between the two parties were to be forgotten ; while many looked
upon these distinctions as salutary in their influence, and indispensable to the
completeness of the Christian spirit. (A) Persons were frequently induced to
pass from one Church to the other by the prospect of some personal advan-
tage, or under the influence of false views. Such instances were tolerated
especially in the Catholic Church, on account of their relation to future gen-
erations. Others were governed by considerations altogether foreign to
Christianity. Such was Winkelmann (d. 1768), who thought that the great
object of his life, which could be pursued only at Rome, was well worth a
mass ; especially as he, with all his recollections of pious youthful impressions,
was neither a Catholic nor a Protestant, but a contemporary of Perides. (t)
But some were really anxious to correct by their own free act what thej
honestly believed to be the false position in which the accident of birth had
placed them. The primary occasion for most of the conversions to Catholi-
cism was that exalted state of artistic or poetic feeling which, when it became
depressed, fell into pietism, but which found in the Catholic Church a pleas-
ant and splendid form of life, or at least found deliverance fh>m a state of
mere irony, and a position in the earnestness of reality. Another canse was,
a natural disposition which was annoyed by the perpetual conflicts and com-
motions which prevailed in the Protestant Church, and sought peace in a sen-
suous nearness to the divine, and in an external and infallible authority. It
was to this disposition that the faithful Voss^ who mistook its more profound
motive, opposed in a violent manner his Datch common sense. (Jc) There was
also an historical and political spirit, imposed upon by the mediaeval splendor
and perfect constitution of the Catholic Church, which might not only be
mistaken, but stimulated to further misapprehensions, and so finally conducted
to a path which terminated at Rome and Vienna. (I) K few aristocrats hoped
e\ Kraute^ d. drcl iltesten Konst-Urk. d. F. M. Br&dench. Dnd. (1810.) 1819. I". W. Lindner,
Mac BenAc Lps. 1818. Sareena, Qesch. d. F. M. Ord. Bamb. 1820. 6 ed. Lpsi 1885.— M. Ball, Roni.
vol XVIII. p. 212a. Hist poL BL vol VIII. p. «3es.
/) D. A. Z. 1854. N. 28.
g) {J. A. Stark,) Theoduls Gastmahl a Q. Verelnlg. d. Religionflaooietftten. Frk£ 1809l 7 ad. 19S9L
A) Planck, Worte d. Friedens an d. kath. K. gegen Ihre Yorelnig. m. d. prot Oott 1909. Tom
Strelte d. Kirchen, an den ehrisU. Adel doata^her Nation. Lpa. 1827.
f) BrI. MonatBcbr. vol XIL p. 56ss. Goeths, Wlnkelm. u. s. Jahrhandvrt. KreeK, Eiina as W.
BrL 1885. 4
k) Wie ward Fritz Stolberg eln Unf^eier? (Sophronlzon. 1819. toL III.) BeatitlguDg d. Slolbi
Umtrlebe. Stattg. 1820.-- J. Meoloviu^ Ft. Loop. O. zu Stolb. Mayenoe. 184a.
/) F. HwrUr, d. Antlstas IL a. aogen. Amtabr&der. Schaffb. 184a ZeiSnd€r, Ant H. n. a. T«n»
CHAP. YUL ChBNEBAL AFFAIB8. |48ft. 00NYEBT8. 673
they could get rid of the revolution by forsaking the Reformation. Hack-
neyed authors, who before knew nothing of religion, found in the Catholic
ritual that which interested and satisfied their excited religious wants, (m)
Sacerdotal Puseyism, and even zealous Lutheranism, estranged as it is from
the present Protestant Ohurch, have sometimes conducted their lost sons back
to the holy father, (n) On the other hand, there were two ways by which a
Catholic might be conducted to the Protestant Church. The first was the
same feeling which at one time moved the Reformers, a painful sense of sin
which found no relief in the works and penances of the Church, and finally
betook itself to a simple faith in the Scriptures alone. The other was a de-
velopment of the spirit of religious independence, which, when it could no
longer find complete truth in the doctrines which it had been taught, felt
compelled to break loose fh>m an infallible Church. The former path con-
ducted to the old, and the latter to the more recent form of Protestantism.
The latter was therefore followed by individuals of a speculative turn of
mind, or such as thought themselves to be so, while the former was entered
npon as in the time of the Reformation by whole congregations, pervaded at
once by the same feeling. In some cases, however, where the feelings of such
congregations had not become dearly defined, and the ecclesiastical authori-
ties treated them with mildness, they could sometimes be reconciled with
the old Church, (p) From the nature of the feelings thus defined we should
of course expect to meet with persons of more distinguished reputation
among the converts to Catholicism, (p) For it was necessary to the pacifica-
tion of those consciences which were inclined to Catholicism that the pre-
cise form should be complied with, and that the person should be a member
of the only Church in which salvation could be expected, while the Protes-
tant spirit generally felt that it was every where in the spiritual Church, it
would naturally hope to exert a more powerfhl influence in behalf of truth
in its original sphere of life, and it would dread the severe shock occasioned
by a change of ecclesiastical relations. Hence generally only such priests as
apprehended some overwhelming act of oppression from their ecclesiastical
superiors, effected an escape by connecting themselves with the Protestant
Church.
gUmpftcn AmUbr. Scb. l^M.-SchenkO, Zorw&rfon In Scbaffb. a. Uurter's Ucbortritt Baa. 1341.
JTurUr, Gebnrt n. Wiedcrgeb. Scbaffb. (1S45.) 1847. 2 vola.
m) Ida Orftfln ffdhn'IIahn^ ron Babylon nacb Jeraa. Mayence. 1851. [From Babylon to Jeni«
nlem, ftom the Oonn. of Coontesi Ida t. Hahn-Habn. New York. 1S52.] F. e. Ftoreneouri^ mein*
Bekehr. z. cbr. Lebre n. K. Paderb. 1852.
n) L&tkem&ller, nnsre Zost v. Tode %. Aofent Lpa. 1852. BrL KZ. 1852. N. 86.
o) Oeechlebtl Dant d. B«kebrang d. Fflratcn v. Salm-Salni, from tbe Fr. (Par. 1826.) Jen. 1826.—
Ootansr^ Martin Booa, Lp& 1826. [Life A Porsecntlona of M. B. transl by Bridges. Lond. 1829L
Lond. Cbr. Obsi Jan. 1828. (in Llttell'a BeL Mag. toL L pi 289s9i)] JlenAq/!'''* cnr. Olaubensbek,
Heldlb. (1828.) 1824 DucMm^r, RQckkchr. katb. Cbristen in Baden z. er. CJbristentb. Lpn. 1828. 4,
ed. 1824.— Bericbt n. Karlabald by PdchtMr vor d. Sammlnng cv. Prodigten. Barmen. 1887.— J74)^«-
ricK, cbri5tl Olanbensb. Friedb. 1885. On tbe other side : UfkundL Darat d. piet Umtriebe d. vor-
xnaL Plkr. Heli: Mayence. 1S8S.— j: J. Maurette, d. Papst n. d. £7. tnm tbe Fr. Hoilbr. 184i. 8 ed.
1846. F. Bruitte, m. Abacbiedswort an Bom. from the Fr. Scbleiz. 1844.
p) F, W. P. «. AmvMn^ GaUerle d. merkw. Personen, welehe r. d. ot. z. kath. K. iibergetretep.
Sri. 1888. J. BbefUnghaut^ cbronoL Vcrzelchniss d. denkw. Bekehr. t. Protest z. katb. K. Ascbaft
1887. IfWfeh^ Q. d. Uraaehen d. aieh mcbr. Uebertrltte z. rdm. K. (Dentsohe Zeitacb. t cbr. W. 1S$1.
N. 29.)
48
674 MODEBN CHUBCH HI8T0BT. PER. YL A. D. 164S-1668.
§ 487. The Fine Arte. Cont, from § 878, 390.
Art has generally risen superior to all distinctions of creeds, althoagh the
populace of Strasbourg would not tolerate a bust of Luther on the monument
of Guttenberg, (a) and even some painters have supposed that they could do
better justice to the saints when they adored them. Rome became once more
the home of the arts of design, when, from the time of Clement XFV., a beau-
tiful temple was opened for the remnants of the old Olympic world, with
such an enthusiasm for the arts that it did not shrink from evea a sacrilege
upon the sarcophagus of the Scipios and of St. Helena. Thorwaldsen was
directed by Consalvi to erect a lofty monument on the tomb of the Holy Fa-
ther Pius VII. in St. Peter's Church. (5) When the more recent popular life
had been developed, the Church could no longer ^ve existence to the art from
its own materials, but it was obliged to be a mere participator in it. By a
profound study of the monuments of heathen antiquity, Winielmann rescued
the taste for the arts from degenerating into a trifling mannerism. What he
could only express in words Thorwaldsen embodied in brass and marble.
Grecian power and beauty, it is true, were found reproduced in living fresh-
ness in his studio, but as an expression of the eternal beauty of nature they
were exalted to their most significant form when employed in the utterance
of Christian ideas. Gods and heroes were therefore to be seen there by the
side of our Lord and the apostles, (c) At a still earlier period Dannecher
gave a sublime representation of Christ in the character of the world's
teacher ; his John is a son of thunder reflecting upon the mystery of the
Trinity ; and finally he is himself exhibited, when an old man, contemplating
the smile of a Christian angel of death, (d) After some Hterary attempts to
discover the general basis of all art in piety, (e) an association of German
painters was formed at Rome (s. 1810) which endeavored to revive the art
in the Christian feelings and ecclesiastical forms of the middle ages. There
is a kind of spectral life in the exaggerated productions of this Romantic
School, But the great masters of it have each in his own way revived the
splendors not only of the middle ages but of antiquity. Thus Overbeck has
presented a delicate pious fervor, and Cornelius, cheerfulness and sublimity.
These were followed by Henry Hess, who added beauty to the old ecclesiasti-
oal style ; Kaulbach, who has painted the minds and general thoughts o(
men ; and Lessing, who has exhibited Protestantism in the persons of its fore-
runners. A German Union for religious art in the Evangelical Church (1851)
evinces an inclination to pay a long standing debt of Protestantism. (/) In
connection with this interest in the middle ages the art of painting on glass
has been once more discovered. The Cathedral at Milan was completed by
Napoleon. Louis of Bavaria restored the old splendor of the cathedrals of
I a) A. KZ. 1840. N. 128. 1848. N. 204&
h) XoUoed Indeed In A. KZ. of 1880. N. 27, but not erected until 183L
o) ThUU, Thorwaldsen'a Leben u. Werk«. Lpe. 18828. 2 vols, t
d)J.J. UtM, {L Danneckera Cbrlstua. ZQr. 1826. C Gr&neUen o. TK Wagner, Dun. Wtfkn
Bamb. (1842.) 4.
•) W.ir. Wackmroder, HenensorgieflsaDgen e. kunatliebenden Klosterbr. ed. by Tleek. Btl ITW.
/) BrL KZ. 1852. N. 20. 24. 82.
CHAP. YIIL GENERAL AFFAIRS. 1 488. CHURCH ARCHITECTURE St MUSia 675
bis kingdom, and had all the different forms of the ecclesiastical styles of
former times represented in the churches of his capital. Frederic WiUiam III.
had the Cathedral of Cologne once more repaired (since 1824), and Frederio
IVilliam IV. laid the foundation stone for its completion (Sept. 4th, 1842),
that it might be a work of brotherly love for all Germans, (ff) Isaac^s
Church of Petersburg raised its cupolas and granite pillars more proudly than
any other church of Greco-Roman architecture. The three great masters of
instrumental music at Vienna have contributed none of their peculiarities nor
their highelt efforts to the Church. Haydn's Creation, great as it is, is never-
theless only a great opera, in which the Lord G^d with his angels are repre-
sented, (h) Mozart did not compose his Requiem until he was dying, (i) and
BeetTiaoejij in his own exalted sphere, felt that he was a priest of God, but not
in an ecclesiastical sense, and his Christ on the Mount of Olives and his Sec-
ond Mass were indeed a Creation, but they never reached their seventh day.
Felix Mendelssohn^ who had been educated in the rigid school of Sebastian
Bach, and amid the glories of IlandeFs art, has given a harmonious expres-
sion to the direct Word of God, combining profound devotional earnestness
with cheerful artistic beauty, especially in the lyrical strains of his Psalms,
and in the more dramatic works Paul and Elyah. Like Raphael, however,
he was taken away from earth (1847) before he had realized in his language
the complete ideal of his Christ. While the friends of art in Protestant Ger-
many, though generally without reference to the Church, labored to promote
an understanding and love of the old ecclesiastical muse, {k) the Italian
churches resounded with the most frivolous opera melodies. The papal
chapel alone preserved the old serious style, though much of the skilful per-
formance of former days was lost. When the mode of singing hymns in
quartettes, which, in some Reformed churches, and particularly in Switzer-
land, was an inheritance from their ancestors, was first introduced by an as-
sociation in Stuttgard, and recommended by the Synod of Wurtemberg (1828),
many voices were raised against it on the ground that such a style of singing
was too artistic for a congregation. (Z) Liturgical forms of divine service
were brought into use first at Berlin, and afterwards in other places, in which
the old Catholic as well as Protestant masters of Church music were re-
vived, (m)
§ 488. Emancipation and Conversion of the Jetes,
RiM94r, der Jude. Alton. 133289. O. Wi BohtMrj Glelchstellang der Juden. QOtt 1S88. Jott^
neaere Qesch. d. Israel 1815-45. Brl 1846. 2 vols.
Since Moses Mendelssohn (d. 1786) and Lessing gave to each other the
hand of fellowship the Jews have participated with much eagerness and suc-
g) Brl. KZ. 1942. N. 7a 1848. N. 69. 1849. N. 80.
[h) U A.C. Bonibet, Life of Ilaydn, In Letters. Prov. 1820. 12.
i) K Holmes, LIf*; & Gorr. of Mozart New York. 1845l 12.]
k) ( TMbaut,) Uebcr Keinholt Id d. Tunknnst Hcldlb. (1825. 1826.) 1851.
t) Koch«r, d. Tonk. In d. K. Stuttg. 1823. A. KZ. 1823. N. 7. 105. 1S25. N. 45.— 1S24. N. 122. 18a&
N. «a 60. 1826. N. 82.
m) £7. KZ. 1844. N. 51a. 1845. N. 15. 105. 1851. N. 48L
676 MODERN CHUBCH BISTORT. PKS. YL A. D. 1648-188&
oess in the improveineDts of modem times, (a) A rational tendency has thus
heen formed which exhibits a purely biblical literature, and withdraws the
mind entirely from the Talmudic institutes. In its struggles against the old
Rabbinism it has founded a new Temple with a simple form of public wor-
ship in the language of the people. Some attempts to accomplish a still
more extensive reform were made, and it was found that in doing so either
the Mosaic system without circumcision (to which, however, Ohristian gor-
ernments compelled the Jews to adhere) might be made consistent with an
unlimited progress in improvements (Frankfort, 1840), or their national dis-
tinctions might be abandoned, and they could still adhere to the religious
character peculiar to Judaism (Berlin, 1846). (h) The educated Jews on the
west of the Vistula have generally given up their religious national peculiari-
ties, and are not prevented by their adherence to Moses from believing also
in Christ. They stand therefore, with respect to Christianity, precisely
where Moses Mendelssohn stood. It was natural that persons in this condi-
tion should begin to demand a complete equality of civil rights. The watch-
word— civil and religious freedom for all the world ! gained a powerful party
in favor of such an emancipation, Napoleon called a meeting of the great
Sanhedrim (1806), (c) and completed the work of Jewish emancipation. His
enactments on this subject have continued in force until the present time in
Holland and Belgium. In North America their complete equality follows
from the essential nature of the Constitution. Even in Grerman countries the
civil condition of the Jews has been much improved in various ways since
the time of Joseph II., but their complete equality with other citizens has
never been conceded except for a brief period while the French were masters
of the country. Against such an equality it has been urged by a party which
on other subjects has shown a liberal spirit, that the Jews are still in every
sense foreigners, and therefore entitled to hospitality but not to the rights of
citizens, and that the governments of the country were founded upon Chris-
tian principles, which, if not endangered would at least be denied by the pro-
posed concession, (d) The assemblies of deputies, as far as they were not in-
fluenced by the fear of the Jewish spirit of speculation, were inclined to
concede to them their full rights of citizenship. The Prussian law of 1847,
although it commenced with the principle of equal duties and equal rights,
made many exceptions in consistency with what were supposed to be the de-
mands of a Christian state, and concluded with a special provision for the
separate existence of a foreign nation in exclusive Jewish conmiunities. (e)
a) J. Beinemann^ M. Mondelss. Li>b. 1881. SteinhHm, M. M. u. i. Schalo. Uamh. 184a R Ausr-
hach, d. Jadenth. u. d. neaeste Lit. Stattg. ISSfi. [M. Samuels, Mem. of M. M. A Correep. with Lt-
vater. Lond. 1827. 8 ed. a]
h) n. A. Franodmy d. rationale Jadenth. BreL ISIO. Nethiboth 01am. Yeigleioh zw. d. modernea
Jadonth. n. d. Bel MoeiB a. d. Proph. (fh)m the Kngl) Frk£ 1839.—^. Frdnkd^ d. mod. Jadenth. ; d.
FranU Bef. a. d. neae Zeit BeatL 1814— D. A. Z. 184d. N. 41.
o) Proofs verbal des stances de raasemblee des deputes firanf. profeaaant la reL JaiTa. Par. 180&
Bevae des deax mondes. 1852. Sept 16.
d) PauluM, die JQd. Nationalabsondrang. Hcidlb. 1881. On the other side : Krug, Henotkoo.
Entw. e^ Beligionsgesetzes t chrlstl. 8ta&tcn. Lpit. 1830.
e) D. A. Z. ISiT. N. 16L. 219. M. Veit, d. Entwurfe. Verordn. t d. Verb. d. Jaden in PrtotMii.
Lpi^ 1847. SUxhl, d. christL Staat a. sein Verb. z. Deiamoa a. Jadenth. BrL 1847.
CHAP. Via QENESAL AFFAIRa $488. JEW& $489. BLAYBBY. 677
The National Aflsembly in St. Panics Chnrob, over which on one occasion a
Jew presided, granted by an almost nnanimons vote toM rights of citizenship
to the Jews ; (/) bat the execntion of this enactment has been almost nni-
yersally prevented in the German States by Ohristians belonging to the edu-
cated and the ignorant classes. (^) In England, Parliament has removed the
civil disabilities of the Jews (since 1829), bnt the oath of adherence to the
Christian faith required of aU members of Parliament has prevented their ad-
mission th^re. And yet the city of London has repeatedly chosen a Roths-
child for its representative (since 1847). The Lower House has more than
once adopted Russell's proposal to change the form of this oath, but the
Lords have hitherto rejected it, on the ground that the admission of a Jew
would be an insult to the Son of God, and the commencement of an atheistic
government (A) While the rationalist party took no special interest in the
work of converting rationalist Jews, (t) the pietists entered upon it with pe-
culiar zeaL Societies of the Friends of Israel were formed for this purpose
in England (1808), in America, and in some of the German cities, ijc) The
result of these efforts proves that aside from those Jews who live in countries
not professedly Christian, and those who are already seeking salvation, and
therefore need instruction or protection, more may be expected from the
power of Christian improvements in Europe, under the influence of which
the Jews reside, than from any direct attempts at conversion, against which
they have such prejudices. The inhabitants of the Ghetto in Rome were
compelled once more in 1828 to listen every Sabbath to a sermon for their
conversion. (J) In the East the legend of the middle ages with respect to
the fanatical use of Christian blood was now revived, and used to justify
every kind of cruelty and horrible outrage against the Jews (1840). (m)
§ 489. Abolition of Slavery.
K Biol, de raboUtlon de Tesclayagd sQcien ea Occident Par. 1S40. Tk. F. Suaeton^ d. tfrik ScIa-
veohandel a. & AbhBUb from the EngL bj JolloiL Lpei 184t [The AiHoan Slaye Trade and Its abet*
tfon. Lond. 184L 8.]
The Church has always endeavored to mitigate the evils of slavery (p. 188),
and as soon as it possessed the power, to restrain them by legal enactments.
But it was not until some time in the middle ages that the last remnants of
European slavery were abolished by law. After Europe had for three centu-
ries gathered up the riches of America by means of the newly introduced
slavery of the African (p. 888), the great principles of universal liberty com-
bined with those of the gospel in demanding the emancipation of the negro.
^* A party of the Saints,'* as they were called in derision, which had sprung
f) stenograph. Berieht lg48. vol IIL p. 17&4aa.
0) A. KZ. 1S51. N. 119. BrL KZ. lS5i. N. 88.
A) A. Z. 1884 N. ISl 184«. N. 8S1. (JewUh DfBabllities Bill) D. A. Z. 1847. N. 862. 1849. N. 167.
€) (^FrUdldndsr) Sendechr. an Tellern von einlgen UauBvdtern jQd. RoL BrL 1799. comp. Tho-
lack, verm. Schrr. vol IL p. 126.
it) Khelnw. Bep. vol. XXIIL p. 84, 186«l vol XXV. p. 82, 27408. vol. XXVIIL p. 278sa. Die
Freande Isr. Nachriehten t. d. Ausbr. d. Belcbea O. Ba& 1841. S P. Gauuen, d. Yerk&nd d. £▼.
DSter d. Jaden. fVom the French. Ilamb. 1844.
/) A. KZ. 182a N. 41. m) A. Z. l&ia N. 140i. k, othm.
678 MODEBN CUUBOH HI8T0BT. FEB. YL A. D. 1M8-18B8.
from the Methodistio movement, contended for a long time almost hopeleesfy
in Parliament against the existence and the necessity of slavery in the colo-
nies. Their ^eches awakened hopes among the slaves, which, in some in-
stances led to insurrections. During one of those, among the negroes of De-
marara, the passions of the people hecame so inflamed that a missionary
whose name was Smith was condemned, and died in confinement (1824)
hefore the king^s pardon arrived from England. When the tamnlts among
the slaves of Jamaica had been quelled, the chapels of the Baptists and Meth-
odists on the island were demolished, and the lives of their preachers were
in peril because they had preached that all the children of God were free, (a)
The abolition of the African slave trade by political treaties (1880) was foand
to be entirely inadequate to effect the object at which it aimed, as long as
slavery itself enjoyed the protection of the laws, (b) After years of prepara-
tion in various ways, the English nation made an offering of a hundred and
twenty miUions of dollars to indemnify the masters, that after a certain time
of preparation by instruction the slaves mi^t be introduced to the privileges
of citizens, and that all of them might be declared free in the colonies of
England after the 1st of August, 1834. As the slaves had become Christian-
ized by such means and by previous efforts, their emancipation was found to
be practicable and safe, (e) An Order was established by the Abbess Javohey
for the purchase of negroes in the French colonies with a view to educate
them, and thus prepare them for civil freedom, and its efforts have been at-
tended (s. 1888) with some degree of success, (d) A society for the extinc-
tion of slavery was formed at Paris (1885). The constitution of the Repub-
lic of 1848 abolished all slavery on French territory, and the National Assem-
bly of 1849 decreed that all losses of the owners of slaTes in consequence of
emancipation should be compensated from the public treasury. Denmark de-
clared that all children of slaves bom after the passage of the act of manu-
mission should be free, and fixed upon a certain year (1847) as the definite
limit beyond which all slavery was to cease throughout its colonies, (e) Id
the Southern portion of the United States the material interests which would
be seriously injured by the abolition of slavery^ came into violent collision
with the enthusiasm which demanded that all who hod been redeemed by
the blood of Christ should, at all hazards, be set at liberty. The sovereign
people began (1885) to hang those clergymen who preached against slavery,
and the negroes who listened to them, in accordance with their own forms
of justice (Lynch's law.) (/) Gregory XVI. having reviewed the decrees of
his predecessors, condemned the trade in negroes as utterly inconsistent ^ritb
Christianity (1839) ; (jgi) but instead of being dinunished, its horrors became
more dreadful.
a) A. EZ. 18^ N. 9a £v. KZ. 1882. N. 96. b) A.Z. 188ft. N. 148.
