Skip to main content

Full text of "A history of classical scholarship"

See other formats 


Google 


This  is  a  digital  copy  of  a  book  that  was  preserved  for  generations  on  library  shelves  before  it  was  carefully  scanned  by  Google  as  part  of  a  project 

to  make  the  world's  books  discoverable  online. 

It  has  survived  long  enough  for  the  copyright  to  expire  and  the  book  to  enter  the  public  domain.  A  public  domain  book  is  one  that  was  never  subject 

to  copyright  or  whose  legal  copyright  term  has  expired.  Whether  a  book  is  in  the  public  domain  may  vary  country  to  country.  Public  domain  books 

are  our  gateways  to  the  past,  representing  a  wealth  of  history,  culture  and  knowledge  that's  often  difficult  to  discover. 

Marks,  notations  and  other  maiginalia  present  in  the  original  volume  will  appear  in  this  file  -  a  reminder  of  this  book's  long  journey  from  the 

publisher  to  a  library  and  finally  to  you. 

Usage  guidelines 

Google  is  proud  to  partner  with  libraries  to  digitize  public  domain  materials  and  make  them  widely  accessible.  Public  domain  books  belong  to  the 
public  and  we  are  merely  their  custodians.  Nevertheless,  this  work  is  expensive,  so  in  order  to  keep  providing  tliis  resource,  we  liave  taken  steps  to 
prevent  abuse  by  commercial  parties,  including  placing  technical  restrictions  on  automated  querying. 
We  also  ask  that  you: 

+  Make  non-commercial  use  of  the  files  We  designed  Google  Book  Search  for  use  by  individuals,  and  we  request  that  you  use  these  files  for 
personal,  non-commercial  purposes. 

+  Refrain  fivm  automated  querying  Do  not  send  automated  queries  of  any  sort  to  Google's  system:  If  you  are  conducting  research  on  machine 
translation,  optical  character  recognition  or  other  areas  where  access  to  a  large  amount  of  text  is  helpful,  please  contact  us.  We  encourage  the 
use  of  public  domain  materials  for  these  purposes  and  may  be  able  to  help. 

+  Maintain  attributionTht  GoogXt  "watermark"  you  see  on  each  file  is  essential  for  in  forming  people  about  this  project  and  helping  them  find 
additional  materials  through  Google  Book  Search.  Please  do  not  remove  it. 

+  Keep  it  legal  Whatever  your  use,  remember  that  you  are  responsible  for  ensuring  that  what  you  are  doing  is  legal.  Do  not  assume  that  just 
because  we  believe  a  book  is  in  the  public  domain  for  users  in  the  United  States,  that  the  work  is  also  in  the  public  domain  for  users  in  other 
countries.  Whether  a  book  is  still  in  copyright  varies  from  country  to  country,  and  we  can't  offer  guidance  on  whether  any  specific  use  of 
any  specific  book  is  allowed.  Please  do  not  assume  that  a  book's  appearance  in  Google  Book  Search  means  it  can  be  used  in  any  manner 
anywhere  in  the  world.  Copyright  infringement  liabili^  can  be  quite  severe. 

About  Google  Book  Search 

Google's  mission  is  to  organize  the  world's  information  and  to  make  it  universally  accessible  and  useful.   Google  Book  Search  helps  readers 
discover  the  world's  books  while  helping  authors  and  publishers  reach  new  audiences.  You  can  search  through  the  full  text  of  this  book  on  the  web 

at|http: //books  .google  .com/I 


iM,Googlc 


n,g,t,7rJM,GOOglC 


Pfl 

112-/ 

v.  5 


M,Googlc 


iM,Googlc 


n,g,t,7rJM,GOOglC 


iM,Googlc 


A    HISTORY 

OF 

CLASSICAL    SCHOLARSHIP 


iM,Googlc 


CAMBRIDGE   UNIVERSITY   PRESS  WAREHOUSE 

C  r.  CLAY,  Manager. 

lonlrait;   FETTER  LANE,  E,C. 

esinSutslit    loo,   PRINCES  STREET. 


litoij:  F.  A.  BROCKHAUS. 
Snlln:    A.  ASHER  AND  CO. 
^rto  8n<i:  G.  F.  PUTNAM'S  SONS. 
Vnnki))  antt  dtalnitl*:    MACMILLAN  AND  CO. 


h.  i."ih,Googlc 


iM,Googlc 


ving  in  Schrtick's  Abbildangcn  bcriikmUr  Gilck, 
(LeipzLE,   1766),  i  pi.  30. 


//glc 


A    HISTORY 

OF 

CLASSICAL    SCHOLARSHIP 

VOL.   Ill 

THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  IN  GERMANY, 

AND   THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  IN  EUROPE 

AND   THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


JOHN   EDWIN   SANDYS,  LITT.D., 


CAMBRIDGE 
AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 


iM,Googlc 


Die  Bahn  ist  breit  genug,  um  vielen  Beweriern  urn  den  PrHs 
neben  anander  Raum  zu  gebm ;  darum  woUen  wir  nichl  nut 
neidios,  sondern  auch  mit  dankbarer  Anerkennung  dm  Leislungen 
unserer  amwartigen  Milkampfer  gereekl  werdeit. 

BuRSiAN,   CI.  Philologie  in  Deulschland,  p.  1248,  188.1. 

Une  renaissance  des  Hudes  classiquts  iest  manifesfie  chez  nous. 
Elk  se  distingue  par  Palliance  des  qualitis  franfaises  de  darti  et 
de  mithode  avec  la  soliditi  de  Vkrudition  et  la  connaissana  des 
Iravaux  Strangers. 

S.  Reinach,  Manuel  de  Philologie  Classique,  i  13,  1883. 

TTiis  century  is  the  first  since  the  revival  of  learning  in  which 
a  serious  challenge  has  been  thrown  down  to  the  defenders  of  the 
humanistic  tradition.  But  I  think  it  will  be  found  that  the  position 
of  humanism  in  this  country  at  the  close  of  the  century  is  much 
stronger  than  it  was  at  the  beginning. 

Jebb,  Humanism  in  Education,  p.  30,  Oxford,   1899- 

European  scholars.,  find  that  they  have  to  count  with  a  neiv 
factor  and  have  to  recognise  in  our  philological  work  a  national 
stamp. 

GiLDERSLEEVE,  Oscillations  and  Nutations  of  Philo- 
logical Studies,  p.  II,  Philadelphia,  1900, 


iM,Googlc 


6. 

7  / 


CONTENTS. 


List  of  Illustrations 

Bibliography.    See  vol.  ii  p.  xv 

Outline  of  Principal  Contents  of  pp.  i — 485 

Index  ....        


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 

page 

History  of  Srholarship,   1700 — 180O xiv 

„  „  1800— 1900 4S — 49 


iM,Googlc 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 
continued  from    Vol.  II  p.  xiv. 

(41)  J.  A.  Fabbicius.  From  the  engraving  in  Schrock's  Abbildungen 
brruhmtrr  Gelehrien  (Leipzig,  ij66),  i  pi.  30         .         .        .  Fronlispiict 

(41)  J.  A.  Ernbsti.  From  an  engraving  by  J.  Elias  Haid  (Augsburg, 
1776)  of  a  portrait  by  Anton  Graff 11 

(43)  Reiskb.  From  the  portrait  by  J.  D.  Philippin  geb,  Sysangin, 
printed  as  frontispiece  to  the  Oratorei  Gra^H  (1770)      ....         16 

(44)  Hevne.  From  C.  G.  Geyser's  engraving  of  the  early  portrait  by 
Tischbein 37 

(+5)  F.  A.  Wolf.  From  Wagner's  engraving  of  the  portrait  by  Jo. 
Wolff  (1833);  printed  as  frontispiece  to  HotTmann's  edition  of  Wolfs  AUer- 
Ikutns-lVissenschaft  (iSjj) SO 

(46)  NiEBUHR.  From  Sichling's  engraving  of  the  portrait  by  F.  Schnorr 
von  Carolsfeld 76 

(4J)  Gottfried  Hermann.  From  Weger's  engraving  of  the  portrait 
by  C.  Vogei;  frontispiece  to  Kijchly's  CoUjried  Hermann  (1874).  For  a 
latter  reproduction  of  the  same  portrait,  see  frontispiece  to  Hermann's 
Aeschylus  (1851)  .  ' 88 

(48)  BOECKH.  Reproduced  (by  permission)  from  the  frontispiece  to 
Hoffmann's  .4u,^vj/ fwi'M  (Teubner,  Leipzig,  1901)    .        .         .         .        9C 

(49)  Mbinekb.  Reduced  from  Engelbaeh's  lithcgraphed  reproduction 
of  the  presentation  portrait  by  Oscar  Begas 116 

(50)  Lachmann.  Reduced  from  A.  Teichel's  engraving  of  the  photo- 
graph by  H.  Biow 116 

(51)  RITSCHL.  Reduced  from  a  hthi^raphed  reproduction  of  the  drawing 
by  A.  Hohneck  (1844).  published  by  Henry  and  Cohen,  Bonn,  with  autt^raph 
and  motto  nil  lam  difficUut  quin  quatraida  investigari pcsstil  {Terence,  Haul. 
675) '38 

(51)  Franz  Bopp.  From  the  frontispiece  of  the  Life  by  Lefmann 
(Reimer,  Berlin,  1891) facing  p.  105 

(53)  Karl  Otfried  MIjller.  Reduced  from  a  drawing  by  Temite 
lithographed  by  Wildt 111 

(54)  Thbodor  Mommsbn.  Reduced  from  the  original  drawing  by  Sir 
William  Richmond  (1890),  now  in  the  possession  of  Prof.  Ulrich  von  Wila- 
mowitz-Moellendorff 334 

h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lC 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  vii 

(55)  BOISSONADE.  From  the  Medallion  by  David  d' Angers ;  reduced 
from  a  cast  in  the  possession  of  W.  Salomon  Reinacb  .        .         .      ^48 

(56)  CoBET.  Reproduced  from  1  copy  (lent  by  Prof,  tlartman  of 
Leyden)  of  the  presentation  portrait  drawn  by  J.  H.  Hoflhieisler  and  lilho- 

.  graphed  by  Spamer 174 

(57)  Madvig.  From  a.  photograph  reproduced  in  the  Opusrula  A(a- 
demica  (ed.  1887)  and  in  the  Nordisk  Tidskrifi.  Ser.  11,  vol.  viii  .       310 

(58)  Thomas  Gaisfokd.  Reproduced  (by  permission  of  Messrs  Ryman, 
Onford)  from  a  proof  copy  of  the  mezzotint  by  T,  L.  Atkinson  of  the  portrait 
by  H.  W.  Pickersgill,  R.A.,  in  the  Hall  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (1848)    396 

(59)  Richard  Clavbrhousb  Jegb.  Reproduced  (by  permission)  from 
a  photc^raph  taken  l)y  Messrs  Window  and  Grove,  London  .        .       41J 

(60)  Hugh  Andrew  Johnstone  Munro.  From  a  phott^raph  taken 
in  Cambridge  by  Sir  William  Davidson  Niven,  K.C.B.  .        .        -431 

(61)  Georgb  Grotb.  From  a  reproduction  of  the  portrait  by  Slewartson 
(1814),  now  in  possession  of  Mr  John  Murray       .        .        .       fming  f.  ^ifi 

{6t)  Medallion  of  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies  at 
Athens  (igSi);  Panathenaic  Vase,  with  olive-wreath  and  inscription,  irofi- 
Birau  01Xat  ^M,  Aesch.  Eum.  looa.  Reproduced  from  the  original  block, 
lent  by  Prof.  J.  R.  Wheeler,  New  York,  Chairman  of  the  Managing  Com- 
mittee of  the  School      470 


iM,Googlc 


OUTLINE  OF  PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS. 


BOOK  IV.     THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY,  (onlinutd    r-+6 

Ckrmalagica/  Tahli,   1700 — iSoO  A.D.  .  xiv 

CHAPTER  XXVI.     Germany  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,    (i)  Leibnitz. 

J.   A.   Fabiicius,    Bergkr.     C.   G.   Schwan,    Heinecke,   Hederich,   Walch, 

Funck,  Heumann.  Heusinger,  Kortte.    J.  M.  Gesner,  Damm.  Scheller,  J.  G. 

Schneider.     Ernesli.    Reiske.     Reii 1 — tg 

CHAPTER  XXvn.    (ii)  J.  F.  Christ,  Winckelmann,  Lessing,  Herder, 
Wieland,  Heinse,  Heyne,     Eckbel,  Rasche.     Schiilz         .        .  10 — 46 

BOOK   V.     THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Chronological  TabUs,  1800— 1900  A.D.         .  48—49 

CHAPTER  XXVIII.     F.  A.  Wolf  and  his  contemporaries,  Voss,  Ilgen, 

Jacobs,  Doring,  RosE,  E.  F,  Wilslemann,  Creuzer,  W.  A.  Becker,  W.  von 

Humboldt,   Goethe   and  Schiller.     A.   W.   and   F.   von  Schl^el.     SUvem. 

Rotscher,    Bbliiger,    Sillig,    A.    Malthiae.      Heeren,    Niebuhr,      Spalding, 

Schleiermacher,  Heindorf,  Buttmann.Bekker  .         .        -  47—8; 

CHAPTER  XXIX.     Hermann  and  Boeekh        .         .        .  88—101 

CHAPTER  XXX.    Grammarians  and  Textual  Critics,  from  I-obeck  to 

Ritschl.      Lobeck,   Spitiner,   G.   W.   Nitzsch,    NageUUch,   Spohn,   Lehrs. 

Seidler,  Reisig,  Wunder,  Pflugk,  Naeke,  Heinrich,  Thiersch,  Ast,  DoederLein, 

Dissen,   Passow,  Wellauer,  Goltling,  Hand,  Nipperdey,  Meineke.     Kri^er, 

Kuhner,  and  Ahrens.    Schneidesvin  and  von  Leutsch.     Bemhardy,  Teuffel, 

Nicolai.   Meislethans,  K.  L.  Schneider,  K.  G.  Zumpt.   J.  F.  Jacob,  Forbiger. 

Lachmann,   Kochly,   Haupt.     F.  Haase.     Ritschl,   Fteckeisen,  Studeniund, 

Corssen,  W.  Wagner,  Brix,  Lorenz  and  O.  Seyffert         .        .         101 — 143 

CHAPTER  XXXI.     Editors  of  Greek  Classics.    (  Virse  etc.),  K.  W.  and 

L.  Dindorf,  Harlung,  Bergk.    A.  Scholl.    Buchholz.   Nauck.   Tycho  Monim- 

sen,  LUbbert,  Mezger,  M.  Schmidt,  and  W.  Christ.     Obeidick,  Kaibel  and 

Prinz.    Velsen,  Kocit,  and  MUUer-Strllbing.     Ziegler,  Ahrens  and  A.  T.  H. 

Frilzsche.     O.Schneider.     Weslphal  and  Rossbach;  J.  H.  H.  Schmidt,  von 

■^'"'  h.  i.,  ii,l^.OO^IC 


OUTLINE   OF   PRINCIPAL   CONTENTS.  ix 

(fl-Dje),  Dahlmann.  Poppo  and  Classen,  K.  SchenkI,  Bieitenbach  and 
Hug.  Stallbanm ;  Orelli,  Bailer  and  A.  W.  Windtelmann ;  K.  F.  IlennaDn, 
Cron,  and  Deuschle.  Westennann,  Sauppe,  MaeUner,  K.  C.  Schiller, 
Scheibe,  Bremi,  Rauchenstein,  Frohbei^er,  Schomann,  Meier,  Benseler, 
Voemel,  Pankhaenel,  E.  W,  Weber,  Rehdanti,  Franke,  Schulu,  Arnold 
Schaefer,  Bohnecke,  F.  G.  Kiessling,  and  F.  Blass.  Brandts,  Zeller,  Riller 
and  Preller,  Tiendelenbui^,  Biese,  Schw^ler,  Wailz,  Bonitz,  Bemays,  Teich- 
■nuller,  Spengel,  Prantl,  Susemihl,  Onclten,  Torstrik,  Heitz,  Rose,  and 
Ueberweg.  Walz  and  Schubart.  Volkmann.  Usenei.  Hultsch.  Lehmann, 
Jacobitz,  F.  V.  Frilzsche,  Sommerbrodt.  Hercher.  Rohde.  Kuhn.  Dielz, 
and  J.  L.  Ideler .        .        144—187 

CHAPTER  XXXII.  Editors  of  Latin  Classics.  {C^rsf),  Ribbeck, 
Lucian  Mliller.  Baehrens.  Umpfenbacii.  Ililler,  P.  Wagner,  l.adewig, 
and  Gossrao.  Keller  and  Holder,  Meineke,  Lehrs.  Merkel.  Editors  of 
Valerius  Flaccus,  Lucan,  Statius,  Persius,  Juvenal,  Martial,  and  Claudian. 
Bocking,  Peiper.  Traube.  {Pruse),  R.  Kloli,  Nobbe,  Halm,  Theodor 
Mommsen,  R.  Scholl,  Mendelssohn,  Hertz.  Jordan.  Eyssenliardt.  Nip- 
perdey,  Kraner,  Doberenz.  Alschefski,  Kreyssig,  Weissenbom,  Klllinasl. 
Ritter,  Draget,  Hetaeus,  Schweizei-Sidler.  K.  L.  Uilichs.  Keil.  Geoi^es, 
Paucker,  Ronsch 18S — 104 

CHAPTER  XXXIII.  Comparative  Philologists.  Bopp,  Benfey,  Leo 
Meyer,  Georg  Curtius,  Steinlhal,  Schleicher.  The  New  Grammarians.  Fick. 
Ludwig  Lange.    Benaiy,  Corssen 105 — ill 

CHAPTER  XXXIV.  Archaeologists:— K.O.  Milller,Welcker,  Gerhard, 
Panofka,  Biaun,  Otto  John,  Brunn,  Helbig,  Kohler.  Wieseler,  Stephani. 
Architects: — Schinkel,  von  Klenze,  Semper,  Boetticher,  Strack,  Bohn. 
Schliemann.     Stark,  Friederichs,  Overbeck.    Bursian.    Benndorf,  Malz. 

Get^raphers : — Forcbhammer,  H.  Ulricbs,  Kiepert.  Historians  etc.  of 
Gre^e-.—ErnU  Curtius,  Curt  Wachsmuth.  (G.  Hirschfeld  and  Karl  Humann.) 
Duncker,  Droysen,  Hertzberg,  Holm.  Willielm  Wachsmuth,  Philippi, 
Gilbert.  Historians,  etc.  of  j?i"HC ;  — Schwegler,  Karl  Peler,  Drumann, 
Hoeck,  Ihne,  Theodor  Mommsen.  Hilbner.  Gregorovius.  Mytholt^ists, 
etc.: — Preller,  Kuhn,  Mannhardt 113 — 140 

CHAPTER  XXXV.  Italy  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  Mai  and  Feyron. 
Vallauri.  Pezzi  and  Ascoli.  Bonghi.  De-Vit,  Corradini,  Gandino.  Com- 
paretti.  Archaeologists : — Canina,  Borghesi,  Cavedoni,  Avellino,  Garrucci, 
Fabretti,  the  Duca  di  Serradifaico,  Cavallari,  Fiorelli.  Bruzza  and  De  Rossi. 
Spain  and  Portugal 141 — 147 

CHAPTER  XXXVl.  France  m  the  Nineteenth  Century.  Gail,  Chardon 
de  la  Rocheite,  Boissonade,  Courier,  J.  L.  Barnouf,  Cousin,  Patin.  Qui- 
cherat,  Alexandre,  Littr^.    Disir£  and  Charles  Nisard,    Eqimanuel  Milter, 

,^.oogic 


X  OUTLINE   OF   PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS. 

Gustav  d'Eichthal,  E^jer.  Martin,  Tannery.  Daremberg,  Thurot.  Tour- 
nier,  Weil,  Couat,  Benoist,  Riemann,  Giaux.  Barthelemy  Sainl-Hilaire. 
C.  Waddington. 

Geographers  and  Hislorians ; — Baron  Walckenaer,  Desjardbs,  Tissot, 
Renier,  M^rimee,  A.  Thierry,  De  Presle,  De  Coulajiges,  Arehaeologials : — 
Millin,  Quatrem^re  de  Quincy,  Comte  de  Clarac,  Raoul  Rochette,  Letroane, 
Le  Bas,  Texiei,  Due  de  Luynes,  Charles  and  Franijsiis  Lenormanl,  Long- 
perier,  BeuW,  Laborde.  The  School  of  Athens.  W.  H.  Waddington,  Mion- 
net,  Cohen,  and  de  Saulcy.  Rayet.  Villemain,  Wallon,  Duruy.  K.  B. 
Hiae  and  Diibner.     Cougny.     Didot.   Victor  Henry.    Betant   .        348—173 

CHAPTER  XXXVII.  The  Netherlands  in  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
(i)  Holland.  Pupils  of  Wyttenbach  :— Mahne,  D.  J.  van  Lennep,  and  P.  W. 
van  Heusde.  Peerlkamp  and  Hoeufit.  Bake,  Rinkes  and  Suringar.  Geel. 
Reuvens  and  Janssen.  Limbourg-Brouwer.  Karsten  and  Francken.  Boot. 
Cobet.  Pluygers.  Naber,  Halbertsma,  and  Du  Rieu.  Cornelissen.  Van 
der  Vliet.     Dutch  ui 


(ii)  Belgium.  Belgian  universities.  Baion  de  Witte.  Ghent :— Ronlez, 
Gantrelle  and  Wagener.  Liege :— Roersch ;  Fuss.  Louvain :— G.  J.  Bekker, 
Baguet,  Nive,  Thonissen,  Wiltems 191 — 309 

CHAPTER  XXXVilL  Scandinavia.  Denmark  :— university  of  Copen- 
hagen, Sivcnttcnth  Century; — Bang,  Laurembei^,  Oluf  Boich.  Eightemth 
Century ;— Gram,  Falster,  Jacob  and  Torkil  Baden,  Nyerup,  Schow,  MUnler. 
NineteeiUh  Century;— Thorlacius,  Bloch,  Krarup.  Iceland: — Magniisson  and 
Amessen.  Archaeologists  : — Zoega,  Brondsted,  F.  C-  Petersen,  Kelleiniann. 
Madvig.  Henrichsen,  Eiberling,  Bojesen,  Wesenberg,  Tregder,  Lund.  Ussing. 
Hutzhom.  Compaiative  Philologists ; — Rask  and  Vemer  .  .  310—330 
Norway: — university  of  Chrisliania.  Sophus  Bugge  .  .  330 — 331 
Sweden : — Fifteinlh  Century,  Conrad  Ro^e.  Sixteinth  Century  : — Johan- 
nes and  Glaus  Magni.  Upsala,  Dorpat  and  Abo.  Greek  in  Sweden  ; — Gustaf 
Trolle,  Laurentiua  Andreae,  Olaus  and  I-aurentius  Petri,  Laurentius  Petri  Go- 
thus,  Glaus  Martini,  Jacob  Erik ;  SeuiaitetUh  Century ;— J.  Rudbeck,  Stalenus, 
Ansius.  Latb  Verse  ; — Sixlcmlh  Century :— Henricus  MoUerus  (Hessus), 
Lanrentius  Petri  Gothus;  Seventeenth  Century,  Fomelius.  Buraeus  and  Stiern- 
hielm.  Loccenius.  Queen  Christina's  patronage  of  learning: — Grotius, 
Isaac  Vossius,  N.  Heinsius ;  Descartes  and  Salmasius ;  Marcus  Meibom  and 
Naude ;  Bochart  and  Hue! ;  Conring,  Comenius,  Freinsheim,  Boekler, 
Schefler;  Spanheim.  University  of  Lund;  the  Collegium  Antiquilatum. 
Verelius,  Figrelius,  Johan  Columbus,  Lageriof,  Upmaik,  Nornnan,  Sparwen- 
feldl ;  Eighteenth  Century,  Benzelius.  Historians  of  Greek  in  Sweden.  Flo- 
deras.  Lund  ; — Norberg,  Lundblad  ;  NiTulecnth  Century,  Lindfors,  Tegner, 
Linder,  Walberg  and  Cavallin.  Upsala; — Spongbeig,  Aulin,  Lofstedt, 
Knos  ;  Kolmodin,  Torneros,  Peteisson,  Ha^sltom,  Prigell,  Lagergren,  Sand- 
Strom.     Upsala  under  Oscar  II.    The  Tidshyift  for  Fitologi,  and  the  Nordiska 

fildogmSten 33S— 3S» 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


OUTLINE   OF   PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS.  xi 

CHAPTER  XXXIX.  (i)  Greece  -.—Sixtantk  and  Srvenleenth  Centuries. 
Greek  Scholars  from  Crete,  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  Chios ;  Greeks  in 
England.  State  of  learning  in  Greece.  Schools  of  Constantinople,  Tripolilza, 
loinnina,  Athos,  Mesolonghi,  Dimitzana ;  Patmos,  Chios  and  Smyrna ; 
Trebizond  and  Sinope  ;  Bucharest  and  lassi.  The  Phanariols,  Alexandros 
and  Nicolas  Mavrocordatos.  Eightitnlh  and  Ninttecnth  Centuries  ; — Eugenics 
Bulgaiis.  Koraes.  Kodrikas.  Kumas.  Photiades.  Dukas,  Bardalachos, 
Georgios  Gennadios  and  his  pupils.  The  Ionian  Islands  and  the  university  of 
Corfu  ;  Asopios,  Phijelas,  Pikkolos ;  Musloxydes ;  Oeconomides ;  Thereianos. 
The  university  of  Athens;  Ross  and  UlHch ;  Latin  scholarship  {  works  on 
Homer,  Sophocles  and  Euripides  :—Semilelos  and  Papageorgios ;  on  Iso- 
ctates  etc.: — Kypiianos;  Plutarch's  Moralia: — G.  N.  Betnardakes;  the 
Greek  Gianimar  of  D.  Bernardakes :  the  Greek  History  of  Paparrigopulos ; 
the  Greek  Lexicon  of  Constantinides.  Translations  by  A.  R.  Rangabes. 
Ancient  Greek  verse  imitated  by  Levkias  and  Philippos  loannu.  The  con- 
troversies on  language,  and  on  pronunciation.  Greek  MSS  at  Constantinople, 
Cyprus,  Jerusalem,  Patmos,  Megaspelaion,  Athens,  Athos.  Minoides  Menas 
and  Conslantine  Simonides. 

Archaeolt^ls  ; — Pittakes,  A.  R.  Rangabes,  Kumanudes.  Constantinople 
and  Smyrna 353 — 384 

(ii)  Russia : — Sevenlienth  Centuiy,  ecclesiastical  Academy  of  Kiev,  and 
Graeco-Latin  Academy  of  Moscow.  Universities  of  Moscow  {1755),  Kiev 
{1833),  St  Petersbu^  ('8.'9'.  Kazan  (1804),  Odessa  (1865),  and  Kharkov 
(1804).  Dorpat  (1631);  Abo  (1640),  and  Helsingfors  (i8ij).  Germans  in 
Russia.     Atchaeoli^ts 384 — 390 

{iii)  Hungary: — Tilfy  and  Abel 390 — 391 

CHAPTER  XL.  England  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  Roulh  ;  Mallby 
and  Kidd  ;  Elmsley  and  Gaisfoid. 

Greek  scholars  of  Cambridge  :— Samuel  Butler ;  Dobree,  Monk,  C.  J.  and 
E.  V.  Blomfield,  E.  H.  Barker,  the  Valpys,  Burges,  Scholefield,  B.  H.  and 
C.  R.  Kennedy,  T.  W.  Peile,  Chr.  Wordsworth,  Blakesley,  Lushinglon, 
Shilleto,  Thompson,  Badham,  Cope,  Donaldson,  Paley,  T.  S.  Evans,  W.  G. 
Clark,  Babington,  H.  A.  Holden,  Holmes,  Jebb,  Shuckbui^h.  Warr,  Neil, 
Adam  and  Strachan.  Greek  scholars  of  Oxford  ;— Liddell  and  Scotl,  Jowett, 
George  Rawlinson,  Greenhill.  (Comparative  Philolt^sts; — Max  MuUer  and 
Cowell.)  Chandler,  Grant,  W.  E.  Jelf ;  Eaton  and  Congreve  ;  Riddel) ;  Lin- 
wood,  Conington  ;  Worsley,  Lord  Derby,  Gladstone,  Monro,  Simcox,  Haigh. 
Greek  Scholars  in  Scotland  : — Adams,  Dunbar,  Sandford,  Veitch,  Blackie, 
Geddesj  Latin  Scholar!  :—PilIan5,  Carson,  W.  Ramsay. 

Latin  Scholars  in  England  : — Cambridge  etc. : — Tate,  Keighlly,  Key, 
Long!  W.  Smith,  Rich;  Hildyard,  Munro,  A.  S.  Wilkins;  Oxford:— 
Conington,  Sellar,    Fumeaux,  Henry  Neltleship.     Dublin : — Henry,  Allen, 

Historians :— Thirl  wall,  Grole,  Mure,  Fynes  Clinton;  Arnold,  G.  C. 
Lewis,  Long,  Merivale;  M^ne;  Freeman;  Evelyn  Abbott  j  Pelham.    Topo- 


xii  OUTLINE  OF  PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS. 

grapheis: — Leake,  Cramer,  Law,  fllis.  Archaeolt^sts  : — Fellows,  Spialt, 
Murdoch  Smith,  Porcber,  Dennis,  Lajard,  Newton,  Penrose,  A.  Murray, 
Bum,  Parker,  Middleton.  The  Hellenic  Sodety  and  the  Schools  of  Athens 
and  Rome.     Literary  Discoveries 393 — 449 

CHAPTER  XLI,  The  United  Stales  of  America.  Ov\A'i  Mttamorf  hosts 
translated  in  Virginia  (iSJS).  Early  editions  of  the  Classics.  Colleges  and 
Universities.  E.  Robinson.  Harvard :— Tickoor,  Everett,  Bancroft,  Felton, 
E.  A.  Sophocles,  Beck,  Lane,  {Brown : — Lincoln,  Harkness,  Frieze,) 
Greenough,  J.  H.  and  W.  F.  Allen ;  F,  D.  Allen,  Minton  Warien,  Hayley. 
Vale :— Kingsley,  Thacher,  Tyler,  Woolsey,  Hadley,  Packard,  W.  D. 
Whitney,  Seymour.  New  York :— Anthon,  Drisler,  Tayler  Lewis,  Charlton 
T.  Lewis,  Merriam,  Earle.     Classical  Periodicals.     The  Schools  at  Athens 

and  Rome 450 — 470 

Retrospect 471 — 476 

ADDENDA.  Zeller,  Kirchhoff,  Ditlenberger,  Von  Hartel,  Furtwangler, 
Biicheler,  Von  Schwabe;  Boissier,  Hauvette;  Walter  Headlam         477—485 


iM,Googlc 


CORRIGENDA. 


CORRIGENDA. 

>.  143  1.  II  i  for  Leignitz,  read  Liegniu. 

1.  167  I.  7 ;  for  poems  of  Tbet^is,  read   Theogonia  of  Hesiod. 

I.  140  U30;  Von  Hariel  has  since  died  (1907);  see  Addenda,  p. 

).  t6s  '■  8;  for  1794 — 1860  read  1803 — 1871. 

>.  36S  n.  1  I.  J ;  for  Athanasios,  read  Anaslasios. 


iM,Googlc 


Histoty  of  Scholarship  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 


IttlT 

FnmM 

BngiMut 

Oainuiiy 

LeCfcrc 

BmJ 

LribniU 

Rcmni 

1B5(-17«I 

,-ta 

m'w'*' 

.a^iTie. 

J,  A.  Fabndui 

M-S;'," 

.S™ 

K=r™ 

,JSI^-» 

.e««-.736 

"Su» 

■^-1743    . 

bS^"" 

,33rJ 

167— 1744 
Bouhia 

dE-'" 

sfc?" 

<6ra-^74B 

1670-1753 

i67^"7»9 

Davici 

HEdiilch 

Facciolui 

>6?J-°1733 

m15S7^ 

c'^=i«„ 

^-■^ 

iMj-1750 

■675—1751 

's£:S 

.Sfa^ilM 

1684-.7*. 

iegij-1774 

^.r 

Gori 

Pellcrln 

Drakoiboich 

Hs.kblid 

I69I-I7S7 

.()ll4->78» 

MS^-lJ^a 

leSi-iHi 

Lam! 

p£r 

1681—1794 

i^A« 

;.'?"5i?? 

H-st-"" 

J-T-O'^^r 

17D*-i7«S 

jega-ijej 

■OW-'TTB 

1704-1766 

'1601-1761 

M.nelle 

D'Urvillt 

Wjch 

I7i>7-,m8 

1694— .775 

iS^-"" 

rS-™ 

Paciuidi 

,«... 

1713-1785 

.Si"' 

FlV^^i"^ 

a'."*!,"*' 

iKcr 

kST'" 

M?.'^(f 

b'^™ 

,:€■«■„ 

«r'"' 

1698-1731 

Ete^ini'™ 

>7i^.7Sl) 

Larcher 

v!ii3!7n^ 

i?,sr 

r^a 

.7.6-1B03 

I7.6-.8.1 

Brunck* 

>7y-«7M 

w-iiTia 

j.TiS,. 

LiDii 

•7»9-'&>3 

D'Agincoun 

.Ksi* 

££;?' 

R-ar"- 

1731 'iBio 

.73»r'*"t 

1733- 179* 

I73»-17S» 

1716-1774 

Obtrlin" 

Twining 

1735-ltoe 

I731-I7S9 

B.'Sria. 

17.7-1768 

II- 

I73«-<8U 

>7:«-i7«J 

oRfc"" 

rfSir"* 

i7J7->aM 

Anoduol 

A-e-"" 

w?£S*" 

i;4X-i7ga 

i74l->S3i> 

«■?£;■'' 

1733— 1B13 

Mirini 

J,  A.  Cpperonnttr 
.7«-*ip 

SghtlLer 

ina-iBis 

San«B 

.ifTii'' 

.ffi"' 

^i£^'' 

1746-1800 

1746—1798 

^1746-1794 

H.'S;'^ 

K-'^S^d 

Cho[«ul-Gouffi« 

sii^*- 

1747— iBiS 
pBjne  Knighi 

>;'1C2' 

^^Si-"8I8 

vliK"' 

1783-1815 

Wyltcnlwi-S 

H-5U'^ 

ssa-' 

I7SJ-rt38 

oSf^"™ 

1748-lB" 

wigr^^r 

,-SE£id. 

M'sr'"* 

i?*---*" 

17S0-IBM 

.S!-»- 

Poison 

F.  A.  Wolf 

177I-I811 

I7S9-iB0B 

i73-ito4 

OgIC 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

GERMANY  IN  THE   EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

(i)     Fabricius,  Gesner,  Ernesti,  Reiske. 

In  the  year  1700  the  earliest  of  German  Academies  was 
founded  in  Berlin.  The  intellectual  originator  of 
that  Academy  was  the  many-sided  man  of  genius, 
Gottfried  Wilhelm  Leibnitz  (1646 — 1716),  whose  scholarly  tastes 
are  represented  by  his  Latin  poems',  by  his  speculations  on  the 
origin  of  language',  and  by  his  prompting  the  empress  Catharine 
of  Russia  to  collect  the  vocabularies  of  many  nations'.  At  the 
age  of  eight,  he  had  taught  himself  I^tin  with  the  aid  of  an 
illustrated  edition  of  Livy  and  the  Opus  Chrona/ogicum  (1605)  of 
Calvisius.  Before  he  was  twelve,  he  wrote  Latin  verses  and  had 
begun  Greek.  At  Jena,  in  1663,  he  attacked  the  imitators  of  the 
harsh  and  obscure  Latinity  of  Lipsius*,  and  published  a  treatise 
in  which  he  proposed  to  prove  the  spuriousness  of  the  '  Epistles 
of  Phalaris '  on  the  ground  of  their  being  written  in  the  Attic 
dialect  and  in  the  style  of  Lucian'.  In  1670  he  wrote  an  essay 
on  philosophic  style  as  an  introduction  to  an  edition  of  the  Anti- 
barbarus  of  Nizolius';  and  in  Paris,  three  years  later,  during  his 
correspondence  with  Huet  on  a  proposed  edition  of  Martianus 
Capella,  he  protested  against  the  contempt  for  Plato  and  Aristotle 

'  Roenickius,  Carmina  Lalina  Scleetiara  (1  ;48),  3  (. 
'  Benfey,  Gisth.  dtr  Sfrackwissens^haft,  I43  f;  Haupt,  Ofmc.  ni  i  lis — 
11*  (Butsian.  i  358  "). 

'  Max  MuUei's  Lectures,  i  144  n.  18'. 

*  Julian  Schmidt,  Gesch.  da  gailigeH  Lebins  in  Dcutschland  von  Leibnitz 
bis  Leisings  Torf  (1681— 1781),  i  loi. 

»  Hanpt,  Ofusc.  in  i  119. 

*  Sorley  on  Leibniti,  in  Enc.  Brit. ;  ii  1 46  n.  s  supra. 

"^  s.  III.  I,.  i,Mh,Googlc 


2  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

expressed  by  certain  students  of  the  natural  sciences'.  To  the 
end  of  his  life  he  could  still  recite  long  passages  from  Virgil. 

A  celebrated  theologian  of  Augsburg,  J.  J.  Brucker  {1696 — 
1770),  author  of  the  Hisloria  Critica  Philosopkiue,  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Berlin  Academy  in  1731,  but,  in  the  first  half  of 
the  century,  the  interests  of  classical  learning  were  far  less  pro- 
moted by  the  Academy  than  by  masters  of  German  schools,  who 
studied  the  Classics  in  connexion  with  the  general  history  of 
literature. 

Foremost  among  these  was  Johann  Albert  Fabricius  (1668 — 
1736),  a  student  in  the  university  of  his  native  town 
of  Leipzig,  who,  from  1699  to  1711,  was  succes- 
sively an  assistant-master  and  a  head-master  at  Hamburg.  He  had 
already  produced,  in  the  three  small  volumes  of  his  Biblioiheca 
Latina,  a  comprehensive  biographical  and  bibliographical  work 
on  the  Latin  literature  of  the  classical  period  (1697)'.  He  was 
still  holding  a  scholastic  appointment,  when  he  began  his  far 
more  extensive  Bibliotheca  Graeca,  a  work  that,  in  the  course  of 
fourteen  quarto  volumes,  traverses  the  whole  range  of  Greek 
literature  down  to  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1705-28)'.  It  is 
founded,  so  far  as  possible,  on  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  every 
edition  quoted,  and  it  has  supplied  the  basis  for  all  subsequent 
histories  of  Greek  Literature.  The  350  quarto  pages,  assigned  to 
Homer  alone,  include  indices  to  all  the  authors  cited  in  the  scholia 
and  in  Eustathius.  The  earlier  work  on  Latin  litemture  was 
subsequendy  continued  in  the  five  volumes  of  the  Bibliotheea 
Latina  mediae  et  infimae  aetaiis  (1734)*,  while  the  modern  lite- 
rature of  Classical  Antiquities  was  surveyed  in  the  Biblioiheca 
Antiquaria  (1713-6),  and  that  of  Numismatics  in  a  new  edition 
of  Banduri's  Bibliotheca  Nummaria  (1719).  The  varied  learning 
and  indomitable  industry  displayed  in  these  four  and  twenty 
volumes  may  fairly  entitle  their  author  to  be  regarded  as  the 
modern  Didymus.     But  the  list  of  his  published  works  is  not  yet 

'  Haupl,  /.  c,  HI  f ;  cp.  PaltJson,  Essays,  \  378. 

'  Finally  revised  ed.  1711 ;  also  in  two  vols,  quarto,  Venice,  1718  (better 
than  Ernesti's  ed.  of  1773  f),  and  in  six  vols.  Florence,  1858. 

•  Ed.  Harless  in  11  vols.  1790 — ^1809  (incomplete);  index,  1838. 

*  Suppl.  by  Schiittgeii,  1746;  also  ed.  Mansi,  Padua,  1754. 

h.  i.,  iiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XXVr.]      J.  A.  FABRICIUS.      BERGLER.      SCHWARZ.      3 

exhausted.  He  edited  Sextus  Empiricus,  the  life  of  Proclus  by 
Marinus,  and  the  commentary  of  Chalcidius  on  Plato's  Timaetts', 
while  his  valuable  edition  of  Dion  Cassius,  including  a  full  com- 
mentary, was  completed  after  his  death  by  his  son-in-law  and 
biographer,  Reimar'. 

Fabricius  counted  among  his  coirespondents  ihe  leading  scholars  of  his  age. 
He  was  assisted  in  ihe  compilation  of  ihe  BibliolAtca  Lalina 
by  theDanish  scholar,  Christian  Falsler';  and,  in  that  of  the 
Bibliotkeia  Graeea,  by  Kilster'.  He  was  also  lai^ely  aided  in  the  latter  by 
Slephan  Bergier  (^.  i6So— c.  1746),  who,  by  his  knowledge  of  Greek,  oiighl 
have  attained  a  place  among  the  foremost  scholars  of  his  lime,  but  was  reduced 
to  the  level  of  a  literary  hack  by  an  insatiable  craving  for  drink.  Early  in  the 
century  he  was  a  corrector  of  proofs  at  Leipzig ;  in  1 705  he  left  for  Amsterdam, 
where  he  produced  indicts  to  the  edition  of  Pollux  begun  by  Lederlin  and  con- 
tinued by  Hemsterhuya,  and  himself  completed  Lederiin's  edition  of  Homer 
(1707).  We  next  find  him  helping  Fabricius  at  Hamburg  and  elsewhere. 
During  his  second  stay  at  Leipzig,  he  produced  an  excellent  edition  of 
Alciphron  (ijrfji  his  edition  of  Aristophanes  was  published  after  his  deatli 
by  the  younger  Burman  (1760);  his  work  on  Herudotus  is  represented  only  by 
some  critical  notes  in  the  edition  of  Jacob  Gronovius  ([7r5);  while  his  Latm 
translation  of  Herodian  was  not  published  until  i^Sg.  His  rendering  of  a 
modern  Greek  work  on  moral  obligations'  led  to  his  being  invited  to  undertake 
Ihe  tuition  of  the  author's  sons  at  Bucharest,  a  position  for  which  his  intemperate 
habits  made  him  peculiarly  unfit.  However,  he  was  thus  enabled  to  send 
Fabricius  a  few  notes  on  (he  Greek  Mss  in  his  palnsn's  library.  Aflei  this  he 
disappears  from  view.  On  his  patron's  death  in  1730,  he  is  said  to  have  left 
for  Constantinople,  and  to  have  adopted  the  religion  of  Islam.  If  so,  he 
probably  ended  his  days  m  perfect  sobriety". 

Antiquarian  and  legal  lore  was  the  domain  of  Fabricius'  contemporary. 
Christian  Gottlieb  Schwarz  (i6;5— I76r),  who  by   his  wide 
and  varied  learning  raised  the  reputation  of  the  university  of 
Altdorf.     A   large  part   of  that   learning  lies  buried  in   a  vast   number  of  " 
programs,  and  in  the  exegetical  and  critical  notes  to  an  edition  of  the  Panc^iic 
of  the  younger  Pliny  (174*'}'. 

'  Printed  wilh  the  ed.  of  Hippolytus. 

'  H.  S.  Reimar,  Dc  VUa  d  S.riplis  J.  A.  F.  Cammmlarias,  Hamburg, 
1737;  Bureau  i  360-1 ;  for  portrait  see /'Von/u/i>«  to  this  volume. 
'  Cp.  chap,  xxxviii  init. 

'  Nic.  Mavrokordatos,  xepl  rSiv  saBiiKSiiTav,  1721. 

'  Cp-  Burman's  Ariiiophams,  i  1-14;  Reimar,  De  Vita  Fabi-icii,  169  f, 
111  f;  Saxe,  Onom.  vi  78 — 811  Bursian,  i  361-4. 
'  Bursian,  i  371  f- 


1.  ii^fooglc 


4  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

The  study  of  Roman  Law  is  well  represented  byJohannGoHlieb  Heinecke, 
Hcinecke  ^tinttcius  (1681 — 174'),  professor  at  Halle,  where  he  pro- 

duced a  celebrated -Syn/afaia,  which  owes  its  abiding  popularity 
to  its  excellent  Latin  style'.  His  own  treatise  on  style  was  more  than  once 
reprinted'. 

An  inteUigent  knowledge  of  the  subject-maltei  of  the  Classics  was  promoted 

Hed  ri  h        ^^  '''*  '''''''^"*  "^  '''^  Saxon  schoolmaster,  Benjamin  Hederich 

(1675— 1748),  and  especially  by  his  oft.reprinted  Lexicon  1^ 

Mythology.    His  Latin  and  German  Dictionary  was  long  in  use,  and  his  Greek 

and  Latin  Lexicon  {1711)  attained  the  honour  of  a  new  edition   more  than 

a  century  later^. 

Among  the  numerous  elementary  editions  of  the  Classics  which  appeared  in 
Wal  h  ''''*  century,  a  place  of  honour  is  due  to  those  produced  in 

1711-S  by  Johann  Georg  Walch  of  Meiningen  (1693 — 1775). 
the  well-known  author  of  the  Historia  Crilica  Laliaae  LinguaeK  In  this  work 
he  traces  (he  history  of  (he  language  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  Revival  of 
Learning,  adding  a  survey  of  the  principal  works  in  each  age*.  The  history  of 
Latin  was  far  more  minutely  treated  by  Johann  Nicolaus  Funck, 
or  Funccius  (1693 — 1777),  the  author  of  a  series  of  ten  con- 
siderable treatises  on  the  fortunes  of  the  language,  the  titles  of  which  are  taken 
from  the  successive  stages  of  human  lifel  The  last  two  remained  unpublished. 
Their  place  is  inadequately  taken  by  the  work  of  Jacob  Burckhard  (1681 — 
1753)  on  the  fortunes  of  the  langu^e  in  Germany  (1713-it)'. 

Among  scholars  who  were  natives  of  Thuringia,  mention  may  here  be  made 
oF  Christoph  August  Heumann  (16S1 — 1764),  for  many  years 
a  professor  at  Giittingen.     Besides  producing  a  considerable 
amount  of  miscellaneous  literature  on  classical  subjects,  he  edited  many  of  the 
speeches  of  Cicero,  and  the  '  Dialogue  on  the  causes  of  the  corruption  of 
eloquence',  which  he  ascribed  to  Quintilian  and  not  to  Tacitus  (1719)'-     His 
countryman,  Johann  Michael  Heusinger  (1690 — 175J),  who 
ended  his  days  as  head  of  xht  gymnasium  at  Eisenach,  is  best 
known  as  the  editor  of  Cicero,  Dt  OfficUs,  posthumously  published  in  1783'. 
Latin  usage  was  studied,  and  Latin  MSS  diligjently  collated,  by  Gottlieb  Kortte, 
KortM  CoTtius  (1698—1731),  who  in  his  short  life  distinguished  him- 

self as  an  able  editor  of  Sallust  (1714).  His  edition  of  the 
Letters  of  the  younger  Pliny  was  completed  and  publislied  by  his  pupil,  Paul 

'  Afitiquitatum  Ramanorum  jurispntdetitiam  illuslratUium  Synlagma 
steundum  ordintm  instilulionum  Juitiniani  digistam  (1719);  republished  in 
r84i. 

*  Ed.  Gesner,  1748,  and  Niclas,  r766.     Cp.  Bursian,  i  371  f. 

*  Bursian,  i  374.  *  [716;  ed.  3,  1761. 
°  Bursian,  i  377  f. 

'  Dt  origint,  pmritia,  adoUscentia,  etc.  Latitat  linguat  (1710-50). 
'  Bursian,  i  380-3.  '  Bursian,  i  393-6. 

'  Bursian,  i  396  f. 


.oogic 


CHAP.  XXVI.]      HEINECKE.      FUNCK.      J.  M.  GESNER.  g 

Daniel  Longolius  (1744),  while  his  work  on  Lncan  was  first  given  to  the  world 

byK.  F.Weber  (i8»8)'. 

One  of  the  greatest  scholars  in  the  eighteenth  century  was 
Johann  Matthias  Gesner  (1691 — 1761),  who,  by 
his  published  works  and  by  his  influence  as  a 
teacher,  did  much  towards  raising  the  standard  of  classical 
studies  in  Northern  and  Central  Germany.  He  was  still  a 
Student  at  Jena,  when  he  produced  a  striking  treatise  on  the 
Philopatris  ascribed  to  Lucian,  as  well  as  a  work  on  Education 
giving  proof  of  wide  knowledge  and  remarkable  maturity  of 
judgement'.  For  the  next  twenty  years  he  was  a  school-master 
at  Weimar,  Ansbach,  and  Leipzig,  where  the  Thomas-Schuk 
flourished  under  his  sway.  In  1734  he  was  called  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Gottingen,  then  in  course  of  being  founded  by 
Geoi^e  II;  and,  for  the  remaining  twenty-seven  years  of  his 
life,  he  there  remained  as  professor  of  Poetry  and  Oratory,  as 
head  of  the  classical  and  educational  Seminar,  as  university 
librarian,  as  chief  inspector  of  the  schools  of  the  Hanoverian 
kingdom,  and  as  an  active  member  of  the  Academy  founded 
in  1751  as  the  second  of  the  learned  societies  of  Germany". 

As  a  Greek  schobr,  he  contributed  an  admirable  I.^tin  trans- 
lation, and  many  excellent  notes  and  emendations,  to  the  great 
edition  of  Lucian,  which  bears  the  names  of  Hemsterhuys  and 
Reitz  (1743  f);  and  towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  was  engaged  on 
an  edition  of  the  'Orphic'  poems  (1764)*.  As  a  head-master  at 
Leipzig,  he  published  a  Chrtstomaihia  Graeca  {1731),  which  pro- 
moted the  introduction  of  the  best  Greek  Classics  into  the  schools 
of  Germany.  In  the  province  of  Latin  literature,  he  did  similar 
service  by  his  selections  from  Cicero  and  the  elder  Pliny,  and  by 
an  important  preface  on  the  proper  method  of  reading  classical 
authors,  originally  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Livy  (1735)°.  In  the 
same  year  he  edited  the  Scriptores  Rei  RuUicae,  which  were  soon 
followed  by  the  Tnstitutio  Oratoria  of  Quintilian,  and  the  Letters 

■  Baisian,  i  397  f. 

*  InstilnlioHes  rti  schotastUat,  1715.     Cp.  Paulsen,  ii  16^  n. 

*  Socittai  Rtgia  Scientiarum  Gctlingtnsis. 

*  Posthumously  published  at  the  above  date. 

*  Ofttscula  Minora,  vii  189  f. 


6  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

and  Panegyric  of  the  younger  Pliny,  and  ultimately  by  Horace,  and 
Claudian  (1759).  In  the  preface  to  the  latter  he  candidly  states 
that  his  aim  had  been,  not  to  make  a  display  of  learning,  but 
simply  to  explain  his  author;  that  he  had  frankly  noticed  any- 
thing he  had  failed  to  understand;  and  that,  with  a  view  to  forming 
the  students'  taste,  he  had  drawn  attention,  not  only  to  passages 
that  were  beautiful  and  poetical,  but  also  to  those  that  were  at 
variance  with  nature  and  the  best  literary  models.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  that  Gesner  anticipated  Heyne  in  introducing  the  prin- 
ciples of  taste  into  the  interpretation  of  the  Classics'.  In  all 
these  works  the  textual  criticism  is  inadequate,  but  the  explanatory 
notes  are  models  of  their  kind.  All,  except  the  Horace  (founded 
on  Baxter's  edition),  are  equipped  with  excellent  indices.  The 
whole  range  of  classical  Latin  literature  is  traversed  in  the  four 
folio  volumes  of  his  greatest  work,  the  Novus  Linguae  el  Erudi- 
ttortis  Romanae  Thesaurus  (1749). 

He  had  already  produced,  in  1726-35,  his  two  revisions  of  the  TAaaums 
of  Faber  (ij/i),  Ibe  besl  edition  of  which  appeared  in  the  same  year  as  his 
own  Thesaurus.  Gesner's  work,  which  was  founded  on  Faber,  and  on  the 
recent  London  reprint  of  the  Thesaurus  of  Robert  Stephanus,  was  the  resnlt  of 
ten  years  of  strenuous  labour.  We  here  find  a  tnarked  iniprovemenC  in  the 
correction  of  many  errors;  words  and  names  unconnected  with  classical  Latin 
are  removed;  phraseology  is  treated  more  fully  than  before;  and  difficult 
passages  are  explained.  On  the  other  hand,  less  is  done  for  the  writers  of 
prose  than  for  the  poels,  and  there  is  a  certain  unevenness  in  the  execution, 
while  the  historical  developemeni  of  the  use  of  individual  words  and  phrases  is 
n^lected.  Nevertheless,  it  marks  the  most  important  advance  in  Latin 
lexicogrB|ihy  since  the  time  of  Stephanus'. 

While  Gesner  breaks  new  ground  in  many  of  his  works,  he 
represents  the  traditions  of  the  typical  Polykistor  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  in  the  outlines  of  an  encyclopaedia  of  philology, 
history,  and  philosophy,  which  he  produced  as  the  syllabus  of  a 
course  of  lectures  given  at  the  request  of  the  authorities  of  the 

■  J.  Schmidt,  i  480. 

'  Cp.  J.  E.  B.  Mayor  in/™™a/o/a.a«^5fl,«rf/»j7o/a^,ii  179  (.855), 
'  By  rejection  of  encyclopaedic  articles  and  of  barbarisms,  by  many  insertions, 
and  particularly  by  interpretations  of  veiled  passages,  (Gesner's  Tkesaarus) 
did  very  much  towards  simplifying  and  enlarging  the  science:  indeed  for 
fulness,  neat  arrangement,  and  exactness  without  pedantic  minuteness  of 
explanation,  il  has  strong  claims  to  be  regarded  as  the  best  that  has  appeared  '■ 

,..,,„,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXVI.]  J.   M.   GESNER.  7 

university  of  G6ttingen.  These  lectures,  which  consisted  of 
observations  on  almost  all  the  1543  items  of  the  syllabus,  were 
afterwards  published  by  one  of  his  pupils'. 

Gesner  was  one  of  the  foremost  leaders  of  the  movement 
known  as  the  New  Humanism.  1'he  Old  Humanism  had  aimed 
at  the  verbal  imitation  of  the  style  of  the  Latin  Classics,  and  at 
the  artificial  prolongation  of  the  modem  life  of  the  ancient  Latin 
literature.  This  aim  was  gradually  found  to  be  impracticable, 
and,  about  1650,  it  was  abandoned.  I^tin  was  still  taught  in 
schools ;  it  also  survived  as  the  medium  of  university  instruction 
and  as  the  language  of  the  learned  world.  But  the  ancient  litera- 
ture came  to  be  considered  as  a  superfluity ;  neglected  at  school,  it 
was  regarded  simply  as  a  waste  and  barren  field,  where  the  learned 
might  burrow  in  quest  of  the  facts  required  for  building  up  the 
fabric  of  an  encyclopaedic  erudition.  Such  was  practically  the 
view  of  the  School  of  Halle. 

The  School  of  Gottingen,  as  represented  by  Gesner,  found 
a  new  use  for  the  old  literature.  The  study  of  that  literature  was 
soon  attended  with  a  fresh  interest.  Thenceforth,  in  learning 
Greek  (as  well  as  Latin)  the  aim  was  not  to  imitate  the  style, 
but  to  assimilate  the  substance,  to  form  the  mind  and  to  cultivate 
the  taste,  and  to  lead  up  to  the  production  of  a  modem  literature 
that  was  not  to  be  a  mere  echo  of  a  bygone  age,  but  was  to  have 
a  voice  of  its  own  whether  in  philosophy,  or  in  learning,  or  in  art 
and  poetry.  The  age  of  Winckelmann,  Lessing  and  Goethe,  was 
approaching,  and  Gesner  was  its  prophet  and  precursor'. 

Latin,  in  Gesner's  view,  should  be  learnt,  not  by  commiuing  lo  memory 
the  rules  of  Grammar  that  make  the  language  hateful  to  the  learner,  but,  in 
the  first  place,  by  reading  a  Latin  rendering  of  the  New  Testament.  It  was 
also  lo  be  learnt  by  practice.  The  master  should  converse  with  his  pupils  in 
Latin,  ringing  the  changes  on  the  shortest  and  simplest  phrases  ;  and  ihe  pupil 
should  be  encouraged  lo  speak  Latin,  even  if  he  made  mistakes  at  lirst. 
Gesnec  frankly  records  his  earliest  attempt,  when,  on  meeting  his  master  in 
the  street  after  sunset,  he  gaily  accosted  him  with  the  ungrammatical  sentence : 
— Domiae  fraectptor,  prttor  It  bona  hox*.     At  a  later  stage  he  recommends 

'  Primac  Lineae  /sagega  in  Erudilionem  Unhieriahm,  ed.  J.  N.  Niclas, 


'  Cp.  Paulsen  (ed.  1896-7),  ii  i5>  '■ 


D„:,iP,.-iM,G00glc 


GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 


the  cursory  reading  of  lai^e  masses  of  ihe  best  Latin  with  a  view  to  the 
appreciation  of  (he  Latin  Classics  as  litenttDte'. 

As  a  school-master  at  Leipzig,  Gesner  abolished  the  use  of 
the  old  Latin  compendium^  and  introduced  the  Latin  Classics  in 
its  place,  carrying  his  pupils  in  a,  few  months  through  the  whole 
of  Terence,  and  insisting  on  the  literary  and  educational  value 
of  the  continuous  study  of  a  single  author.  For  a  quarter  of 
a  century,  in  his  Seminar  at  Gottingen,  he  was  constantly  training 
a  chosen  band  of  the  future  preceptors  of  Germany,  his  aim  being 
to  produce  intelligent  teachers  rather  than  erudite  scholars.  He 
set  a  high  value  on  the  study  of  Greek  literature: — Latin  itself 
{he  held)  could  not  be  thoroughly  understood  without  Greek, 
Boys  at  school  (he  added)  should  not  be  allowed  to  give  up 
Greek.  After  learning  the  elements  of  the  Grammar,  they  should 
go  on  to  easy  reading,  such  as  Aesop,  Lucian  and  the  Greek 
Testament,  and  afterwards  take  up  Homer.  When  he  lectured 
on  Homer  (in  and  after  1739)  he  always  had  a  good  class*. 

'  The  interest  in  Hotner  i9  a  note  of  Ihe  New  Humanism.  Thus  far  the 
Odyssty  and  Ihe  Iliad  had  only  once  been  rendered  in  German,  in  1537  and 
1610  respectively.  But  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  marked  by 
two  translaiioRs  of  the  early  books  of  the  Iliad,  followed  in  1754  by  the 
illustrated  translation  that  was  Goelhe's  iirst  introduction  to  Homer.  The 
text  was  edited  by  Emesti  in  1759-64.  This  was  foUoned  by  live  new 
translations,  culminating  in  that  completed  by  Voss  in  1793,  which  was 
immediately  succeeded  by  the  edition  of  Wolf,  with  its  memorable  ProlegBmma 
(1794-5).  and  by  the  edition  of  Heyne  (1801  f)'. 

Gesner's  life  and  works  are  well  portrayed  in  Latin  prose  by 
Ernesti,  his  successor  as  the  head  of  the  school  in  Leipzig*.  He 
assures  us  that  the  Cambridge  scholar,  Dr  Askew,  on  coming  to 
Leipzig,  said  of  Gesner,  whom  he  had  just  left  at  Gottingen,  taletn 
virum  nunquam  vidi^.  The  bi<^rapher  also  notices  Gesner's 
learning  and  his  social  gifts,  his  refinement  and  courtesy,  his 
services  as  an  educational  reformer,  his  disapproval  of  'conjectures' 

'  Preface  to  Livy, 

*  IsagBgc%  IS4,  p.  i;i. 
'  Paulsen,  ii  7'  f, 

*  Narratii>...ad Ruhnkcnium  in  Opincula  Ora/oria,  307 — 541,  reprinted  in 
Biogr.  acad.  Golting.  i  309  f. 

"  Opusi.  Or.  p.  308. 


.OOgK 


CHAP.  XXVI.]  DAMM.  9 

in  his  useful  editions  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics',  his  merits 
as  a  Latin  lexicographer,  his  interest  in  Oriental  and  European 
languages',  and  his  skill  in  literary  portraiture.  He  adds  that  the 
satirical  touch  was  the  only  flaw  in  the  excellent  portrait  of 
Gesner,  which  forms  the  frontispiece  of  the  Latin  TA^saurus'. 

In  connexion  with  Gesner  we  may  here  notice  some  of  the 
other  lexicographers  of  the  same  century.  Christian 
Tobias  Damm  (r6g9— r778),  the  head  of  the 
oldest  gymnasium  of  Berlin,  besides  producing  a  work  on  the 
elements  of  Greek  and  an  annotated  edition  of  the  Battle  of  the 
Frogs  and  Mice  {ii%2-^,  made  his  mark,  thirty  years  later,  with 
his  great  lexicon  to  Homer  and  Pindar',  In  the  same  year  he 
translated  into  German  the  text  of  the  Gospel  according  to  St 
John,  and,  in  the  following  year,  was  required,  on  theological 
grounds,  to  resign  his  head-mastership.  But  he  remained  true  to 
his  two  favourite  Greek  authors.  His  prose  translation  of  both 
was  completed  in  1771.  In  his  translation  of  Homer  he  un- 
happily endeavoured  to  represent  the  simplicity  of  a  primitive  age 
by  constantly  resorting  to  the  language  of  the  lower  classes,  but 
his  renderings  served  to  make  both  poets  better  known  among 
the  German  people.  In  his  work  in  general  he  was  prompted  by 
a  conviction  that  the  Greek  language  and  literature  were  superior 
to  the  Latin.  He  held  that  the  imitation  of  Greek  models  was 
necessary  to  raise  the  level  of  German  culture,  and,  in  the 
increasing  interest  in  Greek  literature,  he  saw  the  sign  of  a  new 
Renaissance'.     A  very  few  years  later,  the  '  imitation  of  Greek 

'  P-  331-  Canjecturas  ingeniesas  laudaial  magis  quam  firabaial ;  cl  nihil 
magis  qvant  dutett  ilia!  ingenii  illaibras  injudieanda  cavenduin  monebat. 

*  P'  3'Si  ""'  '''<'  admirabatur  vtlim,  ut  cimttmttirrt  netntiores. 

'  p.  341.  Other  bit^iaphical  notices  by  J.  D.  MichaeJis  in  Biagr.  acad. 
Gotting.  i  ■m—iid,  and  by  Niclaa,  ib.  Hi  1—180,  187—496.  Cp.  Gesnet's 
Epp.  (1768  f),  Sfluppe'a  Vorirag  (1856)  and  '  Gbctjngen  Proressoren'  in  Got- 
tingen  Abhandl.  ([871)  p.  jg  f ;  Julian  Schmidt,  i  475 — 481;  and  Eckstein's 
Ride  (1869);  Jahn,  Pepuldre  Aufidtze,  15;  also  Bursian,  i  387—393,  and 
Paulsen,  ii  rs- 18', 

*  1765;  ed.  1,  1774.  The  arrangement  is  etymological,  all  the  words  being 
placed  nnder  300  roots.  Its  contents  were  republished  in  alphabetical  order 
by  J.  M.  Duncan  {i8it),  whose  edition  was  improved  by  V.  C.  F.  Rost 
(■831-3). 

'  '  Videor  jam  saeculum  renascentis  apud  nos  Giaecitatis  cemere  animo : 


ro  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIH. 

models '  in  the  world  of  Art  was  to  be  the  theme  of  the  earliest 
work  of  his  most  famous  pupil,  Winckelmann,  who  was  an 
enthusiastic  student  of  Homer.  Winckelmann  was  under  his 
tuition  for  a  single  year  (1735-6),  the  year  of  the  publication  of 
the  edition  of  the  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice,  but  the  master's 
appreciation  of  Homer  did  not  prevent  the  pupil  from  placing 
him  in  the  class  of  pedants'.  Damm  appears  in  fact  to  have 
taken  more  interest  in  the  vocabulary  than  in  the  poetry  of 
Homer.  That  poetry  was  better  appreciated  by  Moses  Men- 
delssohn, who,  with  Friedrich  Nicolai,  resorted  to  him  for  instruc 
tion  in  the  language  that  was  now  exciting  a  new  interest  in 
Germany.  Nicolai  complains  that  the  master's  delivery  was 
monotonous,  but  adds  that  he  had  an  admiration  for  exceptionally 
euphonious  lines,  and  even  smacked  his  lips  over  the  finely 
sounding  phrase  xoXu^XoiV^oio  SnXoirinjs'.  His  interest  was  not 
confined  to  Greek  literature.  He  produced  an  edition  of  Nama- 
tianus,  translated  the  Panegyric  of  Pliny,  with  two  of  the  Speeches 
and  all  the  letters  of  Cicero.  His  small  hand-book  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Mytholc^  long  remained  a  standard  work'. 

As  a  Latin  lexicographer,  Gesner  had  in  the  next  generation 
a  worthy  successor  in  Immanuel  Johann  Gerhard 
Scheller  (1735 — -1803),  successively  Rector  of  the 
school  at  Lubben,  S.E.  of  Berlin,  and  of  that  at  Brieg,  S.E.  of 
Breslau.  His  Latin-German  Dictionary'  was  founded  on  an 
independent  study  of  the  authors,  and  on  a  careful  and  intelligent 
use  of  the  best  commentaries  and  lexicons.  It  was  enlarged  and 
improved  in  two  later  editions,  and  subsequently  abridged  by  the 
lexicographer  himself,  who  added  a  German-Latin  Dictionary  in 
1792.  He  has  been  chained  with  borrowing  from  Forcellini 
(1771)  without  mentioning  his  name".     It  is  also  alleged  that 

i1  lustres  viri,  imoet  roeminae,  ailamate  incipiunthas  lileras  et  in  pre tio  habere', 
Programm  of  1752  (Justi's  IVinckelmann,  i  34  n). 
'  'praecep'orcsdfKiiniout '  ijusli,  i  34). 

•  J-l,  i  Jd. 

'  Buisian,  i  385-7;  cp.  Justi's  fVincielmann,  i  30 — 36. 

*  Attsfuhrticha  u.  mSglichsl  voUitatidig/s  latiitiisih-deutsehes  Lexicon  oiltr 
Worlerbuih  zunt  Behu/e  dcr  Erilarung  der  Alien  a.  Uehtug  in  der  laiein- 
ischen  Sprache,  i  vols.  1783;  ed.  i,  in  3  vols.  1788;  ed.  3,  in  5  vols.  1804-5. 

s  '  Censor  Germanus ',  quoted  in  Fumaletlo'a  ed.  of  Forcellini. 


X'OO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXVI.]     SCHELLER.      J.  G.  SCHNEIDER.  II 

'  if  he  studies  a  more  scientific  arrangement,  if  he  displays  con- 
siderable reading,  and  if  he  has  not  neglected  new  discoveries  in 
criticism,  his  arrangement  is  still  defective,  his  criticism  is  un- 
critical, and  his  reading  mainly  limited  to  Caesar,  Cicero,  and 
other  classical  authors' '.  But  his  independence  has  been  amply 
vindicated,  and  his  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  the  authors 
of  the  Silver  Age  and  his  other  merits  have  been  fully  set  forth  by 
Professor  Mayor'. 

Scheller's  counterpart  among  Greek  Lexicographers  is  Johann 
Gottlob  Schneider  (1750 — 1822),  who  was  born  in 
Saxony,  and  died  as  professor  and  university  libra- 
rian at  Breslau.  His  Greek  lexicon'  marked  a  great  advance  on 
the  manuals  of  Schrevelius,  Hederich  and  others,  in  fulness  of 
material,  and  in  critical  skill  and  method.  It  was  also  the  first 
comprehensive  and  independent  work  that  had  appeared  in  this 
department  since  the  lexicon  of  H.  Stephanus  (1572)'.  Schneider 
did  much  in  the  way  of  collecting  and  explaining  technical  and 
scientific  terms.  His  knowledge  of  natural  science,  in  combina- 
tion with  classical  literature,  is  exemplified  in  \\ls  Ec/ogae  Physicae, 
and  in  his  editions  of  the  zoological  works  of  Aelian  and  Aristotle. 
He  also  edited  the  Politics  and  the  second  hook  of  the  Oeconomics, 
and  the  whole  of  Theophrastus,  Nicander,  and  Oppian,  as  well  as 
the  Scriptores  RH  Rusticae,  and  Vitruvius. 

Gesner's  efforts  as  an  educational  reformer  were  ably  seconded 
by  Johann  August  Ernesti  (1707 — 1781).     Born  ii 
Thuringia  and  educated  at   Schulpforta',   and  at 

'  Olto  on  Lai.  Ltxicpgraphii  in  Allg.  Monalschrifl,  Braunschweig,  iSjJ, 
p.  990  IT. 

*  Journal  of  CI.  and  Sacrid  Philelogy,  ii  183—190  (1855).— Scheller  also 
produced  in  two  volumes  the  Praeetpta  stili  htiir  Latini  (1779),  a  longer  and  a 
shorter  Latin  Grammar  (1779  f  and  1780  r)i  >"  Introduction  to  the  exposition 
of  the  Latin  Classics  and  to  the  proper  imitation  of  Cicero  (1770),  with 
Oliservations  on  Cicero  and  the  first  six  books  of  Livy  (1785).  Cp.  Bursian, 
i  507-9- 

'  Kriliitkts  grieckhchis  WSrterbuck,  in  Iwo  vols.  1797  f;  ed.  i,  1805-6; 
ed.  3,  1819-,  Sappl.  18]  [;  abridged  by  F.  W.  Riemer,  1801-4. 

*  It  has  supplied  the  basis  for  the  lexicons  of  Passow  (1819-J4  etc.),  and 
Passow's  for  that  of  Rost  and  Palm  (1841-57)  and  that  of  Liddell  and  Scott 
(.843  etc.). 

'  Far  in  advance  of  his  fellow-pupils  in  a  knowledge  of  Greek,  he  was 


J.  A,  1 


12  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Wittenberg  and  Leipzig,  he  lived  at  the  last  of  those  seats  of 
learning  for  half  a  century.  He  was  for  three  years  the  colleague, 
and,  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  the  successor  of  Gesner  as  head  of 
the  great  local  school.  For  the  last  seventeen  of  those  years  he 
was  also  professor  of  Eloquence  in  the  university,  and,  on  resign- 
ing both  of  those  positions,  in  1759,  became  professor  of  Theology 
for  the  last  twenty-two  years  of  his  life.  His  reputation  as  a 
scholar  depends  mainly  on  the  edition  of  the  whole  of  Cicero, 
completed  in  six  volumes  in  1739,  and  supplemented  in  its  third 

already  reading  to  himself  in  class  the  last  book  of  Herodian,  while  the  master 
was  slowly  expounding  the  first.     Cp.  Opuicula  Oraloria,  3 1 1  f. 


J.  A.  Ernesti. 

Vir  clarhjimus,  /aculi  huius   Cicero,  qui  tt  docendo   et  firihetide  rebus 
tSuinis  huntatiisqut  plurimum  luminis  attuHt. 

Prom  an  engraving  by  J.  Ellas  Haid  (Augsburg,  1776)  of  a  portrait 
by  Anton  Graff. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XXVI.]  J.   A,   ERNESTI. 


edition  by  historical  intioductions  and  critical  notes  (1777).  The 
most  permanently  valuable  part  of  the  original  work  is  the  Clavts 
Ciceroniana',  an  excellent  dictionary  of  Cicero's  vocabulary  and 
phraseology,  tc^ether  with  a  conspectus  of  the  Roman  laws  men- 
tioned in  the  orator's  pages.  The  explanatory  and  critical  notes 
are  kept  within  reasonable  limits,  and  the  choice  between  con- 
flicting readings  is  generally  determined  by  a  fine  taste  for  Cicero- 
nian usage.  But  the  standard  of  Cicero's  style  was  injudiciously 
applied  in  his  editions  of  Suetonius  (1748)  and  Tacitus  (i753)> 
He  was  still  a  school-master,  when  he  edited  the  MemoradHia  of 
Xenophon  and  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes.  On  resigning  that 
position  he  produced  an  edition  of  Homer  (1759-64},  founded  on 
that  of  Samuel  Clarke;  he  also  edited  Callimachus  (1761),  and 
(in  1764)  re-edited  Casaubon's  Polybius.  The  orations  and  dis- 
sertations collected  in  his  Opusatla',  as  well  as  the  prefaces  to 
his  Latin  texts,  are  written  in  an  excellent  style,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  the  small  encyclopaedic  text- book  of  Mathematics,  Philo- 
sophy and  Rhetoric,  the  Initia  Doctrinae  Solidioris. 

Superficial  as  a  writer,  but  intelligent  as  an  expositor,  Emesti 
has  long  been  over-rated.  Even  his  explanatory  notes  are  meagre. 
What  the  Dutch  commentators  had  carried  to  the  excess  of  an 
inordinate  prolixity,  he  carried  to  the  opposite  extreme.  His 
pious  horror  of  conjectural  criticism  did  not  prevent  him,  as  an 
editor  of  Cicero,  from  accepting  his  own  guesses,  while  he 
rejected  the  emendations  proposed  by  his  predecessors.  But  he 
deserves  the  credit  of  having  contributed  much  towards  the  wider 
diffusion  of  classical  education  in  Germany'. 

or  (he  three  other  scholars,  who  bear  the  same  name,  the  best  known  is  his 
favourite  nephew,  Johann  Christian  Gottlieb  Ernesli  (i7s6 — rSoi),  who  was 
profeawr  of  Eloquence  in  Leipzig  for  the  twenty  years  that  succeeded  his 
uncle's  death,  and  produced,  among  other  works,  a  '  lechiiological  lexicon'  lo 

'  Ed.  Rein,  1831, 

'  Opusisda  Oratoria  (1761)  and  Opuscula  Phili>li>gica  (1764),  both  published 
at  Leyden;  also  a  Nbvum  Valwaen  of  the  former  (1791)1  ^"^  Opusc.  Varii 
Argumenti  (1794),  both  published  at  Leipzig. 

*  Urlichs,  105'.  Cp.  Bursian,  I  400— 404.  Emesti's  opinions  on  classical 
education  may  be  studied  in  his  rectorial  speeches  (in  the  Opmcula  Varii  Arg.), 
especially  those  of  1736  and  1738,  and  also  in  his  official  scheme  for  the  schools 
of  Saxony,  1773  (ably  analysed  by  Paulsen,  ii  19 — 31'). 


X'OO' 


SIC 


14  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Greek  and  Latin  rheloric  (1795-7)-  An  elder  nephew,  August  Wilhelm 
(1733 — 1801),  the  son  of  an  elder  brother,  edited  Livy  in  1769  etc.  For  other 
pupils  of  Ernesti  the  briefest  mention  must  suffice.  Among  these  are  Johann 
Tobias  Krebs  (1718-85),  Rector  of  Grimma,  and  editor  of  Hesiod  (1746); 
J.  F.  Fischer  (1716-99),  who,  for  the  last  thirty-two  years  of  his  life,  was  one 
of  Emesti's  successors  as  head-master  in  Leipzig,  and,  besides  producing 
several  volumes  of  Animadversions  on  Weller's  'Greek  Grammar',  edited 
Anacreon  and  Palaephatus,  and  many  dialc^ues  of  Flato,  white  he  published 
no  lesG  than  fourteen  dissertations  on  the  Cralylus;  and  lastly,  K.  L.  Bauer 
{1730-90),  who  completed  Goltleber's  edition  of  Tbucydides  and  produced  a 
German-Latin  Dictionarjr.  All  of  them  have  been  characterised  as  'learned 
and  industrious  and  dull  scholars'".  Besides  these  there  was  C.  A.  Klotz 
(i;38-7i),  professor  in  Gottingen  and  Halle,  best  known  for  his  controversies 
with  Burman  and  Lessing',  and  S.  F.  N.  Moras  (1736-93),  professor  in 
Leipzig,  and  editor  of  Isocrates'  Panegyruus,  'Longlnus',  and  Xenopbon's 
Cyrepaedcia,  Anahash  and  Htllenica.  A  pupil  of  Moms.  C.  D.  Beck  (1757 — 
1S31),  joined  him  id  an  extensive  edition  of  Mu^rave's  Enrifida  ( 1 778-88),  to 
which  he  contributed  an  excellent  Index  Vrrhorum.  His  numerous  editions 
include  a  diffuse  Commentary  on  Demosthenes,  De  Paa  11799).  ^^  '1*° 
wrote  De  Philologia  Satculi  Plelcmaairvm  (1818),  and  reviewed  the  progress 
of  philol'^cal  and  historical  studies  during  the  fifty  years  ending  in  iSjq*. 

When  Gesner  died  at  Gottingen  in  1761,  his  vacant  Chair 
was  offered  first  to  Emesti,  who,  twenty-seven  years  before,  had 
succeeded  Gesner  as  a  head-master  in  Leipzig.  Ernesti  declined 
the  offer  and  suggested  the  name  of  Ruhnken,  who,  eighteen 
years  previously,  had  been  advised  by  Emesti  to  learn  Greek,  not 
at  Gottingen  under  Gesner,  but  at  Leyden  under  Hemsterhuys. 
Ruhnken  also  declined,  and  suggested  Ernesti's  former  pupil, 
Heyne,  whose  distinguished  career  at  Gottingen  will  be  noticed 
in  the  sequel*.  Ernesti  appears  to  have  deliberately  ignored  the 
claims  of  Reiske,  who  had  been  living  for  the  last  fifteen  years  in 
Leipzig  and  had  already  given  proof  of  being  among  the  foremost 
Greek  scholars  of  the  day. 

Johann   Jacob   Reiske   (1716 — 1774),    who    had    been    well 
grounded  in  Latin  at  Halle,  entered  the  university 
of  Leipzig  in  1732.    He  attended  no  lectures  what- 
soever ;  indeed,  on  Greek,  there  were  none  to  attend.    He  worked 

'  Uriichs,  105°. 

>  Harless,  VUae Philol.  i  168-iri;  p.  liiinfra. 

"  Cp.  BuTsian,  i  417 — 416. 

*  p.  36  infra. 


i.Mh,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXVI]  REISKE.  I5 

by  himself  at  a  few  Greek  authors,  but  found  Demosthenes  and 
Theocritus  too  ditlicult  at  that  stage  of  his  reading.  He  also 
studied  Arabic  until  1738,  when,  notwithstanding  his  poverty,  he 
left  for  I^eyden  to  attend  the  lectures  of  Schultens,  whom  he 
ultimately  surpassed  in  his  knowledge  of  the  language'.  At 
Leyden  he  supported  himself  by  helping  D'Orville  in  his  edition 
of  Chariton,  and  by  correcting  the  proofs  of  Alberti's  Hesyekius'. 
Under  the  stress  of  want,  he  was  driven  to  the  study  of  medicine 
and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1746,  though  he  never  practised. 
Shortly  after  his  return  to  Germany,  he  settled  once  more  in 
Leipzig,  supporting  himself  for  twelve  years  by  hack-work,  while 
Ernesti  and  other  influential  persons,  who  had  it  in  their  power 
to  help  him,  looked  with  suspicion  on  his  frankness  and  indepen- 
dence of  character".  Ernesti  even  warned  visitors  to  Leipzig 
'not  to  call  on  that  strange  man".  It  is  lair,  however,  to  re- 
member, that,  in  Reiske's  darkest  days,  it  was  Ernesti  who  invited 
him  daily  to  dinner'.  Notwithstanding  all  his  difficulties,  he 
never  lost  courage,  his  eager  enthusiasm  in  the  cause  of  scho- 
larship never  abated.  In  1748  he  attained  the  barren  honour 
of  being  appointed  'extraordinary  professor  of  Arabic'  at  an 
almost  nominal  stipend,  and  even  this  was  irregularly  paid.  But, 
early  in  1756,  his  knowledge  of  the  language  led  to  his  being 
invited  to  Dresden  to  catalogue  the  Arabic  coins  in  the  Elector's 
cabinet.  During  the  six  months  that  he  thus  spent  amid  many 
hardships,  the  keeper  of  the  cabinet  brought  him  a  gem  engraved 
with  minute  characters,  which  no  one  had  been  able  to  decipher. 
Reiske  solved  the  riddle  and  was  permitted  to  take  the  gem  to 
l^ipzig,  where  he  wrote  and  printed  a  description  for  the  owner, 
the  Graf  von  Wackerbart,  who  at  once  presented  Reiske  with 
100  thalers  and,  two  years"  later,  at  a  critical  point  of  Reiske's 
career,  when  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  Rector  of  the 
Nicolai-Schule  in  Leipzig,  intervened  in  his  favour,  secured  him 
the  appointment,  and  pkced  the  poverty-stricken  scholar  in  a 
position  of  dignity  and  emolument  for  the  remaining  sixteen  years 
of  his  life  (1758)'.     He  thus  obtained  some  of  the  leisure  needed 

'  On  Reiske's  Arabic  scholarship  cp-  Ene,  Brit. 

'  Ltbensbeschniliung,  Ji,  37  f. 

'  ii-  67.  *  it-  147-  °  **•  77-  '  »A  74— J9- 

h.  i.,  ii,l^.OOglc 


l6  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

for  the  completion  of  a  number  of  important  editions  of  Greek 
authors.  In  1764  he  married  a  lady  of  high  spirit  and  noble 
temper,  who,  for  her  husband's  sake,  learnt  Greek  and  Latin, 
pledged  her  jewels  to  enable  him  to  pay  for  the  printing  of  his 
Demosthenes',  helped  him  in  the  collation  of  Hss',  and  com- 
pleted and  published  the  works  that  he  left  unfinished  at  his 

The  earUest  proof  of  Reiske's  profound  knowledge  of  Greek  was 
his  (ditio  pritueps  of  the  work  of  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  on 

'  Ltfxnsieschreikung,  94.  nole.  ^  ib.  93. 


From  the  portrait  by  J.  D.  Fhilippin  geb.  Sysangin,  fronlispiet 
Oralens  Gra/ci  (1770). 


OgIC 


CHAP.  XXVI.]  REISKE.  17 

the  customs  of  the  Byzantine  court  (1751-4).  His  edition  of  three 
books  of  the  Palatine  Anthology  contains  much  that  is  valuable  in 
the  departments  of  criticism,  exegesis  and  literary  history  (1754). 
He  had  meanwhile  printed  at  his  own  expense  his  'Animadver- 
sions' on  Sophocles,  Euripides  and  Aristophanes,  including  some 
excellent  emendations  (1753-4)-  In  the  five  volumes  of  his 
further*' Animadversions'  on  Greek  authors  (1757-66),  he  pro- 
posed many  corrections  in  the  texts  of  the  Characters  of  Theo- 
phrastus,  Diodorus,  Dion  Chrysostom  and  Dion  Cassius,  as 
well  as  the  Moralia  of  Plutarch,  with  Thucydides,  Herodotus, 
Aristides,  Poly  bins,  Libanius,  Artemidorus,  and  Callimachus. 
He  set  a  high  value  on' this  work'.  As  a  school-master,  he 
devoted  some  years  to  the  study  of  Cicero.  He  edited  the 
Tksculan  Disputations  with  notes  and  various  readings  on  the 
first  two  hooks,  but  he  soon  abandoned  Cicero  for  Demosthenes 
and  the  other  Greek  Orators.  The  first-fruits  of  his  study  appeared 
in  the  form  of  a  vigoroiis  German  translation  of  the  Speeches  of 
Demosthenes  and  Aeschines,  with  explanatory  notes  (1764).  He 
began  this  translation  on  the  day  on  which  the  Prussians  evacuated 
Leipzig  (15  Feb.  1763)'.  His  edition  of  the  Orators  involved  ten 
years  of  arduous  labour.  For  the  text  of  Demosthenes  he  used  a 
MS  from  Munich,  and  four  from  Augsburg ;  for  that  of  Aeschines, 
a  MS  from  Helmstadt,  obtained  with  the  aid  of  Lessing;  while 
Askew,  whom  he  had  met  at  Leyden  in  1 746,  sent  him  materials 
collected  by  John  Taylor'.  His  work  on  the  Orators  extended  to 
eight  volumes  (1770-3),  followed  by  the  'Apparatus  Criticus'  and 
'Indices'  to  Demosthenes,  in  four.  The  last  three  of  these  were 
edited  by  his  widow. 

Before  translating  Demosthenes,  he  had  prepared  a  rendering 
of  all  the  Speeches  of  Thucydides,  but  had  generously  kept  it 
back  for  a  year,  in  the.  interest  of  a  translation  of  the  whole  of 
Thucydides  produced  in  1760  by  his  friend,  the  Gottingen  pro- 
fessor, J.  D.  Heilmann  (1727-64).  At  the  request  of  a  publisher, 
he  subsequently  completed,  in  the  short  space  of  three  months, 
a  hasty  edition  of  Theocritus,  which  includes  many  acute  sugges- 

'  it.  70.  'Sie  sindjfffi  ingftiii  me'i,  wenn  man  andera  meinem  in^nk  nicht 
pmneBtfiortm  absprichl '. 

'  ib.  87.  '  Cp.  Nichols,  Lit.  Anttd.  v 


,v?.ooglc 


l8  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

tions  for  the  improvement  of  the  text  (1765-6).  Shortly  .before 
his  death  he  revised  the  text  of  Maximus  Tyrius.  He  lived  to 
see  the  publication  of  the  first  two  of  the  six  volumes  of  his 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  and  the  first  of  the  twelve  of  his 
Plutarch.  His  important  edition  of  Libanius  was  published  by 
his  mdow,  who  also  produced  his  Dion  Chrysostom.     ^ 

The  slory  of  his  life  is  unfolded  in  the  pathetic  pages  of  his  aulobiogmphy. 
He  there  tells  us  of  all  his  weaij  struggles  and  his  days  of  deep  depiession, 
and  also  of  his  gratitude  lo  those  who  had  at  last  enabled  him  to  oblain  the 
leisure  needed  for  his  farther  labours.     He  says  of  himself: — 

God  has  given  me  gifts,  not  (he  best  (perhaps),  and  yet,  not  the  worst ;  He 
has  also  endued  me  with  the  impulse  and  desire  lo  use  them  for  His  glor;  and 
for  the  common  good...  Doubt  less  1  might  have  done  much  more,  if  the  age  in 
which  I  lived  had  been  more  favourably  disposed  towards  my  line  of  study, 
and  if  I  had  received  more  help  and  encouragement  from  my  contemporaries; 
yet  I  have  done  more  than  a  thousand  others  would  have  done  in  my  position- 
Having  made  good  use  of  my  '  one  talent ',  I  can  meet  my  Lord  with  a  cheerful 
courage,  to  render  an  account  of  my  stewardship. 

His  devoted  wife  adds  to  the  autobiography  a  brief  sketch  of  his  character, 
dwelling  on  his  transparent  honesty,  his  enthusiasm  in  the  cause  of  learning, 
and  his  generosity  even  to  those  who  had  served  him  ill.  Only  those  who 
could  not  (or  would  not)  know  him,  called  him  a  misanthrope.  Apart  from 
his  wide  reading  in  Greek  and  T.atin  and  Arabic,  he  was  familiar  with  the  best 
poets  of  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  England,  and  among  his  favourite  works 
were  the  Sermons  of  Tillolson  and  Barrow', 

In  the  latter  part  of  Reiske's  life,  and  for  some  years  after  his 

death,  a  professorship  of  Greek  and  Latin  was  held  at  Leipzig 

from  1768  to  1782  by  Morus',  one  of  the  best  of  the  pupils  of 

Ernesti.    Morus  was  succeeded  by  Friedrich  Wolfgang 

Reiz  (1733 — 1790).     His  eminence  as  a  teacher  is 

attested  by  his  famous  pupil,  Hermann*.     He  concentrated  his 

'  pp-  146-9-  The  volume  includes  (he  letters  he  received  from  Abresch, 
Askew,  Gesner,  Heilmann,  Klotz,  D'Orville,  Reimar,  and  Wesseling,   and 

one  from  Winckelmann.  Cp.  Moms,  De  vita  Reistii,  1777;  S.  G.  Eclt,  in 
Fro1scher'sA'or™(<i»<«{i8i6),i3 — 77;  Wyttenbach,  Bibl.  Crii.  iK  (i)  34,  and 
Opusc.  i  413  f;  Mtiemesyne,  i  sj  and  viii  297 — js'  J  Mommsen,  hscr.  Confeed. 
Hib).  (1854)  p.  xii;  Haupt,  Ofmsc.  iii  1371;  Jahn,  Popaliire  Aufsalu,  16; 
L,  Mliller,  A7-  PhUal.  in  den  NUdtrlanden,  76  n.;  Bur^an,  i  407 — 416;  and 
Fiirster  in  A.D.  B.\  Britfe,  ed.  Forster,  1897 ;  Kammel,  Ntue  fakrb.  190S, 
200f.  'p.  i4i«/,-a. 

»  Opu!(,  viii  453  f.  He  is  also  highly  praised  by  F-  A.  Wolf,  KL  Sehr. 
ii  1155- 


CHAK  XXVI.]  REIZ.  19 

powers  on  the  thorough  exploration  of  the  limited  field  of 
grammar,  metre,  and  textual  criticism.  His  works  include  a 
treatise  on  the  Greek  and  Latin  moods  and  tenses  (1786),  and 
on  accentuation  {1791).  In  the  province  of  metre  he  was  the 
first  to  introduce  into  Germany  the  opinions  of  Bentley,  whom  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  describing  as  '  the  most  perfect  pattern  of  a 
critic '.  These  opinions  he  set  forth  in  a  brief  treatise*,  and  applied 
in  an  edition  of  the  Rudens'.  Specially  interested  in  Aristotle, 
he  anonymously  contributed  to  the  criticism  of  the  Rhetoric  and 
the  seventh  and  eighth  books  of  the  Politics,  besides  publishing 
a  text  of  the  treatise  on  Poetry  (1786),  He  also  edited  the  first 
four  books  of  Herodotus.  Finally,  he  prepared  a  full  description 
of  De  France's  cabinet  of  antiques  at  Vienna,  and  a  series  of 
lectures  on  Roman  Antiquities,  published  after  his  death.  His 
greatest  glory  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  was  the  preceptor  of  Hermann 
and  that  he  was  highly  praised  by  Wolf. 

'  '  Bunnannum  de  Bentleii  doctrina  metrorum  TeienlLanonim  judicare  non 
poluisse'  {1787). 

'  Described  by  a  reviewer  as  '  the  beginning  of  the  true  criticism  of 
Plantus '. 

*  Buisian,  i  419—4.11. 


n,g,t,...l7t?OOglc 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 

GERMANY   IN   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

(ii)      WlNCKELMANN,     LeSSING,     HERDER,     HeVNE,     ECKHEL. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  study  of  Classical  Archaeol*^ 
received  an  important  impulse  from  the  teaching  of 
Johann  Friedrich  Christ  (1700 — 1756).  Born  of  a 
good  family  in  Coburg,  he  was  a  man  of  many  accomplishments 
as  an  artist,  a  linguist,  and  a  poet ;  he  studied  law  at  Jena,  and 
professed  history  and  poetry  at  Leipzig  (1734).  As  a  specialist  in 
Latin  literature,  he  was  a  constant  student  of  Plautus,  knew 
Horace  by  heart,  had  a  high  admiration  for  Juvenal,  read  Tacitus 
through  once  a  year,  and  keenly  appreciated  and  frequently 
imitated  Aulus  Gellius,  By  travelling  in  Italy  he  became  an 
expert  in  ancient  and  modern  art ;  and  he  gathered  round  him  a 
large  library  and  a  considerable  collection  of  engravings,  coins, 
and  gems.  In  a  memorable  course  of  lectures  he  ui^ed  his 
audience  to  become  familiar,  not  only  with  the  literature,  the 
inscriptions,  and  the  coins  of  the  ancients,  but  also  with  their 
architecture  and  sculpture,  their  gems  and  their  vases.  These 
lectures,  which  were  published  long  afterwards,  mark  the  beginning 
of  archaeological  teaching  in  Germany'.  In  studying  the  monu- 
ments of  antiquity  from  the  artistic  and  aesthetic,  and  not  merely 
from  the  antiquarian,  point  of  view,  he  resembled  his  French  con- 
temporary, the  Count  de  Caylus,  while,  in  his  appreciation  of  the 
distinctive  style  of  Greek  sculpture,  he  was  a  precursor  of  Winckel- 

'  Ed.  Zeune,  Ahhandlungen  Sbir  die   Litttralur  und  Kunstw^rkf,  vor- 
nthmlith  des  Allaihums,  1776. 


CHAP.  XXVII.]        J.F.CHRIST.      WINCKELMANN.  21 

mann.  He  made  a  special  study  of  gems,  publishing  a  catalogue 
of  the  Kichter  collection  at  Leipzig,  and  a  revised  Latin  version 
of  the  descriptive  letter-press  to  the  first  zooo  casts  in  Lippert's 
Dactyliotheea,  a  work  subsequently  completed  by  Heyne.  His 
varied  interests  are  attested  in  the  thirty-two  papers  on  Roman 
law  and  antiquities,  on  textual  criticism,  and  on  the  history  of 
literature  and  of  scholarship,  collected  in  his  Nodes  Academicae 
(1727-9).  He  also  dealt  with  the  monograms  of  artists,  the  vasa 
myrrkina  of  the  ancients,  and  the  various  representations  of  the 
Muses.  In  support  of  his  fantastic  opinion  that  the  fables  of 
Phaedrus  were  composed  by  the  Italian  humanist,  Perotti',  he 
himself  translated  two  books  of  Aesop  into  Latin  verse-  On  his 
death  in  1756  a  Latin  oration  in  his  memory  was  delivered  by 
Ernesti',  who,  with  the  aid  of  manuscript  copies  of  his  prede- 
cessor's lectures,  continued  the  tradition  of  his  teaching.  But 
the  abiding  influence  of  the  original  lectures  themselves  is  better 
exemplified  by  the  fact  that  it  was  from  this  source  that  Lessing 
and  Heyne  derived  their  earliest  interest  in  ancient  art'. 

While  an  interest  in  the  artistic  side  of  ancient  life  had  been 
thus  awakened  by  J-  F.  Christ,  the  permanent 
recognition  of  its  importance  was  due  to  the  genius 
of  Johann  Joachim  Winckelmann  (1717— 1768),  The  son  of  a 
cobbler  at  Stendal  (about  sixty  miles  W.  of  Berlin),  he  succeeded 
in  learning  Latin  at  the  local  school,  and  in  acquiring  a  certain 
knowledge  of  books  in  his  master's  library,  while  the  prehistoric 
tombs  in  the  neighbourhood  awakened  his  interest  in  ancient 
monuments,  and  led  to  his  even  dreaming  of  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Pyramids.  In  1735  he  went  to  Berlin,  to  spend  a  year  in  learning 
Greek  under  Damm,  who  was  undoubtedly  familiar  with  the 
vocabulary  of  Homer*.     Three  years  later  he  left  Stendal   to 

'  ii  71  iupra.  '  Opusc.  Oral.,  l^^—\%■i. 

■  Cp.Jasti's  Winckelmttnn,\n^—i%\;  Stark,  159 f;  "QatSti.y.F.CkrUt, 
stilt  Leben  u.  seim  Sehrifiat  (i8;8) ;  and  Bursian,  i  404-6.— The  year  of  bis 
death  was  also  thac  of  the  death  of  Ihe  pupil  of  Chiist  and  Emesti,  Johann 
Angusl  Bach  (r  71 1-56),  who  vindicated  the  character  of  the  Eieusinian  Myste- 
ries (174J),  discussed  the  legislation  of  Trajan,  edited  Ihe  Oetoiumicus  of  Xeno- 
phon  (1747)  and  wrote  an  ofl-reprin(ed  Iiistocy  of  Roman  Jurisprudence  (1754). 
Cp.  Bursian  i  406  (. 

*  P-  'o  ^/'■i- 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


22  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

complete  his  schooling  at  a  place  still  further  west,  SatzwedeL  In 
the  same  year  Fabricius  died,  and,  two  years  afterwards,  when  his 
books  were  to  be  sold  by  auction  in  Hambui^,  the  young  student 
walked  all  the  way,  a  distance  of  more  than  eighty  miles,  simply  to 
purchase  a  few  copies  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics',  He  soon 
entered  the  university  of  Halle,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
J.  H.  Schulze,  a  collector  of  coins,  who  discoursed  on  Greek  and 
Roman  antiquities',  and  of  A.  G.  Baumgarten,  who,  a  few  years 
later,  was  the  first  to  apply  the  term  '  Aesthetics '  to  the  science 
of  the  beautiful'.  He  continued  his  studies  at  Jena,  where,  with 
a  view  to  the  medical  profession,  he  worked  at  comparative 
anatomy.  His  early  interest  in  miscellaneous  learning  was,  how- 
ever, soon  afterwards  merged  in  a  keen  admiration  for  Greek 
literature,  and,  during  five  years  of  hardship  as  a  schoolmaster  at 
Seehausen,  N.  of  his  native  place,  he  devoted  the  greater  part  of 
his  nights  to  the  study  of  Homer  and  Sophocles,  and  Herodotus, 
Xenophon,  and  Plato*.  The  six  years  that  be  subsequently  spent 
in  the  library  of  the  Count  von  Biinau,  near  Dresden,  enlarged 
his  interest  in  history  and  politics,  and  in  the  literature  of  France, 
England,  and  Italy  {1748-54).  At  that  time  the  finest  collection 
of  works  of  sculpture  and  painting  in  all  Germany  was  to  be  found 
in  Dresden ;  and  it  soon  became  clear  to  Winckelmann  that  the 
study  of  art  was  henceforth  to  be  the  main  purpose  of  his  life.  It 
was  also  clear  that  he  could  not  continue  that  study,  to  any  serious 
purpose,  without  living  in  Italy,  and,  as  the  only  means  for  carrying 
out  this  design,  he  finally  resolved  on  joining  the  Church  of 
Rome'.  But  it  was  not  until  a  year  later  that  the  grant  of  an 
annual  pension  from  the  Elector  of  Saxony  enabled  him  to  start 
for  the  South.  He  employed  the  interval  in  studying  gems  and 
other  examples  of  ancient  art,  and  in  composir^  his  earliest  work, 
'  Thoughts  on  the  Imitation  of  Greek  works  in  Painting  and 
Sculpture'  (1755)-  I"  words  that  soon  became  memorable  he 
here  describes  Greek  art  as  characterised  by  '  a  noble  simplicity 
and  a  calm  grandeur".     The  first  two  years  of  his  residence  in 

'  Jiisti,  i  41.  '  i!/.  i  54-6.  '  ib.  i  7S — So. 

*  1743-81  ib.  i  136-160.  •  II  July,  1754. 

*  p.  II  (p.  314  of  'Selected  Works',  ed.  J.  Lessing)  tine  idk  EinfaU  und 
line  stilU  Gresie,  a  phrase  probably  inspired  by  Oeser  (Justi,  i  349,  410). 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXVII.]  WINCKELMANN.  23 

Rome  were  devoted  to  studying  the  great  galleries  of  Sculpture 
and  describing  some  of  the  finest  works  of  ancient  art  in  the 
Vatican  Museum.  He  afterwards  spent  three  months  in  Naples, 
examining  the  results  of  the  recent  excavation  of  Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii.  He  also  visited  the  great  Greek  temples  at  Paestum 
and  Girgenti.  In  1760  he  produced  a  descriptive  CaOlogae  of 
the  Stosch  Collection  of  gems  in  Florence,  dedicating  his  work  to 
the  Cardinal  Albani,  who  had  already  received  him  into  his 
house  and  had  made  him  his  librarian  and  supervisor  of  his  fine 
collection  of  ancient  sculptures.  Meanwhile,  he  had  been  study- 
ing the  descriptions  of  works  of  Greek  art  in  Pausanias,  and  the 
Greek  conception  of  the  Beautiful  in  Plato.  All  these  studies 
culminated  in  the  two  quarto  volumes  of  his  classic  '  History  of 
Ancient  Art '  (1764),  the  earliest  book  in  which  the  developement 
of  the  art  of  Egypt,  of  Phoenicia  and  Persia,  of  Etruria,  and  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  is  set  forth  in  connexion  with  the  general 
developement  of  political  life  and  civilisation.  The  work  was 
received  with  enthusiasm,  and  a  second  edition  appeared  in  1776. 
Meanwhile,  in  1767-8,  he  had  produced  the  two  volumes  of  his 
Monutfuit/i  AtttUhi  Jrieiiiti,  describing  more  than  two  hundred 
works  of  ancient  art,  mainly  reliefs  from  Roman  sarcophagi,  in 
the  explanation  of  which  he  had  shown  for  the  first  time  that  the 
designs  were  derived,  not  from  the  scenes  of  ordinary  life,  but 
from  the  legends  of  Greek  mythology.  In  the  following  April,  he 
left  Rome  for  the  North,  The  mountains  of  Tirol,  which  had 
inspired  him  with  wonder  on  his  journey  into  Italy,  now  awoke  in 
him  a  sense  of  the  profoundest  melancholy.  He  was  bound  for 
Berlin,  where  he  proposed  to  see  through  the  press  a  French 
edition  of  his  great  History.  During  his  stay  in  Augsburg, 
Munich  and  Vienna,  he  strove  in  vain  to  throw  off  the  intense 
depression  by  which  he  was  haunted ;  from  Vienna  he  returned 
alone  to  Triest,  and  arranged  to  cross  the  water  to  Venice,  While 
he  was  preparing  for  his  voyage,  he  lived  incognito  for  several 
days  at  a  hotel,  where  he  became  imprudently  familiar  with  an 
Italian  adventurer,  indiscreetly  showed  him  some  of  the  large  gold 
medals  he  had  recently  received  at  Vienna,  and  was  treacherously 
murdered  on  the  8th  of  June,  1768.  The  date  of  his  birth,  the 
9th  of  December,  has  since  been  repeatedly  commemorated  by 


A.oogic 


24  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

the  publication  of  papers  on  classical  art  and  archaeolc^  in 
Rome,  as  well  as  in  Berlin  and  in  many  other  homes  of  learning 
in  Germany,  Of  his  portraits  the  best  is  that  painted  by  Angelica 
KaufTmann'.  The  bust,  once  placed  by  Cardinal  Albani  beside 
the  tomb  of  Raphael  in  the  Pantheon,  has  been  removed  to  the 
Capitoline  Museum ;  a  statue  has  been  erected  in  his  memory  at 
the  village  where  he  was  born,  and  a  monument  in  one  of  the 
churches  of  the  town  where  he  died.  As  the  votary  of  all  that 
was  beautiful  in  the  art  of  the  ancient  world,  he  has  been  im- 
mortalised by  an  able  and  eloquent  bi<^rapher,  who  bids  farewell 
to  his  hero  in  the  impressive  words  : — Er  Ubt  in  GotI,  dem  UrqueU 
des  Schonen,  dessert  Abglanz  er  hier gesucht  und geahnt  hat*. 

The  services  rendered  by  Winckelmann,  in  bringing  the  old 
Greek  world  into  connexion  with  modern  life,  were 
continued  in  a  still  larger  measure  by  Gotthold 
Ephraim  Lessing  (1729 — 1781).  His  father  was  curate  of  Ka- 
menz,  a  small- town  N.E.  of  Dresden.  At  the  age  of  five,  when 
it  was  proposed  to  paint  his  portrait  with  a  bird-cage  beside  him, 
the  future  scholar  vehemently  protested :—' you  must  paint  roe 
with  a  great,  great  heap  of  books,  or  I  won't  be  painted  at  all'.'  At 
thirteen,  he  was  sent  to  the  famous  school  of  St  Afra  at  Meissen, 
N.W.  of  Dresden.  The  education  there  given  was  mainly  classical, 
and  the  boy's  private  reading  included  Anacreon  and  the  Characters 
of  Theophrastus,  as  well  as  Plautus  and  Terence,  He  was  only 
seventeen  when  he  entered  the  university  of  Leipzig,  where 
J.  F.  Christ  was  already  lecturing  on  ancient  art,  and  on  Plautus 

'  Justi,  ii  (a)  440;  ib.  Frontispiece,  and  Konneclte's  BiUirallas,  ed.  1 
( I  post  »30- 

'  Complete  ed,  of  his  works  in  11  vols.,  published  al  Donaueschingen 
(1835-9)  *■"*  Pralo  (l8so-4).  Die  Gistkichte  der  Kunst  ila  AlUrthums 
0  764)1  and  GedaiiJUn  iiber  die  Naehahmung  der  griahisehm  IVeritlij^s),  and 
some  minor  works,  reprinted  wilh  Life  and  Introduction  by  Julius  Lessing 
(ed.  I,  Heidelberg,  [881).  Cp.  Heyne's  Leii^Ari/i,  and  Herder's  Denkmal 
(1778,  vol.  viii  4J!  f,  ed.  Suphan);  Goethe's  Winekilmann  und  sein  Jakr- 
kundirl,  1805  (vol.  Kxiv  of  ed.  in  xjix  vols.);  F  A  Wolf,  laetne  Sehrtftm, 
ii  730-743;  O.  Jahn,  Biogr.  Aufsdtze,  i— 88;  Julian  Schmidt,  11  113— 131; 
Justi,  fVimitlmatiH,  sein  Leben,  selru  Werke  und  sane  Zettgmossm,  in 
3  vols,,  1866-71;   Slark,  193— jo6;  and  Bursian,  1  416 — 436 

'  Picture  reproduced  in  DUntier's  Lessings  Ltbm,  17,  and  in  Konnetke's 
BiiJerallas,  131, 


CHAP.  XXVII.]  LESSING.  25 

and  Horace',  and  Emesti  was  'extraordinary  professor  of 
Eloquence ',  while  Kastner,  the  young  professor  of  mathematics, 
was  soon  to  give  proof  of  his  special  interest  in  literature,  and — in 
Leasing.  At  Leipzig  the  young  student  became  convinced  that 
'  books  might  make  him  learned,  but  could  never  make  him  a 
man",  and  it  was  there  that  he  produced  his  earliest  play,  a  satire 
on  the  conceited  self-complacency  of  a  youthful  pedant'.  The 
author  had  just  become  conscbus  of  his  own  pedantry,  his  honzon 
had  been  widened,  and  the  spirit  of  modem  '  enlightenment '  had 
breathed  life  into  the  dry  bones  of  scholarship'.  Early  in  1749 
he  went  to  Berlin,  and,  besides  making  his  mark  as  a  dramatic 
critic,  produced  three  plays,  one  of  them  founded  on  the 
Trinummus'.  Late  in  1751  he  left  for  Wittenberg,  where  he 
stayed  for  less  than  a  year,  Spending  most  of  his  time  in  the 
university  library,  every  volume  of  which  (he  afterwards  declared) 
had  passed  through  his  hands.  At  Wittenberg  he  studied  the 
Roman  poets,  especially  Horace  and  Martial,  whose  manner  is 
reflected  in  his  own  terse  and  epigrammatic  style,  and  especially 
in  his  Latin  and  German  epigrams'.  In  his  Letters,  and  in  a 
separate  treatise,  he  satirically  attacked  an  inadequate  translation 
of  Horace,  and  vindicated  the  poet's  character'.  On  returning  to 
Berlin,  he  won  the  friendship  of  Nicolai  and  of  Moses  Mendels- 
sohn, both  of  whom  were  interested,  like  himselt^  in  English 
literature ;  and  he  chose  England  as  the  scene  of  his  first 
important  tragedy,  a  'household  play',  which  was  part  of  his 
protest  against  the  servile  imitation  of  antiquity  then  prevaleht  in 
France'.  His  interest  in  the  drama  led  to  his  writing  a  treatise 
on  the  life  and  works  of  Plautus,  a  translation  and  examination  of 
the  Captivi',  and  an  essay  on  the  tragedies  of  Seneca'".  A  still 
more  important  influence  on  his  career  as  a  critic  may  be  traced 


'  Julian  Schmidl,  i  618.  ^  Letter  to  his  mother,  it.  i  6it>. 

'  Dirjunge  Gilehrle.  *  Sherer,  ii  49,  E.  T, 

'  Der  Schali.  '  i  17 — 67  Goring. 

'  Briefly  in  175J  (vi  300,  ed.  Goring) ;  Vademecum....  and  Ritluiigm  des 
Horax,  I7j;4  (xv  i  [—71).     Cp.  Sime's  Lessiag,  \  i.ij. 

'  Miss  Sara  Sampion.  '  vi  11—144, 

'"  vii  162 — 136.  Cp,  Dietsch  in  /'hilologen-Versammlung  xxii  (Meissen) 
18  f- 


,i^.ooglc 


26  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

to  his  study  of  Aristotle's  Ethics,  Politics,  Rhetoric,  and  Poetic^, 
and  of  the  masterpieces  of  Greek  tragedy,  especially  the  plays  of 
Sophocles'.  After  nearly  three  years  at  Leipzig,  he  published  at 
Berlin  his  '  Prose  Fables '  and  his  '  Treatises  on  the  Fable ',  the 
latter  being  among  the  best  of  his  essays  in  criticism  {1759)'.  It 
was  during  his  five  years  at  Breslau  (1760-5),  that  he  began  the 
best  known  of  his  critical  works,  his  Laokoon,  or,  '  on  the  limits  of 
Poetryand  Painting',  completed  and  published  at  Berlin  in  1766*. 

Simonidea  had  vividly  descrilied  '  Poelry  as  a.  speaking  Picture  and  Painting 
as  B  silent  Poem ',  but  Plutarch  himself,  in  quoting  this  epigram,  had  observed 
Ihal  Poetry  and  Painling  'differ  in  their  matter,  and  in  their  means  of 
imitation '°.  Nevertheless,  the  limits  of  the  two  arts  had  been  left  undefined, 
and  Luigi  Dolce,  in  his  diaic^e  on  Painting  (ijSi),  had  even  maintained 
that  a  good  poet  must  be  a  good  painter*.  Addison,  again,  in  his  Dialogues 
on  Medals  (1701),  had  illustrated  the  designs  on  Roman  coins  by  means  of 
passages  from  the  Latin  poels,  and  viee  versa  \  Spence,  in  his  Polymitis  {l^^^), 
had  aimed  at  explaining  the  poels  of  Greece  and  Rome  by  the  aid  of  monu- 
ments of  ancient  art ;  and,  in  France,  Count  Cayius  had  urged  artists  to  find 
their  inspiration  in  Homer  (1757).  Thomson's  Seaionr  had  meanwhile 
awakened  a  passion  for  word-painting  among  (he  poets  of  Germany  and 
Switzerland.  Winckelmann  himself  saw  noreasonwhyPaintingshouldnothave 
as  wide  boundaries  as  Poetry',  and  inferred  that  'it  ought  to  be  possible  for 
the  painter  to  imitate  the  poet''.  He  had  previously  spoken  of '  poetic  pictures', 
and  had  described  Rubens  as  a  '  sublime  poet''.  He  had  also  illustrated  the  . 
'  noble  simplicity  and  calm  grandeur  '*  of  Greek  art  by  the  subdued  expression 

'  Letter  to  Nikolai,  1  Apr.  1757,  and  to  Mendelssohn,  j  Nov.  1768; 
Hamh.  Dram.  nos.  37—39,  75,  81-3,  89,  90, 101-4 ;  cp.  Gotschlich,  Lessiag't 
Aristotelisehe  Studien  (Berlin,  |8;6). 

"  Leben  des  Soph.  (1760),  xi  13—96.  '  i  194—191. 

'xi — 167;  Fragm4nts,\(A — 334, Goring:  ed.  Blilmner,  1 876  ;  Hamann, 
i8j8;  E.  T.,  Sir  R.  J.  PhilUmore  (1875)  and  E.  C.  Beasley  (1879  etc.);  cp. 
Sherer,  ii  65  f;  Justi's  Winckelmann,  i  450— 4J7;  Sime,  i  147-308; 
Zimmern,  175-194;  E.  A.  Gaidner,  Gk  Sculpture,  ii  468—47";  facsimile 
of  p.   I  in  Dllntzer's  Lessings  Leben,  313. 

*  Plutarch,  De  Gloria  AtA.  3,  p.  346  f  (and  347  a),  echoed  in  Ad  Htrenn. 
iv  39,  'poema  loquens  pictura,  pictura  taciturn  poema  debet  esse',  and  in 
Horace,  A.  P.  361,  'ut  pictura  pogsb',  where  the  reference  is  only  to  the 
external  aspects  of  the  two  kinds  of  art  (Orelli);  cp.  Dryden's  Parallel  of 
Poetry  and  Painting  (1695I. 

*  Laokoon,  svl  p.  337  Blumner. 

'  Eriduterung  der  Gedanten  U.1.V1.  (1756),  p.  347,  ed.  1883. 

*  Gedanken  u.s.w.  p.  335.  '  p.  13,  n.  6  tufra. 


.oogic 


CHAP.  XXVII.]  LESSING.  2; 

of  pain  in  Ihe  sculptured  fonn  of  Laocoon,  who.  in  contrast  to  the  Loocoon  of 
Virgil,  bravely  endures  his  pain,  '  like  the  Philoctetes  of  Sophocles '. 

Leasing,  however,  at  (he  very  outset  of  his  Essay,  shows  that  Philoctetes  in 
the  play,  so  far  from  suppressing  his  groans,  fills  the  stage  with  loud  laments, 
and,  instead  of  supplying  a  cortirasi  to  Vir^l's  Laocoon,  realty  resembles  him. 
Winckelmann  (he  continues)  had  overlooked  the  essential  difference  between 
Sculpture  and  Poetry.  The  poet  and  the  artist  were  equally  right,  both 
(allowed  the  prindples  of  their  respective  arts.  The  sculptor  did  not  'aim  at 
expressing  a  higher  moral  character  in  making  his  Laocoon  suppress  the  cry  of 
agony;  he  only  obeyed  the  highest  law  of  ancient  art, — the  law  of  beauly'. 
The  artist  is  limited  to  a  moment  of  time;  Che  poet  is  not.  'The  artist 
represents  coexisleHce  itt  spcue,  the  poel  succession  in  li»ie'.  This  point  is 
illustrated  from  Homer,  and  in  paiticulai  from  his  vivid  story  of  the  making  of 
the  Shield  of  Achilles,  which  is  far  more  life-like,  far  more  truly  poetic  jhan 
Virgil's  dead  description  of  the  Shield  of  Aeneas.  In  Homer  the  great  work 
grows  under  our  very  eyes ;  scene  after  scene  starts  into  life ;  while  Vii^l  toils 
in  vain  by  tediously  drawing  our  attention  to  a  series  of  coexistent  im^es. 
Thus  Lessing  condemns  dead  description  in  poetry,  as  contrasted  with  life-like 
action  and  movement.  ...He  ends  by  criticising  some  minor  points  in  Winckel- 
mann's  '  History  of  Art ',  which  had  meanwhile  been  published. 