«) Abaebaffting d. Bklav. Id d. Colonien. (AnalAnd. 1884. N. 806fla.>
<0 A. Z. 1885. SuppL N. 1498. «> D. A. Z. 1847. N. 8&S.
/) A. Z. 1885. N. 244. a) A. KZ. 1340. N. 19.
CHAP. yilL GENERAL AFFAIBS. $490. ST. SIMON. 800IALI8BC. 679
§ 490. St. Simonism and Socialism,
As civil liberty triamphantlj advanced, and tanght men that they had an
eqnal right to the natural productions of the soil, and as at the same time
industry became freed from its trammels, and, by the progress which it
caused in the natural sciences, produced reciprocal advantages, the wealth of
the world accumulated in the possession of the few, and threw the masses of
society, on the other hand, into a state of the most hopeless want, (a) Under
these circumstances, the idea arose with great power, especially in the minds
of many in France and England, either by a social revolution to introduce
a community and a just distribution of goods (Communism), or by an organi-
zation of labor into free associations for trade and subsistence, to assist those
portions of society which have been oppressed, in obtaining a proper share
of the enjoyments and improvements which are now exclusively in the pos-
session of a few (Socialism), (b) Christianity was found compatible with
such efforts, and even countenanced them to some extent, by the aid of such
fiicts in its primitive period as the compassion of Jesus for the poor, his indig-
nation against the wealthy, one attempt at a community of goods, and in the
history of its orders and sects having much to say of a voluntary surrender
of wealth, and a community of goods in a variety of forms, (c) But as
Christianity was interwoven with all the existing relations of society, and
Pantheism had now made the idea of renouncing the pleasures of this life
intolerable, by destroying all hope of another world. Communism has, in the
person of its first leaders, who fell under the guillotine of a merely poHtioal
revolution in France, {d) for the most part renounced all connection with
Christianity, {e) But as the unavoidable necessity of some kind of religion
was perceived, the idea was adopted of making it the basis of the new order
of things. Accordingly, in France, Count St, Simon gave to his plan for
improving the condition of laborers by elevating industry to the highest pos-
sible privileges, the name of a religion — a new Christianity. (/) When he
died, in consequence of an attempt at suicide (May 19, 1825), a single disciple,
Olinde Bodrigues, stood by his death-bed. The new worldly gospel which
had been introduced in the midst of the liberty and the excitements imme-
diately following the revolution of July, was proclaimed by sermons, mis-
sions, and polemical treatises sent forth from Paris. It declared that Catho-
licism was in its dotage, that Protestantism was a mere negation, that Christ
a) Tbe Claima of Labor. Lond. 1845. Engeh, d. Lsge d. arbelt claaeo In Engl Lps. 1945i
b) L. Stein, d. Social n. Commnn. d. heatlgen Frankr. Lps. 1948. (BlunUchli,) Die Commonis-
Cen In d. Schwdz nach d. b. Weltling vorgefund. Papleren. Commlaslonsbericht Z&r. 1344.
c) i\ R ilunde»hag&n, d. Ckimmun. n. d. nscetlschc Soclalreform lin Laufe d. cbriatl. Jahrhh.
(Stad. n. Kiit 1&46. H. Ss.) J. P. Batnang, d. Bedont d. Comm. a. d. Geelobtsp. d. Chiiatentb. u. d.
BittL Cultur. Z&r. ISil. —Proudhon, d. Bonntagsfeler. a. d. Fr. Satlsb. 1850.
d) F. N. Baboet^f^ le tribon da people. Par. (1795.) F. BuonaroUi^ la conspiration de Baboeail
Brux. 1828.
a) (P. 554a.) Comp. Generalberleht an d. Staatar. ▼. Nenchatel tL d. geb. dentacbe Propigandik
Z&r. 184e. Ev. KZ. 184ft. N. 98.
/) Introd. aox travaox Bdentlflqaea da 19. S. Par. 1807. 2 vols. 4 R^orcanlsatlon de la soclAM
Earop. Par. 1814. CatScfaisme dos indnfftrtels. Par. 1S34. Le noavean cbrlatlanUme. Par. 182&
(Oeavres p>. O. £odrignea. Par. 1882. 2 Tolflw Extracts In Baobholz neuer Monatschr. toL 21& 84&)
680 MODERN CHUBCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 164»-1858L
had provided only for the spiritual portion of our nature, and that St. Simon
was about to reinvest the flesh in its rights. Simonism became, on the one
hand, a deification of the world, and on the other, a consecration of industry
as a series of operations upon the divinity itself. Its general law was, that
after the law of inheritance had been abolished, every individual should
receive from the common stock in proportion to his capacity, and every
capacity according to its works. This principle was to be carried out under
the direction of a hierarchy, whose arbitrary power was concealed under
tirades about love and self-sacrifice, (g) Even noble minds were sometimes
captivated by the unsparing manner in which the evils of the present state
of society were laid bare, by the substitution of merit for the accident of
birth, and the reinyestiture of the disinherited son of European society in
the rights of a man. The boldest language which this spirit of the age ven-
tured to use, was that in which an excluidve attention to material interests
was dignified with the name of religion. But when En/antin^ one of the
leaders of this party, a stately and energetic but narrow-minded man, in his
character of the highest revelation of the Deity, bestowed his principal atten-
tions upon women, and, as their Messiah, made woman free by destroying
the restraints of marriage, and aiming to attain privileges like those of Mo-
hammed, a schism was produced (Nov., 1881), and Rodrigues proclaimed that
Simonism had apostatized from St. Simon. The saloon of the Simonists was
closed by order of the government, and they were themselves arraigned be-
fore the legal tribunals for propagating principles dangerous to morality.
Their condemnation (Aug., 1882) was a convenient kind of martyrdom, and
the supreme Father Enfantin still continued the object of a oonfiding venera-
tion to all true believers, (h) But the public prominence which their hier-
archy and morahty had attained, destroyed all public confidence, and their
monastic seclusion, their costume, and their phraseology became a matter of
general ridicule. (J) liohert Owen (b. 1772), a benevolent manufacturer of
England, became convinced, by observing the poverty and unhappiness of
those around him, that man had been conducted by the present system of
civilization to the very verge of an abyss. After vainly attempting to regen-
erate human society on his own possessions in England (since 1800) and in
North America (1828), he turned his attention, by means of lectures, tracts,
and missionaries, to the neglected portion of the English nation. He con-
tended, that instead of standing in the way of one another, men should co-
operate and enjoy the fruit of their common toil ; that instead of the present
system of unnatural marriages, there should be a free choice of kindred
spirits ; and that instead of families, there should be congregations. So far
as our knowledge at present extends, we have no certainty that the existence
g) Doctrine de 8t Sim. Par. 182S. ed. 8. 1S81. vol. L Communion g6n^ral« de la fiunllle de St S.
Par. 1S31. J. Le Chevalier, rel. St SImonienne. Enseignement central. Par. 1881. (Zeitachr. £ hM.
Th. vol I. Part 2.) AsMciation Unlverselle. Par. 1881.
h) U Cheralier, sur la division. Par. 1882. Proc^a des 8t 8. Par. 1889.
{) Ctirori, d. 8t Sim. u. d. nonere frana. PhlL Lps. 1881. Bretachneidm'^ d. Bt S. o. d. Chi1»
tenth. LpA. 1H82. M. Veit, St Simon n. d. St Slmoniaten. Lpa. 1881 JTotter, in d. Stud. a. KilL
1883. P. 1. Kapf, in d. Tab. Zeltsch. 1382. P. 2.
CHAP. Yia GENERAL AFFAIRS. $491. HOLT ALLIANCE. 681
of man is protracted beyond the present life, and hence every religion which
leads the mind beyond this world is a delusion. Men are responsible to no
superior being; but should they be placed from childhood in right cir-
cumstances, without the perverting influence of poverty and ignorance, tliey
would be animated by a spirit of kindness toward every living thing, which
would render any division of property entirely unnecessary, (k) This scheme
of Socialism found great favor (since 1886) among those who were engaged
in manufactures. Simonism had been utterly ruined by the laughter of the
French people, and it was perfectly safe for the government to conflde the
rectification of Owen^s theories to the sound sense of the English people.
But the dangerous spirit of Oommunism is still undermining the foundations
of European civilization, and has not yet been allayed by the higher authority
of the State, nor by the benevolent power of Christianity. (I)
§ 491. The Holy Alliance.
Krug^ 1a aalnte AIL a Denkmal d. h. Bandes. Lps. 181ft. (Gesamm. Scbrr. yoL III.) Archly d. b.
Bondes. Munich. 18ia Notlz &. Alex. Jena. Vm. p. 298a. Eyl^ Frledr. Wllh. III. toL IL Abth.
2. pi 8480a.— ^. F, FUet, d. Krieg a. d. Ewige Friedo. Lpa. 1840.
Under the influence of the Emperor Alexander^ then consoling himself
for his lost ideals, and seeking religious instruction in the society of Madame
de Ejudener (p. 595), {a) the princes of Europe, with the exception of the
King of England, the Pope, and the Sultan, organized a Holy Alliance (1815),
that the members of it might become a great Christian family, in which,
regardless of the various ecclesiastical divisions, the law of Ghristian love
might be made the supreme law of nations. The statesmen of Europe smiled
at the strange language; the Uoly Alliance in its actual operation, soon
turned out to be very much like other holy leagues of former times, and it
finally dwindled imperceptibly away (since 1880). Monarchs belonging to
the three Churches of Christendom in 1840, even conquered the Holy Land
for the Turks. And yet this ideal tlms involuntarily recognized, or in the
commotions of an extraordinary period rapidly vanishing, is an everlasting
truth, and a prophecy of a future reality. For the accomplishment of what
Henry IV. and Elizabeth once had in view, (h) and respecting which many
philosophers have dreamed, an annual Congress of the friends of peace has
been formed (since 1848), under the influence of an American association of
Quakers (since 1815). The advocates of this movement declare, that the
welfare of Europe is sacrificed to sustain the expense of an armed peace
establishment; tliat the principles of Christianity utterly forbid war; and
that all the disputes which arise between different governments, may be
*) Kv. KZ. 188». N. 48. A. KZ. 1840. N. 81. 60. BrL KZ. 1S40. X. 22. Eheinw. Eepi 1841. voU
XXXII. p. 17988. 242«s. {R. D. Owen, Book of Uie Now Mor. World. N. York. 1S44 New View
of Society. N. York. 1825. 12. Debate i^ith Campbell Cine ISdO.]
t) P. 591. mndur (p. 654.) A. Vinet, d. Social In a. rrinclp. ftom the Fr. by Iloftneister, with
Vorw. by A. Xeander, BrL 1&49. H. Men, Armntb a. Christenth. Stnttg. 1M9. JI. Amim-Mum-
berff, d. hobern Bttode wie ale seln soUten u. wie ale sind. BrL 1S51.
a) C. U. Eynard, Vie de Me. de Krudener. Par. 1849. 2 vols.
h) G. G, Gervlnus, ElnL in d. Oeacb. d. 19. Jahrh. Lpa. 1S58. p. IMa. [Introd. to tho Hiat of the
19th Cent., from the Germ, of QerTlnoa. Lund. 1858. 12. p. 16.]
682 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 164S-18&S.
brought to an amicable termination by the deoisions of arbitrators, (c) The
declamations of this Congress, and Elihn's pipe of peace, have been made the
subject of general derision, for even Christ has brought a sword into our
world ; but the gospel, attended by an advancing civilization, holds up this
Peace of God, this holy alliance of the nations, as the great ideal which it
perpetually strives to attain.
c) A. KZ. 1S50. N. 121. [E. Burritt, Thonghts and Things at Home and Abroad, with Llfti, br
Mary Uowltt Boston. 1853 12. T, C. Vphatn, Mannal of Peace. N. r«)rk. 1"^^ 8. C. Sumner, The
Grandcar of Nations. Boston. 1S4T. (Orat and Addroases. Boat 1850. 12.) J. Dymond^ Accordance
of War with Cbr. PhUad. 1988. 12.]
APPENDIX.
[Some of the first pages of this translation were stereotyped before tlie seventh
German edition was announced in this country. The following is nearly all the
additional matter in the course of those pages, and all which seemed of importance.]
P. 7, the author says of Matthias Flacius and Oaesar Baronius, that they
*' were agreed in acknowledging the authority of the primitive Ohurch and
its dogmas, and in regarding the history of the Ohnrch as a conflict between
Christ and Satan ; but according to Baronius, Christ, though sometimes slum-
bering in his little vessel, has conducted it safely through every storm;
while, according to Flacius, Antichrist has set up his seat of power in the
midst of the Church itself.'*
Add to the last sentence of § 11 : " The necessities of modem times have
been provided for especially by the graceftd work of Berault Bemcastel, (a)
by the compilation of Henrion^ (ft) and by Rohrbacher^ (c) whose labors dis-
play a considerable sympathy with the researches of German scholars."
Near the middle of p. 10, Neander is said to have given to the pietistio
school before represented by Milner, " a scientific character, by uniformly
referriug to the original authorities, by entering heartily into the peculiarities
and earnestly developing the doctrines of past times, and by giving promi-
nence to long-neglected representations of the Christian life, as they were
variously exhibited in particular individuals of uncommon talents. He dis-
plays a confidence in Christianity as a divine leaven, which must gradually
pervade all human affairs ; and though affectionately attached to the Church
as the fellowship of the saints, he is tolerant toward all who oppose it on
merely doctrinal grounds, and he clothes his descriptions with an ample and
devotional, but unassuming, simple, and natural oriental drapery. (//) In the
same spirit, Jacobi has commenced a Text-Book, in which general principles
a) Hist de Tdglise. Par. 1773-91. 24 vols. With Ck>ntln. by PdUr ds Laoroix^ RcMaruK eta
h) New ed. Hist eocl depuis 1a creation Juaqn'au pontifloat de Pie IX« pablite par Migne^ Par.
1852. ToL I. (To be completed in 25 voia.)
c) Htst Universelle de UgX, Par. 1842-48. 29 Tola.
<f) The 6th toL of Neander^a Hiat of the Chr. BeL until 1517, was left in a fragmentary state, and
baa been ed. by £ ^. T. Schneidtr^ 2 ed. 1-4 vol 1842-47. [and haa been tranaL by 7brr«y, N. T.
MBbLy-Hagmbaeh^ Neand. Yerdlenate am d. KOesch. (Stud, il Krit 185t H. 8.) Jaoolbit x. Erinn.
an Neand. (Deutaohe Zeitach. t obr. Wia& 184L N. SOaa.)
684 APPENDIX. INTBODUCTION. LTTEBATUBB.
are presented in an abstract classification of events, and in isolated cliarao-
ters, and Schaff a more extended work, in which he endeavors to give the
German Church in America the results of German theology." {a)
P. 10, "the later editions" of Ouericl'e'9 Ohnrch History are said to have
" gradually become a careful collection of interesting characteristic traits of
the piety of our forefathers. The revival of the spirit of the various con-
flicting creeds of former times, has necessarily had some influence upon eccle-
siastical history. Lindner has attempted to show that the position of the
Lutheran Ghurch is correct, by showing that the law of spiritual life is not
progress, which he regards as a purely mechanical and an unscientific idea,
but development, and has collected an abundant store of materials, with not
much criticism or exactness, but with considerable moral judgment and pious
benevolence. Kurtz^s School-Book has finally become a learned manual, in
which the language and the descriptions are vigorous, and almost popular ;
the Lutheran is set forth, with as much criticism as the circumstances allowed,
as the only true ecclesiastical system of doctrines ; and the co-operation or
resistance of men is exhibited in a scheme of salvation founded on the merits
of the incarnate Redeemer on the cross, and under the fostering care of the
Holy Spirit advancing to universal dominion. Notwithstanding the exclusive
ecclesiasticism of the two last-named writers, both founded their division
into periods on the national elements of the Graeco-Roman and the Germanic
civilization, and Kurtz went so far as to separate many things which for the
time at least belonged together. (J>) Niedner^ on the other hand, investigat-
ing and philosophizing with perfect freedom, though with obvious inequality
in his execution, and in a style which is rather dry and scholastic, but with a
strictly logical connection, has collected a great abundance of particular
views. He was followed by Frieke^ with great designs and much labor
attempting to compose a Text-Book, in which Ohurch History was to be
delivered from those petty details which are so painful and even fatal to
many minds, and addressing himself to his work with youthful ardor, but in
a peculiar and frequently distorted style, and in an unnatural order of logical
development." (e)
At the dose of § 12, QfrOrer is said to have "pointed out the immense
importance of the mediaeval Ghurch for the (German states."
Add to the close of § 22 : " And yet the necessity of supernatural aid,
and with this a confidence in its reality, had been vividly felt even in more
fortunate times. The unconscious longhigs of the Roman people were ex-
pressed by their poets in hopes full of anxious forebodings, and by their his-
tonans in gloomy presentiments, {d) Among the oriental nations, a hope
a) J.L. Jacobi, LB. d. KOescb. BrL 1850. 1 vol Ull 690. PhU. 8ehaJ[ Qeaoh. d chr. K. Von
ihrer GrQnd. b. a. d. Gegenw. Mercenb. ISM. 1 vol Aposi Zeit (Intended to be in 9 vols.) [UiA
of the Apost Church, from the Germ, of P. Scbafli; by R D. Yeamans^ N. York. ISSS.]
b) Bruno Lindrur, LB. d. chr. KGesch. m. bes. Beraek& d. dojrra. Entw. Lpa. 1S4S^S9 t Abck.
A 3 Abth. 1. n. (till 16iS.) J. IT. Kurta, (LB d. KGesoh. MleUa. 1819. 1850.) Ua d. tXlg. KO«eh.
(as & ed.) Miet 1853. 1 vol (Intended to be in 2 toIsl In 4 Abth.)
c) a W. KiedMr, Gesch. d. chr. K. LB. Lpa. 1346^ P. O. A. Friekf^ LB. d. KGoch. Lpa. ISMi
1 vol. (till 768.)
d) Virgil, Eclog. IV, 4-10.— 2>. W. Bdttichsr, proph. Stimmen a. Bom. a d«a ChrtetL In Taflttoi.
Hamb. 1840. 8 yola.
PHUXX STEPHEN. PAUL. JOHN. 685
then extensiyely prevailed that salvation would come Arom the East, and
proceed in every direction from Judea, where the fulfilment was already
approaching. This expectation, though known to the Roman conrt, was
regarded as trivial, and of no political importance." (a)
Add after Philo^ p. 21, line 5th from the hottom: ^^a weak thinker, hut
with an exalted moral and a profound religions spirit."
Near the middle of p. 25, Stephen is said to have heen ** probahly a Hel-
lenist, whose ardor had rendered him prominent in the controversy. Such a
controversy, however, shows that he had broken through the ordinary bar-
riers of the Ohristianity of that period, and portended the doom which then
threatened the nnbelieving Jews. But the angelic aspect he exhibited in
view of death could not save him," &c.
The first sentence of § 81 continues : " and from the synoptic gospels we
have reason to conclude that there were some churches on the shores of the
sea of Galilee."
In the sentence closing with '^ (64) " p. 29 : ^^ Paul did not survive the per-
secution under Nero."
After '^ sinAilness," on line 10th, p. 80 : ^^ Paul had been brought involun-
tarily and with violence to Christ ; and in the profound consciousness of the
utter nothingness of all creatures before Gk>d, he believed that man's destiny
was arranged by an immutable decree, and it was in this way that he solved
the mystery of a temporary rejection of God's people, until the Gentiles shall
have entered the divine kingdom."
Before ^^ Paul," near the close of § 88 : " Yet the new man is necessarily
produced by faith, through which the believer dies and rises again with ^
Christ."
P. 81, on line 4th, instead of ^^ Bome," read : *^ the Roman Church, which,
according to the epistle to the Bomans, was founded neither by Peter nor
by Paul."
On the first line of p. 88 : Paul " held up to those in Corinth (1 Cor. 15),
who protested against the resurrection, not on the ground of the old He-
brew and Sadducean, in opposition to the Pharisaic arguments, but on that
of inferences from Grecian literature (Acts 17, 82), the simple fact that Christ
had actually risen from the dead ; and he showed from his Pharisaic position,
that an opposite opinion would, if consistently carried out, lead to the sensual
life of an Epicurean." After the close of the section, it is said that the sim-
ple gospel *^ naturaUy developed itself in his mind, until in contrast with
those various orders of spirits, he placed the Bedeemer as the Son of God,
who had not only lived before, but had actually created the world." (Ji)
On p. 34, line 8th, the conflict beyond which John appears in his later
writings to have lived, is defined to be that between Christianity and *^ Juda-
ism, and which seemed to him as the great crisis of the conflict between
light and darkness in the world, already in the past."
a) Tiicit. Hist Y, 1& Su€i. Vesi». a 4. According to Jo»epM Bell. Jad. YI, 0. 4.
h) Col. 1, 18-17. is only the most pointed expression of the development proceeding bf means of
the epbtles to the Coloesians, Ephesians, and Phllippiana. For their Pauline origin : Reuu^ Oesch.
d. H. Bchriften. toL L p. lOlsa. 119fli. Against it: Baur^ Paul p. 417aiL
686 APPENDIX. APOSTOUO OHUBCH.
§ 89 is rewritten : *^ The writings which have come down to ns from the
apostolic Church, originated not in a Ioyc of authorship, hut from the reli-
gious exigencies of the times. They were circulars in which Paul continued
after death to commanicate with the congregations he had estahlished, recol-
lectioDS of the earthly life of Jesus, and prophetic glimpses of the end of the
world, for the consolation of those who were to live in the approaching
troubles of the Church. An inclination toward the popular language of the
Greeks naturally followed when Christianity passed beyond the limits of the
Judaism of Palestine, though an oriental coloring and a profounder religious
meaning was necessarily imparted to many of its words and phrases. Among
the epistles by an unknown hand, is that which was addressed to the Hebrewt,
Its style of thought is that which prevailed in the Alexandrian school, and
was adapted to Jewish Christians ; the allegorical mode of explaining the
Scriptures is used to show that the whole temple service which then existed
in its glory, was an unsatisfactory, shadowy form, whose rites needed to be
continually repeated, and had now attained their true reality in Christ, the
everlasting High Priest, and the perpetual sacrifice for sin ; and saving &ith
is shown to be a confidence in things unseen, and a development of the divine
trust exhibited in the Old Testament, (a) A sudden rupture from the living
spirit of former writings is immediately perceptible when we enter upon the
productions of the apostolic Epigonoi, who lived until near the middle of the
second century, and were honored by the Church as Apostolic Fathers. A
doctrinal treatise, ascribed to Barnabas by the Alexandrian doctors of the
third century, has a considerable resemblance to the epistle to the Hebrews,
though its historical views appear to have had no dependence upon the
canonical gospels (Life of Jesus, § 122, nt. e). When referring, however, to
the ruins of the temple, the author seems to have regarded Judaism not only
as then rejected by God, but as already broken when Moses, in anger at the
idolatrous people, dashed in pieces the tables of the law. He appears also to
have looked upon the whole popular practice of the ceremonial law as found-
ed upon a misunderstanding of the divine intention, according to which it
was merely a prophetic image, whose particular parts are referred with a
playful fancy to Christ as a new lawgiver, and whose true interpretation con-
stituted a complete gnosis. Q>) The epistle of Clement was written in the
name of the church of Rome to the church of Corinth (80*90), for the pur-
pose of effecting, through the influence of former fHendship, a reconciliation
between the several parties which had broken out in the latter, and we find
that it was read as a sacred book in the Corinthian Church in the second
century, {c) It contains no reference to the Jewish law, introduces many
notions then current among the Greeks, and enforces the doctrine of salva-
tion through faith and good works, (d) The Shepherd also had its origin in
a) After the Introdd. to the Commentaries {ee^ of D. Scbols, Bleek, Tholack): T. A, 8ey0bHkt
de Ep. ad H. indole peealiarL Lps. 1621. ffate^ fL d. Emj^nger d. Br. an d. H. (Winer's n. Enpdh.
Jonm. 1828. vol IL II. 8.) BaumgarUn-Crutiua de orig. Ep. ad H. Jen. 1829. W, J. Rink, ia d
Stnd. a. Krit 1889. IL 4
() Comp. UtfeU in d. Tub. Qoartalsch. 1889. H. 1.
c) Dlonya. of Corinth, in Eu». H. ecc IV, 28. C Irtn, III, Z.
d) RiUchl, p. 28268. against SchtctgUr, roL IL pi 12688. Comp. C E, Franeke^ d. I>hr« d. Om.
CLE\I£NT. HEBMAS. EGCLES. ANGELS. 687
the Roman Church, (a) After the middle of the second century, it was
regarded in many congregations as a sacred writing, and from its many
primitive hut offensive references, we conclude that it may belong to the
close of the first century, though ffermas^ the brother of Pius I., Bishop of
Rome (142-167), was the first who collected these inspired dreams, visions
of angels, and parables together, and gave them his primitive name (Rom.
16, 14). (b) It consists principally of admonitions to a strictly moral life,
and recognizes on this very account the rights of those who had fallen away,
but had penitently returned after baptism. In the allegorical form in which
the Church is there presented, Christianity appears almost exclusively as a
faith in one God, and a renunciation of the world, and Christian Judaism as
a trust in the meritoriousness of works, and as a mere theological form.'*
After the first sentence on p. 89 : ^^ But the seven stars of the angels of
the churches of Asia Minor, do not designate the overseers of those con-
gregations, but in the style of the inspired prophets, the genii by whom
the distinct character of each church is supposed to be represented^ like the
national spirits mentioned in Daniel (ch. 10), and hence they are sometimes
addressed as personal beings, and sometimes as identical with their respective
churches." (c)
The second sentence on the same page is continued thus: *^and were
ordained by the imposition of the hands either of the whole congregation, or
of the distinguished teachers belonging to it." (d)
After the second sentence on p. 40 : ^^ All were full of the expectation
of something supernatural, and they therefore put confidence in what claimed
to be manifestations of divine power, although no one felt that he could ad-
vance any daims upon it for personal aid. Every natural talent according to
its peculiar nature," &c.
Before ^^ Fastings," middle of p. 40 : '^ even the women took occasion to
lay aside those marks of propriety which were then generally observed." (e)
Before " All hope," near the close of § 43, the previous sentence con-
tinues : '* the gospel had already shown how it could quietly exalt society
above the utmost limits of the ancient world. (/) And yet some admoni-
tions to be obedient for conscience' sake to those who were actually in au-
thority, were not altogether superfluous for the new royal priesthood, (ff)
which had no conception of the labor and patience needful before its true
historical development would be attained. It is true that," &o.
^Zeitsch. r. lath. Th. 184t H. 8.) An eptetle claiming to be the 2d of Clement was found with the Ist
In the Codex Alex., bat la a doabtftil fhigment of a generally devotional character.
o) Irm. IV, a SchtcegUr, vol. IL p. 828aB. RiUchly p. 297881 Xfici^ Einl. in d. Ofll d. Joh. p.
88788. (as belonging to the first half of the 2d cent)
h) Fragm. de canone in Murai, Antiqq. ItaL vol IIL p. 858. It maj after all have been intended
onlf for a Montanlfltic object (TVrfuJ. de pud. c. 2: illo apocrTphos Pastor moechorum.) Comp.
ThUrach^ d. K. im Ap. Zeita. p. 25188.
c) Reft, 1, 20. 2, 1. 8. 12. 1& 8, L 7. Neither with GahUr, (lap. 1488.) Agents, and at the name
time personifications of the Churches, nor with Rothe (p. 428s.), ordinary bishops, but which ex-
isted originally in the plan of the apoetle^ nor with TAUrtch (K. in Ap. Zeita. p. 278s8.), superior
pMtors, a Icind of bishops. Comp. Z)« Wette, OfTcnb. Jo. p. 41a. <f) Acti «, fi. 18, 8.
e) 1 Ow. 11, 1-16.
/) Ep. ad Philemon, OoL^^K. g) Ram. 18, 1-7. 1 Pet 2, I8-I61
688 APPENDIX. 00NFLIGT8 OF OHBIBTIAKITT.
In the first sentence of § 44 : " The devotional exerdaes of the Christum
assemblies, like those of the Jewish synagogaes, consisted, in addition to an
attendance in the chnrch at Jerusalem npon the temple service, generally of
prayers, singing of psalms and even of the first strains of the Christian
hymns, (a) the reading of the proper sections of the Old Testament, and
discourses founded npon these." It is also said, that ^^ Apostolic e|Hst]es
were sometimes exchanged between different congregations (Col. 4^ 158.),"
and that ^^ in Greek congregations, b^tism was sometimes administered to
those who stood as proxies for the dead. (&)"
On p. 45, after what is said of Sept. Sevems : *^ but the prooess of trial
by torture, to induce the accused to deny their Mth, which had been author-
ized by Tngan, and after the time of Marcus AureliuB had been practised
with increased severity, was strictly enforced by the courts, at least in
Africa, (c)" After what is said of Alex. Sevems : *^ and yet, in the code of
laws which Ulpian collected for the use of the proconsuls, were indnded the
penal enactments against the Christians. ((2)"
On p. 56, after the first word at the top : '* Thus the story of the massa-
cre of the Theban Legion in a narrow pass of the YaUais (287), was, accord-
ing to its earliest traditional form, merely that of the martyrdom of Mawri^
Uvs^ with seventy soldiers, in the East ; and the more extended form of it
which has since been propagated in the West, was made known near the
middle of the fifth century, at the same time with the coming to St Maurice
of the sanctuary of this martyr-legion, with which the local services of the
different places became connected in the cities of the Lower Rhine. («)"
On p. 57, respecting the Ap. Constitutions: ^^The 7th and 8th books
were independent collections, entirely revised with respect to their language
in the fourth century, and supplied with some later ecdeeiastical usages, but
not in a sense specially favorable to the Arians. As a complete collection,
they have never attained the authority of law, and they have been put
together variously in the different national churches of the Roman empire.
In its primitive form, it was especially the compilation of the church of
Alexandria. (/)"
On p. 68, ".Choir-leaders {yfrakrai) (gy^ are mentioned among the semi-
clergy, and it is added : " Widows and deaconesses were also appointed for
the service of the church ; the latter as virgins, but yet distinguished from
the former. (A)"
a) (7o/. 8, 16. Bph. 6, 10. Ck)mp. PUnii Ep. X, 96.
I) 1 Oor. 15, 2».
c) Tertul Apol. ol 2.
d) Doniitlas Ulp. de oflEicio proconBulia, libro YIL Accordiog to Lactant Instt Y, 11.
*) Theodoret (about 427.) Oraecar. affectt curat, dtop. 8. (Oppi vol. IV. p. W3.>— VIU S. Bomaal
after 460, Ac For a solution of the story : BsWterffs EOeech. Deulschl rol. L p. 94aa. A. J. Btn-
terim^ Kalendariam Ecc. Coloniensis S. IX. ad illustr. Hist Ursnlae et sodamin yfrgic Col ISU. 4
O. llagen's Ecim-chronik der Stadt Giilln, ed. by Groots^ CoL 1884. Comp. RbeinwakTs Brp.
1885. vol IX. p. 201fl8w Hettberg in IMd. p. IIIbsl Bcspeoting Maasa candid*: Prudent Hymn. UL
TiUemont, vol IV. p. ITSas.
/) Note a. p. 67. Butufn, Hlppolytua, p. 418-627.
g) En9. n. ecc VI, 48.
A) Cone Carth, in Stotnto Ecc Aftic c 11. Ck>ntL app. YI, 17. comp. TertuL de poeolt e. U
de vir^ vol c 9. Bunsen^ Utppol p. 486.
CALLI8TU8 I. MARBIAQE. CUHJASM. 689
On p. 69, after the first sentence in § 59: ^^The congregation were
directed to obey the bishop as Christ, and the presbytery as the apostles, (a)"
After " interchangeably," middle of p. 69, insert : " traces of the resist-
ance of the presbyteries to the new authority are discoverable in both centa*
ries ; and this," &c.
On p. 61, after the words, "her subsequent empire," insert : "Even a
swindler and a furtive slave snatched from suicide, was able, after seeking by
violent means a martyr^s death, to obtain complete control over Zephyrinus,
a Bishop of Rome, but unacquainted with ecclesiastical laws, and to become
his successor, Callistus L (219 — about 224). He was disposed to grant par-
dons for all kinds of sins, and gave ofience to his opponents in the presbytery,
by asserting that a bishop could never be deposed by a presbytery, nor be
compelled to resign his office, though guilty of a deadly sin. (5)"
On p. 68, aft»r " Luke " : " but the laws of the Church were not yet
agreed with regard to the exclusion of women at certain seasons from public
worship, in accordance with the requirements of the Old Testament, (c)" —
After " severest penances" : " Adultery was the only ground on which mar-
riage could become void ; death alone could sunder the nuptial bond^ and a
second marriage was called a decent adultery. ((2)"
The following is added at the dose of § 68 : " But the sacrifice of all
earthly joys, which the whole Church looked upon as indispensable to its
true ideal of religion, found ample compensation in the belief in a millennial
kingdom, founded upon a perverted notion of the Messiah revealed by tradi-
tion, and the Revelations of John, (e) This kingdom, which the returning
Christ would establish after the subversion of the Roman empire, and the
brief dominion of the Antichrist whom they regarded as the returning matri-
cide, was to be earthly, according to its essential nature, but its images of
sensuous pleasure were also symbols of religious bliss. The faithful who
died before the fulfilment of these hopes, were consoled with the prospect
that they should be raised again to participate in the glories of this kingdom.
Such was the faith of the whole Church, (/) until the common ecclesiastical
doctrine became suspicious on account of the extravagances of a party (§ 67),
and it was opposed by the school which contended that none but spiritual
blessings were of any importance (§ 85). And yet this old and popular faith
of the Church was never surrendered to individual enthusiasts, until, instead
of the vainly expected and sudden overthrow of heathenism by a miraculous
advent of Christ, the Church experienced for a long period the historical
power of Christianity, and the clergy at least beheld the dawn of the earthly
kingdom. (^)"
a) IgnaL ad TraU. a 18L ad BmTrn. e. 8L
h) {Orig.) Pbiloeophmnena & Haerea. BeAit ed. MiUer, L IX pi 284aib
e) In favor of them : JHonyi, Alex, Ep. canon. (R<nUKy Rellq. saer. voL IL jf, 892.) Agalnil
them : ContiU. app. YI, 27a.
d) Aihenag. Deprecat ol 28. On the other aide stUl, Hsrmae Pastor II, mand. 4, 4
4) Rw. 20. Irefi, Y, 88. 8.
f) Papku : Eu9, H. ecc III, 89. JMan. c Tryph. c 80. Iren. V, 828.
g) iCorrodf) Krit Oeach. d. Cblllasm. (Frki: d. Lpz. ITSln.) Z&r. 1791 4 vola. ifflfiMlUr, hliL
XDtimrl d. U T. tonaen^). Releh In d. 8 entea Jhh. (Henke^b ICag. toL YL Pt 8.)
44
690 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHUBCH.
Beginning of § 66 : " Candidates for admission to the Church x<^''lX^
IA€vol\ from the number of whom all persons connected with any employment
in the heathen temples or the theatres were exdnded, («)'' — After " pro-
tracted to the end of life," insert : " Near the end of the third century, fixed
forms of penance were devised, as steps by which offenders might return to
the full comm anion of the Church."
Before the last sentence in § 66, insert : ^^ though many rigid persons
established the conviction in some congregations, that the Church could
admit of no penance or pardon for particular sins, or at least for their repe-
tition. Among these were included those sins which were called mortal. (()"
On p. 67, the title of § 68 is altered so as to read : ^* The Novatian and
Meletian Schisms " ; and before the last sentence in the section : ^^ About the
same time a schism was created in Egypt in consequence of the ambition of
Meletius^ Bishop of Lycopolis. This man had been a confessor in the time
of the Dioclesian persecution, and now raised the watchword that the pen-
ances to be imposed upon those who had fallen ought not to be determined
until a period of tranquillity. He interfered with the hitherto undefined pre-
rogatives •f the Metropolitan of Alexandria, by consecrating, in the place of
many living priests, a large number of others whose salaries could not be ob-
tained without the establishment of an opposition Church. The bishops of
this new Charch were recognized at Nicaca as the future successors of those
of the legitimate party ; but as they took part, to a considerable extent, with
the defeated party in the council, they shared also in its subversion. Some
remnants of them, however, were found as late as the fifth century."
References for § 69 :
** Xeander, CL Yeranlass. u. Bcschaffenb. d. < Passahstreltigkelten. (KHist Arch. ISSXL Pt 1)
Bettbsrff, die Puchastreit (Zeltsch. f. hbt Th. I$d2. vol. IL Pt 2.) Gietder, in d. Stad. n. Krlt
1888. II. A.—SchiDfgler, Montan. p. 1918a. Baur, kan. £vv. p. 8340a.— X L. WeUael^ die Paasahfeler
d. eraten Jbh. Pfurzli. 1848. (On the other aide : Baur, in d. Tb. Jahrbb. 184S. IL 2. HUgei^dd^
Ibid. 1349. H. 2.) Ibid. z. Passahfeier d. alL K. (Stud. a. Krit 1848. H. 4r
The sentences (p. 68, line 6) on the Paschal Controversy are altered thus:
" In Asia Minor, the saving Passover (tt. (rcDr^ptoy, arovpcoo-t/xov) was kept with
a love-feast, as a festival of rejoicing for the accomplishment of the work of re-
demption, at the close of the great fast on the evening of the fourteenth of Niaan.
In other parts of the Church, the Resurrection of our Lord (tr. dvacrrdcriftov)
was celebrated on the Sunday after tlie full moon in the spring, and the pre-
ceding week of the fast was observed as a representation of the Passion-week.
When Poly carp visited Rome (about 160), this difference in reckoning was
discussed, thoagh without injury to Christian unity. But the Roman bishop,
Victor^ attempted to excommunicate the Asiatic congregations as heretics
(196), for their course in this matter. Public opinion was in favor of the
Roman usage with respect to this festival, but it oould not sustain the violent
measures of the Roman bishop against those who differed firom him only
upon a ritual observance. Polycrates, in behalf of the Asiatic bishops, ap-
pealed, as Polycarp had done, to the example of John, who had observed the
a) QmstUL app. Till, 82. Oomp. Si^ntm^ Hippoljt voL L p; 4M.
h) Eerm, Pastor IL numd. 4, 1. T&rtuk de padia a U. Cbnc, BUUriL e. U T. Mdi
PASCHAL OOin'KOYEBST. WOKSHIP. BAPTISM. 691
Passover in their way among them and their ancestors, (a) Bat in Laodioea
and the country around it, the churches continued to eat the paschal lamh in
the Jewish manner, as a type of Christ^s sacrifice. A remonstrance against
this was presented (about 170) from Alexandria, from Borne, and even from
Asia Minor, on the ground that it was inconsistent with the whole represen-
tation of John in his gospel, in which Christ was never said to have par-
taken of the paschal supper according to the law, because he was himself the
true Lamb of God. (h) The Boman usage finally prevailed in the third cen-
tury, and even then those who contended, though in ignorance, that this
festival should be kept according to the Jewish law, were spoken of in Borne
among the heretics, (c) But there were still some deviations, in difierent
parts of the Ohurch, from the general usage of reckoning the Easter Sunday
from the course of the moon, (d) The fifty days,'' &o.
Near the close of § 70, instead of the ^^ cock and anchor :" ^^ and the palm ;
symbols taken principally from the Old Testament, but of typical import.
From the use of these in their houses, Christians were led to use them in
ornamenting their tombs; and as works of art in fresco or mosaic, they
were gradually introduced from the catacombs into the churches. But
even," &c.
Instead of the first sentence of § 71 : ^^ On the basis of the apostolic wor-
ship, and under the influence of obscure recollections of the services of the
temple on Zion, a solemn form of worship was gradually introduced, though
some peculiarities prevailed in the difierent metropolitan districts which pre-
vented entire uniformity in its details, (e) Prophetic and apostolic writings,
in the most extensive sense of these words, and the acts of the martyrs, dif-
ferent according to local usage and interest, were read in the public assem-
blies. The homilies which followed were delivered principally by the bishop
alone ; they were in the East constructed and uttered in a rhetorical style,
and they were therefore, even in the third century, extemporized by those
whose peculiar talents fitted them for such an exercise. The songs in honor
of Christ as a God, in which the oldest hymns that have reached us were
nsed, had a resemblance to the Pindaric odes, and show an Alexandrian
spirit (/)"
In the same section, the bread and wine presented by believers are called
" ohlationes ;" " the consecrated bread taken home by them, or sent to the
absent, was eaten every morning before any thing else ; " {g) " baptism was ad-
ministered usually by immersion three times, to the sick by sprinkling (B.
clinicorum), with reference to the death of our Lord, and in the name of the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; " ^* anointing (xp7afia)^ as well as impo-
a) Sum. II. ecc Y, 23-25. Ttrtul. de praeacr. (Append.) c 69, Socrai. H. ecc T, 21.
b) Em. n. ecc. IV, 20. Ckronicon patch, ed. Dindorf, toL I. p. 128& (Mellto, Bp. of Sardei,
Clemens Alex., Ap<)Ulnaris Bp. of Uierapolis, IIlppoljtoA.)
e) {Orig.) HaeresL Refat p. 274«a.
d) F. Ptper, Qesch. d. Ostcrfcstes. Bri. 1845.
€) ConMUL opp. YIIL Cooap. the Alexandrian view according to T^UanCt repreaontatioii in
Bunnen^ Hlppol. p. 49Aw,
f) Clem. Paed. Ill, 12. {CUm. Hymn, in Salr. ed. Plpw, Odtt 1885.) Uebeni b. JKSniir,
Sinnb. u. Kunstvont p. Ite
g) Tertul ad oxor. II, 5. oomp. ^im#M, HippoL p. 601
692 APPENDIX. ANCIENT OHUSOH,
gition of hands, was the consammation of baptism ; and e(mfirmatum (oon-
signatio) became finally a distinct rite.^'
P. 71, instead of the sentence commencing with "Justin'^: ^^The
memorabilia of the apostles, quoted by Justin, correspond essentially with
the history given in the synoptic gospels. Bat some deviations from it can-
not be folly explained by allowing that they were written from an indepen-
dent recollection. They rather imply that he could not have made use of
these synoptic gospels, but that he must have had besides them, or instead
of them, such a revision as was in use among the Jewish Ohristians, like the
Gospel of the Hebrews, or the Grospol of Peter, (a)"
After the ninth line on p. 78 : ^^ In these respects they entirely correspond
with the Martyr- Acts of Ignatius, (b) The feelings of humility and of self-
respect, as well as the desire to die, shown in them, were very possible in a
character highly esteemed in the age in which the martyr lived, and the
abuse of the soldiers, and his free intercourse with his friends, were consisteBt
with the Boman laws on imprisonment. But not only have we indubitable
evidence that the more extensive text has been revised, (e) and that other
epistles have been added to the original seven, but even the shorter text dis-
covered again in the seventeenth century, has not proved to be perfectly
genuine, (d) The newly-discovered Syriac translation of three epistles, in the
briefest and the rather less hierarchic text, produces the impression that it
can be only an extract, (e) But if even the germ of these epistles should
prove to be spurious, and not essentially the same with the fundamental ideas
in the more extended work we now have, they would still be an important
document of the middle of the second century. (/) The Epistle of Polyearp
to the Philippians is a modest admonition to morality, was written with
reference to the actual circumstances of their Church, makes several allusions
to Paul, and is pervaded by the same spirit as the first epistle of John, and
the pastoral epistles. The obvious reference to Ignatius is probably of a
later origin, {g) Papias^''^ &c.
The title of § 74 is changed into ^^Apocryphal Literature.'^ References are :
a) Note b. p. 71. SemUch, d. api>. Denkw. d. Just Goth. 1&19. JTilffer{feld, krit UntenL fl. d.
Sty. Jnst, d. Clem. HomUien. vu Jdarcion's. HaL 1850.
b) (After the editt of the Patree app.) Corpus Ignatianain bj WilL Cureton, Lood. 1S49. I^oattl
quae feruntur Epp. cum ct)uBd. martTrio, coll. editt graecis, Tereionibnaq. syriaca, armeiL, laL reo. /
K PeUrmann^ Lps. 1849. M. J. Wochsr^ d. Brr. d. h. Ign. fibers, n. erkl&rt Tab. 1829.
c) On the other hand only paradoxicallj : JT. Meier^ d. dopp. Beo. d. Brr. d. Ign. (Stud. n. Krft.
1888. H. &)
d) Against the genaineness : J. DaUaeut, Baur, J.E.C. Schmidt, (abridged in his KGeech.) and
ilTtfte, (as referred to in Note a. p. 78.) SchtotgUr, nachap. Zelta. toL IL p. ISOasi (respecting t
Pauline as a counterpoise to the Petrine Clementlnee in Bome after the middle of the Sd cent)
For the genuineness : Pearson, Tom, Rothe, Jffuther, and Dilu*«rdi«c3t, (as referred to in Note &
^7&)
€) Note &. p. 78. C. E, J. BunMn, Ign. n. s. Zeit 7 Bendsch. an Neander. Die 8 Kcbten v. 4
nnfichten Brr. d. Ign. limb. 1847. 4 On the other side : Baw, Die Ign. Brr. a. Ihr neoester Kri-
tiker. Tub. 1848.— Z?: Dervtinger, ^. d. Aechth. d. bish. Textes d. Ign. Brr. Wfinb. 1849. 0.
Uhlhom, d. Yerh. d. sjr. Beo. d. Ign. Brr. i. d. kfirtzem griech. (Zeitsch. t hist Th. 1801. H. t)
/) iPolycarpi, £p. c 18.) Iren. Y, 28. Orig. in Luc. Horn. ft. (voL IIL p. 988.) Aml H. •«
III, 86.
g) Note a p. 78. For the genuineness, with the exoeptiMi of interpolations (but more Tiforav
than Dallaeos and Bonsen) : JHUchl, altkath. K p^ 804«.