While  Winckelmann  had  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  works  of  ancient 
sculpture,  and  was  also  well  versed  in  ancient  literature,  Lessing  had  approached 
the  subject  almost  wholly  from  the  literary  side;  he  had  read  all  that  had  been 
written  on  his  theme;  he  had,  in  fact,  been  partly  anticipated  by  the  Abb^ 
Dubos'  in  France,  and  by  James  Harris'  in  England;  but  this  does  not  detract 
from  the  merits  of  hb  (realise  as  a  lucid  and  masterly  piece  of  convincing 
criticism.  It  is  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  his  terse  and  transparent  style, 
and  it  owes  part  of  its  perspicuity  to  the  avoidance  of  parenthesis.  It  was 
bailed  on  all  sides  with  enthusiasm.  Herder  read  it  through  three  times 
between  noon  and  midnight.  Goethe,  then  a  student  at  Leipzig,  afterwards 
said; — '  One  must  be  a  youth  to  realise  the  effect  produced  upon  us  by  Lessing's 
LaBitK/n..,T\ie  phrase  ut pidura  poisis,  which  had  so  long  iieen  misunderstood, 
was  at  once  set  aside;  the  difTerence  tietween  art  and  poetry  was  now  made 
clear''.  When  (he  work  reached  Winckelmann  in  Rome,  'Ks,  first  impulse 
prompted  him  to  say : — '  Lessing  writes  as  oneself  would  wish  to  have  written. 
...As  it  is  glorious  to  be  praised  by  competent  persons,  so  also  it  may  be 
glorious  lo  be  held  worthy  of  their  criticism''.  Long  afterwards,  Macaulay 
read  the  Laokann,  'sometimes  dissenting,  but  always  admiring  and  learning'; 
it  was  one  of  the  books  that  filled  him  'with  wonder  and  despair'".     Lessing's 


'  inflexions  critiques  sur  lapeiste  et  la  peinture  (1719). 
'  On  Music,  Painting,  and  Poetry,  c.  v  §  1  (■744).     Cp-  Blumner  on 
Lnokeen,   173  f. 

'  Dichtung  und  Wahrhtit,  I  c.  vili ;  cp.  Sime,  i  304. 

'  Josti,  ii  (1)  134—346;  Zimmem,  1(15.  '  Life,  a  8  (ed.  1878). 

h.  i.,  iiA.OOgIc 


28  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII, 

opinions  have,  however,  been  correcled,  or  enlarged,  by  later  authors.  It  is 
now  agreed  that  the  Laocoon-group  does  nol  belong  lo  the  time  of  Titus,  but 
to  the  beginning  uf  the  rule  of  Augustus'.  Again,  in  discussing  the  difference 
between  paittling  and  poetry,  Lessing  starts  by  examining  a  master-piece  of 
sculpture,  and  adds  that,  *  whenever  he  speaks  of  painling,  he  means  sculpture 
as  well', — B  point  for  which  he  has  justly  been  criticised  by  Herder'.  Lessing's 
belief,  that  tbe  '  Borghese  gladiator  '  was  a  statue  of  Chabrias,  was  afterwards 
abandoned  at  the  prompting  of  Heyne';  and  the  use  of  the  aorist  instead  of 
the  imperfect  in  the  signatures  of  Greek  sculptors  is  no  longer  accepted  as  an 
indication  of  a  late  date*. 

The  Laokoon  remained  a  torso.  Instead  of  completing  it,  the 
author  left  Berlin  for  Hamburg,  where,  as  '  critic  of  the  plays  and 
actors ',  he  produced  more  than  a  hundred  chapters  of  brilliant 
dramatic  criticism  (1767-9)'.  That  criticism  is  mainly  founded 
on  Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry,  a  German  translation  of  which 
(with  notes  and  essays)  he  had  himself  reviewed  in  1753'.  He 
repeatedly  comments  on  Aristotle's  opinions',  finding  in  Aristotle's 
definition  of  tragedy,  or  rather,  in  his  own  interpretation  of  that 
definition,  the  true  essence  of  the  drama'. 

He  was  at  the  same  time  involved  in  a  controversy  with  C.  A.  Kloti,  a 
professor  of  Rhetoric  and  editor  of  three  literary  journals  at  Halle.  Lessing 
had  expressed  his  regret  that  '  a  scholar  of  otherwise  just  and  refined  taste '  had 
disapproved  of  the  Homeric  episode  of  Thersites'.  Lessing  himself  had 
declared  that  there  was  no  great  number  of  pictures  for  which  ancient  artists 
were  indebted  to  Homer'",  had  rejected  Pope's  suggestion  that  Homer  was  'not 
B  stranger  to  aerial  perspective ' ",  and  had  observed  that,  while  modem  artists 
had  represented  Death  as  a  skeleton",  the  ancients  had  represented  him  as 
the  twin-brother  of  Sleep.    All  these  opinions  were  attacked  by  Klotz  in  an 

'  Two  of  the  three  sculptors  were  priests  of  Athena  Lindia  in  B.C-  Ji — 1 1 
(Blinkenberg  and  Kinch,  in  Danske  Vidensiab.  Selsk.  Forhandl.  1905,  99;  cp. 
Michaelis.  Arch.  Enid.  169;  and  E.  A.  Gardner,  in  The  Veal's  Wort  (19OJ), 
3*0- 

'  P-  35  iiifra.  '  Ant.  Briefe,  no.  37  (jiiii  98  Goring). 

•  c.  xxvii,  p.  307  Blumner;  cp.  Stark,  110. 

.   '  HamburgUckt  Dramaturgie,   vol,   xii   Goring;    E.   T.   in   Prose    IVorks 
(1879). 

•  xii  31  Goring.  '  p.  26  n.  [  supra. 

'  Lessing  attributes  to  tragedy  '  a  direct  moral  purpose '  and  also  holds  that 
'fear  is  always  an  ingredient  in  pity ',  E.  T.  435  f  (see  Bernays,  Breslau  .4i^»i//. 
{1857}  inil..  and  index  to  Butcher's  ed.  of  Ar.  Poel.). 

•  Laokoon,  c.  xxiv  ult.  1*  c.  xxii. 


i.MM,Googlc 


.CHAP.  -XXVIL]  LESSING. 


'Essay  on  Gems'  (1768),  and  defended  by  Lessing  in  his  'Anliquarian  Letters  ' 
(1768-9),  and  in  his  admirable  Essay  'on  the  Ancient  Represenlajions  of 
Death''  where  he  shows  thai  ihe  ancients  personified  Death,  not  as  a  ghastly 
skeleton  bul  as  a  beautiful  '  Genius  '  with  an  inverted  torch.  The  essay  was 
greeted  with  a  transport  of  delight  by  the  youthful  Goethe  at  Leipiig',  and  the 
gladness  of  Goeihe  found  an  echo  in  Schiller's  *  Gods  of  Greece".  I(  is  in  (he 
same  Essay  that  we  lind  the  memorable  distinction  between  the  mete  'anti- 
quarian '  and  the  '  archaeolc^st '.  '  The  former  has  inherited  (he  fragments, 
the  latter  the  spirit  of  anliquily(  the  former  scarcely  thinks  with  his  eyes,  the 
lattei  sees  even  with  his  thoughts  ;  before  the  former  can  say  thus  it  vxts,  the 
latter  already  knows  whether  it  could  be  so''.  The  extant  portraits  of  Kloti 
give  us  Ihe  impression  of  his  having  been  a  weak  and  conceited  person'. 
Unfonunately  hi;  life  was  cut  short  at  the  early  ^e  of  thirty-three,  and  few 
would  now  remember  him,  unless  he  had  been  embalmed  forever  in  the  trans- 
lucent amber  of  his  great  opponent's  style. 

As  librarian  at  Wolfenbiittel  for  the  last  eleven  years  of  his 
life,  Lessing  published  inter  alia  a  few  short  papters  on  the 
Epigram,  and  on  some  of  the  principal  Epigrammatists',  also 
on  Paulus  Silenliarius  and  on  the  arithmetical  problems  of  the 
Greek  Anthology',  while  his  abiding  interest  in  the  Classics  is 
attested  by  his  'Notes  on  Ancient  Writing",  and  by  his  'Col- 
lectanea". It  was  during  this  period  that,  in  1775,  ''^  spent 
nine  months  in  Italy  with  a  prince  of  Brunswick.  On  a  day  in 
Rome  he  was  missed  by  the  prince's  attendants,  who  at  last  found 
him  in  the  Vatican  Museum  gazing  with  rapture  on  the  group  of 
Laocoon, 

Lessing  was  the  most  versatile  of  men,  a  writer  on  theology 
and  on  aesthetics,  as  well  as  a  poet,  a  critic,  and  a  scholar.  As  a 
theological  controversialist,  and  as  the  author  of  Nathan  der 
Weise,  he  was  a  champion  of  religious  toleration, — but  we  are 

*  Vol.  xiii  Goring  (the  essay  is  translated  by  Miss  Zimmem  in  Stlect  Prase 
Works,  1879;  cp.  ]\et  Lift  of  Lessing,  334 — 151). 

.       *  Diehtungund  fVahrieit,ic.-n«. 

.'  Stania  9  of  Second  Version,  Seine  Fae-kel  senkC  ein  Genius. 

*  E.  T.  p.  309. 

'  DUntier's  Lessings  Leben,  337,  and  Konnecke's  BiM/ratlas  333.  Ruhn- 
ken,  writing  to  Heyne  {Epp.  ad  Div.  p.  15),  calls  him  homiium  vanissimitni  el 
vix  mediocriter  erudHuni.  Cf.  Heeren's  Heyne,  73,  81  f;  Sime's  Lessing,  a 
63 — 81;   Bursian,  t  444 — 451, 

'  xv  73— IS4  Goring.  '  XV  199  f,  136  f. 


i.,-iM,Googlc 


30  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

here  concerned  with  him  as  a  scholar  and  a  critic  alone.  By  his 
influence  on  his  contemporaries  he  undoubtedly  opened  a  new  era 
in  the  appreciation  of  Homer  and  Sophocles ;  he  also  promoted 
the  intelligent  study  of  Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry,  and  threw  a 
clearer  light  on  the  aims  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  on  the 
merits  of  Horace  and  Martial.  His  writings  have  a  never-failing 
charm  that  is  mainly  due  to  their  clearness  and  precision,  and  to 
their  classic  purity  of  style. 

Action  is,  with  him,  not  only  the  highest  theme  of  poetry; 
it  is  also  the  true  end  of  man.  He  has  an  eager  delight  in 
conversarion,  a  perfect  passion  for  controversy.  He  prefers  the 
unceasing  and  untiring  quest  of  Truth,  even  to  its  immediate 
possession  and  fruition'.  He  is  an  ardent  patriot,  a  resolute 
hater  of  tyrants ;  amid  the  strain  of  poverty,  he  retains  his  frank 
independence  of  character,  and  his  cheerful  devotion  to  a  hterary 
hfe.  He  is  ever  the  keenest  of  critics ;  ever  the  many-sided  man 
of  letters  and  of  learning,  who  declines  to  degenerate  into  a 
pedant. 

Von  Gebler,  writing  to  Nicolai,  describes  Lessing  as  'that 
rare  combination,  a  truly  great  and  amiable  scholar".  It  is  also 
said  that,  in  the  uniform  neatness  of  his  dress,  he  was  distinguished 
from  the  typical  man  of  letters  of  his  day.  In  his  manner,  he  was 
firm  without  arrt^ance ;  and  every  variety  of  feeling,  whether 
radiant  gladness,  or  frank  independence,  or  keen  indignation, 
found  expression  in  his  deep  blue  eyes.  The  best  of  all  his 
portraits'  is  that  painted  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven,— the  age  at 
which  he  wrote  his  Laokoon*. 

'  Daflik,  c.  1  adjinem  (xviii  41  Goring). 

•  Zimmem,  Lessing,  311. 

'  Konnecke's  Bilderatlas,  p.  131  f. 

*  Works  in  13  vols.  <A.  Lachmann  {i8j8  f )  and  Malliahn  {1853  f) ;  also  in 
to  vols.  (Hempel,  1868  f);  8  vols,  illustrated  (Grote,  1875  f ) ;  and  30  voU.  ed. 
Goring  (Cotta,  1881  f).  Lives,  in  Gennar,  by  K.  G.  l-essing,  1793;  Daiuel- 
Guhrauer,  1850-4;  Stahr,  1859;  DUntzer,  1881 ;  and  Goiing;  and,  in  English, 
by  J.  Sime,  187;  (and  in  Rnc.  Brit.),  and  H.  Zimmeni,  1878.  Cp.  Julian 
Schmidt,  Von  Leibrtils  bis  auf  Ltssings  Tod,  fassim,  esp.  i  6l7^ia(i,  ii  6, 
194 — 306;  Justi's  iVin^telmann ;  Stark,  loS — 311;  Bursian,  i  436 — 454;  also 
Sherer,  ii  47 — 81  E.  T.,  and  the  other  current  histories  oC  German  literature, 
and  lastly,  Kont's  Ltssingit  rantiquiti,  1894-9. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXVII.]  HERDER.  3I 

One  of  Lessing's  most  important  allies  in  promoting  an  interest 
in  Greek  literature  in  Germany,  and  in  waging 
war  against  Klotz  and  his  adherents,  was  Johann 
Gottfried  Herder  (1744 — 1803).  Humbly  bom  at  Mohntngen, 
amid  the  marshes  near  Konigsberg,  he  was  grounded  in  Latin  by 
an  awe-inspiring  master  named  Grimm.  He  regarded  the  Grammar 
of  Donatus  as  a  '  book  of  martyrdom ',  and  Cornelius  Nepos  as 
the  '  author  of  torment' ;  but  he  rejoiced  in  wandering  in  solitude 
beside  the  local  lake  and  through  the  '  Wood  of  Paradise ',  where, 
on  a  day  in  autumn,  he  burst  into  tears  over  the  lines  in  which 
Homer  compares  the  passing  generations  of  man  to  the  fading 
and  falling  leaves  of  the  forest'.  A  Russian  officer  helped  him  to 
enter  the  university  of  Konigsberg,  where  he  attended  the  lectures 
of  Kant,  and  was  thereby  stimulated  to  critical  inquiry  without 
becoming  an  adherent  of  that  teacher's  opinions.  As  a  student 
he  was  specially  interested  in  Hebrew  poetry,  and  in  Pindar  and 
Plato,  In  his  maturer  years  we  note  three  main  periods : — first, 
the  time  at  Riga  (1765-9) ;  next,  the  tour  in  France  (1769),  the 
visit  to  Slrassbutg  (where  he  made  a  profound  impression  on  the 
youthfijl  Goethe'),  and  the  years  spent  as  court  preacher  at 
Buckebei^(i77i-6);  and  lastly,  his  residence  in  a  similar  position 
at  Weimar  (1776 — 1803). 

It  was  at  Riga  that  he  published  his  three  collections  of 
Fragments  on  modern  German  literature  (1766-7).  The  first  of 
these  deals  with  the  developement  of  language ;  the  second  in- 
cludes a  discourse  on  the  study  of  Greek  literature  in  Germany, 
emphasising  the  connexion  between  the  taste  of  each  people  and 
its  material  environment  in  successive  ages.  In  answer  to  the 
question,  'how  far  do  we  undersland  the  Greeks?',  he  sketches 
the  outline  of  a  future  History  of  Greek  Poetry  and  Philosophy ; 
and,  in  connexion  with  the  further  inquiry,  'how  far  have  we 
imitated  the  Greeks?',  he  characterises  the  several  branches  of 
Greek  poetry,  and  the  foremost  poets  of  Greece,  and  similarly 
in  the  case  of  Roman  poetry,  with  a  marked  appreciation  of 
Lucretius  and  the  Heroides  of  Ovid.  In  the  third,  he  touches  on 
the  German  imitations  of  Latin  poets,  on  the  baneful  influence  of 

•  //,  vi  146?;  tAtia^an,  Herdrr  and  his  lima,  lof. 
'  OUhhtag  und  iVahrheil,  Fart  ii,  book  to. 

h.  i.,  iiA.OOgIc 


32  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

the  Latin  spirit  in  modern  Germany,  and  on  the  proper  use  of 
ancient   mythol(^   in    modem    poetry.      The   following   is    the 

purport  of  a  few  passages : — 

The  history  of  a  language  is  as  ihe  history  of  man  from  the  lisping  of  child- 
hood, through  Ihe  passion  and  music  of  youth,  to  Ihe  calm  wisdom  of  age.... 
We  see  Ihe  remains  of  the  childhood  of  man  in  Ihe  poems  of  Homer.  The 
first  authors  in  every  nalion  are  poels,  and  these  poets  are  inimilable....Wilh 
the  inlroduction  of  writing,  and  (he  growth  of  political  life,  prose  became 
possible,  singing  ceased,  and  poetry  became  a  thing  of  art;  instead  of  Homer, 
we  have  Tyrtaeus  and  the  great  tragedians,  closely  followed  by  the  hlslorians; 
lor  prose  was  the  living  language,  till  KnaJty  it  reached  its  perfection  in  Plato'. 

How  far  can  the  Germans  be  said  really  to  unJentand  the  Greeks,  whom 
tliey  imitate P... Our  imitations  are  merely  failures.  It  is  absurd  to  mention 
Bodmer  and  Homer  in  the  same  breath.... Klopstock,  again,  is  really  more 
akin  to  Vii^l  than  lo  Homer.  Still  less  can  we  hope  to  imitate  the  dithy- 
rambic  poets.  ...Our  Anacreons  do  not  succeed  much  better.  Gessner  wifh  his 
Idylls  falls  far  below  Theocritus. ...Even  more  absurd  is  the  comparison  between 
Sappho  and  Anna  Karschin.  We  might  say  to  her,  as  Sappho  said  to  her 
maid; — 'Thou  hasi  no  part  in  the  roses  of  Pieria',  where  the  Muses  and 
Graces  have  their  haunt  •. 

Laiin  was  from  Ihe  firs!  the  enemy  of  German,  which  might  have  resisted 
il,  had  not  Charlemagne  and  the  monks  let  loose  upon  us  the  barbarous  deluge 
of  Latin  literature,  Latin  religion,  and  Lalin  speculation.  O  that  we  had  been 
an  island,  like  England!.. .Zn^in,  being  considered  an  end  in  itself,  is  ruining 
our  education..,. What  would  the  real  florace  say,  if  he  were  compelled  to  read 
such  poels  as  Kloti,  or  the  work  of  any  of  our  Lalin  pedants?  We  sacrifice 
everylhing  to  that  accursed  word,  '  classical '.  We  must  begin  our  reform  by 
giving  up  Latin,' — not  as  a  learned  language,  but  as  a  means  of  arli^lic  ex- 
pression and  as  a  lest  of  culture^.  In  Ihe  second  fragment  he  urges  that  Homer 
should  be  Iranslaltd*,  Homer  the  true  poet  of  Nature,  whose  song  has  a  very 
different  ring  from  tliat  of  Virgil  and  the  artificial  poets  of  modem  limes'. 

In  his  second  great  work  he  imagines  himself  roaming  through 
the  'woodlands  of  criticism".  He  has  a  high  appreciation  of 
Lessing's  Laokoon,  but  he  does  still  more  justice  to  Winckelmann'. 

Opposing  Lessing's  theory  as  lo  the  Greek  expression  of  the  emotions,  he 
s  that  Philoctetes  does  not  shriek  without  restraint*,  while  he  demurs 

'  Fra^mie,  i  {ij6S')  isi—ii4(=iVerie,i  151— 155  +  ii  60— 88  Suphan); 

Vinson,  106. 

'  Fri^m.  ii  (i  »8s— 351  S) ;  Nevinson,  106. 

■  Fragm.  iii  {i  362— +14  S)  ;  Nevinson,  108  f.  ♦  i  389  S. 

"  Cp.  Julian  Schmidt,  ii  315.  '  Krilischi  fValdir,  1769. 

'  Cp.  Herder  to  Scheffiier,  4  Gel.  1766 ;  Julian  Schmidt,  ii  314,  jjj, 

"   ICaVfliW,  i  8  1  iiii  nfS). 


A.oogic 


CHAP.  XXVII.]  HERDER.  33 

to  the  dogma  (hal  all  poetry  must  represent  action,  a  tlt^ma  limiting  poetry  to 
the  epic  and  dramatic,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  lyric  and  the  song'.  At  a  later 
point  he  critlci^s  the  Epistelae  HomcrUai  and  other  works  of  Klotz,  justilies 
the  comic  element  in  epic  poetry,  discusses  the  proper  method  of  studying 
Horace,  and  insists  that  every  work  of  Art  or  Poetry  must  be  interpreted  in 
the  tight  of  the  people  and  the  period,  in  which  it  came  into  being.  He  par- 
ticularly objects  to  the  Homeric  poems  being  criticised  by  the  standard  o( 
modem  taste'. 

It  was  on  the  deck  at  night,  during  his  voyage  from  Riga,  that 
he  first  formed  his  theory  of  the  genesis  of  primitive  poetry  and 
of  the  gradual  evolution  of  humanity.  In  France  he  drew  up  a 
scheme  of  educational  reform,  banning  by  overthrowing  the 
predominance  of  his  old  enemy,  the  Ladn  grammar,  and  in- 
sisting that,  in  education,  variety  was  absolutely  essential. 

As  to  languages,  the  mother-longue  must  be  thoroughly  studied,  French 
must  be  taught  in  conversation,  Latin  should  be  learnt  for  the  sake  of  its 
literature,  but  even  Latin  is  best  taught  by  conversation.  Greek  and  Hebrew 
follow  in  their  turn,  and  the  course  is  complete'. 

At  Strassbui^  in  1770  he  wrote  the  Essay  on  the  Origin  of 
Language  that  was  crowned  by  the  Berlin  Academy*.  The 
Academy  had  proposed  the  question: — 'Was  man  capable  of 
inventing  language,  if  left  to  his  own  resources,  and,  if  so,  by 
what  means  could  he  have  invented  it?'  Herder  answers  the 
first  part  of  this  question  in  the  affirmative  ;  and,  in  reply  to  the 
second,  lays  down  four  'natural  laws'  governing  the  invention 
and  developement  of  language,  and  its  division  into  various 
tongues.  The  essay  was  written  in  less  than  a  month,  but  the 
subject  had  been  long  in  his  mind,  and,  fortunately  (perhaps)  for 
himself,  he  had  no  books  to  hamper  him.  The  result  has  been 
recognised  as  an  important  part  of  the  first  foundations  of  Com- 
parative Philology'. 

He  was   still   at    Buckeburg  when  he   published   'A   New 

'  WaUckin,  i  3  :6  (iii  133  fS);  cp.  Nevinson,  113-5, 

'  Witldchtn,  ii  caps,  i  and  iii  fvol.  iii  133  f,  3«>  f,  S). 

'  Ktisi-jeumal  (vol.  iv  ad  fiium,  ed.  Suphan);  Nevinson,  118  f;  cp. 
Paulsen,  ii  41 — 44,  193-6. 

'  Ueber  dm  Ursprtms  dtr  Spraeht,  \■^^\■,  ed.  t,  1789;  lVerkt,tA.  rSoj  f, 
Phiiosofkie und  Geschkhu,  iii — 183 (vol.  viwii.  ed.  Suphan);  cp.  Goethe, u. J. 

'  Benfey's  GtschUhU  dtr  Spnukitdsiaischq/i,  193  f  1  cp.  Jalian  Schmidt,  ii 
493;  and  Nevinscm,  l6i  f. 

s-   III-  ,..,.,  !,,*_. OOgIc 


34  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Philosophy  of  History",  beginning  with  a  sketch  of  the  prt^ess 
of  man  from  his  childhood  in  the  East,  through  his  boyhood  in 
Egypt  and  Phoenicia  and  his  youth  in  Greece,  till  in  Rome  he 
reached  man's  estate,  and  attained  his  still  maturer  years  in  the 
Middle  Ages  and  in  modem  times. 

Here,  as  elsewhere,  he  touches  on  the  question  of  the  originality  of 
Greece; — 'That  Greece  received  from  some  other  quarter  the  seeds  o( 
civilisation,  languafie,  arts  and  sciences,  is,  to  my  mind,  undeniable,  and 
it  can  be  clearly  proved  in  the  case  of  some  of  ihem, — Sculpture,  Architecture, 
Mythology,  and  Literature.  Bui  that  the  Greeks,  practically,  did  not  receive 
all  this;  that,  on  the  contrary,  they  gave  it  an  entirely  new  nature,  that,  in  each 
kind,  Ihe  Beautiful,  in  the  proper  sense  of  thai  term,  is  certainly  their  work ; — 
ihis,  I  think,  is  obvious'. 

Similar  opinions  recur  in  his  'Thoi^hts  on  the  Philosophy 
of  the  History  of  Mankind'  (1784-91),  a  vast  work,  only  partially 
completed  during  his  latest  days  at  Weimar.  Near  the  middle 
he  dwells  on  the  'Education  of  the  Human  Race",  and,  in  the 
latter  half,  surveys  the  growth  of  civilisation  in  ancient  times  and 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  devoting  two  most  suggestive  books*  to 
Greece  and  Italy.  '  Wifk  Greece  the  morning  breaks',— ^\xc\\  are 
the  opening  words  of  the  enthusiastic  passage  on  Greek  life  and 
history  that  was  specially  admired  by  Heyne  and  Goethe".  In 
other  works  connected  with  classical  antiquity'  he  shows  an 
interest  in  the  historical  treatment  of  the  growth  of  Greek  civilisa- 
tion and  especially  of  Greek  poetry  and  art,  regarding  both  of 
them  as  a  '  School  of  Humanity '. 

He  is  peculiarly  interested  in  Homer.  He  was  in  fact  one  of 
the  first  to  elucidate  the  general  character  of  the  Homeric  poems. 
He  finds  in  them  the  fullest  illustration  of  the  idiosyncrasy  of 
national  poetry'. 

'  Au€h  line  FhiUsephie  der  Ges€kickte,  (J74  (v  475  fS).  ^ 

'  V  498  fS  ;  cp.  Nevinson,  211-S-  '  Idem,  hooks  viii — \n  (vol.  xiii  S). 

*  xiii  and  xiv  (Bursian,  i  461  f),  reserved  for  vol.  xiv  S. 

"  Ideea,  book  xiii  init. ;  Nevinson,  366. 

"  Ursachm  des  getmtkenat  Gisckmaiks,  177s  (v  595  S);  Ucber  die  Wirkung 
iler  Dichlkumt,  lySr  (viii  334  f ) ;  Briefen  %ar  Befdrderuiig  der  Humaniiitl, 
series  3—8,  1794-6  (vols,  ivii,  xviii);  cp.  Bursian,  i  463. 

'  Ueber  Ossian  und  dii  Liider  alter  Volker,  1773  (v  321).  His  later 
writings  include  Homer  ein  Giinstling  der  Zeil,  1795  (xviii  4J0),  and  Homer 
vnd  das  EpBs,  1803  (xxiv  129,  cp.  233) ;  cp.  Bursian,  i  464  f. 


A.OO' 


1C5IC 


CHAP.  XXVII.]  HERDER.  35 

Homer  is  unique.  When  Homer  had  suug,  we  could  expecl  no  second 
Homer  in  his  particular  type  of  poetry;  he  had  plucked  Ihe  (tower  of  the  epic 
crown,  and  his  successors  were  fain  to  rest  content  with  the  leaves  alone. 
Hence  the  tragic  poets  took  another  line;  they  ate,  indeed,  as  Aeschylus  says, 
from  the  table  of  Homer,  but  they  also  prepared  for  the  age,  in  which  ibey 
lived,  another  kind  of  banquet'. 

In  the  context  he  contrasts  Epic  poetry  with  History,  and 
with  Tragedy',  and  elsewhere  he  enters  on  a  full  discussion  of 
Aristotle's  definition  of  the  latter'.  He  produced  metrical  render- 
ings of  nine  of  the  Olympian  Odes  of  Pindar',  and  wrote  an 
enthusiastic  description  of  his  characteristics  as  a  poet'.  He  also 
discriminated  between  the  several  periods  and  types  of  Greek 
lyric  poetry  in  his  Essay  on  'Alcaeus  and  Sappho".  He  is 
specially  interested  in  Horace'.  In  his  essay  on  the  critical  efforts 
of  the  past  century,  he  duly  recognises  the  importance  of  Bentley', 
and  even  notices  the  lesser  lights,  William  Baxter  and  Thomas 
Creech'. 

His  interest  in  ancient  art  is  specially  displayed  in  two 
treatises.  In  his  work  on  Sculpture"  he  observes  with  surprise 
that  Lessing  had  not  cared  to  distinguish  between  Sculpture  and 
Painting.  Herder  accordingly  endeavours  to  establish  the  laws 
of  this  distinction.  His  short  treatise  'on  the  Representation 
of  Death  by  the  Ancients'"  su^ests  that  the  'Genius  with  the 
inverted  torch  '  on  Greek  tombs  is  not  (as  Lessing  held)  Death, 
the  brother  of  Sleep,  but  Sleep,  the  brother  of  Death,  or  possibly 
a  mourning  Cupid.  This  last  thought  finds  an  echo  in  Herder's 
pathetic  poem  on  the  death  of  Lessing".  Finally,  he  insists  on 
the  importance,  and  indeed  the  necessity,  of  the  study  of  ancient 
Art  for  the  study  of  classical  literature". 

'  xxiv  144  Suphan.  >  xxiv  141  f,  144  f,  S. 

'  Dai  Drama,  xxiii  346—369  S.  *  xxvi  188  f  S. 

'  Pindar  an  Beit  der  Oilier,  xxiv  335  S.  '  xxvii  181— 19S  S. 

'xxvi3i3fS.  «xxivi83fS. 

°  xxiv  198  f,  tJ3  f,  S;  also  Samuel  Qarke,  ib.  iti  f. 

'"  Plastii;  17J8  (vol.  viii  Suphan);  Nevinson,  310-4. 

"  Zerslreute  Blattir,  i;86  (iv  656  f  S),  IJ96'. 

"  Dtr  Tod,  $'m  Gcsprdth  an  Ussings  Grabe,  in  Zerslnute  Blaller,  i  (1785, 
1791'),  xxviii  1358. 

"  XX  183  r  Suphan. — First  edition  of  Herder's  Pfarks  in  45  vols,  in  three 
series,  Tubingen,  1805-101  best  ed.  in  31  vols.  ed.  Suphan,  1877-99 — ■     CP' 

D„:,i.,3T7^"'.OOglc 


36  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

In   the  latter  part  of  a  long  literary  career.    Christian   Martin    Wieland 
Wieland  ('Ui—'^'i)  did  much  for  the  diffusion  of  an  interest  in  the 

old  classical  world,  although  the  influeuce  of  French  literature 
is  apparent  in  his  classical  romances,  the  best  known  of  which  is  Agath/m, 
while  the  modem  element  is  also  prominent  in  his  poem,  Musarion.  He  had 
a  far  higher  appreciation  of  Euripides  than  of  Aristophanes,  and  one  of  his 
fovourlle  authors  was  Xenophon.  He  produced  a  rather  free  translation  of 
nearly  the  whole  of  Lucian,  with  notes  on  points  of  texluaJ,  historical,  or 
aesthetic  criticism  (1788-9).  He  had  already  translated  the  £/«//«  and  i'H/iViM 
of  Horace  (1781-6),  and,  in  his  7ith  year,  he  began  a  rendering  of  Cicero's 
Letttrs  in  chronological  order,  a  work  completed  by  Grater  (1808-11).  The 
Atlischa  Museum,  which  he  founded,  and  edited  in  1796 — iBii,  included 
translations  of  Attic  writers  of  the  ages  of  Pericles  and  Alexander'.     Among 

Wieland's  pupils  at  Erfurt  was  Wil helm  Heinse  (1746— 1803), 

the  translator  of  Petronius,  and  the  author  of  the  romance  of 
Ardinghelh  (ii%-3),  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  Italy  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Like  his  Lelltrs,  it  gives  abundant  proof  of  the  familiarity  with  ancient  and 
modem  art,  whichjie  had  acquired  during  a  residence  of  three  years  in  that 
classic  land'. 

Among  professional  scholars,  Christian  Gottlob  Heyne  (1729 — 
1812)  has  been  justly  praised  for  the  new  interest 

in  ancient  literature  and  ancient  art,  which  he 
awakened  both  by  his  teaching  and  by  his  published  works.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  a  poor  weaver  in  Upper  Saxony,  and,  as  a 
boy  at  school,  when  he  first  heard  of  a  tyrannicide,  he  burned  to 
be  a  Brutus  and  thus  to  avenge  the  wrongs  inflicted  on  his  parents 
by  the  tyranny  of  middle-men.  Having  no  text^books  of  his  own, 
he  was  compelled  to  borrow  those  of  his  school-fellows,  and  to 

Julian  Schmidt,  ii  316—316,  35*-5 ;  4'5— 4^3;  446—450;  463-8;  49°-4. 
596—601;  686—690;  H.  Nevinson's  Herder  and  his  Times,  1884,  and  the 
earlier  literature  there  quoted ;  later  Lives  in  German  by  Haym  (t88o-5), 
Kuehnemann  (1895)  and  Bueikner  (1904),  alsoSuphan  in  Goedeke's  Grundrisz, 
IV  i  174 — lit,  with  bibliography,  ib.  182 — 199  (1891');  cp.  Herder's  .:4nj«-A/«i 
des  tl.  AHertkums,  ed.  Danz,  1805-6;  G.  A.  Scholl,  Herder's  Verdienst  urn 
Wurdigang  dtr  Aatike  and  der  bildeiiden  KunsI,  and  A.  G.  Gemhard,  Herder 
als  Humaitist,  pp,  193  f  and  155  f  of  Weimarisches  Herder- Album  (Jena, 
1845) ;  L.  Keller,  Herder  und  die  KuUgtsellschaficn  des  Humanismus  (Berlin, 
1904^ ;  and  Bursian,  i  454 — 469.  Portrait  in  Nevinson,  and  several  in 
Konneclte,  248  f. 

'  Bursian,  i  470-5.  Portraits  in  Kiinnecke,  24)  f.  Cp.  Goethe's  ferce 
Gutter,  Helden  und  Wieland. 

*  Bursian,  i  475  f;  portrait  in  Kiinnecke,  256;  Ziegler  in  Baumeister's 
Handbuch,  i  (1)  157. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lC 


CHAP.  XXVII.] 


From  C.  G.  Geyser's  engraving  of  Ihe  eaily  portrait  by  Tischbein. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


38  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

copy  out  the  portion  required  for  each  lesson.  He  complains 
that  (like  others  since  his  time)  he  was  compelled  to  make  Latin 
verses  before  he  had  read  any  authors,  or  acquired  any  store  of 
words.  His  master  himself  had  only  'an  Owen",  'a  Fabricius", 
a  couple  of  'Collections  of  Epigrams',  and  a  few  sacred  poets, 
from  whose  pages  he  used  to  dictate  verses  for  his  pupils  to 
paraphrase  ^  To  learn  Greek  he  had  to  borrow  Weller's  Grammar, 
and  his  god-father's  copy  of  'Pasor".  In  his  last  year  at  school 
a  new  master  came,  by  whom  he  was  happily  introduced  to  the 
Ajax  of  Sophocles.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  went  to  Leipz^, 
there  to  endure  all  the  miseries  of  a  poor  student's  life.  But 
he  succeeded  in  gaining  admission  to  the  lectures  of  Ernesti,  and 
it  was  thus  that  he  first  learnt  what  was  meant  by  'the  inter- 
pretation' of  the  Classics*.  Professor  Christ,  whose  lectures  were 
'a  tissue  of  endless  digressions',  took  some  interest  in  him,  and 
recommended  the  poor  youth,  who  was  almost  destitute  of  books, 
to  follow  the  example  of  Scaliger  and  read  all  the  Classics  in 
chronological  order.  Heyne  had  to  borrow  the  necessary  books, 
and  for  half-a-year  slept  for  only  two  nights  in  each  week,  and 
consequently  fell  into  a  fever.  At  the  end  of  four  years  he 
graduated,  and  in  the  following  year  some  Latin  verses  of  his 
attracted  the  attention  of  Count  Brubl,  who  made  him  an  under- 
clerk  in  his  library  at  Dresden,  where  Heyne  shared  a  garret  with 
a  youi^  divine,  and  was  content  to  sleep  on  the  floor,  with  a  few 
folios  for  his  pillow.  In  the  library  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Winckelmann,  who  was  then  preparing  for  his  journey  to 
Italy".  During  this  period  Heyne  produced  an  edition  of  Ti- 
bullus  and  of  Epicletus  (1755-6).  In  the  latter  year  Dresden 
was  attacked  by  Frederic  the  Great,  and  BriihI's  library  was 
destroyed'.  Heyne  thereupon  promptly  obtained  a  tutorship  in 
the  Schijnberg  family,  where  he  met  his  future  wife ;  accompanied 
young  Schonberg  to  Wittenberg,  where  he   continued  his   own 

'  John  Owen,  Epigratnmaia,  1614  etc. 

'  Georg  von  Goldschmied  (ai*Z\x.n\mlz),  El/gaiiliae  Poelicae,  1554,  Poeniata 
Sacra,  1560,  Dc  re  paetka,  1565  elc. 

'  Heeten, /Tft'"',  ij- 

'  Geoig  Pasor,  Maniiale  graecarum  veeiim  N.  T.  1640  (Leipiig,  1735); 
Gramm.  gr.  sacra  N.  T.   1655- 

*  Heeren,  30.  '  Heeren,  44.  '  Heeren,  61. 

h.  i.,  iiA.OOt^lC 


CHAP.  XXVII.]  HEVNE.  3g 

Studies  tilt  he  was  driven  out  by  the  Prussian  artillery ;  and 
returned  to  Dresden,  only  to  be  expelled  by  another  bombard- 
ment, in  which  all  his  books  and  papers  were  burnt  (1760)'. 
His  future  wife  had  already  suffered  a  similar  fate,  but  they 
were  happily  united  in  the  following  year.  On  the  death  of 
Gesner  at  Gottingen,  Ernesti  at  Leipzig  was  consulted  as  to  the 
choice  of  a  successor.  Ernesti  (as  we  have  seen)'  suggested 
Ruhnken,  and  Ruhnken  suggested  Heyne,  who  had  shown  how 
much  he  knew  of  Latin  literature  by  his  Tibullus ;  of  Greek,  by 
his  Epictetus.  Ruhnken  added  that  Hemsterhuys  agreed  that 
Heyne  was  the  only  one  who  could  replace  Gesner,  and  ended 
with  the  assurance  that  such  was  Heyne's  genius  and  learning, 
that  ere  long  all  Europe  would  ring  with  his  praise^.  In  June, 
1763,  Heyne  settled  at  Gottingen,  where  he  lived  for  forty-nine 
years,  loyally  devoting  himself  to  his  duties  as  professor  of 
Eloquence,  as  director  of  the  philological  Seminar,  as  university 
librarian,  as  secretary  of  the  local  Academy,  as  editor  of  the  local 
Review,  and  as  an  active  administrator  in  business  affairs  con- 
nected with  the  University  and  with  education  in  general. 

He  had  a  weak  voice,  an  unimpressive  presence,  and  a  certain 
lack  of  form  and  method,  but  his  lectures  were  largely  attended. 
They  owed  their  main  attraction  to  the  lecturer's  undoubted 
learning  and  to  his  lively  interest  in  his  subject.  They  ranged 
over  a  wide  field,  including  the  exposition  of  Greek  and  I^tin 
authors,  especially  the  poets,  the  history  of  Greek  and  Latin 
literature  and  antiquities,  and  the  technology  of  ancient  art 
During  a  brief  journey  to  Hanover,  he  perused  Lessing's  Laokoon 
(which  had  just  been  published),  admiring  the  author's  taste,  which 
he  considered  superior  even  to  that  of  Winckelmann,  and  agreeing 
with  Lessing  in  his  depreciation  of  Virgil  in  comparison  with 
Homer'.  The  immediate  influence  of  Winckelmann  and  Lessing 
is  manifest  in  the  fact  that,  in  the  very  next  year,  Heyne  announced 
for  the  first  time  a  course  of  lectures  on  archaeology  (1767)". 

'  Heeren,  61,  87.  .  ,   ^  p,  n  supra, 

•  Ep.  18  Oct.  1,761  (Heeren,  74). 

*  LeUetofK  July  1766  (Heeren,  154  f). 

'  Heeren,  gi.  Heyne  afterwards  published  a  syllabus  of  this  course 
(Elnltilung,  1771),  expanded  by  J.  P,  Siebenkees  (1758-96),  ed.  i799f. 
Heyne's  laler  lectures  of  1791  were  published  in  1811  (Bursian,  J  478  n). 

h.  !■,  ii,l^.OOglc 


40  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Much  of  his  reputation  rested  on  the  excellent  manner  in  which 
he  trained  the  future  school-masters  of  Geimany  in  his  small  and 
select  Seminar. 

Heyne  was  not  an  original  genius.  He  was  a  many-sided 
scholar,  who  studied  and  expounded  ancient  life  in  all  its 
successive  phases,  and  became  the  founder  of  that  branch  of 
classical  teaching  that  deals  with  the  study  of  Reatitn,  the  science 
of  '  things '  as  contrasted  with  that  of  '  words ',  archaeology  (in  its 
widest  sense)  as  contrasted  with  language  and  literature'.  He 
was  'the  first  who  with  any  decisiveness  attempted '...'to  read  in 
the  writings  of  the  Ancients,  not  their  language  atone,  or  even 
their  detached  opinions  and  records,  but  their  spirit  and  character, 
their  way  of  life  and  thought". 

The  criticism  and  exposition  of  ancient  poetry  is  represented 
in  his  editions  of  TibuUus',  Virgil',  Pindar',  and  the  Iliad*. 
Like  Gesner,  he  is  comparatively  weak  in  textual  criticism  ;  his 
choice  among  different  readings  is  guided  more  by  personal 
preference  than  by  an  impartial  weighing  of  the  evidence.  In 
his  explanatory  notes  he  assigns  a  subordinate  place  to  points  of 
grammar  and  metre.  The  preparation  of  the  metrical  part  of  his 
Pindar  was  entirely  entrusted  to  Hermann,  then  twenty-five  years 
of  age.  Heyne's  own  interest  lay,  not  in  the  metre,  but  in  the 
subject-matter  of  the  Odes,  flis  commentary  supplied  all  that 
was  immediately  necessary  for  the  understanding  of  the  text, 
everything  else  being  reserved  for  an  Excursus.  In  his  ex- 
planations (as  in  his  textual  criticism)  there  is  a  certain  lack  of 
decision.  He  has  the  merit,  however,  of  being  interested  in  the 
aesthetic  interpretation  of  his  author.  Of  the  above  editions  the 
most  important,  as  a  whole,  is  the  Virgil,  the  least  successful  part 
being  the  treatment  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  Georgits.  His 
edition  of  the  Iliad,  which  cost  him  fifteen  years  of  labour,  has 
far  less  permanent  value.     His  interest  in  the  subject  was  mainly 

'  Herbst,  Voss'  Lebtn,  i  70 ;  Paulsen,  ii  35'. 

'  Carlyle,  Heyat,  in  Misc.  Essays,  ii  iii  (ed.  1869).  Cp.  Ziegler  in 
Baumeister's  HoHdbuck,  \  (1)  155  f;  Paulsen,  i  603-5',  "  36 — 4'°- 

*  '755i  ed.  3,  1798. 

*  1767-75.    The  best  ed.  is  the  German  Prachtausgabe  ot  1800. 

*  s  vols.,  1798  i  cp.  Heeren,  163-6.  *  8  vols.,  i. 


.oogic 


CHAP.  XXVII.]  HEYNE.  41 

aroused  by  the  publication  of  Robert  Wood's  Essay  on  the 
original  Genius  of  Homer  (1769)'.  The  treatment  of  grammatical 
questions,  in  the  course  of  the  fifty-three  appendices,  is  full, 
without  being  sufficiently  exhaustive,  or  sufficiently  precise.  The 
work,  as  a  whole,  was  practically  a  compilation,  and  the  date  of 
its  appearance  (1803)  inevitably  suggested  a  comparison  with 
Wolfs  Prolegomena  (1795),  a  comparison  which  was  bound  to  be 
to  the  disadvantage  of  Heyne. 

Heyne  failed  (o  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  Cadix  Vemtus  A,  and  the 
accompanying  ic^o/tii,  published  by  Villaison  ■□  178S.  He  found  himself  uiuble 
to  break  loose  from  the  (exl  of  Samuel  Clarke  and  Ernesti.  The  questions  as 
to  the  origin  of  the  Homeric  poems,  which  Wolf  had  handled  in  a  masterly 
and  methodical  inajiuec,  were  discussed  in  an  uncertain  and  tenlatire  way  by 
Heyne,  first  in  a  paper  presented  to  the  Gottingen  Academy  later  in  the  same 
year*,  and  subsequently  in  two  excursuses  (o  the  likst  book  of  the  lliad^. 
Heyne  emphasises  the  fact  that  we  have  no  trustworthy  historical  tradition, 
either  as  to  Homer's  personality,  or  as  lo  the  origin  atid  the  early  fortunes  of 
the  Homeric  poems.  We  must  therefore  rest  content  with  conjectures,  which 
cannot  go  beyond  the  bounds  of  mere  probabittly.  Such  are  the  suggestions 
that  Hoiner  is  not  a  historic  person,  that  his  name  may  be  derived  from  the 
collecting  of  his  poems,  that  certain  parts  of  the  Iliad  were  composed  at 
different  times  by  diflereDt  poets,  thai  these  parts  were  recited  separately  for  a 
long  period  of  lime  by  various  rhapsodes,  and  were,  at  a  comparatively  lale 
dale,  collected  into  a  comprehensive  whole  {possibly  by  Peisistratus  and  his 
sons),  and  made  generally  known  by  being  reduced  lo  writing.  These  sug- 
gestiotis  are  practically  those  of  Wolf,  and  it  is  deemed  impossible  lo  determine 
how  far  Ihis  identity  of  opinions  Was  independently  attained  by  Heyne.  Yet 
some  points  are  clear.  In  177;  Heyne  had  no  doubt  as  to  the  historic  person- 
ality of  Homer'-  In  1790  he  wrote  toZo^a:— '  As  to  theageoflhe  Homeric 
poems,  how  could  il  occur  lo  me  lo  go  beyond  the  existing  data?  All  the  rest 
is  a  dream.  To  myself  it  t^tvaf.  probable  that  at  first  there  were  separate  songs, 
which  were  subsequently  combined.     This,  however,  is  on\y  3.  fossibUily...". 

'  Heeren.  no  f;  cp.  vol.  ii,  p.  4J1  supra. 

*  I  Aug.  1795,  De  anliqua  Homeri  Uilione  indagamla,  dtjadicaftda  el 
reililuenda,  in  Cammentaliana  Si}eielalis...ColliHgtnsis,  xlii  159 — iSi. 

'  De  Iliade  universe  et  dt  eius  partibus  rhapiodiarumqui  eompagi,  and  De 
Hotnere  Hiadis  auclere. 

*  De  arigitu  et  eaassU  fabularum  Homerkarum  in  Nmii  Cemmentarii  Sac. 
GolHng.  viii  3+— jS. 

'  Welcker,  Zoega's  Lehen,  ii  60  f  (Bursian,  i  48]  n.).  On  ihe  controversy 
raised  by  Heyne'a  statement  that  he  had  held  these  views  for  30  years,  and  had 
expressed  them  orally,  and  in  writing,  cp.  Wolf,  Briefe  an  Heyni,  179J,  and 
(in  Heyne's  favour)  Bibl.  der  red.  Kunste,  vols,  iv,  v,  and  Heeren's  Heyne, 
110-119. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lC 


42  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

But,  after  Ihe  publication  of  Wolf's  Prolegomena,  Heyne's  references  to  the 
points  in  controversy  become  more  full  and  more  definite.  Some  of  the 
questions  had  doubtless  been  in  (he  air,  ever  since  the  publication  of  Wood's 
Eiiay  in  1769.  Wolf  staled  all  these  questions  with  greater  precision  and 
established  Ihem  on  a  scientilic  basis.  As  his  work  on  Homer  begins  a  new 
era,  its  further  consideration  is  reserved  for  the  next  chapter. 

The  only  writers  of  Greek  prose  edited  by  Heyne  were  Epictetus 
and  ApoUodorus.  His  edition  of  the  latter  is  a  repertory  of  the 
mythol(^cat  literature  of  the  ancients,  followed  by  genealc^cal 
tables  and  an  index  of  all  the  authors  cited. 

Heyne  is  the  founder  of  the  scientific  treatment  of  Greek 
mythology.  He  regards  the  old  Greek  myths  as  the  summing  up 
of  the  stories  and  the  opinions  of  a  primitive  people  prior  to  the 
introduction  of  writing,  and  he  emphasises  the  difference  between 
the  religious  conceptions  of  that  early  age  and  those  prevailii^  in 
later  times'.  He  also  wrote  much  on  ancient  history.  Among 
the  most  important  of  his  numerous  historical  dissertations  are 
those"  on  Castor's  chronology  of  the  successive  epochs  of  sea- 
power,  on  the  Greek  colonies,  on  the  institutions  of  Sparta,  on  the 
treaties  between  Rome  and  Carthage,  on  the  civilisation  of  the 
Ptolemies,  and  on  the  authorities  followed  by  Diodorus. 

In  the  domain  of  art  he  followed  the  lines  laid  down  by 
Winckelmann.  He  had  neither  the  enthusiasm  and  the  artistic 
penetration  of  Winckelmann,  nor  the  critical  and  philosophical 
acumen  of  Lessing  ;  but  he  surpassed  both,  in  a  full  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  antiquarian  details,  and  in  a  trained  aptitude  for 
methodical  historical  investigation.  In  points  of  chronolc^y  and 
history  he  is  able  to  correct  Winckelmann'.  He  discusses  many 
of  the  ancient  masterpieces,  from  the  Chest  of  Cypselus'  down  to 
the  group  of  Laocoon',  and  discourses  on  the  Philostrati  and 
Callistratus,  and  on  the  ideal  types  of  Greek  divinities.  He  edits 
excerpts  on  ancient  art  from  the  elder  Pliny'.  He  also  gives 
proof  of  his  knowledge  of  numismatics  and  welcomes  the  new 
impulse  given  to  that  study  in  his  own  life-time'. 

As  inspector  of  the  school  at  Ilfeld,  be  used  his  influence  in  1 770  in  favour 
of  the  revival  of  a  liberal  education.    The  school  had  fallen  into  decay,  but  all, 

'  Bursian,  i  484—490.  '  Opusc.  v  338—391. 

'    Vorlesung,  1770-  *  Anliqiuirische  Atifsalzt,  1778-9,  ii  i. 

'  1790,  181 1 ;  cp.  AnI.  Aufi.  i  3,  ii  3—5.  '  Bursian,  1493-6. 


1,1^.001^10 


CHAP.  XXVII,]  HEVNE.  43 

he  felt  sure,  would  be  well,  if  a  little  Greek  were  introduced ;  he  would  then 
feel  no  anxiety  about  Latin  and  all  the  other  subjects  known  as  humaniera, 
while,  wherever  Greek  was  neglected,  everything  else  would  remain  '  mere 
patch-work  and  perpetual  botching''.  His  report  of  1780  also  proves  him  to 
have  been  an  enlightened  proniolei  of  the  New  Humanism'. 

In  1803,  during  the  French  war,  his  intercession  with  Napoleon 
led  to  the  university  of  Gottingen  being  protected  from  peril,  and 
to  the  surrounding  district  being  exempt  from  hostile  invasion. 
In  1809  his  8ath  birthday  was  celebrated  with  a  procession  of 
professors  and  students,  and  with  gifts  of  garlands  of  flowers. 
He  delighted  in  roses,  and  always  kept  a  bunch  of  them  in  water 
on  his  desk.  His  house  was  embowered  among  rose-bushes,  and 
he  was  fond  of  the  fields  and  skies,  and  could  lie  for  hours  on  the 
grass  reading  a  book^  His  son-in-law  and  bi<^rapher  supplies 
us  with  a  detailed  time-table  of  his  well-spent  day  from  five  in  the 
morning  to  eleven  or  twelve  at  night*.  His  shortness  of  sight  led 
to  his  sometimes  making  odd  mistakes  about  strangers  from  a 
distance  who  came  to  pay  him  their  respects.  It  also  disqualified 
him  from  being  a  good  judge  of  the  larger  varieties  of  ancient 
sculpture.  In  1798  he  was  much  interested  in  helping  to  prepare 
the  illustrations  to  Homer  collected  by  Tischbein,  who  more  than 
once  painted  his  portrait^  His  reputation  spread  to  other  lands, 
and  he  was  once  surprised  to  find  in  an  English  newspaper  'an 
extract  of  a  letter  from  a  Gentleman  at  Gottingen  to  his  friend  in 
Cambridge': — 'A  Mr  Hevne,  to  whom  I  was  lately  introduced, 
ought  to  be  mentioned  as  the  first  genius  of  Gottingen".  On 
the  eve  of  his  eightieth  year,  his  second  wife  showed  him  a 
pass^e  in  which  Gibbon  had  referred  to  Heyne's  'usual  good 
taste". 

■  /fur  Sliickmerk  and  ewig  Stiimpirei.  '  Paulsen,  ii  38"  f. 
>  Heeren,  411  f;  Carlyle,  109,  uj.                          '  Heeren,  315-8. 

■  Heeren,  frontispiece,  and  p.  411.  The  earlier  portrait  has  been  engraved 
by  C.  G.  Geyser  {p.  37  suprii)  \  the  later,  by  Riepenhausen.  'ITiere  is  also  an 
engraving  by  F.  Mltller. 

•  Morning  PosI,  10  April,  1775  (Heeren,  331  f). 

'  Heeren,  333.  In  iv  419.  509  Bory,  Gibbon  calls  Heyne  '  the  encellent 
editor  of  Vii^l ',  and  'the  best  of  his  editors'.  In  1770  Heyne  '  the  last  and 
best  editor  of  Virgil '  had  called  thi;  unknown  author  of  Gibbon's  anonyraons 
Observ^ons  on  the  Sixth  Aeneid  a  dociMS..M  ehqutnHsHmus  Britannus 
(AiUob.  85). 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


44  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIir. 

'On  the  whole'  (says  Carlyle),  'the  Germans  have  some  reason  to  be 
proud  of  Hejme:  who  shall  deny  that  Ihey  have  here  once  more  produced 
a  scholar  of  the  right  old  stock ;  a  man  to  be  tanked,  for  honest;  of  study  and 
of  life,  with  (he  Scaligets,  the  Bentleys,  and  old  itlustrious  men,  who. ..fought 
like  gianb...for  the  good  cause?'  Pointing  lo  the  example  of  the  'son  of 
the  Chemnitz  weaver',  he  adds: — 'Let  no  lonely  unfriended  son  of  genius 

While  the  study  of  coins  was  one  of  the  many  departments  of 
learning  that  attracted  the  notice  of  Heyne,  it  was 
the  life-work  of  his  contemporary,  Joseph  Eckhel 
(1737— 1798),  the  founder  of  the  scientific  study  of  Numismatics, 
Early  in  life  he  had  begun  that  study  as  a  teacher  at  various 
schools  in  Vienna,  Toextend  his  knowledge,  he  left  in  1772  for 
Italy,  where  he  was  invited  to  rearrange  the  collection  of  coins 
belonging  to  Leopold,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  the  second  son 
of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa.  On  his  return,  the  Empress 
appointed  him  professor  of  Antiquities  in  the  university  of  Vienna, 
and  director  of  the  Imperial  Cabinet  of  Coins  and  Antiques 
(1775-6).  He  arranged  the  coins  according  to  his  own  system 
and  published  in  two  folio  volumes  a  complete  catalogue,  which 
is  a  model  of  its  kind  (1779)-  In  his  system  (which  had  been 
only  partially  anticipated  by  the  French  numismatist,  Joseph 
Pellerin)  ancient  coins  were  divided  into  two  great  classes.  The 
first  of  these  consists  mainly  of  Greek  coins  of  States,  Peoples 
and  Kings,  together  with  colonial  and  imperial  coins,  all  arranged 
in  geographical  order,  passing  from  the  West  to  the  East  of 
Europe,  and,  after  traversing  Asia,  coming  round  again  to  the 
West  through  Egypt  and  North  Africa.  The  second  class  was 
reserved  for  Roman  coins  alone,  beginning  with  the  consular  and 
gentile  coins  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  gentes,  and  ending 
with  the  Roman  imperial   coins  in  chronological  order.      This 

'  Afiic.  Essays,  ii  113.  On  Heyne,  see  (he  'biographical  portrait'  by 
Heeien  (511  pp.,  Gottingen,  1813),  and  its  'miniature  copy'  in  Carlyle's 
Miscellaneous  Essays,  ii  75— 114,  ed.  1869.  Cp.  Paulsen,  i  601-s,  ii  34—41'; 
Stark,  113-5;  and  esp.  Bursian,  i  476— 496,  with  the  literature  quoted  by  him, 
477  n.,  and  by  Stark,  115,  who  considers  Hettner  {Lit.  Gach.  des  xviii  Jahrh. 
iii  3,  1.  p.  339  f)  fairer  to  Heyne  than  Justi,  who  calls  Heyne  a  typical  German 
Univeriilais-philisler  (Winckelmann.ii  (1)  130-1).  See  also  F.  Leo,  in  Gottingen 
Feslschri/l  {fitAvti,  1901),  ijS — 134. 


CHAP.  XXVIlJ  ECKHEL.  45 

system  was  applied  to  all  the  extant  ancient  coins  in  the  eight 
volumes  of  his  classic  work,  the  Docttina  Numorum  Veternm^- 
The  general  Introduction  deals  with  the  history  of  Greek  coinage, 
the  technique,  weight,  value  and  size  of  coins,  the  right  of  mintage, 
the  officials  of  the  mint,  inscriptions,  types  of  coins,  etc.,  etc 
The  fourth  volume  closes  with  general  observations.  The  re- 
maining four  begin  similarly  with  an  Introduction  and  end  with 
general  observations  on  Roman  coinage'.  A  modern  expert,  who 
dedicates  his  work  to  the  memory  of  Eckhel,  characterises  the 
Historia  Numorum  Veterum  as  'a  marvellous  compendium  of 
wide  research  and  profound  erudition,  a  work  which  can  never 
be  altogether  superseded'.  But  he  also  points  out  that  its  author 
was  imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  history  of  Greek  art  and  with 
metrolc^y,  both  of  which  fields  of  study  have  been  thoroughly 
explored  in  later  times,  and  that  the  absence  of  extant  specimens 
of  certain  coins  (such  as  the  electrum  staters  of  Cyzicus,  now 
represented  by  as  many  as  150  varieties)  led  him  to  doubt  the 
literary  evidence  for  their  existence'.  It  may  be  added  that  a 
comprehensive  lexicon  of  ancient  coinage  was  pro- 
duced by  J.  C.  Rasche  (1733 — 1805),  who  was  bom 
near  Eisenach  and  was  the  pastor  of  a  place  near  Meiningen. 
His  lexicon  extended  to  fourteen  volumes  (1785—1805).  It  was 
begun  before  the  beginning  but  not  finished  until  after  the  com- 
pletion of  Eckhel's  Historia*. 

Our  survey  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  Germany  must  close 
with  the  name  of  Christian  Gottfried  Schutz,  who 
lived  far  into  the  nineteenth  {1747 — 1832).  He  was 
professor  at  Jena  for  the  twenty-five  years  that  elapsed  between 
the  six  years  of  his  first  and  the  twenty-eight  of  his  second  tenure 
of  office  at  Halle,  where  he  died  at  the  great  age  of  85.  A  man 
of  wide  attainments,  and  remarkable  freshness  and  force  of  in- 
tellect, he  is  well  known  as  an  editor  of  Aeschylus".  In  the  text 
of  that  author  many  passages  are  arbitrarily  altered,  but  we  find 

'  Vienna,  1791-8;  also  Addenda  and  portrail,  t8i6;  ed.  4,  T84t. 

'  F.  Kenner,  Ktir/m^ (Wien,  rSjOl  Stark,  iii  f ;  Bursian,  i  496-9. 

'  B.  V.  Head,  Doclrina  Numorum,  (887,  Preface. 

*  Bursian,  i  499  f. 

'  1781-94;  ed.  I,  1799—1807;  ed.  3,  1809—1811. 

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


46  RETROSPECT.  [CENT.  XVIIl. 

frequent  proof  of  critical  acumen  and  of  poetic  taste'.  He  had 
already  edited  the  Phoenissae  and  the  Clouds ;  he  afterwards 
began  a  more  extensive  edition  of  Aristophanes,  but  the  first 
three  plays  alone  were  published.  He  is  perhaps  best  known  as 
an  editor  of  Cicero.  After  commenting  on  the  Rhetorical  works', 
and  on  all  the  Letters  in  chronological  order',  he  produced  \ 
complete  edition  in  twenty  volumes,  ending  with  a  lexicon  and 
with  various  indices^  The  substance  of  the  twenty-four  programs 
of  his  time  at  Jena  was  pubUshed  in  1830  ;  and  he  is  remembered 
as  the  founder,  and  for  nearSy  fifty  years  the  editor,  of  the 
Allgemeine  Liiteraturzeitvng^  which,  for  the  first  twenty  years  of 
its  existence,  was  the  foremost  critical  Review  in  Germany,  and, 
for  the  next  forty,  found  a  rival  in  the  Review  started  at  Jena  in 
1S04  under  the  influence  of  Goethe°,  whose  relation  to  the 
Classics  will  engage  our  attention  for  a  brief  portion  of  the 
following  chapter. 

Early  in  the  eighteenlh  century  the  whole  range  of  Greek  and  Lalin  litera- 
ture was  traversed  by  the  erudite  Fabricius.  The  Latin  scholars,  Gesner 
(1731)  and  Emesti  (1773),  promoted  the  study  of  the  Greek  Classics  in  the 
schools  of  Germany,  Reislte  taught  himself  Greek  at  Halle  ^.\^i^,\  while,  in 
1743  and  [770,  Ruhnken  and  Wyttenbach  learnt  their  Greek  aX  Leyden.  But, 
between  those  dates,  the  land  which  they  deserted  was  awakened  by  Winekel- 
mann  to  a  new  sense  of  the  beauty  of  Greek  art  {1755),  and  learnt  from 
I-essing  the  principles  of  literary  and  artistic  criticism  (i?*^)-  Winckelmann 
and  Lessing  had  an  immediate  influence  on  Heyne's  teaching  al  Gottiogen 
(1767).  Germany  was  next  impelled  by  Herder  to  appreciate  Homer  as  the 
national  poet  of  a  primitive  people  (1773!  i  Ihe  popular  ear  was  won  for  Homer 
by  the  poetic  version  of  Voss  (i  781-93} ;  and  ihe  close  of  the  century  saw  the 
triumph  of  the  New  Humanism  with  Homer  for  its  hero.  In  and  afier  1790 
we  find  its  foremost  representatives  in  the  literary  circle  of  Weimar  and  Jena, 
in  Herder,  in  Goethe  and  Schiller,  and  in  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt.  The  last 
of  these  was  the  earliest  link  between  that  circle  and  F.  A.  Wolf,  who,  in  the 
time  of  transition  from  the  eighteenth  to  the  nineteenth  century,  was  destined, 
by  his  published  work  and  by  his  professorial  teaching  al  Halle,  to  do  two 
eventful  things :— to  raise  the  Homeric  question  by  the  publication  of  his 
Prolegomena  (1795),  and  lo  map  out  the  vast  province  of  classical  learning,  and 
find  in  a  perfect  knowledge  of  Ihe  many-sided  life  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  the  final  goal  of  the  modern  study  of  the  ancient  world. 

'  e.g.  in  Eum.  i68  f  (Wecklein),  icTii-ofpout  relciji  is  corrected  into  i.vTittna'' 
&n  Tl/rgi,  and  Ufa  S'  /kii,  tIs  into  i<l'ti  Si  tet  tu. 

'  1804-8.  '  1809-13.  »  i8r4-li.  ■  Buisian,  i  514-6- 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


BOOK    V. 

THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 


Aiie  bisherigen  Anskhttn  iaufen  zu  diesem  vortuhmsten  Zielt 
wU  zu  einem  Mitlelpunkte  zusammen.  Es  ist  aber  dieses  Ziel  ktin 
anderes  als  die  Kenniniss  der  alterthiimlichen  Menschheii  selbsi, 
wekhe  Kennlniss  aus  der  durch  das  Studium  der  alien  Ueberreste 
bedinglen  BeobacMung  einer  organisch  enlwickelten  bedeutungsvoUen 
National- BiMung  kervorgeht.  Kein  niedrigerer  Standpunkt  als 
dieser  kann  allgemeim  und  wiuenschaflltche  F^rschungen  iiber  das 
Alterthutn  begriinden. 

F,  A.  Wolf,  Darstellung der  Alterthums-Wissensche^, 
p.  124,  1807. 

Excolere  animum  et  mentem  dodrina,  rerum  utilium  observa- 
tione  et  cogniiione  ingenii  dotes  omms  acuere,  inUlUgendi  facultatem 
in  dies  augere,  Vetera  nosse  et  cognita  emendare  et  amplijieare,  nova 
excogitando  reperire,  inquirere  in  rerum  causas,  perscrutari  rerum 
originem  et progressum,  ex  veleribus  praesentia  expiicare,  obscura  et 
intricata  expedire,  ubique  vera  a  falsis  discemere,  prava  et  vitiosa 
corrigere,futilia  et  absurda  confutare,  labefactare,  tollere,  el,  ut  uno 
verba  absoh'am,  verum  videre,  hoc  demum  est  humane  ingenio  ac 
ratione  dignum,  hoc  pabulum  est  animi,  hoc  demum  est  vivere. 

C.   G.  CoBET,  Protrepticiis  ad  Studla    Humanilatis, 
p-  6,  1854. 

The  humanistic  studies  ha^e,  during  this  century,  become  wider 
and  more  real.  They  have  gradually  been  drawn  out  of  a  scholastic 
isolation,  and  have  been  brought  more  and  more  into  the  general 
current  of  intellectual  and  literary  interests.  So  far  from  losing 
strength  or  efficacy  by  ceasing  to  hold  that  more  exclusive  position 
which  they  occupied  two  or  three  generations  ago,  they  have  acquired 
a  fresh  vigour,  a  larger  sphere  of  genuine  activity,  and  a  place  in 
the  higher  education  which  is  more  secure,  because  the  acceptance  on 
which  it  rests  is  more  intelligent. 

R.  C.  Jebb,  Humanism  in  Education,  p.  34,  1899. 

h.  i.,  iiA.OOgIc 


History  of  Scholarship  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
Gennanr,  Austrui*,  and  Gaman  Switzeiiuidt. 


lAUn 

OrMk 

1 

aiMk  (cnid. 

mrtmyand 
AnttqulUw 

Owwrapny 
rtc. 

Spalding 

F  A-  Wolf 

L.  Sptngtl' 

H«ren 

Rob 

iTfa-iSii 

.739-'«M 

iBoj-iBSo 

1760—1841 

i8o»-i8^ 

Htmrich 

llg«n 
^.^-834 

Bcn»ler 

H.  N.  uKichi 

Bonuui 

Kltperl 

tS.'Sr;*' 

■764-i8»,     , 

.Bo(-iB69 

Niebufar' 

^.Brt-iB99 

G.  H.  Schiefrt' 

.776—831 

i^,-.^ 

.■'STf 

Abr'"' 

JorilT' 

■791- 1  Wj 

1S09-1881 

wiTBcrtcr 

l833-i«as 

^fissr 

.8.;»-i8M  ^ 

1808—1893 

Mythology 

.'s^- 

o'.'SsS,, 

1810- 1836 

Bcrek'i8ia— 81 

".13'^ 

•la. 

■*"-'■» 

i77»-'8*« 

B«S.^  .8.4-68 

UeniEn 

Cr™«rW 

tBnj-iSTS 

H^indorf' 

K«chlT 
i8is-iS7fi 

0.  Schntider 

A.T.H.FrLijMht 

K^'i^rS^seh 

1771-1858 

Forehhamme. 

Hitschlf 

iBia-tSai 

"S-iBa, 

.818-1878 

TychoMomn,«.n 

Schi«!gl=r 

"819-1897 

^sf> 

B3?.Tr 

Hcrcher 

i!^'!" 

Rohdtf 
.84J-1B98 

"iX"" 

f/Puss™' 
1786-18J3 

M.  SchmiSi 

iajMBBs 

"ai.^, 

G.  W,  NiiisEt 
17M-1861 

RStr 

g!'*^™^;:^,. 

Hin 

M.  Styffeti 

V.aF.RcBt 

iBa3-ie9a 

IB45— IS7B 

.Bo9-iB7> 

i»o-.86=. 

ijflo-iBas 

C,  A,  BiindiB 

lia^—tKi 

W.lckeri- 

„-s> 

,7pn->S67 

Mcineke' 

SJ" 

OrMk 

c'e^Ti-^ 

„r— ' 

.790—1970 

i8a&'IgDi 

W.  Wachsmu.h 
1784-1866 

K'^lS?or^' 

lB.8-,«gS 

"w'J-iaeB 

•  K.  S=h?S<l 

Dahlmann 

1797—1840 

Hlr 

17SJ— i«ag 

^^'^hTir 

.Sir 

Panofka 
iBoi-1858 

Suiltaum 

1831—1906 

sjs^r* 

K.  B^itidicr 

.Ss-Ti^ 

.793->«6- 

lto«-l889 

H,  K.LI  ^* 

Sir'W 

1796-185S 

SE« 

o-'^ri'^ 

1793—1873 

Fra«. 

1811-1891 

Poppo 

Kn-;^?„„w 

Jahnf' 

t8^-.i«98 

I794-<«H 

1813-1869 

Umpfenbacli 

Baehr 

185B-I8M 

I8j,-t8j5 

K.  L.  Urlkhi' 

Rtffl^liihfll 

J-^^iX" 

-Sri: 

t8H-.890 

.79S-I879 

Science  oT 
Language 

18M-1896 

Bmnn  18D-94 

o:tr.^ 

iBoo-i^s 

i7«7— 183s 

A.  Schacfer 
1B19-1883 

^.S4.-«^ 

Holm 

^'I'S^l^s 

1830—1900 

Friederichs 

1843-.B89 

"C-fsfe 

I80«-I88. 

'K"«r,^-» 

1831-1871 

Hillcr 

Conscn 

•  Benndorf 

.8|i-.89. 

K-xr ' 

iSio— 1S7S 
G.  Curtius 

o'^i^T 

1838-1907 

1848—1888 
Mendtl^sohnf 

lS03— 1B7S 

i&w— 1883 

Schlekh.r 

i^'f^oT 

h'«; 

iSsi-iesO 

.Bd.-iS7« 

1811-1868 

■841.-<893,^ 

.ap-.B«9 

K,  W,  Dindorf 

G.  HiKchfcldt 

Kiira 

.'Wi-W 

iSm-iBSj 

rta3-i«9!» 

.847- 189s 

History  of  Scholarship  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  centd. 


may 

Fibum  ccntd. 

Holland 

England 

Bnclaudc/^. 

I8l0-i»9i 

i8nh^l88s 
A.  FabrSir 

1816-1894 
Conadn 

^10-1888 

Fb?'"« 
G-a'^L^o'^ 
1B17-1905 

¥r 

Couiin 

AEi~ 

^797-1870 

taii-iaei 

ilkB-iW7 

Ducdt  Liiyi.« 

."iiiis. 

DePresle 

1809-1885 

Wall™ 
iBii-1905 

i8i6-i'S5"' 

DarembeiB 
1817-1871 

Thurol 

fs 

w.H.W^Jog. 

ift^i884 
Benoisl 

&^^ 
Riemano 
1853-1891 

iBoi— 1SG4 
Bool  iBi  I— 1001 
Cobet  .813-X 

Elmsley 

iSE— » 
033"° 

■W»-"SSS 

1781—1815 

Monk  1784-18^ 
C.  J.  Blomfield 

^179^-1871 

1795-1841 

"ST 

Thirl-all 
b!"S.  Kennedy 

1&16— iac3 

fir-* 

iBi^isee 

G«dde5 

A-'^'w'fi. 

Beltnnm 

Rnulei 

wIETs"*' 
^4^^1898 

Zoega 

^I8is-18B1 
1^-1907 

DnltmtBUtM 
orAmulca 

1807-1861 

(E.A.Soph^lcs) 
1B07-1883 

Dri^",'8'i8-97 
Had  ley  1811-71 

kSK;"*" 

1833—190' 

1836-1884 

1844-1897 
1864-1905 

Franc* 

^    Q.i.., 

w.'G.T.'S 
fiSST'd*" 

RaoolBochelle 
1783-1854 

v;£r 
"Sir 

Oraece 

.%°1'8^' 
Rangabes 
1810—1891 

■srs," 

1818-1898 

sSr."" 

^^1895 

IaIO-1886 

Donaldson 

Scon  lBll-87 
Lashing.™ 

lJd''deir'l1S-9e 
BadKam 

1815-1901 

'?i5S-.«8 

Newwn 
181^-1894      . 

rtr7-l97B 

Si-- 

i8«.-.87a 

RniBla 

Graefe 
1780-1831 

^S^iBsa 

lemsledt 
1854-1901 

Hiiii«ary 

glc 


F.  A.  Wolf. 

From  Wagner's  engraving  of  the  portrait  by  Jo.  Wolff  (1823).   Fiontisfuece 
oS.  F,  W.  HoSmaan's  ed.  oi  WoM's  AlletiAHmi-IVisstHicAa/l,  1833. 


n,g,t,7rJM,GOOglC 


CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

F.  A.  WOLF  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES. 

A  NEW  eta  begins  with  the  name  of  Friedrich  August  Wolf 
(1759 — 1824).  His  father  was  the  schoolmaster 
and  organist  of  the  little  village  of  Hainrode  near 
Nordhausen,  south  of  the  Harz,  and  it  was  to  his  mother  that  he 
owed  the  awakening  of  his  intellectual  life.  Before  he  had  attained 
the  age  of  two,  he  knew  a  large  number  of  Latin  words,  and,  be- 
fore he  was  eight,  had  acquired  the  rudiments  of  Greek  and  French, 
and  could  read  an  easy  Latin  author.  His  memory  was  as 
■  remarkable  as  that  of  Porson,  who  was  bom  in  the  same  year. 
His  parents  soon  removed  to  Nordhausen,  where,  by  the  age  of 
twelve,  he  had  learned  all  that  his  instructors  could  teach  him. 
At  his  new  home,  the  first  of  his  three  head-masters  was  Johann 
Andreas  Fabricius  (1696 — 1769),  the  author  of  a  History  of 
Learning^.  Towards  the  end  of  his  school-days  he  became  his 
own  teacher.  Starting  once  more  with  the  declensions,  he  'read 
with  new  eyes  the  Latin  and  Greek  Classics,  some  carefully, 
others  more  cursorily;  learnt  by  heart  several  books  of  Homer, 
and  large  portions  of  the  Tragedians  and  Cicero,  and  went 
through  Scapula's  Lexicon  and  Faber's  Thesaurus'.  During 
this  time  of  strenuous  study,  'he  would  sit  up  the  whole  night  in  a 
room  without  a  stove,  his  feet  in  a  pan  of  cold  water,  and  one  of 
his  eyes  bound  up  to  rest  the  other".  Happily  this  severe  ordeal 
ended  with  his  removal  to  the  university  of  Gottingen, 

On  the  8th  of  April,  1777,  he  entered  his  name  in  the 
matriculation-book  as  Studiosus  Philoiogiae.  The  Pro-Rector,  a 
professor  of  Medicine,  protested : — "  Philology  was  not  one  of 

'  Abriss  eintr  ailgemtinm  Historic  der  Gdehrsamkdt,  3  vols.,  1752-4. 
'  W.  Korle,  i  11  f;  Patlison's  Essays,  i  341  f. 

h.  |.4M-rt.OO'^lc 


52  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

the  four  Facullies;  if  he  wanted  to  become  a  school-master,  he 
ought  to  enter  himself  as  a  'student of  Theoiogy'".  Wolf  insisted 
that  he  proposed  to  study,  not  Theology,  but  Philology.  He 
carried  his  point,  and  was  the  first  student  who  was  so  entered  in 
that  university'.  The  date  of  his  matriculation  has  been  deemed 
an  epoch  in  the  History  of  German  Education,  and  also  in  the 
History  of  Scholarship.  He  next  waited  on  the  Rector,  Heyne, 
to  whom  he  had  presented  a  letter  of  introduction  a  year  before. 
Hastily  glancing  at  this  letter,  Heyne  had  then  asked  him,  who 
had  been  stupid  enough  to  advise  him  to  study  '  what  he  called 
philology ',  Wolf  replied  that  he  preferred  '  the  greater  intellectual 
freedom'  of  that  study.  Heyne  assured  him  that  'freedom' 
could  nowhere  be  found,  that  the  study  of  the  Classics  was  '  the 
straight  road  to  starvation ',  and  that  there  were  hardly  six  good 
chairs  of  philology  in  all  Germany,  Wolf  modestly  suggested 
that  he  aspired  to  fill  one  of  the  six;  Heyne  could  only  laugh  and 
bid  farewell  to  the  future  '  professor  of  philology ',  adding  that, 
when  he  entered  at  Gottingen,  he  would  be  welcome  to  attend 
Heyne's  lectures  gratis.  When  he  actually  entered,  Heyne,  who 
was  a  busy  man,  treated  him  with  a  strange  indifference.  How- 
ever, Wolf  put  down  his  name  for  Heyne's  private  course  on 
the  Iliad,  noted  all  the  books  cited  in  the  introductory  lecture, 
gathered  all  these  books  around  him,  and  carefully  prepared  the 
subject  of  each  lecture,  but  was  so  disappointed  with  the  vague 
and  superficial  treatment  of  the  subject,  that,  as  soon  as  the 
professor  had  finished  the  first  book,  he  ceased  to  attend.  In  the 
next  semester,  he  found  himself  excluded  from  the  course  on 
Pindar.  However,  he  went  on  working  by  himself;  to  save  time, 
he  spent  only  three  minutes  in  dressing,  and  cut  off  every  form  of 
recreation.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year,  he  had  nearly  killed 
himself,  and,  after  a  brief  change  of  air,  resolved  never  to  work 
beyond  midnight.  By  the  end  of  the  second,  he  had  begun  to 
give  lectures  on  his  own  account,  and,  half  a  year  later,  was 
appointed,  on  Heyne's  recommendation,  to  a  mastership  at  Ilfeld. 
There  he  remained  for  two  years  and  a  half,  married,  and,  for 
little  more  than  a  year,  was  head-master  of  Osterode.  At  both 
'  There  had  been  iaolaled  entries  of  phiMogicu  stuiUoU  ax  Erlangen  in 
1745-7+  {Gudeman's  Grundriss,  193). 

h.  i.,  iiA.OOt^lC 


CHAP.  XXVIII.]  F.   A.   WOLF.  S3 

places  he  made  his  mark.  At  Ilfeld  he  began  to  brood  over  the 
Homeric  question,  and  also  to  work  at  Plato.  In  1782  he  pro- 
duced an  edition  of  the  Symposium,  in  which  he  followed  a  recent 
innovation  by  writing  the  notes  in  German.  His  aim  throughout 
was  to  interest  young  students  in  the  study  of  Plato.  In  the 
preface  he  introduced  an  adroit  reference  to  Frederick  the  Great, 
-the  philosopher  on  the  throne',  and  to  his  'enlightened  minister', 
von  Zedlitz,  to  whom  Frederick  had  addressed  his  memorable 
letter  on  education  only  three  years  before";  he  also  paid  a 
compliment  to  Gedike,  who  then  had  great  influence  with  the 
minister".  This  preface,  and  the  proof  of  his  success  as  a  school- 
master, led  to  his  being  invited  by  the  minister  to  fill  a  chair  of 
'  Philosophy  and  Padagogtk '  at  the  university  of  Halle.  The 
stipend  was  only  ^£4$  a  year,  with  no  house,  but  the  offer  was 
accepted,  and  thus  Wolf,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  found  himself 
in  a  position  rich  in  ample  opportunities.  He  had  been  com- 
missioned to  remove  from  Halle  the  only  reproach  to  which  it 
was  then  open, — that  of  not  being  a  'school  of  philolt^y'.  In  a 
few  years  he  entirely  changed  the  spirit  of  the  university,  and, 
'through  it,  of  all  the  higher  education  in  Germany,  waking  in 
schools  and  universities  an  enthusiasm  for  ancient  literature 
second  only  to  that  of  the  Revival  in  the  sixteenth  century'". 
One  of  the  means  whereby  he  raised  the  level  of  classical  studies 
was  the  institution  in  17S6  of  a  philological  Sdminarium  for  the 
training  of  classical  teachers'.  The  other  was  his  work  as  a 
public  lecturer.  During  his  twenty-three  years  at  Halle,  lecturing 
on  the  average  for  rather  more  than  two  hours  a  day,  he  gave  at 
least  fifty  courses  on  classical  authors. 

His  lectures  on  (he  lUad,  begun  in  1 785,  were  resumed  in  alternate  years ; 
he  lectured  thrice  on  the  Odyssty,  while  his  other  courses  dealt  with  the 
Homeric  Hymns,  Hesiod,  Pindar,  Theognis,  the  Dramatists,  ind  Callimachus, 
and,  in  prose,  Herodotus,  Demosthenes,  Aeschines,  Plato,  Xenophon,  Lucian, 
Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry,  and  'Longinus',  as  well  as  the  usual  Latin 
authors,  together  with  the  elder  Pliny's  outline  of  the  history  of  ancient  art. 
He  also  gave  fifteen  courses  of  original  lectures,  including  an  introduction  to 

'  Paulsen,  ii  71'. 

'  PP-  '33  f  of  reprint  in  Kleint  Schrifttit,  i  131—157  ;  abstract  of  Sym- 
posium, ii.  ii  593. 

'  Fattison,  i  359  f.  '  Details  in  Pattison,  i  367-9. 

h.  i.,  ii,l^.OOglc 


GERMANY.  [cent.  XVIII  f 


Homer  and  Plato,  Latin  Compo^tion,  Histoiy  of  Greek  and  L^iin  Uteiatare, 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  Ancient  Geography,  Principles  of  History  and 
Survey  or  Ancient  History,  Ancient  Paiating  and  Numismatics,  History  of 
Philology,  and,  as  a  general  introduction,  a  course  on  the  'Encyclopaedia,  of 
Philology''.  This  last  course,  which  was  first  announced  in  178;,  assumed 
its  final  form  when  it  was  printed  ai  Berlin  in  1S07  as  a.  survey  of  the  whole 
field  of  clauical  learning  and  a  conspectus  of  all  ils  component  pacts*. 

His  lectures  were  fully  prepared  beforehand,  but  were  delivered 
with  the  aid  of  only  a  few  notes.  Goethe,  who,  in  1805,  more 
than  once  prevailed  on  one  of  the  professor's  daughters  to  conceal 
him  behind  a  curtain  in  the  lecture- room,  tells  us  that  the  language 
impressed  him  as  'the  spontaneous  utterance  of  a  full  mind,  a 
revelation  springing  from  thorough  knowledge,  and  diffusing  itself 
over  the  audience".  His  aim  was,  not  to  communicate  know- 
ledge, but  to  stimulate  and  suggest.  The  spirit  of  critical  inquiry 
that  breathed  through  all  his  lectures  was  symbolised  by  the  fact 
that  the  sole  ornament  of  his  lecture-room  was  a  bust  of  Lessing. 

When  Wolf  went  to  Halle,  the  'philanthropists'  serving  under 
the  banner  of  Basedow  in  the  school  of  Dessau*  had,  for  the 
first  time  since  the  Revival  of  Learning,  succeeded  in  discrediting 
the  study  of  the  ancient  languages  in  North  Germany.  Wolf 
'represents  the  reaction  against  the  new  realism'',  and  his  conflict 
with  the  modern  school  of  useful  knowledge  brought  into  clear 
relief  his  ideal  of  a  culture  founded  on  Greek  traditions.  In 
1807  he  defines  this  ideal  as  a  'purely  human  education',  an 
'elevation  of  all  the  powers  of  the  mind  and  soul  to  a  beautiful 
harmony  of  the  inner  and  outer  man". 

Everything  that  he  wrote  arose  out  of  his  public  teaching. 
Early  in  his  career  he  had  produced  an  edition  of  Hesiod's 
Theogonia  {17S3),  of  all  the  Homeric  poems  (1784-5),  and  of 
four  Greek  plays  (1787)',  His  reading  of  Demosthenes  in  con- 
nexion with  Attic  Law  bore  fruit  in  his  edition  of  the  Lepttnes 

'  Cp.  Kiitte.  11  114-S;  Arnoldt,  i  119  f;  Bursian,  i  511. 

*  Xleitu  Schrifltn,  il  808 — 895,  Dariittlung  dtr  Alterlhumt-  WittenichafU 
'   Tag-  und  Jahra-Hijie  i8os.  xxx   155  Colta's  Jubil.  ed.  (xiiv  195  ed. 

DUnUer);  Paitison,  1371. 

«  Paulsen,  ii  51'.  '  Pattison,  i  373. 

•  Patlison,  i  374. 

'  Aesch.  Ag.,  Soph.  O.T.,  Eur.  Pheen.,  Arist.  Eccl. 

h,  i.MM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXVIII.]  F.  A.  WOLF.  55 

(1789),  which  was  intended  for  advanced  students,  and  not  for 
schools.  It  was  welcomed  by  scholars,  not  excluding  Heyne ; 
and  the  way  in  which  Greek  Antiquities  were  treated  in  the 
Prol^mena  inspired  one  of  Wolf's  greatest  pupils,  Boeckh,  with 
the  design  of  writing  his  'Public  Economy  of  Athens'.  The 
corrected  edition,  announced  twenty-seven  years  later,  never 
appeared;  of  his  'Select  Dialogues  of  Lucian',  only  one  volume 
was  published  (1786);  and  his  Herodian  (1792)  remained  un- 
revised.  He  was  fond  of  lecturing  on  the  Tusculan  Disputations, 
and  printed  a  text  for  the  use  of  his  class  ;  for  the  purport  of  his 
own  exposition,  which  has  been  described  as  'rich  in  keen  remark 
on  the  force  of  words  and  phrases',  we  have  to  turn  to  the  end  of 
Orelli's  edition  of  1829'. 

Even  his  famous  Prolegomena  to  Homer  (1795)  had  a  purely 
casual  origin.  His  text  of  1784-5  being  out  of  print,  he  was 
asked  to  prepare  a  new  edition,  and,  as  there  were  to  be  no 
notes  whatsoever,  he  proposed  to  write  a  pre&ce  explaining  the 
principles  on  which  he  had  dealt  with  the  text.  He  did  far  more 
than  this,  for  he  roused  into  life  the  great  controversy  known  as 
the  Homeric  question.  Some  of  the  points  connected  with  the 
earlier  stages  of  this  controversy  may  here  be  noticed. 

Josephus*,  writing  about  90  A.D.,  had  held  that  Ihe  ait  of  writing  'couM 
not  have  been  known  to  the  Greeks  of  ihe  Tiojan  war',  and  'thejr  saj'  (he 
added)  'Ihat  even  Homer  did  not  leave  his  poelty  in  writing,  but  that  it  was 
transmitted  by  memory,  and  afterwards  put  ti^ether  from  the  separate  songs ; 
hence  the  number  of  discrepancies'.  This  passage  had  been  noticed  in  1 58J 
by  Casaubon',  who  remarked  that  'we  could  hardly  hope  for  a  sound  lenl  of 
Homer,  however  old  our  mss  might  be'.  Bentley,  in  IJ13,  had  supposed  that 
a  poel  named  Homer  lived  about  1050  B.C.  and  '■airoli  a  scffuel  of  songs  and 
rhapsodies... These  loose  songs  were  not  collected  together  in  the  form  of  an 
epic  poem  till  Pi^tratus'  time,  above  500  years  after'*.  In  1730,  the  Italian 
scholar.  Vico,  had  muntained  that  'Homer'  was  a  collective  name  for  the 
work  of  many  successive  poets;  but  Vico'a  views  were  at  Ihis  lime  unknown 
to  Wolf.  He  was,  however,  familiar  with  Robert  Wood's  Essay  an  the 
Origi?utl  Genius  af  Homer  {1769)'.  Only  seven  copies  had  then  been  prinled, 
but  one  of  them  had  been  sent  to  Goltingen,  and  was  reviewed  by  Heyne',  It 
was  soon  translated  into  German'.    In  the  course  of  some  pages  on  the  leambg 

'  Pattison,  i  377.  '  Centra  Afiisnem,  i  a. 

*  On  DIog.  Laert.  ix  it.  *  Vol.  ii  408  supra. 

°  Vol.  ii  43a  supra.  '  Gatt.  Get.  Anz.  1770,  31. 

'  ByJ.  D.  Michaelisof  Gottineen(i773;  1778^);  and  English  ed.  1775. 


..oogic 


5$  GERMANY,  fCENT.  XViri  f 

of  Homer,  Wopd  had  argued  that  the  art  of  writing  was  unknown  lo  the  poet. 
Wolfreters  to  this  passage,  and  builds  his  theory  upon  it*.  The  icholia  of  the 
cedei  Vmelus  of  the  Iliad,  published  by  Villoison  in  1788,  supplied  evidence 
AS  to  divci^encies  between  the  ancient  lexis.  Wolf  mainlained  that  these 
divei^encies  were  due  to  the  Homeric  poems  having  long  been  transmitted  by 
memory  alone.  He  contended  that  it  was  impossible  to  arrive  at  the  original 
text,  and  that  an  editor  could  aim  at  nothing  more  than  a  reconstruction  of  the 
text  of  the  Alexandrian  age. 

The  PtQlrggmena,  written  in  great  haste,  formed  a  narrow  octavo  volume  of 
iSo.pages.  The  author  begins  by  discussing  thedefectsin  the  existing  editions, 
due  to  an  imperfect  use  of  Eustalhius  and  the  ickolia.  He  next  reviews  the 
history  of  the  poems  from  about  950  lo  550  B.C.,  and  endeavours  lo  prove  the 
four  following  points:^ 

'(1)  The  Homeric  poems  were  composed  without  the  aid  of  writing,  which 
in  950  B.C.  was  either  wholly  unknown  to  the  Greeks,  or  not  yet  employed 
by  ibem  for  literary  purposes.  The  poems  were  handed  down  by  oral  recita- 
tion, and  in  the  course  of  that  process  suffered  many  alterations,  deliberate  or 
accidental,  by  the  rhapsodes.  (2) .  After  the  poems  had  been  written  down 
Hrca  5JO  s.c,  they  suffered  still  further  changes.  These  were  deliberately 
made  by  'revisers'  (iuioitewiffTflf),  or  by  learned  critics  who  aimed  at  polishing 
the  work,  and  bringing  it  into  harmony  with  certain  forms  of  idiom  or  canons 
of  art.  (S)  The  Iliiui  has  artistic  unity  ;  so,  in  a  still  higher  degree,  has  the 
Odyssey.  But  this  unity  is  not  mainly  due  to  the  original  poems ;  rather  it  has 
been  superinduced  by  their  artificial  treatment  in  a  later  age.  (4)  The  original 
poems,  from  which  our  Iliad  and  our  Odytiiy  have  been  put  tc^ether,  were  , 
not  all  by  the  same  author''. 

In  the  Prokgemena  Wolf  supposes  that  Homer  'began  the  weaving  of  the 
web'  and  'carried  it  down  to  a  certain  point'^,  and,  further,  that  Homer  wrote 
;the  greater  part  of  the  songs  afterwards  united  in  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  In 
the  preface  to  the  text,  dated  March  1795,  he  adds,  'it  is  certain  that,  alike  in 
.the  Iliad  and  in  the  Odyssey,  the  web  was  begun,  and  the  threads  were  carried 
to  a  certain  point,  by  the  poet  who  h^d  firsi  taken  up  the  theme... Perhaps  it 
.will  never  be  possible  to  show,  even  with  probability,  the  precise  points  at 
.which  new  filaments  or  dependencies  of  the  texture  begin  ;  but... we  must  assign 
.to  Homer  only  Ike  greater  fart  of  the  songs,  and  the  remainder  to  the  Homer- 
idae,  who  were  following  out  the  lines  traced  by  him". 

'  He  has  himself  told  us,  in  memorable  words,  how  he  felt  on  turning  from 
his  own  theory  to  a  renewed  perusal  of  the  poems.  As  he  steeps  himself  in  that 
stream  of  epic  story  which  glides  like  a  cl^ai  river,  his  own  aiguments  vanish 
(totri  his  mind ;  the  pervading  harmony  and  consistency  of  the  poems  assert 

>  Freleg.  c.  n,  n.  8. 

'  Jebb's  Homer,  108  f;  cp.  Volkmann's  GeschichU  utsdXrllikdcr  IVol/scHea 
Frolegomena,  1874,  48 — 67  ;  and  Bursian,  i  516  f.. 
"  c,.i8  adjinem,  and  c-  31. 
<  Praefat.^.  xxviii  (Jebbj.iog),  A'/.  Sehr.iii  f. 


ih,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXVin.]  F.   A.   WOLF. 


The  book  was  dedicated  to  Ruhnken".  In  the  foliowing  year, 
on  Ruhnken's  proposal,  Wolf  was  invited  to  fill  a  professorship 
then  vacant  at  Leyden ;  the  invitation  was  declined,  but  Wolf 
visited  Holland,  and  thus  made  the  personal  acquaintance  of 
Ruhnken  and  Wyttenbach.  For  the  present,  not  a  single  autho- 
ritative voice  was  raised  in  favour  of  Wolfs  views  in  Holland, 
England,  or  France.  The  publication  of  the  Prolegomena  was 
r^arded  as  a  'literary  impiety'  by  Villoison,  who  regretted  that 
his  edition  of  the  scholia  had  helped  to  forge  the  weapons  of  the 
German  critic'.  A  favourable  review  in  a  French  periodical* 
aroused  Sainte-Croix  to  attempt  the  refutation  of  the  literary 
paradox',  Fauriel  in  France,  and  Elmsley  in  England,  were  only 
twenty-two  when  the  Prolegomena  appeared;  the  former  'trans- 
planted the  Wolfian  idea  fo  French  soil '  at  a  later  date*;  the 
latter  showed  little  interest  in  the  question  in  his  review  of 
Heyne's  Homer''.  In  Germany  Wolfs  views  were  welcomed  by 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  and  by  the  brothers  SchlegeP;  but  they 
were  disapproved  by  the  poets,  by  Klopstock  and  Schiller  and 
Wieland,  and  by  Voss,  the  translator  of  Homer'.  Goethe  was  at 
first  in  favour  of  Wolf"*,  but,  writing  to  Schiller  in  1798,  he  was 
more  than  ever  convinced  of  the  unity  of  the  Iliad".  Mean- 
while, Herder  had  published  an  anonymous  paper  headed  'Homer, 
Time's  Favourite'",  in  the  course  of  which  he  incidentally 
remarked  that  the  rhapsodic  origin  of  the  Homeric  poems  had 
long  been  known  to  himself;  that  as  a  boy  he  had  discovered 
the  distinct  authorship  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  and  that  the 

'  .*.  xxir(Jebb,  110). 

'  Vol.  ii  460  sufra  ;  on  Wolf  and  Ruhnken,  see  S,  Reiter  in  Neut  Jahrb. 
f.  kl.  AH.  xviii  (1906)  1  —  16.  83—101. 

"  Vol.  ii  398  sufra.  '  Caillard  in  Millin's  Magatin  Encycl.  \\\  10. 

•  RifulatUnifun  paradexe  HUhairt  de  M.  Wolf  ^,l^•^)\  Volkmann,  106  f. 

•  PaUison,  ■  383. 

^  Editi.  Rev.  July,  1803.  In  1804  Flaxman,  wriling  as  an  artisi,  said: 
'ihe  Prolegomena  sironglj  enforces'  Ihe  Inith,  'thai  human  excellence  in  ail 
and  sdence  is  the  accumulaled  labour  of  ages'  (Korte,  ii  1*4  f). 

'  Volkmann,  74,  77  f.  '  Bursian,  i  519. 

»  Korte,  i  577  f.  "  Korte,  i  180  i  Volkmann,  75  f, 

"  Htrett,  Sept.  1795  ;  xviii  490 — 446,  ed.  Suphati. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


S8  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVUI  f 

suspicions  of  his  boyhood  had  been  confirmed  by  the  newly- 
published  Venetian  scholia,  which  he  had  seen  during  his  recent 
visit  to  Italy'.  Wolf,  who  regarded  Herder's  article  as  a  kind  of 
plagiarism,  wrote  to  Heyne  complainit^  of  Herder's  behaviour, 
and  begging  Heyne  to  review  the  Frekgomena.  Heyne  had 
already  written  his  review,  and  had  treated  the  work  as  '  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  unexampled  labours  of  Villoison ',  adding  that  he 
had  always  held  the  same  views  himself,  and  even  intimating  that 
Wolf  had  originally  derived  them  from  Heyne's  lectures*.  Wolf 
reminded  Heyne  of  the  Essay  on  Homer  which  he  had  sent  him 
in  1779;  Heyne  replied  that  he  had  foi^otten  the  Essay,  but 
remembered  conversing  with  Herder  on  Homer  as  early  as  1770. 
Heyne's  chaise  of  plagiarism  was  not  repeated,  but  it  was  not 
withdrawn'.  In  1797  Wolf  replied  by  publishing,  in  the  form  of 
a  pamphlet,  his  'Letters  to  Heyne".  Heyne's  Homer  appeared 
in  i8oi,  and  was  reviewed  in  an  exceedingly  bitter  spirit  by  Voss 
and  Eichstadt,  who  were  aided  by  WolP,  It  was  not  until  the 
next  generation  that  the  Prolegomena  bore  fruit  in  the  continued 
study  of  the  Homeric  question.  Meanwhile,  the  author's  only 
subsequent  Homeric  publication  was  the  singularly  beautiful  and 
correct  edition  of  the  text  printed  by  Gbschen  at  Leipzig,  with 
Flaxman's  illustrations  (r8o4-7). 

Wolf  was  still  at  Halle  when  he  edited  Cicero's  four  orations 
fitfsl redi/um  (iSoi).  Their  spuriousness  had  been  suspected  by 
Markland  (1745)';  their  genuineness  had  been  maintained  by 
Gesner  (1753)'.  Markland's  suspicions  were  approved  by  Wolf, 
who  in  the  following  year  even  denied  the  genuineness  of  the 
pro  Marcello*.  Not  a  few  of  the  faults  criticised  by  Wolf  have 
since  been  removed  with  the  aid  of  better  Mss.  Wolf's  opinion 
was  approved  at  the  time  by  Boissonade  in  France,  but  the  in- 

'  Pattison,  i  386  f ;  Volkmann,  79 — 83  ;  Bursian,  i  464  f. 

>  Gotl.  Gel.  Anz.  11  Nov.  (and  19  Dec.J  1795. 

>  Heyne's  letter  of  38  Feb.  1796  (Pallison,  i  388). 

*  Reprinted  al  Ihe  end  of  Peppmliller's  ed.  oflhe  ProUgomtna  (1884). 
"Jena    l.Uteraluneiiung,    Mai    iSo],    in    16   of  Ihe   numbers    113 — 141; 

Bursian,  i  531  \  Volkmann,  116— 119. 

*  Vol.  ii  413  supra.  '  Ccmm.  Gelt,  iii  113 — 184,  Cicero  rfsU/ufus. 

*  Kl.  Schr.,  i  369—389;  Korte,  i  3JI-8. 
»  KI.  Schr.  i  389—409;  Korte,  i  318  f. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CHAP,  xxvrir.]  f.  a.  wolf.  59 

vestigations  have  been  characterised  by  Madvig  as  'superficial 
and  misleading".  Wolf  produced  a  comprehensive  edition  of 
Suetonius  in  1S02,  while  his  interest  in  the  best  modem  Latin  led 
him  to  reprint  Ruhnken's  eulogy  of  Hemsterhuys,  with  Emesti's 
oration  on  Gesner". 

The  twenty-three  years  of  WolFs  memorable  career  at  Halle 
were  brought  to  a  sudden  end  in  1806  by  the  catastrophe  of 
Jena.  On  the  17th  of  October  the  French  troops  took  possession 
of  Halle,  and,  three  days  later,  the  French  general  closed  the 
university  and  sent  the  students  to  their  homes.  Under  the 
advice  of  Goethe,  Wolf  spent  part  of  his  enforced  leisure  in 
revising  his  survey  of  the  domain  of  classical  learning,  which  was 
to  be  the  opening  article  of  the  '  Museum '  of  Alterthums- 
Wissenscha/t  founded  by  Wolf  and  his  pupil  Buttmann  in  1807. 
From  the  spring  of  that  year  he  lived  at  Berlin  for  the  remaining 
seventeen  years  of  his  life,  but  it  proved  impossible  for  the  State 
to  utilise  his  abilities  either  at  the  Board  of  Education  or  in  the 
newly-founded  University  (1810).  Thenceforth  he  produced  little, 
and  that  little  not  of  the  best  quality.  In  1816  he  published  his 
Anakcta,  in  which  he  gave  proof  of  his  interest  in  the  careers  of 
the  leading  scholars  of  England'. 

At  Halle,  Wolf  had  invited  his  pupil  Heindorf  to  join  him  in 
preparing  a  complete  edition  of  Plato.  As  Wolf's  plan  made  no 
progress,  Heindorf,  who  had  meanwhile  left  for  Berlin,  produced 
in  i8oi  the  first  of  the  four  volumes  of  his  twelve  select  dialogues 
(1802-10).  It  was  dedicated  to  Wolf,  but  Wolf  was  dissatisfied, 
and,  with  the  aid  of  Bekker,  produced  in  181  z  a  text  of  three 
dial(^ues',  in  the  preface  of  which  he  announced  his  intention  to 
publish  the  whole.  In  April,  1816,  Wolf,  in  the  preface  to  his 
'  Analecta,  referred  to  Heindorf  in  ungenerous  terms',  which  aroused 
a  protest  ascribed  to  the  joint  authorship  of  some  of  the  foremost 
scholars  of  the  day'.  Heindorf  died  at  Halle  two  months  later, 
and,  not  long  afterwards.  Wolf's  health  b^an  to  fail.     He  pro- 

'  MadvLg's  pref.  to  Nutzhorn's ed.  (1869);  Opusc.  Acad.  (1841),  ii  339,  and 
Adv.  Crif.  (iSjj),  ii  211. 

'  1788;  c^.  Jena  Lilt.  Ztitung,  1791.  '  Kl.  Sekr.n  1030— II16. 

*  Euthyphro,  Apol.,  Crito;  Praef.  in  Kl.  Schr.  i  418  f. 

*  Kl.  Sckr.  {i  1011. 

*  Buttmann,  Schleiemutcher,  Schneider,  Niebuhr,  Boeckh  (Kiirte,  ii  106  f). 


60  .GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

duced  nothing  after  1820,  A  serious  illness  in  1822  was  followed 
two  years  later  by  his  being  ordered  to  Nice ;  on  his  way,  he  died 
at  Marseilles,  where  a  Latin  epitaph  marks  the  approximate  site 
of  his  grave.  A  bust,  copied  by  Heidel  from  that  of  Tleck, 
commemorates  him  amid  the  scenes  of  his  greatest  success  as  a 
teacher,  in  the  aula  of  the  university  of  Halle,  A  portrait,  painted 
by  an  artist  bearing  the  same  surname  as  himself,  represents  him 
in  the  year  before  his  death'.  '  In  personal  appearance  Wolf  had 
an  imposing,  dignified,  somewhat  imperious  air.  He  was  slightly 
above  the  middle  size,  broad-shouldered,  deep-chested ;  hands  and 
feet  well-proportioned.  A  capacious  forehead,  prominent  eye- 
brow, searching  blue  eye,  combined  to  express  keenness  and 
force  of  mind  '^.  His  greatest  work  is  to  be  found,  not  in  the 
books  that  he  produced  but  in  the  pupils  that  he  stimulated  to  be 
the  future  leaders  of  classical  learning  in  Germany  during  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  himself  claimed  to  be  a 
teacher  rather  than  a  writer,  and  his  published  works  were  only 
parerga'.  But  in  the  broad  survey  of  the  whole  range  of  classical 
learning,  which  formed  part  of  his  teaching,  he  was  the  first  to 
present  a  systematic  description  of  the  vast  fabric  that  he  called 
by  the  name  of  Alterthums-  Wissensckafi,  to  arrange  and  review 
its  component  parts,  and  to  point  to  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
many-sided  life  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  as  the  final 
goal  of  the  modem  study  of  the  ancient  world.  He  raised  that 
study  to  the  rank  of  a  single  comprehensive  and  independent 
science,  and  thus  deserved  to  be  reverently  regarded  by  posterity 
as  the  eponymous  hero  of  all  the  long  line  of  later  scholars'. 
Like  Bentley,  to  whom  he  was  drawn  by  the  admiring  sympathy 
of  a  kindred  genius,  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  a  right  method 
in  the  historic  criticism  of  ancient  literature.  Like  Herder,  he 
regarded  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  as  part  of  the  popular  poetry  of 
a  primitive  age,  but  it  was  not  until  the  next  generation  that  his 
theory  as  to  the  origin  of  those  poems  was  widely  discussed  by 
scholars'. 

'  Reproduced  on  p.  50. 

'  Pallison,  i  411.  "  Kl.  Sehr.  ii  :oi9. 

*  Cp.  Niebahr,  Kl.  Schr.  n  117  (ip.  Bursian,  i  548). 

'  Prolt^muna  ad  Hontirum,   1795   (1859';   cuiii   Bikkeri  noHs,   1871); 
h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lC 


CHAP,  xxvrii.]  .    VOSS,  6l 

While  Wolf,  with  his  views  as  to  the  divided  authorship  of  the 
songs  composing  the  Homeric  poems,  appealed  to 
scholars  alone,  and  received  little  recognition  even 
from  scholars  in  his  own  age,  the  ear  of  Che  German  people  had 
happily  been  won  for  Homer  by  a  poet,  who  doubtless  found  a  new 
reason  for  resisting  the  Wolfian  theories  in  the  fact  that  he  had 
himself  succeeded  in  preserving  in  his  German  version  '  that 
uniform  tone  of  simplicity  and  nature,  which  distinguishes  the 
Homeric  poetry  from  all  artificial  writing".  The  famous  trans- 
lator of  Homer,  Johann  Heinrich  Voss  (1751 — 1826),  was  born 
at  Sommersdorf  in  the  district  of  Mecklenburg  in  North  Germany. 
Entering  the  university  of  Gottingen  in  1772,  he  b^an  by 
attending  Heyne's  lectures  on  Homer,  but  was  soon  estranged  by 
the  influence  of  some  of  the  youthful  poets  of  the  day'.  He  was 
mainly  self-taught.  Homer  was  the  centra  of  his  early  studies, 
and,  before  leaving  Gottingen,  he  had  begun  to  translate  parts  of 
the  Homeric  poems  into  German  hexameters.  He  published  the 
first  specimens  of  these  translations  in  1776,  in  his  rendering  of 
■  Blackweli's  Enquiries  into  the  lift  and  writings  of  Homer.  He 
soon  afterwards  formed  the  design  of  translating  the  whole  of  the 

Brie/ean  Hryttt,  179;;  both  reprinted  by  PeppmUller,  1884.  Kliini  Sckriften, 
130O  pp.,  ed.  Bemhardj',  1  vols.,  1869,  including  Wolfs  Darsteltuag  der 
Alterikunis-Wissenschafi.  Eaeyclefaidie  der  Philoiogie.  ed.  Slockmann,  1831, 
'8«5  ;  VorUstiMgin  iibir  die  Ene.  dtr  Alterthamsviisanschaft,  ed.  GUrtter  and 
Hoffmann,  5  vols.  1831-5;  Vorlttut^n  iibtr  dU  erstm  mtr  Gadngt  der  Iliai, 
ed.  Usteri,  1830-1-     Bibliography  la  Goedeke's  Gruttdriss,  vil'  807-11. 

Life  by  his  son-in-law,  W.  Korte,  3  vols.  (1833),  and  by  Amoldt  in  pari  i  of 
F.  A.  W.  in  seinem  Verhdllrtisse  num  SchuheeieH  (1861-3);  cp.  A.  Baunislarlt, 
F.  A.  W.  and  die  Gelehrlenschule  (1864).  Patlison's  Fisayi,  i  337 — 414; 
Bursian,  i  J17 — 548;  Paulsen,  ii  108 — 117';  W.  Schrader,  Gesch.  der  Univ. 
Halle,  i  (1894)  434—462  ;  A.  Harnack,  Gesch.  der  preuis.  Akad.  ii  565  f,  660  f; 
M,  Becnays,  Goethe!  Brieft  an  W.  186H ;  S.  Reiter,  Wolfi  Briefe  an  Goethe,  in 
Goethe-yahrb.xx^\\(i<tafi)  3—96;  on  Wolf,  id.  \a  Ntue  Jahrb.  f.  kl.  All.  xiii 
(1904)  89 — Ml,  and  on  Wolf  and  Ruhnken,  id.  p.  57,  note  1  lufra. 

1  Pattison,  i  384  f. 

"  Herbsl,  i  67.  Voss'  notes  of  Heyne's  lectures,  apparently  copied  from 
those  of  a  (ellow-sludent,  show  that  Heyne  drew  special  attention  to  the  works 
of  Blackwell  (1736)  and  Robert  Wood  (1769),  and  that  he  held  that  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey  could  not  have  been  reduced  to  writing,  while  he  expressed  no 
doubt  as  to  the  personality  of  the  author  or  the  unity  of  each  of  the  two  poems. 

„.,,„,  ^.oogic 


6X  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

Odyssey.  He  began  by  attacking  the  episode  of  Polyphemus  and 
the  eight  lines  on  Sisyphus',  brooding  over  the  latter  during  his 
lonely  walks  for  a  whole  fortnight.  His  earliest  rendering  of  this 
passage,  approved  by  Klopstock  in  1777,  was  subsequently  sub- 
mitted to  no  less  than  four  successive  revisions.  In  the  final 
version  the  toilsome  effort  to  heave  the  stone  up  to  the  crest  of 
the  hili  is  effectively  rendered : — Eiius  Afarmors  Sehwere  mil 
grosser  Geivall  fortheben ;  and  the  swift  rebound  to  the  valley  is 
no  less  effective : — Hurlig  mil  Donnergepolter  entrolUe  der  tikk- 
isehe  Marmor'.  Meanwhile,  Voss  had  settled  near  Hamburg 
(i77S-8z),  being  for  the  last  four  of  those  years  master  of  the 
school  at  Ottendorf  on  the  estuary  of  the  Elbe.  His  Odyssey 
(J781)  surpassed  all  previous  attempts  to  render  the  original  in 
German  veise'.  In  the  same  year  he  translated  into  Latin  the 
Homeric  Hymn  to  Demeter*,  and  his  abiding  interest  in  that  poem 
is  attested  by  the  improved  text,  translated  into  German  verse  and 
accompanied  with  a  comprehensive  commentary,  which  was  post- 
humously published  in  1S26.  His  Odyssey  was  followed  twelve 
years  later  by  his  Iliad  (1793),  and  by  a  closer  rendering  of  the 
Odyssey,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  competent  critics,  is  not  an 
improvement  on  his  earlier  version".  He  applied  the  same  prin- 
ciples of  rigidly  literal  translation  to  his  subsequent  renderii^  of 
the  whole  of  Virgil,  and  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,  as  well  as 
Tibullus,  Propertius,  and  Aristophanes;  but  his  method  had  by 
that  time  become  unduly  mechanical,  and  he  failed  to  represent 
either  the  variety  of  Aristophanes  or  the  charm  of  Ovid.  As 
master  of  the  school  at  Eu tin,  amid  the  lakes  of  Holstein  {1781 — 
i8oz),  he  began  his  work  on  Virgil  with  an  edition  of  the  Georgics 
including  a  translation  in  German  verse,  and  a  German  com- 
mentary, mainly  on  the  subject' matter  (17S9).  Its  publication 
led  to  a  feud  with  Heyne,  who,  in  his  own  edition,  had  neglected 
that  part  of  the  commentator's  duty'.     Eight  years  afterwards, 

'  xi  593  ^-  "  Herbst,  i  30,  303. 

•  Herbsl,  11(1)78  f.  *  <*.  i  138. 

»  So  Wieland,  A.  W.  Schlegel,  Goethe,  Herder,  SchUler.  W.  v.  Humboldi, 
and  Hermann  (n^.  ii  (i)  107,  jij) ;  cp.  M,  Bernays,  Intred.  to  reprint  (1881)  of 
first  ed.  of  Odyssey. 

'  BuiKln,  i  553  n. 


X'OO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXVIII.]  ILGEN.  63 

Voss  published  a  similar  edition  of  the  Eclogues  (1797)^-  On 
resigning  his  mastership,  he  lived  for  three  years  at  Jena  (1802-5), 
and,  for  the  last  twenty-one  years  of  his  life,  enjoyed  the  status 
and  stipend  of  a  professor  at  Heidelberg  {i8o5--z6).  It  was  there 
that  he  produced  his  translation  of  Tibullus,  in  the  preface  to 
which  he  showed,  on  chronological  grounds,  that  the  third  book  of 
the  Elegies  was  the  work  of  another  poet.  He  added  a  critical 
edition  of  the  text.  He  also  translated  and  expounded  Aratus 
{1824).  To  the  Vast  review  of  Heyne's  Iliad,  already  mentioned', 
he  contributed  by  far  the  lai^est  share*.  His  own  commentary 
on  the  first  Iliad  and  on  part  of  the  second  was  posthumously 
published'.  Of  his  prolix  exposition  of  the  Odyssey  only  two 
specimens  were  printed,  an  essay  on  the  Ocean  of  the  Ancients', 
and  a  paper  on  the  site  of  Ortygia'.  While  he  was  rash  and 
injudicious  as  a  textual  critic,  he  was  too  cautiously  conservative 
to  appreciate  the  value  either  of  Wolf's  Prolegomena',  or  of 
K.  O.  Miiller's  investigation  of  the  old  Greek  legends.  Apart 
firom  his  translation  of  Homer,  his  best  work  was  in  the  field  of 
ancient  Get^aphy',  a  work  continued  by  his  pupil,  F.  A.  Ukert 
{1780 — 1851)'.  In  his  mythological  studies  there  were  two 
periods,  marked  by  his  opposition  (i)  to  Heyne  and  his  school, 
and  (2)  to  Creuzer.  The  evidence  for  the  former  is  contained  in 
his  Mythologische  Briefe  (1794);  that  for  the  latter,  in  his  Antt- 
SymboUk  (1824-6)'". 