GNOSTICISM. SATUBNINUS. OPHITE& 693
** MoMhsim^ d« canali rappositt Ubror. inter Chrtott (Dfl& ad H. eco. roL L p^ 2178&) Lttek4,
ElnL in d. Offenb. Job. ed. 8. 184a p. 6666. Htuu, Ge6cb. d. H. Schriften N. T. ed. 2. Abtb. I.
p. 28566.''
Add to § 74 : " Commencing with the written controversy with heathen-
ism (§ 52), this kind of ecclesiastical literatnre was now developed in a con-
troversy with the heretics, and penetrated deeply not only the sense of the
Scriptures, hut the spirit of the Chnrch itself. It is divided into three
schools, according to local traditions, hnt in consequence of the intercourse
which then prevailed in the Church, these traditions were very extensively
diffused."
Ref. § 75 : Sehliemann is to be corrected with respect to Ebionism, by,
"^ BUicfd, Altkath. K. p. 1026S.**
After ^ apostate " (^m^ 17), p. 75 : *' According to Roman accounts, they
trusted to the law for justification, as they believed that Christ was justified,
and became the Messiah by completely fulfilling it (a)
On Gnosticism (p. 76), after the reference to Ritter :
FT. Bo§sdy Oesch. d. Untoreach. 1L d. Gnoet (Tb. Bchrr. cingcC r. Neander. Bii 1847. vol I.
In the first sentence of § 76 (p. 76), after " infinite " : " and indeed re-
specting the origin and development of thcf divine existence '' ; and at the
close of the same sentence : ^^ which combined all the speculations and fan-
cies of earlier and contemporaneous philosophies, and endeavored to pene-
trate all the mysteries of the divine, as well as of human history.**
P. 77, Saturninus is said to have had "a special relation to Menander,"
and to have held, that "Satan was the original ruler over matter (iJXi;)";
that the seven planetary spirits, " with the view of founding a kingdom for
themselves, wrested from Satan*s kingdom the materials of the present uni-
verse,** and that " the God of the Jews put himself at the head of the plan-
etary spirits, and to assist them, raised up a series of prophets. But as their
God could not prevail against the demoniac powers, one of the highest
Aeons {yovi\ as Christ in the semblance of a body, came to redeem the supe-
rior human race from the power of Satan, as well as of the planetary spirits.
To effect this, he gave them the Gnosis and the Law, which directed them to
abstain from every thing by which men became subject to matter. The fol-
lowers," Ac.
§ 78, on the Hellenistic Gnostics, commences thus: "1) The Ophitei
CSaaaarjvoi) constituted the transition from the Oriental to the Hellenistic
Gnostics. They originated probably in Phrygia before the time of Christ,
and called themselves simply Gnostics ; but in Egypt they adopted Christian
notions, though they always remained openly hostile to Judaism. They pro-
fessed to believe that the Son of Man emanated from the Original Source
Ovdof ), in which the male and female powers were combined, and that the
Mother of Life (irpfv^ia ayiov) sprung from him and his parent. From her
connection with the former original types of humanity, Christ was born, and
from the excess of light then sent forth, was produced Sophia^ i, f., the prin-
a) iOrig.) lUerea. B«rdt p. 257.
694 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CUUSCH.
oiple of redemption and of creation. When Sophia, the imperfect and
adventitious offspring of this connection, aspired to he like God, she plunged
into chaos, and gave hirth to Jaldahaoth^ i. «., the son of chaos. This heing,
that he might create a special kingdom for himself, hronght forth the seven
planetary spirits ; and when these also aimed at independence, in great rage
he threw himself into the slime from which the universe was formed, and
the outward image of his wrath hecame quickened into the serpent-spirit
(o^to/xopc^oy). To supply the planetary spirits with employment^ he, with
their assistance, formed man in his own image ; and after Sophia had given
inspiration to this work of his hands, he animated it with his own spirit to
have dominion over divine things. But in this process he had parted with
his highest powers, and now saw with terror that his creature was superior
to himself. To prevent man from hecoming conscious of these exalted pow-
ers, he conmianded him not to eat of the tree of knowledge. Sophia, having
been brought by the apostasy of her offspring to repentance for her faulty
and to a consciousness of her divine nature, now endeavors to attract to her-
self and to purify the spiritual light -power in the world created by Jalda-
baoth. Availing herself of the enmity of the serpent-spirit against its
parent) she induces man to transgress the prohibition respecting the tree of
knowledge. Hence, what is called a Fall in the books of the God of the
Jews, was in fact a transition to a higher mental state. In great wrath the
Creator of the world now throws men down to the lowest material world,
and harasses them with all the pains and temptations incident to matter, but
reserves a chosen people for his own special possession. Individual persona,
endowed with high intellectual powers, are raised up by Sophia, but she
vainly strives to free them from their bonds^ until the Aeon Christ unites
himself with the Messiah sent by the Creator of the world, and brings to
men the saving knowledge of the true God. Jaldabaoth had his own Mes-
siah crucified, that he might thus destroy the superior being connected with
him, but who had previously departed. In the end, Sophia, with her pneu-
matic followers among men, will be led back to the blissful fellowship of
God; and the God of the Jews, deprived of the light of all the pneu-
matic powers, will gradually sink into the abyss of annihilation. The ser-
pent)" &c.
^^ 2) BasilideH of Alexandria (120-180) completed, and at the same time
transcended the Gnosticism which professed to be an esoteric doctriae pre-
served by Matthias. The Ineffable (t6 apprjTov)^ the Deity who exists not
merely for time (6 ovk itp dcof), has the germ of every thing in himself, and
gives existence to every thing not by emanatk)n (npoPokff^ but as Jehovah
does to the light. In this germ of the universe {navtnrtpyila rod Koafwv) ex-
isted a threefold sonship {vIottjs Tpi4i€pris)y which the Original Being produces
by the attractive power of his beauty. The first mounts directly up to him-
self, and constitutes the happy world of spirit (frXi7p<ii>fia) ; the second forms
the confines of this heaven, and is represented by the Holy Ghost {to fif^6pu»
irvfvpa) ; and the third remains in the original germ of the universe, and
needs purification. From this last sprung the first and the second ruler of the
world (a/)xa)v), each of whom, in accordance with the decree of the Original
QN08TICIBM. BA8ILIDE8. YALENTINU8. 695
Being, gave birth to a saperior son. The first of these created for himself
the upper, and the last the lower planetary heaven. From the germs of these
was developed the lowest world with the race of man. Until the time of
Moses, this was the kingdom of the lower Archon. But Moses made known
to it the higher Archon, by whom the prophets were commissioned. The
great Archon supposed himself to be God ; but when tlirough his Son he
received the gospel from the Holy Ghost, he reverently submitted himself to
its revelations. Hence, in duo time, the son of Mary in this lower world was
enlightened by the gospel, and his nature was purified from all worldly ele-
ments by the necessary process of his sufferings. Accordingly, these elements
were left on earth ; his physical part remained at his ascension in the plan-
etary heaven, and his pneumatic part ascended to the pleroma as the type of
all the redeemed. In the end, when all who are susceptible shall have
attained their destiny, this lower world will be again covered with ignorance,
and all things will be confirmed in the permanent state of existence for
which they are naturally fitted. This Roman account, (a) founded upon the
writings of Basilides and his son Isidore, and confirmed by the fact that they
used the term faith to designate the reception of salvation, and yet maintained
the necessity of the redemption of that which is divine from a nature originally
alienated from God, seems to imply that the materials of the universe are
independent. The revelation of the Original Being in 865 kingdoms of
spirits, according to astronomical relations indicated by the mystic watch-
word Abraxas (or dfipaa-a^), may find a sufficient place in the doctrine of the
threefold sonship, but in other accounts was looked upon as an emanation
from the Original Being, or a gradual deterioration of his essence, until the
seven angels of the lowest spiritual worid, with the Archon, the God of the
Jews, at their head, created the world from the materials which they found,
and furnished their men with all kinds of worldly powers, and with such
spiritual powers as they themselves possessed. To efiect the deliverance of
this spiritual power from its connection with matter, the first- bom celestial
power (vovs) united himself with Jesus at his baptism. Though this Jesus
was a perfect man, he needed an atonement for himself, and it was he alone
who suffered and died. In this manner, it is possible that even the Basi-
lid^ans adopted the peculiarities of Gnosticism, and, especially in the West,
carried the idea of freedom from the law so far that it amounted to moral
indifference, ascribed to the Bedeemer only the semblance of a body, and
hence may have regarded a denial of him as of no importance. In this state
of elevation above all positive religious forms, they maintained an existence
until late in the fourth century."
" 3) ValeiUinus^^'* &c. The scheme of Valentine is said to be (p. 78) " a
lofty religion of the spirit, founded on the religion of nature professed among
the heathen."
After the word '* events " (line 5, p. 79) : '^ in an ascending scale of
forms, possessing a material, psychical, and pneumatic nature, in accordance
with this mingling of infiuences, and the variable moods of the Sophia."
a) naer. Refut p. 225-844.— B«eil. philosophi ^ostici seateDti«e ex HippoL libru iUnstr. ed. J.
L. Jacobiy Begiom. 1852.
696 APPENDIX. ANCIENT GHUBOH.
After the word ^^ oentary,*' tenth line from the foot of p. 79, continae the
sentence : *^ divided into an Oriental and an Italian school. The former held
that the body of the Saviour was pneumatic, because the H0I7 Ghost over-
shadowed Mary ; the latter contended that it must have been psychical, sinoo
the higher principle did not come upon him until his baptism. According to
t)ie Roman account, (a) Heracleon and Ptolemaeus belonged to the latter
school, and ascribed to external works no other importance than that of
sensibly expressing our spiritual unity with Christ. The gospel of John has
been very seriously and piously explained by Heracleon, who ftdly believed
that it corresponded with his views, and sometimes his interpretation is sim-
pler than that of Origen. (b) Ptolemaeus is said to have regarded the Aeons
which Valentine," &c.
P. 80, after the first line : ^^ Finally, Marcus^ who boasted that he had
given a proper direction to this school, has indeed enlarged the nnmber of
Aeons by poetical allegories and a literal application of Pythagorean num-
bers, and has described the universe as an utterance of the Ineffable, or a
gradual decadence of the divine essence ; but the gorgeous ^stem of the
Marcoeian worship, with its twofold baptism, its change of wine into blood,
and its attractions for women of eminent talents, gave occasion to scandal
about philters, magic, and juggling, {ey^
4) " Garpoerates^^'' &c. After, " The same was true of," (line 5, p. 81) :
insert : " the son of Joseph, who carried with him in a pure state through all
earthly things, the recollections of what he had witnessed in a superior
state, and overthrew the law of the mundane ^irits."
Additional references to § 79 :
** 4) TertuL adv. Hermogenem. Haerea. Beftit pt. STSa. Thsodoret, Baa. flkbb. I, 19l oomp. Ami
IL ecc. IV, 24— (7. Bothmer^ Herm. Africanoa. Saod. 1882.''
The sentence (p. 81, last line) ending with " concealed," continues: " in a
body not formed of earthly materials, but fitted for activity and suffering
among men. (cQ"
Note dy p. 79, reads :
** They are the principal topic of Iren, (I, \m. II, 1. Haer. Reftit 177-94) and of Tm-iuL (adv. Yai-
•Dtinianos), bat the representatioii which they give was even then that of Ptolemaena. Some par>
tlculan in Clement Orig. in Jo. torn. 18. Epiph. Haer. 81s. Munter^ Odae gnosticac, thebaico et
lat Uafh. 1812. The Coptic MS. Sophia, preserved in the Brit Masenm as a trans, of the loat prin-
dpal treatise cX Valentine (Sat fee. M. O. SchtDane^ ed. Peterfnann^ Ber. 18S1.) is an nnimportast
later production of the Marcoeian party.— ZT. Rbaael^ d. System Tal. (Th. Sehrr. p. 250n.y
At the close of § 79, add : " 4) ITermogenes of Oarthage (about 200) came
upon Gnostic ground, only when he taught that the Deity in creation acted
upon the wild chaotic mass from which the world was made, and which was
like himself, eternal, as it were with the power of beauty, and thus formed
from it the natural world and mankind ; and that even deformed and wicked
a) Beftit Haer. p. 19&. h) Extracts in OHg. torn. In Ev. Ja oomp. Epiph, baer. 88.
c) rren. I, 18-21. Haer. Beflit p. 200. (Scarcely any thing but Extracts from Iren.) Epipk
baer. 84L
d) The Roman account (Haer. Reftit p. 258s.) is oonftised, since the doctrine of a later Mardooite
named Prepon^ according to which the Kodeetncr himself, as the Mediator between the good sad
evil principle, wa5 only riglitcous, is made to imply a change of views in Marcion bloisall Comfi
the correct derivation fk-om Cordun. (Ibid p. 259.)
HEBMOOENES. EBIONITEa IBENAEUS. • 697
things now enter into the nniversal system as a resisting remnant (fiKotrfiov)^
but will, aft«r the development of all which is capable of improvement^ sink
back into chaotic nothingness. Tertulllan vented his wrath against Hermo-
genes by an attack npon the imitative arts, and all liberal culture in the
Church."
§ 80 is entitled ^^ Gnostic Ebionites," &c.
About the middle of p. 84, the sentence beginning, " The Homilies," may
read : ^^ The Homilies were never the creed of the Roman Church, but were
composed or revised in Rome about the middle of the second century, to
reconcile the Jewish Christianity, which was not yet denounced, but was de-
clining there, with" &c. (a)
P. 86, 8th line, after ^' baptism," read : " and in addition to this, highly
commended circumcision to Jews by birth."
At the close of § 80, add : ^^ At the conmiencement of the third century,
a book of this sect was brought from Syria to Rome, which claimed to have
come from the hand of a gigantic angel. It required circumcision, but of-
fered pardon for even the most unnatural sins on a second baptism, and was
rejected by the Roman Presbytery, (b) Origen knew of this party even in bis
day, and speaks of their selection from the law and the gospel, their book
which fell from heaven, and of their new forgiveness of sins, (c)"
P. 85, last line, after " appreciated," read : ^^ but the fantastic nature of
their dogmas, their partial adoption of pagan notions, their high-wrought,
or, sometimes on the contrary, variable system of morals, and the position
which they endeavored to maintain in the Church, {d) or at least their ordi-
nary connection with Catholic Christianity, render a judgment respecting
them at the present day on various accounts, a matter of difficulty, (e)^'
§ 83 is entitled — " I. The Asiatic-Roman School," and reads : " A Chris-
tian theology was produced especially in the controversy with the Gnostics,
in which an attempt was made to adhere to the historical basis of Christian-
ity as the common property of all, and to apprehend its practical relations in
a scientific manner. While therefore philosophy was recognized, true Chris-
tianity was looked upon as consisting in the writings and traditions which
had been preserved from the apostolic times, and those things which were
intelligible to the common people. Irenaeus was the principal agent in intro-
ducing this school to the West. He was a disciple of Poly carp, and in conse-
quence of the intercourse between Asia and the congregation:} recently estab-
lished upon the Rhone he became a presbyter in Lyons. During his absence
on a mission to the Roman bishop, Eleutherns, to effect an accommodation
with the Montanists (177), he escaped the massacre under Marcus Aurelius. (/)
The same year, however, he became the successor of Pothinus, the martyr-
a) Acconling to the genaine epbtle of Clement, the Pastor of Hennas, and the writings of Jiu-
Un in opposition on tlie one hand, to ScfiweffUr^ nachap. Zeita. voU L p. 402sb. and on tiie other to
Domer, L. v. d. Person Chr. vol. I. p. 156. Comp^ BiUchl, altkath. K. p. 2538iL UUgenfeld, £yr.
JuBtins. p. 220.
I) Ilaer. Refiit p. 292».
c) In Eu*. II. eoc. VI, 88.
<0 Comp. % 79. Tertul. c Yalent c A.
0) £. g. VopiHcm^ Vita Saturaini c 2. Just ApoL L o. 2ft. /) K\t9, H. mc. Y, i.
698 APPENDIX ANCIENT CHUBCH.
bishop of ninety years of age, and soon restored the agitated congregation to
its former prosperity. The only proof of his own martyrdom (about 202)
consists in some remembrances or wishes which existed at a much later period
in the Frankish Chm*ch. (a) The recollections of his yonth went back nearly,
if not quite, to apostolic times, (h) and he was therefore strenuously opposed
to Gnostic speculations and all attempts to explore the abyss of Deity, (e)
His confidence in the writings of John was no less than his familiarity with
them, and we therefore find him using the most glowing imagery of Asiatic
tradition, and maintaining that the Iloly Spirit was still ponred out upon the
Ohurch, (d) and that the millennial kingdom was near at hand, (e ) He was
practically inclined to nothing in Montanism but the moral earnestness which
he found in it^ and though he rebuked the assumptions of the Roman bishop,
he was accustomed in the spirit of peace, and in opposition to those who
would rend the glorious body of Ohrist on account of a mere difference in
the mode of apprehending Christian truth, (/) to point the whole West to
the Roman see (§ 62, nt. <», § 69, nt. b). His writings were to his people as if
composed in a foreign land, and consequently were but little known among
them ; with respect to their peculiar meaning they soon became to a consider-
able extent foreign to the whole Church, and the principal part of them were
therefore at an early period lost, (g) The Roman presbyter, CaUis^ in an elo-
quent dialogue with Proclus, the principal advocate of Montanism at Rome,
presents us with a good representation of that system, and the arguments
urged against it (202-18). (A) With the moderate feelings of a Roman con-
versant with the trophies of apostolic martyrdoms, this distinguished presbj-
ter presumes to reject not only the Phrygian prophecies but the notion of an
earthly millennial kingdom, the authorship of which he transfers from an
apostle to a heretic, (i) Jlippolytus^ who calls himself a disciple of I^enaelu^
has left some allegorical explanations principally of the Old Testament, and
some works against heretics, which were regarded as very valuable, (i) The
nature and style of these writings, as far as the titles and fragments we have,
afford us the means of judgment, (?) the general acquaintance with them
which the Syrian Church possessed, (m) and the veneration as a martyr
which was given him at Antioch, indicate that he resided in Asia, but his
statue found near Rome in the old Tiburtine street (1551) with a catalogae
of his writings and the Easter-cycle engraved upon his cathedra, (n) and a
a) Greg. Turon. H. ecc Franc. I, 29.
b) Ep. ad Florlnum : Eus. II. ecc V, 20. c) Irtn. II, 28. «.
d) Ibid. Ill, 11. 9. e) Ibid. V, 25-36. /) Ibid. IV, 88. fi.
q) Note b, p. 8S. L. Duncker^ d. h. Iren. CbristuI ini ZusainmeDb. m. dessen theoL a. anthn>p.
Grundl. GotU 1S4H.
h) EtM. U. ecc. II, 25. VI, 20.
i) This sense of Eus. H. ecc. II, 23 can no longer be dispnted, since the account of l)i4>nv!4os
Alex, lias been compared with it
ib) Phot. cod. 121. Easebius (H. ecc. VI, 22 oomp. 28.) thooght that the period of bis lit«>nu7 ac-
tivity was only Just before that of Origen, and from this Jerome (Catal. c 61.) baa inf«*rred that bt
exerted a direct influence upon the latter.
t) 8. Hipp. 0pp. ed. J. A. Fabrlciut, Hamb. 1T16-18. 2 vols, t OaUandii BlbL vol IL
fit) Ebedjesu in Afuiemani BibL or. vol. Ill P. 1.
fi) Note 0*, p. 96. A horrible engraving of it is given in Fabric vol. L p. Stt, but a better Utbo-
graph is before Bansen*^ [Hippolytus and his age, new ed. Lond. 1851 2 roU. W. K. Taplor^ Hip*
poL A the Cbr. Cburch of the 8d cent Lond. 1858. 1&]
ASIATIC-ROMAN SCHOOL HIPP0LYTU8. 699
Roman festival in which a great annoal feast was observed by the people to
his honor in the fonrth century, imply that he mnst have resided in a Roman
territory. Not only does the most ancient testimony favor this Western resi-
dence, but it would seem that the Portus Romanus mentioned as his see can
be no other than the Roman harbor opposite Ostia. (a) As he was one of
the most distinguished astronomers of his day he made the first calculation
of Easter for the West, (b) As was naturally to be expected, the tradition
from Irenaeus through the Roman clergy, if not a moral sympathy with the
Montanistic tendency, produced in such a man a strong partiality for the
Revelation by John, and for a kingdom of Ohrist at the second advent, though
the time for it was placed far in the future, (c) The work against all here-
sies found in 1842 on Mount Athos (d)^ has been partially and arbitrarily
abridged, and many passages in it have been in various ways corrupted. As
the first book had long been known under the name of the Pholosophumena
of Origen, the whole work was published under the same name, («) but it
bears unquestionable evidence of having been composed by some distinguislied
member of the Roman Presbytery under Zephyrinus and his successors. (/)
The representation of the 82 heresies is to some extent literally borrowed
from Irenaeus, with the omission merely of declamatory expressions, but it is
also enlarged by accounts from original documents. The heresies themselves
are traced to the philosophy of the Greeks, to the systems of magic, and to
the ancient mysteries ; they are assigned to these philosophical schools in a
rather violent manner, and these schools are described so as to favor such a
division. The whole is pervaded by moral seriousness in contrast witli an
easy submission to Oallistus, the Roman bishop, who is described as the
patron of all heretics (§ 62). The authorship of it must be referred to either
Caius or Hippolytus, and as it contains nothing which reminds us of the po%
lemics of the first ; as the writer acknowledges himself the author of a
work on the Universe, (g) which on the cathedra is ascribed to Hippolytus,
and as no witnesses speak of a treatise against all heresies except by him, (A)
a) Peter, the MetropoHtan of Alexandria aboat 806, ia the Prooemiam of the Chron. pascbale p. 12 :
iwiffKoiros n6pTov rrKrifrioy rris 'P<&/irit. K J. KlmmeL, de Ulpp. vlt« et acrlpUa. Jen. 1S89. P. I.
L. F. W. Seineckf, Lebon u. Schrr. d. II. (Zeitsch t btet Th. 1S42. II. 8.) On tbo other hand : since
Ls Moyns has written much In flivor of Portus Eom. In Arabia, now Aden ; C. F. Haenell (de
Uipp. Gott 18S4 4.) is in fltvor of Botira^ In consequence of a misunderatandlng of wo-airrwt
in Eu*. H. ecc. VI, 20. Comp. Dom&r^ Lehre v. d. Person Chr. L p. 60488.
li) Canon pa8cba]i^ a cycle of 16 years seven times repeated (h>m the year 822, In the treatise
c) On the Cathedra: *tic\p toO kcptA *\ttiuvn\v worff^\io\) koI &ro«caXi^(w^ Perhaps alwi :
n«pl x^^^^y^^"^^^ inroffT. vapdiotriSt belongs here. Tltpi *A»Tixpl<rrau Is preserved in : FahHc.
vol. L p. 4s8. In EbfdJMu : Kt^aXina irphs Tatoy.
d) In the context regularly : 6 Kark watr&y alp«(rt»y i\4yxos.
<•) OrigenU Philosopbumena 8. omnium Haeresium Befhtatio. E. ood. Parisino ed. Emmanuel
Afilier, Oxon. 18M. The 1st Book is from the works of Orig^ the 2d & 3d are wanting, and the lOtb
is without the conclusion.
/) Prooem. p. a 1. IX. p. 279. 295. 289.
g) p. 884: Utpl rrjs rod worr^T ohalas. Photins alone mentions Calus as the writer, on the
authority of a gloes uncertain to himself.
h) Eus. II. ecc VI, 22. Ilpot airdaas riis alpictiSy In like manner Jerome; on the cathedra It
was perhaps Intentionally omitted.
700 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHT7B0H.
the question mnst be decided in his favor, (a) The earlier or even contem-
poraneous see of a neighboring bishop within the boands of the Roman pres-
bytery is consistent with, and explains the more recent ecclesiastical order.
As Hippolytofl on the one hand refers the Roman opponents of the essential
divinity of Christ to the authority of the Holy Ghost in the Scriptures, and
replies to their objection that this doctrine was an innovation, by appealing
to well-established Roman traditions ; (b) so, on the other hand, he announced
the mysteries of Christ^s human Godhead in lofty parables, in opposition to
those who exalted this divine nature until the pre-existent personality of
Christ was destroyed, (e) Prudentius has sung (d) the martyrdom of an Hip-
polytus, whom he calls a much esteemed Novatian presbyter, and who, in
prospect of death, returned to the Catholic Church, and says that after his
execution near the mouth of the Hber, his remains were conveyed to the
Roman catacombs, and that afterwards a stately chapel was erected to him
on the spot where his statue had been found. Hippolytus could hardly have
lived to witness the Novatian schism, and the last historical notice of him
mentions his transportation with the Roman bishop to Sardinia, where con-
demned persons were doomed to die (236) ; (e) but it is very possible that
this member of the Roman clergy who was so learned in the Scriptures, and
who was so unsparing in his treatment of a Roman .bishop, asserted princi-
ples which were afterwards called Novatian, and was therefore regarded as
belonging to that schism, and yet that his reputation in the congregation at
Rome as an author and a martyr was Justified by th^ legend of his return to
the Church. Julius A/ricanus also appears to have had an Asiatic educa-
tion, to have resided and been highly esteemed in the ancient JBmmaus (Nioo-
polis), and to have been a friend of Origen, though more advanced in age (d.
about 232). lie attempted to harmonize the history of the world as given in
the Scriptures, especially in its chronology, with the researches of Greek
writers, and from his epistles he appears to have been a liberal critic of the
sacred history, and yet to have defended its essential facts against the attacks
of still bolder assailants. (/) In this tendency we perceive the germs of a
new school of Scriptural learning."
The next section is entitled — " II. The Roman African School," and com-
mences thus : ^^ The only literature which the Latin Church possessed," &q.
a) J. L. JacoM in the Deatsch. Zeitsch. t cbr. Wise. 1851. N. 25«. B. C. J. B»n»en, Hipp. n. a.
Zelt Lpfl. 1853. vol. I. On the other band in fevor of Gains : FasO^r in the Tub. th. Qoartalseh. 1S53.
pi 299s& Baur in the tb. Jahrbb. 1853. IL 1.
h) In the fiiKpht \a^i>pivbo% {^Kara rr^s *Apr4tiMyos cdp4<rfwt Aiyoi) which the writer of
the treatise on the Universe (nt ff, last p.) qnotes as his own work, and ftom which the passages io
Bm. H. ccc. y, 28. are probably taken. Comp. TTisod. Haer. &bb. II, 6l yioeph, H. ecc IV, 21. Oo
the other hand : Pfiot. cod. 48. as the work of Caius.
c) Tlpbs NoTiTov. (Fabric vol. II. p. Ssa.) d) Peristeph. hym. 11.
«) In the Catalogns Liberianns of 821, and in the Liber pontlflcalis ; see its newly discovered text
in Bunson, p. 15(>Sw The tuit that some one of the name of Ilippolytns bore a mesaaga nr epistkt
firom Dionysius of Alex, is the only reason for supposing that his life was protracted longer.
/) XP^^^P*"^^^^ irtyrt ffirov^dfffiaTa (preserved only in Eosebins^ chronideX *Eir(0T. 9*fA
rris icard lovadvvav IffropiaSt with an apologetical answer in Origen. *Erf<rr. irphs * ApiirrtihiWt
Harmony of the Genealogies of Jesoa. Bm, H. eco. I, 7. YI, 81. Ifi^r. Cat. c 63. BotMy B/A\q,
Mcr. vol. IL
BOMAN-AFBIOAN SCHOOL. TESTULLIAIT. CYPBIAN. 701
After *' Rome," 4th line from the foot of p. 88 : " was amply educated in
Greek general learning," — and it is said : ^^ his wit was sometimes yezy natu-
ral bnt sometimes far-fetched," — and ^* he supplied the African Church with
the watch-word that Ohrist calls himself the truth, not usage." (a)
The 11th line on p. 89 continues thus : ^^ The Montanistic spirit is percep-
tible in them all, but in the earliest of them it holds up the simple noble na-
ture of Christian morality in opposition merely to an effeminate form of civi-
lization, gradnaUy it proceeds to still severer demands, and shows an increas-
ing consciousness of its pneumatic nature in opposition to those who were
merely psychical Ohristians, (h) and finally it was especially hostile to the
Romish Ohuroh, in proportion as the latter ceased to favor Montanism. For
it was not so much TertuUian as the Roman bishop who changed his views {c)
with reference to that system, and we need not be surprised that a liberality
like that which sprung up under Zephyrinus, and an act of pardon like that
which Oallistus proclaimed for all who had been expelled for licentious con-
duct, should have made this church in the eyes of the stem disciplinarian
worse than a den of robbers, {d) And yet the West continued so tolerant
toward Montanism that a number of female martyrs adhering to that system
have been canonized in the African Ohurch, (e) and TertuUian, to whom the
Paraclete was rather a restorer of apostolical order than an innovator, and
religious ecstasy was rather a theory than a principle, became so prominent,
that he was looked upon as the model for the Latin theology. This theology
was then disinclined to any philosophical theories respecting divine things ;
it spoke of Athens and the Academy as irreconcilable with Jerusalem and
the Church, and turned its whole attention to questions respecting the con-
dition of the Church, and things essential to salvation. A congregation of
TertullianUU in Carthage could have had nothing but a local importance, and
reunited with the Catholic Church in the time of Augustine. (/) Thascius
Caecilius Cyprianus may be regarded as the personal representative of the
Catholic Church in his day. (g) Having eiyoyed," &o.
After " assistance," p. 90, 8th line from the bottom : " and to encourage
others to a similar course he extolled such acts as an expiation for all the sins
of believers." (h)
Instead of the sentence beginning *^ Cyprian had now become," p. 91, line
7th, read : " Cyprian was now pledged to die a martyr's death," (i) — and at
the close of § 84, p. 91, add : ^* Both leaders in the African Church died in
the assurance that they would soon be raised again from the dead by the
a) De ylrgg. veL c. L
b) D« po«nit c. 758. oomp. de pudlc. o. 1. oomp. 16. Ad oxor. I, 8. oomp. de fiigft in penecat— De
Tlrgg. veL c. la.
c) Noto «, p. 89.
cf) The edictnm peremtoTimn Tert de pud. o. 1. has now its complete ezpUiuttion : (Orig.) Haer.
BeAit 1. IX. p. 290l
«) Note/ p. 89. /) Ang. haer. 16.
g) Vita Cjpr. per Pontium, Cfjos Diaconnm (Cjpr. 0pp.) Among the Actls Martjrii are the two
older beginning: Cam Cypr. and Imp. Valeriana — J. Pearson^ Annales Cyprianici, before Fell's edi-
tion. F. W. ROtberg^ Cypr. nacb s. Leben a. Wirken. Gott 1881. Rudtlbacht cbr. Biograpblo. Lps.
1850. yoL L 1.
k) De Opera et Eleemosjuis (85L) 0 De ezbortat martTril (98S).
702 APPENDIX ANCIENT OHUBCH.
Yoice of their rctnrning Savior, but Tertallian^s views were more ardent and
fanciful, since his eye was fixed upon a kingdom of intellectual and spiritual
blessings indeed, but a kingdom where every thing which believers lost or de-
spised in the present life would be recompensed by terrestrial enjoy-
ments." (a)
The next section is entitled " III. The School of Alexandria," and in-
cludes the two following sections.
After the third sentence of the section read : ^^ Athenagoraa the Apolo-
gist (p. 51), who ventured to invoke philosophy to the defence of the doo-'
trine of the resurrection, (b) is regarded as the founder of this school."
The sentence near the middle of p. 92, commencing " His superior," &o.,
is altered thus : — ^^ The works of Clement were alone capable of assisting his
higher development, nothing but his position as a teacher took him to the
school of Ammonius Saccaa, and he never was concerned in transmitting the
New-platonic traditions with a rank equal to that of Plotinns himself." (e)
The sentence ending with the word ^*- traditions," p. 98, 4th line from bot-
tom, continues thus : " and is conditioned by an exaltation above all mutable
interests."
To the section closing on p. 95, add : — ^' His zeal in this respect was ex-
ceeded by Hieracas^ whose contemporaries had not yet learned to regard
such views as heretical. This founder of an ascetic association near Leonto-
polis, was the means of exciting a high degree of literary activity, the re-
sults of which have been entirely lost. He wrote in the Coptic popular lan-
guage, and taught that the Fall of the soul was the direct result of its efforts
to free itself from corporeality. He thought that the only distinction be-
tween the old and the new law consisted in the prohibition of marriage by
the latter. To his allegorical explanations of the Scriptures belongs his incai^
nation of the Holy Ghost in Melchizedek. There was nothing repugnant or
hopeless to the Alexandrian doctrine of freedom in his denial of salvation to
children even when baptized." {d)
After the word " churches," Ime 10, p. 97 : " 1) OospeU of the Child-
hood, the Passion, and the Resurrection of Jesus. («) 2) Acts of the Apos-
tles, especially of Peter, and an account of the unknown fortunes of the
twelve, filled with fanciful stories of their mirades. (/) 8) The Clementine
Homilies contain the controversial discourses of Peter, especially with Simon
Magus, which, in opposition to the many internal and external parties col-
a) TerttU. do ont c. 5. Adv. Marc III, 24. (Do spe fldelium is lost) Cjpr. de exhort mart c
1. De mortallt c. 2. De unit Ecc. c 16.
b) Tltpl i.vcurrdo'tws r&v v€Kp&y, ed. JUeKenberg^ Lpa. 168&
e) Only the former assertion follows ttom Origen's Epistle in JTim. TL eoo. TI, 19. and the oUmt
must rest apon the aathc^ty of Porphyry, (Vita Plotini o. 8aa) who certainly knew this fSmher in Us
youth, and upon that of Longinus, who may he styled another Origen among the heathen. Note <v
p. 92. R, T. Schmidtf Ortg. des Neu-Platonikere Bchrift Sri fihyot Toiiyr^i 6 Bao-<Ac^s. (Stud. a.
Krit 1842. n. 1.)
d) Epiph. baer. 67.
e) K. n<iM^ Lehen Jesn. 1 11. Also, Ew. apoerypha ed. C TUchendar/^ LpSL 1858.
/) Note c, p. 97. FragmnL Aetunm 8. Jo., ed. ThUo^ HaL 1847. Acta App. apocr. ex ZXX edd.
graec ed. TUehendorf, Lps. 1851.— K^pvy/io, Tlpd^ttSf *Aro«rdUiAff(t Udrpov, Jffut, H. eoa III, ft.
0r4dnert Beitrr. vol L p. SSln.
APOCRYPHAL LITEBATURK 703
lected at Rome about the middle of the second centnry, endeavored to recon-
cile the Tarions tendencies in the Church on the basis of a peculiarly colored
Jewish Christianity, and were mingled with the romance of Clement, (a)
The continued embellishment of this story, but with a still further remoyal
of the doctrine into the background, and with a greater approximation to
the popular faith of the Catholics, is found in the Recognitions (avttyva><T€is\
translated by Rufinus. (b) In the first half of this work, reference is made
to another composition from Palestine, probably The Preaching of Peter
(jci^pvy/xa), of which Peter was the hero. Of the two epistles to James pre-
fixed to the Homilies, the first was written in the name of Peter, and the
other in the name of Clement, but in compliance with Peter^s last directions.
It is not yet quite clear whether the Catholic Church attempted to make use
of the historical portions of the fictitious Homilies by means of the Recog^
nitions, (c) or whether the Homilies were formed from the Recognitions for
party purposes, or whether both were not independently formed out of a
still older work, (d) In their confused references to the consular and first
bishop of Rome, both evidently claim to be the composition of Clement, who
sprung from the imperial family, and after many unsuccessful philosophical
inquiries after truth, found not only peace, but the lost members of his family
in Peter^s church. 4) Jewish imitations of earlier prophetic visions were
sometimes used by Christians with their own interpretation, and sometimes
were imitated by them, in many cases with a meaning hardly reconcilable
with Christianity, and in others to complete the Messianic prophecies by facts
from the life of Jesus, (e) Thus the Ascension of Isaiah mingles together
Jewish- Christian and heretical elements in its two principal parts ; the Be-
loved one descends from the seventh heaven to accomplish in human form his
work on earth, and the prophet ascends that he may behold the future course
of the Mcssiah^s kingdom, until the final judgment and the glorias of the
divine Father, and dies under the saw, for and according to his own
prophecy. (/) The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs contain the moral
exhortations of the sons of Jacob on their dying beds to the Jewish nation.
The work professes to have come from a period before the Mosaic law, and
to contain prophecies of a Christ from the tribes of Levi and Judah, the
High Priest and the King of an everlasting kingdom, (ff) Its fundamental
principles indicate that it was written by a native Jew of the second century,
a) T& K\riix4irria, KXrifitvToSt rwp Tl4rpov iiri^rifiwv icripiryfAdrttv iirirofi'ti. After the
editt by Cotelerios (Patres app.) and Gallandi : Clem. Romani quae fenintur Ilomiliaef recogn. A,
SchicegUr, Stuttg. 1847.
b) Afcer the edltt by Ck>te1eriii8 and Oallandl : S. Clem. Rom. Recognttfones Raflno interprete,
cur. £. G. Oertdor/, Lpe. 1888.
0) D. r. CMn. Clementina In d. IlalL EncykL vol XVIIL p. 868A. A. Schlismann, d. Clemen-
Unen nebst den verwandten Schrr. u. d. Ebionitism. Ilamb. 1844. nt c, p. 84.
d) J, Hilgenfdd^ d. Gem. Recog. u. Homilien, nach Urspr. u. Inbalt tTena. 1848. RiUchL, alt-
kath. K. p. 158SB. (making the Kerygina against Bai^ilidea about 120, tlie Recognitions against Valen-
tine abont 140, and the Homilies against Mardon about 160.) Comp. JIUgenf. d. Evv. Just p. 807n.
(who makes the Recogn. original only in substance.)
e) Note d, p. 97. /) Ibid, last part
g) Ibid. Fabr. Cod. peeud. yoL L p. 496881—^. Kayter^ d. Test d. 12 Patr. (Straasb. Beltrr. J«niL
1861. H. &)
704 APPENDIX. ANCIENT OHUBCH.
bnt by one who linmbly Bubmitted to the oonnsel of Jehoyah, and rooo^zed
in the last apostle of the tribe of Benjanim a chosen instrament of Provi-
dence, (a) 5) The lost prophecies ascribed to Uystaspes, an ancient Persian
seer, gave the Asiatic Christians a native prophet of the Messiah, (b) 6) When
the Hellenistic Jews appropriated to their own nse the prophetic voice of
natare, mythically personified among the heathen in the Sibyls, many Chris^
tian Sibyllists arose to express in this poetic form the confidence they felt in
the ultimate victory of their cause, and their wrath toward evil men ; and
the Christian apologists appealed to these divinely inspired voices of pagan-
ism as witnesses among the heathen themselves of equal rank with the Scrip-
tural prophecies. The eight books of the Sibylline Oracles^ gradually collected
after the second century, contain a heterogeneous mixture of heathen, Jew-
ish, and Christian poems, the Christian oonmiencing soon after the eruption
of Vesuvius (79), and- throwing out fresh shoots until some time in the fifth
century, (c)"
§ 90 is entitled ^^ The Son of Gfod,'' and additional references for i^ are :
**J. A. DonMr^ EntwicklogsgeselL d. L. y. d. PerBon Chr. yoL L is on the flrat 4 centt Stnttg'
(1889). 1845. (Z7a««) Chr. Dogm. p. SOIbs. bV^r
In the sentence beginning ^^ According to," the little regard for the Holy
Ghost is qualified by the clause ^^ except among the Montanists."
The sentence near the middle of p. 99, closing with the word ^^ Tertul-
lian," continues : *^ who reproached him with having performed two of the
devil's works in Rome, viz., driving away the Paraclete, and crucifying the
Father. But* Theodotus the Tanner, who came about the same time from By-
zantium to Rome, excused his denial of Christ by saying that he only denied
a man, and he was driven from the Church by Victor. TheodotuSy the
money-broker, honored Melchizedek, a heavenly Redeemer, more than the
earthly. Koetu* of Smyrna, and probably a presbyter of Ephesus, was ex-
cluded from his church (about 200) as a Patripassian, notwithstanding his
denial of the charge, and the charge itself is to bo explained only on the
ground that he held to the second kind of Monarchianism. But as Praxeas
was favored by Victor, {d) the doctrine of Noetus, which was propagated in
Rome by Cleomenes, was favored by the bishop Zephyrinus under the in-
fluence of Callistus, who regarded the Son as only a human manifestation of
the Fnther by the divine Spirit in Christ, so that the Father as such did not
sufiTer, except in connection with the Son. Callistus called those presbyters
who resisted him Ditheista (diScot), and they retorted against their bishop
that the heresy of the Callistines originated with the principle of Heraditus,
according to which every thing may be its opposite. («) The party of the
first Theodotus was distinguished for secular learning, treated the Scriptures
as merely human productions, and was powerful enough to elevate a confes-
sor to the episcopal see. It was not long, however, before their bishop was
a) Test Benjamin c. 11. b) Note e, p. 97.
c) Note/ p. 97. a Alexander, Par. 1841. 2 vols. FHedUeb, LpflL 185S.— /Md. de odd. SlbgrOL
in usom nondam adhlbftls. Yrst 1847.
d) TertuL adv. Prax. c. 68. e) {Origen. Haeres. BefbUt p. d79Mi)
SUBOBD1NATIONIST8. ECCLK8. LITERATURE. 705
attacked in the night hj divine or episcopal emissaries, and compelled to ab>
dicate at the feet of Zophyrinus, and Artemon^ who maintained that the doc-
trine which the apostles had preached, and which had always prevailed in
Rome, was that the Son of the Virgin was superior to all other men, merely
on account of his righteousness, and that this had been corrupted first under
Zephyrinus, was excommunicated, (a) Thus these three contradictory opin-
ions were then (218-23) openly maintained at Rome, but the merely human
view had been already condenmed, and its opposite extreme was represented
by a bishop whoso reputation had been tarnished. In Arabia the bishops
took decided ground against their colleague Beryllus of Bostra, who de*
nied,'' &c.
The sixth sentence of § 92 reads : " All these wrote on the same stand-
point as Eusebius, in the spirit of the dominant Church.^' It is said that
^^Fhilostorgius found and honored the Gatholic Church in the vanquished
party," — that " EvagHus was mild in his general judgments, but in his par-
ticular application passionate for orthodoxy,*^ — and that " of the 5 last books
of Xiceph. Callist, nothing now remains but the table of contents."
To the references for Chap. I. p. 103, add :
** K Chatiely Hist do la destracUon da paganlBme daos Pempire d'orient Par. 1850."
For § 93 :
•* J. Burekhardt, d. Zelt Const d. Or. Basel 1858.»'
Near the middle of p. 103 : " the consulting of oracles as well as the of-
fering of sacrifices was prohibited, but ineflTectually," — ^and " the emperor
stamped upon his coins not only the emblems of Christ but of Apollo."
For I 94 an additional reference is made to
**F. Strauss^ der Romanilker a. d. Throne o. Julian d. Abtr. Manh. 1S47."
And for § 98 to
** llffeU d. Akten d. ersten allg. S/n. za Nic. (Th. Quartalach. ld5L H. 1.) Ihid. Entsteh. a. Cha-
rakterlst d. Arian. (IWd. H. 2.) "
To the second sentence of § 102 it is added, that Arius thought the Son
of God '* might also bo adored as God."
Substitute for the word "question," after the middle of p. 112: "matter
which threatened to thwart his two great aims, the unity of the Church, and
of the empire."
It is said (p. 114) that Aetius and Eunomius " denied that Christ pos-
sessed any under ited divine nature," — in § 104, that Marcellus " declared that
the Logos was the eternal wisdom of God, and manifested itself as the power
which created the world, but did not become the only begotten Son of God
until the Incarnation," &c. — and that his deposition was " at Constantinople."
In the first sentence of paragraph 3d, p. 115, instead of " a sensuous na-
ture," read : " the mere incarnation of the Logos."
The sentences at the top of p. 117 are changed, and read : " The whole
theological literature was under the direction of two schools ; that of Ales^
a) Ku9, H. oeo. y, SSw
46
706 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHURCH.
andria^ with the new tendency which it received during the ecclesiastieal
controversies, and that which had recently sprung up at Antioeh, In the
former prevailed an earnest effort to comprehend in one the finite and the
infinite, an allegorical mode of interpretation, the general spirit of Origen,
though " &c. From the Alexandrian school proceeded " none hut the repre-
sentatives of the theology which had then become ascendant in the Chiurch."
Athanasius (middle of p. 117) "was full of wrath against all who wished
to rend the indivisible coat of Christ." — Basil the Great was " the admirer
of Libanins as well as of St. Anthony." — Synesius (2d sentence in § 107)
•*' was powerfully impressed by the principles of Christianity, but remained a
faithful disciple of Ilypatia."
For the first word of § 108, read " Many."
Add to the references for " III. The Pelagian Controversy."
**«/b. Gfffcken^ Hist 8em!pe1asiani«ml antlqalas. (till 484.) Oott 1S26. \. J. G. Voifft, De theorU
Angnitiniana, SemlpeL et Synergist Goett 1S29. LenUtn, de Pelagtonor. doctr. prfneii>fifl^ CotoB.
1688. «A A t/ixeoM, d. L. d. Pel Lpa. 184V'
To those for § 110 :
^ PotifdiOat, Hist de 8. Aag. Uebers. y. Harter. Scbaffh. 18498a. 8 Tola."
§§111 and 112 are arranged in one section, and entitled : '^ Augustinism
and Semipelagianism."
Nestorius (p. 126, after " orthodoxy ") " attacked the honor paid to a
mother of Grod as a new paganism."
After " epistle " (4th line, p. 128) : " Christ is one person, in his divinity
eternally from the Father, in his humanity from the vir^n mother of God,
with tico natures, inseparable but without confusion," &c.
§§121 and 122 are united and entitled : " The Roman Empire."
Before the last sentence of § 122 : " For although in the East the emperor
himself was looked upon as invested with a kind of sacerdotal character, the
people regarded it " &c.