The  Homeric  Hymns,  with  the  Batrachomyomachia  and  its  later 
imitations,  were  edited  in  1796  by  Karl  Ilgen  (1763 — 
1834),  who  inspired  his  private  pupil,   Hermann, 
with  his  earliest  interest  in  the  Classics  (1784-6),  and  when  the 

'  Ed.  and  Georg.  republished  in  four  vols.,  1800,  wilh  a  plate  in  iii  100 
giving  17  illnsl rations  of  Virgil's  'plough',  1,  1,  3  derived  from  the  Virgil 
published  by  Knaplon  and  Sandby  (London.  1750). 

'  p.  jS,  n.  s  supra.  '  Reprinted  in  his  KritUche  Bldltcr,  i  1  —  168. 

*  (S.  i  i6g — IS4.  '  Antisyrnbclii,  ii  (45 — 15J. 

=  Boie's  Deulsches  Museum  (1 780),  301  f. 

'  Volkmann,  on  Wolf,  71  f,  and  Wosi' Brief i,  ii  113—254  (Buisian,  i  639"). 

'  KrilUcke  Btatter,\\  12J — 4J1. 

'  Gtographie  dtr  Griichenund  Rimer,  1816-46. 

"  Bursian,  i  559^5^'-  O"  Voss  in  general,  see  Ihe  admirable  work  of 
W.  Herbsl,  1873-6  ;  and  Bnraian,  i  548—561 ;  583  f. 


,i^.ooglc 


64  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

important  position  of  head-master  of  Schulpforta  was  declined  by 
Hermann,  was  appointed  at  Hermann's  instance  to  an  office 
whicb    he   long  continued   to   fill    with   the    highest   distinction 

(r8o2-3i)'. 

The  Greek  Anthology  is  permanently  associated  with  the  name 
of  Christian  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Jacobs  (1764 — 
1847),  who  was  born  and  bred  at  Gotha,  studied 
at  Jena  and  Gottingen,  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  years  at 
Munich  (1807-10),  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  his  native  place, 
first  as  a  master  in  the  local  school,  and  afterwards  as  Librarian 
and  Director  of  the  Cabinet  of  Coins  and  the  Museum  of  Art  In 
connexion  with  the  Anlkology,  he  produced  (l)  an  edition  in 
thirteen  volumes  (1794 — 1814),  in  which  the  text  of  the  epigrams 
in  Brunck's  Anakda  is  followed  by  a  learned  and  judicious  com- 
mentary'; (2)  a  text  in  three  volumes  (1813-7),  printed  from  a 
transcript  of  the  Palatine  ms  made  by  Spaletti,  the  Secretary  of 
the  Vatican  Library;  (3)  a  selection  for  the  use  of  schools  (1826); 
and  (4)  a  translation  of  700  epigrams  In  German  verse  (1803-23)'. 
He  published  the  first  complete  edition  of  the  Antekomerica, 
Homerica,  z.x\A  Posthomerica  of  Tzetzes  (1793).  He  also  edited 
Achilles  Tatius  (1821),  the  Philostrati  and  Callistratus,  with  notes 
by  Welcker  (1825),  and  Aelian's  Historia  Animalium  (1S32),  and 
produced  Animadversions  on  Athenaeus  (1809)  and  on  Stobaeus*. 
He  contributed  to  the  emendation  of  the  text  of  Euripides'  and 
the  Bucolic  poets' ;  executed  an  admirable  rendering  of  the 
Philippics  and  De  Corona  of  Demosthenes,  and  discussed  the 
text  of  Horace'  and  the  Dirae  of  Valerius  Cato".  He  also  wrote 
many  papers  on  the  history  of  Greek  literature  and  civilisation', 
besides  promoting  the  improvement  of  elementary  text-books  by 
his  Greek  and  latin  Readers  (1805-9).     He  showed  a  special 

■  Kikhljr's  Hermann,  4,  18,  114,  118 ;  Bursjan,  ii  666. 

*  Vols.  1—4  (text),  5  (indices),  6—13  (animadversiones). 

'On  Jacobs'  friend,  I.  G.    Hvischlte  (ij6i  — 1S18),  author  <^  Analala 
Crilica,  anil  Lileraria,  cp.  Bursian,  i  641  f. 

'  Lationti  Subemes,  1817.  '  Animadv.  1790. 

■  ExerHtationa  Crilieae,  1 796. 

T   Vermhchlt  Sckriften  (in  nine  vols.,  1813-61),  v  1— 404. 
>  ib.  637  f. 

*  ii.  iii  I  f,  37s  f,  4»5  f;  i"  '57—554!  v  517  f;  viu  71  f. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XXVIII.]  JACOBS.      CREUZER.  65 

aptitude  for  conjectural  criticism,  a  sound  judgement,  and  a  wide 
knowledge  of  classical  literature,  while,  in  personal  character,  he 
was  one  of  the  most  attractive  and  amiable  of  men.  Among  his 
literary  interests  was  the  higher  education  of  women.  His  portrait 
represents  him  in  a  smoking-cap,  seated  at  his  desk  and  busily 
engaged  in  writing,  while  his  left  hand  rests  on  a  large  open 
volume'. 

The  circle  of  scholars  at  Gotha  included  F.  WiUielm  Dorii^ 
(175^ — 1^37)1   fo'  forty-seven  years  head  of  the 
local  school,  who,  in  his  editions  of  Latin  Classics, 
such  as  Catullus  {1788-92),  and  Horace  (1803-24),  and  in  his  con- 
tinuation (1816-24)  of  Stroth's  Livy  (1780-4),  is  as  apt  as  Heyne 
to  be  vague  in  his  textual  criticism  and  evasive  in  his  exegesis*. 
It  also  included  Valentin  Christian  Friedrich  Rost 
(1790 — 1862),  best  known  in  coiuiexion  with  his 
Greek  Grammar  (1816,  1856'),   his   German-Greek  and  Greek- 
German  Lexicons  (1818-zo),  his  improved  edition  of  Damm's 
lexicon  to  Homer  and  Kndar,  and  his  contributions  to  the  Greek 
Lexicon  of  Passow'.     It  was  at  Gotha  also  that  Ernst  Friedrich 
Wustemann(i799 — 1856)  edited  Theocritus,  revised 
Heindorf's  Satires  of  Horace  and  Monk's  Akestis,      ^'  ^^J^^"**" 
besides  writing  on  the  Gardens  of  the  Ancients,  and 
publishing  in  a  tasteful  form  a  well-arranged  collection  of  select 
sentences  from  the  Latin  Classics*. 

Mythology  and  Neo-Platonism  were  the  main  interests  of 
Georg  Friedrich  Creuzer(  1 77 1 — 1858),  who  studied 
at  his  native  place,  Marburg,  and  at  Jena,  and,  after 
holding  a  professorship  for  four  years  at  the  former  university, 
spent  the  remaining  fifty-four  years  of  his  life  at  Heidelberg,  with 
the  exception  of  a  single  semester  at  Leyden.  His  earliest  work 
dealt  with  Herodotus  and  Thucydides,  in  connexion  with  Lucian's 
treatise  on  the  proper  method  of  writing  History ;   he  also  dis- 

'  Frontispiece  of  Persettalttn,  ed.  1840.  On  his  life  and  works,  see  ib. 
Verm.  ScAr.  vii;  E.  F.  Wueatemann'a  laudaHo  (184S);  and  Bursiati,  i 
634—640. 

*  Jacobs,  ii.  vii  591  f ;  Eckstein  in  A.  D.  B.  \  Buman,  i  640  f. 

*  Barsian,  i  636  f. 

*  Promfluaritim  Stnlmtiarum  (1356,  1864);  Bursian,  i  640. 

S-      "I-  I,.    l-MM,COOglC 


66  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIIl  f 

cussed  the  historical  works  of  Xenophon,  and  the  origin  and 
developement  of  the  historical  art  of  the  Greeks.  This  early 
interest  in  History  was  continued  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  formed 
a  plan  for  collecting  all  the  fragments  of  the  Greek  Historians, — a 
plan  that  was  only  partially  executed.  He  began  an  edition  of 
Herodotus  but  lefl  its  completion  to  his  industrious  pupil, 
Christian  Felix  Bahr  (1798 — 1872),  who  produced  an  eradite 
work  in  four  volumes*.  While  Creuzer  was  still  at  Marbui^,  he 
had  been  stimulated  to  the  study  of  ancient  Law  by  his  colleague, 
Savigny  (1779 — 1861),  afterwards  eminent  as  a  jurist  in  Berlin. 
Creuzer's  continued  interest  in  that  study  was  represented  by  an 
Outhne  of  Roman  Antiquities,  a  treatise  on  Slavery  in  Ancient 
Rome,  and  editions  of  Cicero,  De  Legibus,  De  Republka,  and  the 
second  of  the  Verrine  Orations'.  He  also  edited  the  De  Natura 
Deorum,  De  Divinatume,  and  De  Faio,  in  conjunction  with  his 
pupil  Georg  Heinrich  Moser(i78o — 1858),  who  himself  produced 
editions  of  the  Tusculan  Disputations  and  the  Paradoxes,  and  of 
six  books  of  Nonnus. 

Creuzer's  main  interest,  however,  lay  in  Mythol<^.  In  his 
autobiography  he  confesses  to  an  iimate  vein  of  mysticism  *,  which 
was  further  developed  by  his  attending  the  highly  imaginative 
lectures  on  Philosophy  and  Mythology  delivered  at  Heidelbei^  in 
1801-8  by  Joseph  Gorres.  He  was  specially  attracted  to  the 
study  of  the  indications  of  Egyptian  and  Oriental  influence  on 
the  Greek  legends  of  Dionysus'.  This  study  culminated  in  the 
four  volumes  of  his  Symbolik^. 

He  here  aims  at  representing  the  religious  life  of  the  ancient  world,  not 
only  in  its  outward  aspects,  its  various  cutts,  and  the  poetic  versions  of  its 
mythology,  but  also  in  its  inner  essence,  beginning  with  the  origin  of  religious 

■  1830-5 ;  new  ed.  1855-7.  ^It  ^'so  edited  some  of  Plutarch's  Hvts, 
and  produced  several  useful  books  of  reference,— a  History  of  Roman  Litera- 
ture {i8a8,  etc.),  with  supplementary  volumes  on  the  Christian  PoeU  and 
Historians  (1836)  and  Theolt^ans  (1837),  and  on  the  Latin  Literature  of  the 
Age  of  Charles  the  Great  (1840). 

'  Act.  ii.  Or.  i.     In  all  these  edd.  he  was  assodated  with  Moser. 

»  DeuUcke  Schriften,  v  (i)  ra. 

*  Siudim,  ii  aa4— 3»4  (1806);  Dimysm  (1808). 

'  1810-2;  new  ed.  1819-11 ;  ed.  3,  1837-43;  P'cnch  transl.  by  Gaigniant 
in  10  vols.,  1815-41. 


lOO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXVIII.]      CREUZER.      W.   A.  BECKEBL  6^ 

ideas  aitd  ending  wi(h  the  downfall  of  paganism.  The  work  is  in  fact  a  natural 
history  of  Gentile  religions,  especially  those  of  ihe  Greek  and  the  Ilalian 
world '.  It  assigns  a  large  space  to  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries. 
Creuzer's  mystical  views  on  Greek  mythology  were  attacked,  with 
pleasantry' and  with  learning',  byLobeck;  with  perfect  courtesy 
and  good-temper,  by  Hermann*,  and,  in  a  violent  and  polemical 
spirit,  by  Voss'. 

The  death  of  that  persistent  critic  permitted  Creuz«r  to  spend 
the  evening  of  his  days  in  the  undisturbed  study  of  Neo-Platonism 
and  Archaeology.  He  had  ah'cady  published  a  critical  and  ex- 
planatory edition  of  Plotinus,  De  Pukhritudine  (1814),  with 
contributions  from  Wyttenbach.  It  was  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
latter  that  Creuzer  was  asked  by  the  Clarendon  Press  to  prepare  a 
complete  edition,  published  in  three  quarto  volumes  in  1835'. 
Creuzer's  interest  in  Classical  Archaeology  is  represented  by 
papers  on  the  Greek  vases  in  the  collection  at  Carlsruhe  (1839), 
and  on  Varro's  book  of  portraits  (1843).  One  of  his  latest  works 
was  a  sketch  of  the  History  of  Classical  Philology  (1854)', 

One  of  the  allies  of  Voss  in  bis  controversy  with  Creuier  was  Wilheln 
Adolf  Becker'  (1796 — 1846),  who  had  already  produced  an  ,„  .  j^  ^ 
edition  of  some  of  the  minor  works  of  Aristotle*,  and  was  after- 
wards to  present  Roman  and  Greek  life  in  a  popular  form  in  his  Callus  and 
Charidts,  to  write  on  Roman  topography,  and  to  begin  (in  18+3)  the  publication 
of  a  well  known  hand-l>ook  of  Roman  Antiquities,  which  was  continued  by 
Marquardt  and  Mommsen. 

Among  the  contemporaries  of  Wolf  there  were  several  men  of 
mark,  who,  without  being  professional  scholars,  had,  in  different 

'  Bursian,  i  570-* ;  cp.  Otto  Gruppe,  Gr.  Culle  u.  Mylhm,  i  (1887)  34 — 43. 

*  Jena  LiUtratur-Zei/ung,  1810,  137  f. 

*  Aglaophamtis,  sivt  de  Iheehgiae  mystieae  Craeeorum  eausi's,  1  vols.,  (8j(j. 

*  Brie/e  iiier  Hemcr  u.  Hesiodus,  1818  j  cp.  Ofauc.  ii  167—116 ;  also  his 
Brie/of  1819. 

'  lena  Lilt.  Zeilung,  May,  rSii,  and  Anti-Symbdik,  1814-6. 

'  Moser  helped  in  lliis  work,  and  in  the  new  ed.  of  the  BntitaiUt  (Didot, 
■85s). 

'  Dculuke  Sckrifleit,  v  vol.  ii,  Zur  Gtsekichte  da-  cl.  PAileiogie,  ij8  pp. 
Autobiography  in  Deutsche  Schriflen,  V  vol.  i  (1848),  with  portrait,  and 
iii  (1858);  cp.  L.  VTeAtxva  Halle  Jahrbucker.K  (rSjS)  n.  ror— 6,  and  R  Stark 
in  Vortriige  etc.  (iSSo)  3go — 408,  480—507,  and  in  Handbuck,  161  f;  and 
Bursian,  i  561—587. 

»  DerSymbolik  Triumph,  Zerbst,  1815.  »  De semno  ale,  1813. 

h.  iSrr^^.OOglc 


68  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

degrees,  a  close  connexion  with  the  scholarship  of  that  age 
Wolf  had  a  loyal  friend  in  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt 
^  bowt""  (1767^1835),  then  a  leading  Prussian  statesman, 
the  elder  brother  of  Alexander,  the  celebrated 
naturalist  and  traveller.  At  the  age  of  19,  he  wrote  an  essay  on 
the  opinions  of  Socrates  and  Plato  on  the  Godhead  and  on 
Providence  and  Immortality',  A  pupil  of  Heyne  at  Gottingen  in 
1788,  he  produced  a  poetic  version  of  several  odes  of  Pindar 
(1792  f),  and,  in  the  same  year,  the  friendship  formed  with  Wolf 
in  Halle  led  to  his  studying  the  Greek  Classics  as  an  essential 
element  in  a  completely  humane  education.  His  correspondence 
with  Wolf  has  left  some  interesting  traces  in  that  scholar's  survey 
of  classical  learning'.  During  the  year  and  a  half  (1809-10),  in 
which  Humboldt  was  at  the  head  of  the  educational  section  of  the 
Prussian  Home  Office,  the  university  of  Berlin  was  founded  {1810), 
and  the  general  system  of  education  received  the  direction  which 
it  followed  (with  slight  exceptions)  throughout  the  whole  century'. 
In  i8r6  he  produced  a  highly  finished  rendering  oit)KAgamemium. 
A  visit  to  Spain,  in  1799  f,  during  the  four  years  of  his  residence 
in  Paris,  had  meanwhile  led  to  his  taking  an  interest  in  the  general 
history  of  language.  In  this  connexion  he  studied  Basque,  as  well 
as  the  languages  of  North  America,  of  Malacca  and  of  Polynesia, 
together  with  Sanskrit  and  Chinese.  The  results  of  these  studies 
appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  lyansactions  of  the  Berlin 
Academy.  His  greatest  work  in  this  department,  that  on  the 
ancient  Kawi  language  of  Java,  posthumously  published  in  1836-9, 
begins  with  a  remarkable  introduction  on  '  Diversity  of  Language, 
and  its  Influence  on  the  Intellectual  Developement  of  Mankind'. 
The  latter,  which  was  criticised  by  Steinthal,  and  edited  and 
defended  by  Pott  (1S76),  has  lieen  described  as  'the  text-book  of 
the  philosophy  of  speech '.  It  may  be  added  that,  after  all  his 
linguistic  studies,  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Greek 
language  and  the  old  Greek  culture  still  remained  the  finest 
product  of  the  human  intellect'. 

1  Gesammelti  Schrifttn,  i  (1903)  1—44. 

»  Nolea  ia  Kl.  Sehr.  ii  884-6,  888—890. 

•  Paulsen,  u'  *oo  f.  148  f,  j8o  f. 

'  Letters  te  Wikker,  ed.  Haym,  roi,  134.    On  W.  v.  Humholl  in  general, 

.     „.,,„,  ^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXVni.]        W.  VON  HUMBOLDT.      GOETHE.  69 


As  a  student  at  Leipzig,  Goeflie  (1749 — iSj^)  had  been  profoundly  ii 
pressed  by  Lessing's  Laokoon,  and  by  the  writings  of  Winckel- 
mann  ;  at  Strassburg,  he  had  been  prompted  by  Herder  10 
study  Homer'.  In  r77i  he  Iranslaled  Pindar's  Fifth  Olympian^  and  in  1780 
produced  a  free  imitation  of  the  first  part  of  the  Birds  of  Aristophanes'.  In 
his  'first  period'  he  also  wrote  his  Prcmelheus.  During  his  tour  in  Italy 
(1786-8),  he  rejoiced  in  living  amid  the  memories  of  the  old  classical  world ; 
it  was  on  the  Bay  of  Naples  and  in  Sicily  that  he  first  realised  the  beauty  of 
the  scenery  of  the  Odyssey.  At  Palermo  he  translated  the  description  of  the 
Gardens  of  Alcinoiis,  but  did  not  commit  his  rendering  to  writing  until  mai^y 
years  later  (c.  1795)'.  Under  the  influence  of  the  Homeric  translations  of 
Voss,  he  meditated  the  composition  of  an  Arhillds ;  and,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  studied  Wolf's  Proltgomma,  and  once  more  read  the 
Iliaii^.  'The  theory  of  a  colltcHvi  Homer'  (he  writes)  'is  favourable  to  my 
present  scheme,  as  lending  a  modem  bard  a  title  to  claim  for  himself  a  place 
among  the  Hemeridcu'*.  In  the  spring  of  1796,  he  thanks  Wolf  for  thai 
theory';  in  December,  he  'drinks  to  the  health'  of  the  scholar,  'who  at  last 
has  boldly  freed  us  from  the  name  of  Homer,  and  is  even  bidding  us  enter  on 
a  broader  road'';  and  he  writes  in  the  same  spirit  on  sending  Wolf  a  copy  of 
Wilhelm  Meisler*.  Bui,  after  abandoning  his  proposed  Achillas,  he  returns 
to  the  old  faith,  and  sings  his  palinode  in  Samtr  viieder  Homer"'.  He  had 
already  translated  the  Hymn  to  the  Drlian  Apollo",  and,  in  later  years,  he 
endeavoured  to  restore  the  plot  of  the  Phaelhon  of  Euripides"  with  the  aid  of 
the  fragments  published  by  Hermann.     The  Eumenidrs  of  Aeschylus  has  left 

cp.  Gis.  Schriflen,  in  1 1  vols.,  1 903-4 ;  Benfey,  Sfrachwissemckaft  in  Denlsch- 
land,  515  f;  EinUitutig  to  Pott's  ed.  of  the  treatise  Uiber  die  Verschiedenheit 
dis  menschlichin  Sprathbaues,  1876;  Seeks. ..Aufsiitu,  ed.  Leilzmann,  1896; 
Delbruck's  EinUitung  in  das  Sprachstudium,  c.  ii  p.  16  f,  ed.  1893;  Bursian, 
i  587 — 591 ;  and  Sayce,  in  Enc.  Brit. 

'  Herder  etc.,  Briefean  Merck,  43  f,  ed.  K.  Waller. 

'  BriefeanF.  A.  Wo/f,  ed.  M.  Bemays  (Berlin,  1868),  111  f. 

'  Werke,  vii  379  /  (Cotla's  Jubilee  ed.). 

*  Published  by  Suphan  in  Geelhe-fahriuch,  1901. 

*  G.  Lolholi,  Das  Vtrhaltnis  Wolfs  und  W.  v.  Numboltits  m  Goethe  und 
Schiller,  1863. 

*  Paltison,  i  385.  ^  Briefe  U.S.,  16  f. 
'  Elegit,  Hermann  und  Dorothea,  1.  17  f. 

'  »6  Dec.  1796  (Kiirte,  i  178). 

'°  ii  181,  339,  c.  1811 ;  cp.  Letter  lo  Schiller,  t6  May  1798,  no.  463,  Ich 
bin  rnehr  all Jtmalsvon  der  Einheil  umt  Untheilbarkeit  des  GedicAts  (sc.  der  /Has) 
uberteugi  u.s.w.  (Korte,  i  j8o;  Volkmann,  75;  cp.  Briefe,  81  f;  xxix  557  f 
Hempel ;  Patlison,  i  385)  1  F.  Thalmayr,  Goethe  unJ  das  classische  Alterthum, 
118—137. 

"  Schiller's  Horm  (1795),  ix  30.  "  xxix  joo — 516  Hempel. 

h.  i.MiA.OOgIc 


70  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

its  impress  on  the  second  pari  of  Faitit',  and  on  some  fine  passages  in  the 

Iphigenii  auf  Taurit\ 

Goethe's  familiarity  with  the  scientific  literature  of  the  ancients  is  apparent 
in  the  first  part  of  his  FarbtnUhre.  Late  in  life  he  is  prompted  by  a  program 
of  Hermann's  to  examine  Ihe  tragic  tetralogies  of  the  Greeks';  he  discusses 
the  meaning  oi  katharsii  in  Aristotle's  Treatise  on  Poetry*;  he  reviews  the 
similes  of  the  Iliad^,  and  introduces  a  classical  Walpurgimarhl  into  the  second 
part  of  Faust. 

His  interest  in  ancient  art,  first  awakened  in  the  gallery  at  Mannheim  in 
1771,  had  been  enhanced  by  his  lour  in  Italy  and  his  residence  in  Rome.  It 
was  in  Rome  that  he  first  met  Ihe  Swiss  painter,  Heinrich  Meyer  (1710 — 1831), 
a  diligent  student  of  Ihe  writings  of  Winckelmann  and  an  admirer  of  the  Roman 
masterpieces  of  ancient  sculpture  and  modern  painting.  At  Goethe's  sugges- 
tion, Meyer  was  appointed  instructor,  and  afterwards  director,  of  the  Academy 
of  Art  at  Weimar.  Meyer  was  the  first  link  between  Goethe  and  Schiller. 
Under  (he  inspiration  of  Winckelmann,  Goethe  contributed  papers  on  ancient 
art  to  the  pages  of  Schiller's /^ar™',  and  wrote  on  the  group  of  the  Laocoon' 
and  on  other  themes  of  ancient  art,  in  the  shorl-lived  PrBfylam,  besides 
discussing  Ihe  paintings  of  Pol  ygnotus  in  the  Lisrhe  aX  Delphi^  In  'Winckel- 
mann and  bis  Century ',  while  Wotf  leviews  Ihe  early  studies  of  the  future 
historian  of  ancient  art,  Goethe  himself  poitrays  the  man  and  the  author,  and 
uiges  the  publication  of  a  complete  edition  of  his  works.  Goethe's  friend, 
Meyer,  joined  Bottiger  in  preparing  a  monograph  on  Ihe  celebrated  painling 
in  the  Vatican,  known  as  the  ' Aldobrandini  marriage'  (1810},  and  himself 
produced,  as  his  latest  and  maturest  work,  a  history  of  Greek  Art  (1814-6). 

Goethe  was  also  under  the  influence  of  the  accomplished  architect,  Aloys 
Hirt  (1J59— 1837),  according  to  whom  it  was  the  'characteristic'  and  Ihe  'indi- 
vidual', and  not  the  'beautiful'  (as  held  by  Winckelmann),  that  was  Ihe  true 
aim  of  the  best  Greek  sculpture.  Hirt  elucidated  his  views  in  his  BiltUrbiuk 
(t8oi|~t6),  in  his  important  works  on  Ancient  Architecture*,  and  in  his  History 
of  Ancient  Art  (183,1),  which,  however,  could  hardly  compete  with  the  excel- 
lent Handbook  recently  published  by  K.  O.  Miiller  {1S30).     In  iSiG  Goethe 

'  ii  3,  8647-96. 

'  1051-70;  1119-38;  1341^64  (Breul  in  Camb.  Rev.  6  Dec.  1906).  Cp. 
Otto  Jahn,  Pafuldre  Aufsiilte,  353—401;  F.  ThUmen,  Iphigtnimsage,  1895'. 

'  xxix  493  f,  Ilerapel. 

'  xxix  490  f,  Hempel;  Autgldchung,  aussohnendi  Abrundtoig;  cp.  Lettei 
to  Schiller,  J8  April,  1797,  no.  304. 

'  Ufber  Ktatst  und  AHerthum,  iii  (1)  i  f  and  (3)  i  f. 

'  i  (1)  19— SO,  '795- 

'  Atifsatie  mr  Kvnst,  (1798)  xxxiii  114  f,  Colta. 

'  ib.  131  f,  861  f,  Hempel. 

•  DU  Baukunst  nach  dm  Grundsdtztn  dir  AUtn  (1809);  Die  Geschickte  der 
Baukunsl  bet  den  Allen  (1  Hi  1-7). 

,;.,,n,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXVIIL]        SCHILLER.      SCHLEGEL.  7 1 

fbunded  a  review,  in  which  he  published  hi9  paper  on  'Myron's  Cow*',  while 
he  also  allempled  to  reconstruct  for  artistic  reproduction  the  supposed  originals 
of  the  pictures  described  by  (he  Philostrati'. 

Schiller  (17S9— 1805)  had  been  well  grounded  in  Latin,  but,  in  the  study 
of  the  Greek  nuslerpieces,  he  had  to  rely  on  translations; 
even  his  own  poetic  rendering  oS  the  Iphigentia  at  Aulii  and 
the  Phoeniisae  was  founded  on  the  Latin  version  by  Joshua  Barnes.  The  first 
period  of  his  poems  opens  with  the  'Parting  of  Hector',  while  the  second 
comprises  'Troy',  and  'Dido',  and  the  two  versions  of  his  memorable  'Gods 
of  Greece';  and  the  third,  the  'Lament  of  Ceres',  the  'Festival  of  Eleusis',  the 
'Ring  of  Polycrates',  'Hero  and  Leander',  'Cassandra',  and  the  'Cranes  of 
Ibycus'.  This  last  was  not  published  until  it  had  been  examined  and  approved 
by  Bdttiger*.  It  includes  a  free  rendering  of  the  song  of  the  Furies  which 
Schiller  had  studied  in  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt's  fine  translation  of  the 
Eumaiides,  and  the  influence  of  that  play  is  also  apparent  in  his  'Bride  of 
Messina",  which  was  directly  inspired  by  the  Otdipus  Tyrannus,  and  is  pre- 
faced by  a  suggestive  Essay  on  the  Chorus  in  Greek  Tragedy.  His  interest 
in  Greek  literature  is  no  less  manifest  in  his  paper  on  the  Tragic  Art'.  His 
conception  of  the  old  classical  world  and  of  the  diflference  between  the  ancient 
■nd  the  modem  spirit  had  a  great  effect  on  his  countrymen.  In  his  Essay  '  On 
naive  and  sentimental  poetry'  he  is  peculiarly  felicitous  in  comparing  the  merits 
of  several  of  the  ancient  poets*. 

It  was  under  the  influence  of  Schiller  that  the  characteristics 
of  the  ancient  drama  were   fruitfully  studied   by 

A.   W.   von   Schlegel  (1767 — 1845),  who  had  at-      

tended  Heyne's  lectures  at  Gottingen,  and  in  1796 
was  appointed  professor  at  Jena,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  and  began  the  excellent  translation  of 
Shakespeare,  which  he  continued  after  his  appointment  as  pro- 
fessor in  Berlin  (1801).  In  1805  he  accompanied  Madame  de 
Stael,  the  fiiture  author  of  Corinne,  on  a  tour  in  Italy,  France, 

'  Aufsatie  iur  Kutul,  xxxv  145,  Cotta. 

'  »*.  69 — 139.  On  Goethe  and  the  CUssics,  cp.  J.  Classen  in  Philnhgen- 
Vtrsammtung  kx  (Frankfurt)  13 — j6  (1863);  Urlichs,  Goethe  und  dit  Aritiki 
in  ' Goethe- Jahrbuch'  ii  (1881)  3 — 16;  Bursian,  i  592 — 607;  Carl  Olbrich, 
Goethe's  Spracht  und  die  Antike  (1891);  F.  Thalmayr,  GoeShe  und  das 
tiasiische  AUerthum,  1897;  and  Otto  Kem,  Goelht,  Bikilin,  Mommsen,  19—53 
(1906).     On  Goethe  and  ancient  Art,  cp.  Stark's  Handbuch,  113 — 130. 

■  K.  A.  Bijltiger,  Eitit  biagr.  Skiiie  von  Dr  K.  W.  BSItiger  {1837),  136. 

*  i986f.  •  iv  517  f,  ed.  1874;  p.  1019  ed.  1869. 

'  i*  6ii  f;  p.  T070.  Cp.  L.  Hiizel,  Ueber  Sthiller't  Baiehvngtn  aum 
AUertkumi  (Aarau,  1871 ;  1906'),  and  Bursian,  i  607 — tti ;  also  £,  Wiliscb, 
ia'Jfeui  fakrb.f.  U.  Alt.  xiii  (1904),  39 — Jl. 


Schlesel 


lOO' 


gic 


72  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

Gennany,  and  Sweden;  in  1813  he  became  Secretary  to  Bema- 
dotte,  the  future  kii^  of  Sweden,  and,  having  studied  Sanskrit 
in  Paris,  first  under  the  Indian  civilian,  Alexander  Hamilton 
(1762^1824)',  and  next  under  Bopp,  he  became  professor  at 
Bonn  in  1818  and  held  that  position  for  the  remaining  twenty- 
seven  years  of  his  life. 

As  the  fruit  of  his  Sanskrit  studies,  he  published  at  Bonn  his 
Indische  Bibliothek  (1820-6),  and  established  a  press  for  the 
printing  of  the  Udm&yana  (1825)  and  the  Bhagavad-Gtta  (1829). 

Schlegel,  who  was  specially  skilful  in  his  translations  from 
Greek  poets,  and  wrote  a  drama  on  the  same  theme  as  the  Ion 
(1803),  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  the  '  Lectures  on  Dranriatic 
Art  and  Literature,'  delivered  in  1808  before  a  brilliant  audience 
in  Vienna'.  Nearly  half  of  the  thirty  Lectures  deal  with  the 
Ancient  Drama,  and  of  these  few,  if  any,  are  more  familiar  than 
the  Lecture  comparing  Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides  in 
their  treatment  of  the  theme  of  Electra.  Schlegel,  who  here 
censures  the  Electra  of  Euripides,  had  not  succeeded  in  im- 
proving upon  the  Ion,  but  he  shares  with  Goethe  the  honour 
of  having  been  among  the  first  of  modem  critics  to  appreciate 
the  Bacchae". 

While  the  Greek  Drama  was  reviewed  in  a  critical  spirit  by 
A.  W.  von  Schlegel,  the  Epic  poetry  of  Greece 
von"scbieeei  attracted  the  attention  of  his  younger  brother, 
Friedrich  (1772 — 1829),  who  studied  law  in  Got- 
tingen  and  Leipzig  and,  after  living  in  Dresden,  Jena,  Berlin, 
Paris  and  Vienna,  was  appointed  Austrian  counsellor  of  legation 
at  the  Germanic  Diet  (1814-8).  He  afterwards  returned  to 
Vienna,  resumed  his  literary  work,  and  died  at  Dresden  in  r829. 
Early  in  life,  in  1797,  he  had  produced  the  first  volume  of  his 

^  Helmioa  von  Chezf,  Vnvtrgessenes^  i  150,  j68  {Benfey,  Guch.  der 
Sfraihwisstnickajt,  358,  379-81). 

"  Ed.  1  (1817),  reviewed  by  K.  W.  F.  Solger  (1780— 1819),  the  author  of 
an  excellent  tianslation  of  Sophocles  (tSoS).  This  review,  reprinled  in 
Solger's  Works,  ii  493 — 618,  and  regarded  by  Siivetn  as  the  profoundesl  work 
that  had  ever  been  written  on  the  subject  of  Tragedy,  represents  Irony  as  the 
very  centre  of  the  Dramatic  Art  and  also  deals  with  the  conception  of  Fate 
and  the  significance  of  the  Chorus  (Butsian,  i  614  f). 

'  p.  Ixxxvi,  ed,  Sandys. 


,1^.00' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXVIII.]  SiJvERN.  73 

historical  and  critical  inquiries  on  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
including  an  extensive  treatise  on  the  study  of  Greek  poetry. 
Instead  of  completing  the  work,  he  began  another,  on  the  History 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Poetry'.  Among  his  later  works  the  most 
important  is  the  short  treatise  'On  the  Language  and  Wisdom 
of  the  Indians'  (1808)",  the  fruit  of  his  study  of  Sanskrit  under 
Alexander  Hamihon'.  An  important  impulse  was  thus  given 
to  the  comparative  study  of  language  in  Europe.  The  elder 
brother's  example,  as  a  lecturer  in  Vienna,  was  ably  followed 
by  Friedrich  in  1812,  in  a  course  of  Lectures  on  the  History 
of  Literature,  Ancient  and  Modem  (iSig)'. 

The  Greek  Drama  was  critically  studied  by  Johann  Wilhelm 
Siivem  (1775—1829),  who,  after  residing  at  Jena 
and  Halle,  prepared  himself  for  an  educational 
career  in  Berlin,  and,  after  seven  years'  experience  as  Director 
of  the  Schools  at  Thorn  and  Elbing,  and  two  years'  tenure  of 
a  professorship  at  Konigsberg,  passed  the  remaining  twenty  years 
of  his  life  as  a  prominent  official  in  the  Educational  Department 
in  Berlin".  While  he  was  still  at  Halle,  he  was  prompted  by 
C.  G.  Schtitz  to  study  the  Greek  Tragic  poets,  and  Aeschylus 
in  particular.  His  earliest  work  was  a  German  translation  of  the 
Septem  (1799),  followed  by  an  essay  on  Schiller's  Wallenslein 
in  relation  to  Greek  Tragedy  (1800).  Later  in  life,  he  wrote 
on  the  tragic  element  in  the  historical  works  of  Tacitus*,  and  on 
the  historical  character  of  the  Greek  Drama^  He  also  discussed 
the  date  and  aim  of  the  Oedipus  Coloneus%  and  the  historic 
purpose  of  the  Clouds  and  the  Birds  oi  Aristophanes*. 

'  Vol.  1,  part  i,  1J98. 

*  Trans,  by  Miltinglon  (1849)  \n  Aestielic  and  MiicMatteaus  Works  CBoYta), 
415 — 465 !  MiK  MilUer's  Z«(««j,  i  181';  Benfey,  357-69. 

'  1803-7.    Cp.  p.  71  supra. 

*  Trans,   in   Bohn's  Standard  Library;    Lectures  i — iv  on    Greek  and 
Roman  Liletature. 

*  Ueber  den  Kumkharactcr  da  Tacitus,  Berlin  Acad.  1811-3  ('815),  73  f. 
'  .■*.  i8is(i8j8),  75f. 

«  ib.  f8»8(i83r),  if. 

'  1816-7.    Translaled  by  W.  R.   Hamilton  (l8,ls-6).     On  SUvem,  cp. 
Fassow  (Thorn,  i860),  and  Bursian,  i  617 — 613. 


.oogic 


74  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVHI  f 

The  same  department  of  study  is  represented  by  the  early 
Rfibich  "°^^  °^  ^'  ^"  ^'''s^''*'''  (1803— 1871X  the  author 

of ' Aristophanes  and  his  Age'  (1827),  a  work  de- 
fending the  poet's  treatment  of  Socrates,  and  representing  that 
philosopher  as  the  enemy  of  the  Greek  world  of  his  own  day. 
A  similar  view  was  afterwards  held  by  Forchhammer  (1837) ;  but 
both  of  these  writers  were  reviewed  and  refuted  by  Zeller'. 

The  literary  and  artistic  circle  of  Weimar  and  Jena  included 
..  .  Karl  August  Bottiger  (1760 — 1835),  who  was  edu- 

cated at  Schulpforta  and  Leipzig,  and,  under  the 
influence  of  Herder,  held  for  thirteen  years  a  head- mastership  at 
Weimar  (1790 — 1804).  For  the  remaining  thirty-one  years  of  his 
life,  he  resided  at  Dresden  as  Director  of  the  Museum  of  Antiques, 
and  was  singularly  active  as  a  journalist  and  a  public  lecturer. 
As  a  schoolmaster,  he  had  published  a  considerable  number  of 
pedagt^c  and  philological  programs'.  His  archaeotc^cal  works, 
mainly  produced  at  Dresden,  fall  into  three  groups;  (i)  Private 
Antiquities,  (2)  the  Greek  Theatre,  and  (3)  Ancient  Art  and 
Mythology,  (i)  is  best  represented  by  his  ' Sabina,  or  morning- 
scenes  in  the  dressing-room  of  a  wealthy  Roman  lady ',  which 
was  promptly  translated  into  French  and  served  as  a  model  for 
Becker's  Gallus  and  Charicks.  It  was  continued  in  the  fragment 
called  '  Sabina  on  the  Bay  of  Naples  ".  (2)  His  interest  in  the 
theatre  dated  from  the  time  when  he  was  a  dramatic  critic  at 
Weimar ;  his  unfavourable  critique  on  A.  W.  von  Schlegel's  Ion  was 
withdrawn  at  the  request  of  Goethe.  It  was  mainly  as  a  school- 
master at  Weimar  that  he  wrote  his  papers  on  the  distribution  of 
the  parts,  on  the  masks  and  dresses,  and  on  the  machinery  of  the 
ancient  stage*,  as  well  as  a  dissertation  on  the  masks  of  the 
Furies  (1801)'.  (3)  His  work  in  the  province  of  ancient  art* 
and  mythology"  was  popular  and  superficial.     It  may  be  added 

1  c.  X  of  Socrates  and  Iht  Socralu  ScAnols,  E.T.— Bursian,  i  G23  f. 
"  Opascula,  ed.  Sillig,  1837 ;  bibli<^raphy  in  KlHni  Schrifien,  ed.  Sillig, 
i83jf,ixiii-cxviii. 
»  Kt.  Schr.  iii  143  f. 

*  Opuscula,  210—734,  »8s— 398. 

*  Kl.  Schr.  i  189— 3;6.  '  KL.Sckr.  a.  3—341- 

'  Kl.  Schr.  i  3—180,  and  (his  latest  independent  work)  Idem  €ur  JCunst- 
Mythelogie  (a  (erm  invented  by  Botti^r). 


CHAP,  xxvirr.]    bOttiger.   sillig.   a.  matthiae.       75 

that  he  supplied  the  descriptive  letter-press  to  the  German  edition 
(1 797  f )  of  Tischbein's  reproductions  from  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
second  collection  of  Greek  vases,  and  thus  introduced  the  study 
of  Greek  vase-painting  into  Germany.  He  published  lectures  on 
the  History  of  Ancient  Sculpture  (1806)  and  Painting  (181  r), 
and  edited  the  three  volumes  of  an  archaeological  periodical 
entitled  Amalihea  (1820-5),  including  contributions  from  the 
best  of  the  classical  archaeologists  of  the  day'. 

Bbttiger's  example  was  followed  by  his  pupil,  Karl  Julius  Sillig 
(1801 — 1855),  who  edited  many  of  his  master's 
works.  Bom  at  Dresden,  he  studied  at  Leipzig 
and  Gottingen,  and  was  a  schoolmaster  at  Dresden  for  the  last 
thirty  years  of  his  life.  His  Caialogus  Artificum  (1827)  was  a 
useful  work  in  its  time.  His  edition  of  Catullus  is  far  less 
important  than  his  edition  of  the  elder  Pliny*.  As  an  editor  he 
is  too  much  given  to  the  accumulation  of  de'tails,  and  is  deficient 
in  judgement  and  in  critical  method'. 

Among  the  pupils  of  Heyne  at  Gottingen  was  August  Matthiae 
(1769 — 1835),  a  son  of  the  custos  of  the  University 
Library,  who  had  adopted  the  Latinised  name  of 
Matthiae  instead  of  the  German  name  of  Matthiesen.  After 
leaving  the  university,  the  son  spent  four  years  as  a  private  tutor 
at  Amsterdam,  and,  for  the  last  thirty-three  years  of  his  life,  was 
Director  of  the  gymnasium  at  Altenburg.  The  most  important 
of  his  works  was  his  larger  Greek  Grammar'.  He  also  published 
an  extensive  edition  of  Euripides  in  nine  volumes,  with  the 
Fragments  and  the  scholia  (1813-29);  a  tenth  volume  includes 
addenda  io^e  scholia,  s.nA  Indices  by  Kampmann  (1837).  Lastly, 
he  collected  the  Fragments  of  Alcaeus,  and  published  'animad- 
versions '  on  the  Homeric  Hymns,  as  well  as  scholastic  works  on 
Greek  and  Roman  Literature,  and  on  Latin  Prose  Composition'. 

'  Biegrafhiiehe Skitu,  by  K.  W.  Bbltiger  (i8.i7)(  Eichslaedt,  Oputi.  Oral. 
665-~67» ;  Stark,  52,  71 ;  Buisian,  i  618—634. 

*  i8ji-6  in  5  vols ;  la^er  ed.  io  6  vols.,  with  two  toIs.  of  Indices  by  Otto 
Schneider. 

'  Bursian,  i  634.  *  1807;  ed.  3,  1835. 

°  Lire  by  his  soo  Konstantin  (184;),  including  an  account  of  August's 
elder  brother  Friediich  Christian  (1763 — 1811),  editor  of  Aratus,  etc.  (1817) ; 
Butsian,  i  641  f. 

h.  i.MiA.OOt^lC 


NiEBUHR, 
From  Sichling's  engraving  of  the  portrait  by  F.  Schnorr  von  Carotsfeld. 


iM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXVIII.]  HEEREN.      NIEBUHR.  "JJ 

The  study  of  History  was  well  represented  at  Gottingen  by 
Heyne's  pupil,  son-in-law,  and  bic^rapher,  Arnold 
Hermann  Ludwig  Heeren  (1760 — 1842),  After 
writing  on  the  Chorus  in  Greek  Tragedy,  and  editing  the  rheto- 
rician Menander's  treatise  on  Encomia^  he  went  abroad  for  nearly 
two  years  to  collate  the  Mss  of  the  Eclogue  of  Stobaeus,  his 
publication  of  which  extended  over  a  considerable  period  (1792 — 
1801),  Meanwhile,  he  had  already  begun  to  devote  himself  to 
those  historical  studies  with  which  his  name  is  mainly  associated. 
He  produced,  in  1793,  the  first  volume  of  his  well-known  work 
on  the  Politics  and  Trade  of  the  foremost  peoples  of  the  ancient 
world';  and,  in  1799,  his  Handbook  of  the  History  of  Ancient 
States,  with  special  reference  to  their  constitution,  their  commerce, 
and  their  colonies'.  He  also  wrote  several  monographs  on  the 
commerce  of  Palmyra  and  India.  The  criticism  of  the  authorities 
for  Ancient  History,  a  field  of  research  first  opened  out  by  Heyne, 
was  the  theme  of  several  papers  by  his  pupil'.  Heeren  published, 
in  1797 — 1801,  a  History  of  the  Study  of  Classical  Literature 
from  the  Revival  of  Learning,  with  an  Introduction  on  the 
History  of  the  works  of  the  Classical  authors  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  In  the  second  edition  of  1822  this  work  Is  entitled  a 
History  of  Classical  Literature  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  first  part 
going  down  to  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  the  second 
including  the  Humanists  of  the  fifteenth*. 

A  shorter  life  was  the  lot  of  another  historian,  the  historian  of 
ancient  Rome,  Barthold  Georg  Niebuhr  (1776 — 
1 831).  His  father  had  been  famous  as  a  traveller 
in  Arabia  and  Persia.  Born  at  Copenhagen,  and  educated  at 
Meldorf  and  at  Hamburg  he  studied  at  Kiel  and  Edinburgh. 
After  holding  civil  appointments  at  Copenhagen,  he  entered  the 
service  of  Prussia,  and  in  1810  was  appointed  professor  in  the 

'  Ed.  4  in  6  vols.;  vols.  :o—ts  of '  Hislorical  Works',  1814-6:  E.T.  1833. 

>  Ed.  5,  i8)8;  E.T.  1811). 

*  Trogus  Pompeius,  Plutarch's  Lives,  Slrabo,  and  Ptolemy  are  discussed  in 
fols.  i,  iii,  iv,  V,  kv,  of  the  Committtatiorus  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Gottingen. 

'  Characlerised  by  Bursian  {p.  5)  3$  '  superficial  and  sketchy ' ;  it  deserves 
credit,  however,  for  its  lucid  arrangement,  and  its  breadth  of  view.  On 
Heeren's  life,  cp.  his  '  Hisl.  Works ',  i  xi  f :  Karl  Hoeck's  Gidiichinissnde  in 
'Neuer  Nekrolog  der  Deulschen',  xi  117  f;  and  Bursian,  i  645-7. 

h.  !■,  ii,l^.OOglc 


78  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

newly-founded  university  of  Berlin.  His  lectures  on  Roman 
history  were  attended  by  a  distinguished  audience,  and  thence- 
forth he  regarded  the  history  of  Rome  as  the  main  interest  of 
his  life.  He  completed  the  first  two  volumes  of  his  History  in 
i8i2.  He  was  Prussian  ambassador  at  Rome  in  1S16-23,  but 
was  discontented  with  Rome  and  with  Italy,  and  made  little 
progress  with  his  literary  work.  For  the  rest  of  his  life  he  settled 
at  Bonn,  where  he  delivered  lectures  on  ancient  history,  ethno- 
graphy and  geography,  and  on  the  French  Revolution.  The 
revolution  of  July,  r83o,  filled  him  with  apprehensions  for  the 
future  of  Europe.  In  the  following  winter  he  caught  a  chill 
during  his  return  from  a  news-room,  where  he  had  heen  eagerly 
studying  the  account  of  the  trial  of  the  ministers  of  Charles  X ; 
and  early  in  i83r  he  died, 

Voss,  the  translator  of  Homer,  was  a  frequent  visitor  in  the 
house  of  Niebuhr's  childhood,  and  the  German  Odyssey  was 
the  deUght  of  the  future  historian's  early  years'.  At  the  age 
of  fourteen  he  was  absorbed  in  the  study  of  a  MS  of  Varro,  which 
his  father  had  borrowed  from  the  library  at  Copenhagen.  The 
boy  discovered  for  himself  that  the  difficulty  of  many  passages 
was  really  due  to  lacunae,  which  had  not  been  indicated  in  the 
printed  editions".  During  a  visit  to  Scotland  he  acquired  a  new 
appreciation  of  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  he  afterwards  admitted 
that  his  'early  residence  in  England*  gave  him  'one  important 
key  to  Roman  history ' : — '  it  is  necessary  to  know  civil  life  by 
personal  observation  in  order  to  understand  such  States  as  those 
of  antiquity ;  I  never  could  have  understood  a  number  of  things 
in  the  history  of  Rome  without  having  observed  England'*. 
In  Berlin,  his  friends  were  Spalding,  Savigny,  Buttmann,  and 
Heindorf.  He  stood  in  no  such  relation  to  Wolf*.  In  his 
History  of  Rome  he  describes  'the  poems,  out  of  which'  (in 
his  view)  'the  history  of  the  Roman  kings  was  resolved  into 
a  prose  narrative",  as  'knowing  nothing  of  the  unity  which 
characterises  the  most  perfect  of  Greek  poems'\  thus  ignoring  the 


Herbst.  Vois,  i  117. 

'  ii.  ii  [36. 

Enc.  Brit. 

EadofTnf.toJ/iil.<i/Xi>i?u,ed.  i. 

•  iisBf,  E.T„ed.  1837. 

h.  !■,  ii,l^.OO^IC 

CHAP.  XXVIir.]  ■  NIEBUHR.  "^^^ 

results  of  Wolf's  Prolegomena.  But  the  critical  spirit,  which 
inspired  Wol^  was  in  the  air,  and  its  influence  affected  Niebuhr. 
His  theory  that  the  early  l^ends  of  Rome  had  been  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation  in  the  form  of  poetic  lays  was  not 
new.  It  had  been  anticipated  by  the  Dutch  scholar,  Peri- 
zonius',  but  Niebuhr  was  not  aware  of  this  fact  until  a  later 
date'.  Similarly,  a  French  scholar,  Louis  de  Beaufort,  had 
published  in  Holland  (1738-50)  a  work  on  the  uncertainty 
of  the  first  five  centuries  of  Roman  history,  but  this  was  purely 
negative  in  its  results.  Niebuhr's  work  marks  an  epoch  in  the 
study  of  the  subject.  His  main  results,  '  such  as  his  views  of 
the  ancient  population  of  Rome,  the  origin  of  the  piebs,  the 
relation  between  the  patricians  and  the  plebeians,  the  real  nature 
of  the  ager publicus,  and  many  other  points  of  interest,  have  been 
acknowledged  by  all  his  successors  ",  He  was  the  first  to  deal 
with  the  history  of  Rome  in  a  critical  and  scientific  spirit*.  His 
History  of  Rome  grew  out  of  his  lectures  at  BerUn.  The  same 
theme  was  predominant  in  certain  courses  of  lectures  delivered  at 
Bonn,  which  were  not  published  until  after  his  death'. 

Niebuhr's  work  as  a  scholar  was  far  from  being  confined  to 
the  domain  of  History.  The  two  volumes  of  his  'minor  historical 
and  philological  writings'  (1828-43)  include  much  that  is  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  classical  literature  and  the  criticism 
of  classical  texts.  In  i8r6,  with  the  aid  of  Buttmann  and 
Heindorf,  he  published  in  Berlin  an  improved  edition  of  the 
remains  of  Fronto  (which  had  been  printed  for  the  first  time 
in  the  previous  year  from  the  Bobbio  ms  found  by  Angelo  Mai 
at  Milan).     Late  in  the  summer  of  1816,  on  his  way  to  Rome, 

*  A»imadvirHotiti  HiiloHcac  (1685),  c  6;  vol.  ii  331  supra. 

*  i  IS*  E.T.,  and  Pnf.  vii.  His  discovery  led  him  to  propose  Perizonius 
as  the  theme  for  a  prize-essay ;  the  result  was  Gustav  Kramer's  £iy(um  (1818). 

'  Schniitz,  quoted  in  Enc.  Brit. 

*  RStniscke  Giickuhte,  vot.  i,  1811  (ed.  t,  1817,  ed.  3,  1818);  vol.  ii, 
iSii  {ed.  I,  1830);  vol.  iii,  ed.  Classen,  1831.  Complete  ed.  in  one  vol. 
1853  ;  new  ed.  1873-4.  Engt.  Transl.  1818-41,  by  Thirlwall  and  Julius  Haie  ; 
lasted.  1847-51- 

'  Lectures  on  Ethnography,  1851 ;  on  Ancient  History,  1847-51;  on  Roman 
History,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  fall  of  the  Weatern  Empire,  1846-8 
(E.T.  1B53);  and  on  Roman  Antiquities,  1858  {  —  Hist,  und  philol.  Vortragr 
lot  der  Univ.  Bonn  gehalttn,  ed.  Islei  and  M.  Niebuhr,  Berlin,  1846-58). 

„.,,„,^.oogic 


8o  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIIl  f 

he  discovered,  in  a  palimpsest  of  the  Capitular  Library  at  Verona, 
the  'Institutions'  of  the  Roman  jurist.  Gains;  he  immediately 
informed  Savigny,  and  an  edition  of  the  work  was  accordingly 
published  by  the  Berlin  Academy'.  In  Rome  he  discovered  in  a 
Vatican  ms  certain  fragments  of  Cicero's  Speeches  pro  M.  Fontew 
and  pro  C.  Haiirio'.  In  the  course  of  his  edition  of  Fronto, 
he  had  criticised  Mai's  arrangement  of  the  fragments  of  Cicero, 
pro  Stauro,  and  his  own  arrangement  had  been  confirmed  by 
a  MS  discovered  by  Peyron  at  Milan'.  Mai,  on  his  appointment 
as  librarian  of  the  Vatican,  was  somewhat  jealous  of  Niebuhr's 
acumen  as  an  editor,  and  Niebuhr  was  not  disposed,  as  the 
representative  of  Prussia,  to  ask  the  Vatican  for  favours  which 
he  might  readily  have  sought  as  an  ordinary  scholar.  ,  However, 
he  generously  contributed  to  Mai's  edition  of  the  Vatican  palim- 
psest of  Cicero,  De  Republica,  several  learned  notes,  together  with 
a  historical  and  a  verbal  index  (1822).  Niebuhr  was  the  first 
to  make  use  of  Lagomarsini's  vast  collection  of  various  readings 
preserved  in  the  CoUegio  Romano;  he  also  identified  the  mss 
collated  by  that  scholar*. 

In  1812  he  addressed,  to  a  young  friend,  a  memorable  letter, 
in  which  he  sets  forth  a  high  ideal  of  a  scholar's  life.  The 
authors  specially  recommended  for  study  are  Homer,  Aeschylus, 
Sophocles  and  Pindar,  with  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Demosthenes 
and  Plutarch,  and  Cicero,  Livy,  Caesar,  Sallust  and  Tacitus'. 
All  these  were  to  be  read  with  reverence,  not  with  a  view  to 
making  them  the  themes  of  aesthetic  criticism,  but  with  a  resolve 
to  assimilate  their  spirit.  This  (he  declares)  is  the  true  'Philology' 
that  brings  health  to  the  soul,  while  learned  invest^ations  (in  the 
case  of  such  as  attain  to  them)  belong  to  a  lower  level'. 

'  Ed.  Goschen  and  Bethmann'Hollweg,  iSii;  ed.  1,  1S34;  cp-  K.  G. 

Jacob's  Abhandlang,  6i  f. 

^  Ed.  iSio,  wilh  a  fragment  of  livy,  xci,  and  fragments  of  Seneca. 

'  K.  G.  Jacob,  %-i  f.  *  K.  G.  Jacob,  89. 

"  Horace's  Satires  are  recommended  (less  strongly  Ihan  his  Odes),  with 
only  a  few  of  Juvenal's.  No  other  poets  are  named.  Vii^l  and  Horace  aje 
depreciated  in  his  Lectures  on  Roman  History,  no.  107,  iii  135—142  E.T. 

'  Brief  an  einen  jangen  Philolagen,  printed  in  Lebenmaehrichten,  ii  )oof ; 
and  by  K.  G.  Jacob,  p.  n^ ;  translated  by  Julius  Hare,  On  a  Young  MiaCs 
Stadia,  in  (he  Edticational  Magazine,  1B40. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXVIir.]  NIEBUHR.  8l 

Niebuhr  also  wrote  a  historical  outline,  and  several  topo- 
graphical articles,  for  the  Description  of  the  City  of  Rome 
undertaken  by  the  artist,  Ernst  Platner,  who  had  resided  in 
Rome  since  1800,  and  by  Bunsen,  who  arrived  in  1818,  as 
Niebuhr's  Secretary  of  Embassy.  At  Naples  Niebuhr  collated 
a  MS  of  the  Dialogus  de  Oratoribus,  and  a  ms  of  Charisius 
(formerly  at  Bobbio),  and  afterwards  handed  over  these  collations 
to  Bekker  and  Lindemann.  On  his  way  back  to  Germany  in 
1813,  his  attention  was  drawn  in  the  library  of  St  Gallen  to 
a  palimpsest  including  considerable  fragments  of  poems,  and  a 
panegyrical  oration,  which  he  identified  as  the  work  of  the 
Spanish  poet  and  rhetorician,  Merobaudes.  He  immediately 
produced  an  edition  at  St  Gallen,  followed  by  an  improved 
edition  after  his  arrival  at  Bonn. 

At  Bonn  he  organised  a  plan  for  publishing  a  series  of  critical 
texts  of  the,  Byzantine  historians,  with  Latin  introductions,  trans- 
lations and  notes.  His  principal  contribution  to  the  Corpus 
Scriptorum  Hhtoriae  Byzantinae  was  an  edition  of  Agathias 
(1829).  After  his  death,  the  series  was  continued  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  and,  hy  the  end  of  1855,  forty- 
eight  volumes  had  been  published.  He  must  also  be  remembered 
as  Che  founder  (in  1827)  of  the  Rheinisches  Museum,  in  which  he 
was  associated  with  Brandis  and  Boeckh. 

His  early  connexion  with  Denmark  did  not  prevent  his  being 
perfectly  loyal  to  Prussia,  but  neither  in  England  nor  in  Italy 
did  he  succeed  in  assimilating  himself  to  his  surroundings.  It 
is  said  that  a  certain  excitability  of  temper  kept  him  from  feeling 
at  perfect  ease  either  in  public  or  in  private  life;  but  he  was 
undoubtedly  inspired  with  the  loftiest  aims,  and  had  a  warm 
heart,  and  a  magnanimous  and  noble  spirit.  The  main  interest 
of  his  greatest  work,  the  History  of  Rome,  has  been  found  in 
its  'freshness,  its  elation  of  real  or  supposed  discovery,  the 
impression  it  conveys  of  actual  contact  with  a  great  body  of 
new  and  unsuspected  truths".  He  may  perhaps  have  been 
justified  in  saying:^' the  discovery  of  no  ancient  historian  could 
have  taught  the  world  so  much  as  my  work ' ;  but  his  prediction, 
that  new  discoveries  would  'only  tend  to  confirm  or  develope' 
'  Garaelt  in  Etu.  Bril. 


I.oogic 


82  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

his  principles,  has  not  been  entirely  fulfilled.  His  theory  of  the 
derivation  of  ancient  Roman  history  from  popular  lays  was  refuted 
by  Sir  George  Comewall  Lewis,  in  his  Essay  on  the  Credibility 
of  Early  Roman  History;  and  archaeological  discoveries  have 
corrected  his  attitude  of  general  scepticism  as  to  early  traditions' ; 
but  'the  main  pillars  of  his  grand  structure  are  still  unshaken". 
Among  Niebuhr's  friends  at  Berlin  was  Georg  Ludwig  Spalding 
(1762 — 1811),  a  scholar  of  Pomeranian  birth,  who 
had  been  educated  in  Berlin,  and  who,  after  studying 
at  Gottingen  and  Halle,  became  in  1787  a  professor  at  a  gym- 
nasium in  Berlin.  Besides  writing  on  the  Megarian  School  of 
Philosophers,  and  preparing  an  edition  of  the  Speech  of  Demos- 
thenes against  Meidias,  he  produced  in  1798  f  the  first  three 
volumes  of  a  memorable  edition  of  the  Institutio  Oratoria  of 
Quintilian'.  On  his  visit  to  Rome  in  quest  of  materials  for  his 
Quintilian,  he  unfortunately  gave  W,  von  Humboldt  the  im- 
pression of  being  a  trifler  and  a  pedant*. 

The  popularisation  of  Plato  was  an  important  part  of  the  work 
of  Schleiermacher  (1768 — 1834).  His  translation  (1804-10)  in- 
cluded all  the  dialogues  except  the  Laws,  Eptnomis,  TYmaeus 

'  Niebuhr  himself  'repeatedlj  expresses  the  conviction  that  the  various 
vicis^tudes  by  which  learning  has  been  promoled  are  under  the  conlrol  of  an 
overruling  Piovidence  :  and  he  has  more  than  once  spoken  of  the  recent  dis- 
coveries, by  which  so  many  remains  of  Antiquity  have  tieen  brought  to  lighl. 
as  Providential  dispensations  for  the  increase  of  our  knowledge  of  God's  works, 
and  of  Hia  creatures'.    Julius  Hare,  in  Guesst!  at  Truth,  61  f,  ed.  r8(56. 

'  Dr  Schmiti,  Prefme  to  first  ed.  of  the  Engl,  transt.  of  Mommsen's 
Histury,  quoted  by  R.  Gamett  in  Enc.  Brit.  ed.  9.  The  chief  authority  for 
his  Life  is  the  Ltbensnackrichttn,  consisting  mainly  of  letters,  linked  by  a 
brief  biographical  narrative  by  his  friend,  Frau  Hensler  (3  vols.,  1838  f).  The 
letters  are  reduced  and  the  biography  expanded  (with  selections  from  the 
Kltine  Schriften)  in  Miss  Winkworth's  ed.  (185]').  Cp.  Julius  Hare's  Vindi- 
catiott  of  Nitbuhr,  1S39;  Francis  Lieber's  ^<ininiif«»fM  (igjj) ;  introduction 
to  K.  G.  Jacob's  reprint  of  the  Brie/  aa  linen  jimgiit  Phiiolageii  (1839); 
Classen's  Giddchlmsschrifi  (r8j6) ;  Eyssenhardl's  Biographiscker  Vtrsuck 
(1886) ;  Bursian,  i  647—654 ;  and  R.  Gamett  in  Enc.  Brit. ;  also  A.  Harnack, 
Gesch.  der prtass.  Akad.  i  614  f,  670  f,  ii  379—409. 

»  Vol.  iv  was  seen  through  the  press  by  Buttmann ;  and  new  materials  for 
the  criticism  of  the  text  were  supplied  in  voL  v  by  K.  G.  Zumpt  (1819). 
Vol.  vi  contained  an  admirable  Lexicon  Qaintilianeum  by  Bonnet  (1834). 

*  Vamhagen,  Verm.  Sthrifua,  ii  141*,  in  Eyssenhardt's  Nitbuhr,  48. 


CHAP.  XXVIII.]       SCHLEIERMACHER.      HEINDORF.  83 

and  Critias.  As  a  professor,  and- as  a  university-preacher  at 
Halle  in  1804,  he  had  been  familiar  with  Wolf,  and 
had  been  stimulated  by  that  scholar  in  his  Platonic  „^i^'"^" 
studies.  When  Halle  became  part  of  the  new 
Napoleonic  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  both  of  them  fled  to  Berlin, 
where  their  friendship  was,  for  a  time,  unimpaired.  Schleier- 
macher's  translation  was  the  earliest  successful  attempt  to  render 
a  great  writer  of  Greek  prose  in  German  of  an  artistic  and  literary 
type.  His  Introduction  presented  a  complete  survey  of  Plato's 
works  in  their  relation  to  one  another.  The  dialt^ues  were 
there  divided  into  three  groups: — (i)  preparatory  or  elementary 
dialogues  ;  (z)  dialogues  of  indirect  investigation  ;  (3)  expository 
or  constructive  diali^^ues, — a  division  taking  inadequate  account 
of  chronolc^cal  sequence'.  Schleiennacher  also  broke  new 
ground  in  his  researches  on  some  of  Plato's  precursors.  Among 
the  most  important  of  these  was  his  treatise  on  Heraclitus'  and 
his  paper  on  Socrates'. 

Julius  Hare  describes  him  as  'gifted  with  the  keenest  wit',  and  as  'the 
greatest  master  of  irony  since  Plato'.  'Vet... the  basis  of  his  character,  thekejf- 
iiote  of  his  whole  being,  was. ..a  love  which  deiighted  in  pouring  out  the 
boundless  riches  of  his  spirit  for  the  edifying  of  such  as  came  near  him,  and 
strove  with  unweariable  zeal  to  make  ihem  partakers  of  all  that  he  had. 
Heteby  was  his  heart  kept  fresh  through  the  unceasing  and  often  turbulent 
activity  of  his  life,  so  that  lh«  subtilty  of  his  understanding  had  no  power  to 
corrode  it ;  but  when  he  died,  he  was  still,  as  one  of  his  friends  said  of  him, 
tin  fiinfundiahzigjahrigir  JUti^ing'*, 

The  circle  of  scholars  at  Berlin  included  Ludwig  Friedrich 
Heindorf  (1774 — 1816).  Bom  in  Berlin,  he  was  an 
eager  and  enthusiastic  pupil  of  Wolf  at  Halle.  After 
teaching  for  a  time  in  the  dty  of  his  birth,  he  was  appointed  to  a 
professorship  at  Breslau  (1811-6),  and  died  soon  after  his  accept- 
ance of  a  call  to  Halle.  Heindorf,  who  was  ignobly  disowned  by 
his  master,  Wolf,  is  well  known  in  connexion  with  the  edition  of 
twelve  dialogues  of  Plato  (iSoz-io),  which  (as  we  have  seen)  led 

'  Zeller's  Plato,  etc  E.T,  loo;  Grote's  Plata,  i  171. 

'  Siimmt.  Wirkt,  in,  ii  if. 

*  ib.  ii  147  f.  Cp.,  in  genera],  Schleiermacher's  Ltben  in  Brie/en,  1858- 
63;  Zeller's  Vorirdge,  1865;  Lives  by  Dillhey  (1867)  and  Schenkl  (1868); 
Bursian,  i  663  f. 

*  Gutsses  at  Truth,  IJ4,  ed.  1866. 

h.  I  ■.iMa.oo'^lc 


84  GERMANY.  [cent.  XVIII  f 

to  a  breach  between  himself  and  his  master'.  His  editions  of 
Cicero,  De  Natura  Deorum,  and  of  the  Satires  of  Horace,  both 
published  in   1815,  are  specially  useful    for  their  explanatory 

Berlin  was  the  scene  of  the  active  life  of  the  distinguished 
grammarian,  Philipp  Karl  Buttmann  (1764^1829), 
a  member  of  a  family  of  French  Protestant  refugees, 
whose  original  name  was  Bouderaont.  Born  at  Frankfurt  and 
educated  at  the  local  school  and  under  Heyne  at  Gottingen,  after- 
spending  eight  months  with  Schweighauser  at  Strassburg,  he 
became  a  master  for  eight  years  at  ngymnasium  in  Berlin  (1800-8). 
In  1806  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  and,  in  1811, 
keeper  of  the  Royal  Library.  Without  belonging  to  the  cor- 
poration of  the  newly-founded  university,  he  took  part  in  the 
superintendence  of  the  '  philological  seminary '.  His  best-known 
work  was  his  Greek  Grammar,  first  published  as  a  brief  outline  in 
1792,  and  constantly  expanded  and  rearranged  and  improved  in 
many  subsequent  editions.  In  its  expanded  form,  it  was  known 
as  the  'intermediate  Grammar",  to  distinguish  it  from  the  new 
School  Grammar  of  1812  ;  and  from  the  'Complete  Grammar'  of 
1819-27,  to  which  additions  were  made  by  Lobeck.  The  success 
of  his  '  Intermediate  Grammar '  was  due  to  its  remarkable  clearness. 
The  rules  deduced  from  ihe  observation  of  grammatical  facts  are 
here  laid  down  in  a  lucid  form,  but  without  any  attempt  to  trace 
the  linguistic  laws  on  which  those  rules  depend.  The  introduction 
of  this  Grammar  led  to  a  marked  improvement  in  the  Greek 
scholarship  of  the  schools  of  Germany*. 

In  his  Lexilogus''  he  proves  himself  an  acute  investigator  of 
the  meanings  of  Homeric  words,  and  displays  a  keen  sense  of  the 
historic  developement  of  language,  but  is  obviously  unconscious  of 
the  importance  of  the  principles  of  comparative  philology*.  We 
can  hardly,  however,  be  surprised  at  his  ignoring  Bopp's  work  on 

'  P-  59  supra.  '  Bursian,  i  544,  654. 

»  E.  T.  184O!  ed.  3,  1848. 

'  Bursian,  i  655  f;  Eckstein,  Lat.  und  Gr.  Unlerricht,  394  f;  Wilamowiti 
in  Riform  dts . .  Sckultaatni,  ed.  Lexis,  1901,  164. 
>  18TS-15:  ed.  4,  1S65;  b1so£.T. 
«  G.  Oinms,  PHtuipUs  of  Ci  Elym.,  i  17  E.T. 

h.  i.,-iM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXVIII.]         BUTTMANN.      BEKKER.  8$ 

the  Conjugations  (1816)  and  Jacob  Grimm's  German  Grammar 
(iSig  f).  when  we  remember  that  even  Hermann  and  Lobeck 
regarded  the  new  science  with  suspicion.  Buttmann's  editions  of 
Greek  Classics  have  no  claim  to  being  considered  as  independent 
works.  His  edition  of  four  Platonic  dialogues  is  founded  on  that 
of  Biester ;  that  of  the  Meidias,  on  Spalding ;  that  of  the  Phiio- 
deles,  on  Gedike,  and  his  scholia  to  the  Odyssey,  on  Mai.  He  also 
edited  Aratus.  His  study  of  Latin  literature  is  represented  by  a 
few  papers  on  Horace,  one  of  which  was  the  precursor  of  many 
less  judicious  attempts  to  discover  interpolations  in  the  pages  of 
that  poet'.  But  his  main  strength  lay  in  Greek  Grammar  and 
Homeric  Lexicography.  His  keen  interest  in  Homer  even  led  to 
his  giving  his  children  the  Homeric  names  of  Helen  and  Hector, 
Achilles  and  Alexander'. 

The  textual  criticism  of  the  Greek  Classics  was  ably  represented 
by  Immanuel  Bekker  (1785 — 1871),  who  was  born 
and  died  in  Berlin.  Educated  under  Spalding,  he 
studied  at  Halle  under  Wolf,  who  made  him  inspector  of  his 
'  philological  seminary '.  He  gave  early  proof  of  his  familiarity 
with  the  Homeric  poems  in  his  reviews  of  Heyne's  Iliad  and  of 
Wolf's  Homer'',  On  the  foundation  of  the  university  of  Berlin,  he 
was  appointed  to  an  extraordinary,  and,  in  the  following  year,  to 
an  ordinary,  professorship, — a  position  which  he  held  for  sixty-one 
years  without  making  any  considerable  mark  as  an  academic 
teacher.  The  few  courses  of  lectures  that  he  announced  on  the 
speeches  of  Thucydides,  or  on  selections  from  Isocrates  and 
Aeschines,  were  either  not  delivered  at  all,  or  were  attended  by  a 
very  small  audience,  before  whom  he  scattered  a  few  of  the  golden 
grains  of  his  learning  with  every  appearance  of  a  certain  reluctance 
in  parting  with  his  treasures.  On  the  other  hand,  he  set  a  brilliant 
example  to  all  the  younger  generations  of  scholars  by  the  industry 
and  the  ability  that  he  lavished  on  the  collation  of  mss  and  the 
preparation  of  improved  texts  of  important  authors.  The  number 
of  MSS  that  he  collated,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  exceeded  four 
hundred.     In  1810-12  he  was  sent  by  the  Berlin  Academy  to 

'  Horax  und  Nicht-  fiorat,  appendix  to  his  Mylkalogus  (1818-9). 

'  D.  Boileau  in  E.T,  of  Gi  Gr.  p.  xiii.     Cp.,  in  general,  Barsian,  i  655-8. 

•  ffopuriicht  Bldiltr,  19  f. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


86  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX 

work  in  the  Paris  Library.  The  firetfniits  of  his  labours  in  France 
appeared  in  the  editw  princeps  of  Apollonius  Dyscolus,  On  the 
Pronoun  (1811).  In  1815  he  transcribed  (for  discussion  in  the 
future  Corpus)  the  Greek  inscriptions  collected  by  the  Abb^ 
Fourmont  in  1728-30'.  In  1817-19  he  was  collating  the  mss  of 
Aristotle  in  the  libraries  of  Italy.  On  his  return  he  revisited 
Paris.  Part  of  1820  was  spent  in  Oxford,  and,  after  a  few  further 
visits  to  England,  he  returned  to  Italy  in  1 839.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  lyric  and  the  tragic  poets,  there  is  hardly  any  class 
of  Greek  authors  whose  text  has  not  been  definitely  improved  by 
his  labours.  He  produced  two  editions  of  Homer ;  the  first,  pub- 
lished in  Berlin  in  1843,  was  founded  on  the  principles  of  Wolf, 
and  aimed  at  restoring  (so  far  as  practicable)  the  recension  of 
Aristarchus;  the  second,  published  at  Bonn  in  1858,  was  an 
attempt  to  attain  an  earlier  text  than  that  of  the  Alexandrian 
critics.  The  principles,  on  which  this  edition  was  founded,  were 
mainly  set  forth  in  a  series  of  papers,  which  were  presented  to  the 
Berlin  Academy  and  afterwards  published  in  a  collected  form ', 
He  also  produced  an  edition  of  the  scholia  to  the  Iliad{\%2^-2i), 
which,  without  being  exhaustive,  or  perfect  in  all  points  of  detail, 
has  the  advantage  of  presenting  the  scholia  of  the  Codex  Vtnetus 
in  their  proper  order  and  in  a  trustworthy  form'.  Of  the  later 
epic  poets,  he  edited  Aratus,  Coluthus  and  Tzetzes,  and  the 
'  Helen  and  Alexander '  of  Demetrius  Moschus.  For  his  editions 
of  Theognis,  he  was  the  first  to  use  the  important  ms  at  Modena. 
For  the  two  volumes  of  the  text  of  Aristophanes,  published  in 
London  with  the  ancient  scholia  in  1828,  he  collated  afresh  the 
Venice  ms,  and  the  Ravenna  MS,  the  importance  of  which  had, 
after  250  years  of  neglect,  been  brought  to  light  by  the  Roman 
lawyer,  Invernizi  (1794).  On  the  basis  of  a  careful  collation  of 
MSS,  Bekker  edited  Thucydides  with  the  scholia,  as  well  as 
Pausanias  and  Herodian.  He  also  prepared  new  editions  of 
Herodotus,  Polybius,  Dion  Cassius,  Diodorus,  Appian,  Josephus, 
and  the  Lives  of  Plutarch,  as  well  as  the  '  Bibliotheca '  of  Apollo- 
dorus,  together  with   Heliodonis  and   Lucian.     There  is  less 

'  Cp.  R.  C.  Christie's  Sekctid  Eiiays,  86 ;  p.  99  infra. 

*  Homtrische  Blatter,  1863-73. 

>  Cp.lAR<Kite,Texe,ZacAtiiuruiSciaiienda..C«iiexyautui[iS6i),i'jf. 

„.,,„,  ^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXVIII.]  BEKKER.  87 

originality  in  his  work  on  the  twenty-five  volumes  which  he  con- 
tributed to  the  Corpus  of  the  Byzantine  Historians.  A  marked 
advance  is,  however,  shown  in  his  editions  of  the  whole  of  Plato 
(with  the  scholia  and  a  full  critical  commentary)',  and  the  whole  of 
Aristotle'.  He  prepared  a  new  recension  of  Sextus  Empiricus. 
His  edition  of  all  the  Attic  Orators  was  published  first  at  Oxford 
(1822),  and  in  the  following  year  at  Berlin.  New  materials  for 
the  history  of  Greek  Grammar  and  Rhetoric  were  provided  in  the 
three  volumes  of  his  Anecdota  Graem,  and  new  texts  of  gram- 
matical works  in  his  editions  of  the  Syntax  of  ApoUonius,  the 
Bibliotkeca  of  Photius,  the  lexicons  of  Harpocration  and  Moeris 
and  Suidas,  the  Homeric  lexicon  of  ApoUonius,  and  the  Ono- 
masfuon  of  Pollux.  As  a  contribution  to  Greek  lexicography,  he 
produced  a  new  edition  of  the  small  Greek  lexicon  of  Niz,  in 
which  the  words  are  arranged  according  to  their  etymology.  The 
only  Latin  texts  which  he  edited  (apart  from  a  few  items  In  the 
Byzantine  series)  were  Livy,  with  short  notes  by  Raschig,  and 
Tacitus,  with  the  commentaries  of  earlier  scholars.  His  extra- 
ordinary activity  as  an  editor  seems  to  have  left  him  little  energy 
for  anything  else ;  he  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  scholars, 
but  he  did  not  shine  in  ordinary  conversation.  It  was  said  of  the 
editor  of  some  sixty  volumes  of  Greek  texts,  and  the  collator  of 
more  than  four  hundred  mss,  that  he  could  be  silent  in  seven 
languages'. 

'  8  vols.,  1816-23.  '  4  vols.,  1831-36. 

*  E.  J.  Bekker,  Zur  Brinnerung  an  laeitun  Voter  in  Prtuss.  fahrb.  (187a), 
""i*  553  ft  6+1  f;  H.  Sauppe,  Gotlingen,  1871;  Haupt,  O^te.  iii  118  f; 
Halm,  in  A.D.B. ;  and  Buisian,  i  658—663  ;  also  M.  Hertz,  in  Dattukt 
Rundschau,  Nov.  (885  (on  Boeckh  and  Beltker) ;  Leutsch,  in  Philol.  Aat. 
xvi  114  f;  Ilamack,  Gesch.  da-  prmss.  Akad.  i  857  f;  and  Gildeisleeve,  in 
^.y./-.  xxviii(i907)'i3- 


iM,Googlc 


GOTTFKIED   HBKMANN. 


Hbkmann. 

From  Weger's  engraving  of  the  portrait  by  C.  Vogel  (1841);   fronlispiece  to 
Kochly's  Get^ied  Hermann  (1874). 

h.  i."iM,Googlc 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 


HERMANN  AND   BOECKH. 


In  the  generation  next  to  that  of  Wolf,  the  two  great  scholars, 
Gottfried  Hermann  and  August  Boeckh,  were  conspicuous  as  the 
heads  of  two  rival  schools  of  classical  learning.  The  first  was 
the  grammafieal  and  critical  school,  which  made  the  text  of  the 
Oassics,  with  questions  of  grammar  and  metre  and  style,  the  main 
object  of  study.  The  second  (already  represented  by  Niebuhr) 
was  the  historical  and  antiquarian  school,  which  investigated  all 
the  manifestations  of  the  spirit  of  the  old  classical  world.  The 
precursors  of  the  first  school  were  to  be  mainly  found  among  the 
scholars  of  England  and  Holland;  those  of  the  second,  among 
the  scholars  of  France.  The  first  was  concerned  with  words,  the 
second  with  things ;  the  first  with  language  and  literature ;  the 
second  with  institutions,  and  with  art  and  archaeology.  The 
adherents  of  the  first  were  twitted  by  their  opponents  with  a 
narrow  devotion  to  notes  on  classical  texts ;  those  of  the  second 
were  denounced  as  dilettanti.  It  is  now,  however,  generally  agreed 
that,  while,  in  theory,  the  comprehensive  conception  of  the  wide 
field  of  classical  learning  formed  by  Boeckh  is  undoubtedly  correct, 
in  practice  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  languages  is  the  indispen- 
sable foundation  for  the  superstructure.  That  knowledge  is  in 
fact  (to  change  the  metaphor)  the  master-key  to  all  the  departments 
of  the  intellectual  life  of  the  ancient  classical  world'. 

Hermann  (1772 — 1848)  was  bom  at  Leipzig,  where  his  father 
was  the  senior  member  of  the  local  court  of  Sheriffs ; 
his  mother,  a  very  vivacious  and  interesting  person,     Hemlnn'' 
of  French  descent,  retained  her  marvellous  memory 

'  Bursian,  ii  665  f. 

h.  i.,  ii,l^.OOglc 


90  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

to  the  age  of  ninety.  A  boy  of  delicate  frame,  high  spirits,  and 
unruly  temper,  the  young  Hermann  was  fortunate  in  being  en- 
trusted, at  the  age  of  twelve,  to  the  strict  discipline  and  the 
stimulating  teaching  of  Ilgen,  the  future  Rector  of  Schulpforta', 
Matriculating  at  Leipzig  at  the  early  age  of  fourteen,  he  attended 
the  lectures  of  F.  W.  Reiz,  who  pointed  out  the  importance  of  the 
study  of  metre,  and  set  before  him  the  example  of  Bentley.  From 
Reiz,  whom  he  always  remembered  with  gratitude,  he  learnt  three 
things  in  particular,  (i)  never  to  study  more  than  one  writer,  or 
one  subject,  at  a  time,  (2)  never  to  take  any  statement  on  trust, 
and  (3)  always  to  be  able  to  give  a  good  reason  for  holding  any 
opinion  which  he  deemed  to  be  true'.  He  joined  the  university 
of  Jena  for  a  single  semester,  with  a  view  to  attending  Reinhold's 
lectures  on  Kant  (1793-4),  which  were  not  without  their  influence 
on  the  logical  precision  which  subsequently  marked  his  own 
teaching  of  metre  and  grammar'.  Passing  rapidly  through  the 
preliminary  stages  at  Leipzig,  he  became  professor  of  Eloquence 
in  1803  and  of  Poetry  in  1809.  His  mastery  of  Latin  prose  was 
manifest  in  all  the  speeches  and  letters  that  he  composed  on  be- 
half of  the  university,  while  a  long  line  of  enthusiastic  pupils  first 
learnt  from  his  eloquent  lips  the  true  meaning  of  the  old  Greek 
poets.  As  a  teacher,  he  had  a  singularly  attractive  and  eng^^ing 
personality,  combined  with  a  primitive  simplicity  of  character  and 
an  unswerving  love  of  truth.  His  lectures,  which  were  usually 
delivered  in  latin,  were  simple  and  clear  in  style,  and  free  from 
all  striving  for  rhetorical  effect;  but  they  were  inspired  with  a  keen 
enthusiasm  for  the  old  classical  world.  His  talent  as  a  teacher 
was  most  conspicuous  in  his  lectures  on  the  Greek  tragic  poets, 
and  on  Pindar  and  Homer ;  but  he  also  lectured  on  Hesiod  and 
Theocritus,  on  Thucydides,  and  on  Aristotle's  Treatise  on  Poetry, 
and  on  Plautus  and  Terence.  Of  his  other  courses  the  most 
important  were  those  on  metre  and  grammar,  and  on  criticism 
and  hermeneutics,  while  he  occasionally  lectured  on  Greek  litera- 
ture, on  the  Greek  festivals,  and  on  the  antiquities  of  the  Greek 

'  Otto  Jahn,  Siogr.  Au/sdtu,  91  f;  p.  63  suj>ra. 

*  Opusc.  viii  453  f;  Jahn,  96  f;  Kochly's  Hermann,  sf,  ii5f. 

'  Jahn,  99,    Cp.  p.  91,  n.  8  infra. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XXIX.]  GOTTFRIED   HERMANN.  gi 

theatre*.  But  his  main  interest  was  in  the  study  of  the  ancient 
languages',  and  he  always  insisted  on  the  supreme  importance  of 
a  first-hand  acquaintance  with  the  writings  of  the  ancients'.  In 
an  early  work  he  urged  that  a  strictly  logical  and  rational  method 
should  be  applied  to  the  study  of  Greek  Grammar  (i8oi)*,  and  in 
the  following  year  dealt  with  a  number  of  points  of  Syntax  in  his 
additions  to  the  German  version  of  Viger's  work  on  Greek  idioms". 
Of  his  later  discussions  on  Syntax  the  most  notable  were  his  papers 
on  'Ellipse  and  Pleonasm",  his  dissertation  on  ovm',  and  his 
'four  books  on  the  particle  av'^.  He  was  opposed  to  the  com- 
parative philologists  of  his  day^ 

In  his  writings  on  ancient  metre  he  had  no  important  modern 
precursors  except  Bentley  and  Porson.  Bentley's  only  separate 
treatise  on  the  subject  was  his  brief  Schediasma  on  the  metres  of 
Terence,  while  Porson  had  been  led  by  a  careful  observation  of 
facts  to  formulate  rules  for  the  ordinary  iambic  and  trochaic  metres 
of  the  Greek  drama.  Brunck  and  Reisig  had  also  paid  some 
attention  to  the  subject  Hermann's  work,  however,  was  more 
systematic;  he  began  by  studying  the  ancient  authorities,  above 
all  Hephaestion,  expounding  and  correcting  them  by  the  light  of 
his  own  study  of  the  Greek  poets'*.  He  elucidated  the  rhythms 
of  Greek  poetry  by  the  effective  recitation  of  passages  from  the 
poets,  and  for  this  purpose  he  abandoned  the  customary  Reuch- 

■  Cp.  Thiersch,  Ueber  gelihrli  SckuUn, 'u  115  (Bnisian,  ii  66911.), 
'  Jahn,  104,  108  f.  '  Opusc.  vii  98  f. 

*  Dt  imeadanda  ratioru  Graicae  Gramniaticae,  pars  prima. 

*  Di  fratcipms  Greucae  dictionis  idiotismis  (1617),  ed.  iSoi  elc,  and, 
finally,  183+.     Cp.  Jahn,  106  f. 

*  Opusc.  i  148 — 144. 
^  ib.  i  308—341. 

'  a.  iv  I — 304.  Cp.  Koecbly,  30  f.  For  protests  against  the  melaphysical 
treatment  of  Syntan  by  Hermann  and  others,  see  Gildersleeve,  in  A.y.F.n 
480;  and  W.  G.  Hale,  in  Canull  Studies,  i  {Cum-Constrwrlions,  1887-9) 
7,  98,  147,  and  in^  Cenlitry  of  Mdaphysical  Syntax  (Free,  Si  Louis  Congress, 
1904,  vol.  iii). 

°  Pref.  to  Acta  Sec.  Graecae,  xii,  quoted  in  vol.  i  n  n.  5  supra. 

'*  His  earliest  treatise,  Dc  Melris  Foetantm  Graceerum  tt  Romatiorum 
{1791),  is  enlai^ed  in  his  German  'Handbook  of  Melrik'  (1799),  and  is  further 
developed  in  his  EUmenta  Docirinae  Mttricai  (1S16)  with  the  conesponding 
Epitame  (\%\%).    Goethe  was  much  interested  in  his 'Haadbaolc'(KoecbIj,  17), 


92  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

linian  method  of  pronunciation  for  one  which  was  closely  akin  to 
that  of  Erasmus '. 

In  textual  criticism  his  conjectures  rest  on  a  Ane  sense  of 
Greek  idiom.  When  the  text  is  clearly  corrupt,  he  relies  mainly 
on  his  own  sense  of  what  the  original  author  ought  to  have  written. 
But  he  does  not  resort  to  conjecture  for  its  own  sake  ;  his  aim  is 
strictly  to  make  his  author  say  what  he  really  meant  to  say*. 
Textual  criticism,  he  maintained,  must  go  hand  in  hand  with 
exegesis.  The  exponent  of  the  Classics  must  explain  the  individual 
words,  elucidate  the  historical  references,  set  forth  the  author's 
aim,  and  the  general  scheme  of  his  work,  with  its  merits  and  its 
defects*.  But  he  must  always  be  conscious  of  the  limits  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  ancient  world : — est  quaedam  etiam  msciendi  ars 
el  sdentia*. 

Among  his  published  works  a  foremost  place  must  be  assigned 
to  his  editions  of  the  Greek  tragic  poets.  As  a  specimen  of  his 
Aeschylus,  he  put  forth  the  Eumenides  in  1799,  but  more  than 
fifty  years  elapsed  before  the  appearance  of  his  posthumous  edition 
of  the  whole  (1852)°.  His  work  on  Sophocles  was  connected  with 
that  of  his  pupil,  Etfurdt  (1780— 1813),  who  had  produced  in 
i8oa-i  I  a  critical  edition,  which  was  completed  by  the  publication 
of  the  Oedipus  Co/onetis  by  Heller  and  Doederlein  in  1825,  while 
Erfurdt's  proposed  lexicon  was  ultimately  produced  by  EUendt 
(1834).  Erfurdt  had  also  begun  a  smaller  edition  for  the  use  of 
students;  his  Antigone  appeared  in  1809,  and  the  series  was 
completed  by  Hermann  in  1811-25.  Between  1810  and  1841 
Hermann  produced  separate  editions  of  thirteen  plays  of  Euri- 
pides'. In  place  of  an  edition  of  the  Medea,  we  have  his  notes 
on  that  of  Elmsley^.  The  only  play  of  Aristophanes  that  he 
edited  was  the  Clouds. 

The  different  kinds  of  interpolations  in  the  Homeric  Hymns 

'  Koechly,  24.  '  Jahn,  116. 

*  Dt  officio  inlerpretisyK-aOpascsv.  1)1  i. 

*  Ofmsc.  ii  a88.     Cp.  vol.  ii  319  d.  3  supra. 

*  Here,  liio,  Suppl.  1S11,  Bacchae  (mainly  supplementary  lo  Elmslef's  ed.) 
1813;  Ion,  axAAlc.  {with  notes  from  Monk),  1817  j  /&„  Ifk.  AtiL,  Ipk.T., 
Hel.,  Andr.,  CycL,  Phoen.,  Or.  {1831-41). 

■  .'  0/<«£.  iii  143— 161- 

h,  i.MiA.OOt^lC 


CHAP.  XXIX.]  GOTTFRIED   HERMANN.  93 

and  in  Hesiod's  Theogonia  are  distinguished  in  the  Letter  to  Ilgen 
prefixed  to  Hermann's  early  edition  of  the  former  {1806).  His 
mature  opinions  on  the  Homeric  question  are  presented  in  his 
papers  of  1831-2'. 

He  here  defends  the  hjrpothesis  of  Wolf  against  the  opinion  of  ihe  most 
important  and  most  scholarly  of  its  opponents,  Nitisch,  who  held  that  Homer 
composed  the  Iliad  with  (be  aid  of  older  poems,  and  that  he  probably  also 
composed  the  Odyssey,  in  which  he  was  more  original  and  l«ss  indebted  to  his 
predecessors.  Wolf  had  held  that  the  weaving  of  the  Homeric  web  had  been 
earritddmon  to  a  certain  foint  by  the  first  and  chief  author  of  the  poem,  and 
had  been  continued  by  Others.  Hermann,  improving  on  this  opinion,  su^ested 
lha(  the  original  sketch  of  our  Iliad  and  our  Odyssey  had  been  produced  by  the 
first  poet,  and  that  the  later  poets  did  not  carry  on  ike  lexlure,  but  completed 
the  design  wilhin  (he  outline  that  was  already  drawn', 

Hermann  made  many  valuable  contributions  to  the  criticism 
and  exposition  of  Hesiod'.  His  edition  of  the  Orphica  {1805) 
supplies  a  much  improved  text,  with  an  appendix  showing,  on 
metrical  and  linguistic  grounds,  that  the  date  of  these  poems  lies 
between  that  of  Quintus  Smyrnaeus  and  Nonnus'.  It  is  of  this 
appendix  that  Lehrs  remarked  that  nothing,  had  appeared  in 
modern  times  more  worthy  of  the  genius  of  Bentley'. 

Pindar  was  the  theme  of  his  hfe-long  study.  As  early  as  1798 
he  had  contributed  to  Heyne's  Pindar  a  treatise  on  the  poet's 
metres.  In  a  later  paper  he  showed  that  Ihe  language  of  the 
different  odes  had  an  Aeolic  or  a  Doric  colouring  which  varied 
with  the  rhythm  in  which  they  were  composed'.  His  text  of  Bion 
and  Moschus  was  published  in  1849. 

His  work  was  mainly  limited  to  the  Greek  poets,  the  only 

'  Opuse.  vsi-77(i833),vi(i)7of  (183.),  and  viiirif  (1840).  He  had 
printed  a  Tauchniti  text  of  Homer  in  1835  (Praef.  in  Opun.  iii  74—81). 

'  Opase.  VI  (r)  86  f ;  Jahn,  109 ;  Koechly,  36 — 40 ;  Jebb's  Homer,  119  f. 
In  connexion  with  the  method  of  reciting  the  Homeric  poems  enjomed  by 
Solon,  Hermann  opposed  the  views  of  Boeckh  in  two  papers  on  the  meaning 
of  the  term  bropoMi  {Opusc.  v  300,  vii  65) ;  cp.  vol.  i  19  n.  sufra. 

*  Review  of  Goetding's  ed.  1831  in  Opusc.  vi  (i)  141  f.  In  vii  47  he 
suggests  that  the  Theogonia  originally  consisted  of  156  stanzas  of  ;  lines  each. 

'  Cp.  Q^^.  iii-i7(i8ir). 

'  Lehrs,  Quaesliones  Bpicae,  155 ;  Koechly,  37,  169, 

•  Opiise.  i  I4S  f;  see  also  iii  11  f  (on  Nim.  vii),  v  181  f  (df^vt),  n  (l)  3  f 
Ireview  ofDissen);  also  emendations  etc.  in  vii  jip  f,  viii  68 — 118  ;  cp. 
Jahn,  III  f. 

.  D„:,|.,"lh;COOglC 


94  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Greek  prose  text'  which  he  edited  being  Aristotle's  Poetic  (1802) 
with  a  dissertation  on  tragic  and  epic  poetry*.  The  early  interest 
in  Plautus,  which  he  owed  to  Reisig,  bore  fruit  in  editions  of  the 
Trinummus",  and  the  Bacckides,  the  former  of  which  was  highly 
praised  by  Ritschl'.  His  attention  was  drawn  to  Greek  Mytho- 
logy by  Creuzer,  whose  views  he  elaborately  examined  in  1819. 
In  his  papers  on  Greek  Inscriptions  (mainly  on  those  in  metre), 
he  severely  criticises  the  way  in  which  they  had  been  handled  by 
archaeologists  such  as  Boeckh  and  Welcker', 

His  lectures,  no  less  than  his  dissertations,  gave  proof  of  his 
command  of  an  excellent  style  in  Latin  prose.  For  23  years  he 
hardly  ever  failed  to  send  on  New  Year's  Eve  a  set  of  Latin  verses 
in  remembrance  of  the  birthday  of  his  friend  Carl  Einert',  and  in 
1817  he  celebrated  the  tercentenary  of  the  Reformation  in  no 
lines  of  Latin  Elegiacs.  He  exemplified  the  difference  between 
the  stately  style  of  Greek  tragedy,  and  the  spasmodic  movement 
of  modern  drama,  by  some  thoroughly  idiomatic  renderings  from 
Schiller's  Walknstein,  which  he  executed  amid  the  distractions  of 
his  drawing-room'.  His  life-long  practice  in  riding  lends  a  special 
value  to  his  brief  papers  on  the  various  phrases  used  in  Greek  to 
denote  the  different  paces  of  a  horse'.  An  officer  of  dragoons  was 
so  struck  by  the  excellence  of  his  horsemanship  that  he  asked  the 
professor  whether  he  had  ever  served  in  the  cavalry;  and  a  scholar, 
who  had  learnt  much  from  one  of  his  reviews,  described  him,  in 
the  words  of  Horace,  as  grammaticorum  equitum  docttssimus*. 
Even  at  his  professorial  lectures  he  was  wont  to  appear  in  his  blue 
riding-coat,  and  in  high  boots  and  spurs'°,  and  his  pupils  were 

'  Except  his  text  of  Photius  {1808). 

*  Koechly,  31,  151. 
'  iSoo;  ed.  1,  1853. 

*  Kl.  Philoi.Schr.  ii  190.    Cp.  Jahn  ii6f:  Koechly,  46  f,  185—191. 

'  Ufber  Herm  Profissor  Boeckk's  Behandlung  der  griuhiscAen  ImchriJUn 
(1816);  also  Opusc.  iv  303—332,  v  164—181,  vii  17+— 189. 
«  KoecUy,  61  f,  165—386. 
'  0/«if.  V3SS— 361;  Koechly,  197  f, 
"  On  Xen,  De  St  Eq.  c.  7,  in  Opuse.  \  63  f. 

■  Goltling's //■«/«/,  Ptol^.  xxjdi ;  Koechly,  393;  p.  iiT^-iinfra. 
"  Koechly,  7,  70,  313  f;  Jahn,  101 ;  Donaldson,  Schidankip  and  Ltaming, 


,Cooglc 


CHAP.  XXIX.]  BOECKH.  95 

vividly  impressed  by  the  brightness  of  his  eyes  and  the  breadth  of 
his  lofty  brow,  by  the  singular  transparency  of  his  character,  and 
by  the  simple  eloquence  of  his  language.  The  Greek  Society, 
which  he  founded  at  Leipzig,  numbered  nearly  200  members 
during  the  half-century  of  its  existence.  It  is  these  who  in  a 
special  sense  founded  the  school  of  Hermann,  and  they  included 
scholars  of  such  note  as  Passow,  I'hiersch,  Meineke,  K.  F. 
Hermann,  Trendelenburg,  Spengel,  Classen,  Ritschl,  Sauppe, 
Haupt,  Bergk,   Koechly,  Bonitz,  and  Arnold  Schaefer'. 

While  Hermann,  the  representative  of  pure  scholarship,  con- 
centrated his  attention  on  the  language,  and  especially  on  the 
poetry,  of  the  old  Greek  Classics,  it  was  the  historic  interest  that 
predominated  in  the  case  of  his  great  contemporary, 
August  Boeckh  {1785 — 1867).  At  the  school  of 
his  birth-place,  Carlsruhe,  he  attained  that  proficiency  in  mathe- 
matics which  lends  distinction  to  several  of  his  maturer  works. 
At  Halle  he  studied  theology,  philosophy,  and  philology,  with  a 
view  to  a  clerical  or  a  scholastic  career;  but  the  influence  of  Wolf 
led  to  his  concentrating  himself  on  the  Greek  Classics,  while  the 
lectures  of  Schlelermacher  guided  him  to  the  special  study  of 
Plato.  His  earliest  work  dealt  with  the  pseudo-Platonic  Minos 
(i8o6).  He  next  spent  a  year  in  Bellermann's  Seminar  at  Berlin, 
where  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Heindorf  and  Buttmann.  In 
1807  he  returned  to  his  native  land  of  Baden,  and  became  a  full 
professor  at  Heidelberg  only  two  years  later.  His  lectures  at  that 
university  covered  a  wide  range  of  authors  and  of  subjects'.  His 
continued  interest  in  Plato  was  proved  by  his  four  papers  on  the 
TYmaeus',  and  by  his  edition  of  six  pseudo-Platonic  dialogues 
(rSio)*.     At  the  same  time,  his  study  of  Aeschylus,  Sophocles, 

'  Koechly,  S9,  t$J.  Cp.  in  general  Olto  Jahn's  Giddchtnissrede  41849), 
reprinted  in  Biogr.  Aufsatzr,  91  —  135,  ed.  1866;  K.  F.  Ameis,  G.  Htrmann'i 
pUdagB^uher  Etnfiust  (1850);  H.  Kiicllly,  G.  Hermann  (1874),  350  pp.; 
Paulsen,  ii  404-8';  Urlicha,  115-8';  Bursian,  ii  666—687,  and  in  A.  D.  B.\ 
Wilamowiti,  £Mr. /fe".  i  135-9'.  Opuscula  in  eight  vols.,  i^vii  (1817-39), 
viii  (1876). 

*  Bursian,  ii  688  n.  1. 

'  Kl,  Sthr.  iii  109  f,  181  f,  iig  f.  166  f. 

*  Bratnscheck,  A.  Betckk  ah  Plalpniker,  in  Bergmann's  Philes.  Mtmats- 
hiflen,  i  371  f. 


,i^.ooglc 


BOECKH. 

From  the  frontispiece  to  Max  Hoffinann's  August  Boakk  (1901). 

h.  !■,  ii,l^.OOglc 


CHAP.  XXIX.]  EOECKH.  97 

and  Euripides  boTe  fruit  in  a  treatise  on  those  poets,  in  which 
verbal  criticism  is  very  subordinate  to  questions  of  wider  literary 
interest,  such  as  the  extent  of  the  chaises  early  introduced  into 
the  original  texts  by  actors,  etc'  This  treatise  was  dedicated  in 
eulogistic  terms  to  his  future  critic,  Hermann,  to  whom  he  was 
then  unknown.  At  Heidelberg  he  also  gave  early  proof  of  his 
study  of  Pindar  in  three  papers,  the  longest  of  which  deals  with 
the  poet's  metres,  proving  that  words  must  never  be  broken  in  two 
at  the  end  of  the  lines '.  The  greater  part  of  his  Pindar  must  have 
been  practically  finished  while  he  was  still  at  Heidelberg,  at  a 
time  when  he  was  more  interested  in  the  literary  than  the  historical 
and  antiquarian  aspects  of  classical  learning.  The  first  volume 
was  published  in  1811,  and  it  was  completed  in  iSsi  with  the  aid 
of  his  friend,  Ludolph  Dissen,  who  wrote  the  commentary  on  the 
Nemean  and  Isthmian  Odes.  In  this  edition  the  text  is  founded 
on  the  collation  of  numerous  Mss,  and  the  exegesis  on  a  renewed 
study  of  the  scholia  printed  in  the  first  part  of  the  second  volume. 
It  is  still  more  important  for  the  light  that  it  throws  on  the  poefs 
metres,  and  on  the  principles  of  his  composition. 

In  the  spring  of  i8ir  he  left  Heidelberg  for  the  position  of 
professor  of  Eloquence  and  of  Classical  Literature  in  the  newly- 
founded  university  of  Berlin,  and  for  56  years  he  continued  to  be 
one  of  the  chief  ornaments  of  that  seat  of  learning.  The  wide 
range  of  his  earlier  lectures  was  gradually  narrowed  into  a  course 
extending  over  two  years,  and  including  a  general  survey  of 
classical  learning,  with  special  courses  on  Metrik,  Greek  Antiqui- 
ties and  Greek  Literature,  and  lectures  on  Pindar,  on  a  play  of 
Euripides  or  Sophocles  (generally  the  Antigone),  a  dialogue  of 
Plato  (usually  the  Republic),  and  a  speech  of  Demosthenes.  His 
delivery  was  not  so  animated  as  that  of  Wolf  or  Hermann,  but  his 
maturer  students  could  not  fail  to  appreciate  the  depth  and  solidity 
of  his  attainments  and  his  perfect  mastery  of  his  subject.  In 
Berlin  the  publication  of  his  Pindar  was  delayed  for  several  years 
by  the  Napoleonic  war,  but  some  important  papers  on  that  poet 

J  GroKoe  tragMdicu  frindfum... num... geniiinB  omnia  sirtt...  {1808). 

"  This  had  been  assetted  (without  proof)  by  C.  W.  Ahlwardt  (1760—1830), 
in  I798f,  and  had  been  noticed,  as  an  almost  invariable  rule,  by  J.  H.  Voss  in 
his  Zeitmessung,  343  {Herbst,  ii  (1)  164,  310  0- 


>1^ 


.tX-)C5IC 


98  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

were  laid  before  the  Berlin  Academy'.  His  papers  on  the  Antigone 
(1824)  were  printed  in  his  edition  of  the  text  together  with  a  free 
translation,  the  publication  of  which,  in  1845,  was  prompted  by 
the  first  performance  of  the  play  with  Mendelssohn's  music  in 
Berlin  in  1841*.  The  date  of  the  Oedipus  Coionais  was  discussed 
in  1825-6',  and  the  distribution  of  the  first  choral  ode  among  the 
members  of  the  chorus  in  1843*.  A  paper  on  a  corrupt  passage 
of  Euripides  supplies  an  exceptional  example  of  his  success  as  a 
conjectural  critic'.  Meanwhile,  his  continued  interest  in  Plato 
had  led  to  his  writing  a  valuable  paper  on  Philolaus  (1819). 

In  the  historical  and  antiquarian  province  of  classical  learning 
Boeckh  is  represented  by  two  important  works,  which  have  laid 
the  foundation  for  all  later  research  in  the  departments  with  which 
they  are  concerned.  The  first  of  these  is  the  Public  Economy  of 
Athens,  originally  published  in  two  volumes'  with  an  Appendix  of 
Inscriptions  on  the  Athenian  Navy  (1840).  The  second  is  the 
Corpus  Inscriptionum  Graecarum.  The  former  was  partly  inspired 
by  WolPs  Prolegomena  to  the  'Leptines',  and  it  is  dedicated  to 
Niebuhr.  It  supplies  us  with  a  full  and  systematic  statement 
of  the  economic  side  of  the  Athenian  constitution  in  its  actual 
working.  The  treatise  on  the  Silver  Mines  of  Laurium  arises  out 
of  the  same  subject  and  is  included  in  the  English  translation 
of  1838'. 

The  second  and  third  German  editions  have  an  appendix  of 
inscriptions  relating  to  the  finances  of  Athens.  In  the  course  of 
the  preparation  of  the  original  work,  the  author  formed  a  plan  for 
a  complete  collection  of  such  documents.  The  proposal  was 
supported  by  Buttmann  and  Niebuhr,  and  accepted  by  the  Berlin 
Academy.  The  first  two  folio  volumes  of  the  Corpus  (1825-43) 
were  edited  by  Boeckh,  the  third  (1845-53)  by  Franz,  the  fourth 
was  begun  by  Ernst  Curtius  and  continued  by  Kirchhoff,  and  the 
whole  was  completed  when  Roehl's  Indices  were  published  in  1877, 

'  KI.  Schr.  V  148,  vii  369. 

'  Cp.  Jebb's  ed.  xli ;  Max  Hoffmann's  Boeckh,  96  f. 

»  Kl.  Schr.  iv  ai8.  *  ib.  517. 

'  iph.  Aal.  188,  om  Ka.Ta.T(vSi  \iay  (for  KanvrH  \tav  a')  tyii. 

«  i8r;  jE.  T.  1818  and  184J);  ed.  3,  1851  (E.  T.  Boston,  1857); 
ed.  3,  1886. 

'  Ed.  1,  [843. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXIX.]  BOECKH.  99 

more  than  fifty  years  after  the  work  had  been  begun  by  Boeckh. 
The  first  part  of  the  first  volume  was  severely  reviewed  by  Her- 
mann in  1825',  and  this  severity  was  largely  justified.  Boeckh, 
who  had  had  no  experience  in  examining  or  copying  inscriptions 
in  situ,  had  not  recognised  the  fact  that  an  exact  facsimile  was  a 
necessary  preliminary  to  the  successful  restoration  of  the  text.  He 
had  generally  accepted  the  transcripts  on  trust,  and  his  restorations 
had  often  done  violence,  either  to  the  evidence  of  those  transcripts, 
or  to  the  laws  of  the  Greek  language.  On  the  other  hand,  he  had 
shown  great  judgement  in  deciding  questions  as  to  the  genuineness 
of  these  documents.  The  twenty-six  inscriptions,  which  the  French 
traveller,  Michel  Fourmont,  had  professed  to  have  found  among 
the  ruins  of  Amyclae,  had  been  already  suspected  in  England  by 
Payne  Knight  and  in  France  by  Boissonade,  and  were  conclusively 
proved  by  Boeckh  to  be  forgeries*.  In  the  scientific  handling  of 
inscriptions,  he  had  no  precursors  worthy  of  the  name,  except 
Corsini  and  Chandler;  so  that  he  is  practically  the  founder  of  this 
branch  of  learning.  The  first  systematic  work  on  the  subject, 
that  of  Franz',  is  based  entirely  on  Boeckh's  labours^.  In  editing 
the  inscriptions  of  Greece,  Boeckh  applied  his  mathematical  and 
astronomical  knowledge  to  the  investigation  of  important  points  of 
chronology',  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Ideler  (1766 — 1846)'. 
His  mathematical  skill  is  also  shown  in  his  examination  of  the 
weights,  the  coinage-standards,  and  the  measures  of  the  ancients 

1  p.  94  sufira.  Itie  best  accouni  of  the  long  controversy  between  Hermann 
anil  Boeckh,  a,nd  their  final  reconciliation,  is  [n  Max  Hoflhiann's  Life  of  Boeckh 
(1901),  48— 65. 

"  C.  I.  G.  i  p.  61  f.  While  all  the  inscriptions  published,  or  left  ready  for 
publication,  by  Foarmont  were  forgeries,  there  were  hundreds  of  genuine 
inscriptions,  transcribed  by  himself,  which  he  never  published.  Cp.  R.  C 
Christie's  SiUcied Essays,  86-9;  p.  86  supra. 

*  EUmmta  Epigraphiees  Graaae,  184O.  Cp.  Ctaben,  £pigraphit  S'''^9'"< 
1507. 

*  The  inscriplions  of  Attica  have  since  been  edited  anew,  with  large 
additions,  in  the  foor  volumes  of  the  Cerput  Mscr.  AUicarum  {1873-95), 
Mlowed  by  the  earhest  Greek  inscriptions  (1S81),  and  by  those  of  Sicily  and 
Italy  (1890),  N.  Greece  (1891),  and  the  Greek  Islands  (1895). 

'  On  the  lunar  cycles  of  the  Greeks,  A?.  Sckr.  vi  339  f ;  on  Manetho  and 
die  Dog-star  period,  1*.  iii  343. 

*  Author  of  the  ^BfxiiftM-A  (1835  f)  and  the  Zi^Ar^wi-^  (1831)  of  Chronology, 
and  of  many  papers  on  the  history  of  ancient  Astronomy. 

h.  i.,  i7-x^oot^lc 


lOO  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

(1S38),  a  work  that  gave  the  first  impulse  to  all  subsequent  in- 
vestigations. His  wide  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  various 
branches  of  classical  learning  was  attested  in  the  course  of  lectures 
repeatedly  given  by  him  at  Berlin  and  since  published  by  one  of 
his  pupils'.  His  systematic  account  of  the  field  of  learning,  as  a 
whole,  is  practically  founded  on  that  of  Wolf,  the  details  of  whose 
system  he  criticises  with  some  severity.  Boeckh's  system,  how- 
ever, shows  a  marked  advance  on  that  of  Wolf;  and  other  systems 
are  reviewed  by  Boeckh  himself.  Among  the  many  subsequent 
schemes  are  those  of  Emil  Hubner,  and  of  Martin  Hertz'. 

The  list  of  his  pupils  includes  not  a  few  distinguished  names. 
He  was  keenly  interested  in  the  subsequent  career  of  K.  O.  MiilJer 
at  Gbttingen,  and  of  Edward  Meier  at  Greifswald  and  Halle,  and 
in  the  later  work  of  Gerhard  in  Berlin,  Among  his  other  pupils 
were  Gottling  and  Doderlein,  Trendelenburg  and  Spengel,  Droysen 
and  Preller,  Lepsius  and  Diinker,  Otto  Jahn  and  Bonitz,  and 
Ernst  and  Georg  Curtius'.  Some  of  them,  such  as  Trendelenbuig 
and  Spengel,  had  already  been  pupils  of  Hermann,  and  several  of 
the  foremost  of  Hermann's  pupils,  such  as  Ritschl,  Kochly,  and 
Arnold  Schaefer,  were  among  the  warmest  admirers  of  Boeckh*. 

'  Encyklopadit  und  Mtthodohgii  der  pHUoIogischai  Wisscmehafitn,  ed. 
Bratuscheck  (1877),  814  pp.;  ed.  1  (18S6).  Cp.  Bursian,  ii  703-5,  and  Max 
Hoflmann's  .5i'«:SA,  147 — iji- 

>  Encyklepiidii  etc.  p.  64  f. 

'  Reviewed  by  Buraiin  in  Jahresb,  vii  (i8;6)  145,  and  xi  (1877)  36, 
respectively. 

*  Max  Hoffmann.  79  f.     Cp.  Jakrb.f.  Pkild.  Ixxv  138  f. 

"  %b.  138  f. — Many  of  Boeckh's  monographs  are  collected  in  his  JCltine 
Sckriflen,  7  vols.  (1858-74).  On  his  life  and  works,  cp.  R.  H.  Ktfliisen,  in 
S.  F.  Hoffmann's  LtUmbUder  btriihmter  Humanistm,  i  (1837)  19  f;  B.  Stark, 
Ufher  Boeekh's  Bildvngsg(aig  in  VorirSge  elc.  (1880)  409-,  and  in  A.  D.  B.\ 
Bursian,  ii  687 — 705  ;  Urlichs,  128'  f ;  Britfaicchstl  xwischtn  August  Botckh 
und  JCat-l  Olfried  Mueller  (1883I ;  Ernst  Curtius,  Allerittm  und  Gegetmmrl,  iii 
1 15 — 155  (1885)1  I'n'l  Via.t.  Hoffmann,  August  Boeckh,  Ltitnsbesckreiiung  und 
AusToahl  aus  setnem  wisitns<haflHckm  BriiJviecAiel  [his  correspondence  with 
Welcker,  Niebuhr,  Thiersch,  Schomann,  Gerhard,  A.  Schaefer,  Ritschl,  A,  v. 
Humboldt;  followed  by  his  Pindaric  Ode  of  1819],  483  pp.  (1901};  also 
Leutsch,  in  Philol.  Am.  1886,  131  f ;  S.  Reiler,  in  Neue  Jakrb.f.  kl.  Ail.  xiii 
(1901)  436—458;  and  GiLdersleeve,  in  Oscillatioiu  and  J^ulations,  1 — 7,  and 
in  A.  J.  P.  xxxviii  131. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXrX.]  BOECKH.  lOI 

Hermann  and  Boeckh,  as  the  great  representatives  of  pure  and 
applied  scholarship  respectively,  are  men  of  whom  all  the  votaries 
of  classical  learning  may  well  be  proud.  At  a  later  point  we  shall 
return  to  Boeckh's  devoted  pupil  and  friend,  K.  O,  Miiller'.  Mean- 
while we  must  briefly  trace  the  careers  of  some  of  the  scholars 
who  belonged  to  the  school  of  Hermann. 