After the first sentence of § 123 : "It took from slavery its confidence in
its own equity, and every act of manumission was encouraged by the Church
as a work of piety : but, on the other hand, those who refused to acknowl-
edge the owners of slaves as Christians were rejected, slaves were admonished
to render obedience for God^s sake, and masters to regard their slaves as
brethren redeemed by the same price as themselves." (a)
After " protection " (line 8, p. 138) : " Laws were enacted to sustain the
sacredness of marriage, but the old Roman penal laws against coelibacy were
abolished even in the time of Constantine."
The sentences at the foot of p. 139 should read : " Institutions of benevo-
lence of every kind to mitigate the miseries of a gradually decaying social
condition originated in the Church, (b) Its wealth contributed to its power
a) Or^. M. Ep. YI, 12. Chry909L ad Pbilem. (yoL IL p. 77a) HUr, ad UaroeL Ep. 20.— Cbne.
Oungr. can. S.—Neander, Denkw. yoL II. p. IftSaa. [Memorials of Ciur. Life, traosL by iSytoiMX,
Lond. 1852. p. 806.] MoMsr, Aafbeb. d. Sklav. darch d. Chrlstenth. in d. entea 15 Jhh. (Tabc Qoar-
talach. 1884. H. 1.)
b) B. Chastely Etadea hist aor I'lnflaenoe de la cbarite darant laa premiexs aleolea obr6t Par. 1851
SABDIOA. CHABITIES. HEBMITS. 707
and freedom. The management of its fands was under the snperintendence
of the bishop through a steward (otKovo/xof), the distribution — " &c.
The application of the 2d sentence in § 126, should be limited to ^^ the
East."
The sentence beginning in the 6th line from the foot of p. 140 should com-
mence : " In the fourth century female presbyters disappear, (a) and the ordi-
nation of deaconesses," &o.
The sentence before the lost on p. 142 should read : ^^ On account of these
divisions the council of Sardica (847) committed to Julius, Bishop of Home,
a judicial cognizance of the reception of appeals in the case of bishops. But
when this decree was presented to the African Ohurch as a regulation coming
from the Nicaean Synod, it refused obedience, and threatened every one who
should appeal to any ecclesiastical authority beyond the sea." (b)
Before " Synods " in line 2d, p. 148, insert " first."
In the last sentence on p. 145, Gregory is said to have improved Ohuroh
music " by simplifying its stylo, and by his school"
After " charms " in the last line of p. 147 : " the Ohurch contended con-
tinually against superstitions derived from paganism, but unconscious of their
origin." (c)
Before " The Ohurch," line 10th, p. 148 : " The Ohristian duty of bene-
ficence which was even then performed with a munificent generosity, was
enforced by preachers on communistic principles, appealing to the avarice of
men." (d) After " Spirit," a few sentences beyond : ** and even the old idea of
the millennial kingdom had to yield to the interpretation, that it meant only
the spiritual influence of the gospel." (e)
The 2d sentence of § 184 reads: ^^The necessity of some fellowship
brought the hermits together in a community of neighboring huts (Xavpa)."
Instead of " Amun in the desert of Nitra " in the next sentence, insert :
** Macarius in the Sketic desert." (/)
The date near the foot of p. 150 should be " 422."
^^ Add to the sentence emhng on line 7, p. 152 : " and in the African
Church offerings for the dead wore laid upon their graves," (g) — and to the
last sentence of the same section : *^ seeking edification ftom the vestiges of
past ages." (h)
Add to the references for § 189 :
** A. Z. ZetUrmann, dlo antiken a. chr. Baslllken. Lps. 1S47. J. Kreuser^^chr. KBau, a. Oeach.
Sjmbollk, Bil<lnerei. Bonn. 1S5\. i vols.—/*. KugUr^ IIB. d. Ge«ch. d. Malerol A. Con$tantln. S ed.
BrL 1847. voL I. p. 1-107.'^
a) Cont. lAiftdic can. 11.
6) C€fnc, Afric £p. ad. BonlC {Comtani, p. 1018&) Cone, MUevtt, can. 23. {CodtJp eantu JScc
A/ric. c. 28.
c) St/n. IniU. c 61. 62. 65. Comp. OhaiM^ Destract du Pagan, p. 8098S.
d) Chnynost. Iloin. In Act. IL 24. (0pp. vol IX- p. 98.)
e) Aug. De civ. Del XX, 498.
/) Jfaairii Aegjptll Epp., Homlllaram loci, precea, tA.II.J. FloM^ CoL 1850. Comp. 7TfoiUf»-
dor/, RelM In d. Or. voL I. p. 119*.
g) Aug. C<»nfe»». VI, 2.
A) Alroa^ly IJut. VI, 11. — Itincrariam Ilierosolymltanum, a. 888.— i/l Jl. Jleidegger^ de peregrlna-
tinnlb. rcl. Tar. 1670. Hobiruon, Palestine, vcL IL p. SOSaa.
708 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHURCH.
The last olanse of the 2d sentence in this Bection is limited to ^^ the West-
ern Church."
Before the last clause of the dd sentence, insert : " the central portion
elevated about the height of the windows above the side aisles," &c.
Before the last clause of the 5th sentence insert : ^^ where monuments
were usually erected," &c.
A few sentences after, " the Roman teraple-form," should read : " built in
the form of the Rotunda for temples and baths."
After " Sahator,^^ line 2, p. 156 : " surrounded with emblems of the sal-
vation of man, and in the midst of the apostles, whose countenances were
serious and dignified, and whose persons were in the ancient Roman oostume.
In the seventh century, however, this style ceased to be popular, for then a
general decline took place in all the arts, and the Byzantine style which origi-
nated in Constantinople, and showed a sympathy with this corruption, pre-
yailed with its inherited skilfalncss, but its complete want of nature."
After " chosen " in line 7th, p. 156, the sentence continues : " and Chris-
tian and pagan symbols were mingled together, especially in the reliefs of the
sarcophagi." (a)
After the 1st sentence of § 142 : " At its foundation lay also the question
which had then become so prominent, whether the whole influence of the
priesthood was derived from the personal character of its members, or from
the general grace communicated through their order."
The first sentence of § 143 : " Audius (Udo) broke off from the Church
in Mesopotamia because it would not listen to the exhortations to repentance
which the zealous layman gave it," &c.
After the last sentence in § 143 : "A class of persons who arrogantly
called themselves Apostolicals (also 'A7rora<cTiicoi), from their little corner in
Asia Minor claimed to be the only true Church, and held out no hope to
those who possessed property or lived in marriage. They agreed substantially
with the tendency which proceeded from Eustathius^ the honored Bishop of
Sebaste^ according to which there was no special merit in martyrdom, which
proudly or restlessly separated from the great Church, and were finally cut
off from it at the Synod of Gangra (between 862 and 870)."
An additional reference for § 144 :
**^piph. haer. 62. Augmt, haer. 81."
After the 1st sentence of § 144: "Their worship reminds one of the
Adamites^ who were followers of a pupil of Carpocrates, and were first men-
tioned during the last part of the fourth century, under the imputation, by
common report, of wishing in their grotto churches to bring back a state of
paradisiac innocence, by means of a paradisiac style of dress. They there-
fore rejected all relations founded upon distinctions of sex. The condemna-
tion of the Priscillianists was obtained at the synod." &c.
After " letters " in 2d line of § 147 : " and in the modern legislation."
In the middle of p. 164 : " Thor is the god of thunder who overcomes
a) Piper, OeAcb. d. Osterfestes. (BerL l^iA.) ToL L p. 88. 77s8.
THOS. THS 0BBMAN8. SPANISH GHBIBTIAN& 709
winter and all the powers of nature hostile to man, and is the hero who is
especially the fiiend of the people.^'
After " unmolested," line 4th, p. 166 : " The conquerors revered a saint
like Severinits (<L ahout 481) of unknown origin, who, without official dig-
nity, but claiming to act by the divine command, with an extensive spirit-
nal influence, ameliorated the miseries of the national migrations in the
countries along the Danube. The German — ^^ &c.
After ^' sect," in the last sentence of § 158 : " some sought martyrdom
by reviling Mohammed, others despaired of Christ," &c.
INDEX.
Aarnn, Convents fD« (^.
Abel Ministry, 57a, 65&
Abelard, 241, '88^
Abderrhaman, IQS»
Abgarus, 85i
Abraham a St Clara, 520b.
Abraxas, 7S, 69&
Abaalon uf RoeekUde^ 249i
Ababekr, IIU.
Abyssinia, 108.
AcaciiLS lU 12Sw
Academy, Platonic, 17, 828.
Aohainoth. 79.
Acta Apotitolonim, 97.
Adelbert of Bremen, 214; of
Mentz, lS5, 190; of I'ragoe,
250l
Adamites, 70S.
Adiaphurislic Cootror., 897, 405,
409.
Adoptionists, ISO.
Advent, IM : Second, 40, 94.
Advocatla, 21 &
Aegidius of Vitorbo, 2S1
Aelia Capitolina, 42.
Aelianu», 47.
Aeneas Svlvius, 2S0&
AeoDB, 16m.
Aerios, 159.
Aetias, 114, 705.
Alfre, Arehblahop» 628.
African Churchets 62, 61&
Agabus, 8S.
AgaiMU\ 41, 158.
Agatho, 132.
Agenda Controv., 56T&
Agnes, St, 152.
Agobard of Lyons, 283.
Agonistic!, CircunicolUonefS 15&
Agricola, 897, 408^
Agripi>a, 2&.
*Aic€>aAoi. 12S.
Albanians, 856.
Albericus, ISS^
Albert of Brandenbarjr, 875 ;
of Mentz, 868, 872, 892; of
Riga, 251 ; of Strasboorg, 264.
Albert Durer, 806. 445.
Albertinus Ma.««atus, 264
Albertns Magnus, ;320.
Albigensian War, 255a^
Albornoz. 274.
Alcain, 179, 180.
Aleander» 871.
Alexander Sevems, 46.
Alexander of Alexandria, 112;
of llales, 820; of Rofisia, 6d7,
681.
Alexander II.. 192; III., 20^1.,
214, 216; v., 276; VU 282,
853; VIL, 512, 617; VIIL,
513.
Alexandria, Bishopric, 61, 141.
Alexandrian Theolugy, 91a8.
Alexandrian and Antiochian
schools, 117, 126, 70&
Alexiani, 818.
Alexias Comncnus, 262.
Alfiadur, 16&
Alfhid the Great, 234.
Algiers, 664.
Allegri Gregor&o, 46&
Allefnand of Aries, 280.
Alliance Evang.. 592; German,
605; German Diet, 574; Ho-
ly, ftSls.
All Saints. 154.
AU SonL% 224.
Alogl,99.
Alorobradosy 519s.
Altar, 69.
Altenburg, 865, 56a
Altensteiii, Minister, 56&
Altorl Socini&ns, 4:)5k.
A 1 varus Pelagius, 34dw
Akop, 12,
Amalrich ot Beno, 840.
AmbnWus, 118, 188, 158, 159i
America, 888, 475; North, 601sk
664.
Ammionns Marcellinas, 10^
AmnioniiiH Saccas, 48.
Ampulla Sacra, 166, 625.
AnMMlori; 8S0, 392, 406eL
AmyraUl, 490.
Anabaptism, 70, 90.
Anabaptkits, 481s. 610.
Ananus, 26.
Anastasiuss 12Sv 132.
Au.itlieniatu^ins, 126.
AndorM)n, 418.
AndnK^a Jac., 409; J. YaL^ 449.
Andronicus, 854.
Angel Bretlireu, 508.
Angela of Hreseia, 468L
Angelica of Port Royal, 617a.
Angolico of Fies'ole,'805.
Angels, Worship ot 152.
Angelas SUesius, 520.
Anglican CbQrcb^4S)8L, 4ti, 49TaL,
598a.
Anglo-Saxona, 167. 172.
AnhalL 418.
Anna Lee, 571
Anoegam, 12.
Anomians, 111.
Ansegisua. 2091
Ansolm (.^anUb^ 198, 239; of
Laon, Glositea, 243.
Aosgnr. 246k,
AnsiMcli, Gen. Synod, 574
Antliimus, 129.
Anthn)(K>mnrphltes, 121, 16&.
Antidicomarianitea, 15&.
Antlnomian Oontrov., 402%.
Antioch, BLthoprtc, 6L
Antioohtan School 117^ 126.
AntUrinitarians^ 482.
Antonelli, 628, 684.
Antoninus Pios, 45; of Flor-
ence, 2^.
Antonlns. Hermit, &4 ; of Padoa^
298 : Hospitallers of St., 228.
Antony Uhlch, 498.
Aphtbartodoc«tae, 1S9l
Apocrypha, 71, 96^ 614, 70298.
'A»o#faT<{<rTaffij, 79, M.
ApoIUnarLs 115, 11&.
Apolionlus 45; of Tyana, 47.
Apollos.82.
ApoU«gii«ls, 50SS.. 835. 500.
Aiwlo^ry, Augsburg Coot, 8sJ.
Apostfes, 25. 8S.
Ai>oetoIlcalN 841a. 708^
Apoistolic Brethren, 341& ; Can-
ons, 57a ; Cliorch, 24& ; Con-
gregation, 617 : CfWstRatiuns,
57s. ; FatbenvS6B.,728^ ; Vicars^
684
Appeals to Gen. CooncUa, 29L
Amienzel, Reform. 8S&
Apikropriatlon, Principle, 650l
Apnleiua, 47.
Aquarii, 64.
Arabituw, lOSfl^ 168, 385.
Aranda of Spain, <^T.
Areesilaus, 17.
Archbishops, 244s., see Metro-
politans.
Archdeaoona, 141, 215.
Architecture, Eteles., iSiaa^&XL
675s.
Arch|iro8bytera, 141.
ArelateSynod^lll.
iriwlKn. niiL, Its.
ArUnlDDm B^nod, 114.
ArbUdU, ApulnflM. DO.
ArMotle. Ifc, m. 81U.
irtenion, ». 7».
Alt! In MUlii;eA;ei,80I.
Au,Dui'lrlMor tlie.1«.
Aiii!ibiinC4afeHlaii.S°S: Diet,
IdubjU, 10.
incuillnr Enmltu, tnH.
Aiutrli.CUholte.WS.II4l>;Prcil-
HUnt, 4n>., 49av.. M.*!. «»«.
Aiipion, 178, 3;i. S7S. ea, mh,
m.
Ib.bTt.iiluiEtlKSTt.aia.
linciii, iiuger, aM; oT Virulun,
Urdtit CunfcHniv, CM: Contn-
vrrsj. M4: Ul^ntUioii, SSI;
Ihdin. 4111
IMiliir. 1*
. _ . ..._... r., IK, WI.
ltilN.iii.>ii, TUMjnns, 18S.
Ilnn. lilt. ail.
m^liun, 41, 10. 193.1191.
Ii*l<ll-4<iiiim. lU; of Flora
l^ink'iuirs Id.
Ilirl.ni>>, A^i.
, ^Sr!. MI, SM, SIX, '
K&
« Lire. ai&
auihiulu, SIT; Jwd,
ll.:n>, Amalrich nC MA ! BudiUsat, 4>1.
HvnnllrL I^'IU. 1>A tW: of ' UuddhlHT. 47Sa.
NnKlL 1M: III. IfJA: VIIL. nu[ruii,!VM,
IS.); ]X,.1WI; X..1K: XI., tmifnhkfii, )ISU.41K
j;i: Xli.. i:*: XIII., MA UDrinriidi. aAA
Mfl', XIV„M4.ai>. I Bnlflngar. 8«1.
ll.-.|l;.-u. L,. 11,8 <-l,llrrh, IS>. ! Hurchinl of WofdU, »!«
1t,'ri.i.!t-lt.'rn''ji»<r<, »'<:). ' UuncD^r1lu^ ISD*.
ll^n.ant'.pf (Tulr" iuv."l«»,' JOOl UllllU'r, Sift
■J!'.: iVK -lu. ■■ ajiMDtiBt^ SM MOi.
Bt'rrt,'. I>»'v{>ti..n U, 801; lU-\
r..ril».,:,. H.7 0
Cuellluiu^ lai.
I«rna nr Clugnl, iU.
<MtM\ 180; c«,(
I'jlp
lUHlt, a, 48*).;
Kliii, ta.
l(l»>IK«pt<>imI0,8l8.
_ lUO. jKob. 444.
, ' ltiwhii>cr,J. 1L,4H.
I BnUiliii. ISA
I BochtiIIm, Ml-
HoiwinlHW, 1
BahfDiiu III
I'ar
.i<)ie<i'>yiEl>I,4S*>.
: Il^llnglmikfc MO. . (■■TKilU. 43.
' ]l.il<.in>tl''nl>Dr-Iir.lSA I'vvcl. 4«1.
ll.Hi«.«rliinL lUl, 81S. i:trlpo»s. I'«iim
lS:n\ttnii iVlnMi. \<l\ ITS, 4'uJlD>1>. tlS^
7A H; Vlll„«l,lfsl>.a"l. t?nrli»i, Won. W
Bontls, Cvur. »32«, ISt ; 11*1- ' Cwl'taill. H«"-.
■ .rlnu.!lBa._ L;«iLi,.(.k*t20
ll.™i>M, B. ailt .MA wo' (■■•r|v»T«llMii-.' <
]t.•llrl>'ll^ 126W., ««I». Ckic-Iii-. 4-0,
712
INDEX.
paaBiodorus. 188, 151.
Castellio, 447.
CtfQistry, S88flL, 404a.
Cfttacoinba, 69.
OfUapbrjgcs, (MSi
CatechiHin of France, 584; of
Heidolboi^. 418 ; Lntber'B, 882 ;
Roman us, 466.
CatechamenA, 65.
Oatharine de Bora, 880; de Me-
dici, 427: of RuMia, 666; of
SleDa, 808s.
Cathari»t8, 25LW., 842.
CatbodraK 141, 804, 674.
Catbolic Cbarch, 62, 146.
CathoUciara, 68, 147, 151, 460,
658 ; and Protestantism, 468&,
48688.
Catbolicus, 62, 667.
Cellitae, 818.
Celsas, 49.
Censorsbip of Books, 288, 460b.
Centartae Magdeb., 7.
Cerdon, 81.
Gerlnthas, 84
Gevennea, 495.
Ghalcedon, 127.
Chaldean Chri:»tlans, 127.
Chalmers. 597.
Chantal Francisca, 468.
Chapters, 214,292; Controv. on
Three, 180.
Charles Albert, 622.
Charles Alex, of Wurtemb.,498;
the Great, 169, 178, 174, 179;
AogURUiK, 540 ; the Gross, 1S7 :
the Bald, 1S7 ; of Anjou, 268,
270; Martel, 16S, 172; Stuart
I.. 425 ; 1 1., 497s. ; I V. of Spain,
274; v., 870s., 414s., 429; Vlll.
of Franco, 2S2. 852; IX., 42S;
X, 625^; IX. of Sweden,
418s.
Cliarter, German, 578 ; Imperial,
418.
Chateaubriand, 584.
Chazarss 25Gs.
■Chemnitz, Martinua, 898a., 409,
410.
Cherbury. 499.
Chleregatl, 374.
Children, Baptism of, 70, 224,
481.
ChilUsm, 40. 94, 298a, 707.
Chllperic 173.
Clilna, 103, 883, 474a., 5218., 616,
668s.
Ctioral, 446.
ChorcpiscopI, 60, 214, 298.
Chosr(»es, lu7.
Christian I. of Saxony, 410b. ; of
Mayence, 221.
Christians, 26.
Christiornll., 419; 111,419.
Christina of Spain, 680s. ; of
Sweden, 512.
Chrlstma^ 154.
Clirlstiipher, 152.
Christo Sacrum, 671.
Christ Party at C/orinth, 82.
Ohro«lepinff of M entz, 176.
Cljrysooherws Paullcian, 262.
Chrvsostoiii, 120a.
Chubb, 500.
Church, 1 ; Ideal of; 4878. : El-
ders of, 571 ; Architecture,
155s. ; Alliance Evane., 590 :
Conference, 5S7 ; Sinpinc, hW,
800s., 445.x.. 675.^; History,
Idea of, 1 ; Province, 2 ; Value
of. 8; Proj»erty, 216; Music,
465, 485, 675.
Cimabufi, 805.
ClrcnmcellioneB, 158^
Cistercians, 22a
avil Marriace, 624.
Clara of AssTsi, 296.
Clarendon, Diet ot; 20a
CIaudin.\ Emperor, 87; of Tu-
rin, 288 ; of Wand&beck, 542l
Clausen, 561.
Clausenburg, Diet of^ 417.
Clemangis, 825, 844.
Clement of Alexandria, 918. ; of
Rome, 86, 57; Droste. 689a;
Flavins. 87 ; II .190 : III., 196 ;
IV., 2(^3, 270; v., 272s., 811;
VL, 274; VII., 27^ 876, 890,
421, 450; VIII., 456, 466, 467 ;
IX., 512, 518: X., 512; XI.,
518, 518: XII, 514; XIII.,
524 ; XIV., 525.
Clement, Dominican, 423.
Clementinae, 88s., 236. 702s., 697.
Clerg>', 57, 140, 176, 1988., 201a,
814.
Clermont, Synod, 196, 197.
Clovis, IOC.
Clugnl, Congregation, 226.
Coccelus. 490.
Cochin China, 664.
Cochlaeus, 360.
Cock, I>e, 596.
Codex Dionya, Thcod., and Jos-
tin, 185s.
Coele^Une III., 205; V., 270.
Coelestlus 122, 124.
Cwlibacv, C8, 143, 176, 198, 222,
814, 653, 706.
Coelicolae, lo7.
C-ola dlltienzo, 274&
Coligny, 423.
CoIletdaJL-tm, 492, 672.
Collegiants, 482.
Collins, 499.
Collyridianl, 152.
C'olombino, 817.
Colonna Sciarra. 272.
Columba, 167, 177.
Columbanus, 163.
Columbus, 833.
Commines, 264.
C-ommodus, 45.
CoiuLeni, 261, 262, 856
Communism, 679, 707.
Conception, Immaculate, 224,
801.
Concord, Book of, 410 ; Form of,
409.
C-oncordat, Aschaffcnburg, 281;
New German, C35; French,
235, 5338 , 625 ; Tuscan, 628 ;
of Worms, 199.
Conconiium of Wittenberg, 899.
Condillac, 523.
C-onfe-^aio Augustana, 838; Hel-
vetica, 416; Tctrapolitana,
890.
Confc«|(k>ns, Augustine's, 124s.
CH)nfe88or8, 56, 90.
Confederation, 590 ; Swiss, 8888.
C^nflrm.ition, 70, 692.
Confucius, 474.
Confutatio Conf Augsb., 888^
CongregHtio de AnxOiis, 467.
Congregation A post, 617.
C/ongregntions, 445.
Congreirati»)nalists, 603.
Conrad III., 201 ; of Ilochstedo,
808; of Marburg, 294, 80S.
(\)nra<llno, 26s.
OMisalvi. 53:J, 674.
C^nsciontiarians, 501.
Con.*lstorie8, 441 ; Prussian, 6S6t
C<»n8istory, Supreme, Frencli,
60S; Prussian, 578.
Constance, Ooandl, 277&, S91,
849s. ; Bishopric, 646.
Gonstans II.. 182
Con«tantia of Sicily, 208, a06i, 97a
Constantinople, Synod oC 115a.
380, 182, 156, 259, 855; Storm-
ing oi; 207, 856.
Cont'tantinus Magnpi, 65, 108,
118, 152. 157;^Ki«tlon oC;
184; Copronymot, 156; Po-
gonatns. 182 ; Sylvanna, 150.
Constantius, 114; Chlorua, 56.
Constitution Unigenitna, 51S;
Cnvil, of French Clergy. 581.
Constitutiones Apostolicae, 67.
Contarini. 898.
Convent Life, 149s., 225flL, 816a,
462s., 662a
Convertitea, 470, 672a.
Convocations, 442.
C'onvnlsionairaa, 619.
Coiteraicus, 489.
Copts, 181.
Coquorel, 609.
Coran, 1()9, 110.
Coniay, Charlotte, 681.
Cordicolatras, 621.
Corinth, Parties In, 82.
G>meliua 674; Rom. Bi8bopi,67.
Corpus Christi Festival, 801.
Corpus Evangelicorum, 492.
C-orpus Juris Canooici, 2S6.
Correggio, 464.
Coscia, Cardinal, 613a.
Ciithen, Assembly at, 679.
C-ovenant, Scottish, 424.
Cramer, 9.
Cranmer, 422.
Crell, Nic, 411.
Crescens, 51.
Crescentius, 189.
Cresconins, 18&
Cromwell, 426.
Cross Elevation of the, IM
CruciAxes, 156.
Crusades, 196, 220 ; End of tbe,
269.
Crypto-Calvinism, 407.
Culdeea, 167.
Cumberland Presbyterians, €04.
Cup, Withholding of the, 224a,
850.
Curialista, 288, 47a
Cyprianns, 43, SQsa., 701.
Cyran, Abbot of St, 617.
Cyrillus of Alexandria, 126, 182 ;
(ConsUntina^), 248; of Jeru-
salem. 113; Lucari8,480.
Cyru^ l8L
Czechen, 606.
Czeiski, 657.
D
Dalberg, 686.
Damiani, 192, 221, 224, 812.
T)amietta,268.
Dancera, 818s., 446, 606.
Dandolo, 207.
Dannecker, 674.
Dannenmayr, IL
Dante, 826a,
Danz, 10.
Darby, 61 L
Darmstadt 644.
David of Dlnanto, ft40.
Deaconesses, 89, 140, 707.
Deacon.**, 88, 5&
Death, fur Uereaj, 156, 480.
i DeciuB, 46.
I Decretab, False, 184; Gkc^otUx^
Dcista, 498aa
Dwnetriat ot Alexaadiia, 9Sl
DtppBl), 601.
^ tu, 4ifa, «i»
io£niiet]1ai,!lM.
1)« Cuts, t«e.
AuwTofiii 11, lOa^ NK.
I>h>l«nu, lie*.
DksnMui, ni.
DhniT<Hii> Alci., M, 100: An-
iKiiglu, 13i. in 1 EzlgDU,
IM: Uoniuiu. 100.
IHsdiillns Akuia, to.
DbMiim, «Kk. KBtt.
IltohlrnU. 4W, Wl, 4H.
DivuRun, II.
I>»lwc11.M)0.
Ihilelna, g41
Ih>Illii|[<r, It,
of tttluv l»ii; <>t I'lpln, liS.
Ihiiuiililnilh, 4i(L
IMrt. Sril'-I lif, 4151, 441, at.
IVkIUicm^VT.
liul.Hs ('uiIImI, 6\i; Mlvlnn-
IliichiiUnl, CM
Ilulch Krtatmei C]
trk.8li.».
En* u n,
F.M.ni. :w. BS, s;2s. .
Klaiilhrru*, «W,
Mfv i>r CoKona, iM
ElkeuJtH. S.\ GOa.
RmbliMna, Hmcrid. ti, StI.
Kiili-lro, m. ITi. 21ft 088: Ko-
KnfliuUn, tdO.
l!nEi>Lb>T<1C 0,
KDKlind. 167a., VOi, MS, 411ift,
EnllflittDiiient, Age o( eSTiL
Epivuialkni In i.'. S,. ROi.
EpiKcip! In ['Hllbu Inndclluo
E|ilaGopiUfl. 410.
Ei't-copln UnWoTOili^ 141.
£niiiniu. S»K, Silt, Hi, SIM.
EiuUinis 413.
EnlaitiiHlotL eoO.
Eilc. SL, ao.
Ern^ Uio 1'U.ui. 4S1.
'irllx of Urecl, ISO: of VikiK
SaO; IL.lih; V.,S30.
'Miflon, SIS, 6SH
■VrJtuiBil I„ 804,411, 4SS; IL.
in: VII., ON; Ibe CUboUs,
sm.
■\-imr.lU»-.lTl-,M.iii»reby,18i.
lM<i'fsnlil>inv.49».
lUn uf Ciii:urcii, 01.
DUi. T, 4a«, UTn.,
FI^IIuU, 81S.
FUvluiu Itl.
Ftccbltr, ftlO.
Fklcba, HM.
Fknry, A. IL, HIS: Cluda, &
Fh-rCDce, Hvpud uC ft«i. SU.
FuiiuIih'Umii Cimciirdit, SSi.
F.miovmiil, (Inkr of, «&
rucilt,Ke>llral<>i;il&
FiiUor. I
Foriuii.lin, OU.
Fox, C J..U9: Gei
Fruco. Pnlctlwit.
«»I>,c«iniLStr.
FwneU, Or., MJ;
"PranclLii, A. r
trUrl I.IM
Pramni u. OS.
Ftt, EltuboUi, sot
rirth, «l.
FuV. i<t NoulllJ, MI.
FnUli^ 1*0.
FultEcitiiii Fi'mndui, 13<.
a*l>r uf 'kiiKmbcTK, 300.
Suinnvlli, S'.iSa.
Outn t>yn«1. TOS.
Qupirin, 6<>S.
Otilert, Ml.
OfDcnJ »fnaAi, lU. MO; On.
!;''iiii''i"'''iw'''""''''^
(il;..-j.-,.r Shout, 87;*, ML
Ueibiu-.l 4lii. Mt: Groat, SIB;
evniTllI. MI.
etKu.Uilbalidim, OH: Church.
IWn. IBBb ; OrdnoT KnlRliU,
MI, B9te, Mi; TbBaiofT,tii;
BrCirmed Cliarch. SOt.
«inn>n[D Chnrrli. ItOM. <1S&
eww^. ine, 3T7, BUb IMi
Grvliw. Pleinu. 31.
OeyH uf Floii|;iirT. ISO,
Olillvlllw tot; Ilnoliul, S4(i.
OIIW iif Qnro, 4(1, sa
Qut>rt.4S&
Gori. Fnes.lg oC
Gocucliill:. esa : trlBM tf this
WonilmMS,
enmrnam. Order oC^^-
OntUniu, EuiimtH', laS*.,lSJ;
Gnrmuiina of lh> Oerm. NlUim,
8K.a;4.
OnjF Lf«4nit. 837, tTS. 4».
Or-tBrtudu, llfRirmwlumMIW.
fnl.nil, W7. C,l(^
3miniT iba Ofhu 141, 14B^.
1«^IV..1M:T.,1S»;?I.,1»0;
VI L. 1 a. If la, iNK,ni, ns.
Stt; Vm., IW, ImTIX^ M6 :
lli; Xni.. Mi Ult.; XV..
IIko Ihe Good. SI
llutrUn. Emn, 4& Ml I., 1T4,
1»; II_ l(..^; IV..lul, »S,
aJ8s.; Vl.,!!?*!,*^
Iliwne, SocktM U, DSD ; Brnod,
ti. iU, M»9., tlOi.. OM.
lUnlil [iurfb«er, 3M; oT Jni-
Ilumonliu, Ua
iisDpe, ur.'
lUfdn, cry
Hurt of Jung, Ciei.
17S, 217; Greek' Kumu. ii
M.
Iltber. BeginiaiL 610.
ei.&Tt.
lUlTttU BcfMnk, aSI, 3W.
llMnmlw. 3ST.
Ilenntrnbog. KBi^ S70
ieniy L nlOernniiiT. l*" ; III,
IWi; IV., IM, iw. i»S; 1"
!»: V1,«16; VU, «tl: L
of EBEbmrl, 1»a: II nn;
viu far; VIII. gjf. «|:
IILoTPiun. 4n; IV..4*S
4«l:efnniMwlrk.8W; Lton.
»»; U»iik, tU; of WiJiMt,
llc^rwltur, M».
Itelwr. 4SJ
Illekh Kllu. SOS, «0g.
niencu. 7ili
HIrrarchy, SO, iU. K,
III, ISl; IL. IW; III.
INDEX.
716
Ha^ Oapet, 189; de Parens,
282; Grotlus, 415; of Pror-
ence, 188; of St Victor, 24a
nusuenota, 427, 494s.
IIuinsnlHin, 554.
Huiimni^U. 8*27, 823, 417.
lliimo. 5(>0.
Kumlllate^ 281.
]Iiins.ary, 250, 417, 479, 498, 548,
Hurter, 205, 481
]Iui»a, 34it».
Hussites, 849s.
HutU^n, Ulrich vod, 839, 867.
Iliitt^r, 418.
IlypHtla, 106.
HypsUtarianss 107.
IIyata9i>e8, 97, 69a
I
Ibas 127, 128, 180.
IcM-land, 247, 420.
loonoolasm, 1568., 178.
Ulaii, 850.
Ignatias, 45, 59, 72, 692; Patri-
arch, 25S; (le Loyola, 4528.
Icnorantlns, 521.
Ilanz, Diap. of; 887.
Illuminates, 527, 586w
Illyria, 142, 148.
lln:^;e^ 156, 178; Tumult aboat,
l.-^fisu, US.
Imitative Arts of the M. A., 802 ;
Protestant, 444s. ; Later Catb.,
464.x. ; mo8t recent, 674s.
Imp<>!«tor^ Three, 267.
Id Coena Domini Bull, 311, 453,
am
Incorruptibility of ChrlsVs Body,
129, 130.
In(ie[H'ndent% 423s., 425<«., 611.
Indrx Probibitorum, 461.
lodulgcnces, 222s., 801, 812, 851,
sm.
Infallibility of the Church, 147,
ft44 ; of the Po(>e, 212, 2sa
Infant BaptiMn, 70, 152, 224, 431.
Inirebursre, 24)7.
Innod'htliis I., 121,124,148; II.,
2IMI ; III., 205m.. 280, 281, 255 ;
I v., 2«;7 ; VL, 274 ; VII I., 282,
810; X.. 511; XL, 512s., 618;
X 11., 518; XIII., 61&
InqiiiHition, 298m., 414, 429, 460,
629.
Interdict, 228, 811.
Interim, 896^, 405; Loljieic 897.
Inve.Mlture Coutrov., 198, 199.
Ireland, 167, 422, 649.
I^ena«u^ )>8, 286, 699a.
Irene, 157.
Irminsul. 168w
Irnerius, 216.
Iroquois M4.
Irvin»r, ftft-vi.
Kitulla of Spain, 68L
If»enl>lehl, 527.
Isidortisof Pcln^nm, 182; Ilis-
\iA\\^ 184, 186, 178; Psoado,
1<4: On.rttlc, 695l
Mam. 110.163,8851
Irariiis, 158.
I tab. 111.
Italy. 178s., 211s., 287, 585. 617.V
62 H. ; ProteAUntisin in, 429di,
609.
Ivan RaAilowitz, 4SL
Ivoof Cbartroa, 210.
J
Jacob Baradal, 181
Jaeobi. 548. 6888.
Jacobins, 296.
JaoobltM, 18U, 86L
Jaenlcke, 618.
Jagello, 887.
Jamblichus, 4Sb
James the Just, 25, 178; of Bs-
den, 476; L of England, 425;
II.. 498 ; do Voragine, 807.
Jansenism, 516.
Janssen, 509.
Japan, 478.
Javohey, Abbess, 678.
Jean PeUt. 884.
Jena, 405. 540. 548.
Jeremias II., Patriarch, 480.
Jerome, 120, 124, 159 ; of Prague,
848dL
Jerusalem, Bishopric, 676 ; Con-
quest of; 87, 197 ; Patriarch of;
141.
Jesnates, 817.
Jesuits, 45298., 6248., 617s., 625,
640s.
Jesus Christ, 24.
Jewisli Christians, 26, 81, 74
Jews, 90si, 86s. 42&, 885s.
Joachim of Flores, 298& ; of Bran-
denburg, 892.
Joanna Papiasa, 166; of Naples,
275
Joaaaph IL, Patriarch, 480.
Jobannic Christian% 77.
John of Antioch, 126; Apostle,
83. 84; BaptUt, 154; Festival
of; 154; the Constant, 875;
Fa.ner, 185, 142 ; of England,
2<^; Damascenus, 184; of Je-
rusalem. 124 ; Prester, 887 : of
Lsitki, 407 ; Matha, 280 ; of No-
punmk, 477; of Balisbury,
241 ; of Viccnza, 800 ; of Philo-
ponus, 188; t^obsticus, 56,
185; Eonaras, 260; Bisismund
of Brandenburg, 418 ; r'rederio
ttie Magnanimous, 891, 897;
VI., 484 ; IIL of Sweden. 418 ;
Knights of Bt, 282, 819, 662a. ;
VIIL, Popo, 186, 269; X,,
183; XL, 188; XIL, 188s.;
XXL, 186; XXIL, 278, 299;
XXI I L, 278, 889.
Jonas of Orleans, 288.
Joris, 484.
Jomandes, 161.
Joieph II., 527, 648, 676.
Jovinianus, 159.
Jubilee Indulgences, 628; Year,
8018., 619.
Julia Mammaca, 46.
Julianists, 129.
Julisnus Apostata, 104b. ; Cardi-
nal, 279, 845; of Eclanum,
124; Minorite, 619.
Julius IL. 2S88., 804, 885; IIL,
451, 455; Afk-icanus, 95, 7uO;
Bovenis, 42.
Jumpers. 546.
Jung Btilling, 542.
Juriwllction Eocles., 18S&, 215,
467.
Jus Bpollae, Regallse. Stolae, 216i
JustlAcaUon, 882, 467.
Justinianus 1 , 106, 129, 189.
Justinus I., 123; IL, 180 ; Mar-
tyr, 48, 509., 71, 692.
Justus Jonas, 8S0.
Kant, 54a
Katerlcamp, 12.
Kaulbach, 674.
Keller in Lucerne, 646 : Bishop,
640.
Kelln«r,670.
Keplw, 411.
Kerz,12.
Kettler, Conrad, 420.
Kiow, 257, 481.
Knishts, Orders of; 281s., 818,
481 ; of St John, 282, 813, 481.
Knox, 424.
Knutzen, 501.
Koenig, 485.
Kodde, 482.
Kohler, 509.
Kooriand. 420.
Koran, 109, 110.
Komthal, Cong, of, 557s.
Krudencr, Mad. de, 595, 681.
Krunimacher of Bremen, 564.
Kublmann, 508.
Kurtz, 594, 684.
Kuttcnberg, Diet of; 850.
Labailie, 608.
Labarum, 108.
Lachmann, 592.
Laoordatre, 626L
Lactantiua, 96.
Ladenborg. 58a
Lady Days. 164.
Laesare, 547.
Lainez,45a
Laity, 57, 140&, 4408L
Lalande. 52a
Lama, 887.
Lamartine, 624a.
Lambert of AschafTenbnrg; 188;
of Avignon, 882 ; of Bpoleto^
187.
Lamennals, 625, 626.
Lantyanck, 287.
Lango, 10.
Langlon, 203.
Laplaoo, 490.
Lapland. 887. 510.
LapsI, 659., 67, 90.
La8Casa^883.
Lateran 8yn<Hl,182. 193, 199; I L,
200, 2U8, 288, 234-285.
Latltudinarian^ 491.
Laud, 42a
Laurentias 61 ; Valla, 827, 88L
LauMnne IMsp., 400.
La Valette, 525.
Lavater, 542.
Law and Oatpel, 408, 409.
Lay Brethren, 225a.
Lazarists, 468.
League, Holy, 42a
Lee, Anna, 54a
legacies, 140.
Legate, Nuncio, 2ia 52a
Legend, GoUlcn, 807.
Legends, 4.
Legio Fulminatrix, 45.
Lc'gnano, Battle of; 2oa
Lehnin, Hermann, 57a
Leibnitz, 4s9!(.. 49a
Leigh u>un, 49S.
Leiiksic Ar»ost. Symbol, 5608.;
DUp., 862^ 562 ; Synod, «5S.
Lent, IM.
Leo I., Emperor. 128 ; I.<<auricu%
156; Juda, 886; tlie Great,
123,148; IIL, 174; IV., 1>6;
VIIL, 189; IX., 191; X.,
2d5(t., 812, 864. 869, 450; XIL,
619.
Leopold of Tuscany, 6288.
Less, 467.
Lessing, 641, 674.
LIbanius, loa
LibellaticI, 5a
Liberal CatboUos, eSA, &%&
LiberinA,14a
UbOTtinet,40L
716
INDEX.
Lic1nla^ 55, 103.
LiffhN Frien<ls of, 579, 581.
Lleuori, 521.
Llndborc. 562.
Lin«lner, 684.
Llndsey, 611.
Llppc','56f».
LUfmture, Revival of, 826a.
Lithuania, 887«.
Llturpy, 224.
Livonia, 250, 420, 668.
Locberor. 12.
I..ocke, 4S9.
L<ip«, 22. 84, 94, 98, 112.
lA>ke, KUa.
Ixiliards, 31 S.
Lomba^lu^ Peter. 289.
Lontrobards, 166, 178.
Lord's Sunpor, 70, 158, 224s.;
Bull of. 811,458,62a
Loretto, Holy IIoum. 809s.
Lorecit, Annalt) of, 161.
Lothair« I L, 187,200.
Louis tho Bavarian, 278 ; of Ba-
varia, 658, 674; the Qennan,
187; the Plons, 184; Saint,
8698.; of Anjou, 275; VII.,
Wl; XII., 2S4; XIV., 494,
612,518, 514,518; XV., 518;
XVI., 435; XVIII.,624; Phi-
lippe, 626 ; Napoleon, 608, 629.
Louvain, 633.
Love-Feast, 41, 70, 158.
Lnceme, 834, 647.
Lbcke, 60a
Luitprand, 182.
Lullua, 169, 834
Lunevllle, Peace of; 688, 686c
Lather, 861a., 877sw, 894s., 899s.,
440,446.
Lutherans, 861 ss., 8908.. 569, 601
Latheranlsm, 4028a., 569a&
Lynd hurst, Lord, 650.
Lyons, Soc of Faith at 668;
Synod at, 12^ 267, 856.
Ljra, Nic. de, 831.
M
Mabillon, 515.
Macaria^ 707.
Machiavelli, 828.
Macedonians, 115.
Macrena Mieslawski, 668.
Madagascar, 616a.
Ma<liai, 6o9.
Mafrdeburg, 565.
Maf^ic, 4S, 309.
Magna (iharta, 208.
Malnibourg. 860.
Maiinoni<le5, 385.
Mainottoa. 107, 256&, 866^
Major, 405s.
MaJorln^^ 157.
Maistre, De, 625.
Malachius, 200.
Mand«!vlll<-, 499.
Manft-cd of Sicily, 267s.
ManicffiiotAiii, $6«., 123 ; of Mid-
dle Ages, 2528.
Mannel, 3^6.
Marburg Colloquy, 893; Free
Congg., 581.
Marca, Petrus de, 515.
Marcellinus, 61.
Marccllu^ll4.705; IL, 451, 466.
Marcionus, 127.
Marcion, 71, 81s.
Marcus, 696 : Aureliiu^ 46.
Marffarctta Peter, 559.
Marhelneke, 10, 360.
Mary, Worship of, 152, 219, 221,
224, 3(»7, 521 ; the Catholic,
422 ; Stuart, 424.
Maria of Portugal, 681; The-
resa, 526.
Marriage, 68, 708., 138, 176. 226.
706; Doable, 4898.; Mixed,
6368.
Mariana, 458.
Marienburg. 887.
Maronitea, 182, 260, 482.
Marozla, ISa
.Marquesas Islanda, 615.
Marsilius Ficlnna, 886.
Martin of Toan*, 151, 177; I.,
182; IV., 270; V., 278aw
Martyrs, 55s., 69, 154.
Ma.M>ra, 831.
Mam, 146, 800.
Maasalians, 107, 168.
MasalUon. 516.
Master Song, 815, 446.
Matilda, CounteeB, 194^ 196, 198.
Matteo de Ba.'vt, 462a.
Matthew, Father, 650.
Matthew Paris, 264.
Matthias, Emnieror, 418, 477.
Matthiesen, 431.
Maalbroan, Diap. at, 418.
Maur. Monks of St, 462, 481.
Maurice of He»e, 413 ; of Sax-
ony, 893, 895&, 896, 897; of
Orange, 4158.
Mauritius, 688.
Maury, 580, 686.
Mauvillon, 687.
Maximilian I., 870; II., 417; of
Bavaria, 477.
Maximinus, 65; tho Thracian,
46.
Maximua, 158.
Mayence. 169, 280.
Mayer, Cbanct-llor, 846.
Maynooth, 651.
Mazzlnl, 622.
Mechatharista, 666.
Mecklenburg Catholic 648.
Mediolanutn, Synod of, 114.
Meinbard, 250.
Melancthon, 866e., 873, 873, 888,
391, 893, 404&, 4398.. 446a.
Melchizedekians, 99, 702.
Melchites, 181.
Meletiua, 690.
Melito, 51, 71.
Menander, 27.
Mendaeans, 77
Mendelssohn, Felix. Moses, 676.
Mendicant Orders, 2958.
Mennas, 180.
Mennonltes, 432, 610.
Menzel, 360 (Errata).
Mercy, Brethren and Sisters of,
463, 662.
\fcrle dWubignS, 861.
Merlin, 810.
Mej«ias Klopstock>, 641.
Metho<lists, 505, 595, 604.
Methoiliua, 95, 248, 256.
Metropolitans, 608.
Michael, 177; Cerularios, 869;
Palaeologus, 269, 854, 855: of
Cesena, 299 ; Angelo, 804, 806.
Michaelis, 68a
Mlchelet, 62&
Miguel, Dom, 681.
Milner, 10.
Miltitz and Luther, 866
Milton, 498.
Minimi, 817.
Minlsterium, 68.
Minnesingers, 244.
Minorites, 29788., 818.
Minucius, Felix, 49, 61.
Mlrabcau, 631.
Miserere, 469k
Missa, 188. 146; MarcaUl, 466.
MlKiona, Inner, 591 ; Catholic,
6688. ; Priests of the. 468, 625.
Missionary Socletleo. 6l2as.
Mo«hler, 14, 655.
M(^las. 4S1.
Mohammed, lOtea. ; IL.8661
Molay, 819.
Molina, 467.
Mollnoa, 520.
Momiers, 595.
MonarchU Sidliae, 196l
Monarchlans, 9S&, 196, 704.
Monasticism, 149, 150, 225.
MonasUc Life, 149, 150, 816,
4628., 481.
Mongols, 887s.
Monod, Fred., 608; Adolphe,
609.
Monophysltes, 128, 180b.
Monothelites, 181.
Moptalerabert, 628.
Montanism, 66flL, 89s., 701.
Monte C^ssino, 161.
Montesquieu, 623l
Monteequloa. 680.
Montloeier, 624.
Moral Science, 1478., 888L
Moralltiec^ 802.
Moravia, 248.