'  Chap,  xxxiv  inil. 


iM,Googlc 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

GRAMMARIANS   AND   TEXTUAL  CRITICS 
FROM    LOBECK  TO   RITSCHL. 

The  grammatical  and  critical  school  of  philology  is  partly 
represented  by  two  of  Hermann's  contemporaries,  who  were  not, 
however,  in  complete  agreement  with  his  views.  The  works  of 
both  were  defective  in  aim  and  in  method;  and  their  authors 
may  be  described  as  independent  members  of  the  parliament 
of  scholars. 

Gottfried  Heinrich  Schaefet  (1764—1840),  the  librarian  of  Leipzig  in 
1818-33,  ™^  essenlially  a  student,  and  not  a  teacher.  In 
three  successive  editions  of  Viger,  Hermann  stated  that  he 
had  only  been  able  to  make  a  partial  use  of  the  itiargiHalia  placed  at  his 
disposal  by  Schaefer.  This  statement  gave  offence  to  the  latter,  who  in  his 
commenlaiy  on  Demosthenes  retaliated  by  attacking  Reisig  and  other  pupils 
of  Hermann*.  A  man  of  wide  learning,  especially  in  the  province  of  Greek 
prose,  Schaefer  buried  much  of  that  learning  in  the  works  of  others'.  The 
most  important  of  his  own  works  was  the  Apparatus  Crilicus  to  Demosthenes, 
including  excerpts  from  all  the  earlier  commentators,  with  valuable  additions 
of  his  own'.  His  editions  (usually  accompanied  by  prolix  commentaries 
of  the  old  Dutch  type)  included  Dionysius  of  Halicamassus,  Dt  Csmposiliotu 
Virborum.  His  edition  of  Gr^orius  Corinthius,  and  other  writers  on  Greek 
dialects,  was  equipped  with  a  valuable  CrnnmetUalio  Palaeograpkua  and 
facsimiles  by  Bast^.  He  also  edited  many  of  the  Tauchnitz  Classics,  with 
emendations  of  bis  own,  but  there  is  a  marked  absence  of  any  definite  critical 
principles  or  any  methodical  recension  of  the  text'. 

The  same  defect  is  obvious  in  the  productions  of  an  abler  critic,  Friedrich 
Heintich  Bothe  (t77o— 1855),  who  held  no  educational  posi- 
tion, but  spent  his  whole  life  in  the  mechanical  manufacture 
of  classical  books.     His  best  work  was  connected  with  the  Greek  and  Roman 

'  Koechly's  Hermann,  115  f. 

'  i.g.  in  the  London  ed.  (181s  f)  of  the  Greek  T'iejau™!  of  H.  Slephanus. 

'  S  vols.  (London,  1814-7);  ^"l-  vi, /wfirw  by  E.  C.  Seller  (1833). 

*  ii  p.  397  sufra.  ■  Burdan,  ii  707-9. 


CHAP,  XXX.]  LOBECK.  IO3 

drama.  He  repeatedly  edited  all  (be  Greek  Dramatists,  including  the  frag- 
ments, with  criticisms  on  Aristophanes  (iSoS)  under  the  pseudonym  of  Hutibius 
(an  approximate  anagram  of  Bothius).  His  criticisms  on  the  Greek  Comic 
fragments  were  published  under  his  own  name  in  the  Didot  series  (1855). 
Plautus,  Terence  and  Seneca,  were  edited  by  him  separately,  as  well  as  in  a 
collected  form  (1S34).  In  all  these  works  there  is  a  lack  of  critical  method, 
but  tbere  aie  many  excellent  emendations.  The  same  holds  good  of  his 
editions  of  the  Homeric  Poems,  and  of  Horace  and  Phaedrus'. 

One  of  the  earliest  and  most  distinguished  of  the  pupils  of 
Hermann  was  Christian  August  Lobeck  (1781 — 
i860),  who  taught  at  Wittenberg  in  1803-14,  and 
was  professor  at  Konigsberg  for  the  remaining  46  years  of  his 
life.  Hermann  himself  has  dwelt  in  glowing  terms  on  the 
profound  learning  that  pervades  every  page  of  his  pupil's  edition 
of  the  Ajax'.  The  same  learning,  combined  with  a  singular 
faculty  for  grouping  large  masses  of  facts  under  general  laws  of 
language,  is  manifest  in  his  second  great  work,  his  edition  of  the 
Atticist,  Fhrynickus  (1820).  A  fragment  of  Herodian  is  appended 
to  the  latter,  and  the  last  300  pages  are  mainly  devoted  to  the 
laws  of  word-fornution  in  Greek,  Simitar  subjects  are  treated 
in  his  Faralipomena  GramntatUae  Graecac  (1837)  and  his 
Rhematikon  (1846),  The  terminations  of  Greek  nouns  are  the 
theme  of  eleven  dissertations  comprised  in  the  Prolegomena  to 
the  Fathologia  Sermonis  Graed  (1843),  followed  by  the  two 
parts  of  the  Patho/ogia  (1843-62),  His  valuable  additions  to 
Buttmann's  Greek  Grammar  have  been  already  mentioned*.  All 
of  these  works  are  marked  by  a  singularly  comprehensive  know- 
ledge of  the  whole  range  of  Greek  literature,  by  an  acute 
perception  of  real  or  apparent  analogies,  and  a  fine  sense  of 
the  life  of  the  language.  His  clear  insight  and  wide  erudition 
enable  him  to  deduce  definite  laws  and  rules  of  usage  from  an 
almost  overwhelming  multitude  of  details.  He  holds  aloof  from 
the  methods  and  the  results  of  the  Comparative  Philology  of 
his  day,  but  one  of  the  foremost  of  Comparative  Philologists  has 

'  Bursian,  ii  709-11. 

*  Pnuf.  ad Sufh,  Aiac.  ed.  4  p.  vi,  'cuius  in  edilione  nulla  pagina  est  qua 
perlecta  non  docliorem  se  factum  sentiat  qui  discere  didicerit'. 

*  1809;  ed.  3,  1866. 

*  p.  84  supra. 

h.  i.MM,Googlc 


104  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

stated  that  the  suggestions  modestly  put  forward  by  Lobeck  '  are 
always  combined  with  such  a  wealth  of  learning,  such  fine 
philological  discrimination,  and  such  careful  regard  for  tradition, 
that  they  contribute  much  to  the  comprehension  of  the  principles 
of  Greek  Etymology,  and,  even  where  his  results  cannot  be 
accepted,  the  process  of  his  inquiry  is  exceedingly  valuable". 

His  interest  in  the  history  of  Greek  religion  is  exemplified  by 
the  anonymous  notice  of  Creuzer's  Dionysus,  in  which  he  makes 
merry  over  the  mystic  meanings  which  Creuzer  sees  in  the  pots 
and  pans  of  ancient  houses  and  temples';  by  the  similar  review 
of  the  Symbolik,  where  he  attacks  the  author's  passion  for  'finding 
symbols  under  every  stone";  and,  above  all,  by  his  Agiaophamus\ 
a  masterly  work  of  astounding  learning,  in  which  all  that  is  really 
known  as  to  the  Greek  mysteries  is  set  forth  in  instructive 
contrast  to  the  fanciful  speculations  of  the  Symbolists. 

Lobeck's  wit  and  humour,  as  well  as  his  devotion  to  the  old 
Greek  texts,  are  well  exemplified  in  a  short  letter  to  Meineke  t — 

What  is  this  that  I  hear,  my  dear  friend?  I  can  hardly  believe  my  ears. 
Are  you  rtally  wanting  to  visit  Italy  ?  Why  Italy,  of  all  parts  of  the  world  f 
Simply  to  see  a  few  statues  with  biokeo  noses?  noI  If  I  cannot  visit 
Niagara,  or  the  Mississippi,  or  Hekia,  I  prefer  sitting  here  beside  my  own  warm 
stove,  reading  grbek  scholiasts, — which  is,  after  all,  the  true  end  of  the  life 
ofman'. 

Twenty  years  later,  Hermann,  at  the  age  of  70,  wrote  as 
follows,  when  he  was  endeavouring  to  induce  his  old  pupil  to  pay 
him  a  visit  at  Leipzig : — 

Yoa  talk  of  your  'old  pain  in  the  chest'.  Whyt  /,  who,  as  a  matter  of 
fa.ct,  have  a  constant  cough,  and  am  not  anfreqoently  coughing,  day  and  night, 
for  four  weeks  tc^eCher,  never  stop  to  inquire  whether  I  have  one  limg  or  two, 
so  long  as  I  can  breathe  with  the  lung  that  I  have.  You  also  talk  of  'life's 
setting  sun'.  Whyl  that,  in  the  phrase  of  'Longinos",  would  give  us  the 
promise  of  a  new  Oifyiseya^  the  counterpart  io  tiit  Iliad  ot  yim  AgloBpAamm'' . 

'  G.  Curtius,  Principles  of  Gk  Elym.  i  I+,  E.  T. 

^  Jena  Allg.  Liltiralur-Zeilung  (1810),  no.  18 — 10,  p.  137  f. 

'  ib.  1811,  no.  gfif;  cp.  1811,  no.  71—73. 

*  Sive  lU  thealogiae  mysticae  Graecervm  caiais,  t  vols.,  1391  pp.  ((8*9). 
Cp.  Koechly's  ^iirRiiniR,  45,  183. 

"  Milthiilungen  aus  Lobeckt  Briifaiecksel,  ed.  FriedlSnder,  67  (iSii). 

«  C.9. 

'  Br.  p.  Ill  (1843);  Ausg.  Briefe,  ed.  Ludwich,  p.  317  f.  On  Lol>eck, 
cp.  Lebrs,  Erinntmngen  in  Ftpttliirt  Au/satu  (1875*)  479  f ;   Friedlander's 


CHAP.  XXX.]  SPITZNER.     NITZSCH.  lO; 

Among  the  earliest  pupils  of  Lobeck  in  his  Wittenberg  days,  were  several 
who  did  good  work  on  the  Greek  Epic  poets.    Frani  Ernst  . 

Heinrich  Spitiner  (1787— 1841)  produced  an  edition  of  the  '" 

Iliad  with  3  critical  commentary,  and  a  number  of  eicursuses  founded  on  a 
careful  observatioo  of  the  language  and  the  pro»idy  of  the  Homeric  poems. 
His  Observations  include  many  excellent  emendations  on  Quintus  Smymaeus'. 

Another  pupil  of  Lobeck,  Gr^or  Wilhelm  Nitisch  (1790 — 1861),  was  a 
professor  for  ij  years  at  Kiel  and,  for  the  last  nine  years  of  his 
life,  at  Leipzig.  With  the  exception  of  some  papers  on  the 
history  of  Greek  religion  and  on  Plato,  with  an  edition  of  the  Ian,  his  work  as 
a  scholar  was  mainly  devoted  lo  Homer.  Grammatical  exposition  is  well 
represented  in  his  explanatory  notes  to  the  first  twelve  books  of  the  Odysuy 
(1816-40);  bul  he  is  best  known  as  an  early  and  an  effective  opponent  of 
Wolfs  theory  on  the  Homeric  question. 

While  Wolf  regards  Homer  as  a  primitive  bard,  who  began  lo  weave  the 
web  of  the  Homeric  poems,  and  Only  carried  it  down  to  a  certain  point,  Nitisch 
looks  upon  him  as  a  'great  poetical  artist  who,  coming  after  the  age  of  the 
short  lays,  framed  an  epic  on  a  larger  plan'*.  Thus  Wolf  places  Homer  a[  the 
ttginning  of  the  growth  of  the  poems,  Nitzsch  nearer  to  the  end.  Nilisch 
regards  the  Jliadas  mainly  the  work  of  Homer,  but  this  view  does  not  exclude 
the  introduction  of  minor  interpolations  aod  changes  at  a  later  date.  The 
Odysiey  he  considers  to  be  the  work  of  perhaps  the  same  poet,  who  (he  holds) 
was  more  Original  here  thati  in  the  Iliad.  In  the  course  of  the  controversy 
Nitisch  observed  that  some  of  ihe  'Cyclic'  poems  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries  B.C.  presupposed  our  Wmf  and  Oi^jjg' in  something  like  their  present 
form,  and,  further,  that  the  Greek  use  of  writing  was  probably  older  than  Wolf 
had  assumed'. 

Nitzsch  was  conscious  of  a  certain  obscurity  of  style,  which 
prevented  his  views  from  becoming  widely  known,  but  he  worked 
on  to  the  very  end  at  the  favourite  theme  of  his  life.  On  the 
day  of  his  death,  a  sultry  day  in  July,  when  he  was  about  to 
lecture  at  noon  on  the  Odyssey,  he  hastened  to  his  house  to  fetch 

MitthHluTtgen  etc.  (lS6[);  and  Programmen  (1864),  i,  iii — v;  Lehnerdt's 
Auswahl  aus  LabecUt  akademisrken  Jteden  (1865);  Autgewdhlte  Briefe  (1801- 
7S)  von  und  an  C.  A.  Loieck  und  K.  Lehri,  ed.  Ludwich,  1049  pp-  (1S94) ; 
Bursian,  ii  571-5,  711-4. 

'  Bursian,  ii  713  f. 

'  Jebb's  Homer,  n  ( . 

*  (l)  De  Historia  Humeri,  maximtque  de  scriftorum  carminum  aetatt 
meUtemaia  (Hanover,  1830-7),  with  supplements  in  Kiel  programs  1834-9; 
(a)  IHe  Heldemage  der  Criechen  wxch  ihrer  naiiomdeit  Gelbtng  (Kiel,  1841)  i 

(3)  Die  Sagenpoesie  der  Griccken  irilisch  dargestelll  (Braunschweig,  1851); 

(4)  Batragi  air  CeschichU  o!w  episthen  Poesie  der  Griichen  (Leipag,  i86i). 

„.,,„,  ^.oogic 


I06  GERMAMV.  [CENT.  XIX. 

a  book  that  he  had  forgotten,  and  died  of  the  sunstroke  which 
befell  him  on  his  way  back  to  the  lecture-room'.  A  funeral- 
oration  by  Overbeck  described  him  as  one  whose  name  would 
be  remembered  forever  in  the  history  of  learning  by  the  side  of 
Wolf  and  Lachmann  and  Welcker.  A  strict  integrity  of  character 
is  the  leading  trait  that  strikes  one  in  his  broad  and  square-set 
face  as  it  appears  in  the  portrait  prefixed  to  his  life'. 

Among  th«  CDrrespondenlsofNilzsch  none,  perha|>s,  agreed  more  complelety 
with  his  views  on  Homer  than   Karl   Friedrich  NSgelsbach 
^^  (1806—1859),  who,  after  teaching  for  15  years  at  tbegymna- 

sium  of  Nuremberg,  spent  the  last  13  years  of  his  life  as  a  professor  at  Erlangen. 
Nitisch  and  Nagelsbach  had  also  a  coramon  interest  in  the  theology  of  the 
Homeric  poems*.  The  published  works  of  Nagelsbach  include  Notes  on  the 
Rist  three  books  of  the  Iliad,  omitting  the  Catalogue  of  Ships  (1834),  and  two 
important  volumes  on  Homeric  and  Poithomtric  Thtclogy  (1840-57),  besides 
papers  on  Aeschylus  and  a  posthumous  edition  of  the  Agamemnon  (1863). 
The  most  widely  appreciated  of  his  works  is  that  on  'Latin  Style',  with  special 
r^^rd  to  the  difTerences  of  idiom  between  Latin  and  German  piose*. 

Among  the  pupils  of  Lobeck,  Spitzner  and  Nitzsch  were  even  surpassed 
in  ability  by  Friedrich  August  Wilhelm  Spohn  (1795 — 185*) 
who,  for  the  last  nine  yeais  of  his  brief  life,  was  a  teacher  in 
the  university  of  Leipzig.  Following  iu  the  track  of  WolF,  he  wrote  a  short 
paper  on  the  discrepancies  in  the  topography  of  the  Trojan  plain,  as  represented 
in  the  Iliad  (1814),  and  a  commentary  supporting  the  opinion  of  Aristophanes 
of  Byzantium  and  of  Aristarchus,  that  the  conclusion  of  the  O^ssey  was  a  later 
composition  (1816).  He  also  published,  with  supplementary  noteii,  Morus' 
edition  of  the  Panegyricus  of  Isocrales,  a  school- edit  ion  of  the  Works  and  Days 
of  Hesiod,  with  the  critical  marks  invented  by  the  Alexandrian  Grammarians, 
a  monograph  on  Tibullus,  and  textual  criticisms  on  Theocritus,  He  was  the 
first  of  German  scholars  to  attempt  to  decipher  the  hieratic  and  the  demotic 
writing  of  the  ancient  Egyptians'.  He  was  proposing  to  produce  works  on 
the  ancient  Geographers,  on  Ihe  Mytboli^  of  the  Eastern  and  Northern 

'  F.  Lubker,  87. 

"  F.  Lubker,  G.  W.  NHsseh  in  seintin  Ltben  und  Wirhtn  (1864),  esp. 
14  f,  8+ f|  8q,  ios  f,  108 — 110,  119 — H3,  with  biblit^raphy  on  188 — 193; 
also  Volkmann,  GescA....der  Wolfschen  Pro/eg.  184 — 190, 104,  116;  Barman,  ii- 
7i4-7t6. 

'  Liibker's  Niltsck,  105-7,  '85-7- 

*  Laleiuischt  Slilisltk,  1846;  ed.  9  (Iwan  MUlIer,  with  fiill  Index),  1905. 
Cp.  in  general  Diiderlein's  Oeff.  Rtden,  i860,  139  f,  and  Liibker's  Lebembilder, 
1861 ;  also  Bursian,  ii  715  f. 

•  Letter  to  Lobeck  in  Lobeck's  Briefaieckul,  ed.  Friedliinder,  74  f,  and 
Ludwich's  ed.  of  Ausg.  Briefe,  7  f. 


CHAP.  XXX.]  NAGELSBACH.     LEHRS.  I07 

nations,  and  on  the  literature  of  the  Augustan  age,  when  hU  life  came  to  an 
nntimelf  end'. 

The  foremost  of  Lobeck's  pupils  at  Konigsberg  was  Karl 
Lehrs  (1802—1878),  who  was  one  of  his  master's 
colleagues  for  the  last  29  years  of  that  master's  life, 
and  was  himself  the  head  of  the  Konigsberg  School  for  18  years 
after.  Under  Lobeck  and  Lehrs  the  School  was  distinguished 
by  a  Special  interest  (i)  in  the  history  of  grammatical  studies 
among  the  Greeks  from  the  beginning  of  the  Alexandrian  to  the 
end  of  the  Byzantine  age,  (2)  in  the  study  of  the  language,  metre 
and  composition  of  the  Gre^  Epics,  from  Homer  down  to 
Nonnus  and  his  imitators,  and  (3)  in  the  investigation  of  the 
religious  opinions  of  the  Greeks,  with  special  reference  to  the 
ethical  content  of  the  myths,  excluding  all  attempts  to  interpret 
those  myths  by  means  of  the  phenomena  of  Nature.  Lehrs 
made  his  mark  in  all  three  lines  of  research. 

In  the  fiisi,  his  principal  work  related  to  the  'Homeric  Studies  of  Aristar- 
chus".  In  the  earliest  of  his  Quaeslianes  Epicae  (183;)  he  showed  that  Wolf 
had  exaggerated  Ihe  value  of  the  grammarian  Apion's  services  to  the  text  ef 
Homer.  Hb  papers  on  the  history  of  the  Greek  originals  of  the  terms /^';b- 
li>S"^i  gratnmalUu!,  and  critieui*,  and  on  the  grammarian  Asclepiades  of 
Myrlea,  were  reprinted  as  an  appendix  to  an  improved  edition  of  three  minor 
works  of  Heroilian*,  which  paved  the  way  for  the  great  edition  of  the  whole  of 
that  grammaiian's  works  by  the  pupil  of  Lobeck  and  Lehrs,  August  Lentz 
([810—1868)=.  Lastly,  in  his  volume  on  the  sc/ii>/ia  to  Pindar  (1873),  be 
arranged  Ihe  confused  mass  of  the  extant  scholia  in  certain  groups  anif 
endeavoured  to  determine  the  dale  of  each. 

(3)  In  his  Quaestiotus  EpUat',  after  examining  the  iVoris  and  Days  of 
Hesiod,  he  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  the  original  nucleus  of  the  poem  is  to 
be  Toniid  in  lines  383 — 694.     In  the  same  work  he  investigates  the  linguistic 

'  Life  by  G.  Seyf&uth,  prehxed  to  Spohn,  De  littgva  it  lilterii  vcttntm 
AegypHontm  (iSjj)  ;  Bursian,  ii  716-8. 

'  De  Arislarcki  Studiii  Homericis,  1833,  1865',  1881'  (506  pp.).  In  the 
Epimiira  to  ed.  1  and  3  he  deals  with  the  lexici^raphy,  grammar  and  metre  of 
the  Homeric  poems,  and  with  questions  as  to  the  genuineness  of  single  lines  or 
larger  portions  of  the  poems.  He  handles  amilar  questions  in  Ihe  Appendix 
to  his  pupil  Eduard  Kammer's  work  on  the  Unity  of  the  Odyssey  (1873). 

*  Cp.  vol.  i6— II  supra. 

*  ttfiX  /top^pouj  WEei«,  irepl  'IJaaiCT!  ■wpotlfKa.t,  rtpi  Sixpirf,  1 848. 

*  Herediam  ttcknUi  reliquiae  (1867-70),  with  Indices  by  Arthur  Ludwich. 
■  ■79t- 


.oogic 


108  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

and  metrical  peculiarities  of  Nonnus,  and  the  characteristic  differences  between 
the  genuine  Halitutita  ol  Oppian  and  the  Cynegelica  erroneously  attributed  to 
that  a.uthor. 

(S)  In  his  'Popular  Essays"  he  maintains  that  the  Greek  Mythology  is 
founded  on  an  elhical  basis,  and  not  on  the  phenomena  of  Naturt,  thereby 
ascribing  lo  the  infancy  of  the  Greek  race  an  atlilude  of  mind  that  is  more  in 
Iteeping  with  its  maturer  age.  In  the  same  Essays,  however,  he  gives  proof  of 
a  fine  perception  of  the  moral  and  religious  opinions  of  the  Greeks  during  the 
time  of  their  highest  developement. 

His  researches  on  the  Greek  Grammarians  have  won  a  far  wider  approval 
than  his  criticisms  on  Ovid's  Heroides,  and  on  Horace,  many  of  whose  Odfs  he 
rejected  (1B69)'. 

The  interest  in  the  Greek  epic  poets  and  grammarians  is  a 
tradition  of  the  Konigsberg  School,  which  has  been  well  main- 
tained by  living  scholars. 

Returning  from  the  line  of  the  descendants  of  Lobeck  to  the  immediate 
pupils  of  Hermann,  we  note  the  name  of  Lobeck's  fellow- 
student  and  friend,  Johann  Friedrieh  August  Seidler  (1779 — 
1851),  who,  under  Hermann's  direct  influence,  made  a  brilliant  banning  with 
a  work  of  pemianenl  value  on  the  dochmiac  metre  (181  i-i),  and  edited  three 
plays  of  Euripides'  on  the  model  of  Erfurdl's  edition  of  Sophocles.  Hermatm 
had  so  great  a  respect  for  his  former  pupil's  ability  as  to  print  in  the  preface  to 
his  /m  some  16  pages  of  notes  supplied  by  Seidler. 

Another  pupil  of  Hermann,  Carl  Christian  Reisig  (i  791 — 1819),  left  Leipzig 
for  Gottingen,  served  as  a  Serjeant  among  the  Saion  troops 
that  fought  Napoleon  in  1813-15,  ^"'^1  ^^itr  studying  for  two 
years  at  Jena,  became  a  professor  at  Halte  in  1810,  and,  nine  years  after,  died 
on  his  way  to  Venice,  at  the  early  age  of  37.  He  was  a  man  of  marked  ability 
and  energy,  and  of  singularly  sound  judgement.  His  general  character  re- 
sembled that  of  Wolf.  At  Wolfs  university  of  Halle  he  lectured  mainly  on 
the  Greek  Drama,  as  well  as  on  Horace  and  Tibullus,  Demosthenes  and  Cicero, 
with  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  and  Greek  and  Latin  Grammar.  The 
importance  of  his  lectures  on  the  last  subject  may  be  gathered  from  the  edition 
afterwards  published  with  valuable  supplements  by  his  pupil,  Friedrieh  Haase'. 
Of  the  three  subjects  treated  in  this  volume,  Etymolt^,  Semasioli^y,  and 
Syntax,  the  second  owes  its  origin  to  Reisig.     The  work  published  by  himself 


'  Populdrt  Ati/ial^se,  1856,  1875*. 

'  Cp.  E.  Kammerinfto^r./oArf.  for  1878,  14—18;  SnV/e,  ed.  Farenheid 
(1878);  BrUfean  M.  Naufit  {iSgi) ;  AusgeuMlte  Briefe,  &A.  Lndwich  {1894); 
Butaian,  ii  718—714;  KUiat  Schriflen,  with  portrait,  ed.  Ludwich  (1901), 
581  pp.,  and  Ludwicb's  Rede,  ipoj,  ib.  554  f. 

*  Tro.  1811 ;  El.  and  Iph.  T.  1813.     Cp.  Bursian,  ii  715  f. 

*  VitrUsungen  uber  lot.  Sprackviissemckafl  (\'&i^\. 

h.  i.Mh,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXX.]  REISIG.      WUNDER.  IO9 

was  mainly  concerned  with  Aristophanes  and  Sophocles.  A  copy  of  [he  second 
Jontine  edition  of  Aristophanes  was  his  constant  compaaton  during  his  cam- 
paign against  Prance,  and,  in  the  following  year,  he  dedicated  to  Hertnann  a 
series  of  conjectures  on  the  text,  mainlf  suggested  by  considerations  of  metre 
(1816).  His  critical  edition  of  the  C/o»*- appeared  in  1810,  while  his  interest 
in  Sophocles  is  attested  by  his  very  full  commentary  on  the  Oedipus  ColoHeus'^ . 
Lastly,  his  emendations  on  the  Promethtus  Vinclus  of  Aeschylus  were  published 
by  Ritschl,  who  was  one  of  his  most  devoted  pupils  at  Halle*. 

Much  was  meanwhile  done  for  the  exegesis  of  Sophocles  by  Eduard  Wunder 
(idoo — 1869),  who  spent  the  last  +3  years  of  his  life  at  the 
Saxon  school  of  Grimma.     In  the  interval  between  his  early 
studies  on  Sophocles  and  his  explanatory  edition  o(  1831-50,  he  produced  an 
elaborate  commentary  on   Cicero,  pro  Pltotcio   (1830),  besides   publishing 
readings  from  an  important  ms  of  Cicero,  then  at  Erfurt  and  now  in  Berlin*. 
Wander's  edition  of  Sophocles  appeared  in  the  series  edited  by  Jacobs  and 
Rost  at  Gotha.     In  the  same  series,  seven  plays  of  Euripides* 
were  edited  by  August  Julius  Edmund  Pflugk  (1803—1839).  PAugk 

On  the  early  death  of  Pflugk  at  Danzig,  four  more  pla}^'  were  added  to  the 
series  by  Reinhold  Kloti'. 

Hermann's  pupil,  August  Ferdinand  Naeke  (t788 — 1838),  distinguished 
himself  at  Bonn  as  an  able  lecturer  on  some  of  the  principa] 
Greek  and  Latin  poets,  and  on  the  History  of  Greek  poetry. 
Singularly  fastidious  in  his  taste,  he  produced  only  one  important  work,  a 
collection  of  the  fragments  of  the  epic  poet,  Choerilus.  His  edition  of  the 
Dirae  and  Lydia,  which  pike  Scaliger)  he  ascribed  to  Valerius  Cato,  was 
posthumously  published  in  T846.  His  minor  works  were  collected  in  two 
volumes  of  Ofimcula,  the  second  of  which  includes  the  fragments  of  Calli- 
machus.  His  paper  on  Latin  alliteration  is  only  to  be  found  in  the  Rhanischa 
MiiStum',  of  which  he  was  an  editor  for  a  few  years.  The  outlines  of  his 
courses  of  lectures,  still  preserved  in  the  library  at  Bonn,  were  described  by 
Ritschl  as  marked  by  the  same  devotion  to  the  discovery  of  truth,  and  the  same 
calm  judgement,  as  his  few  published  works'. 

One  of  Naeke's  colleagues  at  Bonn,  Karl  Friedrich  lleinrich  (1774 — 1838), 
was  educated  at  Gotha  and  Gottingen,  and,  after  holding  a 
mastership  at  Breslau,  was  professor  at  Kiel  in  1804-18,  and 


Heinrich 


•  3  vols.  (18JO-13). 

"  Ritschl,  Opuic.  i  378—393  i  cp.  A7.  Phiioi.  ScAr.  v  95  f ;  Ribbeck's  Life 
of  Ritschl,  i  34 — 5*  ;  Haase's  Preface  to  the  Vorhsungen,  v  f ;  and  Borsian, 
ii  726. 

*  V<aiiu  Ltctiimes  {\%^^y 

*  Med.,  Hec,  Andram.,  HeraeL,  He!.,  AU.,  Hen.  Furem, 

•  Phoett.,  Or.,  Iph.  T.,  Iph.  A. 

•  p.  ri5  infra. 

'  iii  (18*9)  3*4  f. 

*  ib.  N.  F,  xxvii  f93  f.     Bursian,  ii  719  f. 


n,5,t^rjM,G00glc 


no  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

at  Bonn  for  the  remaining  ]0  years  of  his  life.  At  Bonn  he  lectured  with 
marked  success  ou  the  Roman  satirists,  and  was  even  more  successful  as  the 
director  of  the  classical  Seminar.  While  still  a  student  under  Heyne  at 
Giittingen,  he  produced  an  edition  of  Mnsaens,  and  three  volumes  of  explanatory 
notes  on  the  Atneid.  He  was  aided  in  the  latter  by  Georg  Heinrich  Noehden 
{1770 — 1S16),  who  published  a  work  on  Porphyry's  scholia  to  Homer,  with 
appendices  on  the  Townley  and  Eton  Mss',  and  for  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his 
life  held  an  appointment  in  the  library  of  the  British  Museum.  As  a  master  at 
Bteslau,  Heinrich  produced  not  only  a  treatise  on  Epimenides,  but  also  an 
edition  of  Nepos  and  of  Hesiod's  Shield  of  AchUles.  These  early  works  had 
been  prepared  under  the  influence  of  Heyne,  the  rest  were  produced  under 
that  of  Wolf.  At  Kiel,  in  18  r6,  he  published,  in  conjunction  with  Andreas 
Wilhelm  Cramer  (1760 — 1833).  the  fragments  of  Cicero /ro  Scaurs,  firo  TuUio. 
ariA  pre  Flacca,  recently  discovered  by  Mai  in  the  Ambrosian  Library;  at  Bonn, 
he  edited  the  speech  of  Lycurgus  against  Leocrates  (1S11)  and  Cicero,  De 
Ripttblica  (1S13-8).  His  editions  of  Juvenal  and  Persius  were  posthumously 
published.  His  critical  notes  on  the  treatise  of  Frontinus  on  the  Koman 
Aqueducts  were  included  in  Dederich's  edition  (1S41).  Heinrich  had  intended 
to  edit  the  work  in  conjunction  with  the  eccentric  scholar,  Chrlsloph  Ludw^ 
Friedrich  Schulti  (1780 — 1834),  who  &tncilu1ly  regarded  the  works  of  Vitru- 
vius  and  Pomponius  Mela  as  fabrications  of  the  Middle  Ages'. 

Among  the  earliest  and  most  important  of  the  pupils  of 
Hermann  was  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Thiersch  (1784 — 
i860).  Educated  at  Schulpforta  under  Hermann's 
former  tutor,  Ilgen,  he  studied  the  Greek  poets,  and  acquired  an 
exceptional  facility  in  Greek  verse,  under  Hermann  at  Leipzig. 
In  1807  he  was  drawn  to  Gottingen  by  Heyne;  two  years  later 
he  left  for  Munich,  where  his  success  as  a  school-master  led  to 
his  being  entrusted  with  the  direction  of  a  philological  Seminar 
which  was  incorporated  in  the  Bavarian  university  on  its  transfer 
from  Landshut  to  Munich  in  1826',  He  also  lectured  on  Greek 
Art,  after  studying  the  sculptures  in  the  Louvre  and  the  British 
Museum  (1813-5).  These  studies  were  continued  in  Munich 
itself  on  the  founding  of  the  Glyptolhek  by  the  Crown  Prince, 
Ludwig,  and  were  still  further  extended  by  half  a  year's  absence 
in  Italy  (1822-3).  Classical  studies  were  languishing  at  Munich 
during  the  later  years  of  Ast,  when  they  were  revived  by  the 
eneigy  of  Thiersch,   who,  for   15  years,  was  ably  supported  by 

'  Goltingen,  1797.  *  Bursian,  ii  731-3. 

'  Papers  by  the  director  and  his  friends  (including  Doderlein,  Spengel,  and 
Halm)  were  published  in  the  Acta  Philologaruni  Monacensium,  iSii-ig. 


CHAP.  XXX.]  THIERSCH.  1 1 1 

Spengel.  His  jubilee  as  a  Dcx:tor  was  celebrated  in  1858;  he 
retired  from  active  work  in  the  following  year,  and  he  died 
in  i860. 

Thiersch  took  an  important  part  in  the  organisation  of  the 
schools  and  universities  of  Bavaria,  as  the  champion  of  classical 
education  and  of  intellectual  freedom'.  In  1837,  at  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  centenary  of  Gottingen,  he  brought  into  existence  an 
annual  congress  of  the  scholars  and  school-masters  of  Germany. 
He  also  took  a  warm  interest  in  the  cause  of  Greek  independence, 
and  in  the  organisation  of  the  Greek  kingdom  under  Otho  of 
Bavaria*.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  on  political  and  educational 
questions,  and  on  general  literature.  His  contributions  to  classical 
learning  fall  under  three  heads  : — (i)  Greek  Grammar;  (2) 
criticism  and  interpretation  of  Greek  poetry;  {3)  archaeol(^, 
including  topography  and  epigraphy. 

(1)  His  'Greek  Grammar,  with  special  reference  10  (he  Homeric  dialect' 
(iSi^).  reached  a  third  edition  (1S19)',  his  shorter  Grammar  (iSij)  was 
considerably  enlarged  in  its  fourth  edilion  (i8ss)'.  The  Grammar  of  i8is  led 
to  a  controversy  on  Homeric  moods  with  Hermann'.  His  life-long  interest  in 
grammar  was  further  proved  by  papers  on  Greek  word -formal  ion  and  on  Greek 
particles',  preparatory  to  a  proposed  edition  of  the  Asamemiuin.  He  was  also 
familiar  with  modern  Greek,  but  his  paper  on  the  langu^e  of  the  present 
inhabitants  of  N.E.  Laconia'  has  since  been  superseded  by  more  accurate 
investigations'. 

(3)  He  was  also  interested  in  Hesiod  and  the  early  el^iac  poets,  and  in 
Pindar  and  Aeschylus.  In  one  of  his  first  papers,  he  maintained  that  the 
poems  bearing  the  name  of  Hesiod  were  fragments  from  various  poems  of 
diffcrent  ages,  the  relics  of  an  old  Boeotian  school  of  epic  poetry'.  He 
regarded  the  (Vorks  andDayi  as  composed  by  several  poets,  and  also  treated 
it  in  connexion  with  the  gnomic  poetry  of  Greece'.  He  edited  Pindar,  with  an 
introduction  and  explanatory  notes,  and  with  a  German  translation  in  the 

'  Thiersch,  U^r  gehhrle  Sthulm  (1816-31) ;  cp.  Paulsen,  ii  418—430*. 
'  His  interest  in  modem  Greece  is  attested  in  bis  work,  Dt  PStat  actud 
dtlaCri^e,  i  vols.  (1833). 

'  Cp.  Eckstein,  Lai.  und  Gr   Unlerrickt,  396. 

*  Thiersch,  .4rfo/Ai7.jW(w.  i  l,  175,  435,  468,  and  Hermann's  O/bj^.  ii  i8f. 
'  Munich  Acad.,  Denksdri/len,  xivii  379,  xxx  30J,  xxxiii  i. 

'  M.  Deffner,  Zaionisehe  Gramntatik,  1881. 
»  Denkscknfim,  iv  (1813). 

•  Acta  Phil.  Moil,  iii  389,  567. 


n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


112  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

original  mettes.  He  wrote  on  lacunia  in  Aeschylus  and  on  passages  calling  for 
correction  by  transposition  of  lines',  and  left  behind  him,  ready  for  press,  a 
lengthy  commentary  on  (he  Aganitmmm. 

(3)  In  archaeology,  his  earliest  work  conMSIed  of  three  papers  on  the 
'Epochs  of  Greek  Art'*.  They  represented  a  relapse  from  the  sounder  views 
of  Winckelmajui,  and  were  strongly  opposed  by  K.  O.  MilUer',  though 
supported  by  Thiersch's  pupil,  Feuertiach  (1798 — rSji).  Thiersch's  vial  to 
Italy  ted  to  his  planning  a  great  work  on  Italy  and  its  inhabitants,  and  its 
treasures  of  art  in  ancient  and  modem  times,  hat  the  only  portions  that  ever 
appeared  were  his  own  account  of'his  tour,  and  Schom's  description  of  Ravenna 
and  Loretto  (1826).  A  plan  for  a  similar  work  on  Greece  ended  in  some 
papers  on  Pares  and  Delphi,  and  on  the  Enchtkewa*.  The  collection  of 
Greek  vases  formed  by  king  Ludwig  I  prompted  a  paper  showing  that  the 
vases  found  in  Etruscan  tombs  were  really  Greek  and  mainly  Athenian',  and 
also  opposing  the  opinioo  that  they  were  connected  with  the  Mysteries*. 

Among  the  immediate  predecessors  of  Thiersch  in  the 
Bavarian  university,  Georg  Anton  Friedrich  Ast 
(1778 — 1841)  was  a  classical  professor  for  the  last 
36  years  of  his  life,  first  at  Landshut,  and  next,  at  the  new  seat 
of  that  university,  in  Munich.  Besides  editing  the  Characters  of 
Theophrastus,  he  had  made  his  mark  as  an  expositor  of  Plato, 
had  written  on  Plato's  Life  and  Works,  had  edited  all  the 
Dialogues  with  a  Latin  translation,  had  annotated  the  Protagoras, 
Fhaedrus,  Gorgias  and  Phatdo,  and  had  crowned  all  this  with ' 
his  celebrated  Index  to  Plato  {1834-8).  In  his  later  years  he 
was  somewhat  remiss  as  a  lecturer,  and  it  was  then  that  (as  we 
have  seen)  a  new  life  was  breathed  into  the  classical  studies  of 
Munich  by  the  enet^y  of  the  youthful  Thiersch.  Thiersch  was 
strongly  supported  in  Munich  by  Leonhard  Spengel,  who  was  then 
a  master  at  the  Old  Gymnasium,  and  who  worked  with  Thiersch 
for   15  years  at  the  university'.     From   1843  Thiersch  had  the 

1  Denkschnfttn,  xxi  (1846). 

'  Era  of  (1)  religious  Style,  ending  c.  580  B.C. ;  (j)  artistic  developement, 
580—490  B.C. ;  (3)  perfected  style,  from  Pheidias  (500 — 430)  to  Hadrian 
(d.  138  A.D.)  and  M.  Aurelius  (d.  180  A.D,).     Ed.  1,  1819. 

>  Kleine  deutsche  Sehriflm,  ii  3IS  f- 

*  Dentschri/lea,  xxi  (1849)  J9;  xivii  (1850)  99,  ajo. 

'  Abkandlungea  of  Munich  Acad.,  iv  (1844)  i  f. 

■  Cp.,  in  general,  Ufe  by  H.  W.  J.  Thiersch  (1  vols.,  1866)  j  Bibliography 
in  J.  Poll's  Rede  (Munich,  i860) ;  Buraan,  ii  733,  738-49. 

'  p.  180  in/ra. 


lOO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXX.]      AST.      UOEDERLEIN.      DISSEN.  II3 

support  of  the  eminent  Aristotelian,  Carl  Prantl  (1820-88)',  and, 
from  1844,  that  of  Ernst  von  Lasaulx  (1805 — 1861). 

Classical  education  in  Bavaria  was  also  ably  promoted  by 
Ludwig  Doederlein  (1791 — 1863),  who  was  born 
at  Jena  and  educated  at  Schulpforta.  His  studies, 
begun  at  Munich  under  Thiersch,  were  continued  at  Heidelberg, 
Erlangen,  and  Berlin.  As  a  professor  at  Bern  he  produced 
in  1819  a  volume  of  philological  papers  in  conjunction  with 
Bremi'.  At  Erlangen  he  was  professor  from  1819,  and  head- 
master of  the  local  school  from  1819  to  1862.  As  director  of 
the  philolc^cal  Seminar,  he  had  for  his  colleague,  first,  Joseph 
Kopp  {1788 — 1842),  a  man  of  vast  learning  who,  on  principle, 
produced  nothing ;  next,  the  eminent  stylist,  K.  F.  Nagelsbach', 
and  lasUy,  the  future  editor  of  the  Latin  Grammarians,  Heinrich 
Keil,  who,  on  Doederlein's  death  in  1863,  continued  his  work 
until  1869,  when  he  left  for  Halle.  As  a  university  lecturer, 
Doederlein  was  interesting  and  stimulating,  but  unduly  prone  to 
paradox.  As  head  of  the  local  school,  he  made  his  mark  by  his 
impressive  personatity  and  by  his  forcible  eloquence*.  He  was 
less  happy  as  a  writer  of  works  on  Latin  Synonyms,  and  on  Greek 
and  Latin  Etymology,  in  which  he  was  apt  to  be  unduly  subtle, 
while  his  wide  learning  gave  a  factitious  support  to  fanciful  and 
eccentric  views'.  The  same  eccentricity  and  lack  of  method  are 
evident  in  his  editions  of  Homer  and  the  Oedipus  Coloneils,  and 
of  Theocritus,  the  Epistles  and  Satires  of  Horace,  and  Tacitus'. 
Henry  Sidgwick,  who  met  him  at  Brunswick  in  i860,  describes 
him  as  'a  dear  old  man  with  such  a  loving  face,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  very  refined  features,  expressing  the  thorough  scholar  in  the 
Cambridge  sense  of  the  word". 

Among  the  other  schoolfellows  of  Thiersch  at   Schulpforta 
was  Ludolph  Dissen  {1784— r837),  who  was  also 
his    fellow-student    under    Heyne   at    Gottingen. 

*  PkHologiscki  Bdtrdge  aus  der  Sehweii  (1819). 
'  p.  106  supra. 

*  Rtden  etc.,  1843,  1847,  i860. 

"  Lat.  Synonymen  und  EtymologUn,  6  vols.  ( 1 8*6-38) ;  Lot.  Synonymik 
{l8j9,  1849');  Lai.  Etym.  (1841);  Horn.  Gluitanum,  3  vols.  (1850-8). 
'  Bur^an,  ii  749  f,  and  in  A.  D.  B.  '  Life,  59. 

s-    III.  I,.  |.,  ii,l^5i)O^IC 


1 14  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Dissen  did  not  actually  belong  to  Hermann's  school ;  he  was 
in  feet  opposed  to  Hermann's  method  of  interpreting  the 
Classics;  but  he  was  none  the  less  a  representative  of  the 
grammatical  and  critical  type  of  classical  learning.  With  the 
exception  of  a  brief  stay  at  Marburg  (1812-3),  ^^  resided  at 
Gottingen  from  1808  to  his  death  in  1837,  At  Gottingen  he 
produced  his  earliest  work,  that  on  Greek  moods  and  tenses*; 
at  Marburg  he  published  an  inaugural  discourse  on  the  Memora- 
bilia of  Xenophon';  and,  late  in  life,  he  wrote  a  paper  on  Plato's 
Theaetetus'.  But  his  main  interest,  as  a  classical  scholar,  lay  in 
the  investigation  of  the  Laws  of  poetical  and  oratorical  composition. 
As  a  leading  exponent  of  the  artistic  and  aesthetic  interpretation 
of  the  Classics,  he  illustrated  his  principles  in  his  editions  of 
Pindar  (1830)'  and  TibuUus  (1835)*  and  of  Demosthenes,  I>e 
Corona  (1837).  The  acumen  and  the  powers  of  observation,  which 
Dissen  applies  to  the  study  of  these  works,  are  worthy  of  all 
praise,  but  his  method  is  unduly  artificial  and  tends  to  obscure 
our  sense  of  the  living  genius  of  the  poet  and  the  orator*. 

A  fine  sense  of  the  beautifiil  in  poetry  and  art,  combined  with 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  classical  lai^uages, 
and  a  methodical  skill  in  the  collection  of  lexi- 
c(^raphical  materials,  are  the  main  characteristics  of  Franz 
Passow  (17S6— 1833).  A  pupil  of  Jacobs  at  Gotha,  he  attended 
Hermann's  lectures  for  two  years  at  Leipzig,  before  studying 
ancient  art  at  Dresden.  After  showing  special  aptitude  as  a 
school-master  at  Weimar  and  near  Danzig,  he  left  for  Berlin,  where 
he  attended  Wolfs  lectures  at  the  age  of  z8.  For  the  last 
18  years  of  his  life  he  was  professor  at  Breslau,  where  his  ap- 
pointment led  to  a  revival  of  classical  studies  at  that  university. 
He  was  warmly  supported  by  that  thorough  scholar,  Karl  Ernst 
Christoph  Schneider  {1786 — 1856),  who  afterwards  edited  Plato's 

'  Kleint  Sckrifttn,  i  f.  »  ii.  89  f.  '  ib.  iji  f. 

«  Criticised  by  Hermann,  Opusc.  vi  (i)  3—69,  and  Boecltb,  Ges.  il.  Sckr, 
vii  369  f{cp.  Briefwecksil  swischen  Beeckh  vHd  K.  0.  MuIUr,  489 — 19')- 
Dissen  had  already  contributed  to  Boeckh's  ed.  of  iSi  l  a  commenlary  on  the 
Ncmeim  and  Isthmian  Odes. 

'  Criticised  by  Lachmann,  Kl.  Sihr,  ii  145  f. 

'  Bursian,  ii 751-3.  Dissen'sAr«)M...&in/(«i{i839)indudereniiniscences 
by  Thiersch,  Welcker  and  K.  O.  MiiJIer. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XXX.]     PASSOW.     WELLAUER.     GCTTLING.  1 1 S 

Repuhlu  and  took  part  in  the  Didot  edition  of  Plato,  besides 
producing  a  critical  recension  of  Caesar's  Gallic  War,  and 
claiming  for  Petrarch  the  'Life  of  Caesar'  wrongly  ascribed  to 
'Julius  Celsus'.  Passow  had  hitherto  been  mainly  interested  in 
Peisius,  Musaeus,  and  Longus;  he  now  devoted  himself  to 
the  laborious  task  of  producing  in  1819-23  a  greatly  enlarged 
and  improved  edition  of  the  Greek  lexicon  of  J.  G.  Schneider 
(1750 — 1822),  then  one  of  the  senior  professors  at  Breslau. 
The  work  was  so  lai^ely  altered  that,  in  the  fourth  edition, 
Passow's  name  alone  appeared  on  the  title-page  {1831)'.  Passow 
contributed  to  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Encyclopaedia  articles  on 
Aeschines  and  on  the  Latin  Anthology,  which  are  reprinted  in 
his  '  Miscellaneous  Works ',  with  his  article  on  Bast,  his  essays  on 
Hieronymus  Wolf  and  Henricus  Stephanus,  and  his  paper  on 
Philostratus  the  elder.  Next  to  his  lexicographical  labours,  his 
most  important  works  were  his  extensive  program  on  the  Persae  of 
Aeschylus,  and  his  shorter  papers  on  Sophocles  and  Aristophanes, 
and  on  late  Greek  authors'.  He  made  some  preliminary  pre- 
parations for  an  edition  of  Stephanus  of  Byzantium,  which  he 
proposed  to  produce  in  conjunction  with  August 
Wellauer  {1798 — 1830),  the  editor  of  Aeschylus 
and  of  Apollonius  Rhodius,  and  the  compiler  of  the  Lexicon 
Aeschyleum.  The  only  Latin  texts  edited  by  Passow  were 
Persius  and  the  Germania  of  Tacitus,  It  may  be  added  that  it 
was  at  his  instance  that  the  Leipzig  publisher,  B.  G.  Teubner 
{1784 — 1856),  began  in  1824  his  celebrated  series  of  Greek  and 
Latin  texts,   and,  in    1826,    the  Jahrlmcher  fur  PMlolegie   und 


Among  PiLSSOw'a  earliest  pupils  at  Weimar  was  his  life-long  friend,  Karl 
Wilhelm  Gottling  (i793— 1869).  who,  for  the  last  47  years  of         Q>|„]in 
his  life,  was  a  professor  at  Jena.     He  lectured  on  classical 

'  It  was  subsequently  made  the  foundation  of  a  lai^e  lexicon  prepared  by 
V.  C.  F.  Rost,  in  conjunction  with  Fiiedrich  Palm  and  other  scholars  (1B41-57). 
Meanwhile,  Wilhelm  Fape  (1S07— 1854)  had  added  to  his  Lexicon  of  1S43  a 
lexicon  of  proper  names,  which,  in  Benseler's  improved  edition  of  1863-70, 
became  an  admirable  work  of  reference,  well  described  as  a  '  model  of  com- 
pendious learning'  (Toier's  Gisgraphy  of  Greece,  335  n.).    Cp.  p.  168  infra. 

'  Opusc.  Acad, 

'  Patsow's  Lehen  uml  Bri'/e  (18^9)  !  Bursian,  ii  753 — 761. 


■,?i^.ooglc 


.^  ^/'»-^     _, 

Meinbke. 

Reduced  fiom  Eugelbacb's  litlu^raph  of  Che  presentation  portrait  by 
Oscar  B^as. 

„.,,„,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXX.]     HAND.     NIPPERDEY.     MEINEKE.  Il7 

archaeology  as  well  us  classical  literatuie* ;  and  he  edited  Aristotle's  Pelitics 
and  Ecmmmics,  as  well  as  Hesiod.  The  help  derived  from  Hermann's  severe 
review  of  (his  last  was  acknowledged  in  grateful  and  generous  terms  in  (be 
improved  and  corrected  edition  of  1843*. 

Among  Gotlling's  colleagues  at  Jena  was  Ferdinand  Gotthelf  Hand 
(r786 — 1851)1  a  many-sided  scholar,  best  known  as  Ihe  author  ^      . 

of  the  unfinished  work  on  Latin  particles  known  as  Hand's 
Tursillinus',  and  also  of  a  manual  on  Latin  style.     Gflttling's  colleague  in  the 
next  generation  was  Karl  Ludwig  Nipperdey  (i8jt — 1875), 
the  editor  of  Caesar.  Nepos.  and  Tacitus,  and  the  author  of 
an  important  paper  on  the  Ltgts  Annalts  of  the  Romans*. 

Gottling,  the  university  professor  of  Jena,  was  far  surpassed, 
as  a  scholar,  by  his  contemporary,  the  Berlin  school- 
master,  August  Meineke{r79o — 1870).  Bom  in 
the  old  Westphalian  town  of  Soest,  he  was  educated  under  his 
fether  at  Osterode  in  the  Harz,  and  afterwards  under  Ilgen  at 
Schulpforta.  While  he  was  still  at  school,  he  wrote  scholarly 
papers  on  the  death  of  Cato,  and  of  Regulus,  and  his  valedictory 
dissertation  consisted  of  criticisms  on  many  of  the  Greek  poets*. 
At  Leipzig  he  came  under  the  immediate  influence  of  Hermann. 
His  own  influence  was  no  less  effective  in  both  of  his  head- 
masterships,  during  his  9  years  at  Danzig  and  his  31  years 
at  Berlin,  where,  as  a  scholar,  he  was  the  peer  of  the  leading 
professors: — Boeckh  and  Bekker,  Buttmann  and  Lachmann'. 
Elected  a  member  of  the  Berlin  Academy  in  1830,  he  lectured 
on  Horace  and  Aeschylus  in  1852-3'.  As  an  editor  of  important 
classical  works,  he  was  the  first  sitice  Bentley  to  make  his  mark 
on  the  criticism  of  Menander  and  Philemon  (1823).  His  'Critical 
History  of  the  Greek  Comic  Poets '  appeared  as  an  introduction 
to  his  '  Fragments  of  the  Comic  Poets ',  which  filled  three  further 
volumes  {1839-41).  In  this  edition,  the  fragments  of  Aristophanes 
were  collected  by  Meineke's  assistant-master  and  future  son-in-law, 
Theodor  Bergk.     The  fifth  volume  was  published  in  two  parts 

'  A  wide  range  of  subjects  is  covered  in  his  Abhandlungm  (i8$i  ;  ed.  3, 
1S63),  and  his  0/wcu!a  ([36g). 

*  p.  Kxxii,  'quem  ego  virum  fortissimum  lubeotissime  sequi  soleo.  habent 
enim  eius  arma  hoc  cum  armis  illius  herois  commune,  ut  etiam  medeantur, 
dumsauciant';  cp.  p.  94  n.  9  la/™.         '  Four  vols.  (1819-45);  ii  369  jw^a. 

*  Abkandl.  siic&s.  Ges.  d.  Wiss.  v. 

'  F.  "Ranyx,  August  Miineke,  aof.  '  *i,  63.  '  il>.  115. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


Il8  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

(1857),  including  an  excellent  index  by  Heinrichjacobi  (1815-66), 
Meanwhile,  a  new  edition  of  the  Fragments  had  appeared  in  two 
volumes  (1847).  Meineke's  work  on  Attic  Comedy  was  completed 
by  his  text  of  Aristophanes,  with  a  prefatory  Adnotatio  Critica 
(i860),  and  a  postscript  entitled  Vindkiarum  Aristophanearum 
liber  (1865). 

His  study  of  the  Alexandrian  poets  is  best  represented  by  his 
Analecta  Akxandrina  (1843),  a  collection  of  monographs  on 
Euphorion,  Rhianus,  Alexander  Aetolus,  and  Parthenius,  and  by 
his  third  edition  of  Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus  {1856).  Less 
important  than  these  are  his  Callimachus  (1861),  his  selections 
from  the  Greek  Anthology  (1842),  and  his  edition  of  the 
gec^raphical  poems  of  '  Scymnus  of  Chios ',  and  of  Dionysius, 
son  of  Calliphron  {1846).  His  study  of  the  geographical  poets 
led  him  to  produce  a  new  recension  of  Stephanus  Byzantius 
(1849),  while  his  preliminary  work  for  a  proposed  commentary 
on  that  lexicon  ended  in  his  publishing  a  new  edition  of  Strabo, 
with  a  pamphlet  of  Vindiciae  Strabonianae  (1852). 

The  rest  of  his  works  originated  mainly  in  his  study  of  Attic 
Comedy,  namely  his  text  of  Athenaeus  with  the  Analecta  Critica, 
and  his  Stobaeus  and  Alciphron.  His  editions  of  Joannes 
Cinnamus  and  Nicephorus  Bryennius  in  the  Corpus  of  Byzantine 
historians  were  works  done  to  order,  in  which  he  took  little 
interest.  His  friendship  with  Lachmann  led  to  his  contributing 
to  Lachmann's  Babrius  a  collection  of  fragments  of  the  Greek 
choliambic  poets,  while  his  position  as  head-master  of  a  great 
classical  school  prompted  his  editions  of  the  Antigone  and  Oedipus 
Colomtis,  both  of  them  followed  by  critical  monographs.  It  also 
prompted  his  edition  of  the  Odes  of  Horace,  in  which  he  applied 
the  rule,  simultaneously  discovered  by  himself  and  Lachmann, 
that  all  the  Odes  of  Horace  are  written  in  stanzas  of  four  lines 
(1834)'.  The  preface  to  the  second  edition  (1854)  includes 
many  fine  criticisms,  which  are  only  marred  by  the  editor's  ex- 
cessive fondness  for  suspecting  the  presence  of  interpolations. 

As  a  keen  and  vigorous  textual  critic,  not  uninspired  by  a 
poetic  taste,  he  estended  to  all  the  Greek  Comic  Poets  the  work 
which  his  great  prototype,   Bentley,  had  begun  in  the  case  of 
'  The  only  exceplion  is  Che  Ode  to  Censorinus  [iv  S). 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXX.]  KRUGER.  1 19 

Philemon  and  Menander'.  As  a  school-master  he  was  a  man  of 
remarkable  moral  force  and  thoroughly  religious  spirit.  He  had 
a  strong  physique,  a  broad  brow,  prominent  cheeks  and  thin  lips. 
The  quiet  voice  of  his  ordinary  conversation  rang  out  loud  and 
strong,  whenever  he  had  occasion,  as  a  master,  to  use  the  language 
of  reprimand^.  His  resignation  of  his  mastership  in  1856  was 
commemorated  by  the  painting  of  his  portrait,  which  was  re- 
produced in  lithograph  with  a  line  in  his  own  hand-writing : — 
ouK  iuTi  KoAXof  olov  aAi/^ti'  t^*'''  ^^  ^^^  y^^*^  °^  ^'^  retirement, 
he  excused  himself  from  lecturing  in  the  university  by  humorously 
remarking: — 'if  any  one  asks  why  I  do  not  lecture,  you  have  only 
to  tell  htm  that,  after  teaching  for  forty-one  years,  I  have  at  last 
made  up  my  mind  to  try  and  learn  something  myself*. 

One  of  Meioeke's  assislan  I -masters  from  1817  to  1838  was  the  eminent 
Greek  Grammarian,  Karl  Wilhelm  KtUger  (1796—1874},  who  ^^  ^^ 

was  bora  at  a  small  village  in  the  heart  of  Pomerania,  and 
wns  a  student  at  Halle  from  1816  to  iSio.     On  resigning  his  mastership  al  the 
age  of  41,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  preparation  of  text-books,  published  by 
himself  in  Berlin  and  elsewhere,  until  his  death  at  the  little  town  of  Weinhelm 
in  the  Odenwald,  N.  of  Heidelberg. 

His  Greek  Gra.mmai  for  Schools"  is  divided  into  (wo  parts,  (1)  on  the 
Attic,  and  (3)  on  the  other  Dialects,  and  each  of  the  two  parts  is  divided  into 
Inflexions  and  Spitax.  This  arrangement  is  convenient  for  educational 
purposes,  but  it  conveys  a  false  impression  as  to  the  historic  developement  of 
the  language.  The  rules  a.re,  however,  stated  with  clearness  and  precision, 
and  are  illustrated  by  excellently  chosen  examples.  Kriiger  declined  to  re- 
CC^ise  in  his  Grammar  any  of  the  results  of  Comparative  Philoli^y,  and  he 
even  attacked  the  principles  followed  in  the  Greek  Grammar  of  G.  Curlius 
(i85»)  in  a  series  of  polemical  writings,  the  bitterness  and  violence  of  which 
can  only  be  excused  by  their  author's  many  misfortunes'. 

Grammatical  exegesis  is  the  strong  point  of  his  editions  of  Xenophon's 
Anaiatiy,  and  of  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  and  Arrian.  Wider  interests  are 
apparent  in  his  critical  questions  on  the  Life  of  Xenophon,  his  treatise  on  the 
Anabasis,  his  edition  of  the  historical  work  of  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  and 

'  Cp.  Ranke,  ii(|— 111.  '  Ranke,  8if. 

'  Ranke,  13*  ;  p.  116  lu^a. 

*  ii.  140.  On  Meineke,  cp.  Lebembild  by  Ferdinand  Ranke,  175  pp. 
(1871)}   also  Sanppe's  Eritmerung  (187a);   Haupt,   Opusc.   iii    iiSf;   and 

.    Bursian,  ii  764-^. 

•  Griechischt  SfrachUhri,  Berlm,  1843 ;  ed.  5,  1B73-9. 

'  Cp.  Krllger's  pamphlet  of  1869,  and  the  epilt^e  on  pp.  193 — 114  of 
Part  II,  vol.  ii  of  his  Grammar,  ed.  3,  1871, 


lOO' 


igIC 


120  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

his  later  writings  on  the  Life  of  Thucydides,  his  supplements  to  his  Latin 
translation  of  Fynes  Clinton's  Fasti  Hdltnki,  and  his  two  volumes  of 
Historical  and  Philological  Studies'. 

As  a  Greek  Grammarian,  and  as  an  editor  of  Xenophon,  Kruger  found  an 
„„.  able  rival  in  Raphael  Kiihner  (tSoi — 1878),  who  was  bom 

and  educated  at  Gotha,  studied  al  Goltingen,  and  was,  from 
1814  (o  1863,  a  master  al  the  Lyceum  of  Hanover,  where  he  died  15  years 
aflenraids.  His  large  Greek  Grammar  in  two  volumes  (1334-5)"  '^  >  ^^^t 
repertory  of  grammatical  lore,  that  has  attained  a  third  edition  in  four  volumes 
under  the  editorial  care  of  Btass  and  Gerth  (1890 — 1904).  He  also  produced 
a  Greek  Grammar  for  Schools  (1836),  and  a  still  more  elementary  work  on  the 
same  subject  (r837),  which  has  gone  through  many  editions,  together  with 
corresponding  works  on  Latin  Grammar  (1841  etc.).  On  retiring  from  his 
mastership,  he  published  a  large  Latin  Grammar  (1877-9),  which  is  a  monu- 
ment of  learning  and  industry.  His  work  as  an  editor  is  best  represented  by 
his  commentary  on  Cicero's  Tusculan  Disputations^. 

The  study  of  Greek  Dialects  was  advanced  hy  Heinrich  Ludolf  Ahrens 
(1809— 1881),  a  native  of  Helmstedt,  who  studied  at  Got- 
liagen,  and,  after  holding  several  scholastic  appointments, 
was  Director  of  the  Lyceum  of  Hanover  in  1849-79,  having  Kiihner  as  one  of 
his  senior  assistants  for  14  of  those  years.  Ahrens  was  still  a  master  at  Ilfeld 
when  his  great  work  on  the  Greek  Dialects  was  being  published  al  Gottingen 
(1S39-43)'.  He  published  a  Grammar  of  the  Homeric  and  Attic  Dialects", 
an  important  critical  edition  of  Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus,  with  many 
papers'  in  the  Pkilologvs  founded  at  Gottingen  by  his  fellow-countryman  and 
friend,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Schneidewin,  and  continued  by  Ernst  Ludwig  von 
Leutsch.  The  two  scholars  last  mentioned  were  also  associated  in  a  com- 
plete edition  of  the  Greek  Paroaniographi  (1839-51). 

Schneidewin  {1810-56),  who  had  studied  under  K.  O.  Miiller 
at  Gottingen,  was  a  school-master  at  Brunswick 

aehoeiaewln  „  n    ,  1     ,  ,  ■       . 

from  1833  to  1836,  and  there  came  under  the  in-  ' 
fluence  of  Adolph  Emperius  (1S06 — 1841),  who  edited  Dion 
Chrysostom,  and  of  Hermann's  pupil,  Ferdinand  Bamberger 
(1809 — 185s),  who  was  specially  interested  in  the  criticism  of 
Aeschylus.  Thus,  although  his  academic  training  was  mainly 
archaeological,  he  proved  his  affinity  to  the  critical  school  of 
Hermann  by  the  editions  of  the  Greek  Lyric  Poets,  which  he 

'  W.  Poke],  K.  W.  Kriigcr's  Ltbensabriss,  with  portrait  and  bibliography, 
40  pp-  (1885)  ;  Halm  in  A.  D.  B. ;  and  Eursian,  ii  769—771. 

"  Trausl.  by  W.  E.  Jelf,  1841-5.        '  1819;  ed,  5,1874.    Bursian,  ii  771  f. 

*  Recast  by  R,  Meister  (1881 0-  '  '853  ;  ed.  »,  1869. 

•  Kleint  Schrifitn  {Zur  Spriukwissenschi^),  1891. 


CHAP.  XXX.]   KOHNER.    SCHNEIDEWIN.     BERNHARDY.    121 

Ix^an  at  Branswick  and  continued  at  Gottingen,  where  he  held  a 
professorship  for  the  last  20  years  of  his  life.  At  Gottingen  he 
produced  his  excellent  edition  of  Sophocles,  with  introductions 
and  brief  German  notes  (1849-54),  besides  many  papers  on  that 
poet'.  He  contemplated  a  similar  edition  of  Aeschylus,  but 
only  lived  to  complete  the  Agamemnon  (1856),  He  produced 
two  editions  of  Martial  (1842  and  1853),  and  an  edition  of 
the  speeches  of  Hypereides/«J  Euxenippo  3Jidpro  Lycopkrone^  in 
the  same  year  as  Churchill  Babington's  tdiiio pritueps  (1853)*. 

Schneiiiewin's  colleague,  Von  Leutsch  (1808—1887),  edited  the  fragments 
of  the  Cyclic   Thtbais   (i8jo).  and  produced  an  outtme  of 
lectures  (with  exiracis  from  ihe  ancient  authorities)  on  Greek 
Metre  (1S41).    Almost  all  his  energies  were  afterwards  devoted  to  editing 
the  PhUologu!  and  the  PhiloUgischer  Artuigtr,  and  he  did  little  else,  except 
completing  in  1851  the  joint  edition  of  the  Parotmiographi*. 

A  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  systematic  study  of  Syntax  by 
one  of  the  last  survivors  of  the  school  of  Wolf, 
Gottfried  Bemhardy  (1800 — 1875),  who  was  bom  of 
Jewish  parentage  at  Landsbeig  an  der  Warthe,  and  was  educated  in 
Berlin,  where  he  was  baptized  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  He  studied 
under  Wolf  and  Boeckh,  besides  displaying  the  most  assiduous 
industry  in  his  private  work.  After  holding  minor  scholastic 
appointments  (for  which  he  was  not  specially  suited),  he  qualified 
for  a  university  career  in  Berlin  by  producing  a  learned  dis- 
sertation on  the  Fragments  of  Eratosthenei.  This  was  followed  by 
an  edition  of  Dionysius  Periegetes.  Meanwhile,  he  had  become 
acquainted  with  Meineke  and  Buttmann,  Zumpt  and  Lachmann, 
and  had  written  in  a  Hegelian  organ  published  in  Berlin  some 
excellent  reviews  of  works  such  as  Hermann's  Opuscula  and 
Lobeck's  Aglaophamui.  In  1829  he  published  a  volume  of  some 
500  pages  on  the  'Scientific  Syntax  of  the  Greek  Language". 
Syntax  is  here  regarded  in  relation  to  the  History  of  Literature, 
and  the  author's  characteristic  tendency  towards  the  systematic 
and  the  encyclopaedic  method  of  treatment  receives  its  earliest 

'  Gottingen  AbhandtungeH,  v  r59f,  vi  3f,  ttgi;  Philalogus,  iv  450 f,  633 f, 
Yi  593  f.  '  Bursian.  ii  774  f. 

•  Bursian,  ii  776  ;  Biogr.  fakrb.  1887,  41—48. 
'  Supplemented  in  the  Paraiipomina,  1S61. 

D„:,iP,.-iM,G00glc 


122  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

exemplification.  In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Reisig  at  Halle,  a  position  which  he  held  for  the  remaining 
46  years  of  his  life,  besides  being  an  efficient  librarian  for  the 
last  31  of  those  years.  As  Pro-Rector  he  published  in  the  winter 
session  of  1841-2  a  program  on  the  History  of  Halle,  concluding 
with  an  admirable  eulogy  on  Wolf.  The  influence  of  Wolf  is 
apparent  in  Bernhardy's  conception  of  classical  learning  as  a 
whole,  and  in  the  thoroughness  with  which  he  explores  its  several 
parts.  That  of  Heget  is  no  less  apparent  in  the  profundity  of  his 
research,  and  in  the  obscurity  of  his  style.  In  1832  he  published 
his  own  System  of  Classical  Learning,  in  which  Grammar  is 
treated  as  the  instrument  of  that  Learning,  and  Criticism  and 
Interpretation  as  its  elements,  while  a  subordinate  place  is  assigned 
to  the  History  of  Art,  with  Numismatics  and  Epigraphy'.  This 
work  was  published  after  his  History  of  Roman  Literature  (1830)', 
and  before  his  History  of  Greek  Literature  (1836-45)'.  In  both 
of  these  important  works  the  subject  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
(i)  a  general  account  of  the  historical  developement  of  literature 
in  chronological  order ;  and  (2)  a  special  account  of  its  several 
departments,  with  biographical  and  bibliographical  details  on  each 
author.  This  division  involves  the  frequent  repetition,  in  the 
j/rf«a/ portion,  of  points  already  mentioned  in  the  genera/  survey; 
and,  although  three  volumes  are  devoted  to  Greek  literature,  the 
special  history  of  Greek  Prose  is  never  reached.  Both  works, 
however,  deserve  to  be  remembered  with  respect,  in  so  far  as  they 
were  the  first  to  set  a  distinctly  higher  standard  of  what  is  meant 
by  the  History  of  Literature, 

Bernhardy's  edition  of  Suidas  (not  completed  until  1853)  was 
already  in  the  press  when  that  of  Gaisford  was  published  (1834), 
It  was  partly  founded  on  a  study  of  the  Paris  MS,  but  owed  its 
value  mainly  to  the  notes,  and  to  the  eommentationes  in  the 
second  volume'.     His  principal  colleague  as  a  classical  professor 

'  Volkmann's  Goltfried  Bemhardy,  40,  131. 

'  Grundlinitn  lur  EneykhpOdie  der  Fhilo/ogii,  410  pp.  (1831).  Volkmann, 
77—80. 

*  Grandriti  der  rSmischen  LilteriUur,  ^.  5,  187a. 

*  Grundriss  der  g?iahischttt  Litleraiur,  ed.  4  in  3  vols.  (1876-80)  ;  ed.  5 
of  vol.  i,  844  pp.  (ed.  Volkmann,  1891). 

*  Volkmann,  65 — 68,  91  f. 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXX.]  TEUFFEL.  1 23 

was  M.  H.  E.  Meier,  the  specialist  on  Greek  Antiquities,  and, 
although  their  rivalries  in  the  management  of  the  classical 
Seminar  put  a  severe  strain  on  their  relations  with  one  another, 
there  was  no  lack  of  generosity  in  Bemhardy's  obituary  notice  of 
his  colleague'.  It  was  mainly  owing  to  Bemhardy's  efforts  that 
Meier  was  succeeded  by  Bergk,  who  soon,  however,  became 
estranged  from  Bernhardy,  and,  happily  for  the  latter,  left  for 
Bonn  in  1869,  when  he  was  succeeded  at  Halle  by  a  more 
congenial  colleague  in  the  person  of  Heinrich  KeiL  In  the 
same  year  a  proposal  to  commemorate  Wolfs  connexion  with 
Halle  bore  fruit  in  the  excellent  edition  of  his  Minor  Works', 
produced  by  Bernhardy,  the  last  survivor  of  the  great  master's 
immediate  pupils. 

He  had  a  delicate  constitution,  but  his  very  early  hours,  his 
simple  diet,  his  habit  of  constantly  standing  at  his  desk  near  an 
open  window,  his  fondness  for  swimming,  and  for  walking  for  an 
hour  or  two  every  day  (with  his  arms  thrown  behind  his  back), 
helped  to  prolong  his  years,  to  the  age  of  75.  He  was  im- 
mediately commemorated  by  a  medallion  portrait  at  the  place  of 
his  birth,  and  by  a  generous  eulogy  on  the  part  of  his  colleague 
at  Halle,  Heinrich  Kei!'.  Of  his  many  pupils,  few  owed  more 
to  his  guidance  and  his  suggestiveness  than  Nauck*.  The  best 
tribute  to  his  memory  is  the  sketch  of  his  career  ultimately  written 
by  another  of  his  distinguished  pupils,  Richard  Volkmann'. 

Bemhardy's  work  on  Roman  Literature  found  a  rival  in  that 
of  Wilhelm  Sigismund  Teuffel  (1820—1878),  who  ^^^^^^ 
taught  at  Tiibingen  during  the  last  34  years  of  his 
comparatively  short  life.  Much  of  his  time  was  devoted  to  the 
continuation  of  the  Real-Encydopddie  begun  at  Stuttgart  in  1839 
by  August  Pauly  (1796 — 1845).  His  work  on  Roman  Literature 
(1870),  the  fourth  edition  of  which  was  revised  and  supplemented 
by  L.  Schwabe  (1882)  and  translated  by  G.  C.  W.  Warr  (1900), 

'  Pn^rara  of  1806,  'On  the  age  of  Harpocration' ;  VoUtmann,  96. 
'  F.  A.  Wolf,  Kteiiie  SehrifUn.  uoo  pp. 
"  Volkmann,  116,  cp.  158,  and  Ritschi's  Iribule  (in  1871),  109. 
'  ib.   ijof. 

■  Gottfried  Bimkardy,  eur  Erinturung  an  sein  Lebm  und  Wirken.,  160 
pp.,  with  portrait  (1887) ;  cp.  Eckstein  in  A.  D.  £.,  and  Buisian,  ii  776—780. 


124  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

tboi^h  not  characterised  by  the  profundity  and  the  originality  of 
Bemhardy,  excelled  in  clearness  of  style  and  arrangement'. 

Bemhardy's  three  volumes  on  Greek  Literature  were  mainly  confined  to 

the  poets.     An  endeavour  was  afteiwards  made  by  Rudolf 

Nicolai  of  Beilin  to  supply  a  complete  History  of  Classicat 

Greek  Literature  in  three  volumes',  followed  by  a  History  of  Modem  Greek 

Literature,   and  of   Roman  Literature.      His   History  of   Greek  Literature 

was  regarded  by  a  competent  critic   as  completely  inadequate'.     That  of 

Bergk  (to  which  we  shall  shortly  return)  extended  to  four  volumes,  midnly  on 

thepoels. — While 'ScienlificGreek  Syntax' had  been  ably  treated  by  Bemhardy, 

Syntax  was  well  represented  in  the  elemenlBry  Greek  Grammars  produced  in 

South  Germany  {i8j6etc.)  by  Baumlein  (1797 — 1S65),  and  in  North  Germany 

(i868)  by  Aken  [1816— l8;o).     The  Grammar  of  the  Attic  Inscriptions  was 

successfully  handled    by  Konrad   Meisterhans   (1858—1894). 

who  studied  at  Zurich  under  Hug  and  Blilmner,  and,  after 

spending  a  year  in  Paris,  in  the  course  of  which  he  worked  through  all  the 

Greek  inscriptions  of  the  Louvre,  was  appointed  10  a  mastership  at  Solothnm, 

and  held  that  portion  for  the  remaining  eleven   years  of  his  brief  life.    The 

work  by  which  he  is  best  known  was  su^ested  by  Hug,  and  was  dedicated  to 

Kaegi*. 

The  earliest  author   of  a  systematic  Latin  Grammar,    in   Germany,   was 

Konrad    Leopold   Schneider  (1786— 1811),   who   in    the   last 

Schii^der         three  years  of  his  short  life  produced  a  large  Grammar,  which 

is,  however,  confined  to  Accidence.     The  only  works  that  he 

had  found  useful   were  the  Aristarchus  of  G.    J.   Vossius  (1635)  and  the 

Imtiiuliona  of  Thomas  Ruddiman  (173J-31).      The  usage  of  Latin  authors 

on  points  of  Accidence  was  afterwards  set  forth  in  lull  detail  by  Christian 

Friedrich   Neue  (1798 — 1886),  a  master  at  Schulpforta  in   i8io-3r,  and   a 

professor  at  Uorpat  in   [831-61,  who  spent  the  last  »5  years  of  his  life  at 

Stuttgart'. 

Syntax  is  included  in  the  comprehensive  Latin  Grammar  of 
Karl  Gottlob  Zumpt  (1792 — 1849),  who  studied  at 
Heidelbei^,   as  well  as  at  the  university  of  his 

'  Described  by  Bemhardy,  in  pref.  to  ed,  5  of  his  own  work,  as  ant  mil 
gilekrlen  Belc^n  und  Sludim  ausgalatlelc  Chrottik.  Teuffel  drew  up  a  con- 
spectus of  the  literature  of  Plato  (1874),  with  a  view  to  a  History  of  Greek 
Literature.  His  early  works  included  editions  of  the  Clouds  and  Persat.  The 
variety  of  his  interests  is  indicated  by  his  '  Stndies  and  Characteristics '  (1871; 
ed.  1,  1889).    Cp.  Biogr.Jahrb.  1878,  1  f. 

>  1865-7  i  ed-  '>  I873-8-  '  Bur^ian,  ii  779. 

*  Grammatik  dtr  atlischen  Insckriftm  1885  ;  ed.  3,  1900.  Schulthess  in 
Biegr.  /ahrb.  1896,  35—44. 

'  FirrmenleAre  U%6i-6),  ed.  3  Wiener,  in  4  vols.  incl.  Index  {1888— 1905). 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXX.]  ZUMPT.      R,  KLOTZ.  12$ 

native-place,  Berlin,  where  he  had  15  years'  experience  as  a 
school- master,  besides  holding  a  professorship  of  Roman  Litera- 
ture for  the  last  21  years  of  his  life.  His  Latin  Grammar  of 
1818,  which  was  limited  to  classical  prose,  passed  through  many 
editions  and  was  translated  into  English.  It  held  its  own  in 
Germany  until  it  was  superseded  in  1844  by  that  of  Madvig. 
Zumpt  also  produced  a  useful  Chronol(^y  of  Ancient  History 
down  to  476  A.D.'  Roman  Antiquities  were  the  main  subject 
of  his  lectures  in  the  university,  and  of  his  papers  in  the  Academy 
of  Berlin.  He  also  produced  editions  of  Curtius,  the  Verrine 
Orations  of  Cicero,  and  the  Institutio  Oratoria  of  Quintilian*. 

Latin  Giammat  and  Lexicography  were  [he  main  interests  of  the  many- 
sided  but  somewhal  superficial  scholar,  Reinhold  Klotz 
(1807 — 1870),  who  studied  at  Leipiig,  where  he  held  a  pro- 
fessorship for  the  last  38  years  of  his  life.  His  admirable  '  Handbook 
of  Latin  Style',  which  owed  its  excellence  to  the  author's  Constant  study  of 
Cicero,  was  posthumously  published  by  his  son.  Cicero  had  been  the  theme 
of  his  earliest  work,  the  Quactliatas  Tullianat;  he  also  prepared  critical 
notes  on  the  Cato  maior  and  Lailius,  md  commentaries  on  all  [he  Speeches 
and  the  Tusculan  Disputations,  with  a  complete  edition  of  the  text  (1S50-7)'. 
He  further  edited  Terence,  with  the  ancient  commentaries,  and  devoted  his 
practical  experience  of  agriculture  to  an  edition  of  the  Georgia,  which  he 
unfortunately  failed  to  finish.  The  Greek  texts  which  he  edited  included 
several  plays  of  Euripides*,  the  Somnium  of  Lucian,  and  the  works  of 
Clement  of  Alexandria.  A<i  a  textual  critic  be  is  extremely  conservative ; 
passages  that  ate  clearly  corrupt,  he  attempts  to  defend  by  means  of  highly 
artificial  explanations,  while  his  own  emendations,  which  he  vainly  endeavours 
to  support  by  palaeographical  devices,  fail  to  carry  conviction. 

His  intermediate  Latin  Dictionary  (iS;3-7)  was  to  have  been  fomided 
throughout  on  the  direct  study  of  the  Latin  Classics,  but  pressure  on  the 
part  of  the  publishers  compelled  him  to  call  in  the  aid  of  F.  Lubltei  and 
E,  E.  Hudemann.  This  led  to  a  certain  unevenoess  in  the  execution,  and  also 
to  the  introduction  of  errors  arising  from  unverified  references  borrowed  from 
the  Dictionary  of  Freund  (r834-45)*,  which  is  little  more  than  a  compilation 
from  ForcellinL  He  added  much  new  material  in  his  edition  of  the  work 
of  Devarius  on  the  Greek  particles*.     He  also  planned  a  History  of  Latin 

>  Annalet,  1819,  1S61. 

'  On  his  supplement  to  Spalding's  ed.,see  p.  81  supra.  Cp.  A.W.  Zumpt, 
De  CaroH  Timotkti  Zumptii  vita  el  studiii  narraiio  (iSji) ;  Bursian,  ii  783-5. 

'  Also  numerous  papers  in/ahrb./.  PhiloL,  which  he  edited  in  1831-56. 

*  Phoen.,  Or.,  Iph.  T.,  Iph.  A. 

'  b.  (of  Jewish  parents)  1S06,  d.  1894  (at  Breslaa);  compiler  of  Triennium 
Fhilologicum  etc  '  Vol.  ii  p.  78  supra. 


Lachmann. 
Reduced  from  A.  Teichel's  engiaving  of  the  phott^raph  by  H.  Biow. 


OgIC 


CHAP.  XXX.]      J.F.JACOB.      FORBIGER.      LACHMANN.      12? 

Literature  on  a  large  scale,  but  the  only  part  that  was  published  ( 1S46)  hardly 
reached  the  threshold  of  the  subject'. 

A  passing  notice  is  here  due  to  Johann  Friedrich  Jacob  (1791 — 1854),  the 
Director  of  the  school  at  Lilbeck',  (he  editor  of  the  Adna, 
and  of  Fropertius,  as  well  as  the  Epidicus  of  Plautus.  and  the 
astronomical  poem  of  Manilius.  He  was  also  a  translator  of  Terence,  and  the 
author  of  a  work  on  Horace  and  his  friends.  Munro  describes  his  edition  of 
the  Aetna  as,  'like  his  Manilius,  sadl;  wanting  in  precision  and  acumen', 
while  'its  prolixity  exceeds  all  bounds  of  toleration'*. 

Latin  lexicography  and  Latin  style  were  among  the  interests  of  Albert 
Forbiger  (1798 — 1878).  His  fether,  Gottlieb  Samuel  Forbiger 
('75' — i8i8),  was  for  33  years  Rector  of  the  Nicolai  School 
at  Leipzig.  The  son,  who  was  for  nearly  40  years  on  the  staff  of  that  School, 
left  in  1863  for  Dresden,  where  he  spent  the  remaining  15  years  of  his  life. 
His  early  dissertation  on  Lucretius  was  followed  by  an  edition  of  that  poet 
and  of  Vii^l,  both  of  them  marked  by  laborious  industry  rather  than  by 
critical  acumen.  Meanwhile  he  had  produced  a  German-Latin  Dictionary 
and  a  work  on  Latin  Style.  He  also  published  a  comprehensive  work  on 
Ancient  Geography*,  a  translation  of  Strabo,  and,  in  extreme  old  age,  a 
popular  work  entitled  Helta!  und  Horn'.  The  name  of  Forbiger  is  familiar 
to  the  readers  of  Lachmann's  commentaiy  on  Lucretius.  In  the  case  of 
Forbiger  in  particular,  the  habitual  sternness  of  Lachmann  even  '  passes  into 
ferocity'";  bnt  (as  Munro'  charitably  adds)  '  most  of  his  errors,  that  scholar 
could  hardly  avoid  in  the  circumstances  in  which  he  was  placed  '. 

Karl    Lachmann  (1793 — 1851)  was  the  son  of  an   army- 
chaplain,  who  was  afterwards  appointed  preacher  at 
a  church  in  Brunswick,  where  his  son  was  born  and 
bred.     Karl  studied  for  a  short  time  under  Hermann  at  Leipzig, 
where  he  was  already  interested  in  Mss  of  the  Greek  Testament, 

'  NtkrologmJaJa-b.f.  Pkihtl.  cd  {l%^\)  iS3f;  Bursian,  ii  785-8. 
»  Life  by  J.  Classen  Qena,  1855). 

*  Aetna,  p.  47.     Cp.  Bursian,  ii  934. 

*  Bursian,  ii  1118.  '  ib.  1195.    Cp.  BUgr.Jahrb.  1878,  3f. 

*  e.g.f.  13,  Forbigero  iniuriam  faciat  qui  eum  vel  minimam  rem  per  se 
inlell^ere  postutet ;  14,  Forbiger  nihil  usquam  laudabile  gessit ;  15,  (nostri) 

n  Forbigeri  operam,  in  qua  neque  ratio  ullaesseC  neque  diltgentia, 
e  debebant ;  note  on  i  ?So,  Forbiger,  quod  absurda  lam  fortiter 
concoquere  possit,  laudari  poslulat;  i  814,  a  Forbigero  indicium  expectari  non 
potuit ;  ii  734,  hoc  saeculum  avaritia  librariorum  nutrit  Forbigeri  sordibus ; 
ii  760,  Forbiger  quid  fiiceret,  nisi  contenineret  ?  ii  795,  impudenter  respondet 
ad  haec  Forbiger;  iii  476,  Forbigeri  mendadum  ;  cp.  i  923,  996;  ii  501; 
iii  361,  1088;  iv  391;  vi  s6f- 
'  Lucretius,  vol.   i  p.  ii'. 


.oogic 


128  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

and  for  six  years  at  Gottingen,  where  Lachmann  and  Bunsen 
joined  in  founding  a  Philological  Society,  with  Dissen  as 
president.  Meanwhile,  he  had  taken  his  degree  at  Halle  on  the 
strength  of  a  dissertation  on  TibuUus  (rSii).  In  1815,  when  he 
had  just  completed,  but  had  not  published,  the  first  of  his  two 
editions  of  Propertius,  he  joined  the  volunteers  and  marched 
into  France,  not  foigetting  to  taJte  with  him  his  favourite  copy 
of  Homer.  Napoleon  had  been  defeated  at  Waterloo  before 
Lachmann  crossed  the  Rhine.  However,  the  volunteers  pressed 
on,  and  Lachmann  visited  Paris  twice,  saw  the  treasures  of  art 
in  the  Louvre,  and  found  the  triumphal  arch  of  Julius  Caesar 
imbedded  in  the  walls  of  Rheims',  In  1818-24  he  was  a  pro- 
fessor at  Konigsberg,  where  the  best  of  his  pupils  was  Lehrs. 
But  Lachmann  found  himself  overshadowed  at  Konigsbei^  by 
the  fame  of  Lobeck,  and  accordingly  failed  to  win  that  scope  for 
his  great  abilities  which  he  obtained  in  1825  at  Berlin,  where  he 
was  one  of  the  foremost  professors  for  the  remaining  26  years  of 
his  life. 

As  a  Latin  scholar  he  produced,  besides  his  early  edition  of 
Propertius  (1816),  a  second  edition  of  that  poet,  together  with 
Catullus  and  Tibullus  (1829)'.  He  also  edited  the  poem  of 
Terentianus  Maurus,  de  litteris,  syllabis,  el  me/ris',  and  the  Fables 
of  Avianus*.  Late  in  life  he  produced  his  masterly  edition  of 
Lucretius  (1850).  His  Lucilius  was  posthumously  published  in 
1876.  Of  all  these,  by  fer  the  best  known  is  his  Lucretius,  The 
first  serious  thought  of  this  undertaking  occurred  to  him  on  the 
deck  of  a  steamer  between  Bamberg  and  Schweinfiirt,  during 
a  tour  in  the  autumn  of  1845  in  the  company  of  Haupt,  who 
warmly  supported  the  proposal'.  As  to  the  merits  of  this  work, 
it  will  be  enough  to  quote  the  generous  eulogy  written  by  another 
great  editor  of  that  poet : — 

'  This  illustrious  scholar,  great  in  so  many  deparlments  of  philology,  sacred, 
classical  and  Teutonic,  seems  to  have  looked  upon  Latin  poetry  as  his  peculiar 
province.  Lucretius,  his  greatest  work,  was  the  main  occupation  of  (he  last 
live  years  of  his  life,  from  the  autumn  of  1845  to  November  1850.  Fortunately, 
he  had  the  full  use  for  many  months  of  the  two  Leyden  Mss.  His  native 
sagacity,  guided  and  sharpened  by  long  and  varied  experience,  saw  at  a  glance 


'  Hertz,  17 

'  a.  138. 


o^^ic 


CHAP.  XXX.]  LACHMANN.  129 

theii  relations  to  each  other  and  to  the  original  frotn  which  Ihey  were  derived, 
and  made  clear  the  arbitrary  way  in  which  the  common  texts  had  been  con- 
structed. His  zeal  warming  as  he  advanced,  one  truth  after  another  revealed 
itself  to  him,  so  that  at  length  he  obtained  by  successive  steps  a  clear  insight 
into  the  condition  in  which  the  poem  left  the  hands  of  its  author  in  the  most 
essential  points..., Though  his  Latin  style  is  eminently  clear,  lively,  and 
appropriate,  yet  from  his  aim  never  to  throw  away  words,  as  well  as  from  a 
mental  peculiarity  of  his,  that  he  only  cared  to  be  understood  by  those  whom 
he  thought  worthy  to  understand  him,  he  is  often  obscure  and  oracular  on  a 
first  reading.,,. But,  when  once  fully  apprehended,  his  words  are  not  soon 
forgotten''. 

Among  his  papers  on  Latin  poets,  may  be  mentioned  his 
review  of  Dissen's  TibuUus* ;  his  chronological,  critical,  and 
metrical  observations  on  the  Odes  of  Horace*;  his  attempt  to 
distinguish  between  the  genuine  and  the  spurious  Heroides* ;  and 
his  attribution  of  the  Latin  Homer  of  '  Pindarus  Thebanus'  to 
the  time  of  Tiberius'.  In  the  department  of  Latin  prose,  his 
name  is  associated  with  two  editions  of  Gaius,  and  with  the  text 
of  a  joint  edition  of  the  Roman  land-surveyors*. 

In  the  editing  of  texts  of  Greek  prose  he  is  represented  by  his 
important  recension  of  the  Greek  Testament  finished  in  1850, 
and  by  an  edition  of  Gencsius  contributed  to  the  Corpus  of 
Byzantine  Historians  at  the  request  of  Niebuhr,  His  interest  in 
the  Greek  poets  is  exemplified  in  his  able  review  of  Hermann's 
edition  of  the  Ajax' ;  a  paper  on  the  date  and  purpose  of  the 
Oedipus  Coloneiis" ;  and  two  Konigsberg  prt^rains  on  the  Choral 
Odes  and  the  Dialogue  in  Greek  Tragedy,  contending  that  the 
total  number  of  lines  assigned  to  each  Chorus  and  each  Dialogue, 
as  well  as  the  total  number  of  the  lines  assigned  to  each  actor, 
was  divisible  by  seven,— a  contention  that  has  not  been  generally 
accepted. 

The  discovery  of  a  MS  of  the  Fables  of  Babrius  by  the  Greek 
Minas  in  a  monastery  of  Mount  Athos,  and  its  somewhat  hasty 
publication  byBoissonade  in  November,  1844,  led  to  Lachmann's 
producing  in  the  space  of  four  months  an  excellent  edition  of  the 
text,  to  which   contributions  were  made  by  Meineke,   Eekket, 

'  Munro's  Lucretius,  i  p.  loT  *  Kleiaert  SchrifUn,  ii  lo*. 

'  Kl.  Schr.  ii  77,  *  ib.  ii  56.  '  ib.  ii  161. 

'  GromaHH  Veleres\  Hertz,  Ijjf.  '  Kl.  Schr.  ii  if. 

'  Kt.SikT.Xx  18. 

s-  III-  ,..,-Mh,Gcx")glc 


I30  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Hermann,  and  Haupt,  the  first  of  whom  added  an  Appendix  of 
the  fragments  of  all  the  other  choliambic  poets'. 

Lachmann's  study  of  Wolfs  Prolegomena  led  him  to  apply 
the  principles  of  that  work  to  the  great  German  epic  of  the 
NiebeluHgen-noth,  and  to  show  that  the  latter,  which  attained  its 
final  form  early  in  the  thirteenth  century,  could  be  resolved  into 
a  series  of  twenty  primitive  lays'.  More  than  twenty  years  after- 
wards he  applied  the  same  principles  to  the  Homeric  poems 
themselves  in  two  papers  presented  to  the  Berlin  Academy'. 

'  Lachmann  dissected  the  Iliad  into  eighteen  separate  lays.  He  leaves  it 
doubtiiil  whether  Ihey  are  to  be  ascribed  to  eighteen  distinct  authors.  But  at 
any  rate,  he  majntaitis,  each  lay  was  originally  more  or  less  independent  of  all 
the  rest.  His  main  lest  is  the  inconsistency  of  detail.  A  primitive  poet,  he 
argued,  would  have  a  vivid  picture  before  his  mind,  and  would  reproduce  it 
with  close  consistency.  He  also  affirms  that  many  of  the  lays  ate  ulteriy 
distinct  in  general  ^irit' '. 

Lachmann  was  the  true  founder  of  a  strict  and  methodical 
system  of  textual  criticism.  He  has  laid  down  his  principles 
most  clearly  in  the  preface  to  his  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament. 
Here  and  elsewhere  his  great  example  is  Bentley'. 

The  restoration  of  an  ancient  literary  work  involves  a  two-Fold  process, 
(1)  an  investigation  of  the  author's  personality,  and  of  the  original  form  of  the 
work,  and  (il),  an  exposition  of  his  thoughts  and  feelings,  as  well  as  the 
circumstances  which  gave  rise  to  them.  The  hrsi  of  these  two  processes  is 
Crilicism  ;  the  second,  Interfrtlalien.  Criticism  has  three  stages,  (t)  the 
delerminaiion  of  the  text  as  it  is  handed  down  in  Mss  (rtctnsire),  (i)  the 
correction  of  corruptions  (tmendare),  and  (3)  the  discovery  of  the  original  form 
of  the  work  (origintm  dftegere).  The  original  form  of  a  work  may  be  ascer- 
tained in  two  ways,  (n)  by  weighing  the  evidence  of  the  mss,  and  (J)  by 
correcting  their  evidence  when  it  is  false.  It  is  therefore  necessary,  in  the 
lirst  place,  to  ascertain  what  has  been  attested  by  the  most  credible  witnesses ; 

'  Hertz,  136  f. 

>  KUina-i  Sckriftm,  i  i  f  (i8i6) ;  Herti,  iiSf. 

'  Hitrachtimgm  Ubtr  Hsnun  IHas  (1837-41) ;  reprinted  with  additions  in 
184?.  1865.  '874- 

*  Jebb's  Homer,  118  f;  for  criticisms  on  Lachmann's  theory,  cp.  Fried- 
lander's  Horn.  Krilik,  rSja,  i7f;  Bonilz,  Vortrag,  i860,  +7*f. 

'  In  his  Studien  und  Kritiktn  (1830),  8jof.  he  admires  the  grossarlige 
fVcist  of  Bentley,  dis  grdislen  Kritikers  dtr  mutrm  Zeit.  In  his  Lufrilius 
p.  13,  he  writes:— 'In  iuvenijibiis  Benileii  schediasmatis  permultasunt  summo 
et  perfecio  artifice  dignissima'. 


■X'OO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXX.]  LACHMANN.  13I 

in  the  second,  to  form  a  judgement  as  to  what  the  writer  was  in  a  position  to 
write ;  and,  in  the  third,  to  examine  his  personality,  the  time  when  he  lived, 
the  circumstances  in  which,  and  the  means  whereby,  he  produced  his  work. 
The  first  business  of  the  critic,  reansio,  the  settlement  of  the  test  handed 
down  to  us  in  the  best  MSS,  can  (and  indeed  must)  be  carried  out  without  the 
aid  of  inlerpnlalio.  On  (he  other  hand,  the  two  other  stages  of  the  critical 
process  are  most  closely  connected  with  interprelalio ;  for  ( i )  evieiidalia,  or 
conjectural  criticism,  and  (1)  the  investigation  of  (he  origin  of  any  given  work 
{or  the  '  higher  criticism '  as  it  is  called),  assume  as  their  foundation  an 
understanding  of  the  work,  while,  on  the  other  side,  a  cempUte  understanding 
can  only  be  attained  by  the  aid  of  the  results  of  a  critical  examination. 

These  principles  were  applied  by  Lachmann  in  all  his  editions  of  Latin  or 
Greek  orUerman  texts.  His  aim  in  all  was,  Rrstly,  the  dttemiinatieit  of  the 
earlUit  form  of  the  text,  so  far  as  it  could  be  ascertained  with  the  aid  of  mss, 
or  quotations  ;  and,  secondly,  the  resloration  of  the  original  form  by  means  of 
careful  emendation'. 

'  The  influence  of  Lachmann  on  the  general  course  of  philolt^cal  study ' 
was  'probably  greater',  says  Netlleship',  'than  that  of  any  single  man' 
during  the  nineteenth  century.  'Many  scholars  who  never  saw  him,  and  to 
whom  he  is  only  known  by  his  books,  have  been  inspired  by  the  extraordinary 
impulse  which  he  gave  to  critical  method ;  Greek,  Latin,  and  German  philoli^y 
have  alike  felt  the  touch  of  the  magician.'  '  Hardly  any  work  of  merit '  (says 
Munro')  '  has  appeared  in  Germany  since  Lachmann's  Lucretius,  in  any  branch 
of  Latin  literature,  without  bearing  on  every  page  the  impress  of  his  ex- 
ample'.,,,' His  love  of  merit  of  alt  kinds  incites  in  him  a  zeal  to  do  justice  lo 
all  the  old  scholars  who  have  done  anything  for  his  author;  while  his  scorn 
and  hatred  of  boastful  ignorance  and  ignoble  sloth  compel  bim  to  denounce 
those  whom  he  convicts  of  these  offences'. 

'In  their  activity  of  mind  and  body'  (says  Donaldson*),  Hermann  and 
Lachmann  came  nearer  to  Englishmen  than  99  out  of  100  Germans ;  and  both 
of  them  made  more  progress  in  classical  composition  than  any  GeUhrlen  of 
their  time '....Both  'were  little,  why,  and  nimble  men,  full  of  spirit  and 
enei^ — as  different  as  possible  from  the  usual  type  of  German  bookworms'. 

'  Cp.  Haupt,  De  LachmantiB  Criltco,  in  Belger's  Haupt,  43  ;  Bursian, 
ii  789  f 

»  Essay,,  i  9. 

*  Lucretius,  i  p.  ao". 

*  Scholarship  and  Learning,  157  f.  Cp.  Lachmann,  h'Uinere  Schri/len, 
1  vols.  (18711) ;  Briefe  an  Moris  Haupt,  ed.  Vahlen,  164  pp.  (1891) ;  M.  Herii, 
Biographie  (1851);  J.  Grimm,  Rede  (1851),  reprinted  in  Grimm's  Kleinere 
Schnften,  i  145—161;  Haupt,  De  Laiknmnne  Critico ;  M.  Schmidt,  De  C. 
Lachmanni  iludiis  melricis,  1880;  and  Bursian,  ii  78a — 791;  also  F.  l^o 
(Gottingen,  1893),  tS  pp.;  Vahlen,  Berlin  Akad.  Bericht.  1893,  615  f;  Wein- 
hold.  Bed.  Akad.  1894,  37  pp. 


"i^foo^ic 


132  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

In  connexion  with  the  Homeric  question,  the  earliest  follower 
of  Lachmann  in  his  theory  of  lays  was  Hermann 
Kochly  (1815 — 1876).  The  son  of  a  Leipzig 
publisher,  he  was  educated  at  Grimma  under  Wunder.  At  the 
university  of  Leipzig  he  was  an  enthusiastic  pupil  of  Hermann ; 
he  commemotated  the  centenary  of  his  master's  birth  by  de- 
hvering  in  1872  an  admirable  oration  in  his  memory,  and  by 
publishing  it  in  1874  with  a  full  appendix  of  authorities.  Three 
years  of  experience  as  a  schoolmaster  at  Saalfeld,  near  Meiningen, 
were  followed  by  nine  at  Dresden,  where  his  career  was  cut  short 
by  the  political  events  of  May,  1849,  which  compelled  him  to 
flee  from  Saxony'.  He  escaped  to  Hamburg  and  Brussels,  where 
his  study  of  the  Greek  Tragic  poets  was  resumed  in  his  examina- 
tion of  the  problem  of  the  Promethsus,  and  in  his  other  early 
work  on  the  Alcestis,  Hecuba,  and  Helena.  He  also  continued 
his  critical  edition  of  Quintus  Smyrnaeus,  and,  in  three  weeks, 
he  had  finished  his  notes  on  the  last  five  books,  which,  in  his 
busy  Dresden  days,  might  have  taken  three  years.  He  further 
undertook  to  edit  Manetho  for  the  Didot  series,  in  the  hope  that 
it  might  ultimately  lead  to  a  professorship'.  Meanwhile,  he  was 
actually  appointed  to  fill  the  place  which  had  remained  vacant 
at  Ziirich  since  the  death  of  Orelli.  He  held  that  position  from 
1850  to  1864,  when  he  was  invited  to  Heidelberg,  to  hold  a 
professorship  at  that  university  for  the  remaining  twelve  years  of 
his  life. 

The  structure  of  the  Iliad  is  examined  in  his  seven  Ziirich 
dissertations  {1850-9),  and  in  a  paper  on  'Hector's  Ransom' 
(1859);  that  of  the  Odyssey  in  three  Ziirich  dissertations  (1862-3). 
The  results  of  his  examination  of  the  liiad  were  embodied  in  a 
practical  form  in  an  edition  of  sixteen  lays  published  at  Leipzig 
in  1861'. 

Kdchly's  'lays'  do  not,  however,  correspond  to  Lachmann's.  'The  two 
operators  take  different  views  of  the  anatomy'.  A  theory  of  short  lays, 
'  whatever  special  form  it  may  assume,  necessarily  excludes  the  view  that  any 
one  poet  had  a  dominant  intluence  on  the  general  plan  of  the  poems'*. 

'  E.  Biickel,  Hermann  Kdchly,  105 — 155 ;  Gustav  Freytag,  Erinnertatgen, 
1887;  E.T.  1890. 

'  Biickel,  137—131.  '  Cp.  Bocltel,  187  f. 

*  Jcbh's  Homer,  119. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XXX.]  KOCHLV.  1 33 

Apart  from  works  on  educational  policy,  most  of  Kochly's 
publications  were  concerned  with  the  post-homeric  epics.  He 
produced  a  critical  edition  of  Hesiod,  in  conjunction  with  his 
pupil  Kinkel,  as  well  as  a  plain  text  (1870).  Meanwhile,  he  had 
edited  Aratus,  with  Manetho  and  Maximus,  in  the  Didot  series, 
and  had  published  a  separate  edition  of  Manetho,  two  editions 
of  Quintus  Smyrnaeus  (1850-3),  and  lastly,  Tryphiodorus  and 
Nonnus. 

As  early  as  1840  he  gave  a  lecture  on  the  Antigone,  and  the 
performance  of  that  play  at  Dresden  in  1844  led  to  his  delivering 
his  first  popular  lecture  on  Greek  Tragedy'.  He  gave  proof  of  his 
critical  skill  by  his  emendations  (1860-2)  on  the  Tauric  Iphi- 
geneia,  by  his  edition  of  that  play  (1857),  and  by  his  paper  on  the 
Birds  of  Aristophanes.  In  a  course  of  lectures  on  Schiller,  he 
traced  the  influence  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics  on  the 
poetry  of  Germany'.  At  Ziirich,  the  exile  from  Saxony  was 
joined  in  1852  by  other  exiles  from  that  land,  by  Haupt  and 
Jabn  and  Mommsen  ;  and  we  learn  that,  in  a  private  reading  of 
Antony  and  Cleopatra,  the  historian  of  the  Roman  republic  took 
the  part  of  Octavius  Caesar'.  Kochly  was  the  heart  and  soul 
of  similar  readings  of  the  Agamemnon,  the  Antigone,  and  the 
Baahae  at  Heidelberg*,  and  brought  about  a  fine  performance 
of  the  Persae  at  Mannheim  in  1876'.  At  Ziirich  and  at  Heidel- 
berg he  gave  a  course  of  six  public  lectures  on  Demosthenes', 
whose  speech  De  Corona  he  translated  into  German',  as  well  as 
Cicero  pro  Ststio  and  pro  Milone^.  He  joined  the  military 
expert,  Riistow,  in  translating  Caesar,  and  he  also  wrote  an 
Introduction  to  the  Gallic  War  (1857).  In  1863,  his  work  on 
Caesar  was  specially  recognised  by  Napoleon  HI. 

While  he  was  a  devoted  pupil  of  Hermann,  he  was  led  by  the 
advice  of  Wachsmuth  to  enlai^e  the  range  of  his  interests  by  the 
study  of  the  writings  of  Boeckh,  and  he  was  also  attracted  to 
K.  O.  Miiller's  '  History  of  Greek  Literature'*.  In  conjunction 
with  Riistow,  he  wrote  a  '  History  of  Greek  Warfare'  {1852),  and 

'  ib.  ,^^. 


'  0/«/..Ui48f. 

>  Bockel.  44. 

*  Bockel,  331. 

"  <A.  3S«,  387. 

'  U.  183;  anon.  i8s6. 

»  (*.4i,  IJ7;  cp.esp.173f. 

.oogic 


134  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

edited  the  Greek  writers  on  Tactics  (1853-5)-  As  President  of 
the  Congress  of  Scholars  and  School- masters  at  Heidelberg  in 
1865,  his  influence  with  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden  led  to  the 
military  experts  being  authorised  to  construct  full-sized  models  of 
the  baliista  and  caiapulta^ ;  and,  at  the  Congress  at  Wiirzburg, 
in  1868,  he  gave  practical  illustrations  of  the  handling  of  the 
haslit  amtntata  of  the  ancients*. 

In  his  proposals  for  the  terorni  of  German  secondary  education,  iniiteaii  of 
vainly  alteiiipting  to  exact  a  complete  command  of  the  Latin  language  in 
speaking  and  in  writing,  he  prefeired  to  promote  a  perrect  understanding  ai 
the  classical  texts  and  a  historical  grasp  of  the  ancient  world'.  He  urged 
that  the  modem  languages  should  be  learnt  first,  that  Latin  and  Greek  should 
not  be  begun  until  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  that  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  world,  in  its  historic  aspect,  should  be  the  main  object  in  learning 
those  languages*- 

The  dream  of  his  life  was  a  visit  to  Greece.  That  dream  was 
fulfilled  in  the  autumn  of  1876,  and  in  the  company  of  his  pupil, 
the  prince  Bernhard  von  Sachsen-Meiningen.  But,  unhappily, 
his  health  was  already  failing ;  he  fell  from  his  horse  on  the  field 
of  Marathon,  and  died  at  Triest.  He  was  buried  at  Heidelberg, 
where  an  admirable  oration  was  delivered  in  his  memory'. 

While  Kochly  was  connected  with  Lachmann  in  maintaining 
that  the  Iliad  was  formed  from  a  number  of  primitive  lays,  there 
was  a  still  closer  connexion  between  Lachmann  and 
Haupt  (1808 — 1874).  Both  of  them  were  inspired 
with  a  keen  interest  in  German  as  well  as  Classical  Scholarship, 
and  both  of  them  devoted  their  main  energies  to  the  criticism  of 
the  Latin  poets.  They  were  also  united  by  the  closest  bonds  of 
friendship,  and  were  su(X:essively  professors  in  Berlin.  Moritz 
Haupt  was  bom  at  Zittau  in  Saxony.  From  his  father,  a  man  of 
poetic  taste  and  of  fiery  temper,  he  inherited  a  keen  and  im- 
petuous spirit,  as  well  as  a  vivid  interest  in  poetry.  At  Leipzig 
he  was  the  pupil  of  Hermann,  whose  daughter  he  afterwards 

•  Bockel,  I4I.  '  ib.  319.  '  ib.  jo. 

'  ib.  9+.    Cp.  Paulsen,  ii  4(19'  f. 

'  Bernhard  Stark,  Vortrage  etc.  +17  f;  cp.  A.  Hug,  Hermtmn  Kochly 
{1878),  4.1  [^.;  Eckstein  in  Eisch  and  Gruher;  Bursian,  ii  798;  and  esp. 
Ernst  Biickel,  Hemtattti  KSchly,  an  Bild  seines  Lebens,  with  portrait,  416  pp. 
(1904). 


,Cooglc 


CHAP.  XXX.]  HAUPT.  135 

married.  It  was  by  reading  Hermann's  edition  of  the  Bacchae 
that  he  first  leamt  what  was  meant  by  'really  understanding  an 
ancient  author".  He  spent  seven  years  at  Zittau,  tending  his  aged 
father  (1830—7),  and  working  at  Catullus  and  Gratius;  in  1834 
he  accompanied  his  father  to  Vienna  and  Berlin,  where  he  first 
met  his  life-long  friend,  Lachmann',  and  in  the  same  year  he 
printed  his  exempla poisis  Latinae  medii  aevi*.  In  1837  he  began 
his  professorial  career  at  Leipzig  by  the  publication  of  his 
QuaeiHones  CatuUianae.  In  1850  he  was  suspended  from  his 
professorship  on  political  grounds,  and,  although  he  was  acquitted 
by  a  court  of  justice,  he  was  arbitrarily  deprived  of  his  office. 
For  the  last  twenty-one  years  of  his  life  he  filled  with  distinction 
the  professorship  vacated  by  Lachmann  in  Berlin. 

From  1837  to  1854  his  interests  as  a  professor  had  been 
equally  divided  between  old  German  and  Latin  poetry,  but,  for 
the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life,  the  place  of  the  old  poets  of 
Germany  was  taken  by  those  of  Greece.  At  Leipzig  he  had  been 
highly  successful  as  the  Director  of  the  Latin  Society  which 
flourished  by  the  side  of  the  Greek  Society  founded  by  Hermann, 
and  his  double  interest  in  Classical  and  German  philology  ted 
to  his  frequently  lecturing  on  the  Gertnania  of  Tacitus-  He 
also  expounded  the  JHad,  with  select  plays  of  Aeschylus, 
Sophocles,  Aristophanes,  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  Theocritus, 
Catullus,  Tibullus  and  Propertius. 

His  Quaestiones  CaiuUianae  (1837),  a  work  of  special  import- 
ance in  connexion  with  the  textual  criticism  of  Catullus,  was 
succeeded  by  his  critical  edition  of  the  Halieutica  of  Ovid  and 
the  Cynegetica  of  Gratius  and  Nemesianus,  and  by  his  Observa- 
tiones  Grammatkae,  including  a  number  of  fine  grammatical  and 
metrical  criticisms  on  the  Roman  and  the  Alexandrian  poets. 
In  1847  he  added  a  supplement  to  Lachmann's  'Observations' 
on  the  Iliad,  and,  in  1849  and  1852  respectively,  published 
Hermann's  posthumous  editions  of  Bion  and  Moschus,  and  of 
Aeschylus.  In  1850  he  produced  his  own  edition  of  the  Pseudo- 
Ovidian  Epicedion  Drusi,  and,  in  1852,  a  tastefully  printed  text 
of  Horace. 

His  entry  on  his  professorship  at  Berlin  was  marked  by  his 
>  Betger,  Merits  Haupt,  17  f.  '  ii.  48. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


136  GERMANY.  [CENT,  XIX. 

treatise  on  the  Eclogues  of  Calpumius  and  Nemesianus.  He 
abo  published  a  school-edition  of  the  first  seven  books  of  Ovid's 
Metamorphoses,  and  elegant  editions  of  Catullus,  Tibullus  and 
Propertius,  and  of  Viigii.  His  first  edition  of  this  last  author 
was  anonymous;  the  second  included,  among  the  Pseudo- 
Virgiiiana,  an  improved  text  of  the  Aetna.  In  Latin  prose,  he 
only  edited  the  Germania  with  brief  critical  notes.  A  wide  range 
of  interests  is  covered  in  his  published  papers,  in  the  lectures  and 
speeches  delivered  before  the  Academies  of  Leipzig  and  Berlin, 
and  in  an  unbroken  series  of  42  Latin  programs,  for  the  corre- 
sponding Semesters  of  all  the  zi  years  from  1854  to  1874 
inclusive.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Rheinisches 
Museum  and  the  Philohgus,  and  finally  to  Hermes,  which  he 
founded  in  1866. 

Haupt,  like  Lachmann,  perpetuated  in  an  intense  form  the 
polemical  spirit  of  his  master,  Hermann'.  Among  his  main 
characteristics  was  his  masterly  precision  as  a  critic,  and  his 
skill  in  applying  his  familiarity  with  the  early  poetry  of  Germany 
and  France  to  the  attainment  of  a  profounder  knowledge  of  the 
poetry,  and  especially  the  epic  poetry,  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
His  energy,  his  proud  self-consciousness,  his  high  ideal  of  the 
scholar's  aim  in  learning  and  in  life,  the  keenness  and  the 
remorselessness  with  which  he  condemned  all  that  was  mean  or 
common,  and  even  all  that  was  merely  weak  or  immature,  in  fact 
everything  that  failed  to  satisfy  his  own  high  ideal,  has  been 
coramemorated  by  Bursian^,  who  was  one  of  his' pupils  at  Leipzig. 
His  lectures  on  the  Epistles  of  Horace  at  Beriin,  which  b^an 
with  an  exposition  of  the  principles  to  be  followed  in  constituting 
the  text,  and  included  a  running  fire  of  criticisms  on  Orelli,  were 
attended  by  Nettleship,  who  then  iearnt  for  the  first  time  to 
appreciate  the  true  greatness  of  Benttey.  One  of  Haupt's  life- 
long friends  was  Gustav  Freytag.  In  the  Verlorne  Handschrift 
the  character  of  Felix  Werner  is  to  some  extent  founded  on  that 
of  Haupt,  who  himself  suggested  part  of  the  plot'.  Freytag  has 
told  us  how  Haupt,  who  had  a  great  flow  of  language  in  the 
company  of  his  friends,  and  could  even  rise  to  eloquence  in  the 
presence  of  a  congenial  audience  (as  in  the  case  of  his  famous 

'  Belger,  19.  '  ii  Soof.  '  Belger,  ig,  34  f. 

h.  i.,  11,1^.001^10 


CHAP.  XXX.]  F.  HAASE.  1 37 

eulogy  of  Boeckh'),  had  the  greatest  difficulty  in  composing  any- 
thing that  would  satisfy  his  own  standard  as  a  writer.  All  that 
he  wrote,  however,  was  admirably  terse  and  transparently  clear'. 

Haupt's  contemporary,  Friedrich  Haase  (1808 — 1867),  was 
bom  and  bred  at  Magdeburg,  studied  under  Reisig 
at  Halle,  and  was  a  school-master  at  Charlotten- 
bui^  and  Schulpforta,  where  the  fact  that  he  was  a  member  of  a 
political  association  of  German  students  led  to  his  being  con- 
demned in  183s  to  six  years'  imprisonment  at  Erfurt  He  was 
released  after  a  year,  and  proceeded  to  Halle.  He  afterwards 
visited  the  libraries  of  Paris,  Strassburg,  Munich  and  Vienna, 
and,  for  the  last  27  years  of  his  life,  was  a  distinguished  professor 
at  Breslau. 

His  earliest  independent  work  was  a  commentary  on  Xeno- 
phon's  treatise  on  the  constitution  of  Sparta  (1833).  His  interest 
in  military  tactics  was  exhibited  by  the  illustrations  to  that  work, 
and  by  his  study  of  the  mss  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  tacticians 
during  his  travels  abroad'.  He  contributed  to  the  Didot  series 
an  edition  of  Thucydides,  with  an  excellent  Latin  translation, 
and  afterwards  published  papers  on  points  of  textual  criticism  in 
that  author'.  In  L.atin  scholarship  his  proficiency  is  proved  by  the 
notes  to  his  edition  of  the  Lectures  of  his  master,  Reisig",  and 
by  his  own  Lectures  on  Semasiology,  with  an  introduction  on  the 
History  of  I^tin  Grammar".  As  a  textual  critic  he  is  best  known 
through  his  editions  of  Velleius  Paterculus,  Tacitus,  and  Seneca. 
Separate  passages  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  and  Greek  inscrip- 
tions, with  questions  of  lexicography  and  literary  history,  are 
treated  in   his  Miscellanea   Phihhgica.     He  also  paid  special 

'  Belger,  ejf. 

'  A.  Kirchhoff,  Giddchlnissrids  (1875);  Gus(av  Freytag,  Im  Ncuen  Reich 
(1874)  3+7f;  Haupt,  Opunula,  1  vols.  1875-6  (with  portrail);  C.  Belger, 
Meritt  Haupt  ah  aiadtmischer  Lehrer,  340  pp.  (1879) ;  Nellleship,  Essays, 
i  I— n;  Bursian,  ii  800—805. 

*  De  militarium  s<riptortim...edilisne  (184;). 

*  Lucubrationes  Thuc.  (1841,  1S57)-  He  also  published  an  important 
paper  on  the  Athenischt  Slammverfassung  (Brestau  Abhandl.  1857),  and 
articles  on  Palaesira,  Phalanx,  Pkrygia  elc.  in  Ersch  and  Gruber. 

'  p.  108  supra. 

'   Car/esungen,  ed.  Eckslein  and  Peter  (:874-8o). 


A.oogic 


cm  a  lithc^raph  of  the  drawing  by  A.  Hohneck  (1844),  published  by  Henry 
and  Cohen,  Bonn,  with  nutt^raph  and  motto,  nil  tarn  d^iiUst  quin  quae- 
rendu  invesligari  fossitt  (Tei.  Haul.  675). 


iM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXX.]  RITSCHL.  139 

attention  to  the  History  of  Classical  I^earning'.  His  own  con- 
tributions to  that  subject  included  a  paper  on  the  Subscriptiones 
in  I^tin  mss',  and  a  valuable  disputation  on  the  philological 
studies  of  the  Middle  Ages'.  As  a  man  of  frank  and  straight- 
forward character,  and  full  of  fresh  enthusiasm  for  high  ideals 
in  public  life  and  in  scholarship,  he  exercised  a  healthy  and  a 
lasting  influence  on  all  who  came  under  his  care.  In  his  portrait 
the  most  striking  point  is  his  steady  gaze,  looking  upward*. 

The  birth  of  Haase  and  Haupt  was  preceded  by  two  years 
by  that  of  a  still  greater  scholar,  Friedrich  Ritschl 
(1806— 1876).  The  son  of  the  pastor  of  a  Thurin- 
gian  village,  he  was  educated  at  Erfurt  and  Wittenbei^  under 
Spitzner,  and  studied  for  a  short  time  under  Hermann  at  Leipzig, 
and  for  some  years  under  Reisig  at  Halle.  Under  the  influence 
of  Reisig,  his  early  interest  was  directed  towards  the  Greek  poets. 
That  interest  bore  fruit  in  his  dissertation  on  the  age  of  Agathon 
(1829),  and  in  his  articles,  in  'Ersch  and  Gruber',  on  the  Greek 
Ode,  on  Olympus  the  aulltls,  and  on  the  poet  Onomacritus. 
About  the  same  lime  he  produced  an  edition  of  Thomas  Magister 
(1832},  discussed  the  Greek  grammarians  Orus  and  Orion,  and 
published,  with  appendices,  his  essay  on  the  Alexandrian 
Libraries  (1838).  Meanwhile,  his  four  years  of  university  teach- 
ii^  at  Halle  {1829-33)  had  been  followed  by  a  call  to  Breslau. 
The  rest  of  his  life  falls  into  three  periods  during  which  he  was 
professor  first  at  Breslau  (1833-9),  i^^^  ^t  Bonn  (1839-65),  and 
finally  at  Leipzig  {1865-76). 

His  interest  in  Plautus  was  first  displayed  at  Breslau.  It  was 
there  that  in  1834  he  wrote  the  review  of  Lindemann's  work, 
in  which  he  promised  a  critical  edition  of  his  own.  In  i8j5  he 
edited  the  Bacckides,  and,  about  the  same  time,  contributed  to 
the  RheinUches  Museum  a  bibliographical  survey  of  the  criticism 
of  Plautus'.  In  1836-7  he  visited  Italy  and  spent  several  months 
of  a  bitterly  cold  winter  in  deciphering  the  Ambrosian  palimpsest 

'  F.  Salgo  (pseudonym),  Virgangmkeit  und  Zukunft  der  PhUologu 
0835);   Bufsian,  ii  810-1. 

'  Breslau  pr^ram,  i860.  '  id.  1856. 

*  C  Fickerl,  Breslau  Gymn.  progr.  1868  ;  Bursian,  ii  8oj — 813. 

»  Ofusc.  ii  I— 165. 


A.oogic 


140  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

of  Plautus  at  Milan.  He  embodied  the  results  in  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  Hermann,  in  which  that  scholar's  views  on  Plautine 
prosody  were  amply  confirmed^.  The  accuracy  of  Ritschl's  report 
of  the  readings  of  the  palimpsest  was  in  vain  attacked  by  Karl 
Eduard  Geppert  (iSii— 1881),  who  had  studied  at  Leipzig  under 
Hermann  and  under  Boeckh  in  Berlin,  was  an  adept  in  music 
and  in  recitations  from  Shakespeare,  was  interested  in  the  Greek 
and  Roman  theatre,  and  had  revived  several  of  the  Plautine 
plays  in  Berlin,  and  edited  nine  of  them*.  The  pahmpsest  has 
since  been  deciphered  (so  far  as  practicable)  by  Gustav  Lowe 
and  Wiihelm  Studemund.  Meanwhile,  in  1841,  Ritschl  started 
a  new  series  of  papers  on  Plautus,  which  were  published  with 
additions  in  1845  under  the  title  of  Parerga,  and  won  for  him 
the  name  of  sospitator  Plauti.  In  1848  he  began  his  edition  of 
Plautus,  and,  by  the  end  of  1854,  had  published  nine  plays'. 
He  produced  new  editions  of  these  nine,  and  entrusted  the 
preparation  of  the  rest  to  three  of  his  ablest  pupils: — Gustav 
Lowe,  Georg  Gotz,  and  Friedrich  Schbll.  Ritschl's  papers  on 
Plautus,  and  his  edition  of  the  text,  mark  an  epoch  in  the  study 
of  that  author.  The  field  that  had  been  inadequately  cultivated 
by  previous  editors,  such  as  Weise,  Lindemann,  and  Bothe,  now 
attracted  the  attention  of  eager  and  well-trained  scholars  of  the 
new  generation.  Ritschl  himself  studied  the  laws  of  the  ancient 
Latin  language  with  the  aid  of  the  oldest  Roman  inscriptions, 
and  applied  the  results  to  the  extension  or  correction  of  the  views 
expressed  in  his  Prolegomena.  Many  points  of  detail  were  taken 
up  by  his  friends  and  pupils,  while  others  attempted  to  support 
the  traditional  text. 

Ritschl's  Plautine  studies  led  him  to  investigate  the  history  of 
the  Latin  language.  His  numerous  papers  on  that  subject  are 
included  in  the  fourth  volume  of  his  collected  works.  But  the 
most  important  monument  of  his  labours  in  this  department  is 
his  great  collection  of  Ancient  Latin  Inscriptions*.     Many  points 

'  ii  166—101.  '  Biogr.Jahrb.  18B4.  131-6- 

*  Ttinummui,    Milts,    Batchidei    (1849);    S/ichus,    PseudoJus    (iSjo) ; 

Mimuchmi  (1851);  Mostetlatia  (rSsj)  ;  Ptrsa,  Meriator  (1854). 

'  FHscae  latinitatis  monumenia  cpigraphica  {1861);  Supplementa  in  KUine 

Schriftin,\y  i,>j^—f,-iv. 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXX.]  RITSCHL.  141 

of  early  Latin  Grammar  are  here  illustrated,  either  in  the  descrip- 
tive letter-press  or  in  the  elaborate  indices.  It  was  followed  by 
an  important  paper  on  the  History  of  the  Latin  Alphabet'.  In 
the  investigation  of  the  laws  of  ihe  Satumian  verse,  Ritschl  held 
that  we  should  begin,  not  with  the  fragments  of  Livius  Andro- 
nicus  and  of  Naevius,  as  recorded  by  the  grammarians,  but  with 
the  inscriptions ;  and  he  discovered  that  the  fragments  of  Cato's 
Carmen  de  moribui  were  written  in  Satumian  verse'.  His  exami- 
nation of  the  early  fortunes  of  the  plays  of  Plautus  led  him  to 
inquire  into  the  literary  activity  of  Varro,  to  set  forth  the  wide 
extent  of  his  labours,  and  to  determine  the  character  of  his 
Disciplinarum  Librt,  his  Imagines,  and  his  Logistorici  Libri*.  He 
also  wrote  an  important  paper  on  the  survey  of  the  Roman 
Empire  under  Augustus*.  Some  of  his  minor  papers  were 
concerned  with  the  modem  pronunciation  of  Latin",  the  recent 
History  of  Classical  PhiIol<^y°,  and  the  Plautine  studies  of  Veit 
Werler  {ft.  1507-15)'  and  Camerarius*,  with  biographical  sketches 
of  Passow  and  Reisig'. 

The  completion  of  25  years  of  successful  teaching  at  Bonn 
was  celebrated  in  1864  by  the  publication,  not  only  of  a  volume 
of  papers  by  eight  of  his  pupils  of  that  time"*,  but  also  of  a 
collection  of  papers  contributed  by  no  less  than  43  pupils  of 
former  years". 

While  Ritschl  is  associated  mainly  with  I^tin  Scholarship, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  almost  all  his  early  career  as  an 
Academic  teacher  was  connected  with  Greek".  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  he  did  not  begin  his  work  on  Plautus  at  an  earlier 
date,  and  that  he  was  diverted  from  the  completion  of  his  edition 
by  taking  up  a  number  of  points  incidentally  suggested  by  his 
Plautine  studies.  At  Bonn  he  was  a  most  successful  teacher  for 
26  years.  It  was  at  his  su^estion  that  Otto  Jahn  was  invited 
to  accept  a  professorship  at  that  university,  and  it  was  owing  to 

■  Kliinc  Schrifien,  iv  691  —  716. 
*  ui  743f- 

'  V  91 — 98.  "  Liter  Miscellaneus. 

"  Symbola  Pkilohgorum  BonnenHum  (1864-7),  ^^'  F'eckeisen. 

"  He  edited  Aesch.  Septem  \ 


ib.  81  f. 

=  ib.  iii  35»— 59*- 

MLi67— 19. 

,i^.ooglc 


142  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

unfortunate  differences  between  Jahn  and  himself  that  he  resigned 
his  professorship  and  withdrew  entirely  from  Prussia,  to  spend 
the  rest  of  his  life  at  the  Saxon  university  of  Leipz^'. 

Foremost  among  Ihe  supporters  of  Ritschl's  views  was  Alfred  Fleckeisen 
FleckeiKn  ('820-99),  *  native  of  WolfenbUtle],  who  was  educated  al 
Helmstedt.  and  who  studied  under  Schncidewin  at  Goltingen. 
In  his  earliest  independent  work,  the  ExtTtitationcs  PtaMlinat  (1841),  he  was 
inspired  by  (he  example  of  Bentley.  Reiz,  Hermiinn  and  Rilschl.  Fruin  that 
time  forward  he  was  closely  associated  with  RitschI,  and,  on  the  appearance  of 
Che  first  volume  of  the  edition  of  Flaulus,  welcomed  it  as  supplying  in  all 
important  points  a  firm  foundation  for  the  liiture  study  of  the  text'.  In  this 
spirit  he  edited  the  Teubner  text  of  ten  plays,  with  a  full  Efitstala  Criiica 
addressed  to  RitschI  (i8jo-t).  He  also  published  a  text  of  Terence  (1857), 
which  marked  tbe  first  important  advance  since  the  time  of  Beiitley.  Fleckeisen 
was  for  many  years  Conreclor  of  a  School  at  Dresden,  and  for  43  years  editor 
of  lYte/ahrbuikfrfiir  Fhihlogie^. 

Wilhelm  Sludemund   (1843—1889),   besides  transcribing  and  publishing 

in   1874  the  palimpsest  of  Gains  discovered  by  Niebuhr  at 

Verona*,  devoted  himself  with  the  moat  strenuous  industry 

to  the  deciphering  of  ihe  Ambiosian  palimpsest  of  Plaulus  '.    He  also  produced 

a  large  number  of  papers  on  Plautine  subjects,  together  with  monographs  on 

points  of  early  Latin  Grammar  and  Prosody  prepared  by  his  pupils  under  his 

direction  at  Strassburg".     The  conservative  side,  among  editors  of  Plautus, 

was  meanwhile  represented  by  Geppert'  and  Moritz  Grain,  and  by  the  Danish 

scholar,  Johann   Ludwig   Ussing.      Ritscbl's   Plautine   studies  were  acutely 

criticised  by  Bergk  in  a  series  of  reviews  and  programs',  and  in  a  special  work 

on  the  final  D  in  Latin  (1870).     His  views  on  the  relation  of  the  word-accent 

to  the  verse-accent  in  Plaulus  were  opposed  by  an  eminent  investigator  of  the 

early  history  of  the  Latin  language,  Wilhelm  Corssen  (iSio — 

1875),  in  liis  work  on  Latin  pronundalion,  vocalisation  and 


'  Curt  Wachsmulh  in  Ritschl's  KUine  Sehriflen,  iii  pp.  x — xviii ;  L.  Miiller, 
Fr.  RitschI,  tine  wissemchaftlUkc  Biographic  (1877  ;  ed.  i,  i8;8) ;  and  esp, 
O.  Ribbeck,  F.  W.  Ritsekl,  tin  Btilrag  sar  Gesfhichte  dtr  Pkilologit,  t  vols. 
384-t-S9i  PP-.  1879-81  (with  two  portraits);  cp.  Bursian,  ii  811—840;  Rohde, 
Kl.  S(hr.  ii  451-461 ;  Gildersleeve,  in  A.J.  P.  v  339— JSS-  Bililiography  in 
Ritschl's  Kleini  SchHflen.  v  715— 75^- 

^  Jahrb.f.  PkilolXaiz^i;  Ixiiyf. 

"  Biogr.  lakrb.   1900.  115  —  147;    portrait  in  Corm 
anai  {1890). 

*  p.  80  !up,a. 

'  Apografhum,  posthumously  published  in  1890. 

«  Sluditn,  1873—.     Cp.  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1889,  81—11 

''  p.  140  supra.  *  Plaulina  in 


A.oogic 


CHAP.  XXX.]    FLECKEISEN.     STUDEMUND.     CORSSEN.      143 

accent uition  (1858-9).  Corssen  aJso  wrote  on  the  early  history  of  Roman 
poetry  (i84(5),on  the  language  of  the  Volsci(i8j8tand  the  Etruscans  (1874-5), 
besides  papers  on  Latin  Accidence  (1863-6)  and  articles  in  Kuhn's  Zeilscfirifl'^, 
and  in  the  Ephirmrii  EfigraphUa  (1874).  The  dispute  between  Corssen  and 
Ritschl  prompted  one  of  Ritschl's  pupils,  Friedrich  SchiiU,  to  collect  and  sift 
all  the  evidence  of  (he  old  grammarians  on  Latiti  accent,  and  (o  inquire  into 
the  nature  of  that  accent  and  the  importance  of  the  word-accent  in  Latin 
verse  (1876).  The  evidence  of  the  old  grammarians  had  already  been 
discussed  at  Bonn  in  1857  in  an  important  dissertation  by 
another  of  Ritschl's  pupils,  Peter  Langen  (1835 — 1897),  the 
author  of  Plautine  Beilrage  (1880)  and  Sludien  (1886),  who  was  a  professor  at 
MUnster  for  the  last  1^  years  of  his  life'. 

Among  the  scholars  inspired  with  the  new  interest  in  Plautine  studies  was 
Wilhelm  Wagner  of  Hamburg  (18+j— 1880),  who  edited  the 
Anlularia,  Trinummus,  and  Menaechmi,  as  well  as  the  whole       W.  Wagner 
of  Terence,  with  English  notes.     Julius  Brix  (1815— 18S7).      ^itai 
who  was  born  and  bred  at  Gorliti,  and  studied  under  Ritschl 
at   Breslau,  was  in   1838  awarded  the  priice  for  an  essay  on  the  principles 
followed  in  Bentley's   Teremi,  and  in  1S41   produced  a  dissertation  on  the 
prosody  of  Plautus  and  Terence.    After  holding  minor  scholastic  appointments, 
he  was  Pto-Rector  at  Leignitz  in  1854-83.     At  Leigniti  he  produced  several 
editions  of  the  Trinummus,  Caplivi,  Menaechmi  and  Miles  Gleriosus^.    August 
Lorenz  (b.  1836),  who  was  educated  at  Copenhagen  and  ultimately  became  a 
school-master  in  Berlin,  edited  the  McsUllaria,  Milts  Gloriosus  and  Psrudolus 
(18615-76),  and  vrrote  many  papers  and  reviews  on  Plautine  subjects.     Lastly, 
Oskar  Seyffert  (r84i— 1906),   who  was   educated  in   Berlin        r,  o     a, 
under  his  namesake,  Moritz  Seyffert  (1809—187!,  the  editor  '    *'' 

of  Cicero's  Laelius),  and  was  for  forty  years  on  the  staff  of  the  Soph ien- gymna- 
sium of  Berlin,  devoted  a  large  part  of  his  enei^ies  to  the  study  of  Plaulus*. 
He  saw  through  the  press  Studemund's  Apograpkon  of  the  Ambrosian 
palimpsest,  enriching  it  with  an  important  Index  Orlhographicus  (1889);  and 
he  was  ever  ready  to  place  his  minute  and  varied  learning  at  the  service  of 
other  students  of  his  favoyrite  author". 

'  Vols,  x,  xvi,  xviii. 

*  Editor  of  Val.  Flaccus  (p.  194  infra) ;  Bicgr.  Jahrb,  1898,  i — 13. 

*  Biegr.Jahrb.  1887,  63—68. 

*  His  works  include  Sludia  Plautina  (1874),  and  surveys  of  Plautine  lite- 
rature (1883-94),  i"  Bursian's_/b4r«i^i-ii:A(. 

'  He  expanded  and  improved  E.  Munk's  Nisiory  0/  Latin  Literature; 
and  himself  produced  a  Dictionary  of  Classical  Antiquities  (188]),  the  English 
edition  of  which  was  revised  and  enlarged  by  H.  Nettleship  and  J.  E.  Sandys 
(iSgi).     See  esp.  E.  A.  Sonnenschein,  in  Alkenaemn.  4  Aug.  1906,  p.  130  f. 


A.oogic 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 

EDITORS    OF    GREEK    CLASSICS. 

In  turning  to  the  other  contemporaries,  and  the  successors, 
of  Ritschl,  we  shall  find  it  convenient  to  group  them  according 
to  the  main  subject  of  their  studies,  beginning  with  the  editors 
of  the  Greek  Classics. 

Karl  Wilhelm  Dindorf  (1802— 1883),  the  eldest  son  of  a 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Leipzig,  lost  his  father  at 
the  age  of  ten.  Having  thus  been  mainly  left  to 
his  own  resources,  he  acquired  a  singular  independence  of  cha- 
racter and  a  habit  of  indomitable  industry,  not  unaccompanied 
by  a  certain  lack  of  principle  and  a  disregard  for  social  con- 
ventions. At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  studied  at  Leipzig  under 
C  D.  Beck  and  Hermann,  supporting  himself  by  correcting 
proofs  for  the  press.  He  began  his  career  as  an  editor  by 
completing  in  seven  volumes  (1819-26)  the  edition  of  Aristo- 
phanes begun  in  two  by  Invernizi  (1797),  and  continued  in  four 
more  by  Beck  (1809-19).  He  also  produced  critical  editions 
of  separate  plays,  reprinting  the  notes  of  Hermann,  Monk,  and 
Elmsley,  together  with  a  complete  collection  of  the  Fragments 
(1829).  Meanwhile,  he  had  brought  out  an  edition  of  Pollux 
and  of  Harpocration,  and  had  published,  for  the  first  time,  certain 
of  the  works  of  the  grammarians,  Herodian  and  Philoponus, 
besides  a  new  edition  of  Stephanus  of  Byzantium.  For  the 
Teubner  series  of  Greek  texts  with  critical  notes,  begun  in  1824, 
he  edited  Homer,  Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  Aristophanes,  as  well 
as  Aeschines,  Isocrates,  Demosthenes,  and  the  Memorabilia  of 
Xenophon.  His  brother  Ludwig  {1805 — 1S71)  edited  the  rest 
of  Xenophon,  together  with  Hesiod,  Euripides,  and  Thucydides. 


lOO' 


SIC 


j:HAP.  XXXr.]  DINDORF.  I45 

In  the  new  series  of  texts  begun  in  1849,  Homer,  Aeschylus, 
Sophocles,  and  Demosthenes  were  edited  anew  by  Wilhelm,  and 
Xenophon  by  Ludwig.  All  the  Greek  dramatists  were  further 
edited  by  the  former,  with  notes  and  scholia,  for  the  Clarendon 
Press  (1832—63),  The  text  of  the  whole  was  first  printed  in  a 
single  volume  in  1830,  the  well-known  Poetae  Scenki  Gnuci, 
which  attained  a  fifth  edition  in  1869.  The  Lexicon  Sophodeum 
of  1871  was  withdrawn  from  sale,  owing  to  an  unauthorised  use 
of  the  lexicon  of  EUendt  (1834  f),  a  new  edition  of  which  was 
published  by  Genthe  in  1869-72'.  Dindorf's  Lexicon  Atschyleum, 
founded  on  that  of  Wellauer  (1830),  was  completed  in  1876. 
His  volume  on  the  metres  of  the  dramatists,  with  a  chronoiogica 
scenica,  was  a  careful  and  useful  work  (1842).  His  editions  of 
Aeschylus  and  Sophocles  were  founded  on  a  careful  collation 
of  the  Laurentian  MS  by  Diibner.  He  edited,  for  the  Didot 
series,  Sophocles  and  Aristophanes,  with  Herodotus,  Ludan,  and 
part  of  Josephus;  and,  for  the  Clarendon  Press  (besides  the 
dramatists),  Homer  and  Demosthenes  with  the  scholia;  also  the 
scholia  to  Aeschines  and  Isocrates,  the  lexicon  of  Harpocration, 
and  the  works  of  Clement  of  Alexandria.  To  the  new  Tauchnitz 
series  he  contributed  a  text  of  Lucian.  Among  the  texts  prepared 
by  him  for  other  publishers  were  Athenaeus,  Aristides,  Themisrius, 
Epiphanius,  the  praecepta  ad  Antioehum  of  Athanasius,  and  the 
'  Shepherd '  of  Hermas.  The  credit  of  taking  part  in  producing 
the  first  edition  of  this  undoubtedly  genuine  work  was  unfortu- 
nately impaired  by  his  publication  of  the  'palimpsest  of  Uranius' 
on  the  chronology  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  which  had  been  fabricated 
by  the  discoverer  of  the  genuine  Hermas,  the  notorious  Con- 
stantine  Simon  ides. 

At  an  early  age  Dindorf  was  nominated  to  'extraordinary' 
professorships  at  Berlin  and  Leipzig.  Failing  to  be  appointed  to 
succeed  Beck  in  1833,  be  took  up  the  task  of  K.  B.  Hase,  as 
editor' of  Didot's  Paris  edition  of  Stephanus'  Thesaurus  Graeciiatis, 
and  the  main  part  of  the  work,  ending  with  1864,  was  done  by 
the  brothers  Dindorf,  who  had  begun  to  help  as  early  as  1831. 
The  younger  brother,  Ludwig,  was  thrown  into  the  shade  by  his 

'  Cp.  Dindorf  in  Jakrb.  f.  cl.  Pkitol.  xcix  103,  105;  and  Genthe  in 
ZdUchrift  f.  Gyma,  xxvi. 


,k.^.?)O^IC 


146  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX, 

elder  brother,  and,  as  he  never  appeared  in  public,  a  legend  arose 
that  he  did  not  exist,  but  was  invented  by  Wilhelm  to  help  to 
account  for  the  extraordinary  number  of  editions  that  appeared 
under  the  name  of  Dindorf.  Ludwig  edited  (in  addition  to  the 
texts  already  mentioned')  Dion  Chrysostom  and  the  Greek 
Historians,  including  Xenophon,  Diodorus,  Dio  Cassius,  Polybius, 
the  Historid  Graeci  Minores,  with  Zonaras,  and  the  Didot  edition 
of  Pausanias. 

Wilhelm  Dindorfs  industry  and  thrift  made  him,  in  the  eariy 
part  of  his  career,  a  prosperous  man,  and  in  1837  he  became 
a  Director  of  the  Leipzig  and  Dresden  Railway.  But  his  life 
ended  in  gloom.  In  i87r  he  had  to  lament  the  death  of  his 
younger  brother.  A  few  months  later,  at  the  age  of  70,  he  lost 
his  all  by  speculations  on  the  stock-exchange,  and  was  even 
compelled  to  part  with  his  library.  But  he  still  worked  on, 
producing  (in  1873-6)  his  lexicon  to  Aeschylus,  and  {in  1875-80) 
his  complete  edition  of  the  scholia  to  the  Iliad.  His  hand-writing 
remained  clear  to  the  very  last,  and  there  was  but  little  failure  of 
his  bodily  powers.  After  his  death,  the  greatest  misfortune  that 
befell  his  memory  was  that  even  his  former  friends  forgot  and 
disowned  him'. 

The  Greek  poets  were  the  main  (heme  of  study  with  Dindorfs  con- 
temporary,  Johann  Adain  Harlung  (1801 — 1SS7),  who  studied 
at  Erlangen  and  Munich,  and  was  Director  of  the  gjunnasium 
at  Erfuit  for  the  last  three  yeai^  of  his  life.  An  ovet-fondness  for  conjectural 
criticism  was  his  main  characteristic  as  an  editor  of  the  texts  of  the  Greek 
elegiac,  melic,  iambic,  tragic,  and  bucolic  poets,  which  he  published  with 
verse- translations,  and  with  critical  and  explanatorj^  notes.  He  also  ttanstated 
Aristotle's  Treatise  on  Poetry,  with  notes  and  excursuses.  In  his  Euripides 
RfiHliilus  ([S43-5),  a  work  inspired  by  an  unbounded  admiration  for  the  poet 
whose  name  it  bears,  he  analj'ses  all  the  extant  plays,  and  even  discusses  (he 
plots  of  those  that  have  survived  in  fragments  alone.  His  earliest  works  were 
on  Greek  Particles,  and  on  Roman  Religion.  The  second  of  these  was  of  far 
higher  value  than  his  latest  work  on  the  Religion  and   Mythology  of  the 

The  Lyric  Poets  of  Greece  are  associated  with  the  name  of 
Theodor  Bergk  (iSu— 1881).  At  his  native  place, 
Leipzig,  he   studied  in   1830-5    under  Hermann; 

'  Biogr.Jakrb.  1883,  in— iii ;  Bursian,  ii  861—870. 


CHAP.  XXXI.]  HARTUNG.      BERGK.  147 

four  years  later,  in  Berlin,  he  was  assistant- master  to  Meineke, 
his  future  father-in-law;  he  was  afterwards  a  professor  at  Marburg 
and  at  Freiburg;  then,  for  twelve  years,  at  Halle  (1857-69);  and, 
for  the  last  twelve  years  of  his  life,  at  Bonn  (1869-81). 

Grateful  as  Bei^k  was  for  all  that  he  owed  to  Hermann,  he 
was  not  unconscious  of  the  one-sidedness  of  his  master's  teaching, 
and  sought  to  widen  his  own  interests  by  learning  of  Boeckh  and 
Welcker  and  K.  O.  Miiller.  While  he  was  still  a  student,  he 
printed  a  Comtneniatio  on  the  Fragments  of  Sophocles.  He 
began  his  public  career  by  editing  the  genuine  Fragments  of 
Anacreon,  and  by  producing  his  Commmta Hones  on  the  Old 
Attic  Comedy,  a  work  warmly  welcomed  by  Welcker.  Bergk 
contributed  to  Meineke's  'Comic  Fragments'  an  edition  of  the 
Fr^ments  of  Aristophanes,  which  was  followed  by  several  editions 
of  the  plays.  Meanwhile,  he  had  completed  at  Marburg,  in  1843, 
the  first  edition  of  his  Poetae  Lyrici  Graeci,  a  work  whose  merit 
depends  less  on  any  systematic  use  of  the  extant  mss  than  on  the 
felicity  of  the  editor's  emendations.  In  the  Olympian  Odes 
alone,  eleven  of  these  were  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  mss. 
The  defects  of  this  work  were  sharply  criticised  by  Schneidewin 
in  1844,  and  improved  editions  appeared  in  1853,  r866,  1878-82. 
Bergk's  paper  on  the  Age  of  Babrius  was  first  published  in  the 
Classical  Journal  of  1845'.  In  1858  he  produced  a  text  of 
Sophocles,  followed  by  an  edition  of  the  Lexicon  Vindobonense 
(1859-62).  His  familiarity  with  the  Epic  poetry  of  Greece  is 
attested  not  only  by  the  first  volume  of  his  'Greek  Literature', 
but  also  by  several  minor  works'.  He  is  less  well  known  in 
connexion  with  his  papers  on  Greek,  Latin  and  Cypriote  Inscrip- 
tions, on  Latin  Grammar  and  the  textual  criticism  of  Plautus, 
and  on  ancient  Prosody,  on  Greek  Mythology  and  Archaeology, 
and  on  the  text  of  the  Greek  Philosophers  and  the  Alexandrian 
Poets. 

His  studies  were  for  a  time  interrupted  by  political  duties. 
In  1848  he  represented  the  university  of  Marburg  in  the  Hessian 
Parliament,  and  was  one  of  the  delegates  to  the  federal  conference 

'  Opasc.  a  547—569- 

'  Opusc.  ii  415—444  (Unity  of  II.  i),  409—414  (Tabula  Iliaca),  and 
Enemiatiottes  in  Halle  Piogtams  of  1859  and  1861. 

h.  i.,loA3.00^IC 


I4S  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

at  Frankfurt.  To  this  period  belongs  the  only  portrait  of  Bei^k 
that  was  ever  painted'.  In  1852  he  accepted  a  call  to  Freiburg  in 
Breisgau,  where  he  lived  for  five  years  an  idyllic  life,  surrounded 
by  congenial  colleagues,  and  busy  with  the  text  of  Aristophanes 
and  Sophocles.  His  subsequent  time  at  Halle  was  marked  by 
bad  health,  due  in  part  to  over-work.  On  settling  in  1869  at 
Bonn,  a  university  to  which  he  was  attracted  by  the  presence  of 
Otto  Jahn,  his  health  improved,  and  he  continued  to  lecture  until 
1876.  At  Bonn  he  began  his  'History  of  Greek  literature'  and 
completed  the  ms  of  four  volumes  in  the  course  of  ten  years. 
He  also  wrote  papers  on  the  history  and  topc^aphy  of  the 
Jiheinland  in  Roman  times,  and  incidentally  gave  proof  of  his 
being  an  excellent  strat^ist'.  Though  he  was  able  to  prepare 
a  fourth  edition  of  his  Poetae  Lyrici,  and  to  exhibit  a  singular 
acumen  in  the  identification  of  the  two  Berlin  fragments  of 
Aristotle's  Constitution  of  Athttts",  he  was  in  failing  health  for  the 
last  five  years  of  his  life.  The  baths  of  Ragaz  in  Switzerland, 
which  had  proved  efficacious  in  former  years,  were  of  no  avail  in 
1881,  when  his  strength  finally  failed  him,  and  he  passed  away  on 
the  20th  of  July. 

As  a  classical  teacher,  he  was  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
langu^e,  literature,  and  monuments,  of  Rome  as  well  as  Greece: 
He  was  characterised  by  a  remarkable  breadth  of  knowledge,  and 
a  singular  d^ree  of  acumen.  A  severe  critic  of  his  own  work,  he 
left  many  of  his  most  elaborate  papers  unSnished.  Opinions, 
which  he  deemed  unsound  in  point  of  scholarship,  he  was  wont 
to  attack  with  a  sharpness  which,  in  the  years  of  failing  health, 
approached  the  limits  of  positive  rudeness.  But,  in  every  con- 
troversy, his  constant  aim  was  the  attainment  of  the  truth ;  and  in 
all  that  he  said  or  wrote,  the  advancement  of  classical  studies  was 
the  joy  and  the  glory  of  his  life'. 

The  Greek  drama  was  one  of  the  main  interests  of  Adolf  SchoU  (1805— 
18S3),  who  studied  at  TiibingeD,  Gottingen,  and  Berlin,  and 
b^ao  his  literar;  career  with  a  dissertation  on  the  origin  of 

'  Frontispiece  of  Qpuse.  1. 

^  PeppmUUerin  Bei^k's  Opusc.  I  Ixxxixf.  *  0/<«c  n  50S— 553- 

'  Arnold  Scbaerer,  in  Btagr.  Jahrb.  1881,  105 — no;  also  Peppmiiller  in 

Bergk's  Opuscula,  718  +  813  pp.  (i88«-6),  iixiij— xcv;  Buraian, li  819,  871-5. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lc 


CHAP,  xxxi]    A.  schOll.    buchholz.    nauck.  149 

the  drama  (1818).  He  aTletwards  owed  much  to  Che  influence  of  K.  O.  Miiller, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  the  fatal  journey  to  Greece.  Meanwhile,  he  had 
produced  important  papers  on  tragic  tetralogies',  and  had  translated  Sophocles 
and  Herodotus  with  the  highest  degree  of  literary  skill,  besides  writing  a 
monc^raph  on  the  '  Life  and  Work  of  Sophocles '  (1841) '.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Archaeology  at  Halle,  leaving  in  the  following 
year  for  the  directorship  of  the  Art  Museum  at  Weimar,  where  he  died  nearly 
forty  years  kter". 

The  subject'malter  of  Homer  was  the  principal  theme  of  theclassical  studies 
of  Eduard  Buchholi  (1815 — i88j),  who  was  educated  under 
B.  R.  Abeken  at  Osnabrilck,  studied  under  K.  F.  Hermann 
and  Schneidewin  at  Gottingen,  and  ended  his  scholastic  career  at  the  Joachims- 
thai  gymnasium  in  Berlin  (1871-81).  His  German  plays  on  classical  subjects 
are  less  widely  known  than  his  comprehensive  and  instructive  work  : — Die 
Homerisclun  Rtalitn*. 

The  text  of  the  Greek  tragic  poets  is  associated  with  the  name 
of  August  Nauck  (1822—1892).     The  son  of  a  ^^^^^ 

village-pastor  in  NE  Thuringia,  he  was  educated 
at  Schulpforta,  studied  at  Halle  (mainly  under  fiernhardy)  in 
1841— 6,  and,  after  holding  scholastic  appointments  in  Berlin,  was 
in  1859  elected  a  Member  of  the  Academy  of  St  Petersburg, 
where  he  was  also  professor  of  Greek  Literature  in  1869-83. 
His  first  important  work  was  an  edition  of  the  Fragments  of 
Aristophanes  of  Byzantium  (1848),  suggested  by  Bemhardy.  His 
text  of  Euripides  (1854)  was  followed  by  an  excellent  edition  of 
the  Fragments  of  the  Greek  Tragic  Poets  (1856),  the  design  for 
which  had  occurred  to  him  during  his  study  of  the  scholia  in 
connexion  with  his  edition  of  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium.  He 
was  busy  with  the  Fragments  while  he  was  still  an  assistant- 
master  to  Meineke,  and  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  editor  of  the 
'  Comic  Fragments '  was  interested  in  his  assistant's  work  in  a 
similar  domain.  This  undertaking  made  it  necessary  for  bim  to 
traverse  the  whole  range  of  Greek  literature.  He  thus  found 
traces  of  the  Aeschylean  simile  of  the  'struck  eagle",  not  in 
Aristophanes  alone,  but  also  in  Philo,  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus, 

'  Beitrdgi  zur  Cesch.  der  attischen  Tragitrr  (1839),  i. 
*  Also  on  Shakespeare  and  Sophocles  ntjahrb.  der  deiilschia  Shakespcare- 
GtsilUckafi  UUi). 

'  Biogr.Jahrb.  i88j,  fij^^g. 

■*  3  vols.  (1871-8S).    Biogr.  Jahrb.  188;,  «8  f,  "  Frag,  139. 

h.  i.,  ii,l^.OOglc 


1 50  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Athenaeus,  Aristides,  Galen,  and  Eustathius.  A  line,  which 
violated  Porson's  rule  as  to  the  final  cretic',  had  been  quoted 
from  the  Canones  of  either  '  Ion '  or  '  loannes ';  it  had  been  rashly 
ascribed  to  Ion  by  Heyne ;  but  it  was  more  judiciously  assigned 
by  Nauck  to  Joannes  Damascenus,  and  was  subsequently  found 
in  that  grammarian's  works'.  Another  of  Meineke's  assistant- 
masters  was  Adolf  Kirchhoff.  Kirchhoff  and  Nauck  were  simul- 
taneously preparing  editions  of  the  text  of  Euripides.  Nauck 
placed  at  Kirchhoff's  disposal  his  own  collection  of  quotations 
from  Euripides,  while  Kirchhoff,  both  before  and  after  his  visit  to 
the  Italian  libraries  in  1853,  kept  Nauck  informed  of  points  that 
were  likely  to  interest  him  as  an  editor.  The  second  edition  of 
Nauck's  Euripides  included  ProUgomena  on  the  life,  style,  and 
genius  of  the  poet,  in  which  the  subject  is  tersely  and  succinctly 
treated,  while  the  original  authorities  are  added  in  the  notes. 
Like  Porson  and  Elmsley',  for  both  of  whom  he  had  a  high 
admiration,  he  was  specially  strong  in  his  knowledge  of  metre. 

In  1859,  on  the  proposal  of  Stephani,  he  was  elected  a 
Member  of  the  Academy  of  St  Petersburg,  and  in  that  year,  and 
again  in  1862,  he  laid  before  that  Academy  the  two  instalments 
of  his  '  Euripidean  Studies ''.  Most  of  his  subsequent  work,  apart 
from  editions  published  in  Germany,  appeared  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Russian  Academy,  and  unfortunately  attracted  little  notice 
in  the  land  of  his  birth'. 

From  1856  onwards  he  was  repeatedly  engaged  in  the  critical 
study  of  Sophocles.  Every  few  years  he  produced  a  new  revision 
of  Schneidewin's  school-editions  of  the  several  plays.  His  own 
edition  of  the  text  (1867)  was  severely  reviewed  by  Bergk,  while 
he  himself  was  no  less  severe  in  his  review  of  the  '  Comic  Frag- 
ments '  of  Kock.  He  was  less  strong  in  the  '  recension '  of  the 
text  as  a  whole  than  in  the  details  of  its  'emendation '.  In  one 
of  his  papers  he  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  his  own  conjectures 
had  repeatedly  been  confirmed  by  the  Mss*. 

'  imfKut  d^itjiToit  tv  SiapSpa!  SaxriXois. 

»  T.  G.  F.  p.  xiii.  *  Melanges  Gr.  Rom.  iv  61,  joSf. 

*  Mimoins,  Sir.  vil,  i  no.  1 1,  and  v  no.  6. 
'  Milangis  Grhe-Rotnains,  six  vols. 

•  (■*.  11135.  "317,  333,  453- 


n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XXXr.]  NAUCK.  igi 

In  his  edition  of  the  Odyssey  (1874)  and  the  Iliad  (1877), 
the  text  of  Aristarchus  is  generally  retained,  resolved  fonns  of 
diphthongs  only  introduced  where  necessary,  and  conjectures 
added  below  the  text.  To  ascertain  his  actual  views  as  to  the 
textual  criticism  of  Homer,  we  have  to  consult  his  Kritische 
Bemerkungen^.  He  there  avows  that  the  aim  of  the  Homeric 
critic  is  to  bring  the  text  as  near  as  possible  to  the  original  form ', 
with  the  aid  of  Analogy  and  Comparative  Philology. 

While  his  first  decade  at  St  Petersburg  had  been  mainly 
devoted  to  Sophocles,  and  his  second  to  Homer,  the  third  was 
assigned  to  Porphyry  and  his  circle.  Here  again,  the  first  impulse 
had  come  from  Bernhardy.  In  1846  he  had  spent  three  months 
collating  Porphyry  mss  at  Munich.  On  his  return  to  Halle  he 
collected  many  of  the  fragments,  but,  on  reaching  the  Byzantine 
writers,  he  left  his  original  task  unfinished.  At  St  Petersburg, 
however,  with  the  aid  of  his  colleague,  Chwolson,  he  became 
acquainted  with  the  Arabic  authorities  on  Porphyry's  philosophy. 
In  i860  he  produced  Teubner  texts  of  three  of  Porphyry's  tracts, 
namely  the  Life  of  Pythagoras,  the  treatise  On  Abstinence,  and 
the  Letter  to  Marcella.  Here  {as  elsewhere)  he  did  more  for 
'  emendation '  than  for  '  recension '.  Indeed,  it  was  shown  in 
1871  that  the  Munich  ms,  which  he  had  followed,  was  only  an 
ordinary  copy  of  the  Bodleian  ms'.  His  examination  of  the 
Laurentian  ms  of  lamblichus'  'Life  of  Pythagoras'  in  1879 
resulted  in  an  edition  of  that  work  {1884),  followed  by  a  second 
edition  of  the  Porphyrii  Opuscula  Sekcla  (1886). 

The  main  achievement  of  his  life  was  his  final  edition  of  the 
Fragments  of  the  Greek  Tragic  Poets.  The  first  edition  had 
appeared  in  1856.  The  publication  in  1862  of  the  first  part  of 
the  second  collection  of  Volumina  Herculamnsia,  including  many 
passages  quoted  from  the  poets  by  Philodemus,  led  to  a  long  and 
friendly  correspondence  with  its  able  editor,  Professor  Gomperz 
of  Vienna.  The  loan  of  a  Vienna  ms  enabled  him  to  publish  the 
ElymologicuM  Vindobotiense  in  1867,  and,  three  years  afterwards, 
a  Vatican  ms  of  that  lexicon  revealed  the  name  of  its  author, 

'  1861,  1863,  1867,  and  esp.  187:. 

*  Mil.  Cr.  Rom.  iii  109  j  see  esp.  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1893,  44  H 

»  Val.  Rose,  in  Hermts,  v  j6j  f. 


A.oogic 


152  GERMANY.  fCENT.  XIX. 

Andreas  Lopadiotes'.  The  final  edition  of  the  Tragic  Fragments 
appeared  in  1889,  and  the  complete  Index  in  1892.  The  aged 
editor  had  lately  lost  the  sight  of  one  eye  and  his  memory  had 
bt^un  to  fail  him ;  yet  he  was  eagerly  planning  fresh  works  for 
the  future,  when  his  life  came  to  an  end*. 

A  crilkal  editioD  of  Pindar  was  produced  in  1864  by  Tycho  Mommsen 
(1819—1900),  a  younger   brother  of   the  historian.      After 
Momm«n       studying  in  1838-43  at  Kiel,  which  was  then  a  Danish  uni- 
versity, be  visited  Greece  and  Italy  in  1846,  and,  in  1846-7, 
collated  MSS  of  Pindar  in  Rome  and  Florence.     Further  collations  were  made 
in  1861.    The  results  appeared  in  his  edition  of  1864  ;  he  also  edited  a  large 
part  of  ihe  ichatia  (1861-7),     He  was  Rector  of  the  school   at  Oldenburg 
from  1856,  and  Director  of  the  gymnasium  at  Franltfurt  from  1864  10  the  end 
of  his  life.    The  greatest  work  of  his  closing  years  was  an  investigation  of  (he 
usage  of  Ihe  prepositions  vir  and  ihtA  in  Greek  literature  beginning  with  the 
poets  (1874-9)  '"d  ending  with  the  writers  of  prose'. 

Numerous  papers  on  Pindar  were  produced  by  Eduard  Luhhert  (1830 — 
I  iiViK  rf  '889),  a  professor  al  Giessen  in  1865-74,  and  at  Bonn  from 

1881  to  his  death.  The  series  began  with  a  JIalle  prc^ram  of 
1S53  and  ended  with  the  end  of  his  life*. 

A  brief  and  suggestive  Commentary  on  Pindar  was  prepared  by  Friedrich 
^^^    _.  Meiger  (1833—1893),  a  son  of  the  Rector  of  the  gymnasium 

of  St  Anna  al  Augsburg,  who  studied  at  Eriangen  and  Leipzig, 
and,  after  teaching  under  his  father  for  eight  years  at  Augsburg  and  under- 
taking similar  work  for  eight  years  at  Hof,  returned  to  bis  father's  school  in 
iSyi,  and  ihere  taught  for  the  remaining  three  years  of  his  father's  life,  and 
for  seventeen  years  after.  The  fruit  of  many  years  of  study  appeared  in  his 
Commentary  of  1880,  a  work  intended  for  those  who  desired  to  study  the 
poet  for  his  own  sake,  without  being  distracted  by  the  divergent  views  of  his 
interpreters,  with  which  Meiger  himself  was  perfectly  familiar,  his  own  library 
including  some  300  works  on  the  subject.  It  may  be  added  that  he  was  led  to 
hb  well-known  theory  of  catch-words  in  Pindar  by  the  practice  of  learning 
each  ode  by  heart  before  commenting  on  it'. 

Eoeckh's  lectures  on  Pindar  at  Berlin  were  attended  by  Morii  Schmidt 
(1813 — 1888),  who  had  already  studied  under  Haase  at  the 
university  of  his  native  place,  Breslau.     For  the  last  thirty- 

'  Stein's  lai^er  ed.  of  Herod.  I  Ixxvf;  Krumbacher,  %  138'  (first  half  of 

*  Iwan  MUller  in  Bicgr.  Jahrb.  1893,  I — 65  (with  complete  bibliography) ; 
cp.  Bursian,  ii  8  70-1. 

'  Beitrdge  lu  der  Lehre  von   den  griechischin    Prapositiontn  (1886-95), 
847  pp.     Cp.  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1904,   103 — 117. 

*  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1891,  135 — 171,  with  list  of  papers  on  169 — 171. 
'  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1894,  78 — 86. 

h,  i.MiA.OOgIc 


M.  Schmidt 


CHAP.  XXXr.]      MEZGER.      M.SCHMIDT.      W.CHRIST.         I53 

one  jtKta  of  his  life  he  was  a  professor  at  Jena.  He  began  his  career  wilh  a 
treatise  on  the  dithyramb  and  the  remains  of  the  dithyrambic  poets  (i8+s)- 
He  afterwards  collected  the  fragments  of  Didymus  (1854),  and  produced  as 
his  o/uj-  magnum  the  edition  of  Hesychius  in  five  volumes,  with  Quaestionn 
Hnychianae  in  Che  second  half  of  volume  iv,  and  elaborate  Indices  in  volume  v 
{1S58-68).  He  subsequently  published  in  a  single  volume  (1864)  the  nucleus 
of  Hesychius,  in  the  form  of  a  restoration  of  (he  epitome  of  the  lexicon  of 
Pampbilus,  which  Schmidt  regarded  as  identical  with  (he  small  lexicon  of 
Diogenianus'.  He  also  produced  papers  on  the  inscriptions  of  Lycia  (1867-76) 
and  collected  those  of  Cyprus  (iS;6);  edited  the  fables  of  Hyginus  and  ihe 
Ars  Poetiea  of  Horace,  the  Foetu  of  Aristotle  (with  a  translation),  and  (he 
first  Book  of  the  Politics,  besides  discussing  the  Pseudo-Xenophontean  treatise 
on  the  Constitution  of  Athens.  In  his  works  on  Pindar  (i86g,  1881}  and 
Horace  (187]),  and  his  editions  of  the  Oedipus  Tyrannus  and  the  Aniigont 
{1871-80),  he  showed  a  special  aptitude  for  conjectural  emendation.  His 
discussion  of  the  metres  of  Pindar,  and  of  the  Tragic  Choruses,  was  founded 
on  a  careful  study  of  Aristoxenus,  a  translation  of  whose  treatise  on  rhythm 
was  placed  by  Schmidt  at  the  disposal  of  Westphal.  He  endeavoured  vrith 
very  doubtful  success  lo  solve  Ihe  difficulties  in  the  choral  metres  of  Pindar 
and  Sophocles  (1870)  by  Ihe  aid  of  the  modern  theory  of  music.  Maturer 
work  in  this  field  is  to  be  found  in  his  papers  on  the  Choruses  of  the  Ajax 
and  on  the  structure  of  Pindar's  Strsfhae.  He  did  much  for  the  text  of 
Aeschylus,  and  gave  proof  of  an  artistic  and  tasteful  style  in  his  excellent 
translations  of  the  Oedipus  Tyrannus  and  of  Pindar's  Olympian  Oda\ 

Homer  and  Pindar  formed  a  principal  part  of  the  wide 
province  of  Greek  literature  which  was  illustrated 
by  the  life-long  labours  of  Wilhelm  Christ  (1831  — 
1906).  Bom  near  Wiesbaden,  he  studied  at  Munich  and  Berlin  ; 
was  a  pupil  of  Karl  Halm  at  Hadamar  and  Munich,  and  of 
Thiersch,  Spengel,  Boeckh,  Bopp,  and  Trendelenburg  at  Munich 
and  Berlin ;  and,  for  more  than  half  a  century,  was  one  of  the 
praeceptores  Bavariae,  first  as  a  master  at  the  Max-Gymnasium 
and  for  the  remaining  forty-five  years  as  a  professor  in  the 
university  of  Munich.  Under  the  influence  of  Halm,  he  became 
interested  in  the  textual  criticism  of  Cicero,  De  Divinatwne,  and 
De  Fato.  Under  that  of  Boeckh,  he  ultimately  edited  a  text  of 
Pindar,  followed  by  a  commentary  {1896).  Under  that  of  Spengel 
and  Trendelenburg,  he  produced  a  text  of  Aristotle's  Poetic  and 
Metaphysics'.    As  a  former  pupil  of  Bopp,  he  lectured  in  alternate 

'  See  index  to  vol.  i  s.v. 

»  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1889,  83—130  ;  Bursan,  ii  875-7, 

*  Beitriige  in  Munich  S.  Ber.  1886,  406 — 423. 

h,  i.MM,Googlc 


154  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX, 

years  on  Comparative  Grammar.  He  also  repeatedly  undertook 
subjects  that  would  otherwise  have  been  unrepresented  in  the 
list.  His  lectures  on  Homer  resulted  in  his  text  of  the  Iliad 
(1884)';  those  on  the  Odes  of  Horace,  in  his  Studies  on  Rhythm 
and  Metre,  and  on  the  chronology  of  the  poems  in  general ;  those 
on  Demosthenes,  in  his  paper  on  the  edition  by  Atticus  (1882); 
and  those  on  the  Germania  of  Tacitus,  in  his  Studies  on  Ancient 
Geography,  a  subject  which  he  constantly  kept  in  view  during  his 
travels  in  Greece  and  the  Troad.  His  comprehensive  hand-book 
of  Greek  Literature  has  passed  through  several  editions'.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  versatile  of  scholars.  He  was  capable  of 
examining  in  archaeology,  and  of  lecturing  on  ancient  philosophy, 
besides  taking  an  interest  in  astronomy.  His  services  on  the 
Bavarian  Board  of  Education  were  recognised  by  his  receiving, 
among  many  public  distinctions,  that  of  the  'Star  of  Bavaria*. 
Even  in  the  last  few  months  of  his  long  life,  he  had  large 
audiences  attending  his  lectures  on  the  Greek  Theatre.  He  was 
a  loyal  and  generous  colleague ;  a  man  of  noble  nature,  and  of 
cheerful  temper ;  one  who  found  his  chief  happiness  in  his  work, 
and  in  his  home'. 

The  Suppliies  and  Pcrsae  of  Aeschylus  were  edited  by  Johannes  Oherdick 

(1835 — 1903),  who  studied   al   Mlinsler  and   Bonn,   and   at 

Breslau,  where  he  received  an  honorary  degree  in  :874.     His 

principal  scholastic  appointment  was  that  of  Director  of  llie  Catholic  gymnasium 

of  Glatz.     He  was  interested  in  Latin  Orlhc^aphy*,  and  was  a  corresponding 

Memlier  of  the  Academia  Virgitiana  of  Mantua". 

An  edition  of  the  Ekctra  of  Sophocles  (1896)  was  one  of  the 
finest  of  the  works  produced  by  Geoi^  Kaibet 
(1849 — 1901),  who  was  born  and  bred  at  Liibeck, 
and  studied  under  Ernst  Curtius  and  Sauppe  at  Gottingen,  and 
under  Jahn  and  Usener  and  BiJcheler  at  Bonn.  He  was  a 
student  of  the  Archaeological  Institute  in  Rome  in  1873-4,  and 
visited  Italy  for  his  health  in  the  winter  of  1877-8.  In  1878  he 
published  his  Epigrammata  Graeca  ex  lapidibus  conlecta,  a  work 

'  Also  in  papers  on  'repetitions'  and  'contradictions'  in  the  Iliad;  Munich 
S.  Ber.  1 880-1.     On  the  substance  of  his  PioUgomena,  cp.  Jebb's /fum^r,  116  f. 
'  Ed.  1889  ;  ed.  4,  1905,  996  pp.  (with  appendix  of  43  portraits). 
'  E.  W(olfBin),  va  Btilagc  zur  Allgtmtmt  Ztitnng,  u  Feb.  igolS,  169 f. 
*  Siudicn  in  4  parts  {1879-94).  '  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1904,  10 — n. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XXXI.]   OBERDICK.     KAIBEL.     PRINZ.     VELSEN.      IS5 

containing  some  1200  epigrams  extending  in  date  over  ten 
centuries.  From  1879  to  1886  he  was  successively  professor  at 
Breslau,  Rostock,  and  Greifswald ;  then,  for  ten  years,  at  Strass- 
burg,  and  for  the  last  five  years  of  his  life  at  Gottingen.  His 
principal  works,  beside  the  edition  of  the  EUdra,  were  his  critical 
text  of  Athenaeus  (1886-90),  his  collections  of  the  Greek  Inscrip- 
tions of  Italy  and  Sicily  and  the  West  of  Europe  (rSgo),  the 
edition  of  Aristotle's  Constitution  of  Athens,  in  which  he  was 
associated  with  his  life-long  friend,  Wilamowitz  (1891),  and  his 
independent  work  on  the  'Style  and  Text'  of  the  treatise  (1893). 
He  had  only  published  the  first  part  of  his  proposed  edition  of 
the  'Fragments  of  the  Greek  Comic  Poets'  (1889),  when  his  brief 
life  came  to  an  end'. 

A  critical   edition  of    Eufipides    was  begun   by  Rudolf    Prinz   (1S47 — 
1890),  who  studied  mainly  at  Bonn,  under  Olto  John,  Arnold  . 

Schaefer,  and  Usener.  Afler  spending  eight  months  in  Paris 
examining  the  MSS  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  he  published  the  Medea  and 
Alttstis  (1878-9).  In  1880  he  was  at  work  in  (he  Vatican  and  Laurenlian 
Libraries,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Laurentian  MS  of  Sophocles  was 
in  the  position  of  princep!,  lathei  than  thai  of  paicr  or  avas,  in  relation  to  the 
other  Mss  ;  but  his  proposed  edition  of  Sophocles  never  appeared.  Work  in 
the  cold  Italian  libraries  inflicted  permanent  injury  on  his  health,  and  even 
prevented  him  from  having  sufBcient  energy  to  make  foil  use  of  his  own 
collations.  In  iS8i  he  left  his  appointment  in  the  library  of  Brestau  to 
superintend  that  of  MUnster  ;  in  the  following  year  he  pubiished  the  Hecuba  ; 
in  188S  he  became  librarian  at  Konigsbei^,  where  he  suffered  from  strange 
mental  delusions,  and  left  for  a  private  asylum,  where  he  died'. 

Apart  from  the  complete  editions  of  the  text  of  Aristophanes  by  Bekker, 
Dindorf,  Bergk,  and  Meineke,  there  were  many  editions  of  separate  plays^. 
Critical  editions  of  five'  were  produced  by  Adolf  voa  Velsen 
(1831 — 1900),  who  studied  at  Bonn,  and  was  for  many  years  a 
school-master  at  SaarbrUcken.    On  the  failure  of  his  health,  his  collections 
were  handed  over  to  Zacher  with  a  view  to  the  continuation  of  the  work. 
Four  of  the  plays'  hafi  meanwhile  been  edited  with  German  notes  by  Theodor 
Kock  (iSio— 1891},  who  had  studied  at  Breslau,  Halle,  and 
Berlin,  and,  after  holding  several  scholastic  appointments,  wa; 
Director  of  a  gymnasium  in  Berlin  (1860-85).  and  then  settled  for  the  rest  of 
his  life  at  Weimar.     He  wrote  several  German  dramas  on  classical  themes; 

I  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1904,  15—71.  '  Btogr.  Jahrb.  1891,  »i— 31. 

>  E.g.  Thesm.  Ran.  ed.  F.  V.  Frilzsche  (1838-45). 
*  Eq.  Thesm.  Ran.  Plut.  Eal.  (1869-83). 
°  Nub.  Eq.  Ran.  Av.  (1851-^4). 

D„:,i.,.-iM,G00glc 


I  $6  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

waa  keenl;  interested  in  modem  music  and  ancient  art,  a.nd  paid  nine  visits  to 
Italy,  and  two  to  Greece.  He  attained  a  high  degree  of  excellence  in  trans- 
lating the  whole  of  Goethe's  tphigenU  into  Greek  Iambic  verse  (1861).  His 
latest  work,  the  '  Comic  Fragments'  (1880-8),  was  intended  to  serve  as  a  new 
edition  of  Meineke's  EdxHo  minor,  but  a  higher  standard  was  expected  in  1S80 
than  that  which  had  sufficed  thirly'three  years  before.  The  new  editor 
attempted  to  trace  lost  fragments  of  Greek  Comedy  in  the  prose  of  Lucian  and 
other  late  Sophists,  and  also  elsewhere.  He  even  found  a  fragment  of  a 
'comic  tetrameter'  in  a  passage  which  he  failed  to  identify  as  part  of  the 
sublime  language  of  St  Paul'. 

The  value  of  Aristophanes  as  a  historical  authority  was  submitted  to  a 

careful  and  discriminating  examination  by  Hermann  MUller- 
SirUbinr  .Slriibing  (iSii — 1893),  who  studied  in  Berlin,  and,  owing  to 

the  part  which  he  played  in  political  movements  among  (he 
students  of  Germany,  was  condemned  to  death  in  1835.  His  sentence  was 
commuted  to  imprisonment ;  and,  on  his  subsequent  release,  he  spent  the  last 
forty-one  years  of  his  life  in  London.  His  constant  researches  in  the  British 
Museum  led  to  his  discovery  of  an  excellent  MS  of  Vitruvius,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  Valentui  Rose,  he  published  a  critical  text,  which  is  still  the 
standard  edition  (1S67).  His  polemical  work  on  'Aristophanes  and  historical 
criticism'  was  published  in  1873*.  He  here  enlarges  on  the  unintelUgent  and 
uncritical  use  of  Greek  Comedy  as  evidence  for  the  political  history  of  Athens. 
In  his  subsequent  publications  he  paid  more  and  more  attention  to  the  historic 
criticism  of  Thucydides,  investigating  the  dales  at  which  the  different  parts  of 
the  history  were  composed,  and  discovering  difhculties  in  his  account  of  the 
sii^e  of  Plataea  and  the  affairs  of  Corcyra'.  Among  the  best  of  his  papers 
were  those  on  the  Pseud o-Xenophontean  treatise  on  the  Constitution  of  Athens 
((880),  and  on  the  legends  as  to  the  death  of  Pheidias  (iSSif. 

The  text  of  the  Greek  Bucolic   Poets  was  edited  by  Christoph  Zi^ler 

(1814— 1888),  who  was  educated  under  Moser  at  Ulm.     He 

studied  under  Hermann  at  Leipzig,  where  he  was  the  first 
student  from  Wiirllemberg,  who  chose  'philolt^'  as  his  sole  profession;  he 
also  studied  at  Tubingen  under  Wak.     His  interest  in  archaeology  and  in  the 

'  1  Tim.  iv  6,  iyi>  yip  ^Sii  ar^iSo/uu  kt\.  (Kock,  iii  543  fr.  768  ;  Classical 
Rai.  iii  35).  On  Kock's  life,  cp.  Bingr.  Jakrb.  1901,  44—49  (with  full 
bibliography). 

'  Buraan'syaAnfj*.  ii  1001-57,  1360  f. 

»  Kritik  da  Thukydidts  Textts  (1879):  ThuSi.  Forsckungm  (rSSi);  Das 
ersle  Jahr  des  pel.  Kneges  (1883);  Bctaseruag  von  Plataia  (1885);  Dit 
Korkyrdisckm  Ndndel  (t886)  ;  Verfasiang  von  Alhtn  (1893).  The  last  four 
vaNeueJahrb.  /.  PhU.  i883-(»3, 

*  His  treatment  of  Thucydides  is  ably  criticised  by  Adolf  Bauer,  Tkak. 
und  B.  MUllcr-Slrubing,  Ei»  Beitrag  xur  Gcsch.  der  philologischeit  Melhmle 
(Nordlingen,  1887).     Life  and  biblit^raphy  in  5»D^r. /oArA.  1897,88—105. 


lOO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXXI.]    ZIEGLER.  .  O.  SCHNEIDER.     WESTPHAL.      IS/ 

uss  of  Theocritus  led  to  his  paying  foui  visils  Co  Italy.  After  the  first  of  these 
(1S41-1)  he  published  the  earliest  of  his  critical  editions  (1S44).  During  his 
second  visit  in  1864  he  discovered  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  what  is  now 
known  as  Idyll  xxx.  Two  further  editions  followed  in  1867-79.  ^^  ^^ 
edited  the  Ambtosian  scholia,  as  well  as  Theognis,  Bion  and  Moschus,  with  four 
school-editions  of  the  Ipiigeneia  in  Tauris.  Lastly,  he  produced  an  excellent 
series  of  illustrations  of  Roman  topography'.  He  was  a  school -master  at 
Stuttgart  for  Chiily-one  years  (184S-76),  led  a  frugal  and  a  happy  life,  left  his 
library  to  his  school  and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  resources  Co  founding  stipends 
for  poor  students  at  Stuttgart  and  Ulm  '. 

The  text  of  the  Bucolic  Poets  was  ably  edited  in  1855-9  by  H.  L.  Ahrens 
(1S09— t88i),  the  learned  explorer  of  the  Greek  dialects'. 
Theocritus  was  fully  expounded  by  Adolph  Theodor  Hennann       Ahreni 
Fritische  (1818—1878),  a  pupil  of  Hermann,  and  a  professor       PritjBth"' 
at  Giessen  and  Leipzig.     Of  his  two  editions,  the  first  had 
German  notes*;   the  second,  a  very  elaborate  Latin  commentary'.     He  also 
expounded  the  Saltrcs  of  Horace  (1875),  and  edited  \a  the  early  parf  of  his 
career  the  eighth  and  ninth  books  of  the  Nicamackian,  and  the  whole  of  the 
Eadanuat  Ethics  (1847-51)'. 

Two  editions  of  Apollonius  Rhodius  nere  published  in  1851-4  by  Rudolf 
Merkel  (1811—1885),  who  is  even  better  known  as  an  editor  of  Ovid'. 
Callimachus  was  elaborately  edited  in  1S70-73  by  Otto 
Schneider  (1815 — 188a),  who  studied  under  Schomann  at 
Gieifewald,  and  under  Boeckh  and  Lachmann  in  Berlin,  where  his  closest 
friends  were  Merkel  and  Hertz.  His  earliest  work  was  on  the  sources  of  the 
scholia  to  Aristophanes  (1838),  and  he  afterwards  proposed  many  emendations 
ol  the  text'.  Meanwhile,  he  had  published  his  Nicandrta  (1856),  the  two 
volumes  of  his  index  to  Sillig's  Pliny  (1857),  and  his  school -edit  ion  of  selec- 
tions from  Isocrates  (1859-60).  From  1843  to  1869  he  was  a  school-master  at 
Gotha,  where  the  present  writer  remembers  visiting  him  after  he  had  retired 
from  scholastic  work.  Eminent  as  a  scholar,  he  was  also  excellent  as  a  teacher, 
and  frank  and  straight -forward  as  a  man*. 

The  theory  of  Greek  Rhythm  and  Metre  was  ably  treated  by  Rudolph 
Westphal  and   August   Kossbach.     Westphal   (1816—1895), 
who  studied  at  Marbuig,  became  a  '  privat'docent '  at  Tubin- 
gen, and  an  'extraordinary'  professor  at  Breslau  {1858-61),  and,  after  livmg 


O.  Sch 


Westphal 


•  1873-7;  school-ed.,  1881. 

'  Biogr.Jahrb.  1888,  47-53. 
'  Cp.  p.  130  supra. 

•  1857;  ed.  1,  1869.  *  1865-9. 

•  Biogr./ahrb.  1878,  i. 
^  p.  19J  >«fra. 

«  fhilal.,  and  Fleckeisen's/aAr*.  (1876-80). 
'  Biogr.Jahrli.  1880,  8  f. 

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


158  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

at  Halle  and  Jena,  and  spending  six  years  in  Russia,  passed  the  rest  of  his 
life  at  Leipiig,  and  al  BUckeburg,  the  place  of  his  billh'. 
Rossbach  (1813 — 1898)  studied  under  Hermann  at  Leipdg 
and  under  Bergk  at  Marbu^,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Westphal, 
and  married  his  sister.  He  taught  at  Tubingen  (iSji-C),  and  was  professor 
al  Breslau  for  (he  last  forly-lwo  years  of  his  life.  He  is  there  commemorated 
by  a  portrait-bust  as  the  founder  of  the  archaeological  museum.  His 
independent  works  included  a  Teubner  text  of  Catullus  and  Tibullus,  and 
Researches  on  Roman  Marriage  {1853).  illustrated  (in  1871)  by  sculptured 
monuments'. 

In  the  study  of  Greek  metre,  Rossbach  went  back  to  Che  original  aathority, 
Aristoxenus,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Westphal,  formed  a  plan  for  a  joint  work 
on  (1)  Rhythmik;  (3)  Metrik;  (3)  Harmonik,  Orgaaik,  md  OrchesHk. 
Rossbach's  volume  on  Rhythmik  (1854)  was  the  first  to  set  forth  the  ancient 
system  of  Rhythm,  with  constant  reference  to  Pindar  and  the  Greek  tragic 
poets.  Their  joint  work  on  MeSrik  (1856)  marked  a  great  advance,  and  was 
well  received  by  Boeckh,  and  by  Bergk  and  Lehrs,  and  even  by  (he  strictest 
adherents  of  Hermann.  This  was  followed  by  Weslphal's  Harmonik  and 
Milepoie  (1863),  his  'General  Greek  Metrik',  his  revision  of  Rossbach's 
Rhythmik,  and  his  edition  of  '  Plutarch',  Dt  Musica  (1865). 

After  ten  years  of  associated  work,  Weslphal  had  meanwhile  patted  from 
Rossbach.  Westphal  afterwards  produced  a  Teubner  text  of  Hephaestion 
with  Vk^  scholia  {i%id),  and  an  edition  of  Arisloxenus  (1883-93).  His  treatise 
on  Greek  Music  (1883)  was  followed  in  1885-7  by  a  third  edition  of  Rossbach 
and  Wcstphal's  joint  work,  under  the  new  title  of '  The  Theory  of  the  Musical 
Arts  of  the  Greeks'.  The  work  has  been  widely  recognised  as  a  masterpiece 
which  marks  an  epoch  in  the  study  of  the  subject. 

The  first  edition  of  Rossbach  and  Westphal's  .^^/rii  formed  the  foundation 

of  the  work  of  J.  H.  Heinrich  Schmidt  (born  in  1830)  'on  the 

Schmidt  '        artistic  forms  of  Greek  poetry,  and  their  significajice '.     The 

choral  lyrics  of  Aeschylus  and  Pindar  are  included  in  the  first 

volume  {1868);   those  of  Sophocles  and  Aristophanes,  in  the  second  (1869); 

and  those  of  Euripides,  in  the  third  (1871),  while  the  fourth  volume  (1871) 

states  tlie  author's  views  on  Prosody  and  on  musical  Rhythm,  in  which  he 

ignores  the  ancient  writers  on  the  theory  of  Rhythm  and  Metre,  and  trusts 

solely  to  the  evidence  of  the  extant  remains  of  choral  lyric  poetry'. 

'  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1895,  4.0—90;  Bursiat^  11981  f.  His  earliest  independent 
works  were  papers  on  the  taw  of  the  final  syllable  in  Gothic  (iSjl))  and  on 
the  form  of  the  oldest  Latin  poetry.  His  'Latin  Verbal  Flexions'  (1871),  and 
'Comparative  Grammar' (1873),  were  krgely  founded  on  the  labours  of  others. 

"  Biogr.Jahrb.  1900,  75 — 85;  Bursian,  ii  9S4  f. 

'  Bursian,  ii  990  f.  His  introduction  to  the  Rhythmic  and  Melric  of  the 
Classical  languages  was  translated  by  Prof.  J.  W.  White  (1877-9).  He  is  also 
the  author  of  four  large  volumes  on  Greek  5fnonj'B>(i6(i8j6-86).  C^.A.J.F. 
vii  406  f.     It  ha!<  been  ascertained  that  he  is  stilt  living,  and  tliat,  amid  the 


lOO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXXI.]      DAHLMANN.      POPPO.      CLASSEN.  159 

The  musical  instruments  and  ihe  musical  theories  of  the  Greeks  were 
specially  investigated   by  Karl  von  Jan  (1836—1899),  who 
studied  at   Erlangen,  Gotlingen,   and  Berlin.     In  Berlin  he  ^""J"" 

was  led  by  Gerhard  to  examine  the  stringed  instruments  of  the  Greeks.  He 
next  turned  his  attention  to  the  study  of  the  texts,  and  took  part  in  the  con- 
troversies excited  by  the  publications  of  Westphal.  The  discovery  of  the 
Delphic  hymn  gave  the  final  impulse  to  the  publication  of  the  work  of  his 
life:— his  edition  of  the  i'(Ti>'i>r«/l/ujtr:i'  GnuH  (iS^s)'. 

Passing  from  scholars  concerned  mainly  with  Greek  poetry  to 
the  special  students  of  prose,  we  note  that  the 
Life  of  Herodotus  was  the  theme  of  an  interesting 
work*  by  Friedrich  Christoph  Dahlmann  (1786 — 1860),  who 
studied  at  Copenhagen,  Halle,  and  Dresden,  and  was  professor 
at  Kiel,  and  at  Gottingen  from  1829  to  1837.  In  the  latter  year, 
Dahlmann  and  the  brothers  Grimm,  and  Gervinus,  were  among 
the  seven  professors  who  were  dismissed  for  protesting  against  the 
violation  of  the  constitution  by  the  king  of  Hanover'.  He  sub- 
sequently lived  at  Leipzig  and  Jena,  and  passed  the  last  eighteen 
years  of  his  life  as  a  professor  at  Bonn'. 

Among  the  editors  of  Thucydides  a  place  of  honour  must  be 
assigned  to  Ernst  Friedrich  Poppo  (1794 — 1866), 
who  studied  at  Leipzig,  and  was  Director  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Frankfurt  on  the  Oder  from  1817  to  1863.     His 
larger   edition,    in    eleven   volumes,   appeared   in    1821-38;    his 
smaller,  in  four,  was  first  published  in  1843-51. 

Johannes  Classen  (1806 — 1891),  who  was  born  at  Hambui^ 
and  studied  at  Leipzig  and  Bonn,  was  for  twenty 
years  a  master  at  Liibeck,  for  eleven  Director  of 
the  gymnasium  at  Frankfurt  on  the  Main,  and  from  1864  head  of 
the  school  of  his  native  place,  where  he  died  at  the  age  of  85. 
His  earliest  work,  De  Grammaticae  Graecae  Primordiis  (1829), 
was    followed,   many  years    later,    by  his    excellent   edition  of 

active  occupations  of  a  hale  old  age,  he  has  applied  his  metrical  principles  to 
the  newly  discovered  nomos  of  Timotheus  and  to  the  odes  of  Bacchylides. 
On  the  recent  history  of  the  study  of  Greek  and  Roman  Metrik  in  Germany, 
see  Radermachet  \ti  Jakresb.  cxxiv  1 — ii, 

1  Biogr./ahrb.  1900,  104— 114. 

'  Herodot.  Aus  siineiit  Buche  sdn  Ltbm  (1814) ;  E.  T.  1845. 

'  Cp.  Boeckh  and  K.  O.  Muller's  Briefwechstl,  401. 

'  G.  Beselet  in  Unsere  Zeil,  vi  68—78;  A.  Springer  (Leipzig,  1870). 

n,  i.iiA.OOglc 


j6o  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX, 

Thucydides  with  German  notes,  first  published  in  1862-78,  At 
the  age  of  70  he  wrote  an  interesting  monograph  in  memory  of 
Niebuhr,  in  whose  house  he  had  Hved  as  a  private  tutor  before 
beginning  his  scholastic  career'. 

A  critical  text  of  Xenophon'  was  produced  in  1869-76  by 
Karl  Schenkl  (1827 — 1900),  who  studied  at  Vienna 
and,  after  holding  a  mastership  at  Prag,  was  ap- 
pointed to  professorships  at  Innsbruck  (1858),  Graz  (1863),  and 
Vienna  (1875).  His  other  works  included  a  Greek-German 
(1858')  and  German-Greek  school-lexicon  (1866^),  and  editions  of 
Valerius  Flaccus  {1871)  and  Ausonius  (1883).  With  Benndorf 
and  others,  he  took  part  in  editing  the  Imagines  of  the  Philo- 
strati;  in  conjunction  with  W.  von  Hartel,  he  founded  the 
Wiener  Studien ;  he  was  general  editor  of  a  useful  series  of  Greek 
and  Latin  texts  published  in  Prague  and  Vienna;  and,  late  in  life 
(like  Bonitz  in  his  day),  he  was  pubUcly  honoured  as  the  Prae- 
ceptor  Austriae'. 

The  Oeeonomiai!,  AgtsUaus,  Hieron,  Hellaoia,  Memorabilia,  Cyropaediia 
and  Anabasis  were  all  edited  between  1841  and  1875  bjr 
Ludwig  Breitenbach  (1813 — 1885),  who  was  bom  at  Erfurt, 
educaled  at  Scbulpfona,  studied  under  Bernhardy  at  Halle,  and  was  from 
1840  to  i860  a  master,  mainly  at  Wittenberg.  He  was  ultimately  compelled 
to  resign  that  position  owing  to  extreme  deafness.  His  favourite  authors  were 
Xenophon  and  Goelhe*. 

The  Anabasis  has  often  been  edited  separately.  An  improved  text  was 
produced  in  1878  by  Arnold  Hug  {1831 — 1895),  who  studied 
under  Kiichly  at  Zurich,  and  under  Welcker  and  Ritschl  at 
Bonn,  was  a  master  at  Winteithur  from  185$  and  professor  at  Zilrich  from 
1S69  to  1SS6,  when  he  was  laid  aside  by  paraly^s  Tor  the  remaining  nine 
years  of  his  life.  He  collected  some  of  his  popular  lectures  on  Demosthenes 
etc.  in  ^isSltiditn  (i88i);  he  also  produced  a  critical  text  of  Aeneas  Poliorce- 
ticus  {1874),  while  his  explanatory  commentary  on  Plato's  Symposium  (1876)' 
attuned  a  second  edition  in  1884.  He  was  prevented  by  illness  from 
completing  his  careful  revision  of  the  StaatsaUerthiimir  of  K.  F.  Hermann*. 

'  Life  in  A.  D.  B.,  and  in  Biogr.  fahrh.  1905,  19 — 33. 

'  Anabasis  and  Libri  Sixratiii. 

'  Cp.  Wurzbach,  Biogr.  Lex.,  and  esp.  Karl  Ziwsa  in  Osltrreich.  Millil- 
sckuh,  15  pp.,  and  Edmund  Hauler  in  ZHtsck-f.  osterreich.  Gymnasiea,  1900, 
xii,  14  pp. ;  also  Deulseher  NekroUg,  v  351-8. 

*  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1886,  295-6. 

»  Also  expounded  in  1875-6  by  G.  F.  Reltig  (1803—1897). 

*  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1896,  95 — 104. 


A.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXI.]      K.  SCHENKL.      STALLBAUM.      ORELLI.      l6l 

The  text  of  Plato  had  been  published  by  Bekker  in  1816-23. 

A  useful  edition  in  ten  volumes,  with  Latin  notes, 
was  produced  between  1827  and  i860  by  Gottfried 
Stallbaum  (1793—1861),  who  had  been  educated  at  Leipzig,  and 
spent  the  last  forty-one  years  of  his  life  at  that  place,  having 
been  appointed  Rector  of  the  Thomas-Sekuk  in  1835,  and  extra- 
ordinary professor  in  the  university  in  1840, 

Meanwhile  an  excellent  edition  of  the  text  was  produced  at 
Ziirich  by  Baiter,  Orelli,  and  Winckelmann  (1839- 
42),  Of  these  Johann  Caspar  Orelli  (1787 — 1849), 
the  younger  cousin  of  Johann  Conrad  Orelli  (1770 — 1820)*,  was 
educated  at  Ziirich,  where  he  was  inspired  with  an  interest  in  the 
Classics  by  his  cousin,  and  by  an  older  scholar,  Johann  Jacob 
Hettinger  (1750 — 1819).  As  chaplain  and  schoolmaster  in  the 
reformed  community  at  Bergamo,  Orelli  produced  a  new  edition 
of  Rosmini's  Vittorino  da  Felire  (1812) ;  as  a  master  at  Chur,  an 
improved  text  of  Isocrates,  De  Ptrmutatione,  together  with  an 
edition  of  Isaeus,  De  Menedidis  hertdiiate,  by  his  elder  cousin, 
Conrad,  and  notes  on  Xenophon's  Symposium  by  that  cousin's 
son,  the  younger  Conrad  (1814).  As  master  and  professor  at 
Ziirich,  he  prepared  an  important  critical  text  of  the  whole  of 
Cicero  (1826-38),  the  second  edition  of  which  was  completed  by 
Baiter  and  Halm  (1846-62).  Of  his  many  other  works  the  best 
known  are  his  annotated  editions  of  Horace  (1837-8)  and  of 
Tacitus  (1846-8). 

Orelli's  principal  partner  in  the  edition  of  Plato,  and  his 
successor  in  that  of  Cicero,  was  Johann  Geoi^ 
Baiter  (1801 — 1877),  *ho  was  born  at  Ziirich, 
studied  at  Munich,  Gotdngen,  and  Konigsberg,  and  from  1833 
was  one  of  the  principal  masters  at  the  gymnasium,  and  extra- 
ordinary professor  at  the  university  of  Ziirich.  He  was  not  only 
associated  with  Orelli  as  an  editor  of  Cicero  and  Plato,  but  also 
with  Sauppe  in  their  joint  edition  of  the  Oraforts  Atiici. 

The  third  of  the  partners  in  the  edition  of  Plato  was  Ai^ust 
Wilhelm  Winckelmann,  who  was  born  in  Dresden 
(1810),  and  began  his  career  by  editing  the  Eulhy-    wincit^unn 
demus  of  Plato,  and  the  fragments  of  Antisthenes. 

'  Editor  of  the  Opasatla  Graaorum  vito-um  smientiosa  it  maraUa,  i8i()-ii. 
s-   I".  I,.  I .,  II,  iJft")O^IC 


l62  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

He  was  on  the  Staff  of  the  school  and  university  of  Ziirich  from 
1834  to  1845,  when  he  returned  to  his  native  place.  The  edition 
of  Plato,  in  which  he  was  concerned,  was  founded  on  the  Paris 
MS  and  the  Bodleian  ms,  and  marked  a  decided  advance  on  that 
of  Bekker. 

The  text  of  Plato  was  afterwards  edited  in  1851-6  by  Karl 
Friedrich  Hermann  (1804 — 1835),  who  studied  at 
mBiin^  **"■  Heidelberg  and  Leipzig,  and  was  professor  at  Mar- 
burg in  i83a-4z,  and  for  the  remaining  thirteen 
years  of  his  life  at  Gottingen.  His  interest  in  Plato  is  well 
represented  by  the  only  volume  of  his  'History  and  System  of 
the  Platonic  philosophy'  (1839),  and  in  his  'Collected  Papers' 
{1849).  He  led  the  way  in  forming  a  true  estimate  of  the  value 
of  the  uas  and  the  scAo/ia  of  Persius'  and  Juvenal'.  The  points 
of  difference  between  Hermann  and  Jahn  on  the  scholia,  and  the 
over-fondness  for  quotations  displayed  by  both  scholars,  were 
pleasantly  satirised  by  Haupt'.  A  still  wider  reputation  was 
won  by  Hermann's  Manuals  of  Public,  Religious,  and  Private 
Antiquities,  originally  published  in  1831-52,  with  a  concise  text, 
full  quotations  from  the  ancient  authorities,  and  references  to  the 
modern  literature.  He  abo  wrote  monographs  on  Laconian 
Antiquities  (1841),  on  Greek  legislation  {1849)  and  penalties 
{1855),  and  many  programs  on  points  of  Attic  law*.  The  range 
and  depth  of  his  learning  were  most  remarkable;  the  general 
purport  of  his  teaching  on  the  history  of  classical  civilisation  is 
preserved  in  a  work  published  by  his  pupil  Gustav  Schmidt'. 

Plato  was  the  central  theme  of  the  extensive  studies  of  Christian  Cron 

(1813 — 1893)  for  the  last  thirty-five  years, of  his  life.    Bom  at 

""  Munich,  he  held  scholastic  appointments  at  Erlangen  (1838- 

53)   and   Augsburg    (1S53-S5).     He   produced   successful  school -editions  of 

Plato's  Ap(^ogy  atid  Crito  (1857),  and  LcKha  (i860);  also  a  treatise  on  the 

Gorgias  (1870)  and  a  paper  on  the  Eulhydemus  (1891)'.     In 

DeuKhIt         j^^  ^^^  ^j.  ^  |.^  \,^^f,„  life,  Julias  Deuschle  {1818— 1861), 

■  Ltctianes,  18+1;  Anaiecia,  1846;  text,  1854, 
'  De  codd.  1847;  Schol.  1849;   f'iW«-iiw,  and  text,  1854. 
'  Belger's  Haupl,  61  f.  *  Bursian,  ii  ii6j  n. 

'  Cttlturgtschichte  der   Grie<htn   u.   RBmer   (1857-8).      Cp.    Bui^an,   ii 
1.61-3. 

'  S-Bei:  MunUh  Acad. 


CHAR  XXXL]  K.  F.  HERMANN.  WESTERMANN.   SAUPPE.   163 

who  was  on  the  staff  of  a  gymnasium  in  Berlin,  wrote  able  dissertations  on 
Plato's  Cralylas^,  and  the  Platonic  Mjlhs',  and  edited  the  Gargias  and  Praia- 
geras  {vi;,^i). 

The  Attic  Orators  formed  a.  large  part  of  the  theme  of  the  elaborate 
'History  of  Eloquence  in  Greece  and  Rome'  published  in 
1833-5  ^y  AntoQ  Westetmann  (1806—1869),  who,  with  the 
exception  of  his  schooldays  at  Freiberg  in  Saxony,  spent  the  whole  of  his  life 
in  Leipzig,  nhete  he  was  a  full  professor  from  1S34  to  1865.  Though  not  a 
brilliant,  or  even  a  stimulating,  teacher,  he  was  always  clear  and  thorough. 
His  four  papers  on  questions  connected  with  the  history  and  criticism  of 
DenHtsthenes'  and  on  the  documents  quoted  in  the  Meidias*  and  other 
speeches',  were  followed  by  his  well-known  edition  of  Select  Speeches'.  He 
also  edited  a  text  of  Lysias,  Plutarch's  Solen,  the  Philostrati  aod  Callistratus, 
and  the  Greek  Paradoxcgrafhi,  Mylhografhi,  and  Biograpki'. 

Baiter's  colleague  as  editor  of  the  Oratorts  AlfUi.  Hermann 
Sauppe  (1809 — ^1893),  was  born  near  Dresden,  and 
studied  under  Hermann  at  Leipzig  (1827-33).  tJ" 
Hermann's  recommendation,  he  obtained  an  appointment  at 
Ziirich,  where  he  spent  twelve  years  as  a  master  at  the  newly 
organised  cantonal  school,  besides  being  from  1837-8  public 
librarian,  and  'extraordinary'  professor.  He  was  subsequently 
director  ef  the  gymnasium  at  Weimar  (1845-56),  and  classical 
professor  for  many  years  at  Gottingen  (1856-93). 

It  was  at  Zurich  that  he  was  associated  with  Baiter  in  the 
comprehensive  edition  of  the  Attic  Orators  in  two  large  quarto 
volumes  (1839-50),  the  first  containing  the  text  founded  on  the 
best  Mss,  and  the  second  the  scholia,  with  Sauppe's  edition  of  the 
Fragments,  and  a  full  Index  of  Names.  Sauppe  celebrated 
Hermann's  Jubilee  in  1841  by  sending  him  an  Epislola  Critica 
of  152  pages  of  print,  with  many  criticisms  on  the  text  of  the 
Orators  and  of  Plato*.  He  had  already  been  associated  with 
Baiter  in  an  edition  of  the  Speech  of  Lycurgus  against  Leocrates 

»  PlatBt's  Sptackphilmopkie  {^axhaig.  1851). 
'  Esp.  that  in  the  Fhaedru!  (Hanau,  1854). 
'  Quaistiants  Dimesthenkae,  1830-7. 

*  Dc  litis  instrumentis  (1844). 

'  Unttrsuchung uberdu...Urkunden  (}%i,6). 

•  Otynthiats  and  Philippics,  Dc  Pact  and  Ciers. ;  De  Cor.,  Lepi. ;  Aristocr., 
Con.,  Eubul.  (18JO-1,  etc.). 

^  Bursian,  ii  890-3. 

'  Reprinleil  in  AiisgewdhUc  Schrijt/n,  pp.  80 — 177. 

riigitpMT^OOglc 


l64  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

(1834),  and  of  the  Fragments  of  that  orator,  and,  in  the  interval 
between  the  first  and  second  volume  of  the  Oratores  Altici,  they 
brought  out  a  translation  of  the  second  edition  of  Leake's  Athens 
(1844). 

Sauppe's  independent  work  included  an  edition  of  the  First 
Pkilippk  and  Ofynthiacs  of  Demosthenes  with  Latin  notes,  and  a 
German  edition  of  Plato's  Protagoras;  an  edition  of  Philodemus, 
Tt-tp\  KUKiiav,  and  an  admirable  discussion  of  the  authorities  followed 
by  Plutarch  in  his  Life  of  Pericles ;  also  a  long  series  of  papers 
on  Greek  inscriptions  and  antiquities,  on  Lucretius,  Cicero,  and 
Floras,  and  other  Latin  authors,  together  with  a  large  number  of 
festal  discourses  on  classical  subjects,  and  funeral  orations  on 
classical  scholars,  mainly  delivered  at  Gottingen'.  He  was  the 
first  to  improve  the  text  of  Lysias,  Isocrates,  and  Demosthenes, 
by  closely  following  the  best  ms  of  each.  His  most  striking 
features  were  the  clearness  of  his  style  and  the  simplicity  of  his 
character.  This  simplicity  was,  however,  combined  with  a  pro- 
found knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  both  aUke  had  a  strong 
influence  on  all  who  were  brought  into  contact  with  him  in  the 
course  of  a  long  and  strenuous  life'- 

The  Speech  of  Lycurgus  against   Lcocrales  was  edited   by  Fr.  Osann, 

G.  Pinzger  and  W.  A.  Rlume.  and  the  fragments  by  GusUv 

Kiessling.     Antiphon  and   Dinarchus,  as  well  as  Lycorgus, 

were   edited   in   1S36-41   with  ciitic&l   and   explanatory  notes   by   Eduacd 

Maetinet,  who  was  bom  at  Rostock  (1805),  and,  after  studying  at  Greifswald 

and   Heidelberg,  was  a  school -master  at  Bromberg  in  1831-5,  and  in   1838 

became  Director  of  the  first  high-school  for  gitls  in  Berlin.     His  later  work 

.   was  mainly  connected  with  English  and  French  Grammar. 

Andocides  was  edited  in  1834  by  Karl  Christian  Schiller  (1811 — 1873),  w''" 
K  C  Schill  '"^^  Maeiiner)  was  bom  at  Rostock;  he  edited  Andocides 
immediately  after  the  close  of  his  university  career  at  Leipiig. 
A  text  of  Lysias  was  first  produced  in  iBji  by  KarL  Friedrich  Scheibe 
(1814 — 1869),  Rector  ol  ^  gymnaaum  at  Dresden.  Select 
Orations  of  Lysias,  Isocrates,  Demosthenes  and  the  whole  of 
Aeschines,  had  been  edited  in  1813-34  by  Johanu  Heiorich 

1  Cp.  Amgauiihlte Schriften  {ii^),  86a  pp. 

*  His  library  now  belongs  to  the  Columbia  Univ.,  New  York.  His 
portr^dt  is  prefixed  to  the  Ausg.  Sckr.  Cp.  Bursian,  it  849,  858-60;  Wjla- 
mowiU,  in  Gelt.  Gtlekrt.  Nathr.  1894,  36—49;  and  LothhoU  in  N.  Jahrb. 
1894,  199—304- 


,1^.00' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXXI.]  SCHdMANN.  l6S 

Bremi  (1771 — 1837),  a  nalive  of  Zurich,  wbo  was  educated  at  his  native  place 
by  Hottinger,  and  afterwards  studied  at  Halle  under  F.  A.  Wolf.  He 
republished  Wolfs  edition  of  the  Lefiiines  in  iSji.  In  the  early  part  of  his 
career  he  edited  Nepos  (1796)  and  Suetonius  ((800),  and,  from  that  dale  to 
rSig,  was  a  professor  at  Ziiiich'. 

Select  Orations  of  Lysias  were  admirably  edited  with  German  notes  by 
Rudolph  Rauchenstein  (1798 — 1879),  who  b^[an  his  classical 
studies  under  Doederlein  at  Bern,  and  continued  them  under 
Fassow  at  Breslau,  where  he  produced  a  prize -dissertation  on  the  order  of  the 
Olynthiais  (1819)'.  In  1811-66  he  was  Master  (and  for  many  years  Rector) 
of  the  cantonal  school  at  Aarau,  and  continued  to  take  an  active  interest  in  the 
school  lo  the  end  of  his  long  life.  He  edited  Selections  from  Lysi^  (184^, 
<Az.)  and  Isocrates  (1849,  etc.)^.  He  also  published  papers  on  Pindar*,  and 
on  the  Agamaunim  and  Eumtniiiis',  and  on  the  Akeslis  and  Iphigenda  i'h 
Tauris*. 

Selections   from   Lysias,    with  long  and   elaborate  German  notes,   were 
subsequently  published  in  1866-71  by  Hermann  Frohhercer       _ 
(1830—1874),   who   studied  at   Leipzig  and   was  a  school- 
master for  the  rest  of  his  short  life. 

An  able  and  comprehensive  edition  of  Isaeus  was  published 
in  1831  by  Geoi^  Friedrich  Schomann  (1793 — 
1879),  a  scholar  of  Swedish  descent,  the  son  of  an 
advocate  and  notary  at  Stralsund.  Afler  studying  at  Greifswald 
and  Jena,  he  was  for  seven  years  a  school-master  at  Greifswald, 
and  for  fifty-eight  a  teacher  in  the  university,  being  professor  of 
Eloquence  for  the  last  fifty-two  years  of  his  life.  He  was  Rector 
of  the  university  on  four  occasions,  including  the  commemoration 
of  its  fourth  centenary  in  1856,  when  he  discharged  his  duties 
with  the  highest  distinction.  As  a  student  at  Jena,  he  had  owed 
little  to  the  teaching  of  Eichstadt,  whose  superficially  elegant 
Latinity  formed  a  striking  contrast  to  the  pithy  and  eminently 
original  and  yet  thoroughly  classical  style  of  Schomann.  His 
own  love  of  concrete  facts  attracted  him  to  the  difficult  and 
almost   unexplored   province   of  the    constitutional   system   and 

'  Bursian,  ii  749  n.  1. 

'  Published  with  Preface  by  Passow  and  Observations  on  the  Philippics  by 
Bremi  (i8ii);  also  abridged  and  revised  in  Bremi's  Dem.  Oral.  Sili^lae  (iSlg). 
'  Paneg.  and  Areop. 

<  Einleitung,  1843;  Comminlaliima,  1844-5. 
'   1855-8. 
•  1847-60.     Cp.  Bivgr.  fahrb.  1879,  i — %. 

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


l66  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

legal  procedure  of  Athens.  His  early  Latin  treatise,  De  Comitiis 
Atheniensium  (1819),  was  published  two  years  after  Boeckh's 
Public  Economy  of  Athens,  and  was  dedicated  to  Boeckh,  under 
whose  influence  it  was  written.  Meanwhile,  in  i8io,  Boeckh's 
favourite  pupil,  Moritz  Hermann  Eduard  Meier,  was  invited  to 
Greifswald.  In  the  same  year  Schomann  produced  his  treatise 
De  sortitione  judicum  aptid  Aihentenses,  and,  in  1823,  was  nomi- 
nated to  an  extraordinary  professorship.  In  1824  Meier  and 
Schomann  published  their  joint  work  on  Attic  Procedure^.  Meier 
left  for  Halle  in  1835,  while  Schomann  remained  and  became 
a  full  professor  in  1837  and  librarian  in  1844.  His  interest  in 
Attic  law  led  to  his  producing  his  translation  (1830)  and  his 
annotated  edition  of  Isaeus  {1831),  while  his  equal  interest  in 
Greek  constitutions  prompted  him  to  edit  Plutarch's  Agis  and 
Cleoments  (1839).  In  the  previous  year  he  had  produced  his 
systematic  Latin  work  on  the  Public  Antiquities  of  Greece', 
followed  in  1855  by  his  German  '  Handbook '  on  the  same 
subject'.  In  1854  he  published  his  able  critique  on  Grote's 
treatment  of  the  Constitutional  History  of  Athens'. 

Partly  under  the  influence  of  R.  H.  Klausen  (1807 — 1840), 
the  author  of  the  Theologutnena  Aeschylea  (1829),  Schomann 
became  interested  in  ancient  Religion.  He  was  thus  led  to 
produce  an  edition,  and  a  German  translation,  of  the  Prometheus 
Vinclus,  with  an  original  German  play  on  the  theme  of  Prometheus 
Solutus  (i844);_to  translate  and  expound  the  Eumenides  {iZ\$), 
to  comment  on  Cicero,  De  Natura  Deorum  (1850  etc.)  and  on 
the  T/ieogony  of  Hesiod,  besides  editing  the  whole  of  the  text 
(1868). 

Similarly,  the  influence  of  Otto  Jahn,  his  colleague  in  1842-7, 
may  be  traced  in  his  papers  on  classical  archaeology  in  1843-7'. 
In  his  public  lectures  be  devoted  much  attention  to  Greek  and 

'  Der  atlische  Process,  iRi+;  ed.  Lipsiua,  1883-7. 

'  Antiquitaies  jvrii  pubUri  Gratconim,  1838. 

*  HatKibmh  der  griichischen  AtterthuHur,  r85s-9  (E.T.  vol.  i,  1880);  ed.  4 
I.ipsius,  181)7 — 1901- 

'  E.  T,  by  Bernard  Bosanquet,  1878. 

»  Uebcr  die  Schonkeit  {\»^^\  Winekeimann  smA  Die  Genien  {\%i,iy,  Hera 
(,8+j). 

„.,.,n,>..OO^^IC 


CHAP.  XXXI.]  SCHOMANN.  167 

Latin  Syntax,  and  in  1864  wrote  a  paper  on  the  teaching  of 
the  old  Greek  Grammarians  as  to  the  Article',  and  a  treatise 
on  the  points  of  permanent  value  in  the  ancient  views  as  to  the 
Parts  of  Speech",  In  1827-68  he  produced  a  long  series  of 
university  programs,  collected  in  the  four  volumes  of  his  Opusoita 
(1856-71),  including  papers  on  his  special  departments  of  study, 
and  also  on  the  poems  of  Theognis,  and  on  'the  silence  of 
Homer". 

In  the  preface  to  his  'Greek  Antiquities'  he  states  that  his 
aim  was  never  to  leave  his  readers  in  any  doubt  as  to  what  he 
regarded  as  certainly  trae,  or  as  only  probable.  His  Latin  prose 
has  been  already  noticed ;  his  German  style  is  regarded  as  in  the 
highest  degree  plain,  popular,  and  perspicuous.  His  polemical 
writings  supply  examples  of  every  variety  of  tone.  He  is  respectful 
towards  Grote,  conversationally  familiar  towards  K.  J.  Caesar, 
humorously  ironical  with  G.  W.  Nitzsch  (whose  merits  he  fully 
recognises),  and  unsparing  in  the  severity  with  which  he  exposes 
the  'ignorance'  of  Bake. 

He  was  a  bom  teacher,  but  he  preferred  lecturing  to  small 
classes  of  thoroughly  industrious  and  attentive  students.  Among 
his  many  distinctions  he  received  that  of  the  Prussian  '  Order  of 
Merit'  in  1864.  With  the  exception  of  three  half-years  as  a 
student  at  Jena,  he  spent  the  whole  of  his  academic  life  in  a 
small  but  not  undistinguished  university  in  the  extreme  North  of 
Germany,  where  he  found  himself  able  to  concentrate  his  powers 
on  those  studies  in  which  he  was  a  recognised  master.  He  had  a 
certain  hardness  of  manner,  which  made  people  shy  of  him,  but 
they  soon  found  themselves  reconciled  to  it  by  his  strict  sense  of 
justice,  and  he  was  not  without  traits  of  distinct  good-will.  Though 
he  loved  a  life  of  retirement,  he  was  always  cheerful  in  really 
congenial  company.  In  his  latter  days,  he  was  almost  the  sole 
survivor  of  the  great  age  in  which  the  foundations  of  modem 
scholarship  were  laid  under  the  influence  of  Wolf*. 

'  Jahrb.f.  Philol.  Suppl.  v. 
'  Du  l^hre  von  den  RtdetheiUn  nach  d/n  Alien. 

'  iti  1—29.     For  his  views  cm  the   Homeric  question  cp.  his  review  of 
G.  W.  Nitzsch  lajahrb.  /.  Phil.  Ixix  (1854),   1  f.  iigf. 
*  F.  S(usemihl)  in  Biogr.  Jahrh.  1879,  7—16. 

h.  i.,  iiA.OOt^lC 


l68  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Schiknann's  collaborator  in  Ibe  Atlische  Prociss,  M.  H.  E.  Meier  (1796 — 
'855),  who  was  professor  at  Halle  for  the  last  iwenly  years  of 
bis  life,  produced  many  programs,  mainly  On  Andocides  and 
Theopbrastus,  whicb  were  afterwards  collected  in  his  Opuscula  (1861-3). 

Isocrates  was  studied  with  the  minutest  care  by  Qustav  Eduard 
Benseler  (1806— 1868),  who  was  born  and  bred  in 
the  Saxon  town  of  Freiberg,  to  which  he  returned 
after  studying  at  Leipzig  under  Hermann  in  1825-31.  At  Frei- 
berg he  was  a  school-master  from  1831  to  1849,  when  his  public 
career  was  interrupted  for  five  years  by  his  imprisonment  on 
political  grounds  in  the  castle  of  Ostenstein  at  Zwickau.  For 
the  remaining  fourteen  years  of  his  life  he  lived  in  retirement  at 
Leipzig. 

In  1829  he  began  a  translation  of  Isocrates,  which  did  not 
extend  beyond  the  fourth  volume  (1831).  His  other  early  works 
were  his  editions  of  the  Areopagiiicus  and  Evagoras  (1832-4), 
followed  by  his  careful  and  comprehensive  treatise  of  557  pages 
on  Hiatus  in  the  Greek  Prose  of  (i)  the  Attic  Orators,  and  (2)  the 
Historians  (1844),  While  he  was  still  in  prison,  his  critical  text 
of  Isocrates  was  in  course  of  publication  in  the  Teubner  series'. 
It  was  during  the  same  interval  of  seclusion  that  he  prepared  his 
text  and  translation  of  selections  from  Isocrates  (1854-5).  This 
was  followed  by  a  text  and  translation  of  Aeschines  in  three  parts 
(1855-60),  and  of  Demosthenes  in  ten  (1856-61)5  of  which  five  at 
least  were  by  Benseler.  His  Greek  and  German  School-lexicon 
was  published  in  1859,  and  his  excellent  edition  of  Pape's  lexicon 
of  Greek  proper  names  in  1863-70.  He  was  also  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  fifth  edition  of  the  Greek  lexicon  of  Passow*. 

While  critical  editions  of  the  whole  of  Demosthenes  had  been 
produced  by  Bekker,  Dindorf,  and  Baiter  and 
Sauppe,  the  text  and  the  I^tin  translation  were 
edited  in  Didot's  series  in  1843-5  by  Johann  Theodor  Voemel 
(1791 — 1868),  who  afterwards  published  editions  of  the  Public 
Orations  in  1856,  and  the  De  Corona  and  De  Falsa  Legations  in 
i86z,  with  full  and  elaborate  apparatus  criticus.  Voemel  had 
Studied  at  Heidelberg.     After  holding  minor  scholastic  appoint- 


'  Vol.  1(1856),  vol.  ii  (1851). 
"  Cp.  Bursian,  ii  903,  and  p.  1 1 


iM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXXI.]      BENSELER.      VOEMEL.      A.  SCHAEFER.      169 

ments  at  Weitheim  and  Hanau,  he  passed  the  last  fifty  years  of 
his  life  at  Frankfurt,  where  he  was  Rector  of  the  gymnasium  for 
more  than  thirty  years  (1822-53).  ^''^  ^^^  ™°s'  elaborate  of 
his  Demosthenic  editions  were  produced  after  he  had  retired  from 
that  office. 

Editions  of  the  speech  against  Androlion  (1831}  and  of  the  Olynlhiaet 
(1834)  were  produced  by  Karl  Hermann  Funkhaenel  (1 808-7 +), 
for  many  years  Director  of  the  school  at  Eisenach,  and  the 
author  of  numerous  critical  papers   on  Demosthenes.     The  speech   against 
^m/^ra/<.waselaboralelyeditedini845byErnst(Chrislian)       ^  ^  ^^^^ 
Wilhelra  Weber  (1796—1865),  for  forty  years  on  the  staff  of        '      " 
the  gymnasiuBi  at  Weimar. 

Select  Speeches  were  edited  with  German  coles  by  Weslennann' in  l8jo-l, 
and  by  Carl  kehdanlz  (i8t8— 1879),  whose  edition  of  the 
'Twelve  Philippics'  (i860)  was  superseded  by  thai  of  the  '     '"" 

'Nine'  (i86i).  Bom  at  Landsberg  an  der  Wirlhe,  east  of  Berlin,  he  was 
educated  for  six  years  at  the  principal  gymnasium  of  that  city,  and  for  three  at 
the  university.  He  was  himself  a  master  at  the  above  gymitaiium  from  184O 
to  1851,  and  at  Halberstadt  until  185S.  In  1859  he  visited  Italy  In  connexion 
with  his  study  of  Demosthenes.  He  was  successively  Reclor  of  the  schools  at 
Magdeburg,  RudulstadI,  and  Kreutzbuig  in  Upper  Silesia;  and  he  transformed 
the  last  two  of  these  into  classical  schools  in  accordance  with  the  Prussian 
requirements.  Even  his  illness  during  the  last  year  of  his  life  did  not  prevent 
his  conlinning  lo  take  the  work  of  his  highest  class.  He  was  an  admirable 
teacher,  and  had  a  special  genius  for  interesting  his  pupils  and  inspiring  them 
with  lofty  ideals.  His  earliest  work,  on  the  Lives  of  Ipbicrates,  Chabrias  and 
Timolheus  (1845)1  appeals  to  scholars  rather  than  to  school'boys,  for  whom  he 
subsequently  produced  an  excellent  edition  of  the  Anabasis  (with  a  critical 
appendix).  The  thoroughness  of  his  sludy  of  the  Allic  Orators  is  attested,  not 
ordy  by  his  editions  of  the  Public  Speeches  of  Demosthenes,  but  also  by  ihat 
of  the  speech  of  Lycurgus,  and  by  numerous  papers  In  the  Jahrbuchir  fiir 
PhUologie*. 

The  Philippics  of  Demosthenes  and  the  speeches  of  Aeschines  were  edited 
by  Friedrich   Franke  {1805—1871),   Rector  of  St  Afra's  at 
Meissen  for  the  last  twenty-six  years  of  his  life.    An  etahorale 
critical  edition  of  AescKines  was  prodaced  in  1S65  by  Ferdinand 
Schultz  (h.  1819),  afterwards  Director  ol  "Cdk  gymnasiam  at  Charlottenbui^. 

The    Life   and   Times    of  Demosthenes  were  elucidated   in 
1856-8  in  an  admirable  historical  work  by  Arnold 
Schaefer  (1819— 1883),  who  was  educated  at  Bre- 
men, where  he  selected  the  De   Corona   as  the  theme  of  his 

'  p.  163  supra.  '  Biogr.  fahrb.  1879,  1—4. 

„.,,„,  ^.oogic 


I70  GERMANY.  [CENT,  XIX. 

valedictory  discourse.  Ac  Leipzig,  he  studied  mainly  under 
Hermann  and  Haupt,  as  well  as  Klotz  and  Wachsmuth,  while 
among  his  contemporaries  at  that  university,  and  his  life-long 
correspondents,  were  Max  Miiller  and  Hercher.  During  his 
tenure  of  a  mastership  at  Dresden,  he  produced  a  treatise  on  the 
Pseudo-Plutarchean  'Lives  of  the  Ten  Orators'.  At  Dresden  he 
saw  much  of  Georg  Curtius,  and  of  Kochly,  until  the  latter  became 
more  and  more  perilously  interested  in  politics.  Though  less 
advanced  than  his  friend,  Schaefer  published  many  articles  on 
the  critical  events  of  184S-9.  In  1847  he  produced  the  first 
edition  of  his  frequently  reprinted  'Chronological  Tables'.  In 
1851  he  was  placed  on  the  staff  of  the  school  at  Grimma,  and,  in 
that  pleasant  and  quiet  little  Saxon  town,  found  time  for  a  large 
amount  of  scholarly  work'.  It  was  there  that  he  produced  the  first 
two  volumes  of  his  work  on  'The  Age  of  Demosthenes'  {1856), 
followed  by  a  third  and  final  volume  two  years  later.  From 
Grimma  he  often  went  over  to  see  his  friends  at  Dresden,  and  it 
was  there  that  he  first  met  the  future  Lord  Goschen,  in  whose 
home  he  was  stimulated  to  a  new  interest  in  English  literature, 
and  especially  in  the  Histories  of  Thirlwall  and  of  Grote. 

In  1858  he  entered  on  ofl!ice  as  ordinary  professor  of  History 
at  Greifswald.  In  his  published  papers  he  discussed  the  Spartan 
Ephors,  and  the  period  between  the  Persian  and  Peloponnesian 
Wars;  and,  in  connexion  with  his  lectures,  put  forth  an  Outline 
of  the  original  Authorities  on  Greek  History  ending  with  Polybius 
(1867),  to  which  a  second  part,  on  the  Roman  Empire  down  to 
Justinian,  was  added  in  1881.  This  outline  is  justly  recc^ised 
as  a  most  valuable  introduction  to  the  study  of  Ancient  History. 

In  1S65  he  was  appointed  professor  of  History  at  Bonn, 
devoting  most  of  his  time  to  lecturing,  with  admirable  lucidity  of 
style  and  attractiveness  of  manner,  on  Ancient  History  down  to 
the  end  of  the  Western  Empire.  In  the  address  which  he  de- 
livered as  Rector  in  1871,  he  traced  the  influence  of  the  study  of 
the  ancient  world  on  the  critical  study  of  History,  in  and  after  the 
days  of  Niebuhr. 

His  History  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  founded  on  the  Prussian 
Archives  and  on  those  in  the  British  Museum,  and  inspired  by  a 
»  Das  anmulige  itUli  Grimma  (Ptef.  to  Dtm.  u.  s.  Zdt). 


CHAP,  XXXI.]    bSHNECKE.      F.  G.  KIESSLING.  17I 

warm  admiration  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  of  William  Pitt,  was 
begun  in  1867  and  completed  in  1874.  In  October  of  that  year 
he  started  on  a  tour  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Syria  and  Egypt, 
taking  Rome  on  his  return  in  the  following  spring.  His  love  of 
teaching  led  him  to  decline  the  honour  of  being  Director  of  the 
Public  Archives.  In  the  spring  of  1879  he  visited  Sicily  and 
Romei  in  1880,  Olympia  and  Athens;  in  1881,  Spain  and  Algiers. 
A  severe  attack  of  rheumatism  during  his  return  compelled  him  in 
the  autumn  to  resort  to  Gastrin,  Baden,  and  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
In  November,  i88z,  the  completion  of  the  zsth  year  of  his 
professorship  was  celebrated  by  the  publication  of  a  volume  of 
historical  papers  by  nineteen  of  his  former  pupils.  In  1883, 
after  spending  some  weeks  at  San  Sebastian,  he  returned  with 
renewed  strength  to  prepare  the  second  edirion  of  his  historical 
work  on  Demosthenes.  On  November  19th,  he  lectured  in  the 
forenoon,  attended  a  meeting  of  the  Faculty  in  the  evening,  enter- 
tained some  of  his  pupils  at  his  house,  was  attacked  by  a  sudden 
stroke  of  paralysis  at  midnight,  and  passed  away  by  a  painless 
death  at  an  early  hour  of  the  following  morning.  He  was  remark- 
able for  the  depth  and  extent  of  his  attainments,  for  his  gift  of 
lucid  exposition,  for  the  perfect  harmony  of  his  being,  and  the 
nobility  of  his  character'. 

Many  chronological  points  connected  with  ihe  life  and  times  of  Demosthenes 
had  already  been  minutely  investigated'  by  a  pupil  of  Niebuhr 
living  in  Berlin, — Karl  Geoig  Bohnecke,  who  subsequently 
criticised'  Schaefer's  results.  He  maintained  the  genuineness  of  all  the 
documents  i]uoted  in  the  Attic  Orators,  and  only  too  often  devoted  his  un- 
doubted acumen  and  his  wide  reading  to  the  elaborate  snpport  of  untenable 
opinions '. 

Hypercides   was   discussed   in   three   papers   of  1837-46   by   F.   Gustav 
Kiessling  (1809-84).   The  eoiiitf /finfc/j  of  the  Speech  against     _  _  ~. 
Demosthenes  {1850),  and  those  For  Lycophron  and  Eunenip- 
pus  ([853),  published  in  England  by  Churchill  Babington,  gave  a  new  impulse 
lo   the  study  of  that  long-lost  orator.     Of  the  literature  thus  produced  in 
Germany  it  may  suffice  lo  mention  Schneidenin's  edition  of  the  Lycophron  and 

'  J.  Asbach  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1883,   31 — 40,  and  Zur  Erinnerung  jwilh 
portrait)  1895,  80  pp.;   cp.  Bursian,  ii  913. 
'  Forschu»stH  {j%^i), 

'  Dim.,  Lykurgos,  Hyfiireidts,  and  ihr  Zeilatler  (1804). 
*  Bursian,  ii  914. 


i-MM,Googlc 


■173  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Euxenippus  (1853),  and  Weslermmn's  'Index  Veibotum'  to  all  three  speeches 
(1859-64). 

The  History  of  Attic  Eloquence  was  made  the  theme  of  an 
admirable  historic  survey  by  Friedrich  Blass  {1843 
— 1907)'  Born  at  Osnabriick  and  educated  at  the 
local  gymnasium  under  B.  R.  Abeken  (the  author  of  Ciixro  in 
seinen  Brirfen),  he  studied  at  Gottingen  under  Sauppe,  and  at 
Bonn  under  Ritschl  and  Otto  Jahn.  After  holding  scholastic 
appointments  in  various  parts  of  Germany,  he  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  classical  professor  at  Kiel  in  1876-92,  and  at  Halle  for 
the  remaining  fifteen  years  of  his  life. 