Moravian Brethren, 860, 606.
Morgan, 600.
Mormons, 612.
Morrison, 616.
Mosheim, 9.
Mozarab««, 16$.
Mozart, 675.
Muckers, 6598i
Mtthlbere, Battle oi; 396.
Mailer, Daniel, 508; Henry. 449.
M&nster, AnatMiptists ot, 481&.
MQnzer, Thomas, 878.
Muri, 647.
Murillo, 461
Mu5a,168.
Music Eccles., 168, 465, 67&
Myconina, 860.
Mysticism. 2898., 82888., S41 619,
5558., 661.
N
Nttbe, 10.
Nantes, Edict ot, 428, 491
Naples, 529.
Napoleon. 682, 688, 648, 676.
Nassau, 413.
Natalia, Alexander, 8.
NaUlia, 68.
Naturali'«m, 498aa.
National Cliurches, 892.
Nauniburg Bishopric, 892 ; Prin-
ces' Diet at, 44>1
Nazarean^ 25, 71
Nazoracans. 71
Neander. History, 10, 68S| Bish-
op, 568.
Neri, Philip, 4«2.
Nero, 87.
Nerva, 8a
Nestoriana, 1268.. 88.S 665.
Nestorius, 124. 888, 706.
Netherlands, Kefi>rm, 414; Re-
cent Sut« of. 696a.
Neuberg. Count Palatine, 476.
New Israelites, 647.
New Jemaaleni, 6u6sa., 606.
Newman, 5998w
New Platonism, 478».
New Testament, 71, 698.
New Year's Day, 161
Niebelungen. L«y of; 848.
Ni<»f*, Svnod oi; L, lltei; IL,
157, na
u CallliL. TuS.
^^ 1 W.
>'(:1iHi'r";i-iVi5.8M;
,3tS; DTint' Fill,', SOS;
>. 881 : Uothoi.c, Wi ;
IVscTTinDMnmt.tWa.
'nerli^ 41T, 010, Uaa^
Sureal-i^te, Diet oC 3I8&.SK:
Nuncios, 11^ US.
O
Oak. Syno.1 of ^ll^ lal,
ObeiMn. MS.
ObMiir* Man, Lelttn of, 829.
Ou'wn. »l.
O'CwiwII. «w. «sa
O.k'nw. IHetor,*]*.
Chlllo, n«.
^EculunpiHlla'.SSd, S%t.
loirnlcil C
Connelli, M; rc
Hndila, F.rdsconl, !«.
MMiliii'<i'[beYli«lD,M
UihsUHii, til).
Onrkcn. MbM<iii*iy,«l<)L
nMtirt. VI. tun.
Olmnsr.l'l-noIoCinL
rlneon. lea: I.. 18>, !tf; 111,
IK»; IV. tOII,tlL
Lwbnt, ni.
pSntLnib B». UHb^ MS, Ml
■■•iiunu. 896.
piIilLnUc, 8K; of Binrl*, iK, I
rdcHiInt, «g.
I'lnltaMD. IM. M4,
t'BMcr, 81<i, 14ta, 1S8>
!t9w.,«S3&,4fi(IL,MlH,
_. .■leUiH,AEa,HI.
PblILp L tt Friince, IM. I
l>s; Aninwtiu, 10t,»n;
Fa1r,?TI.8l9i: orHtncf
»>s,s»a.s>i,aH,B>s; ofa
rhillpplela. <0*.
I'miljipupolLi, !tt; Sjiiad ot
"bHcJ''ilf ° "■
jiiioiwDUh isa
hllodlorslim IM, TOS.
run^ Lelter, S9S.
Kii. on.
icbsl ConlroT., 88, 1M, Ml.
!cbi>l\Kl].. ISIU.
Kbulua liKJtwnnm 124, ISfc
uau. TrtMT oC 898.
•lortiW.
tiTinl.JSt.
IrlHTclift, Ul ; oT CoDBtuUno- .
I'dilImi Aii.-!lt,irt.,Blii,40: I
iirratied, LS8; UvnTd, 4M«. ,
orSunrBoli, 100: DfT1lehc^ 1
64l; Ihe^lmpli, ISH; II.. '
«SK; U1.,SM, 3K, IM, 409.
4041 IV., 401. 4N: v.. 40-
441; Wirnnftld, Kl, 1T9;
UdldolbtiJ. Mt
FtolleJiuu, I0»>. ML
Pucu, ETtrlutlng. MIn.;
Qua._«J8. m; of Lint 4H
IBT, 4«l; Oilbodoi,
«!•.*» a-
■<Dnhm.4I. m, 839.
IT^ Surrril, 303.
win*. H, Ml.
ii. ta. aa. 4h, «si
Pwllnttiili, tMv
PfBa. William. ODi.
rcniMAR, M. ta.
PrpniUnl. M.
I'cnUrim KIT.
remjrin". WM.
; gf l)niy*,»»;ofCMWl-
718
INDEX.
Pothlntu, 697, 699.
PouasiD, 464.
Prague Bishopric, 249 ; Univer-
sity. 326, 84ri.
Pra^rmatic Sanction, 208, 281,
284, 2n\
Praxea^ 99. 704.
Preaching Friara. 296.
Pre<iestinariana, 125, 285.
Predestination, 122, 225, 879, 401.
PretnonstrantA, 229.
PresbyttresMss 89, 707.
Presbyteries in Bavaria, 5728.
PresbyU•rian^ 42«, 498, 597, 604.
Prwbytens 39, 58, 140.
Presentla Passiva, 687.
Presier John, 887.
Prieria^s 868.
Priesthood, 57, 186, 187, 188, 448&
Priestley, 611.
Primastiis of Adrymetam, 188.
Priiicilllanaa, 15a
ProbabiliMn, 884, 454, 517.
Proclns,48.
ProcopluB. 188, 161, 850; Ga-
zaeus, 188.
ProflDSsio Fidel tridentina, 466.
ProIi,558.
Propaganda, 470.
Prophecy, Messianic, 20r.
Prophets, 88; Little, 495.
Pro6elyte^ 28, 672.
ProBolyUHin, 470, 672.
ProtCJitant Friends, 578.
Protestation of Speyer, 881.
Protestantism, 487s.; Develop-
ment of; MSss.; and Catho-
licism, 46Sn,, 67198.
Protesting Parties, 159, 251b8.,
Provincial Syno<ls, 60, 2908., 531.
Prudentlua. 116, 7iiO.
Pmssla, 886, 875, 566a&, 5768flL,
685«., 686&, 642.
Piseudo-Isidorus, 184.
PtoIemai^ 269.
Ptoleniaons, 696 ; of Lncca, 265.
Priblic Worship, 1588., 1778.,
2282SH., 3U0si^, 444sa.
Pnlchtria, 127.
PurKatorj', 146.
Parilans 362, 864, 422, 601.
Pu^yism, 599a.
Qaadraf^esima, 6-S.
Qaailratus, Apologist, 50.
Qaake^^ 502, 605.
Qau'todecimani, 154.
Qaelen, 626.
Qaenstedt, 485.
Qaesnel, 518.
Quietism, 5198^
Quinot, 62S.
Quinit«exta, 134.
S
Rabanns Maanl^ 288, 284.
Rabbi Akiba, 42.
Kabblnisin, 428.
Kadbod. King of Friaona, 168w
Uadicali^m, 563, 647s.
Katnmohun Roy, 615a.
Ranke, 8608.
Raphael, 806.
Rapp,553.
RHtheriu^ 236.
Rationalism, 600b., 5078., 544,
5508.
Ratisbon, Alliance of; 876; Diet,
898, 412, 477.
Ratralnnu^ 234, 286.
Raamer, 588.
Ravalllao, 429L
Hawicz, 658.
Raymond of Bezieres, 256; de
Pennaforte, 286; de Babnnde,
825: du Pay, 282; of Thou-
loiL«c 256.
Raynal. 523.
Haynaldu^ S.
Ke.•^der^ 547.
ReaIi!«t^ 239, 3218.
Kecognitions of Clement, 692,708.
lU'demptorist.*. 521.
Uedt^ciner, Order of the^ 817.
Reformation in Cath. Cliarch,
276«., 33.S. 848; Forerunners
of the, 351; Protestant, 860;
IntroducUon of; 886l
Reformed Church, 884a, 8998.,
5958.; Presbyterian Charch,
6(4.
Rogalla, 216, 287.
Kegcnbrocht, 659.
Regino of Pruem, 210.
Rehm, 10.
Keichlin-Meldegg, 12.
Reimams, 587.
Relnhard, 54&
Itoynardua, 2488., 816.
Religion, Prussian Edict of; 540.
Religious Peace of Augsburg^
89S8. ; of Nuremberg, 881
Keligioel, 225.
Rcliquca, 151«., 220.
Remigius, 166, 285.
Remonstrants, 415.
Kcpi>al Meetings. 650^
Reservatum Eocledastieiiin, 899.
Reservation, 2SS.
Restitution, Edict ot, 479.
RetractAtion^ 128^.
Kcuchlln, 329.
Reversales, 607.
Revivals in America, 601.
Revolution, Engl., 497a. ; French,
I., 5>»s8. ; II., e258^
Reynard the Fox, 815.
Rhenish Bavaria, 568, 572&
Ithenius, 613.
RhonsM*, Electoral Alliance at
274, 2S7.
Rlcci, Jesuit, 474et
Richard C<Bor de Lion, 204s.;
Simon, 516 ; of St Victor, 24a
Richelieu, 428.
Richer, 460.
Rienzo, Cola de, 274a.
Riga, 251, 420.
Robber Synod, 128, 144
Robert Guiscani, 192, 196; of
Arbris5el, 228; of Citeanx,
22$; Stephens, 465.
Robeepierre, 581.
Robinson, 423.
RiKlriguc^ Olinde, 679.
R'dir. 545, 561.
Riinnow of Riiskilde, 419.
Kogor of Sicilv, 196, 200.
Rohrbacher, 65«.
Roman Catholics in the XT. S.,
602.
Rome, Pagan, Hsa., 488. ; Bish-
opric of; 61, 1428.; Repablic,
622SS.
Romantic School, 556, 674.
Romualdo, 227.
Roncolian Plainfl| Battle, 202.
Rongis 656s.
Ronsilorf; 509.
Roothaan, OlS.
R<*»ary, 8(K).
Roscellinns, 289.
Rosen kranz, 558.
Rosicrusiana, 449.
RoBkolniei. 666L
Rossi. Count, 622.
Roswitha, 285a.
Rothschild, 677.
Rousseau, 528.
Koyaard. II.
Royko, 11.
Rubens, 464.
Rucbat 3C1.
Rudolph of UapsbiiTX, 2608.; of
Suabia.195; II., 417.
Rugen. 249.
Ruffo, Cardinal. 580i
Ruflnus, 98, 120.
Rupert of Deutx. 248w
Rnpp, 580, 584, 589.
Russell, Lord, 600, tfSa
Russian Church, 257, 481a, 666u
Russia, ProteeCantism la, 579a^
668.
Ruttenstock, 12.
Riiyshroek, 82a.
Ryswick, Peace of; 496L
8
Sabbatarians, 44T, 610.
Sabellicos, 26Sl
8abellin^ lOa
Saeerdotiom, 68L
Sacharelli, 8.
Sacraments, 224a, 860, 889L
Sacramentarian Contror.,
287, 88901, 899&, 401.
Sacriflcati, 56.
Sacrilege, Law on, 626.
Sadduoeee, 22.
Sailer, 661.
Salnt^ Worship of; 151&, 231;
8078., 620.
St Oermain, Peace o^ 427.
St <Tohn. Knights ot^ 882, 819ii:
Disciples of, 77.
St MarUn, 584.
St Maurus, 402, 48L
St Simon, 679.
Saladin, 204
Sales, Francis oC 461.
Salisbury, John «rf; 241.
Salle, Baptist de la, 621.
Salvianos, 149.
Salzburg, Evangellcala c^ 488L
Samaritan^ 28, 268.
Samo^ateniani. 100.
Sami>^iean\ S5.
Samson, 885.
Sancho L, 207ei
Sandwich lalanda, 614a
San Oraal, 244
Sardica, Synod of; 118fl., 142,
707.
Sarpi, 860, 467.
Saturninus, 77, 698.
Saumnr Academy, 490.
Savonarola, 852.S.
Saxony, 169, 685.
Saxon Reformation, 868Bl. 492s.,
562, 57SS.
Scanderbeg, 856.
Scapular of the Yirstii, 280.
Schaff, 6S4
Scheibel 509s.
Schelling, 550a^ 602.
Schiller, 542.
Schism, 275.
Schlciermacher, 11, 690.
Schmidt J. E. Ch., 9.
Schneidem&hl, 66a
Schoefller, Abbe, 664
Schocnherr, 660.
Scholasticism, 289aL, 820b.
Scholz, 65i
Schroeck, 9.
Scholz, Court PrMcfaer, 64a
ScrlnlDrM. tH Hcdj I
Bcwtliusili., ffiSi.MI.
SaitiiL Dmu, HI 1 Erl»oi,m(.
t(*L-»»IJI. M4I.
BctnlHrlxivs IlSl.
BcDilpuliftliv, li^
'Senilrmilr. Agreement It, <M
fitMtMliU cif WuittmbBTB; MTn
..r l-riixK sent.
SrnimUiB, luo.
fitrdiu IIL. 19S: Pitlluiili,
ill; Tyebleu, Ml.
eKriiioio,«>l, 4t5,MQiL
tiecen S1«mi^ M.
tl«Ter1*ni, lit, lai.
benstliiiu, IW.
SiiKriB Aleund«t. *t-
f hnAiatincy. 4ini. SID.
Bluken. t44, ftHL
tiu.)iiiiK l-'wk^ >T, ras,iu.
ttldllin MuDUcby, SCO, BU;
V«-Mrfci7i).
SIckiDio-D.an.Mt
8leinIe<Hi.,«M.
JJterM, AMI.
tlUiWn uf <lnnbt«(in, 1S2l
SlEliman.!, EmiH'ror, 1IT, SIS:
111., i't fwclm, tib, 4WI.
Slnirtci UeUphnnu, iAOL Sly-
liliiionv. 181, HI; oom&SSSi,
Plnteiifii. M3.
flHriiu, NV, IM.
«lnnloin. ftcnuj o^ 114
Birtu IV., W.BU: V. «*,*«■
lr.ir»,SjB«l<<a8», S,
4. ]««, 11% 1ST. au, ^
S[«., FrdL, 461.
ap>'r<^r^l>lrl(<»9L
10.
HUnilU
etaruT,.nl. wt.
SUiijill.,WS.«*).
suiDbiiiii.T. m.
Bl«pU(n1'.,'Bi ;" IL. iSrviL,
ISI; Lt-.IM: Bo*»t»l, «!■. ;
at llaniiuy. UO; oT I>7C4deo.
6M.
Slockholm, Soclalf In, MS.
aioltwrv. 11, ni.
Btrulwui;, 8;iiad,<Ue; Ficall)'.
Bulplclu Stvmu, 10&
Bund.v,41,M,IM.
SnparbittDdKili, 4U{ Oenenl,
Siiiwrlat CnnahlorlHi, FnMti,
Suirt.8>H«lut IW.
Sweiten. ii.V HO.
Ldhtugliuifk, e
icrluuLSMa
iword, BrMhnn of tin. S31.
itWuiai ^o^x•llUnB^ isiit.
iylvMter 1.. lilt, \H; IL, 1
^>nBR.^ IW. II
1^ CulutlluUod, «0>H 44D1I;,
; cautu. IT}, n2, tas.
iL Holy. AM. «T0.
Tuienil,M)!L
Tmo. Turqgito, tOL
Tilluius SI, SB.
T»nlM, KM.
Tuillan of Iho Chnnh, 140^
si«,a»a
Tampkni m, Sl^. ««,'
Tanftoriil SvKlwD, 4M, DTI.
TBtluld, IM.
hnalora, KinptcM, lit; lET,
iMotloreliu, IDl, i:
lie«ll41]B AKlcltf,
Tbmdwliu I, MO, lllle„ U8;
ILIM.
TlwiKlotiu^ n, TM.
Thcnliilpb of Ortcaiu, ITD.
TtionpuBchLlM, las*
TbeopbuH, Cnofe
ThHinbrlumi, SCI.
Theojophjf, MT»
eioTiliai, MS. 1S&
Thmi-'DtM. t9.
Tbomlsla, »3\k. S8J, tfl
720
INDKX.
Trinity, 09.1 la
Tritt/nlu-lin, -JiV).
Tr«>u»>n«l«nr!». 24-1.
Tnico of (J.xl. 2us, 217.
TnillMii Svno.l. VM. 14S, IM.
Tubiti;,vn, InivorfJtv, 32*2;
Soho.»l, <M»Ut, 51:» ; NVw, 608ft.
Turkov, fiTo.
Tnnis, 2<N<.
Tutrov, IJW.
Tyrannlrido, 33-1, 442«., 45Srt.
Tvn.j. MS, (Vitl.
Tachlrner, 9, WO, tills.
T'
riilich. ftTSs., 5S2.
riplilKiA. 165.
Ulrlch of Aup^b., 213; of WQr-
tomb., Wl.
lT|t^llllontalllsU^ GA2s.
Uniformity, Act of. 423.
Uniirenitnls Itnll of, MO.
Union, 4H.SS., .V2(K : Evang., 60S^;
of tho Kv. Clinrch, .V»6*.., 57S;
of the Cath. and O roek Charch-
es, 4^1, Of'tH.
Unltariun^ 9<^.4.. 4389., 603, Oil.
Unlversalla, 'iiVX
Uuivorsalissts, 6«»5.
Universities, 2:}69. :^&
Upper Khenish Prov., 478, C48.
Urban 11., 19rt, 197; IV„ 801;
v.. 27.". : V I., 275, 802 ; Vlll.,
4.W, 450, Mr..
Urlsperjii-r, 530.
Urslnos, 413.
Unula, 5tf.
Ursulirif.-*. 463.
Utraq'iists AVK, 477a.
Utroilit Jan>fuiats, 519; Union
of, 415.
Vaira.<«(>, 523.
Val»i^ (UT.
VaUn^, 114.
Vnleiitininniw II., IIC; III., 189,
141
Valc'iitiniiit, Gnoj-tlc,7Ss, C95.
VaU'rliiiniH, 4(».
Vallialliu I(;L
VaIl:^ .MJ7. i.m.
Valloinl.ros:i. Or.ler of, 227.
ValtfliiKs 47^.
VaiuLil"*, h)!>:*.
VaM, 4IS
Va-«arl, 3<«.
Vw^hIs, 171.
Vaud, (':»Tit<.n of, 400, 59S, 611.
Venein.'i, 11.
Vergrrias 469.
Verscboorcn, 509.
Vcsi»aMnnus 37.
Vtio Act. 5'J7.
Victor I.. ftN. W, 704; IL, 191;
III., 196, 2<>2.
Vienna ('t^nc<»r«lat, 2S1 : Cou-
eri'SN On.\ 617 : IVaco of, 417 ;
Till i.l. F.iruliv at, 60G.
ViffilaiitltiN 15'.»;
Vlirilltis, 12l».N
Viunb, 67.
Villaiii. 264,
Vihncnien. ILittlo of. 495.
Vinctnt «lc rmila, 4tW.
Vlncentius Forreri. 313 ; of Beau-
vala. 264 ; of LIrinum, 111.
VInct, 59S.
Vlrt^t, 400.
Vlrjflllua, Mngieinn, 810.
Vljober, W3s. ; rotor, 804.
ViRltants Female, 463.
Vi>ltatl .n, Article* of, 411 ; Book
of, a-Ji.
Vitwj.', SL. D.incc, 313.
Vla<IJmlr. 857.
Vlaillsljins IV. of Poland, 420.
V<)lco5, Calline, in Sweden, 559.
Voltaire. 5S8. 54S.
Vosjs J. II., 672.
Vulgate, HI, 466.
W
WalaMd Stnibo, Un.
Walden*^*, 254s., 8425., 6ia
Wallacbian^ 665.
Waller, IIan.\ 446 : of tbe Vogel-
welde, 244; of SL Vlrtor, ?41,
Wartbunc, Lather at, 372b.
WeffKcbeider, Mi, 562.
Weljrol, 449.
Weimar I)l*imt., 406: Eccle^
Order, 674.
Welshaupt, 527.
Wellington, 019.
Wence»lau% 84Ss. ai>8.
Wend^ 249.
Wetkrneister, 654.
Wertlulm Ulhlo, 490.
We*cl, .lohn ot, 851>.
Wesley. .5<>5.s.
Wcswl. 351.
WessenWrg, 6.36. 646.
Wo.*5<'brunru'r Pmyer. 223.
Westi-ru'*, Diet of. 41s.
Wfst In.lie.s475, 51U.
Westphal, 407.
Wt^'tpliulla, Peace of, 479.
Wett.«»t<!ln, 491.
Whilefiebl. 5''5;«.
Wichern, 691.
Wieland, 542.
WIpand, 40S, 411.
WMlberforc*', 506.
W]k1en»i«ch cniciAzlon. 559.
Wilhchnina. Bohe^an, 842.
William of CbaniM'aax. 24^1; of
St. Amour, 29*: of MinMiii,
227 : of Occ.im, 321 ; oft »ranci-,
49-? ; tlio <'onqueror, 194.
WiNon, BI-Jiop. 615.
Winer. 598.
Winfrwl. 16S.
Winkelmann. 672, 674.
Wisi'man, 65K
I Wil*Ilcenu^ 579. 5S0.
Witches. 175 : TrlaLi of, 810bl, 491.
Witiroru^tein, 5<i9s.
Wltira. 172.
Wittenbvrg Univ.. 326: Thesefi,
868: Fire Htnial, 369; Icono-
cla<im, 872^ : Surrender of,
396; Conn.rdium, «99; Phll-
ippbta of, 40l«^ ; Lutlif r&nlam,
4!>9.
wizti, 46a
Wladlmlr,S57.
Wladi.^Iaus of Bohemia, 8M.
Woellner, 540.
Wolf, 4S9SI. ; Pet^r, 11.
Wolfonbfkttel Fnure., M7.
Wolfram of Ei^cbenbaclt. 244.
Woltmann, S6<i.
Women, 39. 140, 6S0.
WwLiton, 499.
Work^ Neccieitv of. lii&i.. 4^^.
Worm^ C<»nconiat, 190 ; Diet at,
3719.; Syiio«l at, 195.
Worship, see Public Worship.
WQrtcmbonr, 391.M7.57iK,6Vt.
WupjK'rthal la Africa. OlOw
WycIlfTe, »46a.
X
Xavler, 4.'i2, 472.
Ximcne^ 294, 331.
Young Germany, 554.
Zabians. 77.
Zueliariajs Po|i^, 173.
Zelatorc^ 29S.
Zeno Ivaiiricnfl. 12S; Stoic, 17.
Z«'phvriruis 701, 7l»4, 7o5,
Zillertliftl, »i«»6.
Zinrendorf, 50fln.
Ziska, .S.*y).
Zittel. 572.
Zunanui, 261.
Zo^imus, las, 124.
Zulpicb, Battle o^ 166.
Zurich, 8Ji6, S.'W.
Z>«ickau Pn»phets 3T2s. 4SL
Zwingle, 3»4aA. SdS&
THE END.
f» BO'JHDBY ^
.sr--^ ->^?^?^'^
^^ V . ;