A  dissertation  on  Ihe  rhetorical  (realises  of  Dionysius  of  Halicamassus, 
written  for  bis  degree  at  Bonn  in  1863,  was  the  germ  of  his  earliest  substantial 
work,  that  on  the  history  of  Greek  oratory  from  the  age  of  Alexander  to  that 
of  Augustus  (1865).  This  was  followed  by  the  greatest  of  hb  works,  the  four 
volumes  of  Die  Allische  Btrtdsamkiit  (1868-80),  which  attained  a  second 
edition  in  1887-98.  For  the  Teubner  series  he  edited  texts  of  all  the  Attic 
Orators  except  I.ysias  and  Isaeus;  he  repeatedly  revised  Rehdantz'  Fhilippies, 
and  produced  a  school  edition  of  the  Di  Corona,  and  of  eight  of  Plutarch's 
Liiiis.  His  critical  texts  of  the  'kBi^raiat  ToXirtfiL  (tSQi)  and  of  Bacchylides 
(1898)  passed  through  several  editions.  His  treatise  on  the  pronunciation  of 
Ancient  Greek'  and  his  Grammar  of  New  Testament  Greek  were  translated 
into  English;  and  he  produced  a  carefully  revised  edition  of  the  first  half  of 
Ktlhner's  Gretk  Grammar,  and  critical  editions  of  the  two  works  of  St  Luke, 
besides  writing  on  the  'Philology  of  the  Gospels'  and  the  'Criticism  of  the 
New  Testament '.  In  the  interval  between  his  two  works  on  the  Rhythm  of 
Greek  Prose',  he  published  a  sober  and  sensible  treatise  on  Interpolations  in 
the  Oifyssey  {1904),  in  which  the  Peisistratean  edition  of  the  Homeric  poems 
is  frankly  denounced  as  'an  absurd  l^^d  '.  His  latest  works  were  his  com- 
mentaries on  the  Choepkoroe  (1906)  and  the  Eumemdes  (1907). 

He  held  that  the  rhythm  of  artistic  prose  {in  Latin  as  well  as  in  Greek) 
depended  on  the  symmetrical  correspondence  between  the  clauses  viUhin  the 
period,  and  not  solely  on  the  metrical  value  of  (he  last  few  syllables  of  the 
sentence ;  and  he  applied  this  principle  to  the  text  of  the  'Aflijrafui'  mXirf/o, 
as  well  as  to  that  of  Demosthenes.  In  the  latter  he  assigned  a  perhaps  exag- 
gerated importance  to  the  evidence  derived  from  citations  and  imitations,  and 
also  to  the  law  of  composition,  whereby  Demosthenes,  so  far  as  possible, 

'  1870  etc.;  E.  T.  ofed.  3  by  W.  J.  Purton  (Cambridge,  1890). 

'  (1)  Rhythmen  der  Attiscken  Kunstprosa  {1901);  (i)  DU  Rhylkmm  der 
Asianischen  und  Ronischen  Kunstprosa  (1905),  noticed  by  J.  E.  Sandys  in  CI. 
Ra,.  xxi  (1907),  85  f, 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXXI.]      F.  BLASS.      BRANDTS.      ZELLER.  173 

avoids  the  juxtaposition  of  three  or  more  short  syllables'.  His  published 
works  frequently  brought  him  into  friendly  relations  with  English  scholars. 
In  r879  ^^  '"'^  '^'  guest  of  the  editor  of  the  aStie  princeps  of  Hypeieides, 
Churchill  Babington;  in  that  year,  and  again,  many  years  later,  he  visited 
Cambridge,  while,  in  London  and  Oxford,  and  in  Dublin  (where  he  received 
an  honorary  degree  in  1891),  he  repeatedly  gave  proof  of  his  remarkable  skill 
in  deciphering  and  identifying  the  fr^ments  of  Greek  papyri  and  in  restoring 
the  lacunat  in  the  Aflnrolui'  xoXirila  and  in  Bacchylides.  One  of  the  most 
modest  and  most  unselfish  of  men,  he  was  ever  ready  to  place  the  results  of  his 
learning  and  of  his  acumen  at  the  serviee  of  others'. 

From  the  scholars  who  studied  the  Attic  Orators  we  turn  to 
the  exponents  of  Greek  philosophy.  Histories  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Philosophy  (1S35-66),  and  of 
the  influence  of  Greek  Philosophy  under  the  Roman  Empire 
(1862-4),  were  published  hy  Christian  August  Brandis  (1790 — 
1867),  who  was  born  at  Hildesheim,  studied  at  Kiel  and  Got- 
tingen,  was  privat-docent  at  Copenhagen  in  1813,  secretary  to  the 
Prussian  Embassy  in  Rome  in  1816,  and  (with  the  exception  of 
two  years  at  the  court  of  king  Otho  in  Greece,  1837-8)  professor 
at  Bonn  from  1821  to  his  death  in  1867.  His  earlier  works 
included  a  treatise  on  the  Eleatic  philosophers  (1813),  and  an 
edition  of  the  Metaphysics  of  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus,  with  the 
ancient  scholia  (1823-37).  He  afterwards  edited  the  scholia  for 
the  Berlin  Aristotle*. 

Eduard  Zeller,  who  was  bom  in  Wtirttemberg  in  1814,  and 
studied  at  Tiibingen  and  Berlin,  was  successively 
professor  at  Bern,  Marburg,  and  Heidelberg  (1862- 
72),  and  since  that  date  at  Berlin.  The  first  edition  of  his  well- 
known  History  of  Greek  Philosophy  in  three  large  octavo  volumes 
(1844-52)  was  begun  while  he  was  a  privat-docent  in  Theology  at 
Tiibingen,  and  was  finished  while  he  was  professor  of  Philosophy 
at  Marburg. 

'  Cp.  Demosthenes,  First  Phil,  and  Olynthiacs,  ed.  Sandys,  pp.  Ixxii-iv. 

'  J.  E.  Sandys  in  Ct.  Rai.  xxi  (1907),  75  f ;  cp.  J.  P.  M(ahaffy)  in  Athi- 
naettm,  16  March,  1907.  Complete  bibliography  in  preparation  by  H.  Rein- 
hold  of  Halle. 

*  E.  CurtiusinGotlingen  JViirinVAfew,  1867, 551;  Trendelenburg's  Hw/«(f, 
Berlin  Acad.,  iStiS.  His  portrait  is  included  in  the  monument  in  memory  of 
the  Emperor  Friedrich  III  at  Koln. 


lOO' 


SIC 


174  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

The  History  of  Greek  and  Roman  Philosophy  ex  fontium  locis 
conlexta  was  first  published  with  notes  in  1838  by 
Ritier  Heinrich  Ritter  (1791 — 1869)  and  Ludwig  Preller 

preiier  (1809 — 1861)'.     The  wofk  was  begun  while  both 

were  still  at  Kiel,  and  was  published  when  Ritter 
was  already  professor  at  Gottingen,  and  Preller  was  leaving  for 
Dorpat,  where  he  stayed  for  a  year  only,  previous  to  his  appoint- 
ment at  Jena.  For  the  last  fourteen  years  of  his  life,  he  was 
librarian  at  the  neighbouring  Court  of  Weimar.  Preller's  earlier 
works  included  the  Fragments  of  the  traveller  Polemon  (1838). 
He  is  well  known  as  the  author  of  standard  works  on  Greek  and 
Roman  Mythology  (1854-8)'. 

Adolf  Trendelenburg  (1802 — 1871),  who  was  born  and  bred 
at  Eutin,  studied  at  Kiel^  Leipzig,  and  Berlin,  where 
he  became  a  full  professor  in    1:837.     His  earliest 
work,  o;i  Plato's  doctrine  of  ideas  and  numbers,  as   illustrated 
from  Aristotle  (i8z6),  was   followed  by  his  edition  of  the  De 
Anima,  his  treatise  on  the  Categories  (1833),  and  his  Elements 
of  Aristotelian  Logic  (1826)'.     His  'Historical  contributions  to 
Philosophy'  were  pubhshed  in  three  volumes  in  1846-7,  and  his 
minor  works  in  two  (1871)'.     Franz  Biese,  a  school- 
Bteae  master   at   Putbus,  (woduced  in  1834-42  the  two 

waiti  volumes  of  his  comprehensive  work  on  the  Phi- 

losophy of  Aristotle;  Albert  Schwegler  (1819 — ■ 
1857),  professor  at  Tiibingen,  edited  the  Meiafhysus  in  1847-8, 
and  also  made  his  mark  by  his  History  of  Rome  (1853-8),  and 
his  Histc«y  of  Greek  Philosophy  (1859)";  while  Theodor  Waitz 
(1821 — 1864),  who  was  bom  at  Gotha,  and  studied  at  Leipzig 
and  Jena,  and  taught  at  Marburg  for  the  last  twenty  years  of  his 
life,  produced  an  excellent  edition  of  the  Organon  (1844-5).  The 
Ethics  were  edited  in  1820  by  the  versatile  Karl  Zell  (1793  — 
1873)  and  in  1878  by  G.  Ramsauer. 
,  The  able  Aristotelian,  Hermann  Bonitz  (1814 — 1888),  was 
1  Ed.  7, 1888. 

'  Ed.  4,  Carl  Robert,  1887-94;  Ausgewakltc  At^Stie,   1864.     Stichling, 
Geddcklmssride.  1863.  »  Ed.  8,  1878. 

*  Bonili,  Zur  Erimurung.  Berlin  Abhandlung,  1872 ;  Bratuschek  (wilh 
photograph),  1879;  Prantl,  Gedacklnissrcdt,  1873. 
'  Teuffel,  Sttidien  (tfiji),  no.  14. 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXI.]  .  BONITZ.  175 

educated  under   Ilgen  at  Schulpforta,  and   studied  at   Leipag 
under    Hermann  and  Harteiistein,  and  in   Berlin 
under  Boeckh  and  Lachmann.     For  thirteen  years 
"  he  was  a  schoolmaster  at  Dresden,  Berlin,  and  Stettin ;  for  eighteen 
a  professor  in  Vienna  (1849-67),  after  which  he  returned  to  Berlin 
as  Director  of  the  School '  am  Grauen  Kloster '. 

At  Hartenstein's  first  course  of  lectures  at  Leipzig,  only  three 
students  appeared,  and  it  was  solely  owing  to  a  fourth  presenting 
himself  in  the  person  of  young  Bonitz,  that  the  course  was,  given 
at  all.  This  event  had  an  important  efiect  on  the  future  career 
of  that  student;  for  it  was  through  Hartenstein's  giving  the 
Austrian  minister,  Exner,  in  1842,  a  letter  of  introduction  to 
Bonitz, — his  only  acquaintance  in  Berlin,  that  the  latter  ultimately 
accepted  an  invitation  to  hold  office  in  Vienna,  and  to  reform  the 
educational  system  of  Austria. 

In  his  earliest  work,  the  'two  Platonic  disputations'  of  1837', 
he  gave  proof  of  independence  of  view,  by  maintaining  that 
Plato's  opinions  were  not  always  consistent.  He  returned  to 
Plato  in  his  'Platonic  Studies'  of  1858-60*.  Schleiermacher's 
attempt  to  deduce  a  comprehensive  scheme  of  Plato's  teaching 
from  the  dialogues  as  a  whole  was  attacked  by  K.  F.  Hermann 
and  by  Bonitz,  who  laid  stress  on  the  gradual  growth  and  de- 
velopement  of  the  philosopher's  opinions. 

Afler  thirteen  years  of  scholastic  work  in  Germany,  he  ac- 
cepted in  1849  an  invitation  to  fill  the  Chair  of  Classical  Philology 
in  Vienna,  an3^  aid  in  the  reorganisation  of  the  schools  and 
universities  of  Austria.  In  1854  his  scheme  came  into  force,  and 
the  consequent  recognition  of  Natural  Science,  as  an  educational 
instrument  by  the  side  of  Classics,  was  the  work  of  a  classical 
scholar.  As  professor,  he  lectured  on  Sophocles,  and  on  Greek' 
Public  Antiquities,  as  well  as  on  Plato  and  Aristotle.  The  lec- 
tures were  well  attended,  and  the  students  crowded  to  his  house 
for  advice  and  guidance  on  all  manner  of  subjects.  His  popular 
lecture  on  the  origin  of  the  Homeric  poems  is  described  as  an 
excellent  specimen  of  his  manner  of  teaching'.     His  suggestions 

'  (1)  Di  PlatonU  idea  boni;  (i)  De  animal  mimdanae  apud  Platontm 
dementis. 

'  Ed.  J,  iSjs;  ed.  .1,  r886.  >  1860;  cd.  j,  (88r. 


ogic 


176  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

on  Thiicydides  ( 1854)  were  nearly  all  of  them  accepted  in  Kruger's 
second  edition.  In  those  on  Sophocles  {1856-7)  he  aimed  at 
restricting  the  extent  to  which  Schneidewin  had  seen  'tragic 
irony '  in  the  plays  of  that  poet. 

Meanwhile  his  studies  on  Plato  were  being  continued,  those 
on  Aristotle  were  attaining  their  ultimate  maturity,  and  his  vast 
Index  Arislotelicus  slowly  approaching  completion.  After  1866, 
when  Austria  came  into  conflict  with  Prussia,  fionitz  left  the  land 
of  his  adoption  for  the  land  of  his  birth.  He  accepted  the 
Directorship  of  an  important  school  in  Beriin ;  and  it  was  there 
that,  in  1870,  he  completed  his  Index  Aristotelicus,  a  work  justly 
eulogised  by  Haupt  in  Berlin'  and  by  Vahlen  in  Vienna'.  It 
marked  for  Bonitz  the  close  of  a  long  series  of  labours  connected 
with  Aristotle.  Those  labours  had  begun  with  his  critical  obser- 
vations on  the  Metaphysics  (1843),  Magna  Moralia  and  Eudemtan 
Ethics  {1844),  and  had  been  continued  in  his  edition  of  the  com- 
mentary of  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias  on  the  Metaphysics  (1847), 
and  in  his  own  commentary  (1848-9).  His  work  on  Aristotle, 
interrupted  for  a  time  by  his  transfer  to  Vienna,  bore  its  ripest 
fruits  in  the  five  parts  of  his  'Aristotelian  Studies'  (1862-7), 
which  had  been  preceded  by  his  treatise  on  the  Categories  (1853). 
His  dream  of  a  new  edition  of  the  text  of  Aristotle  remained 
unfulfilled  owing  to  the  pressure  of  official  duties  at  Berlin.  He 
was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  his  age.  He  was 
in  fact  a  perfect  master  of  that  province  of  classical  learning, 
which  includes  Greek  philology  and  Greek  philosophy'. 

Jacob  Bemays  (1824 — 1881),  the  son  of  a  Jewish  Rabbi,  was 
bom  and  bred  at  Hambuig,  and  studied  at  Bonn 

erniym  .^  1844-8  Under  Ritschl  and  Brandis.     After  spend- 

ing thirteen  years  at  Breslau  as  a  classical  professor  in  a  Jewish 
seminary,  and  as  a  teacher  in  the  university  (1853-66),  he  re- 
turned to  Bonn,  where  he  was  university  hbrarian  and  'extra- 
ordinary' professor  for  the  remaining  fifteen  years  of  his  life. 

During  the  earlier  of  the  two  periods  of  his  life  at  Bonn,  he , 

'  OfU!C.  iii  168.  "  Zeilichr.f.  d.  Sslerr.  Gymn.  1872,  531. 

•  Gompen  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  18S8,  53—100  (with  biblic^raphy,  91— ioo>; 
cp.  Karl  Schenkl's  Rtde  {i888J;  Bellermann's  Vertrag,  and  von  Hand's 
K'r/>a^(i889)  ;  Paulsen,  ii  475  f,  563 f,  S74fi  Bursian,  ii  913 f. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXXI.]  BERNAVS.  177 

obtained  the  degree  of  Doctor  by  producing  the  first  part  of  his 
important  work  on  Heraclitus  (1848)'.  He  had  already  written  a 
prize  essay  on  Lucretius  (1846),  and,  as  a  'privat-docent',  he  lec- 
tured on  that  poet  and  on  the  introduction  of  Greek  philosophy 
into  Rome,  and,  subsequently,  on  the  literature  of  the  Epicureans 
and  Stoics.  His  lectures  on  the  Speeches  in  Thucydides  included 
a  survey  of  Greek  History  and  Greek  Rhetoric,  and  there  were 
similar  surveys  in  his  lectures  on  Cicero's  Letters  and  Aristotle's 
Politics.     In  1852  he  published  an  excellent  text  of  Lucretius. 

After  leaving  Bonn  for  Breslau,  he  produced  his  classic  work 
on  Scaliger',  his  paper  assigning  the  authorship  of  the  P/iocylidea 
to  a  Jew  of  Alexandria*,  and  his  celebrated  treatise  on  'Aristotle's 
lost  discussion  of  the  effects  of  Tragedy'  (1857)',  In  the  latter 
he  maintained  that,  by  KadafKri-;,  Aristode  meant,  not  a  purifica- 
tion, but  a  purgation  of  the  emotions  of  fear  and  of  pity.  His 
reputation  was  greatly  enhanced  by  this  treatise  and  by  the  con- 
troversy that  ensued". 

Meanwhile  in  1852  he  had  been  invited  to  England  by  Bunsen, 
who  was  eager  for  aid  in  his  Biblical  researches.  The  result  of 
this  visit  was  an  eptstola  critica  containing  a  new  instalment  of  his 
Heracleitean  studies'.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he  gained  the 
friendship  of  Max  Miiller  and  of  Mark  Pattison.  To  Max  MuHer 
he  dedicated  his  work  on  the  Chronicles  of  Sulpicius  Severus, 
published  in  1861  as  a  contribution  to  Classical  and  Biblical 
study';  to  Pattison,  his  important  treatise  on  the  Dialogues  of 
Aristotle  in  relation  to  his  other  works  (1863)'.  His  subsequent 
work  on  Theophrastus'  treatise  On  Piety  (1866)  is  described  by 
himself  as  'a  contribution  to  the  history  of  religion',  with  critical 
and  explanatory  remarks  on  Porphyry's  treatise  On  Abstinmce*. 

'  Cp.  Rkein.  Mus.  i8+(),  *  1855  ;  Goropen,  Essays,  itc,  1 17  f. 

'  1856;   Grt.  AM.  i  191—161; 

*  Reprinted  in  Zvni  J ihandtuHgm  {t88o). 

'  Bemays  had  been  anticipated  by  Weil  (i8*7)-  Spengel's  attempl  of  1858 
to  support  Lessing's  interpretalion  was  refilled  by  Betnays.    See  also  Gompcrz, 

•  Appendix  to  part  iii  of  BaasKxCs  Artaltcta  Anlenkaena  (1854);  cp.  Khan. 
Mus.  1853. 

'  Gomperz,  Essays,  etc.,  tij-?.  °  Gompera,  I.e.,  ii^f. 

S.     111. 


..m-)glc 


1/8  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Imbedded  in  Porphyry  he  identified  important  fragments  of  the 
lost  work  of  Theophrastus,  besides  analysing  the  treatise,  and 
adding  instructive  comments  on  the  most  varied  points  of  ancient 
philosophy  and  on  the  history  of  religion  and  literature.  The 
work  was  dedicated  to  the  Berlin  Academy. 

On  his  return  to  Bonn  (1866),  in  addition  to  his  earlier  courses 
of  lectures,  he  discoursed  on  the  Pre-Socratic  Philosophy,  on 
Suetonius'  Life  of  Augustus,  and  on  the  History  of  Philology  from 
the  sixteenth  to  the  nineteenth  centuries'.  It  was  these  last  lec- 
tures, and  those  on  Plato,  that  proved  the  most  popular;  those 
on  Aristotle  were  less  well  attended,  owing  to  the  high  standard 
of  work  exacted  by  the  lecturer.  During  the  same  period  he 
published  his  treatise  '  on  the  Heracleitean  Letters ',  a  contribu- 
tion to  the  literature  of  philosophy  and  of  the  history  of  religion'; 
and  a  translation  of  the  first  three  Books  of  Aristotle's  Politics, 
with  more  than  a  hundred  suggestions  for  the  correction  of  the 
text,  as  well  as  explanatory  comments  intended  for  the  general 
public  (1872).  In  1876  he  presented  to  the  Berlin  Academy  the 
text  of  the  Pseudo-Platonic  treatise  '  on  the  indestructibility  of 
the  world ',  the  order  of  which  he  had  restored  by  detecting  in 
1863  that  certain  pages  had  been  misplaced.  This  was  followed 
by  a  brief  and  interesting  pamphlet  protesting  against  Lucian's 
unfair  treatment  of  the  Cynics  {1879)'.  In  the  following  year  he 
republished  his  two  papers  on  Aristotle's  'Theory  of  the  Drama'; 
and  shortly  before  his  death,  he  completed  a  work  on  '  Phocion 
and  his  recent  critics'  (1881)'.  Meanwhile  he  had  produced  a 
large  number  of  articles  on  Heracleitus  and  Aristotle,  and  on 
Lucretius,  Horace,  and  Cicero,  His  published  works  give  proof 
of  a  wide  range  of  interests,  and  a  rare  combination  of  great 
critical  acumen  and  profound  philosophic  insight.  Towards  the 
end  of  his  brief  life  he  was  contemplating  extensive  monographs 
on  Gibbon,  on  the  Prophet  Jeremiah,  and  on  Erasmus;  a  new 
edition  of  his  '  Scaliger ',  and  a  comprehensive  statement  of  his 

'  He  published  articles  on  Polilian  and  Georgius  Valla,  on  Scaliger,  and 

on  the  Corrispsndenci  of  Bentley  (Bicgr.  Jakrb.  1881,  80). 

'  iSfip;  cp.  Gompera,  Essays,  etc.,  111-3.  '  '-*■  "3-5- 

'  a.   124.    Criticised  by  Gomperz,  in  Wuner  Studim,  iv.  Die  Akademit 

und  ikr  vermiinllkhir  Philemacedonismm. 


CHAP.  XXXI.]        BERNAYS.      TEICHMULLER.  r^g 

views  on  all  the  writings  of  Aristotle.  It  was  at  his  instance  that 
the  Berlin  Academy  began  the  publication  of  the  Greek  commen- 
tators on  Aristotle;  he  was  also  eager  for  the  publication  of  the 
works  of  the  Neo-Platonists,  and  for  the  preparation  of  a  lexicon 
of  Greek  philosophy.  In  German  literature  his  favourite  authors 
were  Lessing  and  Goethe.  As  a  strict  Jew,  he  saw  nothing  of 
general  society,  but  he  had  a  high  capacity  for  friendship,  and  a 
wide  circle  of  scholarly  correspondents.  He  died  in  the  faith  of 
his  fathers  and  was  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  his  community  at 
Bonn,  after  bequeathing  to  the  university  library  a  complete 
collection  of  his  works,  including  all  his  Scaligerana^. 

The  Jew  and  the  Greek  were  united  in  the  person  of  Bernays, 
who  was  at  once  a  strictly  orthodox  Jew,  and  a  devoted  adherent 
of  Hellenic  culture'.  To  Bernays  'Philology'  was  always  the 
handmaid  of  History,  and  History  the  servant  of  practical  life. 
Like  his  great  exemplar,  Scaliger,  he  never  published  lists  of 
emendations,  or  programs  on  microscopic  points,  preferring  to 
deal  with  each  successive  theme  of  his  choice  as  a  complete  and 
historic  whole'. 

Gustav  Teichmiillei'  (1831—1888),  who  wa.s  bom  at  [Irunswick,  studied 
under  Trendelenburg  and  others  al  Berlin.  After  holding  a  t  1  >.  -11 
scholastic  appointment  for  four  years  al  St  Petersbui^,  he 
was  a  professor  at  Giittingen  and  Basel,  and,  for  the  last  seventeen  years  of  his 
life,  at  Dorpat.  Up  to  ihe  age  of  forty,  his  work  had  been  mainly  limited  to 
investigations  of  (he  Aristotelian  philosophy  on  the  lines  of  Trendelenburg. 
In  this  spirit  he  had  already  published  the  lirst  two  volumes  of  his  'Aristotelian 
Researches'*.  His  call  to  Dorpat  was  the  beginning  of  a  new  departure 
marked  by  the  third  volume".  In  his  subsequent  'Studies'  he  (rated  the 
history  of  philosophical  conceptions  from  Thales  to  Plalo  and  Aristotle,  and 
dealt  with  (he  influence  of  the  Greek  philosophers  on  the  Fathers,  and  finally 
on  Spinoza,  Kant,  and  Hegel'.  The  study  of  Plato  now  took  a  more  prominent 
place  in  his  interests,  he  came  into  controversy  with  Zeller  and  others,  and 
was  led  to  investigate  the  Chrouolc^y  of  the  Platonic  Dialiigues  0^79)'  *"•* 
the  'Literary  Feuds  of  (he  Fourth  Century  B.C.'  (1881-4).     He  regarded  the 

'  Schaarschmidl,  in  SiP^r./nir*.  1881,  65—83;   cp.  Biicheler,  in  Rkait. 
Mas.  xxxvi  479  f,  Bursian,  ii  845  n.,  and  Gomperz,  Essays  etc.,  106 — ill- 
'  Gompeti,  /.<:.,  109.  '  ii.  108  f. 

*  P(Ktii(im^),  Kunst  (1869). 

»  Gesch.  As  Bigriffs  dtr  Parmie  (1873). 

*  StadvM  zar  Gesch.  der  Begrige,  1874;   1876-5. 

n,5,t,7);«iT<£00<^lc 


iSo  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Dialt^ues  as  a  series  of  manifeslos,  the  date  of  which  was  to  be  determined 
by  polemical  refetences  to  Xenophon,  Lysias,  and  Isocrales,  as  well  as 
Aristophanes  and  even  Aristotle  himaeK.  The  first  of  the  two  volumes  on 
this  theme  was  unfavouiably  reviewed  by  Susemihl  and  by  Blass'. 

The  eminent  Aristotelian,  Leonhard  Spengel  (1803 — 1880), 
who  was  educated  under  Thiersch  at  Munich,  studied 
under  Hermann  at  Leipzig,  and  Boeckh  and  Bekker 
in  Berlin,  and  was  on  the  staff  of  the  '  old  gymnasium '  in  Munich 
until  1835,  when  he  became  a  professor  in  the  university.  After 
an  interval  (1841-7),  during  which  he  held  a  professorship  at 
Heidelberg,  he  returned  to  Munich,  where  he  occupied  a  similar 
position  for  the  last  thirty-three  years  of  his  life.  His  early  edition 
of  Varro,  De  Lingua  Latina  (i8z6),  was  followed  by  a  survey  of 
the  history  of  Greek  Rhetoric  down  to  the  time  of  Aristotle'.  In 
the  year  of  his  temporary  departure  from  Munich,  he  delivered  an 
academic  address  'on  the  study  of  Rhetoric  among  the  Ancients' 
(1841),  and  in  that  of  his  return,  he  edited  the  Rhetorita  ad 
Alexandrum  (1847),  which  (like  Victorius)  he  assigned  to  Anaxi- 
menes.  He  also  published  a  text  of  the  Rhetores  Graea  {i&^i-6), 
and  an  important  edition  of  Aristotle's  Rhetoric  with  the  old 
Latin  translation  and  with  a  full  commentary  {1867).  In  the 
Transactions  of  the  Munich  Academy  he  traced  the  indications 
of  rhetorical  artifice  in  the  Public  Speeches  of  Demosthenes',  and 
also  criticised  the  Poetic,  the  Ethics,  Politics,  Oeconomics,  and 
Physics  of  Aristotle*. 

His  younger  contemporary,  Carl  Prantl  (1820 — 1888),  a  pupil 
of  Thiersch  and  Spengel  in  Munich,  studied  for  a 
time  in  Berlin.     He  was  on  the  staff  of  the  univer- 
sity of  Munich  from  1843  to  the  end  of  his  life,  having  been  full 
professor  of  Philology  from  1859,  and  of  Philosophy  from  1864. 
His  first  publication  was  a  dissertation  on  Aristotle's  Historia 

'  Bursian'syo^ritj^.  xxx  i  and  134.     Biogr.Jahrb.  1888,  7 — 17. 

n   scriptores   ab  inilits   usque    ad   editos 
130  pp.,— still  a  leading  authority  on  this 
subject. 

'  Abhatidl.  ix  (i)  (1),  and  x  (i). 

*  A.  Spengel  in  Biogr.Jahrb.  1880,  3S--59;  W.  v.  Christ,  Gedachtnissredt, 
Munich  Acad.  (i88i);  Buruan,  it  736,  915,  9*4>  Thurot,  Rev.  de  Philol.  v 
181—190. 


D„:,iP,.-ih,C00glc 


CHAP.  XXXI.J      SPENGEL.      PRANTL.      SUSEMIHL.  l8l 

Animalium  (1843).  His  early  career  was  embittered  by  bigoted 
attacks  on  his  philosophical  opinions ;  and  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
three  his  objections  to  a  'confessional  philosophy'  led  to  his 
finding  himself  forbidden  to  lecture  on  philosophical  subjects. 
Instead  of  discoursing  (as  heretofore)  on  Logic  and  the  History 
of  Philosophy,  he  was  only  allowed  to  deal  with  the  safer  topics 
of  the  Greek  Tragic  Poets  (1852),  and  the  'Encyclopaedia  of 
Philology'  (l855^.  In  1864,  however,  he  was  expressly  appointed 
professor  of  Philosophy,  and  thenceforth  he  was  neither  attacked 
nor  otherwise  hindered  in  respect  to  the  subjects  of  his  lectures. 
His  principal  course  on  Logic  and  the  general  survey  of  Philosophy 
was  attended  by  more  than  zoo  students  from  all  Faculties. 

Meanwhile,  he  had  devoted  his  enforced  leisure  to  beginning 
the  main  work  of  his  life : — the  four  volumes  of  his  celebrated 
'History  of  the  Study  of  Logic  in  the  West'  (1855-70),  beginning 
with  Aristotle  and  ending  with  the  year  1534-  He  also  published 
a  Survey  of  Greek  and  Roman  Philosophy ',  and  translations  of 
Plato's  Phaedo,  Phaedrns,  Symposium,  Republic,  and  Apology,  and 
of  Aristotle's  De  eoloribus.  Physics,  and  De  Caelo  etc.,  besides 
Greek  texts  of  those  treatises.  But  his  interests  were  far  from 
being  confined  to  Philosophy  and  Philology ;  he  was  a  Polyhistor 
in  the  best  sense  of  the  term.  His  published  works  include 
university  history,  and  bic^aphy,  and  a  long  series  of  reviews'. 

Franz  Susemihl  (1826— 1901),  who  was  born  in  Mecklenburg, 
and  studied  at  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  settled  in  1850 
at  Greifswald,  where  he  was  full  professor  of  Classi- 
cal Philology  from  1863  to  the  date  of  his  death.  Besides  writing 
an  important  work  on  the  developement  of  Plato's  philosophy", 
he  contributed  to  the  Classical  Journals  many  papers  on  Plato 
and  Aristotle.  He  is  still  better  known  through  his  edition  and 
translation  of  Aristotle's  Poetic^,  and  his  three  editions  of  the 
Politics,  (i)  the  critical  edition  with  the  old  Latin  translation  of 
William  of  Moerbeke  {1872),  (2)  the  Greek  and  German  edition 

'  1854;  newed.  T863. 

'  Biblic^raphj  in  Almanack  of  the  Munich  Academy,  1S8S,  continued  in 
Christ's  Gtdachtnissrede,  45—48.    Cp.  K.  Meiser  in  Bwg.  Jahrb.  1889,  1— 14. 
'  Dit  gcaclische  EtUviickelung  <Ur  Platonisehfa  PhilosophU  (1855-60). 
*  :865 ;  ed.  a,  1879. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


l82  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

with  explanatory  notes  (1879)',  and  (3)  the  Teubner  text  of  1882, 
The  main  results  of  the  seven  parts  of  his  Quaesliones  Crilicae  on 
xhe^  Poiitics  {1867-74)  were  summed  up  in  a  pamphlet  of  iz8  pages 
published  in  1886*,  showing  that  there  were  many  lacunae  in  the 
text,  and  that  the  transposition  of  clauses  and  paragraphs  was 
often  necessary.  He  also  produced  a  Teubner  text  of  the  Ethics 
(1887),  in  which,  in  common  with  other  critics,  he  proposed 
many  transpositions,  especially  in  the  fifth  Book.  Lastly,  towards 
the  end  of  his  life,  he  puMished  a  full  and  minute  History  of 
Greek  Literature  in  the  Alexandrian  Age  (1891-2). 

The  historical  and  political  purport  of  the  Politics  was  the 
theme  of  an  important  work  published  in  1870-5 
°'"='""  by  Wilhelm  Oncken  (1838— 1905)',  who  studied  at 

his  native  place,  Heidelberg,  and  at  Gottingen ;  and,  after  spend- 
ing eight  years  as  a  teacher  at  Heidelberg,  was  professor  of  History 
at  Giessen  for  the  last  thirty-five  years  of  his  life.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  German  Imperial  Parliament  in  1874-6,  and 
organised  an  important  series  of  historical  works,  to  which  he 
contributed  three  volumes  on  Modern  History.  His  paper  on 
the  Revival  of  Greek  Literature  in  Italy  forms  an  interesting  page 
in  the  History  of  Scholarship*. 

Aristotle,  De  Anima,  was  edited  in  1862  by  Adolph  Torstrik, 
who  was  a  master  in  the  Bremen  gymnasium  until 
Toriirik        his  death  in    1877.     The  Fragments  of  the  lost 
RoK  works  were  carefully  collected  and  elaborately  dis- 

cussed by  Emil  Heitz  (1825 — 1890)  who  was  a 
professor  at  the  university  of  his  native  place,  Strassburg";  and 
by  Valentin  Rose,  who  studied  at  Bonn  as  well  as  in  Berlin,  the 
place  of  his  birth  (1825),  and  has  been  on  the  staff  of  the  Royal 
Library  in  Berlin  since  1855*. 

'  Books  I— V  have  been  edited  in  English  with  introduction,  analysis,  and 
commenlary  \)y  Susetnihl  and  R.  D.  Hicks  (1S94). 

=  Extract  bom  Jahri.f.  d.  Phihi.  Suppl.  nv. 

'  Die  Staalslekre  dis  Ar.  in  historitch-folilischin  Umriiuit,  preceded  by 
Isxratts  u.  Atken  (1861),  and  HcUas  u.  Athin  (i86g-6). 

*  VtrhandlungiH  dtr  xxiii  Fhilelogenversammhmg,  1865, 
'  Dit  verlortnm  Sthrifien  da  Ar.  (1865).  ' 

•  Dt  Arhlolelis  librorttm  ordine  It  auclarilali  (1854);  Aristotelcs  pstudipi- 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXXI.]    ONCKEN.      UEBERWEG.      VOLKMANN.        183 

Friedrich  Ueberweg  (1826 — 1871)  studied  at  Gottingen  and 
Berlin,  began  his  professorial  career  at  Bonn,  and 
was  professor  at  Konigsberg  from  1862  to  the  end  *  'rweg 
of  his  life.  He  was  the  author  of  a  prize  dissertation  on  the 
genuineness  and  the  chronology  of  the  Platonic  writings^,  and  an 
editor  and  translator  of  Aristotle's  /'oeiie  (1875).  Ancient  Phi- 
losophy is  the  theme  of  the  first  volume  of  his  valuable  Grundriss 
of  the  History  of  Philosophy  (i86a-6), — a  volume,  which,  in  its 
e^hth  edition,  has  been  revised  by  Heinze  (1894). 

The  Greek  Rhetoricians  were  edited  by  Ernst  Christian  Walz 
(1802 — 1857),   who  was    educated   at  Tubingen, 
where  he  was  appointed  'extraordinary'  and  'or- 
dinary' professor  in   1832   and  1836  respectively.     The  former 
date  marks  the  beginning  and  the  latter  the  end  of  the  nine 
volumes  of  his  Rhetores  Graed,  a  series  including  many  works 
then  printed  for  the  first  time.     He  also  wrote  archaeological  and 
mythological  articles  for  Pauly's  Encyclopaedia,  and,  in  1838-9, 
was  joint  editor  of  Pausanias  with  Heinrich  Christian  Schubart 
(1800— 1885),  who   afterwards   produced   the   Teubner  text   of 
1852-4.     Schubart,  who  was  bom  at  Marburg  and 
studied  at  Heidelberg,  travelled  in  Italy  and  Sicily, 
and  was  for  47  years  librarian  at  Cassel'.     Spengel's  edition  of 
the  most  important  of  the  Rhetores  Graed,  and  his  other  works 
on  ancient  Rhetoric,  have  been  already  mentioned'. 

A  systematic  conspectus  of  Greek  and  Roman  Rhetoric'  was 
produced  by  Richard  Volkmann  (1832 — 1892),  who 
studied  under  Bernhardy  at  Halle,  and,  after  hold- 
ing minor  scholastic  appointments,  was  Director  of  the  ^mnasium 
at  Jauer  from  1865  to  his  death.  Besides  editing  Plutarch's 
treatise  on  Music,  he  wrote  an  interesting  monograph  on  its 
author, .  as  the  precursor  of  Neo-Platonism.  Two  of  his  main 
interests  were  the  study  of  Neo-Platonism  and  of  Epic  Poetry. 

^ro/Aiu  (1863);  Arislotdis  qui /crebatUur  iibrerum  fragments,  printed  1867, 
published  in  vol.  v  of  Berlin  Ar.  {1870),  and  in  Teubner  text  (1886). 
>  Wien,  1861. 

*  Biogr./ahrb.  1885,  89 — 95.  '  p.  180  supra. 

*  1871-4  ;  ed,  2,   1885  i  also  a.  summary  in  Iwan  Muller's  Handbuih  ii, 
ed.  1,637—676. 


.oogic 


184  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

The  former  is  represented  in  his  admirable  work  on  Synesius  of 
Cyrene,  and  his  Teubner  text  of  Plotinus ;  the  latter,  in  his  early 
dissertation  on  Nicander,  his  papers  on  Ancient  Oracles  in  hex- 
ameter verse  (1853-8),  his  Commentationes  Epicae,  and  his  critical 
survey  of  the  influence  of  Wolf's  Prolegomena  (1874)^ 

The  Religion,  Philosophy,  and  Rhetoric  of  the  Greeks  were 
only  a  part  of  the  wide  field  of  learning  traversed 
by  Hermann  Usener  (1834 — 1905),  who  studied  at 
Heidelberg,  Munich,  Gottingen,  and  Bonn,  where  he  was  pro- 
fessor for  the  last  thirty-nine  years  of  his  life.  The  breadth  of 
his  erudition  is  attested  by  writings  on  the  most  varied  themes, 
beginning  with  Homer',  and  even  including  Byzantine  Astronomy*, 
and  the  scholia  on  Horace  and  Lucan.  Among  his  works  were 
the  Quatstiones  Anaximmeae  (1856),  and  the  Analecta  Theo- 
phrastea  (1858).  In  the  latter  year,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend, 
F.  Biicheler,  and  five  other  scholars  in  Bonn,  he  produced  an 
improved  edition  of  the  Annals  of  Granius  Licinianus.  He 
published  editions  of  the  scholia  on  Aristotle  by  Alexander  of 
Aphrodisias  and  Syrianus,  and  of  the  rhetorical  works  of  Dionysius 
of  Halicarnassus,  viz.  (i)  the  treatise  De  Imitatiotte,  and  {2)  a 
critical  text  of  the  whole,  in  conjunction  with  Radermacher.  His 
Epicurea  is  a  critical  collection  of  all  the  ancient  authorities  on 
Epicurus,  with  an  elaborate  introduction  and  excellent  itidias*. 
He  also  wrote  on  the  text  of  Plato^  and  on  the  history  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Grammar";  on  ancient  Greek  metre',  and  on  Greek 
cycles*;  on  the  names  of  the  gods',  on  the  mythology  of  the  old 
Greek  epic'",  on  the  History  of  Rel^ion",  and  on  the  legends  of 

'   Gtschichte  and  Krilik  der  SVoIfichen    Prolegomena  zu  Homer,   364  pp. 
187+,     Cp.  Biogi:  Jahrh.  1891,  81-103. 

'  De  Itiadis  caituiue  quodam  FAeeaieaiiSji). 

'  Adhistoriam  astroiiamiae  symbala  (1876) ;  Be  Siephani  Alex.  (1880). 

*  Leipzig,  1887. 

"  Vnser  Plalolext,'\Ti  Gdltingen  Naehr.  1893,35 — 50,  181—115. 
'  Eitt  iilli!  Likrgebdude  der  PAilelogie,  in  S.-Ber.  of  Munich  Acad.  1892, 
S8J-648. 

'  Attgrieckiseher  Versbau  (1887).  r 

"  Gr.  Oktaeteris  in  Rhcin.  Mus.  xxxiv  388  f. 

•  Cr.  GSttenmmen,  1896. 

«  Gr.  Epos,  in  .9.  Ber.  Vienna  Acad.  1897. 

"  See (in/^r  o^ifl)  Comm.in  honorem  Jtfommseni {iHj'j),  Sinjiulsagen  (1899), 


lOO' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXXr.]  USENER.      A.  KIESSLING.  l8S 

certain  Saints'.  His  Anecdoton  Holderi  (1877)  threw  light  on 
Cassiodorus  and  Boethius,  and  the  Roman  chronology  is  illustrated 
by  his  edition  of  the  laterculi  iviperatorum  Romanorum  Gram. 
Some  of  the  ablest  scholars  of  Germany  passed  through  his 
Seminar,  and  the  high  ideal  kept  in  view  in  his  life  and  in  his 
works  has  been  eloquently  set  forth  by  his  colleague,  Biicheler'. 

Polybius  was  ediled  in  1867-71  by  FriedtLch  Otto  Hullsch  (1833—190(5), 
who  was  born  and  bred  in  Dresden,  where  he  was  appointed  h  It    h 

Rector  of  his  old  school,  after  studjiing  in  Leipzig.     His  high 
malhematical  ability  was  exemplified  in  his  careful   editions  of  Heron  and 
Pappus  (1876-8},  and  in  his  important  work  on  Greek  and  Roman  Metrolog}'*. 

The  text  of  the  '  Roman  Archaeology '  of  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus  ■  was  edited  in  1860-70  by  Adolph 
Kiessling  (1837— 1893),  who  studied  at  Bonn,  and 
was  a  professor  at  Greifswald  and  at  Strassburg.  He  produced 
several  valuable  papers  on  Plautus  and  Horace',  and  was  associated 
with  Rudolph  Scholl  in  the  joint  edition  of  the  commentary  of 
Asconius  on  Five  Speeches  of  Cicero  (1875). 

Lucian  was  edited  in  1821-3:  by  John nn  Gonlieb  Lehmaim  (1781— i8,i7), 
Director  of  the  gymnasium  at  Luckau,  and  in  1836-41,  and 
1851-3,    by    Karl    Gottfried   Jacobitz   (1807—1875!,    while    jbcoT™ 
F.    V.    Frilzsche    (1806—1887*,    editor    of   the     Tkcsmopko-     F.  V.  Fritische 
riiaasae  and  Ranat  of  Aristophanes)  produced,  in  1860-81,     '*'"'""  ^ 
three  volumes  of  an  elaborate  critical  edition,  and  Julius  Wilhelm  Sommerbrodt 
(1813— 1903)  edited  selections  with  excellent  German  notes  and  published  the 
readings  of  the  Venice  MSS,  besides  writing  valuable  papers  on  the  Antiquities 
of  the  Greek  Theatre'.     His  critical  edition  of  Lucian  was  completed  in  1899. 

The  text  of  the  Greek  NovelisLs'  was  ediled  by  a  Member  of  the  Berlin 
Academy,   Rudolph   Hercher  (1811-1878),  who  also  edited  ^^^ 

the  Greek  Efislc/ografki,  with  the  minor  works  of  Arrian, 

Dreihtit  (1903),  and  Weihnachhfiil  (1889) ;  and  cp.  Archivf.  Riligionswmm- 
sthafl,  (905.  '  S.  Pelagia,  S.  Marina,  S.  Theodosius. 

'  Nimjakrb.f.  kl.  Alt.  1905,  737 — 741  (with  portrait);  also  Wendland  in 
Preuss.  Jahrb.  1905,  373f;  Dieterich,  in  Archivf.  Religionswiss.  1906,  i— xi ; 
E.  Schwartz,  Rtik  (Berlin,  1906);  Olio  Kern,  ^iot  (Rostock,  190(5),  8—10; 
Usener's  Vmiriigi  und  Aufsdlit,  1907. 

'  i86j;  ed.  1,  1881;  F.  Radio's  /i/aeiruf  at  Basel  Philohgen-Veriamm- 
lung,  Sept.  1907. 

*  Hursian,  ii  848,  n.  1.  '  Biogr.Jnhrb.  1887,  99— lot. 

*  1876,  Scenica  Collicla.  '  Erotici  Seriflarti  Gratti,  1858-9- 


A.OO' 


1C5IC 


I86  GERMANY.  [cent.  XIX. 

Aeliln,  Aeneas  Poliocceticos,  and  Apollodonis.  Hercher  was  one  of  Ibe 
founders  of  Hermes^. 

The  Histoiy  of  the  Greek  Novel  was  admirably  wriUen  in  1876  by 
Rohde  '^''*'"  ^"''"'^  (1845—1898),  who  was  educated  at  Jena  and 

Hambui^,  and  was  a  devoted  admirer  of  Ihe  teaching  of 
Rilschl  at  Bonn  and  Leipzig.  At  Leipzig,  he  and  his  friend,  Nietzsche,  com- 
bined an  enthusiasm  for  riding  with  an  intense  interest  in  classical  learning, 
and  they  scandalised  the  more  normal  students  by  coming  in  riding-costume  10 
the  classical  lectures.  Both  alike  were  sworn  foes  of  every  form  of  pedantry. 
When  the  friends  parted  in  1867,  Rohde  went  to  complete  his  studies  under 
Ritschl's  future  biographer,  Ribbeck. 

His  literary  career  b^an  with  a  paper  on  the  Lucius  of  Lucian.  It  was 
continued  by  a  dissertation  on  the  authorities  of  Pollux  on  the  Greek  Theatre, 
by  his  History  of  the  Greek  Novel',  a  brilliant  and  masterly  work  (which 
was  partly  supplemented  by  a  lecture  at  Rostock  in  the  same  year),  and  by  his 
sketch  of  the  later  Sophists  and  of  their  connexion  with  Asianism'.  He 
lectured  with  great  success  at  Jena  (1876)  on  Ancient  Rhetoric,  and  at 
Tubingen  (1878)  on  Greek  Philosophy. 

Next  to  the  History  of  the  Greek  Novel,  he  altaclted  the  problems  con- 
nected with  the  growth  of  the  ancient  history  of  Greek  Ulerature.  He  proved 
that  in  the  hiogiaphies  preserved  by  Suldas  the  term  "y^ate  must  refer  to  the 
date  when  an  author  flourished,  and  not  to  the  date  of  his  birth'.  His 
subsequent  studies  on  the  Chronology  of  Greek  literary  history'  were  models 
of  their  kind,  and  led  to  important  results. 

During  his  brief  tenure  of  a  professorship  at  Leipzig  in  1886  he  gave  a 
course  of  lectures  on  Homer,  and,  in  the  same  year,  he  was  invited  to 
Heidelberg.  The  third  of  his  three  main  interests  as  a  scholar,  bis  interest  in 
Greek  Religion,  was  first  displayed  in  his  lecture  on  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries 
(1880).  Its  culminating  point  was  reached  in  his  Psyche  (1891-4)*,  the  most 
important  work  on  the  subject  that  had  appeared  since  Lobeck's  Agtaophamus, 
and  far  more  popular  in  its  method  of  treatment,  and  in  its  style.  His  main 
thesis  was  that  the  cult  of  souls  was  the  most  primitive  stage  of  religious 
worship  throughout  the  world,  and  that  there  was  no  reasoti  for  excepting  the 
Greeks  from  this  general  rule-  The  apparent  inconsistency  of  this  cult  with 
the  Homeric  theology  was  solved  by  an  analysis  of  the  earliest  epics,  showing 
in  Homer,  and  still  more  in  Hesiod,  the  existence  of  rudimentary  survivals  of 
a  more  ancient  cult.  The  religion  of  Ihe  old  Epics  was  thus  put  in  a  new 
light ;  and  the  Homeric  theology  stood  out  against  the  dark  background  of  an 
earlier  type  of  religion.  Rohde's  interest  in  the  life  of  Creuzer,  one  of  his 
predecessors  at  Heidelbei^,  was  partly  inspired  by  Ms  own  study  of  the  history 

'  BiogT.Jahrb.  1878,  9  f. 

'  Der  griechischt  Soman  und  seine  Vorldufer,  1876;  ed.  i,  1900. 

'  Rhein.  Mus.  xli  (1886)  rjof. 

'  1878-9  ;  Rhciti.  Mus.  xxxiit  r6i  f,  638  ;  xxxiv  610. 

'  t*.  xxxvi  380  f,  5i4f.  •  Ed.  1,  1897, 

h.  i.MiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XXXI.]      ROHDE.      KUHN.      DIETZ.      IDELER.  187 

of  rdigion,  and  led  to  his  publishing  a  work  which  was  a  conlribuiion  to  the 
History  of  Romance  rather  than  to  the  History  of  Scholarship'.  He  lived  to 
produce  in  [897  a  second  edition  of  his  Psycht,  in  which  many  additions  were 
made  to  the  notes.  He  died  at  the  age  of  53.  The  three  stages  of  his  literary 
life  had  been  marked  by  the  study  of  three  historic  problems  connected  with 
(1)  the  Greek  Novel,  (3)  the  Chronology  of  Greek  Literature,  and  (8)  Greek 
Religion.  His  treatment  of  all  three  was  marked  by  thoroughness  of  research, 
and  clearness  of  exposition'. 

The  medical  literature  of  Greece  was  criticised  and  expounded  by  Karl 
Gottlob  Kuhn   ([754—1840)   and   Friedrich  Reinhold  Dieti 
(1804 — 1836),  professors  at  Leipzig  and  Konigsbei^  respec-  d   t 

tively.  KUhn's  edition  of  the  Greek  medical  writers,  publL'Jied 
in  1811-30,  extends  to  twenty-six  volumes,  including  a  Latin  translation,  with 
critical  and  eiegetical  commentary  and  indices.  Galen  stone  iills  twenty 
volumes,  and  the  rest  are  devoted  to  Hippocrates,  Aretaeus,  and  Dioscorides, 
this  last  being  edited  by  Kurt  Sprengel  (1766—1833),  professor  of  Medicine  at 
Halle.  Dietz,  after  editing  'Hippocrates  on  epilepsy'  (1817),  collated  many 
medical  MSS  in  foreign  libraries,  but  did  not  live  to  make  use  of  more  than  a 
small  part  of  bis  collations,  which  are  now  preserved  in  the  library  at  Konigs- 
berg.  Another  short-lived  scholar,  wbo  was  also  an  adept  in  Natural  Science, 
was  Julius  Ludwig  Ideler  (1809 — 1841),  who  wrote  on  Greek 
and  Roman  Meteorology  (1831),  and  edited  Aristotle's  Me-  idelor 

Itorolegica  (1834-6),  and  the  Pkysici  el  Medici  Griuci  mtnoni*. 

'  Friedrich  Craaa-a,  Karolitu  v.  Giinderedt  (1896). 

*  W.  Schmid  in  Biagr.  fahrb.  1899,  87^1 14  (with  bibliography);  and 
biographical  Essay  by  O.  Crusius,  196  pp.,  with  portrait  (rgoi);  also 
E.  Weber  in  Deutscher  Nekmlog,  vi  (1904)  450 — 465.  Kleine  Schriften  in 
1  vob.,  ed.  Fr.  Scholl,   1901- 

*  Bursian,  ii  931  f. 


n,g,t,7rJM,GOOglC 


CHAPTER   XXXII. 

EDITORS   OF  LATIN    CLASSICS. 

The  study  of  the  Latin  poets  has  already  been  represented 
by  Lachmann,  Haupt,  and  Ritschl'.  Ritschl  was 
succeeded  at  Leipzig  by  one  of  the  earliest  of  his 
pupils,  Otto  Ribbeck  (iSz; — 1898),  who  studied  in  Berlin  and 
Bonn,  and,  on  returning  from  a  tour  in  Italy,  held  scholastic 
appointments  in  Germany.  After  filling  professorships  at  Bern 
and  Basel  (1856-62),  he  was  successively  professor  at  Kiel 
(1863^72),  Heidelberg  {1872-7),  and  Uipzig  (1877-98). 

His  work  was  mainly  limited  to  the  history  and  the  criticism 
of  the  earlier  Latin  poets.  He  published  an  important  collection 
of  the  Fragments  of  the  Latin  Dramatists',  as  well  as  an  edition 
of  Che  Miles  Gloriosus,  a  work  on  Roman  Tragedy  in  the  age  of 
the  Republic*,  and  a  valuable  History  of  Roman  Poetry  in  three 
volumes*.  He  also  published  a  comprehensive  critical  edition 
of  Virgil,  in  five  volumes',  as  well  as  a  smaller  edition  of  the 
text.  His  work  on  Virgil  had  been  preceded  by  his  text  of 
Juvenal',  and  was  succeeded  by  his  Epistles  and  Ars  Poelica  of 
Horace,  in  both  of  which  he  evinced  an  inordinate  suspicion 
of  textual  interpolations.  His  numerous  minor  papers  included 
an  important  treatise  on  Latin  Particles  (1869). 

His  study  of  the  Latin  dramatists  led  him  to  their  Greek 
originals.  He  accordingly  published  a  lecture  on  the  Middle 
and  the  New  Attic  Comedy  (1857),  discussed  Greek  and  Roman 
Comedy  in  his  Alazon,  a  work  including  his  German  rendering 
of  the  Miles  Gloriosus  (1882),  and  wrote  on  the  early  cult  of 

1  Chap.  xxK.  '  1855-5;  ed.  1,  1871-3;  ed.  3,  1897-8. 


iSs^-fiS.  abridged  ed.  1895. 

iSjg.     Cp.  Dcr  ecklt  »nd  der  anechte  Juvenal  (1865). 


i-MM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXXII.     RIBBECK.      LUCIAN    MULLER.  189 

Dionysus  in  Attica  (1869).  The  story  of  his  life  has  been  partly 
told  by  the  publication  of  his  Letters,  while  his  own  Life  of 
Ritschl  is  itself  a  monument  of  learning,  enthusiasm,  and  good 
taste'. 

Lucian  Mullet  (1836—1898)  was  educated  at  Berlin  under 
Meineke,     Moritz    Seyffert,    and    CMesebrecht,    and 
studied  at  the  university  of  Berlin   under  Boeckh      Maier 
and  Haupt,  and  at  Halle  under  Bemhardy.     After 
living  for  five  years  in  Holland  (mainly  at  Leyden),  and  for  three 
at   Bonn,    he   was   appointed    professor   of  Latin    Literature  at 
St  Petersburg,  where  he  worked  for  the  remaining  twenty-seven 
years  of  his  life. 

While  he  was  still  a  student  in  Berlin,  he  produced  a 
dissertation  on  the  Latin  abridgement  of  Homer  bearing  the 
name  of  Pindarus  Thebanus.  In  186 1  he  published  his  treatise 
De  re  metrUa,  on  the  prosody  of  all  the  Latin  poets  except 
Plautus  and  Terence,  an  original  work  of  wide  learning,  which 
was  only  marred  by  a  bitterly  polemical  spirit  A  compendium 
of  the  same  appeared  in  1878,  tt^ether  with  a  summary  of  Latin 
orthography  and  prosody,  followed  by  a  text-book  of  Greek  and 
Latin  Metres'.  His  critical  acumen  was  attested  in  his  editions 
of  Lucilius  (1872)  and  Phaedrus,  and  in  the  Teubner  texts 
of  Horace,  and  of  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Propertius.  In  his 
edition  of  Horace  he  adhered  closely  to  the  mss,  while  he 
admitted  some  of  the  best  modern  emendations,  and  assumed 
the  existence  of  interpolations.  He  also  edited  the  Odes  and 
Efodei  with  German  notes,  and  produced  a  text  of  Namatianus 
and  Porfyrius,  as  well  as  papers  on  the  Latin  Grammarians,  on 
the  Tragedies  of  Seneca,  and  on  the  Latin  Anthology.  His 
edition  of  Lucilius  was  followed  by  a  sketch  of  the  life  and  work 
of  that  poet,  ending  with  a  restoration  of  a  number  of  scenes 
from  his  Satires  (1876).  In  1884  he  wrote  a  work  on  Ennius, 
and  published   the  remains  of  Ennius,  and   the  fragments  of 

'  Olio  Ribbtck,  Ein  Bild  seines  Leiens  aus  seinen  BrUfen  (1846-98,  mainly 
to  relations  and  friends,  including  six  to  Ritschl),  ,;5i  pp.  with  two  portraits  by 
Paul  Heyse  (1901);  Rfdm  und  VorlrSge,  1S99;  cp.  Bursian,  ii  713,  84of; 
Deutsche  RuHdschau  (Dec.  1898,  W.  Dilthey),  (Feb.  1901,  A.  Hausralh). 

=  1880  ;  ed.  5,  1885  ;  tiaiisl.  into  French.  Italian,  Dutch,  and  Engliib. 


A.OO' 


1C5IC 


I90  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Naevius'  epic  on  the  Punic  War.  In  the  following  year  he 
edited  the  fragments  of  the  plays  of  Livius  Andronicus  and  of 
Naevius,  and  published  a  work  on  the  'Saturnian  Verse".  The 
fragments  of  the  old  Roman  poets  led  him  to  Nonius,  and  he 
accordingly  produced  in  1888  an  edition  of  that  grammarian  and 
lexicographer,  extending  over  11 27  pages,  the  index  alone  filling 
55,  This  led  him  to  write  a  treatise  on  Pacuvius  and  Accius 
(1889  f),  followed  by  two  works  of  general  interest  on  the  artisUc 
and  the  popular  poetry  of  the  Romans  (1S90).  After  that  date 
he  prepared  three  important  works:  (i)  an  enlarged  edition  of  his 
De  re  metrica  (1894);  (2)  an  annotated  edition  of  the  Satires  sxvA 
Epistles  of  Horace  for  the  use  of  scholars  (1891-3);  and  (3)  a 
similar  edition  of  the  Odes  and  Epodes,  posthumously  published 
in  1900.     His  '  Life  of  Horace'  had  appeared  in  1880. 

As  a  child,  he  had  lost  the  sight  of  one  of  his  eyes,  and  was 
very  short-sighted  ;  as  a  boy,  he  repeatedly  read  through  Zumpt's 
larger  Latin  Grammar  and  made  himself  the  best  Latinist  in 
his  school.  During  his  brief  experience  as  a  school-master,  he 
proved  an  inefTeclive  disciplinarian ;  his  head-master,  in  the  hope 
of  improving  the  discipline  of  the  boys,  solemnly  told  them  that 
they  'did  not  deserve  to  be  taught  by  so  learned  a  master',  and 
repeated  this  remark  to  Miiller,  who  replied,  '  YeS !  that  is  exactly 
what  I  have  told  them  myself.  He  held  that,  for  a  great  scholar, 
it  was  essential  that  he  should  have,  not  only  wide  learning  and 
clear  judgement,  but  also  a  strong  power  of  concentration  on  a 
definite  field  of  labour.  It  was  this  that  led  to  his  own  success 
in  the  province  of  latin  poetry.  But  he  was  far  from  neglecting 
Greek,  for  he  also  held  that,  without  Greek,  a  fruitful  study  of 
Ladn  was  impossible.  He  was  a  skilful  writer  of  Latin  verse,  and 
insisted  on  the  practice  of  verse  composition  as  a  valuable  aid 
towards  the  appreciation  of  the  Latin  poets.  He  was  impressed 
with  this  fact  during  the  prepararion  of  his  '  History  of  Classical 
Philolc^y  in  the  Netherlands'  (1865),  and  he  returned  to  the 
point  in  his  biographical  sketch  of  the  life  of  Ritschl  {1877-8),  in 
the  course  of  which  he  urged  that  it  was,  on  the  whole,  more 
important  for  an  eminent  classical  professor  to  train  first-rate 
school-masters  than  to  turn  out  classical  specialists'. 

■  Biogr.Jahrh.  1899,  6j  -86  ;  cp.  Bursian,  ii  934-6. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXXIt.]     BAEHRENS.      UMPFENBACH. 


One  of  Lucian  MilUer's  rivals  as  an  editor  of  Latin  poets  was  his  former 
pupil  at  Bonn,  Emil  Baehrens  (18+8— 1888).  He  owed  much, 
not  only  to  the  leaching  of  L.  Muller,  but  also  to  that  of  Jahn 
and  Usener;  he  afterwards  studied  for  a  year  under  Ritschl  at  Leipiig.  In  1871 
he  visited  the  Italian  lihraries,  remaining  six  months  in  Rome.  In  18J3  he 
settled  for  a  time  as  *  privat-docent'  at  Jena,  hnt  in  the  next  year  he  was 
already  working  in  the  libraries  of  Louvain,  Brussels,  and  Paris,  and,  in  1S75, 
in  those  of  Paris,  London,  and  Oxford.  In  1877  be  was  appointed  professor  of 
Latin  at  Gioningen,  and,  being  unfamiliar  with  Dutch,  delivered  in  Latin  an 
inaugural  address  on  the  History  of  Scholarship  from  the  Revival  of  Learning. 
He  was  professor  at  Groningen  for  the  remaining  eleven  years  of  his  life. 

He  began  his  literary  career  with  a  dissertation  at  Jena,  on  the  Satire 
ascribed  lo  Sulpicia.  This  was  followed  by  his  Analecta  Catulliatia,  and  his 
editions  of  the  Panegyrid  Lalini  and  Valerius  Flaccus;  his  text  of  and  com- 
mentary on  Catullus  (1876— 1H85) ;  and  bis  editions  of  the  Silvat  of  Stalius, 
and  of  Tibullu5.  In  1878  he  produced  his  Mis<sllama  Critiia,  a  little-known 
volume  of  300  pages  including  emendations  on  Q.  Cicero,  Propertius,  Horace's 
Ars  Pottica,  and  the  Agticola  of  Tacitus.  His  principal  work  was  his  edition 
of  the  Poiliu  Lalini  Minores  in  five  volumes  (1879 — 1883).  In  the  laborious 
preparation  of  this  work  he  examined  more  than  1000  MSS.  It  was  supple- 
mented by  his  Fragmenla  Poetarum  Romarurrum  (t886).  Meanwhile,  he  was 
editing  Propertius,  and  the  ZVafo^r  of  Tacitus,  proposing  as  many  as  125  con- 
jectures in  the  41  chapters  of  that  work,  and,  lastly,  a  text  of  his  favourite 
Classic,  the  (?r/aT>ji»  of  Minucius  Felix.  The  mere  titles  of  all  that  be  produced 
in  the  last  eighteen  years  of  his  life  would  fill  four  and  a  half  pages  of  print. 

He  was  a  most  industrious  scholar,  and  an  excellent  teacher,  especially  in 
the  case  of  the  more  diligent  students ;  and  he  did  much  10  improve  the 
pronunciation  of  Latin  in  Holland.  But  many  of  his  works  were  marred  by 
over-haste.  He  saw  one  of  the  principal  MSS  of  Catullus  for  the  first  time  in 
March,  and  the  other  in  May,  and  completed  his  edition  of  the  text  in 
September.  Similarly,  the  Commentary,  for  which  he  had  long  been  making 
collections,  was  prepared  for  the  press  in  less  than  eleven  months.  Among 
his  other  defects  were  an  exaggerated  self-assertion,  and  an  unduly  polemical 
spirit.  He  excluded  himself  from  society,  and  accordingly  did  not  know  how 
lo  'give  and  take'.  In  his  Commentary  on  Catullus,  as  well  as  in  his  criticisms 
of  the  Roman  renderings  of  Aratus,  he  very  seldom  quotes  from  the  Alexandrian 
poets, — an  omission  which  has  been  attributed  to  a  very  superficial  knowledge 
of  Greek'. 

For  the  textual  criticism  of  Terence  a  firm  foundation  was 
laid  in  1870  by  the  critical  edition  prepared  by  Franz 
Umpfenbach  (1835 — 1885),  who,  after  studying  at  his 
native  place,  Giessen,  and  also  at  Gottingen  under  K,  F.  Hermann, 

'  Halbertsma  in  Biosr.  Jahrb.  18^,  7 — 46 ;  cp.  Baisian,  ii  936-8. 

D„:,|.,"lh;COOglC 


192  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

at  Bonn  under  RitschI,  and  in  Berlin  under  Boeckh,  spent 
two  years  in  Italy  collating  the  Mss  of  Terence  (1863-5).  He 
began  by  publishing  all  the  scholia  of  the  Bembine  ms,  during 
his  five  years'  stay  in  Munich'. 

The  expenses  of  his  seven  years'  preparation  for  his  edition 
made  it  necessary  for  him  to  take  school-work  for  three  years  at 
Frankfurt,  followed  by  eleven  years  of  similar  work  at  Mainz. 
A  man  of  good  breeding  and  good  manners,  he  found  his  later 
years  clouded  by  his  failure  to  obtain  any  university  appointment, 
and  by  his  increasing  deafness.  In  the  end  his  brain  was 
touched,  and  his  powers  of  speech  failed  him'. 

Tibullus  is  the  poet  specially  associated  with  the  name 
of  Eduard  Hiller  (1844 — 1891),  who  was  educated 
under  Classen  at  Frankfurt,  and  studied  under  Ritschl 
and  Jahn  at  Bonn,  and  under  Sauppe  and  E,  Curtius  at  Gottingen. 
He  was  a  '  privat-docent '  at  Bonn  (1869-74),  and  a  professor 
at  Greifswald  (1874-6)  and  Halle  (1876-91).  His  early  work 
was  connected  with  the  Greek  Grammarians,  and  Eratosthenes; 
he  also  prepared  a  new  edition  of  Fritzsche's  Theocritus  and  of 
Bei^k's  Poeiae  Lyrici,  as  well  as  an  Anfhologia  Lyrica.  He 
edited  Tibullus  in  the  Teubner  texts,  and  in  Dr  Postgate's  Corpus 
Poetarufn  Laiinorum  (1890)*. 

Among  the  successors  of  Haupt  and  Ribbeck,  as  editors  of  \'irgil,  menlion 

may  here  be  made  of  Philipp  Wagner   (1794 — 1B73)   who 

broughl  out  a  new  edition  of  Heyne's  Virgil,  followed  by  a 

brief  commentary.     A  commentary,  followed  by  a  critical  lent,  was  published 

by  Theodor  Ladewig(i8i3 — iS;8).    An  excellent  Ladn  com- 

Qota^u  n«ntary  on  llie  Aeneid  alone  was  first  produced  in  1846  by 

Gottfried  Wilhelm  Gossrau  (1810— 1888),  who  was  educated 

at  Schulpforta,  studied  at  Halle,  and  was  a  leacher  at  Quedlinbui^  from  1835 

to  1875.     One  of  the  best  of  his  other  works  was  his  Lalriruscki  SprachUhre^. 

The  editors  of  the  text  of  Horace  fall  into  three  groups, 
characterised  as  (i)  conservatives,  (2)  more  or  less 
■n^Hoider      moderate  liberals,  and  (3)  radicals.    The  first  group 
is  represented  by  Otto  Keller  (b.  1838),  now  pro- 
fessor at   Prag,  and    by   Alfred    Holder   (b.    1840),  librarian    at 

'  Hermei,  11337—401.  '  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1886,  t— lO. 

'  Bio^.  Jahrb.  1891,83—113. 

*  1869;  ed.  1,  1880.     Bio^r,  Jahtb.  1888,  107-118. 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXII.]  HILLER.      MERKEL.  193 

Karlsrahe,  in  their  joint  edition  of  1864-9'.    The  second,  by 
Meinelte,  Haupt,  and  Lucian  Miiller ;  the  third,  by 
Lehrs  and  Octo  Ribbeck,  and  by  Gustav   Linker  "h™^ 

(1827 — 1881),  formerly  professor  at  Pr^  in  his 
edition  of  1856.  Among  commentaries  on  Horace  may  be 
mentioned  that  in  Latin  by  Wilhelm  Dillenburger';  and  those  in 
German,  on  the  Odes  and  Epodes  by  K.  Nauck  and  H.  Schiitz ;  on 
the  Satires  and  Epistles  by  G.  T.  A.  Kruger  (1793— 1874),  and 
A.  T.  H.  Fritzsche.  In  1854  f  a  bulky  edition  of  the  Satires  was 
produced  by  Karl  Kirchner  (1787 — 1855),  Rector  of  Schulpforta. 
The  early  quotations  from  Horace  were  industriously  collected 
in  the  Analecta  of  Martin  Hertz'. 

The  textual  criticism  of  Ovid  was  promoted  not  only  by 
Alexander  Riese  (b.  1840)*,  Otto  Korn  (1842 — 1883)*,  and 
Hermann  Peter  {b.  1837)',  but  also  by  Rudolf 
Merkel  (1811 — 1885),  who  produced  at  his  own 
university  of  Halle  his  earliest  work,  the  Quaestiones  Ovidianae 
Criticae.  He  had  proposed  to  qualify  for  an  academic  career  in 
that  university,  but  the  part  he  played  in  certain  political  dis- 
turbances led  to  his  being  imprisoned  in  Berlin.  In  prison  he 
went  through  a  severe  course  of  study,  borrowed  mss  from 
Leyden  and  Gotha,  and  worked  through  the  letters  of  the  Dutch 
scholars  and  the  materials  left  by  N.  Heinsius,  with  a  view  to  the 
preparation  of  an  edition  of  Ovid.  On  his  release  (which  was 
apparently  due  to  the  absence  of  sufficient  proof  of  his  guilt),  he 
remained  in  Berlin  and  there  produced  his  edition  of  the  Tristia 
(1837).  He  was  afterwards  a  school-master  at  Schleusingen  and 
elsewhere.  In  1841  he  published  the  Fasti,  probably  his  most 
important  work  (including  information  as  to  the  Calendars  and 
the  Religious  Antiquities  of  Rome,  with  the  fragments  of  Varro 
on  that  subject);  followed,  in  1852-4,  by  his  two  editions  of 
Apollonius  Rhodius.    In  1863  he  visited  Italy,  and  his  'transcript' 

'  Ed.  mittor  1878  ;  cp.  Keller,  in  Rhein.  Mus.  xix  11 1  f,  and  Epilegomena 
{1879  0-  In  this  ed.  Ihe  Codices  Blandinii  of  Cruquiua  are  r^jarded  as  of 
minor  importance ;  cp.  Schanz,  Rom.  Lilt,  g  363. 

>  i8«;  ed.  6,  1875.  '1876-80.     Bursian,  ii  943  f. 


»  Ed.  of  Sauppe's  Met.  i— vii,  and  ed.  of  viii— xiv  (1876). 
«  Ed.  ^3j/i(i874;  ed.  3,  1879). 


,„(aiogic 


194  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

of  the  Laurentian  ms  of  Aeschylus  was  afterwards  printed  by  the 
Clarendon  Press  {1871).  Meanwhile  he  had  produced  two  papers 
on  Aeschylus  (1867-8),  and  an  edition  of  the  Ptrsae.  He  held 
a  mastership  at  QuedUnbui^  until  1879,  when  he  removed  to 
Dresden,  where  he  spent  his  time  in  the  study  of  Aeschylus  and 
Archaeology.  He  edited  the  Metamorp/ioies  in  1874.  Many  of 
his  conjectural  emendations  are  excellent'. 

Among  the  imitators  of  Vii^it,  Valerius  Flaccus  was  edited,  not  oaXj  by 
Georg  Thilo  and  by  Emil  Baehrens,  but  also  by  Karl  SchenkI  (1S7O;  'n 
explanitory  edition  was  the  latest  work  of  Peter  Langen  (1896-7).  The 
ancient  scholia  to  Lucaji  were  published  by  H.  Usener  from  mss  at  Bern 
(1869),  and  the  text  was  edited  by  C.  Hosius  (1891) ;  the  MSS  o(  Sitius  Ilalicus 
were  carefully  discussed  by  Hermann  Blass';  the  textual  criticism  of  the 
Thibais  and  AckilUis  of  SlatJus  was  advanced  by  Otto  Miiller  and  Philipp 
Kohlmann ;  the  AchilUh  was  edited  by  Alfred  KloK,  and  the  Silvae  by  Kloli 
(1900)  and,  wilb  a  commentary,  by  Fr.  Volhner  (1898). 

Persius  was  edited  in  184]  and  1851  by  Otto  Jahn,  and  Juvenal  in 
1851,  a.nd  both  (ti^ethei  with  the  Satire  of  Sulpicia)  in  1868;  Martial,  bj 
Schneidewin  (1^43-53).  and  Friedlander  (1886);  and  Claudian,  by  Ludwig 
Jeep  {1876-9),  and  Theodor  Birt  (1891). 

The  Mosilla  of  Ausonius  was  edited  in  1845  by  Eduird  Biicking  ([801— 
1870),  who  was  bom  at  Trarbach  on  the  Mosel,  and  was  pro- 

Priper^  fessor  of  Law  at  Bonn  from  1835  to  his  death  ;  it  has  since 
been  edited  by  Hosius  (1894).  The  text  of  the  whole  was 
revised  in  1886  by  Rudolf  Peiper,  and  in  1883  by  Karl  SchenkI  of  Vienna. 
Peiper  (1S34 — 189S)  studied  at  the  university  of  Breslau.  and,  from  1861  to  his 
death,  was  a  master  in  the  local  gymnasium,  but  his  real  interest  liy  in 
scholarly  research.  One  of  his  ambitions  was  to  produce  a  Ccrfiut  of  the 
mediaeval  Latin  poets.  Me  collected  evidence  as  to  the  study  of  PIbuius  and 
Terence',  and  of  Catullus',  and  wrote  an  important  paper  on  'prolane 
comedy'",  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  addition  to  his  Ausonius,  he  edited  the 
tragedies  of  Seneca,  as  welt  as  Boelbius  and  the  Heptateuch  of  the  Gallic  poet, 
Cyprian.  His  mediaeval  texts  included  Waltharius,  Walter  of  ChStillon,  and 
the  Carmina  Buraita,  but  the  first  of  these  was  superseded  by  the  editions  of 
W.  Meyer,  A.  Holder,  and  P.  Wiolerfeld.  In  1883,  when  he  received  an 
honorary  degree  from  the  university  of  Breslau,  he  was  described  as  'de 
litlerarum  per  extrema  pereuntis  antiquitatis  saecula  studils  augendis  ac  pro- 
pagandis  bene  merit  us''. 

'  Georges  in  Biogr.Jakrb.  1885,  loo-l. 

*  ^akTb.  f.  Philol.  Suppl.  viii  159. 
'  Rkein.  Mus.  xxxii  516—537. 

*  Beilrdge,  1875.  '  ArckivfUr  Lit.  v  493 — 541. 
'  Traube  in  Biogr.  fakrh.  1901,  (4— »7. 


A.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXII.]     PEIPER.      TRAUBE.      HALM,  I95 

In  the  MoHumeala  Cermaniae  Hhtoriia  the  third  volume  of  Ihe  Po'Hae 
Latitti  aaii  CatBlini'  was  ably  edited  in  1886-96  by  Ludwig 
Traube  (1861  — 1907),     Born  in  Berlin,  he  was  coniiecled,  for  "" 

priictically  the  whole  of  his  academic  career,  with  the.  university  of  Munich, 
where  B  call  to  Giessen  in  1902  led  to  his  being  specially  retained  as  professor 
of  ihe  Latin  Philology  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  was  an  eager  and  able 
pioneer  in  an  obscure  and  intricate  region  of  classical  learning,  and  by  his 
independent  research  he  acquired  a  profound  knowledge  of  mediaeval  palaeo- 
graphy, and  of  the  history  of  the  survival  of  the  Latin  Classics*.  In  con- 
nexion with  the  literature  of  the  early  Middle  Ages,  he  edited  the  Orations  of 
Cassiodorus*.  and  elaborately  investigated  the  successive  changes  in  the  text  of 
the  Rule  of  St  Benedict*.  It  is  deeply  to  be  regretted  that  most  of  the  memo- 
rials of  his  erudition  have  to  be  sought  in  academic  and  periodical  publica- 
tions', and  that  he  never  produced  the  comprehensive  History  of  the  Latin 
Literature  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which  was  once  announced  under  his  name- 
But  his  work  as  a  teacher  is  perpetuated  by  his  pupils,  some  of  whom  have 
contributed  to  the  important  series  of  Qutllen  und  Untinuikungai*  which  he 
instituted  only  three  years  before  his  lamented  death'. 

From  verse  we  turn  to  prose.     An  edition  of,  Cicero  in  eleven 
volumes    (1850-7)   is    the    best    known    work    of 
Reinhold  Klotz  {1807— 1870),  professor  at  Leipzig         Nobb^" 
from  1832  to  his  death;  while  a  widely  popular 
edition  in  a  single  folio  volume"  had  been  produced  some  thirty 
years  previously  by  Karl  Friedrlch  August  Nobbe  (1791 — 1878) 
who  studied  under  C.  D.  Beck  and  Hermann  at  Leipzig,  where  he 
was  for  fifty  years  Rector  of  the  NicolaiSchule. 

A  far  higher  fame  as  an  editor  of  Cicero  was  won  by  Karl 
Fehx  Halm  (1809—1882),  who  was  bom  and  bred 
in  Munich,  and  studied  at  the  university  of  his 

'  Cp.  KarvHngischt  Diehltaigen  utttersuehl,  i6[  pp.,  Berlm,  tSSS ;  also  O 
Rama  noiilis,  in  Abhandl.  of  the  Munich  Acad,  xix  ii,  1891,  199 — 395. 

'  E.g.  Ueberlteferungsgesckkktc,  in  S.  Ber.  id.  1891,  Heft  3 ;  on  Suetonius, 
in  Niues  ArMv,  190J,  266  f ;  on  Ammianus,  in  Mel.  Boissier,  1903. 

*  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  1894.  *  AiAandi.  of  Munich  Acad.  189S. 

"  E.g.  OTi  /'erroHa  Sealtervm,  in  S.  Btr.  16.  Dec.  1900;  and  on  Seduliusof 
IMgK,  ni  Abhandl.  1891 ;  also  faria  libamaita  critua,  Mutiich,  1883-9!. 

'  E.g.  E.  K.  V.iaA,  fohaane!  Siatlus ;  S.  Hellmann,  Sedulius  Seottus. 

''  Cp.  Ludwig  Traube  zum  Gedacklnis  (Seven  Funeral  Orations,  Munich, 
11  May,  1907,  with  portrait) ;  P.  Marc  and  W,  Rieiler  in  Betlage  aur  Allge- 
tneine  Ztilung,  it,  ii  May,  p.  133 ;  and  W.  M.  Lindsay  in  CI.  Rev.  xxi  188 ; 
biblit^aphy  by  P.  Lehminn. 

'  AUo  in  10  small  Tauchnitz  vols.    Biogr.  JoHrb,  i8j8,  ig. 


196  GERMANY.  [CENT,  XIX, 

native  place.  After  fifteen  years'  experience  as  a  school-master  at 
Munich,  Speyer,  and  Hadamar,  he  was  in  1849  appointed  Rector 
of  the  newly  founded  gymnasium  at  Munich,  and  in  1856  director 
of  the  public  library  and  professor  in  the  university.  During 
forty-eight  years  of  active  life,  he  did  much  towards  extending 
an  interest  in  Classics  among  his  pupils.  His  editorial  labours 
were  mainly  limited  to  the  field  of  I^tin  prose. 

His  early  papers  on  the  orator  Lycurgns,  and  on  Aeschylus, 
his  elementary  work  on  Greek  Syntax,  his  Greek  Reader,  and  his 
J^ctiones  Stobe/ists,  were  followed  by  editions  of  Cicero, /^o  Sulla 
RnApro  Sestio  (1845)  and  in  Vatinium  (1848).  On  the  death  of 
Orelli  in  1849,  he  joined  Baiter  in  completing  the  second  edition 
of  the  whole  of  Cicero'.  Meanwhile,  he  had  begun  the  preparation 
of  the  first  edition  of  seven  Select  Speeches  with  German  notes 
(1850-66),  followed  by  a  text  of  eighteen  (1868).  He  also 
published  a  critical  edition  of  the  Rhdores  Lalini  Minora  and 
of  the  Institutio  Oratorio  of  Quintilian.  He  further  edited 
Tacitus  and  Florus,  Valerius  Maximus,  Cornelius  Nepos  and 
Velleius  Paterculus.  In  connexion  with  the  Vienna  Corpus  of 
the  Latin  Fathers,  he  examined  the  Swiss  mss,  and  himself  edited 
Sulpicius  Severus,  Minucius  Felix,  and  Julius  Firmicus  Matemus. 
To  the  Monumenta  Germaniae  Hiiforica  he  contributed  an  edition 
of  Salvianus  and  of  Victor  Vitensis. 

His  previous  work  on  Greek  authors  was  resumed  in  his  Aesop, 
and  in  his  papers  on  the  Rhetoric  of  Anaximenes  and  the  minor 
works  of  Plutarch.  To  the  History  of  Scholarship  he  contributed 
many  biographies  of  German  scholars*.  As  librarian,  he  organised 
the  preparation  of  the  great  Catalogue  of  mss,  and  himself  took 
part  in  the  Catalogue  of  the  Latin  mss. 

His  early  career  had  been  a  noble  example  of  triumphing  over 
difficulties.  The  son  of  an  art  dealer,  he  lost  his  father  as  an 
infant,  and  had  only  passed  through  the  lower  divisions  of  his 
school,  when  he  was  sternly  compelled  by  his  step-father  to  enter 
a  grocer's  shop,  where  he  had  to  work  from  six  in  the  morning  till 
nine  in  the  evening,  and  could  only  read  his  favourite  Classics  in 
the  dead  of  night.     He  was  only  released  from  this  drudgery  on 


'  Speeches,  1854-6;  PhUosophical  Works,  1861. 


A.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXII.]  THEODOR   MOMMSEN.  197 

promising  that,  as  soon  as  he  had  completed  his  education  at 
school,  he  would  maintain  himself.  It  was  during  the  two  quiet 
years  at  Hadamar  (1S47-9)  that  he  had  the  leisure  for  preparing 
his  edition  of  the  speeches  and  philosophical  works  of  Cicero.  It 
was  not  until  he  had  reached  the  age  of  70,  that  he  resigned  his 
professorship '. 

The  criticism  of  Latin  authors,  as  well  as  Latin  Inscriptions, 
Roman  Antiquities  and  Roman  History,  formed  part 
of  the  wide  field  of  learning  traversed  by  Theodor       MomnnVn 
Mommsen  (1817 — 1903).     Born  in  the  province  of 
Schleswig  and  educated  at  Altona,  he  studied  law  and  philology 
at  Kiel,  travelled  in  Italy  and  France  from   1845  to  1847,  and 
was  appointed  'extraordinary'  professor  of  I_aw  at  Leipzig  in 
1848.     The  part  that  he  played  in  the  political  movements  of  the 
time  led  to  his  being  exiled  from  Saxony  in   1850.      Together 
with  Jahn  and   Haupt,   he   left  for  Zurich,  where  he  held  a 
professorship  for  an  interval  of  two  years    (r852-4).      On  his 
return  to  Germany,  the  four  years  of  his  professorship  at  Breslau 
(1854-8)   were   followed    by  his   call   to    Berlin,  where   he  was 
professor  of  Ancient  History  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  for 
the  remaining  forty-five  years  of  his  life. 

In  the  field  of  I-^tin  literature,  Mommsen  did  much  for  the 
study  of  manuscript  evidence.  He  transcribed  the  palimpsest 
of  part  of  Livy  discovered  by  Mai  at  Verona,  and  edited 
Books  III — VI  with  the  readings  of  other  important  mss'.  In 
conjunction  with  Studemund,  he  contributed  to  the  textual 
criticism  of  the  third  decade  in  the  Analecta  Liviana  of  1873. 
His  edition  of  Solinus  had  meanwhile  appeared  in  1864'.  Those 
of  Cassiodorus',  lordanes',  and  the  Chronica  Minora^,  were  con- 
tributed to  the  Monummta  Germaniae  Hutoriia.  He  produced 
important  papers  on  Cluvius  Rufus  as  an  authority  for  the  early 
part  of  the  Histories  of  Tacitus',  on  the  Life  of  the  Younger 
Pliny'  (with  the  historical  index  to  Keil's  lai^er  edition),  and 

'  Butsian,  ii  949 — 951,  and  in  Biogr.  fahrb.  1881,  i — 6;  bibliogfaphy  in 
Wolfflin's  Gtddchlnissrtde,  i88j,  33  f. 

'  Berlin  Acad.  :868.  '  E<1.  1,  1895. 

*  Ckron.  1861;   Varia,  1894.  '  1881.  '  1891—1898. 

'  Hermts,  iv  395  f.  *  i*.  a\  31—139  (Hist.  Schrift.  i  366—468). 


A.oogic 


igS  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

on  the  chronology  of  the  Letters  of  Fronto',  besides  many 
contributions  to  the  Transactions  of  the  Academies  of  Saxony 

and  of  Berlin".  His  important  works  connected  with  Latin 
Inscriptions  and  Antiquities  and  History  will  be  mentioned  on  a 
later  page'. 

The  Commentary  of  Asconius  on  Five  Speeches  of  Cicero  was  edited  in 
187s  by  Adolph  Kiessling*,  in  conjunction  with  Rudolf  Scholl 
■    '  (1844—1893,  son  of  Adolf  Scholl  of  Weimar),  who  studied 

at  Goltingen  and  Bonn,  and  held  professorships  al  Greifswald,  Jena,  Strasstmrg, 
and  Munich.  I^le  was  specially  interested  in  the  Public  Law  of  Athens  and 
of  Rome.  His  earliest  work  was  a  Dissertation  on  the  Laws  of  the  XII  Tables. 
His  edition  of  the  ATozielliu,  begun  in  1880,  was  compUled  byW.  Kroli  (1895). 
To  the  volume  in  honour  of  Mommsen  he  contributed  a  paper  on  certain 
extraordinary  magistracies  al  Athens,  and  other  pa|>ers  on  the  Public  Antiquities 
of  Athens  were  among  his  later  works.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  had  made 
extensive  preparations  for  a  new  edition  of  Phrynichus''. 

The  textual  criticism  of  Cicero's  Letters  'Ad  Familiares'  was  much  ad- 
varvced  by  the  critical  edition  published  in  [S93  by  Ludwig 
Mendelssohn  (1851 — 1896),  who  studied  under  Sauppe  and 
C-  Wachsmuth  at  Gollingcn  and  nnder  Ritschl  al  Leipzig.  His  earl;  trori 
was  connected  with  the  literary  chronology  of  Eratosdienes,  and  the  Roman 
decrees  quoted  by  Josepbus.  After  qualifying  as  a  teacher  in  Leipzig,  he 
visited  Italy  with  a  view  to  collating  Mss  of  Cicero's  Letters  and  of  Appian 
and  Arisleas.  His  edition  of  Appian  was  the  first  to  mark  a  real  advance  on 
that  of  Schweighanser ;  he  also  edited  llerodian  and  Zosimus.  His  edition  of 
the  Letter  of  Aristeas,  a  document  of  importance  in  connexion  with  the 
history  of  the  Septuagint,  was  completed  by  Wendland  ;  and  the  materials  he 
had  collected  on  the  subject  of  the  Sibylline  Oracles  were  handed  over  to 
Hamack.  His  most  successful  work  was  his  edition  of  Cicero's  Letters,  in 
which  a  new  weight  was  assigned  to  the  evidence  of  MSS  other  than  the 
Medicean.  The  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  were  spent  at  the  Russian  uni- 
versity of  Dorpat.  The  decline  of  German  influence  in  that  university  cast  a 
gloom  over  his  later  years,  and  he  was  hoping  to  transfer  bis  home  to  Jen*, 
when  he  met  his  end  in  the  waters  of  the  Embach  at  the  early  age  of  44^ 

For    the    textual    criticism    of    the    Latin    historians    and 

grammarians    much    was    done    by    Martin    Hertz 

(1818 — 1895),   who   was   born    in    Hamburg,    and 

educated  in  Berlin.    After  studying  under  Welcker  at  Bonn,  he 

'  ib.  viii  198  f,  *  Bursian,  ii  951-4. 

'  p.  235-  *  P-  l85™/ra. 

»  Siagr,  Jahrb.  1897,  9—40. 
•  Goetz  in  Biegr.  Jahrb.  1898,  49—60. 


..oogic 


CHAP.  XXXII.]     R.  SCHOLL.     MENDELSSOHN.     HERTZ.       199 

returned  to  Berlin,  and  worked  under  Boeckh  and  Lachmann. 
He  was  a  '  privat-docent '  in  that  university  in  1845,  went 
abroad  to  examine  Mss  for  his  editions  of  Gellius,  Ptiscian,  and 
the  scholia  to  Germanicus,  until  1847;  and  was  professor  at 
Greifewald  from  1855,  and  at  Breslau  from  1858  to  his  death, 
thirty-seven  years  later. 

He  produced  the  standard  edition  of  Priscian  in  1855-9;  he 
also  edited  a  text  of  Gellius,  prior  to  his  great  critical  edition 
of  1883-5,  Meanwhile  he  had  edited  Livy.  He  also  wrote 
papers  on  the  grammarians,  Sinnius  Capito  and  Nigidius  Figulus, 
and  on  the  annalist,  Lucius  Cincius,  and  his  namesake,  besides 
delivering  popular  lectures  on  '  Writers  and  the  Public  in  Rome ', 
and  on  '  Renaissance  and  Rococo  in  Latin  Literature ',  a  subject 
suggested  by  his  study  of  Gellius, 

After  completing  his  edition  of  that  author  and  collecting  his 
Opuicula  Gtlliana  (1886),  he  returned  to  the  literature  of  the 
golden  age. .  He  had  contributed  to  the  criticism  of  Cicero,  pro 
Seslio,  had  traced  reminiscences  of  Sallust'  (and  of  Gellius*)  in 
the  pages  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  and  (in  his  Anaketa)  had 
followed  the  traces  of  the  study  of  Horace  down  to  the  sixth 
century.  In  1892  he  edited  Horace  with  short  critical  notes, 
including  much  that  was  not  to  be  found  elsewhere.  Georges 
dedicated  the  seventh  edition  of  his  Latin  lexicon  to  Hertz,  who 
had  contributed  to  its  pages.  From  185S,  when  the  proposal  for 
a  Thesaurus  of  the  Latin  language  was  first  made  at  Vienna, 
Hertz  never  left  the  scheme  out  of  sight,  but  it  was  not  until 
he  was  president  of  the  Congress  at  Gorlitz,  that  he  publicly 
proposed  that  such  a  work  should  be  undertaken  by  the  German 
Academies.  A  conference  followed  in  1890,  and  in  the  following 
year  Hertz  drew  up  the  report'. 

His  interest  in  archaeology  at  Greifswald  may  be  traced  to 
the  influence  of  Welcker;  his  lectures  on  the  general  scheme 
of  classical  learning'  to  that  of  Boeckh.  Similarly  his  interest 
in  the  Roman  historians  was  due  to  Niebuhr,  and  that  in  the 

'  1874.  "  Opmi.  GelUana. 

'  BerichU  n\  Berlin  Acad.  1891,671—684. 

*  Cp.  his  paper  Zur  Eruydepddie  der  PhilologU  in  the  Mommsen  Comm. 
507-517  {1877). 


A.oogic 


200  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Latin  grammarians  to  Lachmann.  His  bic^aphy  of  Lachmann 
is  a  masterpiece  of  its  kind  {1851);  he  also  wrote  several  articles 
on  Boeckh,  and  gave  an  excellent  lecture  on  the  early  humanist, 
Eobanus  Hessus.  His  work  was  marked  by  minute  and  con- 
scientiotis  accuracy ;  and,  in  his  own  person,  he  was  characterised 
by  a  strong  sense  of  justice  towards  others,  and  an  exemplary 
mildness  of  manner,  even  towards  his  opponents.  He  will  be 
remembered  as  the  erudite  editor  of  Priscian  and  of  Gelliiis, 
and  as  the  unwearied  promoter  of  the  scheme  for  the  Thesaurus 
Linguae  Latinae^. 

Sallust  was  edited  in  a  cumbersome  form  in  18*3-31  ''7  ^ •^-  Getlach 

('793— '876),   professor  and  librarian   a1   Basel,   who   also 
3«lluit°         edited  Nonius  in   1S41   in  conjunction   with  his  colleague, 

Karl  L.  Roth  (1811— iSlSo).  The  historian's  diction  was 
specially  studied  in  the  editions  of  J.  F.  Krili,  a  school-master  at  Erfurt 
{i79»— 1869),  and  E.  W.  Fabri  (1796— 184s).  In  that  produced  by 
K.  H.  Frolscher,  the  head-master  of  Freiberg  (1796—1876),  the  test  was 
taken  from  Kortte  and  the  notes  from  Havercamp,  The  Mss  were  discussed 
by  K.  L.  Roth,  and  a  critical  edition  published  in  1859  ''X  ^-  l^ietsch  (1814 — 
1875),  head-master  of  Grimma. 

A  critical  edition  of  greater  importance  was  produced  in  186G  (ed.  I,  l8;6) 
I     .  by  Henri  Jordan  (1833 — 1886),  a  professor  at  Konigsberg,  who 

had  been  a  pupil  of  Haupt  in  Berlin  and  of  Ritschl  at  Bonn, 
and  was  a  friend  and  ally  of  Mommsen,  and  a  son-in-law  of  Dioysen.  He 
also  edited  the  historical  and  oratorical  wnrksof  the  elder  Calo,  with  109  pages 
of  Prolegomena  (i86o).  He  visited  Rome  for  the  first  time  in  1861,  and 
produced  several  valuable  works  on  Roman  topc^aphy  (1871 — 86),  and  on 
the  ancient  religion  of  Rome,  as  well  as  critical  conliibutions  to  the  history  of 
(he  Latin  language  (1879).  In  1864  he  published  a  critical  edition  of  the 
Siriptons  Histuriae  Augiis(ai,  the  first  that  had  appeared  in  Germany  for 

76   years*.     The   joint    editor   of   this    work    was    Franz 

Eyssenhardt  (1838 — 1901),  who  (like  Jordan)  had  been  bom 
in  Berlin  and  had  studied  under Boeckb  and  Haupt.  In  i866-;i  Eyssentiardt 
edited  Martianus  Capella,  Phaedrus,  Macrobius,  Apuleius,  the  Historia 
Miialla.  and  Ammianus  Marcellinus.  After  completing  these  editions,  he 
devoted  much  of  his  lime  to  studies  in  the  history  of  civilisation.  He  had  a 
remarkably  ready  pen.  Two  of  his  popular  lectures  were  on  Homeric  poetry, 
and  on  Hadrian  and  Florus.    He  also  wrote  a  biographical  Essay  of  186  pages 

'  Biogr.Jahrb.  rgoo,  43—70;  cp-  Bursian,  ii  955  f;  Tkes.  J  p.  iii,  'causae 
ancipili  ac  situ  quodam  pressae  sua  contentione  et  commendatione  favorem 
conciliavit'. 

■  Biogr.  fakrb.  1886,  117 — 149  (with  biblit^raphy). 

.^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXlrJ      JORDAN.      EYSSENHARDT.  201 

on  Niebuhr.  He  spoke  seven  languages  Huenllj',  and  travelled  widely, 
especially  delighting  in  his  visits  to  Italy,  but  also  extending  his  joumeys 
as  lar  as  Scotland,  while  he  kept  up  a  constant  correspondence  with  Lucian 
Mullet  in  St  Fetersbu^'. 

Commentaries  on  Caesar  (1S47),  Nepos  (1S49),  and  Tacitus  (1851),  were 
published  by  Karl  Ludwig  Nipperdey  (1811 — 1875)1  who  was 
a  professor  *al  Jena  in  1855 ;  an  acute  critic,  who  had  a  fine       k^JJJ^''' 
taste  in  Latin  prose,  and  gave  proof  of  his  familiarity  mlh        Dobereni 
Roman   Antiquities  by  his  treatise  on  the  Ltget  Anitales\ 
Caesar,  De  Belle  GaUice,  and  De  Bella  Civili,  were  edited  with  German  notes 
by  Friedrich  Kraner  (i8ii — 1863),  Rector  at  Leipiig,  and  by  Altierl  Dobereni 
(181 1 — 1878),  Director  of  '^t  gymHosium  at  Hildburghausen. 

Materials  for  the   textual  criticism  of   Livy   were  supplied  in   1859-46 
by  the  editions  of  Books  t — x,   xxi— xxiii,  and  xxx   by         s    \.  r  ■\,' 
K.  F.  S.  Alschefski  (1805—1851).     A  higher  critical  faculty      K^J^.tig 
was  displayed   in   the   complete  edition   of  J.  G.   Kreyssig      WeiBsenborn 
('779 — '854)t  a  master  at  the  Saxon   School  of  Meissen. 
The  best  commentary  with  German  notes  was  that  first  published  in  1S50-1 
by  Wilhelm   Wcissenborn   (1803—1878),  for  more  than  forty-three  years  a 
master  at  Eisenach*     The  Syntax  of  Livy  was  laboriously  set  forth  in  1871 
by  Ludwig  Kuhnast  (181,^—1871),  a  school-master  at  Marienwerder- 

Tacitus  was  edited,  not  only  by  Orelti,  Halm,  and  Nipperdey,  but  also,  in 
and  after  1834-6,  by  Franz  Ritter  (1803 — 1875),  for  many 
years  professor  in  Bonn,  who  produced  editions  of  Horace  ^'??*' 

(1856-7)  and  of  Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry  (tSjg).     The  Hereeus 

Annals  and  Agricola  were  edited  in  1868-g  with  German 
notes  by  A-  A-  Diager  (iSio — rSgs),  who  studied  at  Leipzig,  and  was 
Director  of  the  gymnasium  at  Aurich.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  useful 
work  on  the  'Syntax  and  Style  of  Tacitus',  followed  by  a  comprehensive 
volume  on  the  'Historical  Syntax  of  the  Latin  language''.  Among  good 
editions  with  German  notes  may  be  mentioned  chat  of  the  Hislories  by 
Karl  Heraeus  (r8i8— 1891),  who  studied  at  Marburg  and  Gottingen,  and 
was  for  the  last  thirty-four  years  of  his  life  a  master  at  the  Westphaliaji 
Gymnasium  of  Hamm";  the  Dialogui  by  G.  Andiesen  ;  the  Agricola  by 
F.  K.  Wex  (1801—1865),  F-  Krilz,  and  Karl  Peter.  Critical  texts  of  the 
Agricela  were  produced  by  K.  L.  Urliclis,  and  of  the  Dialcgut  by  Adolf 
Michaelis.  The  Gemiania  was  edited  by  Milllenhoff,  Schweiier-Sidlet, 
A.  Baumstark,and  A- Holder.  The  LtxUon  rof('/«<m  {1830)  of  W.  Boetticher 
(A.  1850)  has  been  superseded  by  the  exhaustive  work  of  A.  Gerber  of  Glilck- 
stadt  and  A.  Greef  of  Gottingen  {'903). — Of  the  other  historians,  Curlius  was 

'  Biogr.  Jakrb.  1901,  100 — 137  (with  bibliography).     Cp.  Bursian,  ii  958  f. 

'  Abhandl.  of  Saxon  Acad.  v.    Cp.  Bursian,  ii  761. 

»  Biogr.  Jakrb.  i8;8,  33—38.  *  Biogr.Jakrb.  \%t^,  91-4. 


..oogic 


GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 


edited  bj  E.  Hedicke  and  Tb.  Vogel ;  Justin  by  Jeep;  and  Eulropius  by 
W,  Haitel  and  Hans  Droysen^.  The  more  important  worlts  on  Cicero  and 
t^intitiaa  have  been  already  mentioned'. 

Amonj;  the  above-mentioned  editors  of  the  Germaaia  of  Tacitus  aplace  of 
special  honour  a  due  to  Heiniich  Schweizer-Sidler  (1S15 — 

Sidler  '  '^94)'  *''°  studied  at  Zurich  and  Berlin.  For  forty  of  the 
more  than  (illy  years  of  his  work  at  Zurich,  he  taught  at  the 
local  school  as  well  as  at  the  university.  He  had  studied  Sanskrit  under  Bopp, 
and  he  was  frequently  visited  by  Muir  and  by  Henry  Nettleship.  His  Latin 
Grammar  of  1869  was  recast  in  r888,  and  attained  a  wide  recognition.  Hia 
study  of  German  Antiquities  led  him  to  lecture  on  the  Gtrniania,  which  he 
repeatedly  edited  with  Gertnan  notes.  He  also  prepared  an  elaborate  revision 
of  Orelli's  edition  of  the  treatise'. 

The  discovery  and  collation  of  the  Bamberg  MS  of  the  elder  Pliny  in  i8s»» 
by  Ludwig  von  Jan  (1807— 1869),  then  master  at  Schweinfurt  and  ultimately 
Reclor  al  Erlangen,  had  an  important  influence  on  Sling's  edition  of  1853-5. 
The  criticism  and  explanation  of  Pliny  were  afterwards  pro- 
■'  "   '  moled  by  Karl  Ludwig  von  Urlichs  (1813-1889),  a  native  of 

OsnabrUck,  who  was  educated  at  Aachen,  and  studied  under  Welcker  at  Bonn 
(1819-34).  After  spending  live  years  in  Rome,  as  tutor  in  Bunsen's  house, 
and  doing  much  for  the  study  of  Roman  topography',  he  returned  to  Bonn  in 
1840,  remaining  there  until  his  call  to  Greifswald  in  1 847.  In  the  same  year 
he  visited  the  British  Museum,  and  there  discovered  an  important  aneaioUn  on 
the  literary  activity  of  Varro';  was  in  the  Prussian  Parliament  from  1849  to 
185J,  and  professor  at  WUrzhui^  from  1855  to  his  death,  thirty-four  years 
later. 

From  1847  to  1S55  he  was  mainly  occupied  with  Pliny  and  the  History  of 
Ancient  Art.  This  wort  bore  fruit  in  his  Vindiciae  Pliniamu  (1853-66),  his 
Chrtslomalhia  Pliniana  (1857)  and  his  conspectus  of  the  authorities  for  the 
books  of  Pliny  on  the  History  of  Art  (1878)'.  The  text  of  Pliny  was  edited 
in  1860-73  ^1  ^-  Detlefsen  ;  and  von  Jan's  edition  of  1854-65  has  been 
edited  anew  by  C.  Mayhoff  in  t875-i9o6. 

The  best  editions  of  the  text  of  the  younger  Pliny  were  those  produced  in 

„  1853  and  1870  by  Heinrich  Keil  (1831—1894),  "•>"  studied 

at  Gottingen  and  Bonn,  and  spent  two  years  in  Italy  (1844-6), 

taught  at  Halle  (1847-55)  and  Berlin  (1855-9),  ^i"!  was  appointed  professor  in 

1859  at  Erlangen  and   1869  at  Halle,  where  he  resided  for  the  remaining 

twenty-five  years  of  his  life.     His  earliest  work  was  his  critique  on  Properlius 

'  Bursian,  ii  964  f.  '  p.  '95  f. 

'  Biagr.  Jahrb.  1898,96—13]. 

'  He  took  part  in  the  Beichreibung,  and  published  the  codex  urbis  Roniae 
tofi^grafiinis  {iSti},  etc. 

'  Ritschl's  Ofuse.  iii  411  f. 

'  Wecklein  in  Bicgi:  Jakrh.  1893,  1  —  15,  and  H.  L.  Urlichs  in  Pref.  to 
Iwin  Mtitler's  Handbuch,  i  (1891). 


OgIC 


CHAP.  XXXir.]      URLICHS.      KEIL.      GEORGES.  203 

(1843),  followed  by  his  texts  of  1850  and  1867,  During  his  slay  in  Italy,  and 
in  France  (1851).  he  collated  many  mss  for  his  friends  and  for  himself;  he 
supplied  Merkel  with  the  scholia  to  Apolloniua  Rhodius,  and  O.  Schneider 
with  those  on  Nicander,  and  his  collations,  though  less  extensive  than  those 
of  Bekker,  were  more  accurate.  At  Halle  Tie  edited  the  Commentary  of 
Probui  on  the  Eileguii  and  Georgia.  His  vast  edition  of  the  Grammaiici 
Latini  was  published  in  1857-80,  five  of  the  seven  volumes  being  edited  by 
himself,  and  the  two  volumes  of  Prrscian  by  Herli.  Of  his  other  works  the 
most  Important  were  his  elaborate  editions  of  the  agricultural  works  of  Cato 
andVarro  (1884-94),  with  Tenbner  texts  of  both  (1889  and  1895)'. 

Vilruvius  was  edited,  in  1867,  by  Valentin  Rose  and  Hennann  MUller- 
Strilbing'  on  the  basis  of  the  MS  of  the  ninth  century  collated  by  the  latter  in 
the  British  Museum.     An  Index  was  produced  in  1876  by  Kohl. 

Among  modern  Latin  lexicographers  a  place  of  honour  must  be  reserved 
for  Karl  Ernst  Georges  (1806—1895),  who  Spent  nearly  the 
whole  of  his  life  at  Gotha.  It  was  originally  intended  that  he 
should  succeed  his  father  as  chief-glazier  to  the  local  Coart,  aitd  he  was  even 
removed  from  school  for  that  purpose ;  but,  at  his  earnest  entreaty,  he  was 
allowed  to  continue  under  the  tuition  of  Doering  and  Wuestemann,  and  the 
fiammarian  and  leucographer,  V.  C.  F.  Kost.  Being  la  delicate  health,  he 
was  sent  for  a  change  of  air  to  Noidhausen,  where  he  received  mach 
encouragement  from  the  lexicographer,  Kraft.  He  afterwards  studied  at 
Gottingen  and  Leipzig,  where  he  helped  in  revising  a  new  edition  of  Scheller. 
His  German-Latin  lexicon  was  completed  in  1833'  and  accepted  at  Jena  in 
lieu  of  a  dissertation  for  his  degree.  In  1E39-56  he  was  one  of  the  higher 
masters  at  Gotha,  but  a  weakness  of  eyesight,  and  a  desire  for  further  leisure, 
led  to  his  retiring  on  a  pension,  and  devoting  all  his  time  to  his  lexicc^aphical 

The  series  of  excellent  Latin-German  lexicons  had  been  begun  by  that  of 
Scheller  (1783).  On  the  death  of  Luenemann  in  1830,  the  preparation  of  a 
new  edition  of  Scheller  was  taken  over  by  Georges,  whose  name  appears  on 
the  litle-page  of  the  edition  of  1837.  Of  the  seventh  edition  in  two  volumes, 
filling  6,088  columns,  15,000  copies  were  printed  in  and  after  1879.  This  work 
was  confessedly  founded  on  those  of  Gesner,  Foreellini,  and  Scheller,  as  well 
as  on  his  own  extensive  collections.  It  was  warmly  eulogised  by  Wdlfflin,  the 
editor  of  the  Arckiv  and  the  otganiser  of  the  new  T/usaums;  and,  on  the 
completion  of  60  years  of  lexicographical  labour  in  1888,  the  indomitable 
veteran  was  congratulated  by  English  scholars  in  the  following  terms  :— 

'  Id  scilicet  laudamus  in  Lexieo  luo  Latino,  multo  labore  et  adversa 
interdum  valetudine  condito,  quod  artem  ita  adhlbutsti  criticam,  ut 
inter  omnia  huiusmodi  opera  linguae  Latinae  studiosis  sit  utilissimum'*. 


A.oogic 


204  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Geor^s  also  b^an  a  Titiaurus,  conlioued  by  MUhlmann  down  10  the 
letter  K.  In  his  later  years,  when  his  sight  began  to  fail,  he  prepared  a 
useful  lexicon  of  Latin  Word.forms  (1890).  By  1891  six  editions  of  his  small 
Latin-German  and  German-Latin  SanduiarUrhuih,  and  five  of  the  corre- 
sponding Schuhwrlerbttck,  had  been  published.  His  German-Latin  lexicon 
was  the  foundation  of  the  English- Latin  work  of  Riddle  and  Arnold-  lie 
was  a  constant  correspondent  of  scholars  in  England,  as  well  as  France  and 
Germany,  and  liberally  placed  his  stores  of  Uaming  at  the  service  of  others. 
His  little  world  was  his  library,  enriched  with  a  complete  set  of  the  Corput 
Inscripttonum  Lalinarum  presented  by  the  publishers,  and  adorned  with 
portraits  of  his  fellow-labourers  in  the  field  of  Latin  lexici^raphy.  His  small 
and  neat  round  hand  resembled  that  of  Fr.  Jacobs.  Even  bodily  pain  never 
prevented  him  from  going  quietly  on  with  his  life-long  work.  It  was  only  in 
his  biogiaphical  notice  of  Wuestemann  and  in  a  Latin  Gnomolegia  that  he 
deserted  the  domain  of  Latin  lexic<%raphy '■ 

In  connexion  with  Latin  lexicography,  two  names  may  here  be  added. 
Karl   von    Paucker   (1810—1883)   "as    the    author   of  the 

RSnic"  Addenda  Uxkis  Laixnis,   b^un  in  1871-     After  studying  at 

Dorpat  and  Berlin,  he  returned  to  the  former  univeraily  as 
professor  in  1861.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  he  began  to  collect  his 
scattered  lexicographical  papers  in  a  comprehensive  volume  of  Supfileaitnta, 
which  was  unfortunately  left  unfinished'.  His  Viirarbtilfn  for  the  history  of 
the  Latin  language  were,  however,  published  soon  after  his  death  by  Hermann 
Riinsch  (1811— i888t,  the  learned  author  nMttda  and  Vatgatd'. 


'  R.  Ehwald  in  Btogr.  Jakrb.  1896,  I43— 150;  Wiilfflin's  Archiv,  1895, 
6i3fi  G.  Schneider  in  ///.  Ztitung,  1897,  lagf.  In  1880  he  gratefully  ac- 
cepted Prof.  Mayor's  dedication  of  his  ed.  of  Book  iii  of  Pliny's  Letlets,  stni 
indefasB,  Latirtai  linguat  lexkographsrum  quolguot  kodic  vivutit  Nestari. 

*  Ronsch  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1883,  93 — 96. 

»  1869  i  ed.  1,  18JS  ;  ib.  1889,  IS9— 17-4- 


iM,Googlc 


iM,Googlc 


s^ 


V*'*v»^  //f./ ■*^y^/? 


Franz  Bofp. 
1  the  fronlis[iieee  of  the  Life  by  Lefmann  (Reimer,  Berlin,  1891)- 

[To  face  p.    505  "/  l^"'-   ■///■ 


.oogic 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

COMPARATIVE    PHILOLOGISTS. 

The  founder  of  the  comparative  study  of  language  in  Germany 
was  Franz  Bopp  (1791— 1867).  Born  at  Mainz,  and 
educated  at  Aschaffenburg,  he  hved  in  Paris  from 
r8i2  to  1815,  studying  Arabic  and  Persian  under  Silvestre  de 
Sacy,  and  teaching  himself  Sanskrit  with  the  help  of  the  Grammars 
of  Carey  (1806)  and  Wiikins  {1808),  and  the  translation  of  the 
Bhagavadgita  by  the  latter,  and  that  of  the  R&m&yana  by  the 
former.  In  the  university  of  BerUn  he  was  an  'extraordinary 
professor'  in  1821,  and  full  professor  for  the  last  forty-two  years 
of  his  life'.  From  the  publication  of  his  earliest  work  on  the 
comparison  of  the  conjugational  system  of  Sanskrit  with  that 
of  Greek,  Latin,  Persian,  and  German  (1816)  to  the  very  end 
of  his  career,  he  was  engaged  in  the  unremitting  endeavour  to 
explain  the  origin  of  the  grammatical  forms  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
languages.  This  was  the  main  object  of  his  'Comparative 
Grammar'  (1833).  But  his  endeavours  were  regarded  with  in- 
difference or  distrust  by  the  leading  scholars  and  grammarians, 
such  as  Hermann'  and  Lobeck'.  The  method  and  the  results 
of  comparative  philology  were  also  attacked,  with  more  wit  than 
wisdom,  by  the  Greek  archaeologist,  Ludwig  Ross*.  This  lack  of 
appreciation  was  not  so  much  due  to  any  limitation  of  vision  on 
t^he  part  of  the  scholars  of  the  day,  or  to  an  excess  of  conservatism, 
or  a  contempt  for  their  contemporaries.  It  was  mainly  prompted 
by  the  uncertain  and  tentative  methods  of  the  earlier  pioneers, 
by  their  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  languages  with  which  they 

'  Lefmanr,  F,  B.,  sein  Lehen  u.  stint  iVinenscha/l  {Berlin,  1891-6}. 

"  Prcf.  10  Ada  Soc.  Graaae,  quoted  in  vol.  i  p.  11  n.  5. 

*  Pref.  lo  Pathol,  p.  vii ;  but  even  Lobeck  would  have  been  ready  to 
study  Comparative  Philolt^,  had  life  been  long  enough  foi  the  purpose 
{ParaUp.  ,,7). 

'  Italiker  und  Graikta  ([858  f.). 


A.oogic 


206  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

were  concerned,  and  by  their  indifference  to  the  rules  of  classical 
syntax.  This  distrust  has,  however,  passed  away.  Its  departure 
is  due  to  the  labours  of  those  who  have  taken  up  the  science 
created  by  Bopp,  supported  by  Jacob  Grimm',  and  developed 
by  Pott'  and  Kuhn'  and  Schleicher'  and  others,  and  who  have 
applied  its  method  to  Greek  and  Latin,  and  have  thereby  laid  a 
sure  foundation  for  the  new  fabric  of  the  Etymology  of  those 
languages'. 

Foremostamong  these  was TheodorBenfey  (1809 — 188 1),  whose 
father,  a  Jewish  merchant  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover, 
taught  him  the  Talmud  and  aroused  in  bim  an  interest 
for  language.  It  was  at  Frankfurt  that  the  son  prepared  a  trans- 
lation of  Terence,  and  also  (under  the  influence  of  Foley)  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  Sanskrit.  In  181 7  he  settled  at  Gottingen, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  a  year  at  Munich  (1827-8),  he  there 
abode  for  the  remaining  sixty-four  years  of  his  life.  In  1848  he 
left  his  ancestral  faith  for  that  of  Christianity,  and  was  in  the  same 
year  appointed  to  a  poorly  paid  'extraordinary'  professorship;  it 
was  only  for  his  last  nineteen  years  that  he  was  a  full  professor. 

In  the  introduction  to  his  'lexicon  of  Greek  roots',  which 
was  the  first  scientific  treatment  of  Greek  Etymology  (1839-42), 
he  drew  up  a  scheme  for  a  series  of  works  treating  of  Greek 
Grammar  in  the  light  of  Comparative  Philology,  but  this  scheme 
was  never  carried  out.  Its  author  devoted  most  of  his  subsequent 
career  to  the  study  of  Sanskrit  Grammar,  and  to  researches  in 
the  Vedas.  He,  however,  published  many  articles  on  subjects 
connected  with  Greek  and  Latin  Grammar  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Gottingen  Academy,  and  in  his  quarterly  review,  Orient 
und  Occident  (1861-6).  His  principal  works  were  an  edition  of 
the  Sdmaveda  (1848),  a  complete  Sanskrit  Grammar  (1852),  the 

'  'German  Gramnutr',  iSig'-ii*.   On  Rask  and  Veraer,  see  chap,  xxxviii. 

'  '  Eljmoli^cal  Investigalions',  1833-6. 

"  On  Adalbert  Kuhn  ([811—1881),  cp.  Biegr.Jahrh.  1881,  48—63. 

*  p.  109  infra.  Cp-,  in  general,  P.  Giles,  Manual  of  Comparative  Phile- 
'''!?>■  (i8!)s)§§  39-44- 

'  Bursian,  ii  971  f.  Cp.  Delbriick,  Einltitung  in  das  SfrachstuditiTH, 
cap.  i ;  Benfejr,  Gisch.  der  Sprackuiissensckafl,  370-9,  470—515  ;  and  TJiow- 
sen's  Spregvidenskabtns  Hislnrii  (Copenhagen,  1901);  a  brief  sketch  in  J.  M. 
Edmonds'  Comparative  PMlohgy  (Cambridge,  1906),  189 — joa 


X'OO' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXXIII.]      BENFEV.      L.  MEYER.      G.  CURTIUS.         207 

Fanischaiantra  (1859),  and  the  History  of  the  study  of  language 
and  of  oriental  philology  in  Geraiany  {1869)'. 

Benfey's  pupil,  Leo  Meyer  (b.  1830),  on  his  appointment  as 
professor  of  Comparative  Philology  at  Dorpat  in 
1865,  had  just  completed  the  second  volume  of  his 
Comparative  Grammar  of  Greek  and  Latin*,  dealing  only  with  the 
doctrine  of  sounds  and  the  formation  of  words.  Meanwhile,  he 
had  published  a  brief  comparison  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
declensions  (1853).  His  Grammar  remained  unfinished,  but  he 
investigated  the  Greek  aorist  {1879),  and  published  a  number  of 
minor  papers  on  the  diction  of  Homer*.  He  has  since  resided  as 
an  honorary  professor  at  GOttingen. 

The  recognition  of  the  comparative  method  among  Greek  and 
Latin  scholars  and  school-masters  was  mainly  due 
to  Georg  Curtius  (1820 — 1885),  the  younger  brother 
of  the  historian  of  Greece.  Bom  and  bred  at  Liibeck,  he  studied 
at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  and,  after  spending  four  years  as  a  master 
at  Dresden,  and  three  as  a  '  privat-docent '  in  Berhn,  he  was 
professor  for  five  years  at  Prag,  for  eight  at  Kiel,  and,  for  the 
remaining  twenty-four  years  of  his  life,  at  Leipzig.  In  his 
inaugural  lecture  at  this  university  he  stated  tfiat  it  was  his  pur- 
pose, as  professor,  to  bring  Classical  Philology  and  the  Science 
of  Language  into  closer  relation  with  each  other*.  His  zeal 
and  success  in  carrying  out  this  purpose  were  attested,  not  only 
by  his  own  works,  but  also  by  the  ten  volumes  of  '  Studies '  on 
Greek  and  Latin  Grammar  produced  by  his  pupils  {1868-78),  by 
the  papers  connected  with  the  Science  of  Language  published  in 
his  honour  in  1874,  and  by  the  five  volumes  of  'Leipzig  Studies', 
edited  by  himself  and  three  other  professors  in  1878-82.  The 
principal  works  produced  by  himself  were  his  'Greek  Grammar  for 
Schools'  (1852),  his  'Principles  of  Greek  Etymology'  (1858-62), 
and  his  treatise  on  the  'Greek  Verb'  {1873-6).  The  first  of 
these  was  published  at  Frag,  while  Curtius  was  a  professor  in 

'  Bezienberger  in  Biogr.  yahrb.  1881,  103—107  ;  Delbrtlck,  36;  Bursian, 
"973- 

'  1  vols.,  1861-S  ;  ed.  »  of  vol.  i,  in  two  parts,  1170  pp.,  18S1-4  ;  Benfey, 
591.  '  Bursian,  ii  97s  f. 

*  Philoiegit  und  Sfrathiuiisttischafl,  1861  (also  in  A7.  S^hr.  i) ;  cp.  Die 
SpTochvtr^eichung  I'lt  tArtm  Vtrhdllitiss  lur  cl.  FhHalagit  (i848>),  E.  T. 
Oxford,  1851.  1^    i,^  iiA.OOQlC 


2o8  GERMANV.  [CENT.  XIX. 

that  university.  It  was  primarily  intended  for  use  in  the  Austrian 
schools,  then  in  course  of  reorganisation  under  the  guidance 
of  Bonitz,  and,  notwithstanding  the  bitter  and  violent  opposition 
of  K.  W,  Kriiger',  it  was  widely  accepted  in  the  schools  of 
Germany',  It  was  followed  by  a  volume  of  'Elucidations'  for 
the  use  of  teachers'.  His  early  work  on  'Greek  and  Latin 
Tenses  and  Moods  in  the  light  of  Comparative  Grammar'  (1846) 
was  the  precursor  of  his  important  work  on  the  'Greek  Verb". 
His  'Principles  of  Greek  Etymology'  reached  a  fifth  edition  in 
1879°.  The  first  Book  contains  an  introductory  statement  on 
the  principles,  and  the  main  questions,  of  Greek  Etymol<^ ;  the 
second  deals  with  the  regular  representation  of  Indo-Germanic 
sounds  in  Greek,  exemplified  by  a  conspectus  of  words  or  groups 
of  words  arranged  according  to  their  sounds ;  and  the  third 
investigates  the  irregular  or  sporadic  changes'.  .  '  Curtius  was  not 
a  student  of  language,  availing  himself  of  the  aid  of  Latin  and 
Greek  to  attack  the  general  questions  of  linguistics,  but  a  classical 
scholar  studying  the  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome  in  the 
light  of  comparative  philology". 

The  leading  representative  of  the  study  of  language  in  its 
psychologiml  A%^&X  was  H.  Steinthal  (1823 — 1899), 
who  studied  in  Berlin  (1843-7)  ^^^  Paris  (1852-5), 
and  was  professor  of  the  Science  of  Language  in  Bertin  from 
1863  to  his  death.  He  wrote  on  the  origin  of  language",  the 
classification  of  languages',  the  developement  of  writing;  also  a 
work  on  grammar,  If^ic,  and  psychology,  their  principles  and 
their  mutual  relations  (1855),  which  was  expanded  in  his  Intro- 
duction to  the  Psychology  of  the  Science  of  Language  (1871); 
and  lastly,  a  History  of  the  Science  of  Language  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  with  special  reference  to  Logic". 

'  p.  119  ja/ra.  '  Ed.  11  (Gerlh);  E.  T.  186;. 

'  1863  ;  E.  T.  1870.  *  E.  T.,  Wilkin3  and  England,  :88o. 

»  E.  T.,  Wilkins  and  England,  1875-6;  ed.  1,  1886. 

'  Bursian,  ii  975-8 ;  cp.  Angennann  in  Beizenberger's  Bcilragt,  x ; 
E.  Curtius  in  vol.  i  of  his  btolhei's  Kleine  Schrtflen  ;  and  Windisch  in  Biogr, 
Jahtb.  1886,  75—118  :  also  E>elbruck,  39  f. 

'  Wilkins  in  Class.  Rev.  i  163. 

'  1851  ;  ed.  3.  1877. 

»  1850;  ed.  1,  i860;  cp.  Benfey,  787  f, 

'"  1863 ;  ed.  1,  1890-1  ;  cp.  Bursian,  ii  980.  ,-,  , 

n,5,t,7rjM,CjOOglC 


CHAP.  XXXIII.]    STEINTHAL.      SCHLEICHER.  209 

August  Schleicher  {1821 — 1868),  who  was  born  at  Meiningen 
and  educated  at  Cobuig,  studied  Theology  at 
Leipzig  and  Tubingen,  and  Philology  under  Ritschl 
at  Bonn.  In  1845  he  became  '  privat-docent '  at  Bonn,  in  1850 
extraordinary  professor  in  Prag,  and  in  1857  honorary  professor  at 
Jena,  where  he  died  in  1868.  In  his  '  Compendium  of  the  Com- 
parative Grammar  of  the  Indo-Germanic  languages",  he  stated  the 
results  of  all  the  recent  investigations  on  the  vocal  changes  in  a 
series  of  'laws  of  sound".  'With  all  his  wide  linguistic  attain- 
ments', he  was  not  a  classical  scholar,  either  in  the  first  or  even  in 
the  second  place.  '  He  was  at  heart  a  Darwinian  botanist,  who 
handled  language  as  if  it  were  the  subject-matter  of  natural  and 
not  of  historical  science". 

The  series  of  Indo-Germanic  Grammars,  published  by  Breitkopf 
and  Hartel  in  Leipzig,  included  a  volume  on  the  physiology  of 
sound  by  Eduard  Sievers  (1876)',  an  Introduction  to  the  history  and 
method  of  the  comparative  study  of  language  by  Delbriick  (1880), 
and  a  Greek  Grammar  (1880)  by  Gustav  Meyer  (1850 — 1900)°. 
A  Latin  Grammar  has  been  produced  by  Sommer  (Heidelberg). 

'  The  physiology  of  sound  does  not  suffice  to  enable  us  to 
attain  a  clear  conception  of  the  work  of  man  in  the 
province  of  speech.. ..We  need  a  science  that  takes  Grtmmariiiin 
c(^nizance  of  the  psychic  factors,  which  enter  into 
the  innumerable  movements  and  changes  of  sound,  and  also  into 
all  the  workings  of  analogy'.  Such  is  part  of  the  programme  of 
the  New  Grammarians,  as  it  is  unfolded  by  its  most  active  repre- 
sentatives Hermann  OstholT  of  Heidelberg,  and  Karl  Brugmann 
of  Leipzig".  The  outline  of  such  a  science  had  been  already 
drawn  in  Steinthal's  Essay  on  assimilation  and  attraction  in  their 
psychological  aspects'.  Other  representatives  of  the  New  School 
are  August  Leskien'  of  Leipzig  and  Hermann  Paul'  of  Munich. 
■  i86[  ;  ed.  *,  1866;  E.T. 

*  Bunian,ii9;8f;  BenfeyiSSyf;  Lefmann'siiiW (1870);  Delbriick, 41-56. 
'  Wilkins,  in  CI.  Rev-  i  ^63.  '  Ed.  4,  1893  {Grumhuge  der  Fhenelik). 
°  Biegr.  Jakrb.  1901,  I — 6. 

'  Osthofl  and  Brugmann,  pref.  lo  Morphcl.  Untersuchungen,  i  {1878). 

'  ZeUschr.fiir  Vdlterfsycholagit,  i  93  f. 

'  Dtcl.  im  Slavistk-Ulauischm  u.  Gtrmatihehen  (1876). 

*  Printifitn  der  Sprachgtiehicku  (1880  etc.). 

S.      III.  h,    l-rll>,(b4(.")0<^IC 


2IO  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

The  principles  of  this  school  are  (i)  that  all  changes  of  sound, 
so  far  as  they  are  mechanical,  are  under  the  operation  of  laws 
that  admit  of  no  exception^  and  (2)  that  the  principle  of  analogy, 
which  plays  an  important  part  in  the  life  of  modern  languages, 
must  be  unreservedly  recognised  as  having  been  at  work  from 
the  very  earhest  times. 

The  first  of  these  principles  has  been  opposed  by  the  later 
followers  of  Benfey,  especially  in  the  periodical 
edited  by  A.  Bezzenberger  of  Konigsberg'. — One 
of  the  representatives  of  the  New  School,  August  Fick,  formerly 
professor  at  Breslau,  and  the  author  of  a  'Comparative  Dictionary 
of  the  Indo-Germanic  languages",  produced  an  excellent  work  on 
the  formation  of  Greek  names  of  persons  (1894),  showing  that 
originally  all  names  of  persons  among  the  Indo-Germanic  peoples 
were  compound  words  formed  from  two  roots,  and  that  from 
these  compound  words  names  including  a  single  root  were  formed 
either  from  the  first  or  the  second  of  the  two  elements.  The 
names  thus  resulting  were  Kosen-namen,  or  'names  of  endearment". 
The  principles  of  the  New  School  are  set  forth  in  H.  Paul's 
'Principles  of  the  History  of  Language",  and  far  more  fully  in 
Karl  Brugmann's  '  Grundriss  of  the  Comparative  Grammar  of  the 
Indo-Germanic  Languages".  An  estimate  of  the  movement  has 
been  given  in  the  above-mentioned  'Introduction'  by  B.  Delbrijck, 
the  author  of  a  'Comparative  Syntax  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
Languages'  {1893  ()■ 

Among  the  workers  in  this  field  who  have  already  passed 
away  was  Ludwig  Lange  (1825 — 1885),  professor  at 
Leipzig  from  1871'.  Twenty  years  previously  he 
had  given  a  lecture  at  Gottingen,  in  which  he  had  insisted  on  the 
importance  of  the  historic  method  of  investigation,  and  had 
illustrated  it  by  the  use  of  the  prepositions  in  Sanskrit  and 
Greek'. 

'  Beilragt  sur  Kunde  der  indegerm.  Sprackcn. 

'  1870-1;  ed.  3,  1874-6;  ed.  4,  1891  f.  '  Bursion,  ii  999. 

*  Eng.  adaptalion  by  H.  A.  Strong,  1888.  See  also  Paul's  Grundriss,  i 
(:89i  etc.). 

»  i886f  {E.T.  i888r);  ed.  1,  i89;fi  'Short  Comparative  Grammar',  1904. 

"  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1886,  31—61, 

'  Bursian,  ii  looi. 


.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXIII.]   FICK.    L.  LANGE.    BENARY.   COKSSEN.      211 

The  first  to  attempt  to  set  forth  the  history  of  sounds  in 
Latin,  in  the  light  of  the  new  science  of  language,  was 

Albert  Agathon  Benary  {1807 — 1860)'.  Abundant 
materials  for  the  historic  grammar  of  the  Latin  language  wer^ 
subsequently  supplied  by  the  researches  of  RitschI,  Mommsen 
and  others,  on  Plautus,  on  the  early  Roman  inscriptions,  and  on 
the  remains  of  the  old  Italic  languages.  These  materials  were 
applied  with  considerable  acumen  and  independence,  and  with 
constant  regard  to  the  results  of  the  comparative  study  of 
language,  in  the  investigation  of  the  changes  of  the  Latin  con- 
sonants and  vowels  by  Wilhelm  .Corssen  (1820 — 
1875).  Bom  at  Bremen,  he  studied  in  Berlin 
{1840-4),  and  was  a  master  at  Schulpforta  {1846-66),  living  after- 
wards in  Berlin,  and,  from  1870,  in  Rome.  His  principal  work 
was  on  the  '  Pronunciation,  Vocalisation,  and  Accentuation  of 
the  I^tin  language",  a  work  dealing  with  the  orthography,  pro- 
nunciation, and  prosody  of  Latin  in  connexion  with  the  old 
Italic  dialects,  and  in  the  light  of  comparative  philology'.  It 
was  partly  supplemented  by  the  work  on  the  vocalisation  of 
vulgar  Latin  published  in  1866-8  by  Hugo  Schuchardt  (b.  1842), 
formerly  professor  at  Graz. 

The  general  results  of  Comparative  Philology  were  incorporated 
in  Kiihner's  larger  Latin  Grammar,  and,  more  systematically,  by 
Heinrich  Schweizer-Sidler*,  in  his  outline  of  the  elements  and 
forms  of  I-atin  for  schools  {1869),  and  by  Alois  Vanicek  (1825 — 
1883)',  formerly  professor  at  Prag,  in  his  elementary  Latin 
Grammar  (1873),  and  his  Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  Latin 
language  (1874),  followed  by  his  Greek  and  Latin  Etymological 
Dictionary  (1877).  A  Comparative  Dictionary  of  Latin,  Greek, 
Sanskrit,  and  German,  published  at  Vienna  in  1873  by  Sebastian 
Zehetmayr,  was  expanded  in  1879  into  a  comprehensive  etymo- 
logical Dictionary  of  all  the  Indo-Germanic  languages*.  A  Greek 
Etymolf^cal  Dictionary  has  since  been  published  by  Prellwitz'. 

'  Die  rSmische  Lauthhre,  tprathvergleichind  dargistelll  CEttyva,  1837). 
'  1858-9  ;  ed.  2,  1868 — 70.     For  his  oiher  works,  see  p.  141  f  siipra. 
'  On  Corssen,  cp.  Ascoli's  Kritkche  SludUn,  p.  ix  (Delbrilck,  41). 
*  p.  101  sttpra.  '  Bisi^.  "Jahrb.  :884,  jfif. 

'  Bursian,  ii  1003-6.  '  GStlingen,  ed.  1,  1905. 


Karl  Otfried  Muller. 
a  drawing  by  Ternile  lilhographed  by  WUdt. 

h.  i.,  ii,l^.OOglc 


CHAPTER    XXXIV. 

ARCHAEOLOGISTS    AND    HISTORIANS. 

Down  to  the  time  of  Winckelmann  and  Heyne  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  political,  social,  religious,  and 
artistic  life  of  the  ancients  had  occupied  a  subordi-  muiim™ 
nate  position  in  comparison  with  the  study  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages.  The  new  impulse  then  .given  had 
been  carried  forward  by  Niebuhr'  and  by  Boeckh',  while,  among 
their  immediate  successors,  the  most  brilliant  and  versatile,  and 
the  most  widely  influential,  was  Karl  Otfried'  Miiller  (i  797—1840). 
Bom  at  the  Silesian  town  of  Brieg,  he  studied  at  Breslau,  where 
the  perusal  of  Niebuhr's  '  History  of  Rome '  prompted  him  to 
concentrate  his  enei^ies  on  historical  subjects.  In  Berlin,  under 
the  influence  of  Boeckh  {1816-7),  he  acquired  a  new  interest  in  the 
history  of  Greece,  and  it  was  to  Boeckh  that  he  owed  the  earliest 
successes  of  his  literary  and  academic  career.  He  began  by  pub- 
lishing a  monograph  on  the  ancient  and  modem  history  of  Aegina*. 
Part  of  this  work  was  on  the  Aeginetan  Marbles,  which  had  been 
discovered  in  i8ir",  and  had  recently  been  purchased  (in  1812) 
by  Ludwig,  the  Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria.  At  that  time  Muller's 
sole  authority  for  these  works  was  a  description  by  the  sculptor, 
J,  M.  Wagner,  with  criticisms  on  the  style  by  F.  W.  J,  Schelling 

1  p.77rj«/ra.  '  p.^ifmfra. 

'  His  original  name  was  simply  Karl.  To  distinguish  himself  from  the 
many  Karl  Mullers,  he  added  the  name  of  Gottfried,  which,  on  Buttman's 
advice,  he  changed  to  Otfried  in  :Bi7  (aflei  the  publication  of  his  first  work). 
The  form  Ottfried  is  incorrect. 

*  Atginilamm  liber;  scripsH  Carolus  MuiUer,  Siksius  {l%\^^). 

'  By  Cockerel!  and  Foster,  in  conjunction  with  Mailer  von  Hallerstein, 
and  Linckb.     Cp.  Michaelis,  Die  archMegiichtn  Enldickungm  (1906),  31  f. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


214  GERMANY.  [CENT,  XIX. 

(1817).  It  was  not  until  his  appointment  to  a  Chair  of  Classical 
Allerthumswisunschajt  at  Gottingen  in  the  summer  of  1819  that 
he  was  able  to  study  some  of  the  actual  remains  of  ancient  art  at 
Dresden.  At  Gottingen  in  1820  he  gave  a  course  of  lectures 
on  Archaeology  and  the  History  of  Art ;  two  years  later  he 
enlarged  his  knowledge  by  visiting  the  collections  in  Paris  and 
London,  and  he  continued  lecturing  on  the  above  subjects  with 
ever  increasing  success  until  the  end  of  the  summer-term  of  1839. 
In  September  of  that  year  he  left  for  Italy  and  Greece,  and  on 
the  first  day  of  August,  1840,  he  died  at  Athens  of  a  fever 
contracted  while  he  was  copying  the  inscriptions  on  the  wall 
of  the  Fcribolos  at  Delphi.  A  marble  monument  marks  the  spot 
where  he  was  buried  on  the  hill  of  Colonos. 

At  Gottingen  he  lectured  repeatedly  on  Mythology  and  the  History  of 
Religion,  on  Greek  Antiquities,  Latin  Lileratnre,  and  Comparative  Grammar, 
and  also  on  Classical  authors,  such  as  Pindar,  Aeschylus,  Herodotus, 
Thucydides,  Tacitus,  Persius  and  Juvenal.  His  early  work  on  Aegina  was 
followed,  three  years  later,  hy  thai  on  '  Orchomenos  and  the  Minyae" ;  in 
1814,  by  ihe  two  volumes  of  the  'Dorians'";  in  the  next  year,  by  his 
'  Prolegomena  to  a  scientific  Mythology '■[  and,  in  1818,  by  his  'Etruscans'*. 

Five  years  later,  he  published  his  edilion  of  the  Euinenidts,  with  a  German 
rendering  and  with  two  Dissertations,  (1)  on  the  represenlalion  of  the  play, 
(i)  on  ils  purport  and  composition'.  In  the  preface  to  this  work,  he  was 
prompted  by  Hermann's  attack  on  Dissen's  Pindar'  to  describe  Hermann  as 
'  the  distinguished  scholar,  who  has  long  been  promising  us  an  eililion  of 
Aeschylus,  and  who  is  ready  to  allack  all  who  write  on  thai  poet  before 
proving  that  he  possesses  a  clear  conception  of  the  connexion  of  thought 
and  the  plan  of  a  single  play,  or  indeed  of  any  work  of  ancient  poetry''. 
While  MuUer  poured  contempt  on  the  professional  scholars  of  the  day,  he 
added  that  another  race  of  men  had  already  arisen,  men  who  were  asking  the 
old  world  deeper  questions  than  could  be  answered  by  any  mere  Notm- 
gtUhnamkeit.  Hermann  naturally  protested,  pointing  out  that  MUller's 
attitude  was  '  mislaken  '  as  well  as  '  presumptuous '.  This  review,  severe  as  it 
was,  did  nut  prevent  the  just  recognition  of  Miiller's  Eunienides  as  a  dislinctly 
useful  edilion.  The  editor  had  set  special  store  by  his  translation,  and  Ihe 
accuracy  of  that  portion  of  the  work  was  not  contested  by  his  great  opponent, 
while  the  first  of  the  two  dissertations  certainly  threw  new  light  on  the  Greek 
theatre  and  led  to  further  research  on  that  subject. 

'  1844".  '  E.  T.  1850.  •  E.  T.,  Leitch. 

*  1877  ed.  Deecke.  '  E.  T.  ed.  ],  185J. 

«  Ofusc.  vi.  3-69- 

'  ib.  vi  (i)  ri ;  Muller  and  Donaldson's  Gr.  Lit.  I  xxiv  ;  Bursian,  ii  675. 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]  K.   O.   MiJLLER.  21$ 

In  the  same  year  as  the  firsi  edition  of  the  Eumeniiia,  Muller  published  a 
critical  edition  of  Varro,  De  Lingua  Latina  (1833).  He  had  been  drawn  in 
this  direction  by  his  Etruscan  studies.  Following  in  the  lines  laid  down 
by  Spengel,  he  introduced  many  corrections  into  the  text,  but  he  left  much  to 
be  done  by  his  successors,  and  Spengel  himself  relumed  to  the  work  of  his 
youth  and  prepared  a  new  edition,  which  was  published  by  his  son.  Mullei 
also  emended  and  annotated  the  remains  of  Feslus,  tt^ether  with  the  epitome 
ofihe  same  by  Faulus  (1839,  i868>). 

An  invitation  from  the  London  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge  led  to  his  undertaking  a  '  History  of  Greek  Literature ',  which  he 
began  in  1836,  but  left  unfinished  on  bis  departure  for  Greece.  The  iirst 
Iwenty-lwo  chapters  were  translated  by  George  Comewall  Lewis,  to  whose 
suggestion  the  work  was  due,  and  the  rest  by  Dr  Donaldson  in  1S4O,  when  the 
greater  part  of  the  work  was  published.  The  work  was  subsequently  com- 
pleted by  Donaldson,  who  wrote  chapters  38 — 60  for  the  edition  published  in 
three  volumes  in  1858'.  The  original  author's  aim  was  to  show  'how  those 
illustrious  compositions,  which  we  still  justly  admire  as  the  classical  writings  of 
the  Greeks,  naturally  sprang  from  the  taste  and  ihe  genius  of  the  Greek  races 
and  the  constitution  of  civil  and  domestic  society  as  established  among  them  '*. 

Mllller  had  naturally  been  led  10  study  the  archaeology  of  art  by  the  duties 
of  his  professorship.  In  (his  domain  he  produced  a  considerable  number  of 
separate  treatises,  as  well  as  a  comprehensive  cpnspectus  of  the  whole  field. 
The  former  included  his  papers  on  Ihe  Delphic  tripod,  the  cult  and  temple  of 
Athena  Polias,  and  the  life  and  works  of  Pheidias.  The  latter  is  embodied  in 
his  well-known  'Handbook  of  the  Archaeott^y  of  Art''.  Illustrations  to 
this  work  were  supplied  in  Muller's  Dentmaltr  (1831),  continued  by  his  pupil, 
Friedrich  Wieseler.  MUller  also  wrote  on  Hesiod's  Shield  of  Htraclts,  Ihe 
Apollo  of  Kanachos,  the  date  of  the  temple  at  Bassae,  the  vases  of  Vulci,  the 
topc^aphy  of  AnlitKh,  the  frieze  of  the  temple  of  Theseus,  and  the 
fonifications  of  Athens*.  His  account  of  the  Museums  of  Athens  was  the  only 
part  of  the  results  of  his  visit  lo  Greece  that  was  published  by  his  fellow- 
traveller,  Adolph  Schiill  (1S43). 

'  As  a  classical  scholar,  we  are  inclined  (says  Donaldson)  to  prefer 
K.  O.  Miiller,  on  the  whole,  to  all  the  German  philologers  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  He  had  not  Niebuhr's  grasp  rf  original  combination,  he  was  hardly 
equal  to  his  teacher,  Bockh,  in  some  branches  of  Greek. ..antiquities;  he  was 
inferior  to  Hermann  in  Greek  verbal  criticism ;  he  was  not  a  comparative 
philolc^r,  like  Grimm  and  Bopp  and  A.  W.  Schlegel,  nor  a  collector  of  facts 
and  forms  like  Lobeck.     But  in  all  the  disttuclive  characteristics  of  these 

'  MLiiter's   German  text   was   published,   from   the  rough  drafts,  by  his 
younger  brother  in  1841;  ed.  4  (E.  Heitz),  1881-4. 
»  i  I  ed.  Donaldson  (i8j8). 

*  1830;  ed.  3  (Welcker)  1848;  ed.  4,  1878;  E.  T.,  Leitch,  1850. 

*  Klane  dnitscht  Sckrifien,  vol.  ii,  1848. 

h.  i.,  ii,l^.OOglc 


2l6  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

eminent  men,  he  approached  them  more  nearij  than  most  of  his  con- 
lemporaries,  biiJ  he  had  some  qualifications  lo  which  none  of  them  attained. 
In  liveliness  of  fancy,  in  power  of  slyle,  in  elegance  of  lasle,  in  artistic 
knowledge,  he  far  surpassed  most,  if  nol  all,  of  them'*. 

While  K.  O.  Miiller,  even  in  his  study  of  ancient  mythology 
and  art,  mainly  followed  the  historical  method  of 
research,  the  poefic  and  artistic  side  of  the  old 
Greek  world  had  won  the  interest  of  his  predecessor  at  Gdttingen, 
Friedrich  Gottlieb  Welcker  {1784 — 1868),  who  was  born  thirteen 
years  before  him,  and  survived  him  by  no  less  than  twenty-eight'. 
The  son  of  a  country-clergyman  in  Hesse,  he  worked  by  himself 
at  Giessen,  where  he  afterwards  lectured,  first  on  theolc^ical 
subjects,  and  next  on  Plato's  Symposium,  and  the  Prometheus. 
In  1806-8  he  visited  Italy,  holding  a  tutorship  in  Rome  in  the 
family  of  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt.  In  Rome  he  came  under 
the  influence  of  the  able  Danish  archaeologist,  Zoega,  subse- 
quently writing  his  life,  and  translating  and  publishing  his  works'. 
In  1809  he  became  a  professor  at  Giessen ;  in  1814,  a  volunteer 
in  the  war  against  Napoleon;  in  1816,  a  professor  at  Gottingen, 
and  in  1819  at  Bonn,  where  he  was  also  librarian  and  director 
of  the  Museum  of  ancient  Art,  the  earliest  institution  of  the 
kind.  At  Bonn  he  continued  to  live  for  nearly  fifty  years,  the 
last  seven  of  which  were  spent  in  retirement  owing  to  failing 
eyesight.  During  his  long  tenure  of  office  in  that  university,  he 
spent  two  years  travelling  in  Greece',  Asia  Minor,  Italy  and 
Sicily. 

His  lectures  at  Bonn  covered  a  wide  range,  including  Gieek  and  Latin 
poets,  Greek  mythology,  and  the  history  of  ancient  art.  His  audience  was 
profoundly  impressed  by  his  noble  personality,  and  by  a  fulness  of  thought, 
which  was  nut  accompanied  by  any  remarkable  richness  or  clearness  of 
language'.  ^ 

1  On  the  Life  and  fV.ilings  of  K.  O.  Miiller,  p.  XKxi,  in  Hut.  of  tki  Lit. 
of  atieienl  Grerce.  I  xv— xxxi  (with  portrait) ;  cp.  LeliensHld  by  K.  F.  Ranke 
(Berlin,  Gymn.  Prop.,  1870) :  Erianerungen  by  E.  MUUer,  and  F.  Lliclte ; 
Briefauchsel  with  Boeckh  (Teubner,  1883) ;  and  Bursian,  ii  1007 — 1018 ;  also 
K.  Hildebrand  in  Fr.  transl.  of  Gk  Lit.,  1S65,  17  f;  E.  Curtius,  Alt.  u. 
Cegeiiwarl,  ii'i^yf;  Hertz,  Breslau,  1884 ;  K.  Dilthey,  Gottingen,  1S98. 

'  On  Muller  and  Welcker,  cp.  Michaetis,  Die  areh.  Bntd.,  153. 

*  Chap,  xxxviii  infra  (Denmark).  <  TagAmk  (1S65). 

°  Classen,  quoted  by  Kekul^,  I74f. 

D„:,i.,.-iM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]         WELCKER.      GERHARD.  217 

His  eeneral  aim  was  to  realise  and  10  represenl  the  old  Greek  world  under 
the  three  aspects  of  Religion,  Poeliy,  and  Art.  His  researches  in  Greek 
mylhology  were  embodied  in  the  three  volumes  of  his  Grieehische  GSlUrlchre 
{1857-61).  This  was  supplemented  by  his  edition  of  Hesiod's  Theegony,  with 
general  introductory  essays  on  Hesiod,  and  a  special  dissertation  on  the 
Tkeognny. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  his  career  he  had  been  attracted  bj  (he  Greek  lyric 
poets  and  Aristophanes.  He  translated  the  Clouds  and  the  Frogs,  with 
explanatory  notes;  wrote  a  paper  on  Epicharmus*,  and  several  on  Pindar'; 
collected  the  fragments  of  Alcman  and  Hipponax,  Erinna  and  Corinoa ;  and 
repeatedly  defended  the  character  of  Sappho*.  In  an  edition  of  Theognis,  he 
arranged  the  poems  according  to  his  own  views,  adding  critical  and  explanatory 
notes  and  full  prolegomena.  He  also  pubKshed  a  Sylhge  of  Greek  Epigrams, 
and  criticised  Hermann's  proposals  for  restoring  the  text.  His  works  on  the 
tragic  poets  began  with  a  treatise  on  the  Aeschylean  trilogy  of  Prometheus, 
which  was  attacked  by  Hermann,  and  defended  by  Welcker  in  a  treatise  on 
the  Aeschylean  trilogy  in  general.  The  most  extensive  of  his  works  on  the 
drama  was  that  on  the  '  Greek  Tragedies  in  relation  to  the  Epic  Cycle  '*.  As 
a  preliminary  to  this  he  had  produced  a  work  on  the  Epic  Cycle  itself.  In 
the  department  of  Greek  prose  authors,  he  supplied  Fr.  Jacobs  with 
archaeological  notes  on  the  Philostrati  and  Callistratus  ;  he  also  wrote  papers 
on  Prodicus',  and  on  the  rhetorician  Aristides^ 

His  main  strength  as  an  archaeolc^st  lay  less  in  the  hiilory  of  art  than  in 
its  inlerprelalien.  At  Gotlingen,  the  greater  part  of  the  single  volume  of  the 
Zeilschrifi  on  the  history  and  interpretation  of  art  was  wiillen  by  Welcker 
alone  {1818);  and  at  Bonn,  he  published  an  explanatory  catalogue  of  the 
Museum  of  Casts'.  He  was  a  member  of  the  '  Roman  Institute  for 
Archaeological  Correspondence'  from  its  foundation  in  1819,  and  frequently 
contributed  to  its  publications,  and  to  other  archaeoli^ical  periodicals.  The 
most  important  of  his  papers  were  collected  in  the  Ave  parts  of  his  Alle 
Dcnkmalir  (1849-64),  which  had  been  partly  preceded  by  the  live  volumes  of 
his  Ktdnt  Schriften  (1844-67)". 

While  Welcker's  interests  traversed  the  literary  as  well  as  the 
artistic  sides  of  the  old  Greek  world,  a  narrower 
field  was  covered  by  his  friend  and  fellow-labourer, 

'  Kliinc  Sckriflin,  i  171 — 356.  •  ii  169 — 114,  v  151  f. 

'  i  110 — iJj,  and  esp.  ii  80—114;  cp.  iv  68,  v  iiS — 14*.  For  papers  on 
other  lyric  poets,  cp.  i  89,  116;  ii  iij,  356. 

*  3  vols,  1839-41.  *  1835 ;  ed.  a,  1865  (pan  ii,  1849,  ed.  3,  i88j). 

*  Kl.  Schr.  ii  393— 541.  '  iii  89—156. 
^  1817;  ed.  1,  1841. 

*  Uursian,  ii  1018— 1046;  cp.  Life  by  Kekul^,  with  portrait  (1880);  Cone- 
spondence  with  Boeckh,  in  Max  Hoffmann's  Boeckh,  iji — 108)  also  Wilamo- 
witi  in  Eur.  Her.  i'  139  f. 

h,  i.MiA.OOt^lc 


2l8  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Eduard  Gerhard  (1795 — 1867),  who  regarded  archaeology  as 
'  that  part  of  the  general  science  of  the  old  classical  world  which 
is  founded  on  the  knowledge  of  monuments ',  and  claimed  for  it 
an  independent  place  by  the  side  of  '  philolc^y '  in  the  narrower 
sense  of  that  term.  Born  at  Posen,  he  studied  at  Breslau  and 
Berlin,  but  was  compelled  by  weakness  of  sight  to  abandon 
the  work  of  teaching  that  he  had  begun  at  Breslau  and  at  the 
place  of  his  birth.  He  visited  Italy  in  1819-20  and  1822-6,  and 
again  in  1828-32,  and  in  1833  and  1836.  In  1837  he  became 
director  of  the  Archaeological  Museum  in  Berlin,  and  was  a  full 
professor  from  1844  to  his  death  in  1867, 

It  was  hi9  first  visit  to  Italy  that  inspired  him  with  his  earliest  enthusiasD) 
for  ancient  art,  and  during  his  long  residence  in  that  land  he  hecame  familiar 
with  archaeologists  ol  other  nations,  such  as  Btiindsted  {1780— 1841),  the 
representative  of  Denmark,  and  Slackelberg  (1787—1834),  llie  Esthonian 
nobleman,  who  was  then  preparing  his  two  great  works  on  the  Temple  of 
Bassae  {iSi6),  and  on  the  Graves  of  (he  Greeks  (1837).  Stackelberg  had 
fallen  under  the  spell  of  Creuzer's  Symbolii,  and  it  was  owing  lo  the  influence 
of  Stackelbei^  that  Gerhard  was  led  to  believe  that  the  woiks  of  art  found 
in  ancient  lambs  were  connected  with  the  cult  and  the  mysteries  of  Dionysus. 

In  1813  Gerhard  was  joined  by  Theodor  Panofha  (1801—1858),  who 
entered  the  university  of  Berlin  in  1819,  and,  after  promoting 
the  interests  of  the  international  Archaeological  Institute  in 
Rome  and  in  Paris,  returned  tn  Berlin,  where  he  became  a  Member  of  the 
Academy,  and,  for  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life,  an  'extraordinary' 
professor.  A  man  of  wide  but  rather  confused  learning,  he  had  an  undue 
fondness  foi  discovering  mythological  explanations  of  works  of  ancient  art', 
for  finding  traces  of  allegory  in  the  most  unimportant  objects,  and  for  indulging 
his  fancy  in  matters  of  etymology,  as  well  as  in  the  interpretation  of  works  of 
art  or  handicraft*. 

The  influence  of  Panofka  is  apparent  in  Gerhard's  Venus  Proserpina,  in 
his  Rami  aniike  Bildtoerie^,  his  Prodromus  to  the  mythological  interpretation 
of  art,  and  his  Hyperboreiscke-romischt  Studien.  Ilis  views  were  not 
materially  altered  in  his  Berlin*  papers,  or  in  the  two  volumes  of  his  'Greek 
Mythology' (i8s4-5). 

•  Vcr/egme  Mylhen  (1840) ;  cp.  Bursian,  ii  1049  n.  3. 

'  Among  his  more  valuable  works  are  his  Res  Samionim  (t8li),  his 
Bilderatlas  antiken  Lebcns  (1843),  his  Crieckinnen  uiui  Criechm  ttach  Atitittn 
(1844),  and  his  descriptions  of  the  terra-cottas  in  Berlin  and  Naples,  and  in 
private  collections  elsewhere. 

'  In  Plainer  and  Bunsen's  Besehreibung  der  SlaiU  Rom,  i  177 — 334. 

*  GesammiUe  Akad.  Abhandlungen  {with  4to  vol.  of  Plates),  ilt66-8. 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]  PANOFKA.      BRAUN.  2ig 

Gerhard  had  a  remarkable  aplilude  for  classifying  andent  monuments,  a 
maiTellous  memory  Tor  all  the  known  representatives  of  each  class,  and  an 
ample  store  of  illustrative  classical  learning.  Even  his  weakness  of  e;esi);ht 
did  not  interfere  with  a  rapid  apprehension  of  the  silieot  points,  and  the 
general  style,  of  any  work  of  ancient  art.  This  is  exemplified  in  his 
descriptive  catalogue  of  the  Vatican  Museum,  and  in  bis  unfinished  account  of 
the  works  of  ancient  art  in  Naples.  Apart  from  his  catalogues  of  the 
collections  in  Berlin,  his  best-known  works  were  his  four  volumes  on  Greek 
vase-paintings',  his  descriptions  of  Etruscan  mirrors',  and  his  numerous  papers 
on  the  mythology  and  cult  of  the  Greeks'. 

During  his  third  slay  in  Kome  {182S-31),  Gerhard,  in  conjunction  with 
Bunsen  and  Kestner,  look  in  hand  the  foundation  of  the  '  International 
Institute  for  Archaeological  Correspondence'.  Gerhard,  Kestner.  Fea,  and 
Thorwaldsen  met  at  Bunsen's  official  residence,  the  Palazzo  Caflarelli  on  the 
Capitol,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Winckelmann,  the  glh  of  December, 
to  draw  up  a  scheme  for  the  new  Institute,  which  was  to  be  founded  in  1819, 
on  April  11.  the  traditional  date  of  the  founding  of  Rome.  Its  publications 
subsequently  included  a  monthly  BuUetino,  annual  volumes  of  Annali  and 
Manumenli,  and,  in  and  after  :87i,  the  Ephemeris  Epigraphka. 

The  success  of  the  Institute  in  Rome  was  largely  due  to  the  ability  of  its 
secretaries.  Bunsen  was  general  secretary  in  18S9-38,  and  was  aided,  al  first, 
by  Gerhard  and  Panofka,  and  (on  Gerhard's  departure)  by  Ambrosch,  and  by 
the  chaplain  of  the  legation,  H.  Abeken,  and  the  Danish  scholar,  0.  Kellermann 
(18051—1838).  The  last  of  these  was  the  first  to  propound  a  great  scheme  for 
a  critical  colleclian  of  Latin  inscriptions. 

When  Gerhard  returned  to  Rome  in  1833,  he  was  accompanied  by  an 
able  amanuensis,  August  Emil  Braun  {1809 — 1856),  who  was 
bom  at  Gotho,  and  had  studied  classical  archaeology  in 
Gottingeti,  Munich,  Dresden,  and  Paris,  and  who  acted  as  secretary  of  the 
Institute  until  his  death.  Braun  was  an  authority  in  mailers  of  archaeology, 
but  in  later  years  he  developed  an  inordinate  repugnance  to  the  use  of  ancient 
literature  in  illustration  of  the  remains  of  ancient  art*. 

As  secretary,  Braun  was  associated  with  the  celebrated  Egyptolc^sl, 
Richard  Lepsius,  and  with  Wilhelm  Abeken  (1813 — 1843),  the  author  of  a 
work  on  the  early  inhabitants  of  ancient  Italy,  and  Wilhelm  Henzen  (1816— 
1887),  Welcker's  pupil  and  fellow-traveller  in  Greece,  who  afterwards  (under 
the  influence  of  Mommsen)  devoted  most  of  his  energy  to  the  Corpus  Inscrip- 
lienum  Latinarum^. 

'  AuserUseiu  Gr.  VasmUlihr  (i840-£S).  '  4  parts  (1843-68). 

'  Life  by  Otto  Jahn  in  Gerhard's  Abhandlungtn,  \\  i  — 111 ;  cp.  Uriichs  in 
A.  D.  B.,  and  Bursian,  ii  1046 — T06G. 

*  His  chief  works  were  Antike  Marmorwerkt  (1844);  XII  Basrelie/s 
(1845);  Cr.  GStterlekrt  (1854);  VarsckaU  der  KumtmytMegie  (1854).  Cp. 
(A.  Michaelis),  Gesch.  des  deutschen  ArchSal.  last.  53  f,  lOi  f,  liif,  Hj  f. 

*  Biagr.Jahrh.  1888,  135—160. 


220  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Gerhard's  biographer  was  the  able  and  scholarly  archaeologist, 
Otto  Jahn  (1813— 1869),  who  studied  at  Kiel, 
Leipzig,  and  Berlin;  was  a  ' privat-docent '  at  Kiel 
in  1839,  professor  at  Greifswald  in  1841-7,  and  at  Leipzig  from 
1847  to  1851,  when  he  was  dismissed  on  political  grounds  and 
found  a  city  of  refuge  in  Ziirich.  For  the  last  fourteen  years  of 
his  life  he  was  professor  at  Bonn,  and,  in  1869,  he  died  at 
Gottingen. 

An  adept  in  music,  he  found  his  chief  interest  in  classical  scholarship,  and 
in  the  scholarly  study  of  classical  archaeology.  Under  the  influence  of 
Nitzsch  al  Kiel,  and  Lachmanu  in  Berlin,  he  hecame  an  eager  sludent  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  poets.  His  earliest  interest  in  archaeology  was  aroused  by 
his  visits  to  Paris  in  1837  and  Rome  in  1838,  when  he  came  under  (he  influence 
of  Emit  Braun.  Greek  vases  were  the  thetne  of  a  lai|^  number  of  his  papers  ; 
he  also  wrote  an  introduction  to  their  study  in  his  Descriplion  of  the  Collection 
in  the  Munich  Pinakothek  (1854).  Shortly  after  his  return  from  Italy,  he  began 
his  career  as  an  academic  teacher.  That  career  was  only  interrupted  by  his 
political  activity  at  Kiel  in  1848,  by  the  enforced  leisure  of  1851-5,  ^i"^  by  ihe 
illness  that  immediately  preceded  his  death. 

His  well-equipped  series  of  text-books  for  univer^ly  lectures  included  the 
Story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  from  Apuleius,  the  Descriplion  of  the  Athenian 
Acropolis  in  Pausanias',  the  Eleetra  of  Sophocles,  the  Symposium  of  Plato, 
and  the  treatise  on  the  Sublime'.  All  except  the  last  were  emheilished  with 
illustrations  from  works  of  ancient  ait.  His  annotated  school-editions 
included  the  Btutus  and  the  Oralur  of  Cicero'.  His  critical  recensions 
comprised  Persius  (1843}  and  Juvenal  (1S51),  followed  by  a  new  edition  of 
both  (1868))  also  Florus,  and  Censorinus,  and  the  Perioehat  of  Livy, 
together  with  Julius  Obsequens.  One  of  the  best  of  his  papers  was  that  on 
the  Subscriptiones  at  the  end  of  MSS  of  the  Classics*. 

His  work  in  archaeology,  apart  from  Ihe  Introduction  to  Greek  Vases 
already  mentioned,  includes  a  large  number  of  masterly  monc^aphs.  The 
Bubjecti  of  the  earlier  group  included  Telephus  and  Troilus,  the  paintings  of 
Polygnolus, '  Pentheus  and  the  Maenads ',  '  Paris  and  Oenone ',  with  discourses 
on  Ancient  Tragedy  and  Goethe's  IphigenU,  on  Welcker  and  Winckelmann, 
and  on  Hellenic  Art,  as  well  as  an  essay  on  the  Palhidium',  and  the  collected 
papers  entitled  Archaologischc  Aufidlzt  ixA  Seilrage  {tS^^-j}. 

At  Leipzig  he  published  numerous  papers  in  the  transactions  of  the  local 
Academy,   including  one  on  the  art'criticisms  of  the  elder  Pliny*,  and  on 

'  i860;  ed.  1  (Micbaelis)  rSSo;  ed.  3,  1901. 
'  1867  ;  ed.  3  (Vahlen),  1905- 

•  1849-si  ;  ed.  3,  1865-9;  ed.  4of/?™Cm,  1877. 

*  Sa^it.  Berichte,  iii  (1851)  337  f.  *  Fhiielagus,  i  55  f. 
"  Satis.  BtrichU,  ii  105  f. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]  JAHN.      BRUNN.  221 

scenes  from  Gieek  poets  on  Gteek  vases*.     He  also  contributed  to  the  publica- 
tions of  the  learned  societies  of  Munich,  Vienna,  Zurich,  Bonn,  and  Rome. 

His  lectures  at  Bonn  were  lucid  and  unadorned  in  style,  and  while  the 
salient  points  were  brought  into  clear  relief,  there  was  a  perfect  mastery  of  all 
the  details.  He  lavished  his  resources  on  (he  collection  of  a  splendid  library, 
which  enabled  him  to  acquire  a  minute  familiarily  with  the  remotest  comers  of 
ancient  lire,  a  ramiliarity  eiemplified  nol  only  in  his  learned  commentary  on 
Persius,  but  also  in  his  elaborate  paper  on  the  ancient  superstition  of  the 

It  was  at  Bonn  that  he  delivered  his  two  discourses  on  the  general  position 
of  Classical  Studies  in  Germany  (1859-61)*.  Even  in  his  years  of  failing  health 
he  produced  much  of  the  worit  that  appears  in  his  '  Popular  Essays  *  (1868). 
His  latest  work,  that  on  Ihe  Greek  inscribed  reliefs  of  mythologtcal  and 
historical  scenes,  was  edited  after  hJa  death  by  his  distinguished  nephew  and 
paful,  Adolf  Michaelis*. 

A  new  life  vfas  given  to  the  Archaeological  Institute  by 
Henzen,  and  by  Heinrich  Bninn  (i8ij — 1894),  a 
pupil  of  Welcker  and  Ritschl  at  Bonn,  where  he 
submitted  for  his  degree  a  dissertation  on  the  sources  of  Pliny's 
chapters  on  the  History  of  Art  (1843).  He  resided  in  Rome 
from  that  date  to  1853,  the  year  of  the  publication  of  the  first 
volume  of  his  well-known  '  History  of  the  Greek  Artists '  *.  After 
a  brief  interval  at  Bonn,  he  lived  once  more  in  Rome  from  1856 
to  1S65,  when  he  became  professor  at  Munich,  holding  that 
position  with  conspicuous  ability  for  nearly  thirty  years. 

Many  of  his  published  papers  were  preparatory  to  a  comprehensive 
'  History  of  Greek  and  Roman  Art ',  the  early  portions  of  which  were  printed 
in  1893-7.  A  volume  of  Essays  entitled  Grtichische  Gollirideale  was 
published  by  himself  (1893)1  '"^  minor  works  have  since  been  collected  in 
three  volumes'  ;  and  a  series  of  fine  reproductions  of  '  Monuments  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Sculpture',  liegun  in  his  life-lime,  has  been  continued  since  his 
death.  His  style  as  a  teacher  was  marked  by  simplicity  and  clearness,  by 
enthusiasm  for  his  subject,  and  by  a  complete  absence  of  rhetorical  adornment. 
Not  content  with   giving  results,  he  also  pointed  out  Ihe  strictly  scientific 

"  Abhandl.\\\^^i. 

»  Sikhs.  Btrkhti,  vii  (1855)  18— iJO. 

*  Winckelmann,  Hermann,  and  Ludwig  Ross  are  admirably  treated  in  his 
Bu>gnjfAiscki  Au/sdize  {ed.  i,  iS6ti). 

*  BildenhroniJun  (1873).  Cp.  Michaelis  in  A.  D.  B.,  and  Arch.  Enid. 
154;  also  Bursian,  ii  1070-80,  esp.  the  quotations  on  p.  1075;  Vahlen,  i8jo, 
J4  pp.;  Momrosen,  in  RiJen  und Aufsdtst,  458 f. 

*  "853-9  f  ^-  *>  '889.  *  1898— 1905-6,  with  portraits. 

,^.oogic 


HelbiK 


223  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

method  by  which  Ihey  had  been  atlained'.  Among  his  numerous  discoveries 
may  be  mentioned  his  recognition  of  the  so-called  '  Leucothea'  of  the  Munich 
Glyptothtk  as  the  '  Eiiene  and  PUitus'  of  Cephisodotus';  and  his  identiliC3tion 
of  a  series  of  scattered  works  of  sculpture  (all  beloriging  to  a  Roman  find  of 
■5  [4)  as  the  remnants  of  the  four  groups  of  figures  set  up  by  Attalus  1  on  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens  to  commemorate  the  battles  of  the  Peti^amenes  against 
Ihc  Gaiatians,  of  the  Athenians  against  the  Persians  and  the  Amazons,  and  of 
the  Gods  against  the  Giants'.  The  relations  Iwtween  the  literature  and  the  art 
of  Greece  are  exemplified  in  his  paper  on  the  indications  of  artistic  inspiration 
in  Greek  idyllic  poetry'.  The  discovery  in  modem  times  of  many  works  of 
ancient  art  unreci^nised  by  Pliny  or  Pausanias  has  led  to  a  more  independent 
study  of  Greek  sculpture  for  its  own  sake,  and  to  a  closer  attention  to  the 
analysis  o/  artistic  slyle.    The  pioneer  in  this  new  movement  was  Heinrich 

Brunn's  successor  as  secretary  at  Rome  was  Wolfgang  Helbig 
(b.  1839),  a  pupil  of  Jahn  and  Ritschl,  who  is  best 
known  as  the  author  of  two  volumes  on  the  wall- 
paintings  of  Pompeii,  proving  that  nearly  all  of  them  were  repro- 
ductions of  Hellenistic  works  (1868-73),  ^1^*^  "'^'^  °^  ^  volume 
in  which  the  Homeric  poems  are  illustrated  by  the  remains  of 
ancient  art  (1884).  His  guide  to  the  Roman  Museums  was 
published  in  1891. 

Immediately  after  the  Institute  had  become  an  Imperial  insti- 
tution, a  branch  was  opened  at  Athens  (1874).  The  first  secretary 
at  Athens  was  Otto  Liiders,  a  pupil  of  Welcker,  and  author  of 
Du  dionysiscfun  Kunstler  (1873)'.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Ulrich  Kohler  (1838 — 1903},  for  many 
years  editor  of  the  Mittheilungen  and  of  several  volumes  of  the 
Corpus  Inscriptionum  Ailicarum'. 

1  G.  Korte,  in  Berl.  Philel.  IVoch.  1899,  88j  f.  At  Bonn,  in  1843,  Bninn 
had  maintained  that  'he  would  rather  err  tailh  method,  than  hit  upon  truth 
wilAout '. 

*  1867  ;  A7.  Sehr.  ii  ji8 — 340;  cp.  Michaelia,  Arch.  Enid.  (1906)  267. 

'  1870;  Kl.Schr.ii  ^ti — 430;  cp.  E.  A.  Gardner,  Cii  ii:ii^i'»r(,  457 — 460- 

*  1879;  A7.i'c4r.iii  117—318. 

*  Cp-  Michaelis,  Arch,  Enid.  (1906)  36a  f.  On  Brunn,  cp.  A.  Emerson  in 
Amir.  Journ.  of  ArchaeeUgy,  ix  (1894)  36a — 371  (with  two  portraits)  ;  on  his 
pupils,  cp.  Bursian,  ii  lo88. 

'  See,  in  general,  (A.  Michaelis),  Gesch.  dts  lUulschtn  archaal.  /nsliltUi, 
1819-79. 

'  Deutscher Nrkrclog,  tgoj;  Biogr.  Jahtb.  igo6,  ta—sg (with bibliography). 
On  Dittenherger  (d.  1906)  and  Furtwangler  (d.  1907)  see  Addenda. 


A.OO' 


ic^lC 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]         WIESELER.      STEPHANI.  223 

Among  the  represeniatives  of  the  'slatistfcal'  type  of  archaeologists,  who 
(like  Gerhard)  aimed  al  collecting  alt  ihe  exlant  remains  of 
ancient  art  and  inlerpieling  Ihem  in  the  light  of  literary  and 
artislic  evidence,  a  foremost  place  must  he  assigned  to  Friedtieh  Wieseler 
(1811  —  189]).  After  studying  at  Giitlingen  and  lietliii,  it  was  at  the  former 
university  thai  he  passed  through  all  the  successive  stages  of  a  professorial 
career  extending  over  Ihree  and  fifty  years.  In  his  earliest  works  he  discussed 
the  text  and  the  plot  of  several  Greek  plays',  besides  writing  on  the  ThymeU, 
and  publishing  an  illustrated  folio  volume  on  Ihe  Greek  and  Roman  Theatre 
(iSji).  He  produced  numerous  papers  on  archaeology,  and  on  mythology  in 
an'.      He  is  best  known  for  his  continuation  of  Milller's  Denkmdttr^. 

Another  archaeologist  of  the  same  general  type  was  Ludolf  Stephani 
(1816  — 1887),  who  studied  at  Leipzig  under  Hermann  and 
W.  A.  Becker,  and  published  in  1843  Ihe  topographical  and 
epigraphical  results  of  his  (our  in  Northern  Greece.  In  1846  he  was  called  to 
ihe  university  of  Dorpat,  where  he  continued  the  study  of  Greek  inscriptions  ; 
and,  in  1850,  was  made  a  Member  of  Ihe  St  Petersburg  Academy,  and  Keeper 
of  the  coins  and  other  antiquities  in  Ihe  Hennitage.  To  the  publications 
of  the  Academy  he  contributed  a  number  of  exhaustive  monc^raphs'.  He 
also  prepared,  on  a  scale  of  unprecedented  magnificence,  the  reports  on  the 
archaeological  exploration  of  the  Crimea',  and  Ihe  twenty  volumes  of  the 
Cempln-rendus  of  the  Imperial  Archieolc^cal  Commission,  It^ether  with 
the  descriptive  catalogue  of  the  vases  in  the  Hermitage,  and  of  the  antiques  in 
ihe  palace  at  Pawlowsk'. 

Among  those  who  conlribuled  to  the  study  and  appreciation  of  Greek 
arcbileclure  were  Karl  Friedrich  Schinkel  (i;8i— 1841),  a 
practical  architect,  whose  design  for  the  erection  of  a  royal 
palace  on  the  platform  of  the  Athenian  Acropolis  was  happily  never  carried 
out;  Leo  von  Klenie  (1784— -1864),  Ihe  author  of  a  work  on  the  temple  of 
Zeus  at  Agrigenlum  (1811) ;  GoEtfried  Semper  (1803— 1879),  the  author  of  an 
imporlani  volume  on  archilectural  style';  and  Karl  Boetlicher  (1806—1889}, 
the  author  of  the  Ttklettik  dtr  HelUntn\  Johann  Heinrich  Sirack 
(1805 — 1880)  wrote  a  monograph  on  the  ancient  Greek  Theatre  (1843),  and 
brought  about  the  complete  excavation  of  Ihe  Theatre  of  Dionysus  at 
Athens  (1861)*.  Richard  Bohn  (1849 — 1898)  was  among  the  architects  em- 
ployed in  Ihe  exploration  of  Olympia  and  Pergamon  '°. 

>  Eum.  (1839),  P.  V.  and  .4iwj  (1843)  etc.  >  Bursian,  ii  \o^i  note. 

*  Biogr.  Jakrb.  1900,  9^41  (with  bibliography). 

»  Der  ausruhende  Herailii  (1854) ;  Nimbus  und  SIraklenkrans  (1859)  etc. 

•  Antiquith  du  Boiphare  Ciaimlrita  (1854) ;  also  Antiquith  dt  la  Scythit 
(i8«,  ,873). 

<  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1886,  138—^63  \  Bursian,  ii  1091-5. 

'  1860-3;  ^'  '.  '878-9;  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1879,  49—831  Bursian,  ii  iio7f. 

'  '843-51 ;  ed.  I,  [873-81 ;  Biogr.  Jakrb.  1890,  ;i — 81. 

»  Biogr.  Jakrb.  1885,  96^16*.  ■»  Conie  in  A.  D.  B.  xlvii  81. 

h.  i."ii,Cooglc 


224  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Archaeoli^ical  research  in  man;  lands  was  promoled  by  ihe  excavations 
initiated  by  Heinricli  Schliemann  (iSai — 1890).  The  son 
of  a  German  pastor,  he  had  often  heard  his  falher  lell  Ihe 
story  or  the  Trojan  war,  and,  at  the  age  of  eight,  he  resolved  on  excavating 
the  site  of  Troy.  At  (he  age  of  fourteen,  as  a  grocer's  apprentice,  he  heard  a 
miller's  man,  who  had  known  belter  days,  recite  a  hundred  lines  of  Homer, 
and  he  (hen  prayed  thai  he  might  some  day  have  the  happiness  of  learning 
Greek.  At  the  age  of  twenly-live,  he  founded  an  indigo  business  at 
St  Petersburg,  and  by  the  age  of  thirty-six  had  acquired  a  sufficient  fortune  to 
be  able  lo  devote  himself  entirely  to  archaeoli^y.  He  had  then  been  studyii^ 
Greek  for  two  years,  not  having  dared  to  do  so  before,  for  fear  of  falling  under 
Ihe  spell  of  Homer  and  neglecting  his  business.  In  his  earliest  work,  that  on 
'  Ithaca,  Peloponnesus,  and  Troy'  (1869),  he  inferred  from  Pausanjas'  that  ihe 
graves  of  the  Atreidae  at  Mycenae  must  be  sought  iHside  the  wall  of  the 
citadel,  and  he  supported  the  opinion  that  the  site  of  Troy  was  on  the  hill  of 
Hissarlik.  The  hil!  was  excavated  in  1870-73,  and  the  results  published  in 
1874-5.  His  exploration  of  Mycenae  (1874-6)  was  (ally  descrilied  in  1877. 
Resuming  his  work  at  'Troy'  (1878-9),  he  published  his  results  in  /iias 
{1S80).  After  excavating  ihe  'treasury  of  Minyas'  at  Orchomenos  (1880-1), 
he  returned  to  Troy,  and  published  7r0/<i  (1884).  An  imperfect  exploralion 
of  the  '  mound  of  Marathon  '  was  followed  by  successful  work  at  Tiryns  (i88j). 
In  the  island  of  Cytbera  he  discovered  the  ancient  temple  of  the  Uranian 
Aphrodite  (t888),  and  on  that  of  Sphacteria  the  o!d  fortilicatians  mentioned 
by  Thucydides'. 

He  had  a  palatial  house  at  Alhens  inscribed  with  the  words  lAIOT  MEAA- 
dPON  ;  the  floor  was  adorned  with  mosaics  representing  vases  and  urns  from 
'  Troy ' ;  along  the  walls  ran  painted  friezes  with  epic  landscapes,  and  Homeric 
quotations.  The  porter's  name  was  Bellerophon,  the  footman's  Telamon,  and 
Schliemann  himself  would  be  generally  engaged  in  reading  some  Greek 
Clas^iic  He  had  married  a  Greek  wife,  who  was  as  enthusiastic  as  himself  in 
the  exploration  of  Mycenae ;  he  called  his  daughter  Andromache,  and  his  son 
Agamemnon.  When  the  archaeological  world  was  looking  forward  lo  his 
proposed  exploralion  of  Crete,  he  died  suddenly  in  Naples.  He  was  buried  at 
AthetB  in  the  Greek  cemetery  south  of  the  Ilissus.  His  desire  that  his  body 
should  there  rest  in  the  land  of  his  adoption  was  carried  out  by  Dorpfeld,  who 
had  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  excavations  at  Tiryns,  and  who  afterwards 
published  an  important  work  summing  up  the  results  of  the  exploration  of  Troy, 
which  was  finally  completed  by  Doipfeld  alone'. 

'  ii  16, 4. 

'  ivji,  1. 

'  Traja  tind  Ition  (1901).  Cp.  in  general,  Schuchardt,  SchlUmanm 
Amgrabungen  (1890),  E.T.  (with  bit^raphy);  also  Bulsian,  ii  1113-9;  Joseph 
(Berlin,  190J') ;  'SitxTin,  Kl.  Schr.  iii  179 — tSt;  and  Michaelis,  Arch.  Enid. 
iSif. 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]      STARK.      OVERBECK.      BURSIAN.  225 

All  the  provinces  of  archaeological  research, — the  history 
of  archaeology,  the  history  and  interpretation  of 
ancient  art,  as  well  as  mythology,  antiquities  and 
historical  topography,  were  traversed  in  the  professorial  teaching, 
and  in  the  published  works,  of  Karl  Bernard  Stark  (1824 — 1879). 
After  studying  under  Goltling,  Hermann,  and  Boeckh,  and 
travelling  in  Italy,  he  settled  at  Jena  in  1848,  and,  in  1855,  was 
called  to  Heidelberg,  where  he  held  a  professorship  for  the  last 
twenty-four  years  of  his  life.  Meanwhile,  he  had  produced  his 
first  important  work,  that  on  Gaza  and  the  Philistine  coast 
(1851),  followed  by  his  monograph  on  Niobe  {1863).  He  spent 
his  latest  years  in  preparing  a  comprehensive  Handbook  to  the 
Archaeology  of  Art,  and  the  first  part,  including  the  general 
survey  of  the  subject,  and  the  history  of  its  study,  was  post- 
humously published  in  1880.  His  Lectures  and  Essays  on 
Archaeology  and  on  the  History  of  Art  were  published  in  the 

Another  short-lived   archaeologist,  Karl  Friederichs  {1831 — 
1871),  was  the  author  of  a  full  description  of  the 
Berlin  Museum  of  Casts  {1868;  ed.  2,  1885),  and 
of  works  on  Praxiteles  and  the  Philostrati, 

An  important  history  of  ancient  sculpture'  was  published 
by  Joannes  Overbeck  {1826 — 1895),  a  native  of 
Antwerp,  who  was  educated  at  Hamburg  and  who 
studied  at  Bonn,  and  was  professor  of  Classical  Archaeology  at 
Leipzig  from  1858  to  his  death.  All  the  Greek  and  Latin  texts 
on  ancient  art  are  conveniently  collected  in  his  SchriftqueUen 
{1848).  Mythology  in  art  is  the  sphere  of  his  great  series  of 
illustrations  connected  with  the  heroes  of  the  Theban  and  the 
Trojan  Cycle  (1853),  and  with  the  gods  of  Greece  (1871  tf.  His 
standard  work  on  Pompeii  {1856),  written  before  he  had  visited 
the  place,  was  afterwards  repeatedly  enlarged  and  improved. 

Conrad  Bursian  (1830 — 1883),  who  has  done  due  honour  to 
archaeology  in  connexion  with  the  history  of  classi- 
cal philology,  received    his  early  education  under 
Stallbaum  at  Leipz^,  where  he  continued  his  studies  under  Haupt 


Biogr.Jahrb.  i8j9,  40 — +5  ;  Bursian,  ii  1100-2. 
i857f ;  ed.  4,  1894.  "  Bursian,  i 


S.    III. 


i>,i5iooglc 


226  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

and  Jahn.  He  also  worked  for  a  short  time  in  Berlin  under 
Boeckh.  After  travelling  in  Greece  (1852-5),  he  held  professor- 
ships of  Classics  and  Archaeology  at  Leipzig,  Tubingen,  Ziirich, 
and  Jena,  and  for  the  last  nine  years  of  his  life  was  a  professor 
at  Munich. 

Apart  from  papers  on  Greek  geography  and  archaeology, 
his  early  works  included  an  edition  of  the  elder  Seneca  (1856). 
It  was  at  Tiibingen  that  he  completed  the  first  volume  of  his 
important  'Ge<^aphy  of  Greece'  {1867),  reserving  the  second 
for  publication  in  three  parts  in  1868—72.  Its  completion  was 
delayed  by  his  comprehensive  monc^raph  on  Greek  Art  in  '  Ersch 
and  Gruber'.  His  interest  in  Greek  Geography  was  further  shown 
in  his  editions  of  several  of  the  minor  Greek  Geographers.  In 
1877  he  founded  an  important  periodical  for  the  annual  survey 
of  the  progress  of  classical  learning'.  He  spent  his  last  ten 
years  on  the  crowning  work  of  his  life,  his  *  Histor}'  of  Classical 
Philology  in  Germany". 

Otto  Benndorf  (1838 — 1907),  who  studied  at  Erlangen  and 
(under  Jahn)  at  Bonn,  was  successively  professor 
of  archaeology  at  Ziirich,  Prag,  and  Vienna,  where 
he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Austrian  Archaeolc^cal  Insti- 
tute on  its  foundation  in  1898.  He  began  his  brilliant  career  by 
producing  at  Bonn  in  1865  a  well-known  dissertation  on  the 
Epigrams  of  the  Greek  Anthology  relating  to  works  of  art  In 
conjunction  with  R.  Schoene  he  described  the  ancient  sculptures 
of  the  Lateran  Museum  (1867);  he  also  published  a  work  on 
Greek  and  Sicilian  vases  (18691),  and  a  monograph  on  the  ' 
metopes  of  Selinus  {1873),  He  was  associated  with  Conze  and 
Hauser  in  the  second  Austrian  expedition  to  Samothrace  (1875), 
with  Petersen  in  the  exploration  of  the  heroon  of  Giolbaschi  near 
Myra  in  Lycia  (1881  f ),  and  with  Heberdey  and  Wilberg  in  the 
excavations  at  Ephesos  {1896)'. 

Another  pupil  of  Jahn,  Friedrich  Mati  (1843—1874),  begin  his  brief 
career  with  a  paper  in  which  he  took  up  a  posidon  belween 
that  al  Karl  Friederichs,  who   had  attacked,  and  IleinKch 


'  Jahrethtriekt  iibtr  die  Fortichrilte  dtr  dassischea  Alterlkunisiaissenschaft. 
«  1171  pp.  (:883);  Biogr.JaJirb.  1883.  i— ri. 

*  Cp.  Bursian,  ii   10S5,   and  Michaelis,  Ar^h.   Entd.   gSf,   ijSf,   i64f; 
Forschun^n  in  Epkesos,  vol.  i  (Vienna,  1907). 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]      BENNDORF.      FORCHHAMMER.  22/ 

Brann,  who  had  defended  the  authenlicily  of  the  pictorial  descriptions  of  the 
two  Philostrati  (1867), 

Among   the  earliest   of  the  Germans  who  took  part  in  the 
topographical  exploration    of    Greek    lands    were 
Friedrich    Thiersch',    and    Ludwig    Ross    (1806 
— 1859),  the  explorer  of  the  Greek  Islands  (1840-52)  and  the 
author  of  a  work  on  the  Attic  Denies  {1852)'. 

Peter  Wilhelm  Forchhammer  (1801—1894),  who  was  educated  at  LUbeck 
and  studied  at  Kiel,  travelled  in  Italy,  Greece  aud  Asia  Minor 
from  1830  to  1836,  and  was  a  professor  at  Kiel  for  the 
remaining  nriy-eight  years  of  his  life.  The  observations  made  during  his 
earlier  Greek  travels  appeared  in  his  HtUenika  (1837).  During  his  second 
tour  of  1838-40,  he  visited  the  Troad  with  the  English  naval  officer, 
T.  A.  B.  SpratI,  whose  map  was  published  with  Forchhammer's  'Observations 
on  the  top<^raphy  of  Troy'  (1843-50).  He  also  wrote  on  the  topography  of 
Athens  (1841),  and,  nearly  forty  years  afterwards,  on  the  linds  at  Mycenae. 
In  his  numerous  mythological  papers  he  contended  that  Mytholt^y  had  its 
origin  in  natural  phenomena,  especially  in  those  connected  with  water. 

In  the  earliest  of  his  archaeological  publications  he  rightly  maintained, 
against  Boeckh,  thai  cases  of  homicide  were  not  removed  from  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Areopagus  by  (he  reforms  of  Ephialles  ;  and,  in  his  work  on  '  Socrates 
and  the  Athenians',  he  paradoxically  represented  Socrates  as  a  revolutionist 
and  the  Athenians  as  prompted  by  their  reverence  for  the  law  in  condemning 
him  to  death*.  After  Kiel  had  been  incorporated  with  Prusaa,  Forchhammer 
became  a  Member  of  Parliament.  He  lived  to  be  more  than  ninety,  and  was 
a  keen  student  of  mythology  and  of  art  to  the  very  end.  His  abiding  interest 
in  the  old  Greek  world  was  proved  by  bis  discussions  of  school-reform  in  1882, 
and  his  paper  on  'mind  and  matter'  in  1889'. 

A  life  of  far  shorter  duration  was  the  lot  of  another  native  of  Northern 
Europe,  Heinrich  Ulrichs  (1807—1843),  who  was  born  at 
Bremen,  and,  during  his  stay  in  Greece,  explored  E>elphi  and 
Thebes  and  the  intervening  district,  as  well  as  the  harbours  of  Athens.  He 
was  professor  of  Latin  at  Athens  in  1834,  and  died  there  nine  years  later'. 

The  whole  of  the  Orbh  Vtteribiis  Nolut  was  traversed  in  the  course  of  the 
life-long  labours  of  Heinrich  Kiepert  ([818 — 1899).  In  his 
native  city  of  Berlin  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Boeckh  and 
of  Karl  Ritter,  began  his  travels  in  Asia  Minor  in  1841,  was  appointed 
Director  of  the  Geographical  Institute  at  Weimar  in  1845,  and,  after  returning 
to  Berlin  in  1855,  was  successively  elected  a  Member  of  the  Academy  (1855), 
'extraordinary'  professor  (1859)   and   'ordinary'    professor   of    Geography 

»  p.  Ill  supTi.  »  Jahn,  Biogr.  Au/s.  133—164.  >  p.  74  sufra. 

*  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1897,  41 — 63  (with  bibliography). 

"  Life  in  vol.  ii  of  his  Reisen  und  Forschttngot  (1840-63),  ed.  Passow. 

h.  I  .^s-t^ooglc 


H.  Ulrichs 


228  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

(1874).  He  gave  lecluies  in  all  these  capacities.  Apart  from  many  separate 
maps  of  the  highest  degree  of  excellence,  the  publications  by  which  he  is  best 
known  are  his  comprehensive  and  hieid  tenl-book  of  Ancient  Geographj 
(i87fi),  his  Alias  Antiquus  (iSsg)  and  his  Atlas  von  Hellas  (1871).  His 
Alias  Antiquus  has  attained  a  twelfth  edition,  and  the  publication  of  his 
Forntat  Orbis  Antiqui  has  been  continued  since  his  death'. 

In  Greek  topography  a  wide  field  was  covered  by  the  com- 
prehensive   work    of   Bursian',    and    also  by  the 
ElTuttiuV      ^^"^^    labours    of    Ernst    Curtius  (1814— 1896). 
Bom  and   bred  at  LiJbeck,  where  his  father  was 
the  Biirgermeister  of  that  ancient  Hanseatic  town,  he  had  no 
sooner  come  to  the  end  of  his  I^hrjakre  at  Bonn  and  Gottingen 
and  Berlin  than  he  began  his  four  years  of  Wanderjahre  in  Greece 
(1836-40).     His  travels  and  researches  bore  fruit  in  an  admirable 
work  on  the  Ptloponnesos  (1851-2).     Meanwhile,  he  had  taken 
his  degree  at  Halle,  and  had  begun  his  distinguished  career  in 
Berlin  (1843).     He  was  a  professor  at  Gottingen  from  1856  to 
1868,  when  he  returned  to  Berlin,  and  was  one  of  the  ornaments 
of  that  university  for  the  remaining- twenty-eight  years  of  his  life. 

His  History  of  Greece  was  published  in  1857-67',  while  he  was  still 
at  Gottingen,  It  has  justly  been  regarded  as  a  brilliant  achievement.  The 
author's  travels  had  enabled  him  I0  give  a  vivid  impression  of  the  gei^raphical 
characteristics  of  the  country.  The  narrWive  was  lucid  and  interesting,  and 
literature  and  art  found  due  recognition  in  its  pages'. 

A  lecture  on  Olympia,  delivered  in  1844  in  the  presence  of  the  King  of 
Frassia,  led  to  his  being  appointed  tutor  10  the  Crown  Prince  Friedrich,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  the  university  of  Bonn,  and  whom  he  inspired  with  an 
interest  in  ancient  and  modern  art.  He  was  thus  enabled  in  after  years  to 
secure  high  patronage  for  the  exploration  of  Olympia',  the  successful  com- 
pletion of  which  was  largely  due  to  his  influence.  His  study  was  adorned 
with  a  copy  of  the  Nike  of  Faeonius,  the  first-fruits  of  the  rich  harvest  of  the 
Olympian  plain.  His  own  marble  bust,  the  gift  of  his  admirers,  was  also 
there,  and  a  replica  of  the  same  was  appropriately  placed  in  the  Museum  at 
Olympia.     His  light  hair,  his  sparkling  eyes,  and  the  clear  cut  profile  of  his 

'  Autobiography  in  Globus,  18Q9,  no.  19. 

>  p.  T.-A  supra.  '  Ed.  6,  1888 ;  E.  T.  by  A.  W.  Ward,  1868-73. 

*  His  theory  that  the  mainland  of  Greece  was  colonised  by  the  lonians  of 
Asia  Minor,  long  before  Asia  Minor  was  colonised  by  a  reluming  wave  of 
colonists  from  Greece,  was  first  proposed  in  a  paper  of  1855,  Die  /enter  vtir 
tier  uniscken  IVanderung,  energetically  opposed  in  A.  von  Gutschmid's 
Beilrdge  of  1858. 

"  1875—1881;  Ergtbttisse,  1881-37. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CWachimi 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]      E.  CURTIUS.      C.  WACHSMUTH.  229 

face,  as  well  as  his  charm  of  manner,  made  him  a  singularly  a.ltraclive 
personality.  He  had  a  sirong  physique  and  enjoyed  excellent  health.  Al  the 
age  of  eighty,  he  once  stood  for  an  hour,  delivering  without  note  an  admirable 
discourse  on  the  hereditary  priests  of  Olympia.  In  his  old  age,  however,  his 
failing  eyesight  compelled  him  to  submit  to  several  operations  for  cataract. 

Apart  from  his  early  work  on  the  Pelofoniusoi,  and  the  'History'  of  his 
maturer  years,  we  have  the  fruit  of  his  old  age  in  a  comprehensive  and 
well-ordered  'History  of  the  City  of  Athens'  (1891)'.  His  occasional 
discourses  on  ancient  and  modern  topics  have  been  collected  in  the  three 
volumes  entitled  AlUttkum  und  Gegmwart  (iSjs-Sp),  and  his  more  learned 
papers  in  two  volumes  published  in  1894.  A  special  interest  attaches  to  the 
articles  which  he  wrote  in  memory  of  Colonel  Leake,  as  well  as  of  Boeckh, 
K.  O.  Miiller,  and  his  younger  brother,  Geoi^  Curtius'.  His  bust  has  been 
already  mentioned  ;  his  portrait  was  painted  in  oils  by  Koner  for  the  National 
Gallery  in  Berlin,  and  also  by  Reinhold  Lipsius*. 

The  first  volume  of  Die  Sladt  Alhen  im  Allerthum  (1874-90)  was  dedicated 
to  Curlius  by  Curt  Wachsmulh  (1837 — 190s),  profes! 
Marburg,  Gottingen,  Heidelberg  and  Leipzig,  who  in 
published  the  first  two  volumes  of  an  important  edition  of  the  Anlheiogium  of 
Stobaeus,  followed  in  1895  by  his  excellent  Introduction  to  the  study  of 
ancient  history*. 

The  exploration  of  Olympia  during  the  first  two  seasons  (1875-7)  "as 
entrusted  10  Gustav  Hirschfeld  {1847—1895),  who  had 
studied  in  Berlin  under  Curtius,  whom  he  accompanied  on  a 
tour  in  Asia  Minor,  besides  working  at  archaeology  during  his  own  travels  in 
Italy  and  Greece.  In  1S77-8  he  was  at  work  on  the  Greek  Inscriptions  of  the 
British  Museum,  his  edition  of  which  was  published  in  1893.  He  look  a 
prominent  part  in  the  discussions  as  to  the  authority  of  Pausanias ',  and  as  to 
the  date  of  the  foundation  of  Naucratis  and  the  antiquity  of  the  early  Greek 
inscriptions*. 

'  The  Sitbai  Karten  zur  Topagrapkie  van  Atktn  {1868)  were  followed  by 
Curtius  and  Kaupert's  ..4/^ij  von  Athen  (1876)  and  Karten  van  Altiia  (1881- 
94),  and  by  Milchhofer's  Uebersicklskarte  von  Ailika  (1903). 

'  Allerth-um  und  Gegettwart,  vols,  ii,  iii. 

■  Gurlitt,  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1901,  irj — 144;  cp.  Ein  LdemHld  in  Brieftti 
(1903);  also  Bursian,  ii  iii9f,  mfii;  Brotcher,  in  Preuss.  Jahrb.,  1896, 
581—603;  Kekule's^tat,  1896;  Keep,  in  ^././•.xix  111— 137;  T.  Hodgkin, 
iuProc.  Brir.Aead.  ii  (Feb.  1 905),  14  pp.;  and  (A.  W.  Ward)  £din.  Xeviejo, 
1904  (i)  403 — 431 !  A.  Michaelis,  in  Deutscher  Nekrelog,  (1897)  s6 — 88. 

*  F.  Marx,  in  Deutscher  Neirolog,  (1907)  4I  f. 

'  Arch.  Zeitung,  1SS1,  gj—iy> ;  /tiMri. /.  il.  Pkihl.  1883,  769 f. 

•  v(<:*i'n«>'.  9  July,  10  Aug.  1887;  4  Jan.  1890;  Rkein.  Mus.  XLII  (1887) 
logf;  Rtv.  des  Hudes grecques,  1890,  m  f.  Cp.  Bisgr.  Jahrb.  1898,  65—90 
[with  bibliography). 


,1^.00' 


gic 


230  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Hirschfeld  was  the  fiist  to  ui^e  the  impoitance  of  the  eicavalion  of  Peiea- 
man  ;  but  it  was  owing  to  Ihe  energy  of  Alexander  Conze,  who  had  left 
Vienna  for  Berlin  in  1877,  that  the  explorations  begun  in 
um«nn  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ilumann  {1839—1896)   were  successfully  con- 

tinued in  1878  by  that  eager  excavator  and  his  colleagues.  The  exploration 
of  the  acropolis  and  its  precincts,  completed  ia  t886,  has  disclosed  a  new 
chapter  in  the  history  of  Greek  Sculpture  and  of  Greek  Architecture'. 

The  erudite  historian,  Max  Duncker  (i8ir — 1886),  was  bom  in  Berlin,  and 
studied  philosophy  al  Bonn  under  Brandis,  and  hislory  under 
Loebell.  He  began  his  literary  career  with  a  Latin  disserta- 
tion on  the  various  methods  of  treating  history  (1834).  The  part  that  he 
played  in  a  political  movement  among  the  students  at  Bonn  led  to  his  being 
condemned  to  imprisonment  for  a  term  of  six  years,  reduced  by  (he  royal 
favour  to  six  months,  which  he  spent  in  strenuous  study.  During  his 
eighteen  years  at  Halle,  he  passed  from  the  early  history  of  the  Germans  to 
that  of  the  Indo-Germanic  peoples,  publishing  in  1851-7  the  four  volumes  of 
the  first  edition  of  his  GeschUkte  des  Alterthuim.  The  work  was  ultimately 
expanded  into  nine  volumes,  but  its  concluding  portion,  the  History  of  Greece, 
goes  no  further  than  Ihe  age  of  Pericles. 

His  political  opinions  led  to  his  resigning  his  position  at  Halle ;  and,  after 
two  years  at  Tubingen  (1857-59),  he  left  for  Berlin,  where  his  interest  in 
politics  was  unabated.  For  seven  years  (1867-74}  he  was  the  'general  director' 
of  the  Prussian  archives,  and  he  subsequently  published  several  important 
papers  on  Greek  history.  Imprisoned  in  his  early  career  for  the  crime  of 
being  in  advance  of  his  lime;^,  he  lived  to  see  his  Pan-Germanic  opinions 
approved  by  Prussia,  to  be  (he  rect^ised  exponent  of  modern  history  at  the 
military  academy  of  Berlin,  and  even  to  become  the  official  historiographer  of 
the  house  of  Brandenburg.  His  tomb  in  Berlin  lies  between  (hose  of  (he  two 
historians,  Ni(zsch  and  Droysen'. 

Gustav  Droysen  (1808 — 1S84)  studied  in  Berlin,  where  he  remained  until 
184O.  In  184O  he  became  professor  of  History  a(  Kiel,  in 
1851  his  political  opinions  compelled  him  to  leave  for  Jena ;  in 
1859  he  was  called  to  Berlin,  where  he  held  a  professorship  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  In  the  early  part  of  his  career  he  was  keenly  interested  in  the  Greek 
poets,  publishing  a  translation  of  Aeschylus',  and  (in  1S35)  a  free  and  vigorous 
rendering  of  Arislophanes,  which  attained  the  honour  of  a  third  edition.  His 
earliest  historical  work,  that  on  Alexander  the  Great  (1833),  was  followed  by 
his  well-known  hbtory  of  the  successors  of  Alexander  {:836-4i).  In  Iheir 
second  edition,  these  works  were  fused  into  the  three  volumes  of  the  '  History 
of  Hellenism'  (1877-8).  Besides  important  works  on  modern  history,  he 
publbhed  papers  on  the  Athenian  generals,  on  the  trial  for  the  mutilation 

'  Cp.  Michaelis,  Anh.  Enid.   140-8,  305,  and  i  153'  n.  3  sapra.     On 
Humann,  see  Come,  in  Deulschtr  Nekrolog,  189;,  369 — 377. 
*  Biop-.Jahrb.  1886,  147— 174,  '  1884*. 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]      DUNCKER.      DROYSEN.      HOLM.  231 

of  Ihe  Hermae,  and  on  the  coinage  of  Athens  and  of  Dionysius  I,  He  was  a 
born  teacher,  and  continued  lo  lecluie  with  unabated  spiiit  foi  more  than  half 
a  century '. 

The  whole  range  of  Greek  history  has  been  covered  by  the  meritorious 
labours  of  Guslav  Herliberg  {b.  i8j6),  who  in  1851  began  his 
long  career  at  Ilalte.  The  (irsi  volume  of  his  ilistory  of 
Greece  ( 1S31)  ended  with  the  invasion  by  Roger  of  Sicily,  while  the  third  and 
fourth  (old  the  slory  of  the  Greek  Revolution.  His  outline  of  Greek  History 
down  (o  Ihe  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  appeared  in  Ersch  and  Gruber. 
He  has  also  written  three  volumes  on  Greece  under  the  Romans  (1866-75), 
and  four  on  the  period  beginning  with  Justinian  and  ending  with  the  present 
day  (1876-9)*.  In  part  of  his  labours  he  has  had  the  advantage  of  being  pre- 
ceded by  Carl  Hopf,  the  author  of  an  important  History  of  Greece  from  Ihe 
beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  year  i8*  1 '. 

The  able  historian  of  Sicily  and  Greece,  Adolf  Holm  (1830 — igoo),  was, 
tike  Ernst  Curiius,  born  at  Lubeck.  Educated  at  the  local 
school  under  Fr.  Jacob  and  Classen,  he  was  hardly  seventeen 
when. he  entered  Leipzig,  where  he  studied  under  Hermann  and  Haupt  and 
Olto  Jahn.  From  Leipzig  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  studied  under  Boeckh, 
Lachmann,  Curiius,  Kanke,  and  Ritter.  His  work  under  Trendelenburg 
resulted  in  his  producing  a  priiC'disaerlation  on  the  ethical  principles  of  the 
Polilici  of  Aristotle. 

His  first  appoiolment  was  a  mastership  in  French  at  his  old  school  at 
Lubeck ;  he  accordingly  studied  the  language  strenuously  in  I'aris,  but  he 
made  a  far  greater  impression  on  his  pupils  when  he  took  them  through  the 
sixth  Book  of  Thucydides  a  year  or  so  before  the  publication  of  the  first 
volume  of  his  own  'History  of  Sicily'.  In  1857  he  carried  out  his  long- 
cherished  plan  for  visiting  Rome  and  Naples. 

In  1863  he  paid  a  second  visit  to  Paris,  this  time  with  a  view  to  studying 
the  Due  de  Luynes'  collection  of  the  coins  of  Sicily  and  Magna  Graecia.  In 
1866  be  was  busy  with  the  topography  of  Sicily,  while  his  former  pupil, 
Schubring,  who  had  lived  at  Messina,  became  one  of  his  colleagues  at 
Lllbeck.  The  year  1870  saw  the  result  of  (he  labour  of  fifteen  years  in  the 
publication  of  the  first  volume  of  his  '  History  of  Sicily'.  In  the  winter  he 
paid  his  first  vi»t  to  the  island,  and  it  was  noticed  (bat  he  actually  knew  his 
way  about  the  country  even  better  (ban  the  local  guides.  The  second  volume 
(1874)  brought  the  history  down  to  the  ere  of  (he  first  Punic  War.  In 
1876-7  he  spent  (he  winier  in  Sicily.  His  Florentine  friend,  Amari,  had 
meanwhile  become  Minister  of  Education,  and,  owing  to  this  fact,  Holm  found 
himself  invited,  a(  the  ^e  of  46,  to  be  professor  of  History  at  Palermo.    The 

1  Max  Duncker,  in  Siogr.  JtUirb.  1884,  110—118;  Giesebtecht,  Munch. 
Akad.  1885,  108— tig;  Kkine  Schri/ien,  1893  (including  his  paper  on  Ihe 
spuriousness  of  the  documents  in  the  Dt  CBrana). 

-  Bursian,  ii  1148.  '  In  Ersch  and  Grubei,  vols.  Ss,  86. 


lOO' 


gic 


232  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

offer  was  accepted,  and  ihe  six  years  of  his  professorship  (1877-8J)  mark  the 
zenith  of  his  career.  In  tSSi  he  visited  England  10  examine  the  Greek  coins 
in  Ihe  British  Museum,  and  this  visit  led  to  a  closer  study  of  English  history 
and  to  1  better  appreciation  of  the  merits  of  Grote.  In  1883  he  produced,  in 
conjunction  with  Cavallari.  a  great  archaeolc^cal  work  on  Ihe  topi^raphy  of 
Syracuse.  In  1883-96  he  held  a  professorship  at  Naples,  spending  most  of 
his  lime  on  his  '  History  of  Greece ',  which  he  hnally  brought  down  to  Ihe 
Battle  of  Aclium'.  His  historical  work  in  general  gives  proof  of  the  influence 
of  Ranke  and  Classen,  while  his  artistic  skill  as  a  writer  reflects  the  teaching 
of  Fr.  Jacob.  He  has  himself  said,  in  one  of  his  reviews: — 'even  works 
of  learning  ought  to  be  works  of  art ;  unhappily  they  seldom  are'.  Freeman 
has  spoken  of  '  the  sound  judgement  of  Holm  '  as  a  historian  of  Sidly,  and  an 
English  review  of  his  History  of  Greece  justly  commends  its  'conciseness ',  ils 
'sound  scholarship',  and  its  'conscientious  impartiality'.  In  Ihe  spring  of 
1897  he  left  Italy  for  Freiburg  in  Baden,  where,  a[  the  close  of  the  year,  he 
wide  the  preface  to  the  third  and  last  volume  of  his  'History  of  Sicily', 
published  four  and  twenty  years  after  the  second.  It  includes  no  less  than 
joo  pages  (with  plates)  on  the  coinage  alone,  and  it  gives  us  an  instructive 
comparison  between  Cicero's  accusation  of  Vcrrcs  and  the  modem  impeach- 
men!  of  Warren  Hastings,  a  comparison  doubiless  inspired  by  Holm's  visit  lo 
England.    Towards  the  end  of  his  life  in  the  South  he  gave  a  new  proof  that 

Liibeck,  v 

the  sanest 

TbePu 


Halle,  wh 
professorsh 
traversed  (. 
A  laboi 
Philippi 
oratoTB.  li 
(o  the  hisi 
Attic  law  c 
Ephelae '  { 
the  Greek 


iM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]   W.  WACHSMUTH.    PHILIPPI.   GILBERT.     233 

Pollux.    About  1893  he  resigned  his  professorship.     His  inlerest  in  art  and 
archaeologj' led  lo  his  residing  in  Dresden,  where  he  wrote  his  autobiography'. 

An  excellent  Handbook  of  Greek  Constitutional  Antiquities  was  published 
in   1881-5'  by  Guslav  Gilbert   (1843—1899),  the  son  of  a  nubiTt 

Hanoverian  pastor,  who  was  educated  at  Hildesheim,  and 
studied  at  Gotlingen,  Leipiig.  and  Berlin.  It  was  prnbably  at  Sauppe's 
recommendation  thai,  in  1871,  he  was  appointed  to  a  mastership  under 
Marquardc  at  the  gymnasium  of  Gotha,  and  he  held  that  position  lo  the  end  of 
his  life.  Some  ot  his  earliest  works  related  lo  the  primitive  conslhutionai 
history  of  Sparta  and  Athens.  These  were  followed  by  his  '  Contributions  to 
the  internal  history  of  Athens  during  the  Peloponnesian  war  '  (1877).  It  was 
the  success  of  this  work  thai  led  lo  his  being  inviled  by  its  publisher  jTeuhner) 
lo  prepare  the  '  Handbook '  which  was  the  principal  literary  achievement  of 
his  life.  It  supplies  a  clear  outline  of  the  subject  with  the  original  authorities, 
and  references  to  the  modem  Mteialure,  at  the  fool  of  each  page.  The  second 
edition  of  the  volume  on  Sparta  and  Athens  (1893)  includes  an  e>;cellent 
monograph  on  the  'Afl?ji'ofwi'  troXiTtia^.  Of  his  later  publications  the  most 
valuable  is  that  on  'the  history  of  the  developement  of  Greek  law  and  legal 
procedure'  (1896).  His  favourite  authors  were  ?Iomer,  Horace,  and  Goethe  ; 
and  his  characlei  has  been  aptly  summed  up  by  a  life-long  friend  in  the 
words  : — er  tear  ein  Ehrenmann,  trru  wie  Giild,/rti  und edtl gisinnt*. 

The  study  of  Roman  History  in  the  critical  spirit  of  Niebuhr  was  continued 
by  Albert  Schwegler  (1819 — 1857),  professor  at  Ttlblngen, 
the  three  volumes  of  whose  History  ended  with  the  Licinian 
Ri^ations;  and  by  Karl  Peter  (1808^1893),  for  many  years 
Rector  of  Schulpforta,  who  brought  his  History  down  to  the  death  of  Marcus 
Aurelius'.  He  is  well  known  as  the  author  of  the  '  Chronolc^cal  Tables  of 
Greek  and  Roman  History''.  In  i8j8  he  edited  Cicero's  Orator,  in 
conjunction  with  Christian  GoltlobWeller(  1810— 1884),  a  pupil  o/  Hermann, 
who  was  for  many  years  a  master  at  Meiningen'  :  this  was  followed  by  Peter's 
edition  of  (he  Brutus  (1839).  Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  while  he  was 
honorary  professor  at  Jena,  he  produced  two  editions  of  the  Agricola  of 
Tacitus  (1876-7)'. 

Of  those  who  have  treated  a  limited  period,  we  may  here  notice  Wilbelm 
Drumann  (ij86— 1861),  professor  at  Konigsberg.  who  pro- 
duced in  1834-44  a  history  of  the  transition  from  the  Republic  ^""^" 
to    (he    Empire,    dealing  with    Pompey   and    Caesar,    and  jj^ 
handling  Cicero  with  singular  severity.    The  history  of  Rome 

'  BiBgr.Jahrb.  189s,  156-176-  '  Ed.  »,  1893  ;  E.  T.  of  vol.  i,  189^. 

'  This  volume  was  translated  into  English  (1895)  by  E,  J.  Brooks  and 
T.  Nicklin  (with  a  prefatory  note  by  J.  E.  Sandys). 

*  Dr  R.  Ehwald,  in  Gotha  program,  March,  (899,  54—17,  with  list  of  his 
conlribotions  to  PhiM.  ^aAJakrb.f.  kl.  Philel.  '  1853-69  etc 

•  1835-41  etc. ;  E.  T.  of  the  Greik  Tables  (Cambridge,  1883). 

'  Biegr.Jahrb.  1884,  64.  '  ib.  1895,  110—151. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


Schweeler 


Theodok  Mommsen. 

From  ihe  original  drawing  by  Sir  William  Richmond  (i8go),  now  in  the 
pos^ssion  of  Fiof.   Ulricli  von  WilamowiiZ'Moel  lender  If. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lC 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]  THEODOR   MOMMSEN.  23S 

rrom  ihe  decline  of  ihe  Republic  to  the  age  of  Conslantine  was  treated  in 
IhiM  volumes  (1841-50)  by  Karl  Hoeek  (1799 — 1864),  professor  at  Marhurg. 
Wilhetm  Ihne  (1S11--1901),  professor  at  Heidelberg,  published  in  1868-90  a 
History  in  eight  volumes'  founded  on  a  critical  study  of  the  authorities,  and 
avowedly  written  for  the  general  public  rather  than  for  specialists.  The 
eighth  volume  ends  with  the  battle  of  Acdum. 

A  far  wider  range  of  historical  and  antiquarian  research  was 
traversed  in  the  memorable  career  of  Theodor 
Mommsen  (1817^1903),  the  outline  of  whose  life 
has  been  traced  on  a  previous  page,  in  connexion  with  his  work 
on  Latin  texts'.  He  had  begun  by  making  his  mark  in  the 
study  of  Roman  Law.  At  Kiel,  in  1843,  he  had  produced  his 
two  earliest  works: — (i)  his  dissertation  on  the  law  de  scribis 
et  viaioribm,  and  (z)  his  pamphlet  on  the  Roman  Collegia  and 
Sodalicia.  In  the  following  year,  he  published  a  treatise  on 
the  Roman  '  tribe '  in  its  administrative  relations.  Having  thus 
given  proof  of  his  legal  learning,  he  next  produced  his  two 
linguistic  works,  his  'Oscan  Studies'  (1845-6),  and  his  '  Dialects 
of  lower  Italy'  (1850).  During  his  absence  in  Italy  (1845-7) 
he  had  studied  inscriptions  with  the  aid  of  Borghesi  and  Henzen, 
and  he  now  began  a  series  of  papers  on  that  subject  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Leipzig  Academy,  besides  preparing  his 
'Inscriptions  of  the  Kir^dom  of  Naples'  (1852).  In  that  work 
he  showed  a  consummate  skill  in  applying  the  results  of  epi- 
graphical  research  to  the  elucidation  of  the  constitutional  history 
and  the  law  of  the  Italian  communities.  He  also  presented  to 
the  I^ipzig  Atademy  a  valuable  treatise  on  Roman  Coinage^ 
which,  in  its  expanded  form,  became  an  authoritative  history  of 
that  subject*. 

Such  were  the  preliminary  studies  that  paved  the  way  for 
his  'Roman  History',  a  work  in  three  volumes  (1854-6)',  ending 
with  the  battle  of  Thapsus.  It  was  a  history,  not  of  Rome  alone, 
but  also  of  Italy,  from  the  earliest  immigrations  to  the  end  of 
the  Roman  Republic     The  plan  of  the  series  unfortunately  pre- 

*  Ed.a  of  vols.i,  ii,  1893-6;  vols,  vii,  viii,  mainly  by  A.  W.  Zumpt.  Eng. 
ed.  TS7r-8i,  five  vols. 

*  p.  r97  supra.  '  Sachs.  Abhand/.,  ii  (1850)  tti — 417. 

*  r86o;  Fr.  T.  i86s-;s- 

»  Ed.  g,  1903-4;  E.  T.  1861,  new  ed.  1894-j. 


1.  iiA.OOgIc 


236  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

eluded  the  quotation  of  authorities,  and  points  of  detail  were 
attacked  by  Karl  Wilhelm  Nltzsch  (1818— 1880),  professor  of 
History  in  Berlin',  by  Karl  Peter',  and  by  Ludwig  Lange  (1825 
— 1885)',  professor  at  Leipzig,  and  author  of  the  three  volumes 
of  an  elaborate  work  on  Roman  Constitutional  Antiquities 
(1856-71).  Mommsen's  critics  desired  to  revert  to  the  view  of 
Roman  History  that  had  been  held  before  the  time  of  Niebuhr, 
and  to  accept  the  tradition  of  the  Roman  annahsts,  and  of  the 
other  writers  who  uncritically  transcribed,  or  rhetorically  adorned, 
the  work  of  their  predecessors.  Mommsen  afterwards  took  up 
the  History  of  Rome  at  a  later  point,  by  publishing  a  work  on 
the  Roman  rule  of  the  Provinces  from  Caesar  to  Diocletian*. 
In  connexion  with  his  Roman  History  he  had  meanwhile  pro- 
duced a  ^ork  on  Roman  Chronology',  his  aim  being  to  justify 
certain  of  his  own  opinions,  and  incidentally  to  refute  those  of  his 
brother,  August'.  The  controversy  excited  by  this  work  served  to 
stimulate  a  renewed  activity  in  the  field  of  chronological  investi- 
gation. One  of  the  leading  explorers  of  that  field  was  G.  F.  Unger, 
professor  at  Wiirzburg,  whose  papers  appeared  in  the  '  Philologus ', 
and  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Berlin  Academy. 

Many  of  Mommsen's  papers  on  Roman  history  and  chronology 
and  public  antiquities,  and  on  the  criticism  of  historical  autho- 
rities, were  collected  in  the  two  volumes  of  his  '  Roman  Re- 
searches". While  the  absence  of  quotations  from  authorities 
was  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  widely  popular  '  History  of 
Rome',  students  and  specialists  found  an  abundance  of  learned 
details  in  the  work  on  'Roman  Public  Law",  which  takes  the 
place  of  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  Handbook  of  Roman 
Antiquities  begun  by  W.  A.  Becker  and  continued  by  Joachim 
Marquardt  (1812 — i88z),  the  Director  of  the  gymnasium  at 
Gotha,  who  had  studied  under  Boeckh  and  Schleiermacher  at 

'  JaAri./.il.  FAihi.ixxiiiT  16  (,U\vi^og(;  Die  !-l>/ais.:AeAtina!isiii{jSji). 

'  Sludien  (1863) ;  p.  133  lUfira.  >  Biogr.Jakrb.  1886,  31—61. 

*  i88s  (with  8  maps)!  ed.  5,  189+ ;  E.  T.  1886.  '  1858;  ed.  1,  1859. 

'  b.  iSji  ;  author  of  RUmisihe  Dalen  (1856),  articles  in  Rheiit.  Mus.  xii, 
xiii,  Pkilol.  xii,  N.  Jahrb.  Suppl.  1856-9;  Gr.  Heorlologie  (1864);  Gr. 
ChranoUigic  (1883). 

'  Riimische  Forsckuitgm  ^lS6■i-^tf). 

"  Romisches  Staatsrecht,  1871-88;  Fr.  T.  1887-96  ;  Abriss,  1893. 


A.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXIV.]  THEODOR   MOMMSEN.  237 

Berlin,  and  under    Hermann  at  Leipzig.     The  revision  of  this 
Handbook  by  Marquardt  and  Mommsen  made  it  practically  a 

The  early  preparations  for  a  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Latinarum 
are  associated  with  the  name  of  August  Wilhelm  Ztimpt  (1S15 — 
1877),  who  aimed  at  little  more  than  extracting  and  reananging 
the  inscriptions  that  had  been  already  published.  His  papers  on 
inscriptions'  brought  him  into  frequent  conflict  with  Mommsen, 
who  laid  his  own  scheme  before  the  Academy  in  1847'.  This 
scheme,  which  ensured  a  strictly  scientific  exploration  of  the 
whole  field,  was  approved,  and  its  execution  was  entrusted  to 
Mommsen,  whose  great  powers  of  work  and  capacity  for  oi^anisation 
ensured  its  complete  success'.  An  excellent  selection  of  inscrip- 
tions was  published  in  1873  by  G.  H.  C.  Wilmanns  (1845—1878), 
whose  early  death  prevented  his  completing  his  work  on  the  in- 
scriptions collected  in  Tunis  and  Algiers  {1873-6). 

Mommsen's  edition  of  the  Digest  (1868-70)  formed  the  larger 
part  of  the  subsequent  edition  of  the  Corpus  iuris  civilis  (1871 
etc.)^  He  also  edited  the  Monumentum  Ancyranum\  the  Edict 
of  Diocletian  (1893),  and  the  Codex  Theodosianus  (1904-5)'.  Some 
of  his  texts  of  Latin  authors  have  been  already  mentioned*.  A 
volume  of  his  Speeches  and  Essays  was  published  in  1905  ;  the 
series  of  his  Collected  Writings,  beginning  with  three  volumes 
on  Roman  Law  (1905-7),  already  includes  the  first  of  the 
volumes  on  Roman  History  (1906). 

Mommsen  was  the  greatest  of  German  scholars  since  the  time 
of  Boeckh.     Beginning  with  Roman  jurisprudence,  he  applied  to 

'  Vols.  1 — iii  were  prepared  by  Mommsen  ;  iv — vi  (on  Roman  administra- 
tion) and  vii  (on  private  life)  by  Marquardt. 

'  Collected  in  Conim.  Epigrafihicae,  1850-4. 

"  Reprinted  in  Harnack's  'History  oflbe  Berlin  Academy',  ii  (1900)  S'^f' 

*  The  volumes  containing  the  early  Latin  (i),  oriental  (iii),  and  central 
and  southern  Italian  (ix,  x)  inscriptions  were  edited  by  Mommsen ;  the  inscr. 
of  Spain  (ii)  and  Britain  (vii)  by  Hiibner;  those  of  S.Gaul  by  O.  Hirschfeld ; 
of  Pompeii  etc.  (iv)  by  Zangemeisler ;  of  N.  Itaiy  (ni)  and  Rome  (vi)  by 
Bormann,  Henzen  and  Huelsen. 

'  Including  Imlilutiotus,  ed.  P.  Krilger. 

■  18651  ed.  3,  1883;  Ft.  T.,  i88s. 

'  In  conjunction  with  P.  M.  Meyer.  *  p.  tgj  sufira. 


..oogic 


238  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

the  investigation  of  Roman  History  the  strict  intellectual  training 
that  he  had  derived  from  the  study  of  Roman  I^w,  Equally 
skilful  in  negative  criticism,  and  in  the  art  of  the  historic  recon- 
struction of  the  past,  he  brought  to  bear  on  the  science  of  history 
a  singular  mastery  of  the  science  of  language.  He  combined 
breadth  of  learning  with  a  lucid  and  a  lively  style,  and  vast 
powers  of  work  with  a  genius  for  scientific  oi^anisation'. 

Latin  Epigraphy  and  Archaeology  were  the  special  province 
of  Emil  Hiibner  {r834 — 1901),  who  was  the  son 
of  an  accomplished  artist  at  Dusseldorf.  After  his 
early  education  at  Dresden,  be  studied  at  Berlin  and  Bonn, 
and  travelled  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  England.  Meanwhile  he  had 
settled  in  Berlin  (1859),  where  he  was  appointed  to  an  'extra- 
ordinary' professorship  in  1863,  and  was  a  full  professor  for  the 
last  thirty-one  years  of  his  life.  His  travels  in  Spain  resulted 
in  his  volumes  on  the  'ancient  works  of  art  at  Madrid',  on  the 
Inscriptions  of  Spain',  and  on  the  'Monumenta  linguae  Ibericae'. 
His  travels  in  England  were  undertaken  with  a  view  to  the 
Latin  Inscriptions  of  that  country'.  In  recognition  of  this  work 
in  particular  he  received  an  honorary  degree  at  Cambridge  in 
1883,  and,  to  the  end  of  his  life,  he  had  a  most  friendly  regard 
for  England.  He  was  for  many  years  an  editor  of  Hertrus 
(1866-81),  and  of  the  Arehdologische  Zf//wff^  (1868-72).  Among 
his  most  useful  works  were  his  elaborate  and  comprehensive 
Outlines  of  the  History  of  Roman  Literature',   of  Latin'  and 

'  Bibliography  in  Zangemeisler,  T.  M.  ah  SckriftslcUer  (1887),  completed 
by  E.  Jacobs,  188  pp.  (1905).  Biographical  notice?  by  Bardt  (1903); 
K.  J.  Neumann  in  Mht,  Zrilsckr.  1904,  193—338;  E.  Schwartz  in  CeU. 
Naihr.,  1904!  Gompen,  Essays,  133—143;  Hamack,  Kedi  (1903);  Huelsen, 
in  Mitt,  dfulsch.  archnal.  Imt.  xviii  193— Jj8;  C.  Wachsmnth,  in  Sachs. 
Ctsell.  d.  Wiss.  1903,  153— J73;  L.  M.  Hartmann,  in  Biegr.  Jahrb.  u. 
Dtulschir  Nekrolog,  ix  (1906)  44'— 5'5-  Portrait  in  Ces.  Schr.  i,  and  two  in 
Rtden.  The  portrait  by  Ludwig  Knaus  represents  the  historian  in  his  study, 
with  a  bust  of  Julius  Caesar ;  the  drawing  by  Sir  William  Richmond  is  repro- 
duced on  p.  134;  a  characteristic  photograph,  taken  by  Mr  Dew-Smith,  is 
published  by  Messrs  Hefier,  Cambridge.  The  Cambridge  Address  Gtrnianiat 
suae  novo  Varroni  (written  by  Prof.  Mayor)  is  printed  in  Lileraiure,  18  Dec. 
1S97. 

«  C.  I.  L.  vol.  ii.  »  C.  I.  L.  vol.  vii. 

'  1869  etc.,  ed.  Mayor,  1875.  »  Ed.  1876  etc. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XXXIV.J    HUBNER.      GREGOROVIUS.      PRELI.ER.    239 

Greek'  Grammar,  and  of  the  History  of  Classical  Philolc^', 
including  an  excellent  biblic^raphy,  which  has  often  been  of 
service  in  the  preparation  of  the  present  work'. 

The  History  of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  written  by 
Ferdinand  Gregorovius  (1821 — 1891),  who  was 
bom  on  the  eastern  borders  of  Prussia.  He  once 
said  that  he  should  never  have  written  on  mediaeval  Rome,  if 
he  had  not  spent  his  boyhood  in  a  mediaeval  palace  of  the 
German  knights.  It  was  on  a  day  in  1855,  as  he  stood  on 
the  Ponte  Sant'  Angelo,  looking  'across  the  Tiber  at  the  former 
Mausoleum  of  Hadrian,  that  he  was  first  inspired  with  the 
design  of  writing  the  History  of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
He  had  already  written  on  Hadrian  (1851),  and  was  to  return 
to  this  theme  at  a  later  date  (1884).  The  publication  of  the  eight 
volumes  of  his  History  of  Mediaeval  Rome  extended  from  1 859  to 
1872',  and  was  followed  by  that  of  his  two  volumes  on  Mediaeval 
Athens  (1889).  Rome  was  his  head-quarters  from  1852  to  1874, 
and  the  remaining  seventeen  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  Munich, 
On  leaving  Rome  he  wrote : — "  I  can  say  with  Flavius  Blondus : 
'  I  brought  into  being  that  which  was  not  already  there ;  I  threw 
light  on  eleven  dark  centuries  of  the  city,  and  gave  the  Romans 
the  History  of  their  own  Middle  Ages'".  In  1876  the  Senate 
of  the  new  capital  of  Italy  enrolled  him  as  an  honorary  '  citizen 
of  Kome',  and,  when  he  publicly  dechned  all  congratulations 
on  completing  his  seventieth  year  in  Munich,  he  signed  his  name 
with  no  other  title  than  Civis  Romaniis'.  The  interest  of  the 
historical  works  already  mentioned,  as  well  as  that  of  the  five 
volumes  of  his  Wanderjakre  in  I/alien,  his  Capri  and  Korju,  his 
poem  of  Pompeii  {Euphorion)  and  his  'Graves  of  the  Popes', 
is  enhanced  by  the  charm  and  the  clearness  of  his  style. 

Passing  from  mediaeval  Rome  to  prehistoric  Greece,  we  may 
assign  a  foremost  place  among  modern  works  on 
Greek  Mythology  to  the  classic  treatise'  of  Ludwig 

'  Ed.  1883.  *  1876;  ed.  I,  1889. 

'  Seeesp.  Gildersleeve,  in  A.J.P.  xxii  113. 

'  Ed.  5,  1903  ;  E.  T.  by  A.  HamiUon, 

"  Biogr.Jakrh.  189J,  106 — 113. 

*  i8j4  ;  ed.  4,  witli  excellenl  Indices,  by  Carl  Robert,  1SS7-94. 

h.  i.,  ii,l^.OOglc 


240  RETROSPECT.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Preller'.  Pteller,  like  Heyne  and  Welcker,  regarded  the  oldest 
and  the  most  important  of  the  Greek  myths  as  myths  of  Nature, 
as  representations  of  '  the  elementary  powers  and  processes  of 
Nature,  the  sunshine  and  lightning,  the  falling  rain  and  the 
flowing  river,  and  the  growth  and  ripenii^  of  vegetation".  His 
Roman  Mythology,  a  work  of  less  note,  appeared  in  1858, 

Comparative  Mythology,  in  connexion  with  Comparative  Phi- 
lology,  was  well  represented  by  Adalbert   Kuhn 
(i8iz— 1881),   Rector  of  one  of  the  schools  in 
Berlin'.     Comparative  Ethnology  was  the  dominant  interest  in 
the  mythol(^cal  works  of  J.   W.  E.  Mannhardt 
(1831 — 1880),  who  laid  the  foundation  for  the  future 
fabric  of  a  Mythology  of  the  Germanic  nations  by  a  complete 
collection  of  the  folklore  of  tillage   and  harvest  in   his  great 
work  on   forest  and  field-cults'.     Ancient  Mythology,  which  is 
little  noticed  in  the  first  part  of  this  work,   holds  a  prominent 
place  in  the  second,  where  the  primitive  cults  are  explained  in 
the  light  of  the  traditions  of  Northern  Europe'. 

We  have  lingered  long  in  the  lands  united  by  the  common  tie 
of  the  German  language,  but  we  have  seen  far  less  of  Austria  and 
of  German  Switzerland  than  of  Northern  and  Southern  Germany. 
No  part  of  those  lands  has  been  so  prolific  in  classical  scholars  as 
the  protestant  North,  It  is  true  that  the  birthplace  of  Boeckh  was 
in  Baden,  but  the  principal  scene  of  his  learned  labours  was 
Berlin.  Classical  education  was  reorganised  in  Bavaria  by  Thiersch, 
in  Austria  by  Bonitz,  both  of  them  North  Germans  bom  beside 
the  same  stream  in  Saxony.  German  Switzerland  has  been  repre- 
sented partly  by  Baiter  and  Orelli ;  Austria  by  Karl  Schenkl  and 
the  cosmopolitan  Otto  Benndorf.  Theodor  Gomperz  and  Wilhelm 
von  Hartel  are  happily  still  living.  From  our  survey  of  '  Germany,' 
in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  we  now  turn  to  the  latest  fortunes 
of  the  land  which  was  the  earliest  home  of  the  Revival  of  Learning. 

'  p.  i-}^sufira. 

=  Gr.Atyth.  p.  i;  q^  Bursian,  ii  1196-7;  Block  mjahresb.  vol,  114,  419  f, 

'  Bursian,  ii  1100-2,  *  Wald-  vnd  Fcldkulti,  1875-7. 

»  Bingr.Jakrb.  1881,  1—6. 


OgIC 


CHAPTER   XXXV. 

ITALY   IN   THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

EftRLY  in  the  nineteenth  century  one  of  the  foremost  scholars 
in  Italy  was  the  learned  Jesuit,  Angelo  Mai  (1782 — 
1854).     Born  in  the  province  of  Bergamo,  h6  be- 
came Librarian  of  the  Ambrosian  and  Vatican  Libraries,  and  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  Cardinal  in  1838. 

As  Librarian  in  Milan  (1811-9),  ^^  published,  frooi  uss  formerly  at 
Bobbie,  tegmenls  of  six  Speeches  of  Cicero',  the  correspondence  of 
M.  Aurelius  and  Fronto,  portions  of  eight  Speeches  of  Symmachus,  fragments 
of  the  Vidttlaria  ai  Plautus,  as  well  as  siiolia  and  pictorial  illuslralions  from 
the  Ambrosian  MS  of  Terence  (1814-5).  His  publications  from  Greek  MSS 
included  a  lai^  addilion  to  the  Speech  of  Isaeua  De  Aireditale  Clamymi, 
a  hitherto  unknown  portion  of  the  Reman  AnliquilUs  of  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
camassus  (1816),  and  an  ancient  fragment  of  the  Iliad  (with  illastralions)  as 
well  as  scholia  on  the  Odyssey  (1819) ;  he  also  took  part  in  an  edition  of  the 
newly  discovered  Armenian  version  of  the  Eusebian  Clironicle  (l^l^)-  ^i' 
Rome  he  polilished  from  a  Vatican  palimpsest  large  portions  of  Cicero's  lost 
1reatiseZ>f^<7)tfj/if'a(  1811),  collected  the  remains  of  the  prae-Justinian  Civil 
Law  (1813),  and  summed  up  his  wonderful  work  as  an  editor  of  hitherto 
unknown  texts  by  producing  from  the  MSS  of  the  Vatican  three  great  series,  of 
ten  volumes  each,  the  Sifipioritm  veterum  nova  colUctia  (1815-38),  the  Classici 
auclons  (1818-38)  and  the  Spicilegium  Romanum  (1839-44),  After  an  interval 
of  eight  years  the  Spicilegium  was  followed  by  the  Palrum  nova  colUclio  o(  the 
last  two  years  of  his  life  (1851-4)'. 

Cardinal   Mai  died  at  the  age  of  72.     The  age  of  85  was 
attained  by  an  able  but  less  productive  worker  in 
the  same  field,  Victor  Amadeo  Peyron  (1785 — 1870),  **™'' 

formerly  a  professor  at  Turin.  His  best-known  work  is  an  edition 
of  new  fragments  of  the  Speeches  pro  Scauro,  pro  TulHo  and  In 
Ciodium,  and  of  the  remains  of  the  fro  Milone,  from  the  Turin 

'  Pro  Scaufo,  Tullio,  Flacco,  in  Ciodium  el  Curionan,  dt  atre  alieno 
Milonis,  and  dtregi  AUxaadrino  (1814;  ed.  1,  i8ij). 

*  Life  etc.  by  B.  Prina  (Bergamo,  iSSi) ;  G.  Polelto  (Siena,  1887). 
S.    III.  I,.  I  .,  II,  H&KV^IC 


242  .  ITALY.  [cent.  XIX. 

and  Milan  mss  formerly  at  Bobbio,  together  with  an  inventory 
of  the  Bobbian  mss  made  in  1461  (1824).  He  also  published 
fragments  of  Empedocles  and  Parmenides  {1810),  a  commentary 
on  the  treatise  on  prosody  by  Theodosius  of  Alexandria  {1817) 
with  a  new  fragment  of  the  latter  (1820),  and  an  account  of  the 
Greek  papyri  at  Vienna  (1824)  and  Turin  (1826-7)'. 

Beyond  the  bounds  of  Italy  the  Turin  professor,  Tommaso 
ValIauri{i8o5 — 1897),  was  best  known  as  the  oppo- 
nent of  the  principles  maintained  by  RitschI  in  the 
textual  criticism  of  Flautus.  His  edition  of  four  of  the  plays' 
was  followed  by  a  critical  text  of  the  whole  (1873).  Ritschl's 
discovery  that  the  true  name  of  the  poet  was  T.  Maccius  Plautus' 
was  opposed  in  i868  by  Vallauri,  who  adhered  to  the  traditional 
name  of  M.  Accius  Plautus.  He  also  wrote  a  critical  history  of 
Latin  literature  {1849),  and  edited  a  large  number  of  school-texts 
of  Latin  Classics'. 

Comparative  Philology  has  been  well  represented  by  Pezzi 
and  Ascoli.     Domenico  Pezzi  was  professor  of  the 
Comparative  History  of  the  Classical  and  Romance 
Languages  at  Turin  (1844— 1906).     His  principal  work,  Latingua 
greca  antka  (1888),  begins  with  a  historical  sketch  of  the  study 
of  Greek,  followed  by  a  systematic  account  (i)  of  the  phonology 
and  morphology  of  the  language,  and  (2)  of  the 
Greek  dialects'.      Graziadio  Ascoli  (1829 — 1907), 
who  was  appointed  professor  of  Comparative  Philology  in  Milan 
in  i860,  was  the  founder  of  the  'Archivio  Glottolt^ico  Italiano' 
{1873).     His  lectures  on  Comparative  Phonology  and  his  Critical 
Studies  have  been  translated  into  German,  and  bis  edition  of  the 
'Codice  Irlandese'  of  the  Ambrosian  Library  (1878)  is  an  im- 
portant aid  to  the  study  of  Celtic*. 

'  Sclopis,  in  Aiti di accad.  diTerita,  1870,  778^807- 

"  AuL,Milis,  Trin.,  Men.  (1853-9). 

"  Parerga,  9—43  ;  Ribbeck's  Jiilichl,  ii  100. 

*  Autobiography  (1878) ;  Bursian,  ii  824  n,  1,  II39. 

'  CI.  RtB.  iii  J09  f.  His  earlier  work,  Glottologia  Aria  Ricintissima 
{1877;  E.  T.  by  E.  S.  Roberts,  1879),  practically  ends  with  Ascoli's  discovery 
of  the  'velar'  gullurals  (1870). 

•  A.  de  Gubematis,  Did.  Internal.,  s.v. ;  Alhena^um,  1  Feb.  r907,  p.  136  ; 
JfivisladiFil.i^Tiao.i;  Bursian's  jfiAre/*.  Ivi  168(1  GWes,  Comf.Phil.%^i. 

„.,,„,I..OOglC 


CHAP.  XXXV.]      PEZZI.      ASCOLI.      BONGHI.      DE-VIT.        243 

The  study  of  Greek  has  for  obvious  reasons  been  less  promi- 
nent   in    Italy   than   that    of    Latin.      Plato   has, 
however,  been  translated  by  the  Italian  statesman, 
Ruggero  Bonghi  (1828— 1895),  who  is  also  known  as  the  author 
of  a  History  of  Rome',  and  of  a  work  on  Roman  Festivals^ 

Among  Latin  scholars,  a  place  of  honour  is  due  to  Vincenzo 
De-Vit  (iSio— 1892),  who  was  educated  at  the 
Seminary  of  Padua,  was  Canon  of  Rovigo  and 
Librarian  of  the  local  Academy  (1844-9),  became  a  member  of 
the  Institute  of  Charity  founded  by  Rosmini  at  Stresa  (1849-61), 
and,  after  a  year, in  Florence,  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  mainly  in 
Rome-  His  revised  and  enlarged  edition  of  Forcellini,  begun 
before  1857,  was  completed  in  1879.  This  was  supplemented  by 
his  Onomaslicon,  extending  from  A  to  O  (1869-92).  His  earliest 
work  was  on  the  Fragments  of  Varro  (1843);  he  also  collected 
the  Inscriptions  of  the  region  of  Adria  (1853),  and  wrote  lexico- 
graphical articles  on  Latin  inscriptions,  besides  discussing  the 
Britons  and  the  Bretons',  and  the  inscriptions  and  the  historic 
associations  of  the  Lago  Maggiore  and  the  Valley  of  the  Ossola. 
It  was  in  the  College  of  the  Rosminists  at  Domodossola  that  he 
spent  the  last  few  months  of  a  life  consecrated  to  the  duties  of  a 
priest  and  a  scholar'. 

Forcellini  has  also  been  edited  anew  in  1864-90  by  Fr.  Corra- 
dini(i8zo — 1888).    This  edition,  founded  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  on  the  work  of  Reinhold  Klolz', 
was    completed    by   Perin,   who   (like   Conadini   and    De-Vit, 
and   Forcellini   himself)   was   an   alumnus  of  the  Seminary  of 
Padua. 

Among  other   Latin   scholars    may  be  mentioned   Giovanni 
Battista  Gandino  (1827 — igosX  professor  of  Latin 
at  Bologna,  who  (apart  from  a  number  of  successful 
school-books)  published  studies  on  ancient  Latin  {1878),  contri- 

'  Vol.  1,  1888 ;  Lectures  on  Ancient  History,  1879. 

*  UFaURonume,  1891;  Germ.  T.,  [1891]. 
»  Opae,  vol.  X  (ed.  1889). 

■  *  ErmaDQO  Ferrero,  in  Btogr.  Jahrb.  1899,  16 — 30- 

•  Cp.  Geoi^es,  in  Bursian's  Jakrab.  ii  14J6,  ui  1 70,  and  Phtlol.  Ata.  iii 
♦46f. 


.,  (^,-tfoo^ic 


244  ITALY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

buted  valuable  articles  to  the  Rivista  di  J^ilologia\  and  produced 
an  excellent  work  on  Latin  style  (1895)'. 

No  account  of  Classical  Scholarship  in  Italy  would  be 
complete  without  the  name  of  the  Italian  Senator, 
Domenico  Comparetti,  who  was  bom  in  Rome 
(1835)  and  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Pisa  and  Florence.  He 
produced  a  critical  text  of  Hypereides,  pro  Euxenippo,  and  of  the 
Funeral  Oration  {1861-4).  He  is  widely  known  as  the  author 
of  the  standard  work  on  'Virgil  in  the  Middle  Ages",  He 
subsequently  produced  an  important  edition  of  the  'Laws  of 
Gortyn'  (1893),  and  a  text  and  translation  of  Procopius.  Among 
his  numerous  papers  may  be  mentioned  those  on  the  papyri  of 
the  Villa  of  the  Pisos  at  Herculaneum*.  He  was  the  founder  of 
the  '  Museo  Italiano  d'  antichitk  classica'  (1884  f). 

Classical  Archaeology  has  been  studied  in  Italy  with  ever 
ArchKoioeisis  '^Creasing  success.  In  the  first  half  of  the  century 
one  of  the  foremost  authorities  on  ancient  archi- 
■""'  tecture  was  Luigi  Canina  (1795 — 1856),  who 
studied  in  Turin  and,  in  1818,  left  for  Rome,  where  he  produced 
in  1844  the  second  edition  of  his  classic  work  in  twelve  volumes, 
entitled  V  architeitura  aniua'.  He  wrote  besides  on  the  exploration 
of  Tusculum  and  Veii,  and  on  the  topography  of  Rome.  Rome 
was  also  the  scene  of  the  archaeoli^cal  work  of  Guattani  (d.  1830) 
and  Fea  (d.  1 836),  the  representatives  of  Italy  among  the  founders 
of  the  Archaeological  Institute  in  1829.  Bat  the  Italian  interest 
in  archaeology  was  far  from  being  confined  to  Rome.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  century  there  was  no  country  in  Europe  that  could 
vie  with  Italy  in  the  number  and  the  variety  of  the  separate 
Academies  for  the  study  of  local  archaeology.  That  study  assumed 
divergent  forms  in  Naples,  Rome,  Florence,  Turin,  Modena 
and  Venice,  while  the  most  distinguished  archaeolc^ist  in  all 
Italy,  Bartolommeo  Borghesi  (1781 — 1860),  whose 
archaeological  correspondence  covered  every  part 
of  the  peninsula,  spent  the  last  thirty-nine  years  of  his  life  in 

'  V  101—160  (Gen.  in  -as) ;  vi  453—4.73  (termination  of  the  comparative). 

s  A.  de Gubernatis,  Dul.s.v.  '  1873;  ed,  j,  1896 {E.  T.  1895). 

*  A.  de  Gubernatis,  j.  v.\  esp.  in  Comparetti  and  De  Petra's  Villa  Eno- 
(lanwif,  folio  (1883). 

°  'Luigi  Caninas  phantasievollen  Arbeilen'  (Michaelis,  Arch.  EntJ.  117). 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXV.]      COMPARETTI.      CANINA.      BORGHESl.       245 

the  smallest  of  the  Italian  States,  as  citizen  and  podest^  of  the 
still-independent  Republic  of  San  Marino.  His  activity  was 
mainly  devoted  to  the  study  of  coins  and  inscriptions.  He  pro- 
duced two  volumes  on  the  new  fragments  of  the  Fasli  Consulares 
(1818-20),  and  his  collected  works  filled  nine  volumes  (Paris, 
1862-84)'.  The  Corpus  Inscrtptionum  Latinarum  owed  much 
to  his  friendly  aid.  The  study  of  coins  was  long 
represented  at  Modena  by  Don  Celestino  Cavedoni 
(179s — 1865),  the  author  of  'Observations  on  the  coins  of  the 
Roman  gtntes'  (1829-31)'. 

In  Naples  Francesco  Maria  Avellino  (1788 — 1850)  was  pro- 
fessor of  Greek,  and  (in  and  after  1839)  director  of 
the  Museo  Borbonico.     He  wrote  on  the  acs  grave 
of  the  Museo  Kircheriano,  and  the  inscriptions  of  Pompeii,  and 
contributed  largely  to  the  Bullettino  Arckeologico  NapoHlano,  which 
was  founded  by  himself,  and  continued  to  the  end  (i86i)  by 
Minervini   (1825 — 1895)'.      Naples  was   the   birth-place  of  the 
learned  Jesuit,  Raffaele  Garrucci  (1812 — iS85),who 
published  the  first  edition  of  his  Graffiti  di  Pompii 
shortly  before  the  thirty  years  of  his  residence  in  Rome.     He  pre- 
pared a  Sylloge  of  Inscriptions  of  the  Roman  Republic  (1875-7, 
1881);  his  latest  work,  that  on  the  'Coins  of  Ancient  Italy',  was 
published  in  Rome  in  the  year  of  his  death.     The  antiquities  of 
Etruria  were  fruitfully  studied  by  Ariodante  Fabretti 
( 1 8 1 6 — 1 894),  professor  of  Archaeolt^y  and  director 
of  the  Museum  at  Turin,  the  author  of  a  Corpus  of  ancient  Italian 
inscriptions  (1867-78).     Meanwhile,  the  antiquities  of  Sicily  had 
been  set  forth  in  five  folio  volumes  in  1834-42  by 
the  Duca  di  Serradifalco  with  the  aid  of  Saverio        cavaUari 
Cavallari*,  the  able  archaeologist  who  was  asso- 
ciated   with    Holm    in    the    great    topographia    anheologica    di 
Siracusa^. 

'  Noel  des  Ve^rs  on  Marc  Aurilt  (Paris,  1860) ;  Hcnzen,  in  Fleckeisen's 
^dAri.  Ixxxisftg— 575- 

'  NoliHe,  Modena,  1867. 

»  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1900,  18—10. 

*  1809—1898;  L.  Sampolo,  in  fiu/Zi/Wiw  of  Palermo  Acad.  (1899)  41  f. 

'  Palermo,  188 j;  Germ.  ed.  B.  Lupus  (Stiassburg,  1887). 

■  h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


% 


246  ITALY.  [cent.  XIX. 

The  political  union  of  Italy,  begun  in  i860  and  completed  in 
1870,  had  an  important  effect  on  the  organisation  of 
archaeological  research.  On  the  expulsion  of  the 
Bourbons  from  Naples  in  i860,  Giuseppe  Fiorelli  (1824 — 1896)  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  great  local  Museum,  and  superintended 
the  systematic  excavation  of  Pompeii  (1860—75)  until  he  was  called 
to  Rome  to  become  Director  General  of  Museums  and  Excavations. 
The  municipality  of  Rome  had  established  an  archaeological  com- 
mission in  1872,  and  soon  began  the  publication  of  a  monthly 
BuUeltirm.  At  Bolt^na  an  important  Museum  was  founded  for 
the  preservation  of  prehistoric,  Etruscan,  and  other  antiquities, 
and  an  Etruscan  Museum  was  also  founded  in  Florence.  The 
revived  interest  in  archaeology  extended  to  the  utmost  limits  of 
Italy,  and  antiquarian  periodicals  were  published  in  many  places, 
extending  from  Turin  in  the  North  to  Palermo  in  the  South'. 
But  the  centre  of  archaeological  interest  has  remained  in  Rome. 
189015  the  date  of  the  discovery  of  the  inscription  commemorating 
the  ludi  saeculares  and  including  the  statement ;  carmen  composuit 
Q.  Horatius  Flaccus'.  Since  the  end  of  1898  the  excavations  in 
the  Roman  Forum  have  comprised  the  discovery  of  the  site  of 
the  'Lacus  Curtius',  the  base  of  the  colossal  statue  of  Domitian 
described  in  the  Silvae  of  Statins,  the  pavement  on  which  the 
body  of  Caesar  was  burnt,  the  legendary  tomb  of  Romulus,  and 
the  earliest  of  all  Latin  inscriptions. 

Latin  inscriptions  were  among  the  most  important  of  the  anti- 
quarian interests  of  Luigi  Bruzza  and  Giovanni  Battista  de  Rossi. 
Bruzza  (i8iz — 1883)  was  a  Earnabite  monk,  who 
taught  Latin  and  Greek  in  Piedmont  and  in  Naples, 
and  first  made  his  mark  as  an  antiquarian  at  Vercelli.     Called 
to   Rome  by  his  Order  in    1867,   he  incidentally  produced  an 
important  monograph  on  the  inscriptions  on  the  marble  blocks  of 
the  recently  discovered  Emporium  on  the  Tiber  (1870),  and  also  a 
complete  collection  of  the  Roman  inscriptions  of  Vercelli  (1874), 
a  work  that  won  the  highest  praise  from  Mommsen",  while  the 
grateful  citizens  of  Vercelli  called  their  local  Museum  by  the 
name  of  Bruzza  and  struck  a  gold  medal  in  his  honour.     He  was 
president  of  the  Roman  Society  for  the  cultivation  of  Christian 
'  Cp.  Stark,  301-4.  =  C.  /.  L.  vi  4  (a)  p.  3141.  »  1*.  v  736. 

h.  i.,  11,1^.001^10 


CHAP.  XXXV.]      FIORELLI.      BRUZZA.      DE   ROSSI.  247 

archaeolc^ ;  and  it  was  while  he  was  superintending  the  excava- 
tion of  the  crypt  of  St  Hippolytus  that  he  met  with  an  accident 
which  ultimately  proved  fatal.  On  his  death,  his  services  to  the 
cause  of  archaeolc^y  were  warmly  eulc^ised  by  de  Rossi'. 

Giovanni  Eattista  de  Rossi  (1822 — 1894)  was  great  in  many 
branches  of  archaeology  and  especially  great  in 
Latin  epigraphy.  One  of  his  most  important  achieve- 
ments in  that  department  was  the  publication  of  all  the  early 
collections  of  Roman  inscriptions'.  He  took  part  in  collecting 
the  inscriptions  of  Rome  for  vol.  vi  of  the  Corpus.  He  also  did 
much  for  the  study  of  Roman  topography,  including  the  ancient 
lists  of  the  Regions  of  the  City.  In  1849  his  methodical  inves- 
tigations resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  fragmentary  inscription 
which  led  to  his  identification  of  the  cemetery  of  San  Callisto'. 
He  is  justly  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  recent  study  of 
Christian  Archaeology  in  Rome',  but  De  Rossi  himself  had  a 
special  reverence  for  the  memory  of  'the  true  Columbus'  of  the 
Catacombs,  Antonio  Bosio  (1575 — 1629),  the  learned  and  indus- 
trious author  of  a  far  earlier  Roma  Sotterranea  (1632). 

Late  in  the  eighteenth  century,  Don  Jos^  Nicolas  de  Azara 
(1731 — 1804),  a  friend  of  Winckelmann  and  Mengs, 
returned  to  Spain  from  Rome  with  a  valuable  col-         p^r^gai^ 
lection  of  ancient  busts,  now  in  the  Royal  Gallery 
of  Sculpture,  Madrid'.    Hiibner's  visit  in  1860-1  aroused  in  Spain 
and  Portugal  a  new  interest  in  Latin  inscriptions  and  in  works 
of  ancient  art".     But  the  study  of  Greek  has  long  been  at  a  low 
ebb,  and  the  modern  literature  of  the  subject  is  mainly  limited  to 
translarions'. 

'  Biogr.  Jakrh.  1884,  H1-4!  and  F.  X.  Kraus,  Essays,  ii  (1901),  31 — 39. 

'  Syltogt  EinsidUnsis  elc.  in  liner.  Christimiae,  vol.  ii,  pars  i  (i883),  and 
in  C./.i.vi.Bj/'.  (1876-85). 

'  Inscr.  Chrisliatiae  (i85;-88) ;  Roma  Sottirranea  (1864-77). 

*  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1900,  1 — 17;  BaiirnEarten,  De  fforn  (Kdln,  1891!;  Kraus, 
Essays,  i  (1896)  307—314. 

'  llMhoKT,  Die  aniiken  Bild-Bitrie  in  Madrid  {t^j),  ti)S. 

'  Stark,  30J;  Bursian,  ii  1141. 

^  Apraiz,  Apunl/s  fara  una  historia  de  los  atiidics  heleniios  en  Espaiia, 
190  pp.  (1876I,  ad  Jinem,  reprinted  from  Jievisia  de  Espaiia,  vols,  xli — xlvij 
(cp.  Ch.  GrauK,  in  Revui  Critique,  \^  aaQt,  1876). 


A.OO' 


ic^lC 


CHAPTER    XXXVI. 

FRANCE   IN  THE   NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

The  literary  life  of  the  industrious  scholar,  Jean  Baptiste 

Gail  (1755 — 1829),  is  equally  divided  between  the 

eighteenth  and  the  nineteenth  centuries.     During 

the  eighteenth,  his  published  works  were  connected  with  Lucian 

and  Theocritus,  Anacreon  and  the  Greek  Anthology,  and  the 


BOISSONADB. 

From  a  cast  of  the  Medallion  by  David  d' Angers. 


A.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]  GAIL.      BOISSONADE.  249 

authors  included  in  the  fourteen  volumes  of  his  Scriptores  Graeci; 
during  the  nineteenth,  with  Homer,  Thucydides,  and  Herodotus. 
He  also  edited  the  speech  of  Demosthenes,  Dt  Rhodiorum 
Zibertate,  and  was  the  author  of  certain  Observations  grammaticalef 
au  cilibre  M.  Hermann  (1816).  Appointed  professor  of  Greek 
at  the  College  de  France  in  1792,  and  Conservateur  of  the 
Paris  Library  in  1814,  he  edited  during  the  next  fourteen  years 
of  his  life  a  classical  periodical  called  Le  Phihlogue.  His 
numerous  publications  attained  only  a  moderate  degree  of  excel- 
lence, their  main  value  depending  on  their  collations  from  Paris 
MSs'.  His  contemporary,  Simon  Chardon  de  la 
Rochette  (1753— 1814),  Inspector  of  the  Paris  ^^  u*'r^'i."  tte 
Libraries,  published  a  notice  of  the  Greek  scholia 
on  Plato  (1801)  and  three  volumes  of  Melanges  on  criticism  and 
philology  {1812)', 

A  far  higher  reputation  attaches  to  the  name  of  Jean  Francois 
Boissonade  de  Fontarabie  (1774 — 1857),  who  suc- 
ceeded Larcher  as  professor  of  Greek  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris  (1813),  and  Gail  as  professor  at  the  College  de 
France  {1828).  He  began  his  classical  career  by  editing  the 
Heroicus  of  Philostratus  (1806).  In  the  course  of  nine  years 
(1823 — 32),  he  produced  the  twenty-four  volumes  of  his  annotated 
series  of  Greek  poets.  A  greater  novelty  characterises  his  publica- 
tion of  the  first  edition  of  the  Greek  translation  of  Ovid's  Metamor- 
phoses  hy  Maximus  Planudes  (1822),  the  editio  princeps  of  Babrius 
(1844)^,  the  five  volumes  of  his  Aneedoia  Graeca,  and  his  Anecdota 
Nova.  The  larger  part  of  his  editorial  work  was  connected  with 
the  later  writers  of  Greek  prose,  e.g.  the  Letters  of  Aristaenetus 
(1822),  and  Philostratus  (1842);  and,  in  his  prefaces  to  such 
writers,  he  was  fond  of  modestly  saying  that  the  mediocrity  of 
their  genius  was  suited  to  the  mediocrity  of  his  own  ability.  But 
he  also  published  an  Aristophanes  (1832),  and  spent  many  years 

^  Cp.  Dader  in  Mim.  de  PAcad.  des  Inscr.  ix  11 ;  and  BShr,  in  Etsch  and 
Gniber. 

•  He  was  a  friend  of  Koraes,  whose  Letters  to  Rochelle  were  published  in 
1873-7;  cp.  Theteianos,  KoraH,  i  176  f.  and/awiw;  also  preface  to  Didot  ed. 
o\Attlk.  Pal.  1  ix. 

*  p.  I J9  supra. 


A.oogic 


2SO  FRANCE.  [cent.  XIX. 

over  a  proposed  commentary  on  the  Greek  Anthology.  He  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  new  edition  of  the  Greek  Thesaurus,  and 
among  his  correspondents  abroad  were  Wolf  and  Wyttenbach, 
»nd  the  Greek  lexicographer,  Edmund  Henry  Barker.  It  is  said 
that  the  whole  of  his  first  lecture  at  the  College  de  France  was 
devoted  to  the  exposition  of  the  first  three  words  of  Plato's  lon^; 
and  his  love  of  detail  led  him  to  si)end  half-an-hour  on  the 
elucidation  of  the  term  adamas.  In  his  lectures  he  also  gave 
proof  of  his  being  a  fluent  translator,  but  he  only  once  began  his 
course  with  a  general  introduction  on  the  life  and  works  of  the 
author  whom  he  proposed  to  expound.  The  exception  was  in 
the  case  of  Plutarch  (1813).  He  seldom  lectured  on  any  author 
so  late  as  Plutarch,  while  he  seldom  edited  any  author  so  early. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  to  his  honour  that,  but  for  his  editorial 
aid,  many  of  the  minor  Greek  authors  might  still  have  been 
buried  in  oblivion'. 

An  edition  of  Longus  was  produced  in  i8ro  by  Paul  Louis 
Courier  (1773 — 1825),  the  brilliant  writer  and  officer 
of  artillery,  who  translated  the  Hipparchicus  and 
De  re  equestri  of  Xenophon  {1813),  and  the  Asinus  of  Lucian 
(i8i8),  besides  annotating  a  new  edition  of  Amyot's  Heliodorus 
(1822),  and  leaving  notes  on  the  Memoraliilia,  which  were  post- 
humously published  by  Sinner  (1842).  He  completed  the  trans- 
lation of  Pausanias  (1814-23)  by  his  brother-in-law,  6tienne 
Clavier  (1762  —  1817). 

We  may  briefly  notice  Jean  Louis  Burnouf  (1775—1844), 

the  author  of  a  celebrated  Greek  Grammar,  and 

the    translator    of    Tacitus;    and   Joseph    Naudet 

(1786 — 1878),  the  editor  of  Oberlin's  Tacitus,  and  of  Catullus 

and    Plautus,    and    the   author    of   works   on    the 

postal  organisation  of  the  Romans,  on  the  Roman 

Noblesse,    and    on    the    public    administration    from    Diocletian 

to  Julian.     We  next  reach  the  notable  name  of  the  versatile 

'  rbt'luitu  xalpiw. 

'  E^er,  in  M^ui.  de  lilt.  am.  1861,  i— 15;  also  nofices  by  Le  Bas, 
Nandet,  and  Saint-Beuve ;  some  of  hb  Letters  in  the  correspondence  of 
P.    L.  Courier. 

'  Father  of  EugJne  Bnrnoiif  (1801-52),  the  critic  of  Bopp  (1833),  and  the 
lirst  decipherer  of 'Zend',  one  of  the  foremost  orientalists  of  France. 


,Cooglc 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]      COUSIN.      PATIN.      QUICHERAT.  25 1 

Victor  Cousin  (1792 — 1867),  who  was  professor  at  the  Sorbonne 

in  1815-22  and  1828-30,  and  Minister  of  Education 

in  1840.     He  is  connected  with  Greek  scholarship 

by  his  edi/io  princeps  of  Proclus  (1820-7),  ^"^  by  his  French 

rendering  of  the  whole  of  Plato  {1S21-40)'.     He  threw  new  light 

on  the  less-known  works  of  Abelard,   and  contributed  to  the 

elucidation  of  the  history  of  the  scholastic  philosophy. 

Cousin's  contemporary,  Henri  Joseph  Guillautne  Patin  (1792 
— 1876),  dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Letters  in  Paris, 
and  a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  is  known  as 
a  translator  and  an  exponent  of  Horace,  as  the  author  of  a  course 
of  lectures  on  the  history  of  Latin  poetry,  and  a  series  of  studies 
on  the  ancient  Latin  poets',  and  on  the  Tragic  poets  of  Greece', 
— a  work  which  has  been  justly  characterised  as  admirable  in  its 
learning  and  in  the  soundness  of  its  taste'. 

Latin  lexicography  is  represented  by  Louis  Marius  Quicherat 
(1799^1884),  who  in  1849  received  an  appointment 
in  the  department  of  mss  in  the  Bibliotheque  Sainte- 
Genevi^ve,  rose  to  be  Conservateur  of  that  library  in  1864,  and 
retired  in  1882. 

His  appointmeDt  hnppily  left  him  sufiRcient  leisure  for  lileraiy  work.  For 
liis  Thesaurus  FeSicus  Linguae  Lalinae,  lirsl  published  in  i8j6,  he  worked 
through  all  the  Latin  poets,  and,  in  Ihe  course  of  its  preparation,  he  incident, 
ally  edited  Virgil,  Horace,  Persius,  Phaednis,  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,  and 
the  Andria  and  Adelphi  of  Terence  (1818-31).  He  also  edited  Nepos  and 
Curtius,  Ihe  G/imania  and  Agrieola  of  Tacitus,  and  the  Brutus  and  Somnium 
Seipianis  of  Cicero  (1819-41).  Except  in  the  case  of  Nepos,  the  notes  to  these 
editions  were  in  Latin,  in  accordance  with  the  custom  that  slill  prevailed 
in  France.  His  Thesaurus  Feiticus  was  followed  in  [844  by  his  Latin  and 
French  Dictionary,  in  which  he  was  aided  by  A.  Daveluy,  afterwards  Director 
of  the  French  School  at  Athens.  His  Dictionary  of  Latin  Proper  Names 
(1846)  included  about  19,000  items,  while  his  Addeniia  Lexicis  Latinis 
(1861-80)  supplemented  the  existing  lexicons  with  more  than  1000  words. 
His  French  and  Latin  Dictionary  of  185S  filled  as  many  as  1600  pages  of  three 
columns  each,  and  passed  through  16  editions.     To  hb  three  Dictionaries  he 

>  Ra>.  de  tintlr.  Pubttque,  1867,  679;  Naudet's  Notice  (Paris,  1869); 
portrait  in  Ihe  ^cole  Nariaale  Supirteure. 

'  itudes  sur  la  Palsie  laline,  i  vols.  1 868-9. 

'  4  vols.  1841-3  ;  ed.  5,  1879. 

<  Cp.  Boissier  and  Legouve,  Discours  A  tAcail.,  and  Caro,  Journal  des 
Savants,  1876  (Reinach,  Manuel  de  Phihlogie,  inn.  1 1). 


A.OO' 


ic^lC 


252  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

devoted  thirty  j'cais  of  his  life.  The  same  department  of  leaming  nas  repre^ 
sented  in  his  edition  of  the  Latin  lexici^rapher  and  grammarian,  Nonius 
{tSjFj).  During  the  next  seven  years  he  was  engaged  on  the  preparation  of  a 
new  issue  of  his  Thesaurus  Peelicui,  in  the  preface  of  which  he  laments  the 
decline  in  the  interest  in  Latin  verse  in  France.  His  minor  works  were 
connected  with  French  and  Latin  versification,  white  some  of  them  gave  proof 
of  his  special  skill  in  Music.  In  r879  he  published  a  collection  of  3a  of  his 
articles  under  the  title  of  MHangis  di  Philalogie.  He  regarded  with  suspicion 
certain  reforms  in  Latin  orthography  suggested  by  Ritschl  and  his  school,  but 
he  was  no  blind  follower  of  the  beaten  track.  In  his  own  work  he  always 
insisted  on  going  back  to  the  original  authorities.  While  he  made  his  mark 
mainly  as  a  Latin  lexici^p-apher,  and  an  editor  of  Latin  Classics,  it  may  he 
added  that  he  produced  editions  of  some  dialogues  of  Lucian,  the  De  Corona 
of  Demosthenes,  the  Ajax  of  Sophocles,  and  the  Iliad  of  Horaer'. 

An  excellent   Greek  and    French  lexicon  was  produced    by 
his  contemporary  Charles  Alexandre  (1797— 1870), 
who  is  also  known  as  the  editor  of  the  Sibylline 
Oracles  (1841-56,  '69')*.     The   eminent    French   lextct^rapher, 
Maximilien  Paul  Emile  Littre  (iSoi — 1881),  began 
his  brilliant  and  varied  career  as  a  student  of  medi- 
cine.     In    1839  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions.      In  the  same  year  he  commenced  his  celebrated 
edition  and  translation  of  Hippocrates,  which  was  completed  in 
ten  volumes  in   1861,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern 
criticism  of  this  author. 

The  popular  side  of  classical  lite tature  was  represented  by  Desir^Jean  Marie 
Napoleon  Nisard  (1806^1888),  professor  of  Latin  Eloquence 
at  the  College  de  France,  the  author  of  Studies  on  the  Latin 
Poets  of  the  Decadence  (including  Phaedrus,  Seneca,  Persius,  Statlus, 
Martial,  Juvenal,  and  Lucan)",  and  on  the  four  great  Latin  Historians',  and 
also  of  an  ingenious  essay  on  Zoilus'.  Personally  interested  in  ancient 
literature,  be  nevertheless  had  no  pretensions  to  being  a  scholar,  and  he  was 
less  of  a  historian  than  a  literary  critic.  In  his  Notts  el  Soieuenirs,  he  frankly 
confesses  that  he  had  no  concern  with  erudition,  which  he  regarded  with 
suspicion  as  an  importation  from  Germany.  In  his  opening  lecture  at  the 
Scale  Normale  he  even  warned  lib  audience  against  that  form  of  leaming, 
notwithstanding  the  presence  of  the  Director  of  the  School,  Guigniaut,  whose 
own  reputation  had  lieen  made  by  his  elaborate  edition  of  Creuier's  SyiiiboUk. 


>  Emil  Cbatelain  in  Biogr.Jahrb.  1884,  158—133. 

'  Guigniaut,  Acad,  dts  Inscr.  xxix. 

'  1  vols.  1834,  etc.  '  187+. 


.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVr.]        ALEXANDRE.      LITTRfe.  2SJ 

Dtsiri  Nisard  was  Ihe  edilor  of  a  popular  series  of  French  translations  from 
the  Latin  Classics,  while  his  younger  brother,  Charles  Marie 
Nisard  (1808—1889),  contributed  IQ  the  series  a  iranslalion  of  "  "  "' 
all  (he  elegiaj:  poems  of  Ovid  (except  the  Hereides),  as  well  as  Martial, 
Valerius  Flaccus,  and  Forlunatus',  with  part  of  Livy  and  Cicero,  and  a 
separate  volume  of  notes  on  Cicero's  LetlersK  The  earliest  of  his  works 
ostensibly  connected  with  (he  History  of  Scliularship  was  the  study  of  ihe 
careers  of  Lipsius.  Scaliger,  and  Casaubon,  contained  in  his  Triumvirat 
IMttraire  au  XVI  siiiU  (iSjiJ.  In  the  preface  he  tells  us  how  his  MS  of  a 
complete  index  of  persons  and  places  in  the  I^tin  Classics,  which  he  kept  at 
his  office  in  the  Tuiteries,  perished  in  the  flames  in  February,  1S48,  when  the 
MS  of  his  Triumvirat  Liltiraire  happily  escaped  a  similar  fate.  This  work,  so 
far  from  really  being  a  chapter  in  the  History  of  Scholarship,  is  mainly  a  study 
of  literary  manneis,  teeming  with  amusing  anecdotic  details  on  the  lives  wid 
the  quarrels  of  ihe  scholars  concerned.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  author  ever 
made  any  serious  attempt  to  comprehend  the  chronological  researches  of 
Scaliger,  the  account  of  which  fills  a  few  pages  borrowed  from  Haihim'.  He 
deserves  credit,  however,  for  making  the  personages  whom  he  studies  live 
and  move  before  the  reader's  eyes,  and,  if  he  says  too  little  of  their  works,  he 
is  certainly  familiar  with  their  foibles*.  Another  work  of  Ibe  same  type, 
bearing  the  fanlaslic  title  of  Les  gladialeurs  de  la  ripublique  det  Utins  au 
XV~XVn  siicUs  (i8«o),  contains  studies  on  Filelfo.  Poggio,  Valla, 
Scioppius,  and  the  elder  Scaliger,  and  also  on  Fr.  Garasse  (1J85— [63i)<  ^ 
Jesuit  of  Angoulfme,  who  violently  attacked  Ihe  Calvinisis,  Casaubon  and 
Estienne  Pasquier".  Here  again,  as  in  the  Triumvirat,  he  is  absorbed  in 
(he  analysis  of  polemical  pamphlets.  Himself  the  most  peaceable  of  men, 
he  had  almost  a  passionate  interest  in  the  literary  quarrels  of  others.  In 
1876  his  election  as  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  the  place  of 
Didot  stimulated  him  to  work  on  with  renewed  enei^  (o  the  age  of  So.  In 
the  year  after  his  election,  he  published  the  correspondence  of  the  Comte  de 
Caytus,  the  Abb^  Barthetemy  and  P.  Mariette,  with  (he  Tbeatine  priest. 
Paciaudi  (t  i757-(5!),  a  correspondence  proving  that  Paciaudi  had  a  conader- 
able  share  in  the  editing  of  the  last  live  volumes  of  the  Kecatil  dAntiquiUs  of 
Cayius*. 

'  His  papers  on  this  poet  were  republished  after  his  death  by  M.  Boysse, 
with  a  bibliography  on  pp.  193 — leo. 

*  Severely  reviewed  in  x'bs  Philotogische  Wochmschrift  1883,  1156. 
»  Hist.  Lit.  i  sjo*. 

*  The  work  is  characterised  by  Bernays,  J.  J.  Scaligtr,  19,  as  unworthy  of 
mention  from  a  scholarly  point  of  view,  and  as  having  misled  an  able  reviewer 
into  believing  (hat  Scaliger  was  a  trh franchtnient  mauvais  homme. 

'  Cp-  Mimoires  de  Garasst,  ed.  Ch.  Nisard  (18S0). 

*  Nisard  also  wrote  on  (his  subject  in  the  Kivui  de  Frame.  Cp.  Stark, 
147-9,  ""^  ^^P-  S-  Reinach,  in  Biogr.Jahrb,  1889,  (53- 


,i^.ooglc 


254  FRANCE.  [cent.  XIX. 

In  contrasl  lo  the  biolhers  Nisard,  whose  principal  aim  was  the  popular- 
ising  of  Ihe  Classics,  Iheir  contemporary,  Knigne  Eoimanuel 
'  "  Clement  Miller  (iSll— 1886),  was  an  unweaned  student  of 

MSS,  uho  found  a  greater  delight  in  adding  new  words  lo  the  Greek  Thesauras 
than  in  setting  forth  Ihe  merits  or  the  masterpieces  of  the  ancient  world.  In 
1H34  Miller  entered  the  manuscript  department  of  the  Paris  Library,  and 
under  the  influence  of  K.  B.  Ilase,  who  had  l>een  in  that  department  for 
nearly  thirty  yean,  he  was  inspired,  not  only  with  a  passion  for  Ihe  quest  of 
new  words,  but  also  with  a  keen  interest  in  the  exploration  of  the  later  Greek 
literature.  In  the  course  of  his  researches  he  became  one  of  the  most  expert 
palaeographers  in  Europe.  In  iHj5  he  was  sent  to  Italy  10  examine  the  Ji'&)/j<> 
on  Aristophanes.  In  1839  he  published  an  edition  of  Ihe  minor  Greek 
geographers,  Marcianus,.  Artemidoros,  and  Isidore  of  Charax,  and  in  1841  a 
new  Greek  version  of  Aesop-  For  five  years  (1840-5)  he  took  a  leading 
interest  in  the  ahott-lived  Rtvne  dt  Bibliographie  Analytique.  In  1843  he  was 
sen!  by  Villemain  to  explore  Ihe  libraries  of  Spain ;  his  Catalogue  of  Ihe  Greek 
diss  of  Ihe  Escurial  appeared  in  1848,  and  his  supplement  to  Iriarte's 
Catali^ue  of  ihe  Madrid  mss  in  1884.  Among  the  mss  brought  by  'Mynas' 
from  Mount  .Alhos  in  1840,  Milter  fortunately  identified  part  of  the  Phi- 
losBphumena  of  Origen,  and  edited  il  for  the  Clarendon  Press  (1851). 
Meanwhile,  he  had  left  the  Library  in  the  Rue  Richelieu  for  that  of  the 
'  National  Assembly ',  and  he  was  the  head  of  that  Library  from  1849  to  1880. 
In  1855-7  Ji*  published  the  tSiO*"  lines  of  the  Byianline  poet,  Manuel  Philes. 
After  exploring  the  libraries  of  Russia,  he  found  among  the  MSS  of  ihe  Seraglio 
at  Conslanlinople  the  work  of  the  Byzantine  hislorian,  Crilobulus  of  Imbros. 
During  his  subsequent  examination  of  more  than  6000  MSS  al  Mount  Athos,  be 
paid  a  visit  to  Thasos,  which  led  lo  important  discoveries  connected  with 
Greek  inscriptions  and  Greek  sculptures'.  In  1868  and  1875  respectively,  he 
produced  his  Milanges  de  lilleralure  grecque,  and  dt  pkilelogie  et  iptpigraphii. 
In  the  former  he  published,  among  many  inedited  texts,  the  Etymologicum 
Florinlinum  and  Ihe  El.  paiTum,  with  certain  works  of  Aristophanes  of 
Byzantium  and  Didymus  of  Alexandria.  He  also  published  Ihe  historical 
poems  of  Theodoras  Prodromus  (1873},  ihe  Greek  historians  of  Ihe  Crusades 
(i8;5-8i),  and  the  Chronicle  of  Cyprus  (i88j).  He  preferred  exploring  the 
avia  loca  of  Byzantine  literature  to  lingering  amid  the  Classics  of  the  golden 
age  \  and  probably  no  one  since  the  days  of  Leo  Allatius  and  Du  Cange  was 
more  familiar  with  mediaeval  Greek  than  Emmanuel  Miller'. 

In  1867  Miller,  in  conjunction  with  BeuU  and  Brunet  de  Presle,  was  one 

of  the  founders  of  Ihe  Association  for  the  encouragement  of 

Greek  studies.  Another  of  the  founders  was  Gustave  d'Eichlhal 

(1804—1886),  a  Sainl-Simonian,   who  represenled   philosophy   as  well    as 

philology,  and  who  wrote  on  the  doctrine  of  Socrates,  as  well  as  on  the  study 


'  Cp.  Michaelis, -4«^.  £n/rf.'88. 

'  Salomon  Reiaach  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1886,  i 


A.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]      MILLER.      D'EICHTHAL.      EGGER.  255 

of  modem  Greek.  In  1S33  he  spent  nearly  two  years  al  Athens,  and  at  that 
time,  as  well  as  thirty  years  later,  advocated  the  adoption  of  a  purified  form  of 
modern  Greek  as  a  universal  language.  In  1874.  he  wrote  in  favour  of 
Lechevalier's  view  that  the  site  of  Troy  was  to  be  found  on  (he  hills  above 
Bunirbashi  (1785}  and  not  on  Schliemann's  mound  of  Hissarlik,  pleading  al 
the  close  ofhis  article  for  the  sanitation  ofihe  plain  of  Troy  and  the  rebuilding 
of  the  'palace  of  Priam  ''.  His  paper  on  the  religious  leaching  of  Socrates 
(1880)  was  translated  into  modem  Greek  by  Valettas.  To  Greeks  residing  in 
Paris,  or  passing  through  it,  he  was  one  of  the  two  perpetual  proxmi  of  their 
nation.     The  other  was  itmile  E^er'. 

Egger  (1813 — 1885)  was  of  Austrian  descent.  At  the  early 
age  of  twenty,  he  became  a  Doctor  of  letters  on 
the  strength  of  his  two  theses  on  Archytas  of 
Tarentum  and  on  Roman  education.  He  began  his  literary 
career  by  editing  '  Longinus '  On  the  Sublime^  and  Varro  De 
Lingua  Latina  (1837),  These  were  followed  by  the  fragments 
of  Festus  and  of  Verrius  Ilaccus  (1839),  by  a  prize  essay  on  the 
historians  of  the  rule  of  Augustus  (1844),  and  by  an  edition  of 
Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry'.  This  last  was  originally  appended  to 
his  excellent  essay  on  the  'History  of  Criticism  among  the  Greeks' 
(1850),  which  was  republished  separately  after  the  author's  death. 
His  'elementary  notions  of  comparative  grammar'  (1852)  was 
the  earliest  work  of  its  kind  in  Europe ;  and,  under  the  title  of 
'Apollonius  Dyscolus'  (1854),  he  published  an  essay  on  the 
history  of  grammatical  theories  in  antiquity.  He  wrote  much 
on  Greek  papyri^  and  on  Greek  inscriptions,  as  well  as  on  the 
language,  history  and  literature  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Many  of 
his  papers  were  collected  in  his  Mkmoires  of  ancient  literature,  and 
of  ancient  history  and  philology  (1862-3).  In  connexion  with 
the  History  of  Scholarship,  he  wrote  on  Polemon  the  periegetes, 
and  on  the  Due  de  Clermont-Tonnerre,  while  (apart  from  his 
admirable  essay  on  the  History  of  Criticism)  his  most  important 
and  most  popular  work  was  his  'History  of  Hellenism  in  France' 
(1869).  He  was  himself  one  of  the  first  in  France  to  assimilate 
the  strict  and  scientific  methods  of  German  scholarship,  and  to 
clothe  its  results  in  the  lucid  and  elegant  style  characteristic  of  his 

>  Annaaire  de  e Astociaihn,  1874,  1—58. 

'  Salomon  Reinach,  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  i8S(i.  14 — 19;  Queux  Saint-Hilaire, 
in  d'Eicblhal's  collected  Mimoires  d  Notkes  (1864-84),  1887. 
*  1849;  ed.  1,  1S74. 


2S6  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

countrymen.  In  the  last  three  years  of  his  life,  he  was  blind,  and 
was  compelled  to  avail  himself  of  the  services  of  a  secretary.  But 
he  continued  in  all  other  respects  to  have  perfect  possession  of 
his  faculties,  and,  even  in  extreme  old  age,  to  retain  the  enei^y 
and  the  vivacity  of  youth  '. 

The  versatile  scholar,  Thomas  Henri  Martin  (1813 — 1884), 
studied  natural  sciences  as  well  as  classical  literature 
at  the  ^cole  Normale,  where  he  also  attended  the 
lectures  of  Victor  Cousin.  His  career  as  a  scholar  began  with  a 
critical  analysis  of  Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry'.  For  more  than 
forty  years  he  was  an  active  member  of  the  Faculty  of  Letters  at 
Rennes. 

It  was  there  that  he  prepared  the  two  volumes  of  his  studies 
on  Plato's  Timaeus  (1841),  including  the  text  and  explanatory 
translation,  analysis  and  commentary,  and  a  series  9f  treatises 
showing  a  wide  knowledge  of  ancient  Music,  Astronomy,  Cosmo- 
graphy, Physics,  Geometry  and  Anatomy.  The  work  was  crowned 
by  the  Academy,  and,  in  conjunction  with  his  edition  of  the 
Astronomy  of  Theon  of  Smyrna  {1849),  led  to  his  name  being 
widely  known  abroad. 

During  his  study  of  the  Timaeus  he  formed  a  plan  for  a 
comprehensive  history  of  ancient  Astronomy  and  Natural  Science. 
This  prompted  the  publication  of  his  second  great  work,  the 
Philosophie  Spiritualiste  de  la  Nature  in  two  volumes  (1849),  being 
an  introduction  to  the  ancient  history  of  the  physical  sciences. 
The  admirable  survey  of  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  among 
the  Greeks  down  to  529  a.d.  (included  in  his  second  volume)  led 
to  his  election  as  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Berlin  Academy. 
He  subsequently  produced  many  important  monographs  on 
special  portions  of  the  subject  of  this  work,  e.g.  on  the  writings 
ascribed  to  Heron  of  Alexandria,  and  on  Cosmography  and 
Astronomy.  Thenceforth,  his  published  works  were  almost  ex- 
clusively devoted  to  the  natural  sciences,  as  studied  by  the 
ancients,  and  were  very  seldom  connected  with  the  Greek  litera- 
ture that  was  the  main  theme  of  his  public  lectures.  These 
lectures,  however,   suggested   his  writing  papers   on   the   Greek 

'  Salomon  Reinach.  Biosr.  /ahri.  1885,  loS— III. 
»  Caen,  1836. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]     MARTIN.     DAREMBERG.     THUROT.        2S7 

Aspirates  (i860),  and  on  the  tril(^  of  the  Prometheus^.     In  his 
other  writings  his  ideal  was  that  of  a  Christian  philosopher.     His 
work  on  the  Christian  doctrine  of  a  future  life  (1855)  passed 
through  three  editions'. — In  the  next  generation 
the  history  of  Greek  science  was  ably  treated  by 
Paul  Tannery  {1843 — 1904),  the  editor  of  Diophantus'. 

A  history  of  medical  science  was  published  in  1872  by  Charles 
Victor  Daremberg  (1817^ — 1872),  the  translator  of 
Oribasius  (1851-76),  and  of  select  works  of  Hippo- 
crates and  Galen  (1854-6),  and  the  joint  editor  (with  SagHo)  of 
the  celebrated  Dictionary  of  Antiquities. 

The  able  Aristotelian,  Charles  Thurot  (1823— 1881),  was  the 
son  of  Alexandre  Thurot  (1786 — 1847),  the  trans- 
lator of  one  of  Heeren's  historical  works.  After 
passing  through  the  Acole  Normak,  he  was  a  professor  at  Pau, 
Rheims,  and  Bordeaux,  and  finally,  in  1849,  ^^  Besan^on,  where 
he  formed  a  life-long  friendship  with  the  eminent  Greek  scholar, 
Henri  WeiL  From  1854  to  i86i  he  was  professor  of  Ancient 
History  at  Clermont-Ferrand;  from  1861  to  1871,  Maitre  dt 
Confirences  in  Grammar  at  the  £iole  Normale;  and,  for  the 
remaining  eleven  years  of  his  life.  Director  of  Latin  studies  at  the 
Acole  Pratique  des  Hautes-Atudes,  as  the  successor  of  Gaston 
Boissier.  He  succeeded  Villemain  as  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions,  and  was  also  a  member  of  the  Munich  Academy. 

His  scholarly  labours  were  mainly  concentrated  on  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle,  and  on  the  history  of  Grammar.  He 
published  valuable  papers  on  Aristotle's  Rhetoric,  Poetic,  and 
Politics,  and  on  the  Animalium  Historia  and  the  Meteorologica*. 
He  fiirther  distinguished  himself  by  his  edition  of  the  commentary 
of  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias  on  Aristotle  de  sensu  et  sensiNli'. 
He  also  supplied  an  introduction  and  notes  to  his  uncle's'  trans- 
lations of  Epictetus  and  the  eighth  book  of  the  Ethics  (1874-81). 

As  a  Latin  scholar,  he  was  mainly  interested  in  the  History  of 

■  Mhi.  Jcad.  Inscr.  xxviii  (»)  1875. 

*  Biegr.yahTb.  1884,  119 — 118.  '  ib.  1906,  46 — 48. 

*  ViM^y  ia  Rome  Arckialogique,  1861-70;  \\%\.m  Biegr.  Jctkrb.\%%i,  14^ 
'  Nelites  et  Extrails,  xsv  (1),  1875,  pp.  454. 

'  Francois  Thurot  (1768—1831),  professor  at  the  Collige  de  France, 

S.    III.  ,..,■,  11.  tyOOt^lc 


258  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Education  and  in  the  Grammatical  Studies  or  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  his  theses  for  the  degree  of  Doctor,  he  dealt  with  the  mediaeval 
organisation  of  the  university  of  Paris',  and  with  the  Grammar 
of  Alexander  de  Villa  Dei  (1850).  He  also  published  documents 
on  the  history  of  the  university  of  Orleans',  while  the  results  of  his 
careful  examination  of  some  hundred  mss  were  incorporated  in 
his  valuable  collection  of  materials  for  a  history  of  the  grammatical 
doctrines  of  the  Middle  Ages'.  In  a  controversy  with  Prantl 
he  held  that  the  Latin  form  of  a  synopsis  of  Logic  by  Petnis 
Hispanus  was  the  original,  while  Prantl  maintained  the  or^inality 
of  the  Greek  form  of  the  synopsis  by  Michael  Psellus.  Thurot's 
opinion  has  since  been  confirmed'.  He  was-  a  scholar  of  wide 
outlook ;  he  did  much  towards  making  France  familiar  with  the 
results  of  foreign  scholarship  ;  he  was  a  great  admirer  of  Madvig, 
and,  in  his  lectures,  drew  special  attention  to  the  value  of  the  first 
volume  of  the  Adversaria  Critica'. 

Sophocles   was  ably  edited  in   1867  by  Edouard  Toumier 

(1831 — 1899);  and  seven  plays  of  Euripides  {1868) 

and  the  principal  speeches  of  Demosthenes  {1873-7) 

by  Henri  Weil  (b.  1818)';  while  Aristophanes  and  the  Alexandrian 

poets  were  tastefully  studied  by  A.  Couat  (d.  1899). 

The  Latin  Classics  were  the  field  of  labour  chosen  by  Louis 
Eugene  Benoist  (1831 — 1887),  who,  after  twelve 
years'  experience  as  a  teacher  at  Marseilles,  was  on 
the  staff  of  the  Faculty  of  Letters  at  Nancy  from  1867  to  1871 ; 
and,  after  a  few  years  at  Aix,  succeeded  Patin  as  professor  in 
Paris  (r874-87).  In  1884  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions,  but  was  prevented  by  ill  health  from 
doing  much  for  the  remaining  three  years  of  his  life. 

While  he  was  still  al  Marseilles,  he  edited  the  CisUllaria  and  Xuiitns  of 
Plautus  and  the  Andria  of  Terence,  but  his  main  attention  wa3  devoted  to 

1  Dezobry,  Paris,  :85o,  131  pp, 

'  Bi61.  di  CEcoU  da  CharUs,  xixii  (1871)  376—396. 

•  Notices  it  Extraits,  xxii  (i)  1869,  591  pp.  ;  cp.  Dacunuuls  in  Cotnpta 
rendus  of  the  Acad,  of  Inscr.  vi  (1870)  341 — 170. 

"  Slapferio  Feslschr.,  Freibui^  in  B.,  1896,  130-8;  Byz.  ZeitschrM  ^^^{. 
"  Biogr.Jahrb.  1881,  J3— 19,  after  Ren.  Cril.  341  f;  Riv.  Hist.  386  f;  Hev. 
di  Philol.  171-S;  S.Ber.bayir.Akad.m^i^-(,\?X\lQT\%%i\\  Baiily,  i886. 

*  Aeschylus,  1884,  1907';  &tudes,  1S97-1900;  cp.  MilangtsH.  Writ,  1891. 


.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]      BENOIST.      RIEMANN.      GRAUX.  259 

Lucretius  and  Vii^I.  His  (iTst  edition  of  Virgil  appeared  in  three  volumes  in 
i86;-7i.  His  course  of  lectures  in  Paris  began  nilh  a  eulogy  of  his  pre- 
decessor, I'atLn.  while,  in  the  following  year,  his  sludie:^  in  Plaulus  were 
appropriately  combined  with  an  encomium  of  Ritschi'.  His  larger  edition  of 
Virgil  was  puhlished  in  [876-80.  With  the  aid  of  Lantoine,  he  published  In 
1834  an  edition  of  the  llfth  book  of  Lucretius,  followed  by  a  school-edition  in 
t886.  Meanwhile,  he  had  embarked  on  an  edition  of  Catullus,  for  which  the 
translation  into  French  verse  was  executed  in  i8;8-8j,  by  his  celebrated  pupil, 
Eugene  Rostand,  but  this  edition  was  never  completed.  Besides  numerous 
articles  on  the  authors  above  mentioned,  he  wrote  on  '  Horace  in  France'', 
but  he  failed  to  linish  his  proposed  edition  of  that  poet.  In  conjunction  with 
his  able  pupii,  O.  Riemann,  he  produced  an  edition  of  Livy,  \xt — xxv 
{1881— 3),  in  which  Riemann  was  responsible  for  the  text  and  notes  and  the 
critical  and  grammalicaJ  appendices,  while  Benoist  dealt  with  the  religious, 
civil,  and  military  institutions.  His  literary  activity  extended  over  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  during  which  he  devoted  unsparing  toil  to  the  textual  criticism 
and  exegesis  of  the  Latin  Classics.  He  was  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  work 
of  the  Latin  scholars  of  Germany,  and  his  editions  were  distinctly  superior  to 
those  that  had  hitherto  held  the  field  in  France.  Among  the  able  Latin 
scholars  that  belonged  to  his  school  were  Riemann,  Waltz,  Uri,  Constans, 
Goliier,  Plessis,  and  Causeret^. 

Olhon  Riemanti  (1853—1891),  as  a  student  of  the  French  School  of  Athens, 
spent  two  years  {1874-5)  'i  llalyi  collating  Mss  of  Xenophon 
and  Livy.  His  third  year  was  reserved  for  the  Ionian  islands. 
As  a  teacher  at  Nancy,  he  produced  his  theses  on  the  language  and  grammar 
of  Livy  and  on  the  text  of  Xenophon's  HeUtnua,  with  his  archaeoli^cal 
researches  on  the  Ionian  islands  and  the  first  part  of  his  studies  on  the  evi- 
dence of  Inscriptions  as  to  the  Attic  dialect.  In  Paris,  shortly  after  1881,  he 
succeeded  Thurot  as  professor  of  Greek  at  the  £cole  Normale.  During  the 
latter  part  of  his  short  life,  he  published  an  enlarged  edition  of  his  admirable 
work  on  Livy,  and  two  editions  of  his  excellent  Latin  Syntax  ([886-90)''. 

Daring  a  brief  life  of  thirty  years,  the  highest  distinction  in 
palaeography  was  attained  by  Charles  Graux  (1852  - 
— 1882),  who  began  his  studies  in  the  Collige  of  his 
native  town  of  Verviers.  For  his  sound  knowledge  of  Greek  he 
was  indebted  to  an  aged  cur^,  whose  learning  was  only  equalled 
by  his  modesty.  He  continued  his  study  of  Greek  under  Toumier 
in  Paris,  where  he  worked  at  Comparative  Grammar  under  Br^al. 

■  Rev.  dePhiigI.ii)t. 
'  Rev.  pelilique  et  litt.  viii  (1875)  719  f. 
»  BiBgr.Jakrh.  1887,  lu— 117. 

'  Since  enlarged  in  Riemann  and  Goelzer,  Gram.   Comfarit  du  Gree  it 
du  Latin,  i  vols.  (1899—190:).     Siogr.Jahrb.  1891,  133  f. 

h.  i,«a-t?.oot^lc 


26o  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

At  the  age  of  21,  he  was  already  editing  in  a  scientific  spirit  the 
Revue  de  Pkilologte  and  the  Revue  Critique.  His  proficiency  in 
Greek  Palaeography  led  to  his  being  repeatedly  sent  to  explore 
the  Mss  of  foreign  libraries.  In  1879  he  published  a  catalogue 
of  the  Greek  mss  of  Copenhagen ;  and,  during  his  journeys  in 
Spain,  he  examined  the  contents  of  no  less  than  sixty  libraries, 
while  he  devoted  special  attention  to  the  treasures  of  the  Escurial. 
He  there  found  the  materials  for  his  Essay  on  the  origins  of 
the  department  of  Greek  mss  in  the  Escurial,  which  includes  a 
sketch  of  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  Spain*.  In  the  Royal 
Library  of  Madrid  he  discovered  a  new  recension  of  certain  of 
Plutarch's  Lives.  During  his  stay  in  Madrid,  he  was  presented  to 
the  King  of  Spain,  and  characteristically  seized  the  occasion  to 
suggest  the  possibility  of  lending  Spanish  mss  to  scholars  in 
France.  To  the  Rwue  de  Phtlologie  he  had  contributed  an  im- 
portant article  on  ancient  Stichometry',  and  he  kept  this  subject 
in  view  during  all  his  researches  abroad.  Some  of  his  earliest 
works  had  been  connected  with  the  Greek  writers  on  fortifications, 
and  he  had  published  the  treatise  of  Philon  of  Byzantium,  as  well 
as  a  memoir  on  the  walls  of  Carthage.  He  had  thus  chosen  the 
application  of  critical  scholarship  to  the  study  of  ancient  history 
as  his  special  field  of  labour.  Early  in  1881  he  was  appointed  to 
the  new  office  of  instructor  in  Greek  History  and  Antiquities  in 
the  Faculty  of  Letters  in  Paris.  Before  beginning  his  Course,  he 
visited  Florence,  and  stayed  for  a  longer  time  in  Rome,  where  he 
aided  the  officials  of  the  Vatican  in  dating  the  Greek  mss  which 
they  were  then  er^aged  in  cataloguing.  On  his  return  to  Paris, 
after  a  brief  respite  from  work,  he  announced  his  first  lecture, 
but,  before  the  date  fixed  for  its  delivery,  he  was  carried  off  by  a 
sudden  illness  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  his  age.  His  memory  was 
honoured  by  the  publication  of  a  volume  of  papers  contributed 
by  seventy-eight  of  the  leading  scholars  of  Europe ;  and  his  lite- 
rary remains  were  collected  in  memorial  volumes  including  the 
edilio  princeps  of  certain  of  the  works  of  Choriclus,  an  edition 
of  Plutarch's  Lives  of  Demosthenes  and    Cicero,  founded  on  the 

»  Bibl.  de  r£co!e  dts  kautes  /tudts,  XLVl  (1880). 

'  Rev.   de  Philol.    1878,   97 — 143,     (Lydus,   rtpl   Jhwd,u«ibi-,   ib.   1896, 
'3— 35') 

„.,,„A.OOglC 


CHAP.  XXXVl.]  SAINT-HILAIRE.  261 

Madrid  MS,  a  revised  text  of  part  of  Xenophon's  Oeconomicus,  and 
the  treatise  on  fortifications  by  Philon  of  Byzantium'. 

Some  of  the  French  translations  of  the  Latin  Classics  have  been  noticed  in 
connexion  with  Ihe  brothers  Nisard.     Cicero  was  translated 
by  Joseph   Victor    Le   Clerc  (1789—1865)',    and  Sallnsl   by  rani  ators 

Moncourt.  In  the  department  of  Greek  literature,  Homer  was  translated  by 
Giguet,  Thucydides  by  Zc!vort,  the  Anlidosis  of  Isocrates  by  Cartelier, 
Demosthenes  by  Sti^venart  and  by  Dareste,  Dio  Cassius  by  Gros,  and  the 
DioHysiacii  of  Nonnus  by  the  Cotnle  de  Marcellas  (1795 — 1861),  (who 
presented  to  Ihe  Louvre  the  Venus  de  Milo').  Lycophron  and  the  Greek 
Anthology  were  rendered  by  DehJque  (d.  1870),  who  counted  ^tg*'  sioong 
his  pupils;  Aeschylus  and  the  Metaphyncs  of  Aristotle,  as  well  as  M.  Aurelius 
and  Plutarch,  by  Fierron,  the  author  of  Histories  of  Greek  and  Lalin  literature 
(d,  1878)'. 

Aristotle  was  expounded,  as  well  as  translated,  by  Barthdlemy- 
Saint-Hilaire  (1805 — 1895),  ""''^^  "^  professor  of 
.  Greek  and  Latin  philosophy  in  1838,  and,  during      gaint-H™^ 
his  public  career,  was   principal   secretary  of  the 
provisional  government  of  1848.     His  translation  of  Aristotle, 
begun  in  1832,  was  completed  in  1891'. 

The  following  critique  is  from  the  pen  of  Lord  Acton': — 
'  He  knows  Greek  thoroughly  for  working  purposes,  but  not  exquisitely  as 
a  scholar;  and  he  has  done  little,  on  the  whole,  far  his  idol  Aristotle  in  the 

way  of  consulting  the  MSS  and  improving  the  unsettled  text ' He  '  is  quite 

at  the  top  of  scholars  and  philosophers  of  the  second  class.  Not  a  discoverer, 
not  an  originator,  not  even  clever  in  the  sense  common  with  Frenchmen,  not 
eloqaent  at  all,  not  vivid  or  pointed  in  phrase;  sufficient  in  knowledge,  but 
not  abounding,  sound,  but  not  supple,  accustomed  to  heavy  work  in  the 
darkness,  unused  to  effect,  to  influence,  or  to  applause,  unsympathetic  and 
a  little  isolated,  but  high-minded,  devoted  to  principle,  willing,  even  en- 
thusiastic, to  sacrifice  himself,  his  comfort,  his  life,  his  reputation,  to  public 
duty  or  scientific  truth....  Not  the  least  of  his  merits  is  that,  having  spent  his 
life  on  Aristotle,  he  told  me  that  he  thought  more  highly  of  Plato;  and  in  his 


'  Ttxlesgrees,  1886;  Notices  bibliogr.  1884;  Graux  et  Martin,  MSS  gncs 
m  Suide  (1889),  Espagne  et  Portugal  (1893),  Fac-simiUs  (1891)-  Biogr. 
Jahrb.  1881,  18 — »i;  portrait,  life  by  Lavisse,  and  biblii^raphy  in  Milanga 
Graux,  1884. 

"  Notiu  by  Guigniaut,  1866.  »  Cp.  Michaelis,  Arch.  Enid.  45  f, 

*  See  also  ^ger's  HeUiitisme  m  France,  ii  469 — 476. 

"  Index  of  subjects  in  two  vols.  (1891).  Picot,  Notice!  Nisloriijues,  i  (1907) 
107-148. 

*  Leitert,  1904,  37—39  (17  Sept.  1880). 

h.  i.,  ii,l^.OOglc 


C.Waddington 


Walcken 


262  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Imroduction  lo  the  Ethics  he  showed  the  weakness  of  his  hero's  attack  on 
Platonism '. 

In  his  fdilion  and  )ra.ii$latioii  of  the  Politics  (1S37),  the  Books  are  arranged 
in  the  following  order; — I,  11,  III,  vii,  viii,  IV,  vi,  v.  It  was  a  French 
translalor,  Nicolas  Oresme  (d.  1381),  who  was  the  first  to  place  Books  Vll  and 
vni  iinmedialely  after  I,  II,  ill,  while  Saint-Hilaire  was  the  firsl  to  place  Vl 

The  'physiology'  of  Aristotle  was  the  subject  of  a  thesis  by 
Charles  Waddington  (born  in  i8iq),  a  member  of  an 
English  family  which  settled  in  France  in  1780.  He 
lectured  on  Logic  at  the  Sorbonne  {1850-6),  but,  being  opposed 
as  a  Protestant,  withdrew  to  Strassbui^.  On  returning  in  1864, 
he  lectured  on  philosophical  subjects.  He  wrote  a  monograph 
on  Ramus  (1855),  followed  by  works  on  Pyrrhonism  (1877),  on 
the  authority  of  Aristotle  in  the  Middle  Ages  (1877),  and  on  the 
Philosophy  of  the  Renaissance  and  its  antecedents  (1872-3). 

The  study  of  ancient  geography  was  advanced  by  Clia.rIeB  Athanase  Baron 
Walckenaer  (1771 — 1851).  who  lived  in  Scotland  during  (he 
French  Revolution,  and  was  in  the  service  of  France  from 
1816  to  1830.  In  1840  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
His  lieal-known  work  is  that  on  the  Ge<^aphy  of  GauP.  He  also  edited  the 
Irishman  Dicuil's  treatise  De  maaura  otbis  lerroi  (180;),  and  wrote  on  the 
life  and  works  of  Horace'.  The  ancient  geography  of  France  was  similarly 
.  studied  with  marked  success  by  A.  E.  E.  Desjardins  (i8'3— 

f?^    '"*        1886),  who  also  made  his  mark  in  Latin  Epigraphy,  while  the 
Renter  diplomalisl,  Charles  Tissol  (1818— 1884),  published  an   im- 

portant memoir  on  Caesar's  campaign  in  Africa  (1883).  The 
Roman  inscriptions  of  Algiers  were  systematically  edited  by  Leon  Renier 
(1809^1885),  the  author  of  an  able  monograph  on  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by 
Tilus,  and  the  compiler  of  a  large  coMeclion  of  Roman  military  diplomas*. 
The  historian  Prosper  Mctim^  (18OJ-70),  besides  pioducing 
"  two  volumes  on  Catiline,  and  on  the  Social  War,  look  part  in 
the  preparationof  the  ffi>Wi>iru!(C/j(ir  published  in  1865-6  by 
Napoleon  III  (1808—1873),  while  Amidee  Thierry  (i797— 
1873)  wrote  on   Rufinus,  .Stilicho,  and   Eulropius*,   and   Brunei  de  Presle 

>  SusemihI-Hicks,  Polilks,  p.  16,  n.  4. 

'  3  vols.,  with  atlas,  1839. 

'  Naudet's  Notice,  1853  ;  Saint-Beuve's  Lundis,  vi. 

'  Salomon  Reinach  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  viii  ( 1885)  roj  f ;  Chatelain  in  Rev.  dt 
Phil.  x(r886)  if. 

'  Also  author  of  Hist,  lies  Gaulois,  and  HisI,  de  la  Gaule;  notice  by 
G.  L^vjque,  1873. 


A.  Thierry 


ogic 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]      C.  WADDINGTON.      DE  COULANGES.       263 

(1809 — iS7g),  a  specialist  in  modem  Greek,  treated  of  Ihe  Greeks  in  Sicily 
(1845)  and  of  Greece  under  Roman  rate  (1859)'. 

As  a  member  of  the  French  School  at  Athens,  Fustel  de 
Coulanges  (1830—1889)  published  a  memoir  on 
the  island  of  Chios'.  His  Latin  thesis  on  the  '  Cult 
of  Vesta',  written  on  his  return  to  France  (1858),  contained  the 
germ  of  his  best-known  work,  La  Cili  Antique  (1864),  a  work 
coinciding  in  many  points  with  Sir  Henry  Maine's  Ancient  Law 
(1861).  In  1874  he  began  the  publication  of  his  'History  of 
the  Institutions  of  France',  and  in  the  following  year  became 
professor  of  Ancient  History  at  the  Sorbonne,  where,  in  all 
his  lectures,  he  strongly  insisted  on  the  study  of  the  original 
authorities.  A  proposal  to  found  in  his  honour  a  new  Chair  of 
Mediaeval  History  was  delayed  until  Gambetta  had  been  assured 
in  1879  that  the  recognition,  in  the  Citi  Antique,  of  the  important 
part  played  by  religion  did  not  really  imply  the  author's  sympathy 
with  modern  '  clencalism ',  After  spending  three  years  as  Director 
of  the  ^cole  Normale,  he  resumed  for  the  last  six  years  of  his 
life  his  fruitful  labours  in  the  Chair  of  Mediaeval  History  at  the 
Sorbonne'.  His  Gaule  Romaine  was  posthumously  published  in 
1890. 

Among  (he    dislinguished    representatives   of  Classical    Archaeology  in 
Franeewas  Aubin  LooLs  Millin  de  Grandmaison  (1759 — 181S), 
author  of  the  MonumoUs  oHliqaes  itUdiis  (t8o5-6),  and  of  Mnii 

the  Gaiirie  mylhelogiqut  (i8ii)*.  Of  Italian  descent,  he 
learned  German  in  Strassburg,  and,  for  the  last  twenty-three  years  of  his  life, 
edited  a  journal  that  formed  a  valuable  link  between  the  archaeoli^ical  studies 
of  France  and  Geimany.  In  the  course  of  his  travels  he  produced  one  of  the 
fullest  descriptions  of  the  Roman  remains  in  the  South  of  France,  and  his 
visits  to  Italy  led  to  the  first  systematic  examination  of  monuments  connected 
with  the  Oresteia  (iSij)",  He  introduced  into  classical  archaeology  the  terms 
mcnvmtnts  antiques  and  antiquili figurie^. 

A.   C.  Qualremtre  de   Quincy  (iJSS — '8+9),  in  his  illustrated   volume, 
Lt  Jupittr  Olympim  (1814),  was  the  first  to  enable  archae- 
ologists  Co  form  a  clear  conception  of  the  chryselephantine 

'  Queux  Saint' Hilaire,  in  Assoc.  Eludes  grecs,  1875,  341. 

*  Archiitt  des  missions  scitntifiquis,  vol.  v. 

*  Paul  Guiraud  in  Biagr.Jakrb.  xii  (1889!  138—149. 

*  Plates  in  his  PeitUura  dt  vases  antiques  (1B08-10)  and  Pierres  grcailts 
inedites  (1817-15)  republished  by  S.  Reinach,  1891-5. 

*  Stark,  157  f.  •  ib.  so. 


lOO' 


SIC 


264  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

work  of  the  ancients.  It  was  not  until  he  actuallj  saw  the  sculptures  of  the 
Parthenon  in  1818  tha.t  he  fully  appreciated  their  importance'.  He  was  the 
first  to  recc^ise  the  value  of '  Carrey's'  drawings  of  those  sculptures*. 

An  epoch  in  the  study  of  ancient  sculpture  was  made  by  Jean  BaptUte 
Comte  de  Clarac  (1777—1847),  who,  after  living  in  Switzer- 
land,   Germany    and    Holland,    returned    to    France,    and 
became  tutor  in  the  family  of  king  Murat  at  Naples.     He  there  wrote  a  report 
on  the  discoveries  at   Pompeii  (1813).     In  1818  he  succeeded  Visconti  as 
Conservator  of  the  Louvre.     His  catalogues  of  1810-30  ultimately  became  a 
manual  of  the  history  of  ancient  art  (184J-9).     Under  the  title  of  Mtisie  de 
sculpture  antique  el  mcdtme  he  published  two  volumes  of  outline  engravings 
of  the  sculptures  of  the  Louvre  (1816-30),  followed  by  two  further  volumes 
containing   more    than    JS""   copies   of    the    'Statues    of   Europe',    arranged 
according  to  subjects  (185J-7),  and  completed  by  a  volume  of  reliefs,  and 
another  of  Egyptian,  Greek  and  Roman  Iconography.    This  vast  collection  of 
outlines  was  the  foundation  of  all  subsequent  works  on  ancient  sculpture'. 
Raoul  Rochette  (1783 — 1854)  produced  in  his  Monumem  inidits  (1818)  a 
work  of  the  same  title  and  general  aim  as  that  of  his  contem- 
Rochettc         porary,  Gerhard.    As  the  successor  of  Millin  at  the  Louvre  he 
published  during  twenty-live  years  a  large  number  of  papers  on 
archaeological  discoveries.     He  wrote  a  critical  history  of  the  Greek  Colonies, 
and  a  work  on  (he  antiquities  of  the  Crimea.    He  was  specially  interested  in  the 
Pe^amene  artists,  and  in  the  sculptured  representations  of  Greek  heroes*.    His 
views'  and  those  of  Guigniaul  (1754 — 1876),  the  learned  translator  and  reviser 
of    Creuzer's    Symbolik,    were    keenly   criticised    by    Jean 
LeticiBDe         Anioine    Letronne   (1787—1848),    the    author    of    works    on 
ancient  geography,  including  a  critical  essay  on  the  topography  of  Syracuse 
(1812),    researches   on    Dicuil,    de  meniura  orbis   terrae  (1814),  and  on    the 
Periplusof  'Scylax'  (i8j6)  and  the  fragments  of  Scymnus  and  '  Dicaearchus ' 
(1840).     He  also  discussed  the  fragments  of  Heron  of  Atenandria  (1851),  and 
wrote  masterly  papers  on  ancient  a-stronomy,  and  on  the  statue  of  Memnon*. 
His  gjreater  works  were  connected  with  Greek  and  Roman  coinage  (1817-35), 
and  with  the  Greek  and  Latin  Inscriptions  of  ^[ypt  (1841-8)'. 

Philippe  Le  Bas  {1794 — t86o),  who  had  leaml  his  Greek  from  Boissonade, 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Italian  and  German  archaeo1<%ists 
during  his  residence  in  Rome  as  tutor  in  the  family  of  queen 

•  Letters  to  Canova.  »  Stark,  158 ;  vol.  ii,  p.  199  supra. 

'  Stark,  367  f.     S.  Reinach,  Clarac  de  Poche  (1897 — 1904);   t«isl  in  the 

•  Stark,  197;  portrait  by  his  daughter  engraved  by  her  husband,  Luigi 
Calamatta. 

•  PHntures  antiques  inMites  {1836).  '  Inscr.  de  t'£gypte,  ii  315 — ^ia. 
'  Longp^iier,  Notice,    1849;    Egger,  Mini,  de  Philol.   1  — 14.     Milanges 

(with  Walckenaer's  ^hgt),  1860;  CEuvres  Ckoisies,  1S81-5. 


X'OO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]  LENORMAMT.  26$ 

Hortense.  The  Iwo  years  of  his  mission  to  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  (1943-4) 
were  devoted  lo  the  collection  or  450  drawings  of  ancient  monuments,  and 
5000  inscriptions.  Several  part*  of  the  Voyagi  archiologique  en  Gria  el  m 
Asie  Mineurt  were  published  in  1847-8.  After  the  death  of  Le  Bas,  the 
collection  of  the  inscriptions  was  greatly  enlarged  in  1861-1  by  W.  H. 
Waddington,  who  extended  the  quest  to  Syria  and  Cyprus, 
and  by  P.  Foucart'.  The  results  of  the  exploration  of  Asia 
Minor  in  1833-7  ^1  Texier  (1794 — 1860)  were  published  in  1849'. 

The  Due  de  Luynes  (1803 — 1S67),  who  played  an  important  part  in  the 
early  history  of  the  Archaeoli^cai  Institnle',  and  generously 
supported  the  publication  of  the  two  volumes  of  Neuvelles  Luvnes 

Annales  for  1838-9,  independently  produced  by  the  French 
section  of  that  Institute  in  1S40-5,  distinguished  himself  by  bis  admirable 
works  on  the  exploration  of  Metapontum  (1836),  on  (he  coins  of  the  Satraps 
(1848),  and  on  the  coins  and  inscriptions  of  Cyprus  (1851).  He  was  the 
liberal  patron  of  archaeoli^cal  work  at  home  and  abroad,  but,  in  all  his 
varied  interests,  he  ever  relumed  to  the  art  of  ancient  Greece  as  the  '  shrine  of 
beauty'.  He  lavished  his  resources  on  Simart's  restoration  of  the  chrysele- 
phantine statue  of  Athena  Parthenos.  He  was  to  France  what  the  Earl  of 
Arundel  was  to  England,  and  he  left  all  his  vast  collections  of  works  of 
ancient  art  to  the  Museum  in  the  Paris  Library*. 

Charles  Lenonnant  {1816 — 1881),  the  discoverer  in  j86o  of  the  fine  relief 
of  the  divinities  of  Elensis,  was  the  author  of  the  five  volumes 
of  the  Trher  de  Humiimatique  el  de  glyfli/ue,  and  of  tbe  threi 
of  the  £lite  des  immuinniei  ciramographiques.  He  also  produced  a  comme 
laiy  on  Plato's  Cralylus  (1861)-  He  died  during  his  travels  in  Greece,  and  w 
bnried  on  the  hill  of  Colonus".  His  son  Fran9ois  (1837 — 
1883)  was  a  versatile  explorer  in  the  most  varied  fields  of 
archaeology,  epigraphy,  and  numismatics.  Among  his  principal  publications 
were  his  '  archaeolr^cal  researches  at  Eleusis '  (1861),  and  his  monograph  on 
the  sacred  'Eleusinian  way'  (1864).  His  earliest  important  work  was  his 
Essay  on  the  Coins  of  the  Ptolemies  (1857).  Among  the  most  comprehensive 
of  his  articles  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionary  were  those  on  the 
Alphabet,  and  on  Bacchus  and  Ceres.  He  produced  numerous  memoirs  on 
Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions,  on  works  of  ancient  sculpture,  and  on  numis- 
matics. He  took  part  in  preparing  seven  volumes  of  masterpieces  of  ancient 
art,  mainly  from  the  Museum  at  Naples,  and  in  producing  highly  popular 
works  on  Magna  Graecia,  and  on  Apulia,  and  Lucania.     In  conjunction  with 

>  Stark,  319.     Plates  published  by  S.  Reinach  (1888). 
'  Cp.  Michaelis,  Arch.  Entd.  76,  rso- 

"  ib.  186;  Michaelis,  Geuh.  d.  Inst.,  44,  63,  85,  9S- 
*  E.  Vinet,  in  L'art  el  Varchhlegie,  468  f  ;  Stark,  300  f. 

>  Netiees  by  Wallon,  1859  ;  and  Laboulaye,  1861 ;  portrait  in  the  Gaietle 
arehiale^qut,  i88s. 

„.,,„,  ^.oogic 


C.  Lend 


F.  I^no 


266  FRANCE.  [cent.  XIX. 

Baron  de  Witle,  he  founded  ihe  Gazelle  Archlolagiquc  in  187s  ;  on  Ihe  death 
of  Beuli  in  the  previous  year  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Archaeolc^  at  the 
Biblioth^ue  Nalionale,  and  held  that  position  with  the  highest  distii>ction  for 
the  remaining  nine  years  of  his  life'. 

Among    archaeolf^ts    intermediale    in   age   between    the  elder  and   the 
I-onnrfrltr        J""'"E^'  Lenormant  were  Adrien  de  Longperier  (1816—1881), 
g^^  who  wrote  on  the  Bronzes  of  the  Louvre  (1869)  and  on  the 

Coins  of  the  Sassanides  (r88j),  and  whose  archaeological 
papers  were  collected  by  Schlumbeiger" ;  and  Charles  Ernest  Beule  (1826 — 
1875),  who  helped  to  popukrise  archaeology  by  his  works  on  (he  Acropolis 
(i8i;4)  and  the  Coinage  (1858)  of  Athens,  on  the  Peloponnesus  (i^SS)!  '"'^  01 
Che  arts  at  Sparta,  on  Greek  art  before  Pericles,  and  on  Pheidias.  He  also 
wrote  on  Augustus  (a  political  pamphlet),  and  on  Tiberius  and  Titus'.  The 
h™j  mediaeval  topography  of  Athens  was  excellently  illustrated 

by  the  work  of  Leon  de  Laborde  on  Athens  in  centuries 
XV — XVII   (1854).      Athens  and  the  Acropolis  were  the  theme  of  a  woik  by 
Emile  Bumouf  (1877),  the  second  Director  of  the  French  School  (1 811-1907)*. 
Though  the  Due  de  Luynes  was  one  of  the  warmest  friends  of  the  Archae- 
ological Institute  of  Rome,  the  Due  de  Blacas  its  first  presi- 
^f\^heni'        '*^'"'  ^^^  '^^  learned  Guigniaul  (the  friend  of  Panofka  and 
the  'father  of  the  School  of  France'')  one  of  the  earliest 
members  of  Ihe  Institute,  nevertheless  It  was  not  (he  Institute  of  Rome  that 
suggested  the  foundation  of  (he  School  of  Athens.     The  germ  of  (he  French 
School  was  the  Roman  Academy  of  France,  the  Academy  of  artists  founded 
by  Colbert  in  1666*.     The  School  of  Athens  was  founded  in  1846 ;  during  the 
first  six(y  years  of  its  existence  it  has  had  five  Directors; — Ameiife  Daveluy 
(1846-67).  ^mile  Burnouf  (1867-75),  Albert  Dumont  (1875-78),  Paul  Foucart 
{1878-90)  and  Theophile  HomoUe,  the  present  Director;  and  the  story  of  its 
fortunes  under  these   five   Directors   has   been   admirably  told   by  (jeoiges 
Radet'.     It  has  explored  and  excavated  in   Asia  Minor,  in  Cyprus,  Syria, 
North  Africa  and  even  in  Spain,  as  well  as  in  Greece,  in  Thrace  and  Mace- 
donia, and  in  the  islands  of  the  Aegean.     It  has  lately  won  fresh  laurels  at 
both  of  the  ancient  shrines  of  Apollo,  at  Delos  and  at  Delphi.     It  has  also 
added  much  to  the  learning  and  to  the  literature  of  France.    Among  the 
students  entered  under  Daveluy  we  find  Charles  Lev6que',  Emile  Bumouf, 
'  Babelon  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1884,  151 — 163  ;  Rayel's  &ludis,  405 — 414. 
^  1881,  with  complete  biblii^raphy  ;  Rayet's  Eludes,  396 — 404. 
'  Gniyer,  in  Gaa.  cUs  Bmux  Arts,  1874 ;  portrait  in  G.  Radet's  History  of 
the  French  School  of  Athens,  opp.  p.  174. 

*  Portrait  in  Radet,  p.  isg. 

'  Portrait  in  Radet,  opp.  p.  io8. 

*  Ilomolle,  quoted  by  Radet.  4. 

'  VHistoin  d  I'CEuvre  dt  I'Scole  Franfoise  d'Alkims,   1901,  491  pp., 
with  153  illustrations,  including  portraits  of  all  the  Directors. 
'  La  Seieitu  du  Beau  (i86i). 


A.OO' 


1C5IC 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]      SCHOOLS  OF  ATHENS  AND   ROME.  267 

Jules  Girard,  Beule,  Edmond  About,  Fuslel  de  Coulanges,  Heuzey,  Georges 
Ferrol,  Paul  Foucarl,  Wescher,  Decluufnie,  and  Albeit  Dumont.  lAmong 
those  entered  under  Emile  Bumoiif: — Rayel,  Collignon,  HomoUe,  and 
Riemann ;  under  Albert  Duinoni : — Paul  Girard,  Jules  Ma.rtha.  Bernard 
Haussoullier,  and  Edmond  Pottier;  and  under  Paul  Foucart : — -Hanvette, 
Salomon  Reinach,  Monceaux,  Pietie  Paris,  Diehl,  Radet,  Deschamps', 
Fougires,  Lechat,  and  Victor  B^rard.  Many  of  these  names  are  widely 
known,  there  are  none  of  them  that  are  not  ttuaiirrTa,  uiwfrow-u',  and  there  is 
Sundance  of  promise  and  more  than  promise  among  their  successors,  the 
pupils  of  Theophile  Homolle.  Most  of  the  names  represent  various  depart- 
ments of  classical  archaeology,  but  the  study  of  Greek  lileralure  is  also  repre- 
sented by  E.  Burnouf,  J.  Girard,  Perrol,  Decharme,  and  Hauvelte,  and  the 
linguistic  »de  of  classical  learning  by  the  careful  treatment  of  Attic  usage  in 
(he  epigraphic  works  of  Foucart,  Riemann  and  S.  Reinach.  and  by  Homolle's 
preliminary  paper  on  the  primitive  dialect  of  Delphi.  Greek  texts  were  edited 
by  Wescher;  while  Riemann  collated  the  Anibrosian  MS  of  Xenophon's  HelU- 
nica  and  examined  the  icholia  on  Demosthenes  and  Aeschines  in  the  monastic 
library  of  Patmus'.  Part  of  the  recent  pn^ress  of  excavation  and  discovery 
in  the  Hellenic  world  has  been  traced  by  S.  Reinach',  and  [he  documentary 
history  of  the  French  exploration  of  the  East  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centniies  has  been  published  by  H.  Omonl*.  The  French  School  of  Athens 
published  its  results  first  in  the  Arehivis  des  missions  sdmiifiquts  tt  litlfrairis, 
and  next  in  a  BulUlin  begun  in  (868  and  transformed  into  the  well-known 
Bullttin  dt  corrtspoHdance  kclUniiut  in  1879-  The  French  School  of  Rome 
is  the  younger  sister  of  the  School  of  Athens.  When  {by  the  Versailles  decree 
of  187 1 )  the  Archaeological  Institute  of  Rome  was  placed  under  the  control  of 
the  Berlin  Academy  and  thus  ceased  to  be  'international',  a  French  School  of 
Rome  became  a  necessity,  and  it  was  accordingly  founded  in  1873.  Its  work 
is  partly  represented  in  the  Bihliolhique  of  the  Schools  of  Athens  and  Rome 
(which  includes  De  Nolhac's  volumes  on  Petrarch  and  Hnmanism,  and  on 
the  Library  of  Fulvio  Orsini);  its  special  oi^n  is  Milangcs  d'arcUologic  el 
d'hiiloirt;  and  its  present  Director  is  Mgr  Duchesne. 

The  study  of  epigraphy  and  numismatics  was  ably  represented  by 
William  Henry  Waddinglon  (18H}— 1894),  a  cousin  of  Charles 
Waddington'.  He  was  born  at  the  family  chdieau  near  ji^ *''*'"''" 
Dreux,  was  educated  in  Paris  and  at  Rugby,  rowed  in  the 
university.boat  at  Cambridge,  and  was  a  Chancellor's  Medallist  and  second  in 
the  first  class  of  the  Classical  Tripos  of  that  university  in  1849.  His  early 
travels  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  resulted  in  his  Veyagi  en  Asie  Mineure  au 

'  La  Grice  tV aujeard^ hui  (1891)  etc. 

''  Details  in  Radet,  397,  and,  in  general,  379—414. 

'  Ckroniques  d'OrienI,  j  vols.,  1891-6. 

*  Missions  aTckiolggiqua,  %  vols.  4I0,  xvi  +  1137  pp.  (1903). 


i.MM,Googlc 


268  FRANCE.  [cent.  XIX. 

point  de  vui  ttumismaHqui  (1853)'.  This  was  followed  by  his  Milcatget  di 
numismatiipii  et  de  philologit  (1861-7),  his  edition  of  the  Edict  of  Diocletian 
(1864),  the  Greek  and  Latin  Inscriptions  in  his  continuation  of  Le  Bas'  Voyage 
arehhhgique  (1868),  his  'Greek  and  Latin  Inscriptions  of  Syria'  (1870)  and 
his  '  Fasli  of  the  Asiatic  provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire  (ed.  i,  1872)'. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1871,  and  of  the 
Senate  in  1876,  was  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  r876-7,  and  Ambassador 
of  Fiance  to  England  in  1883-93.  As  a.  Member  of  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions in  Paris  (1865)  and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Berlin,  and 
an  Honorary  Doctor  of  the  University  of  Cambridge  (1884),  he  was  an 
archaeolf^st  who  conferred  distinction  on  the  land  of  his  ancestors  as  well  as 
on  the  land  of  his  adoption.  '  His  manly  loyalty  to  France  lost  nothil^ 
by  the  discipline  of  Rugby  and  Cambridge,  and  he  adorned  public  life  without 
ceasing  to  deserve  well  of  archaeolt^ '*.  It  is  nevertheless  true  that  he 
would  have  served  Chat  science  still  better,  had  he  withdrawn  from  public  life 
two-and-lwenty  years  before  his  death.  He  might  thus  have  lived  to  complete 
and  publish  his  long-expected  work  on  the  Coinage  of  Asia  Minor*,  a  work 
founded  on  the  studies  of  a  life-time  and  illustrated  by  an  unrivalled  collection 
consisting  entirely  of  coins  (hat  were  either  very  rare  or  absolutely  uniqae'. 
His  political  popularity  was  probably  at  its  height  in  1877-g,  when  he  was 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  Plenipotentiary  of  France  at  the  Congress  of 
Berlin  (June,  1878).  It  was  to  Waddington  that  Greece  then  owed  the 
promise  of  a  rectificalion  of  her  frontiers.  Early  in  1880,  on  ceasing  to 
be  responsible  for  foreign  affairs,  he  paid  bis  tirst  visit  to  Rome,  where 
Salomon  Reinach  met  him  in  the  Lateran  Museum.  Waddington  had  at  that 
moment  an  immense  reputation  as  a  philhellene,  and  Reinach  suggested  a 
tour  in  Greece.  'On  vous  recevra'  (he  added)  'sous  des  arcs  de  triomphe,' 
'  Mais  pr^cisfment '  (replied  Waddington}  'je  n'aime  pas  les  arcs  de  triomphe.' 
A  more  sober  form  of  gratitude  would  doubtless  have  been  preferred  by 
that  calm  and  dispassionate  politician  and  archaeolt^ist  who,  in  all  his 
writings,  seldom,  if  ever,  allowed  himself  to  lapse  into  a  rhetorical  phrase. 
Attracted  mainly  towards  (he  solution  of  diflicult  problems  of  chronology,  he 


'  Rivut  numismaliqut,  1851-3. 

'  All  these  works  (except  the  MUanges)  originally  formed  part  of  his 
continuation  of  '  Le  Bas.'  He  also  wrote  on  the  chronology  of  the  life  of  the 
rhetorician  Aristides  (Mint.  Acad.  Inscr.  1867),  and  on  the  coinage  of  Isauria 
and  Lycaonia  (ffw.  «um.  i88j)  and  the  inscriptions  of  Tarsus  {B.  C.  H. 
1883). 

'  Jebb  in/.  H.  S.  av  p.  vii. 

*  In  course  of  completion  by  Babelon  and  Theodore  Reinach,  for  publica- 
tion by  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 

'  Purchased  for  the  Cabinil  de  M/daillei  in  1897  (Babelon's  laomiaire 
Sommaire,  1898;  Waddington,  Babelon,  Th.  Reinach,  Recueil  de  Monnaies 
d'Asie  Mimure,  1904-7). 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]      W.  H.  WADDINGTON.      RAYET.  269 

regarded  the  sciences  of  epigraphy  and  numismatics  solely  as  handmaids  to 
tustoiy  or  (if  we  must  deny  ourselves  that  phrase  in  such  a  context)  solely  as 
aids  lo  the  attainmenl  of  historic  truth'. 

Among  important  works  on   Numismatics  may  be  mentioned  the  well- 
known  DtseripHeit  dt  nUdatlle!  antiques  grecquts  el  romaines 
(iSo6f)  by  Mionnet  (1770 — 1843),  the  consular  and  imperial 
Roman  coins  of  Cohen  (ed.   1,   1881);   and  the  Byzantine  coins  (1838}  of 
De  Saulcy  (1807^1880),  the  oriental  traveller  and  archaeologist^. 

Our  survey  of  the  classical  archaeolc^sts  of  France  cannot  close  without 
some  I'ecord  of  the  brief  but  brilliant  career  of  Olivier  Rayet 
(1847— -1887}.  At  the  £cole  Normale  he  came  under  the  in- 
spiring  influence  of  his  future  father-in-hiw,  Ernest  Desjardins,  whose  lectures 
on  Ancient  History  and  Geography  were  varied  with  vivid  reminiscences  of 
eminent  archaeologists,  such  as  Mariette  and  Borghesi.  Rome  and  Paestum 
and  Selious  were  among  the  land-marks  of  Ihe  memorable  journey  of  1869 
that  led  Rayet  to  the  School  of  Athens.  At  Athens  he  began  the  fruitful 
studies  which  resulted  in  his  papers  on  the  Cerameicus.  There  too  he  obtained 
for  the  Louvre,  and  for  his  own  collection,  some  of  (he  linest  of  the  early 
examples  of  the  Tanagra  figurines,  a  branch  of  ancient  art  in  which  he  soon 
became  a  rect^nised  expert.  He  regarded  these  graceful  figures  as  having  no 
mylholc^cal  or  symbolic  significance;  they  were  placed  in  the  tombs  (he 
held)  simply  as  substitutes  for  the  victims  sacrificed  in  primitive  times  as 
companions  to  the  spirits  of  the  dead'.  In  1871-3  he  was  engaged  in  exca- 
v^ing  the  theatre  of  Miletus  and  the  temple  of  Didyma,  and  in  the  discoveiy 
of  important  sculptures  and  inscriptions  on  both  sites*.  Early  in  1974,  on 
his  return  to  Paris,  he  began  his  lectures  on  Greek  inscriptions  and  terra- 
collas,  and  on  the  topography  of  Athens;  these  were  followed  by  further 
lectures  on  (he  history  of  ancient  art ;  and  ten  years  after  his  return  he 
succeeded  F.  Lenormant  as  professor  of  archaeology  at  the  Bibliethique 
NaiioncUe.  In  February  1S87  he  died  at  the  age  of  less  than  forty,  after  two 
years  of  ill  health  due  lo  a  malady  probably  contracted  during  the  exploration 
of  Miletus.  The  only  work  which  he  lived  to  complete  was  his  series  of 
Msnummts  de  fart  antique  (1884).  His  importaot  Histeire  di  la  Ciramique 
grtique  was  completed  by  Collignon  {l888),  and  the  same  year  saw  the 
publication  of  an  interesting  collection  of  his  more  popular  papers'. 

For  the  ten  years  that  preceded  his  last  illness  he  held  a  unique  position 

'  Cp.  S.  Reinach,  in  Biogr.JaAr.  1897,  1—8. 

'  He  also  wrote  on  Cisar  dans  Us  Gaules  (l86o) ;  cp.  Revui  Celtiqu^, 
18S0;  Froehner,  1881  ;  Schlumberger,  1881  {with  bibliography). 

*  &tudts  d'archiologu:  et  d'art,  1888,  3iof. 

*  1*.  ggf.     The  work  was  resumed  by  Haussonllier  in  1895-6  {£tudes  sur 
I'histBiride  MiUt,  1901). 

»  &titdes  d'arckhlogie  it  d'art,  with  portrait,  and  biographical  notice  by 
Salomon  Reinach. 


X'OO' 


SIC 


270  FRANCE.  [cent.  XIX. 

among  the  archaeoli^sts  of  France,  as  a  man  whose  tasle  and  judgement 
were  respected  by  experts  and  artists,  and  also  by  collectors  of  works  of 
ancient  art.  He  did  not  pretend  to  any  profound  learning  in  (he  domain  of 
mythologj,  but  he  had  a  fine  sense  of  style.  On  his  return  from  Olympia  he 
wrote  two  admirable  articles  on  ihe  newly  discovered  pediments  of  the  temple 
of  Zeus  and  on  the  German  excavations  in  general'.  With  an  eager  patriotism 
he  elsewhere  ui^ed  that  Paris  should  not  be  allowed  to  fall  behind  Berlin  or 
London  in  the  oi^nisation  of  its  Museums  of  Ancient  Art.  It  may  be  added 
that  his  articles  on  this  theme  were  written  at  the  instance  of  Gambetta,  for 
whom  he  had  an  unbounded  admiration ;  and,  after  his  hero's  death,  it  was 
not  without  emotion  that  he  reproduced  and  described  in  his  /Honumtnti  di 
I'art  antique  the  exquisite  figurine  presented  to  that  eminent  politician  by  (he 
grratitude  of  (he  Greeks  of  Epinis'. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  in  France  classical  learning  had 
no  darker  days  than  those  of  the  First  Empire.  Bon-Joseph 
Dacier  regretfully  reports  to  Napoleon  I : — '  La  Philologie,  qui 
est  la  base  de  toute  bonne  litt^rature  et  sur  laquelle  repose  la 
certitude  de  I'histoire,  ne  trouve  presque  plus  personne  pour  la 
cultiver".  The  first  Napoleon  studied  Caesar  for  his  own  pur- 
poses*, and  the  third  followed  his  example'.  Under  the  Restora- 
tion, Latin  was  recognised  anew  in  1821  as  the  proper  medium  of 
instruction  in  philosophy,  but  this  recc^nition  was  withdrawn  afler 
the  Revolution  of  July,  1830'.  A  literary  reaction,  however, 
ensued,  a  reaction  connected  with  the  notable  names  of  Abel 
Francois  Villemain  and  Victor  Cousin.  The  latter,  who  had 
studied  philosophy  and  educational  organisation  in  Germany,  and 
had  written  inter  alia  on  Aristotle's  Metaphysics,  was  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  in  184a'.  Villemain  (1790 — 
1870),  the  Minister  of  1839,  had  been  appointed 
professor  of  French  Eloquence  at  the  Sorbonne,  had  translated 
Cicero's  Letters  and  De  RepuMica,  had  published  a  romance  on 

'  Reprinted  in  &tudes,  4^—85. 

'  S.  Reinach,  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1887,  jj — 41,  and  esp.  in  his  ed.  r>\  £ludes 
(i88«),  pp.  1-m. 

'  RafpoTt  sur  Us  ptogris  de  rhistotre  et  de  la  litlh-ature  ancietme,  1789  — 
1808  {Paris,  1810), 

•  Prkis  des  guerra  de  Char,  ed.  Marchand,  360  pp.  (1830). 

•  Hist,  de/ales  CAnr  {1865-6). 

•  Giiard,  ^ducatum  et  Instrvclion  {Enseigtiement  Secondaiie),  ii  C.  ix,  x. 
'  p.  151  JH/ra. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]      VILLEMAIN.      WALLON.      DURUV.  271 

the  Greeks  of  the  fifteenth  century',  and  a  popular  treatise  on 
Roman  Polytheism",  He  is  a  representative  of  the  rhetorical  side 
of  classical  scholarship.  Like  Guizot  and  Cousin  (both  of  whom 
had  been  Ministers  of  Public  Instruction  as  well  as  professors), 
Villemain  gave  brilliant  courses  of  lectures,  which,  although 
delivered  from  the  professorial  chair,  were  addressed  to  the 
general  public,  there  being  hardly  any  regular  students  or  duly 
organised  schools  of  learning'. 

A  more  solid  type  of  erudition  was  represented  by  the  Minister 
of  1875,  Henri  Alexandre  Wallon  (1812—1905)*, 
for  many  years  'perpetual  secretary'  of  the  Aca- 
demy of  Inscriptions,  who,  besides  not  a  few  important  contribu- 
tions to  historical  or  theolc^ical  literature,  had  in  the  early  part 
of  his  career  produced  a  learned  history  of  ancient  slavery'.     His 
able   contemporary,    Jean   Victor    Duruy   (i8ir — 
1894),  the  author  of  a  Historical  Geography  of  the 
Roman  Republic  and  the  Roman  Empire  (1838)  and  of  well- 
known  Histories  of  Rome'  and  Greece',  crowned  his  many  services 
as  Minister  by  the  establishment  of  the  icoU  pratique  des  hautes 
itudes  in  1866.     The  date  has  been  recognised  as  marking  a 
renaissance  of  classical  studies  in  France'.     It  is  also  the  date  of 
the  foundation  of  the  Revue  Critique,  which,  as  the  organ  of  a 
sound  and  sober  type  of  scholarship,  dealt  a  final  death-blow  to 
the   'pale  imitators  of  Villemain'.     The  characteristic  of  this 
renaissance  has  been  described  by  the  author  of  the  Manuel  de 
Philologie  as  an  alliance  between  the  French  qualities  of  clearness 
and  method,  and  the  solid  learning  of  other  nations*. 

'  Lascaris,  1815.  '  Nouvtaax  Milanget,  1817. 

'  L.  LLard,  Les  Universith  Franfoisii  (Report  of  1897). 

'  Portrait  in  Coinfles  rendus  of  Acad,  of  Inscr.  1906. 

'  184; ;  ed.  1,  1879  (Perrot  in  Rrv.  Arch.  1879,  j6o  f). 

"  Six  vols.  (1876-79);  ill.  ed.  in  eight  vols.  (1878-86);  E.  T.  ed.  Mahaffy, 
1883  f. 

'  1861;  two  vols.  [8B3;  ill.  ed.  three  vols.  1887-9;  E- T.  ed.  Mahaffy, 
.892. 

'  S.  Reinach,  Manuel  de  Phihlogii,  i  13.  In  1877  the  Rtvuede  PhilelogU 
was  founded,  and  Cobet  writes  to  Tournier  in  that  year,  eipressing  his 
delight,  rmaia  esse  el  lam  laeta  fiorere  in  Gallia  severa  literarum  veterum 
stadia  {Sev.  de  Philol.  ii  189). 

"  S.  Reinach,  /.  c. 


lOO' 


SIC 


272  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Among  German  scholars  who  settled  in  France  may  be  mentioned  Karl 
Benedict  Hase  (1780 — 1864),  who,  after  studying  at  Jena  and 
Helmatedt,  left  in  iSoi  for  Paris,  where  he  held  an  appoint- 
ment in  the  Library,  besides  being  a  professor  of  Modern  Greek  and  of 
F^lae<^raphy  (1816),  and  of  Comparative  Grammar  (1851).  He  wrote  the 
Frot^omena  to  the  edilU  princeps  of  Lydns.  de  magislralibus  Hemanh,  and 
edited  Lydns  de  ostenlis,  etc.,  as  well  as  Julius  Obsequens,  Valerius  Maximus, 
and  Suetonius.  He  contributed  many  papers  to  the  Notices  el  Exlraiis  of  the 
MS5  of  the  Paris  Library.  In  the  study  of  palaeography  his  most  famous  pupil 
was  Charles  Gmux'.  Hase  took  part  in  the  first  volume  only  of  the  new 
edition  of  the  Greek  Thesaurus  projected  by  Didol=. 

One  of  Didot's  most  active  supporters  in  the  series  of  the  Classics  that 

bears  his  name  was  Johann  Friedrich  Diibner  (1801 — 1867), 

who  had  studied  at  Giittingen,  and  vias  invited  to  Paris  in 

■833  to  take  part  in  the  new  edition  of  the  Thesaurus.     He  was  the  editor  of 

many  volumes  in  Didot's  series,  being  sole  editor  of  Menander  and  Philemon, 

Polybius,  Plutarch's  Moraiia,  and  the  Characters  of  Theophrastus,  with  Marcus 

Aurelius,   Epictetus,   Airian  etc.,   Himerius,   Porphyry,   and  the  scholia  to 

Aristophanes,  and  jomt  editor  of  Strabo.  the  Tragic  Fragments,  the  minor 

Epic   Poets,  and   the  scholia  to  Theocritus,   Nicander   and   Oppian'.      He 

completed  in  two  volumes  the  edition  of  the  Greek  Antholc^  for  which 

preparations  had  been  made  by  Boissonade,  and  a  third  volume,  containing 

the  Epigrams  quoted  by  ancient  authors  or  preserved  in  inscriptions,  was 

edited  (1850}  by  Ed.  Cougny  (1818—1889),  who  was  led  by 

ousny  Egger  to  the  study  of  ancient  rhetoric  and  edited  in  18^3  four 

Pmgymnasmata   from    a   Ms    discovered    by    himself    at    Bourges.      He  also 

printed  Brunck's  correspondence  with  interesting  details  on  his  A?iaiecla,  and 

a  sketch  of  his  career*.    During  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life  he  was  engaged 

on  the  edition  of   the  Greek   Epigrams  above-mentioned,   and  also  on  a 

collection  of  the  Greek  writers  on  the  geography  and  history  of  Gaul,  a  work 

that  owed  much  to  the  encoar^ement  of  E^er'. 

Dubner  was  naturally  the  medium  of  communication  between  the  publisher 
and  Dilbner's  countrymen.  Thus  it  was  through  Dubner  that  Kochly  made 
bis  proposal  to  edit  Manetho,  and  was  informed  that  the  usual  honorarium 
was  1100  francs  for  a  volume  of  40  sheets  ;  but  half  this  sum  was  usually  paid 
in  books  of  nominally  equivalent  value  published  by  Didot°.  Apart  from  the 
ordinary  Greek  Classics,  the  series  included  Strabo,  edited  by  DUbner  and 
Carl  Mliller,  the  editor  of  the  Geographi  Graeci  Minores  and  the  fragiOents  of 

'  p.  SS9  supra. 

'  Guigniaut,  Notice,  1867. 

'  Bursian,  ii  868  f. 

*  Annuaire  Assoc.  £tudes  grtcs,  k  106,  viii  447,  k  141. 

'  S.  Reinach,  in  Biogr.Jahrb.  1889,  149 — 152. 

'  Bockel's  Hermann  Kochly,  131. 


A.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVI.]    COUGNY.     DIUOT.     HENRY.     B^TANT      273 

the   Gieelt    historians.     The  fragments  of  the  philosophers   were  edited   by 
MuUach'. 

The  Didot  series  derived  its  name  from  Ambroise  Finnin  Didot  {1790 — 
1876),  (he  celebraled  printer  and  publisher,  whose  ancestors 
were  associated  with  the  book-trade  from  1713.  Didot  was 
himsetfa  translator  ofThucydides  (ed.  i,  1875),  and  the  author  of  an  essay  on 
Anacreon,  and  of  works  on  Muslims  and  Aldus  ManutJus  (1875).  and  on 
Henri  Estienne  (1814),  the  author  of  the  Greek  Thtsaurus.  With  the  aid  of 
the  brothers  Dindorf,  this  great  work  was  published  anew  by  the  '  modem 
Estienne'  (1831-65)'. 

Colmar  in  Alsace  was  the  birthplace  of  Victor  Henry  (1850 — 
1907),  a  pupil  of  Abel  Bergaigne,  and  a  lecturer  aC 
Douai  and  Lille,  and  at  the  Sorbonne,  where  he 
was  professor  of  Comparative  Philology  for  the  last  twelve  years 
of  his  life.  His  treatise  on  Analogy  in  Greek  (1883)  was  followed 
by  \m Esquiises  Morphologiques  (1882-9);  and  his  Comparative 
Grammars  of  Greek  and  Latin',  and  of  English  and  German, 
were  translated  into  English.  His  other  works  deal  with  the 
psychology  of  language,  and  with  Sanskrit  literature.  He  was 
a  man  of  wide  and  varied  culture,  and  his  interest  in  language 
extended  from  the  dialect  of  his  Alsatian  birthplace  to  that  of  the 
Aleutian  islands  that  link  the  North  of  Asia  to  the  North  of 
America*. 

Our  survey  of  classical  scholarship  in  France  may  here  be 
followed  by  the  briefest  mention  of  a  representative 
of  French  Switzerland,  a  professor  at  Geneva,— 
E.  A.  Betant  (1803— 1871).  His  French  translation  of  Thucy- 
dides  was  published  in  Paris  {1863).  He  had  already  produced 
a  lexicon  to  Thucydides  in  French  (1836)  and  in  Latin  {1843-7), 
and  editions  of  the  Nubes  and  Flulus.  He  closed  his  career  in 
1871  by  giving  to  the  world  of  scholars  the  editio  princeps  of 
Boethius  De  Consolatione,  as  rendered  into  Greek  by  the  Byain- 
tine  monk,  Maximus  Planudes^ 


'  Cp.,  in  general,  Egger's  Helllniunt  ett  France,  ii  459 — 463. 

'  Nine  folio  vols. ;  cp.  Egger,  /.  c,  ii  451 ;  on  Didot,  cp.  Assoc.  Atudes  gr. 

6,  MS- 

'  1887,  1893';  E.T.  1890. 

'  Cp.  Gnbernatis,  Did.  Inl,  1905,  and  Alhetiaeum,  16  Feb.  1907. 

°  Cherbulioz'Bourrit,  Notice  nicrologiqw.  Gen.  1873. 

s.  III.  ,..,■,  11.  VftOOglc 


Reproduced  from  a  copy  of  tbe  presentaCioD  portrait  drawn 
by  J.  H.  Hofiineistec  and  litht^rapbed  by  Spamei;   p.  2S1  mfra. 


,i^.ooglc 


CHAPTER   XXXVII. 

THE  NETHERLANDS  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 


We  have  seen  in  a  previous  chapter  that  Wyttenbach  was 
professor  for  twenty-eight  years   (1771 — 1799)  at 
Amsterdam,   and  for  seventeen  (1799— 1816)  at      wyweobBch 
Leyden'.     Among  his   pupils  at  Amsterdam  was 
Mahne ;  he  was  followed  to  Leyden  by  van  Lennep ;  while  his 
later  pupils,  at  Leyden  alone,  included  Bake  and  van  Heusde. 

The  earliest  of  these  favourite  pupils,  Willem  Leonardus  Mahne 
(1772 — ^1852),  had  a  special  admiration  for  his 
master.  To  Wyttenbach  he  dedicated  the  first-fruits 
of  his  learning,  his  dissertation  on  the  peripatetic  philosopher, 
Aristoxenus  (1793)-  After  holding  appointments  at  several  of  the 
Latin  schools  of  Holland,  he  became  a  professor  at  Ghent  in  181 6, 
publishing  in  that  year  a  dialogue  on  the  study  of  classical  literature. 
Like  many  of  his  countrymen,  he  lost  his  appointment  owing  to 
the  Belgian  revolution,  but  he  found  a  home  at  Leyden  as  a  pro- 
fessor in  1831.  In  his  inaugural  discourse  he  pleaded  for  a  wider 
study  of  the  History  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  which  had 
hitherto  been  confined  to  the  learning  of  a  few  names  and  dates 
in  connexion  with  the  general  History  of  Greece  and  Rome*;  but 
he  was  prevented  by  ill  health  from  carrying  his  reform  into 
practice.  Nevertheless  he  did  useful  work  in  connexion  with 
the  History  of  Scholarship.  His  Life  of  Wyttenbach  (1823-35) 
was  indeed  unequal  to  Ruhnken's  eult^  of  Hemsterhuys,  but 
he   did  good   service   by   publishing   selections   from   Wytten- 

1  ii  4<Si  supra.  ^  p.  u  (L.  Mailer,  13  n.). 

h,  1.  if8r-.fK")^ic 


2/6  HOLLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

bach's  letters  (1826-30),  as  well  as  the  correspondence  of 
Ruhnken  with  Valckenaer  and  Wyttenbach  (1832)  and  with  other 
scholars  (1834)'. 

Wyttenbach's  pupil  at  Leyden,  as  welt  as  Amsterdam,  David 
Jacobus  van  Lennep  (1774 — 1853),  was  professor 

Leiineo  °^  Eloquence  at  Amsterdam  from  1 799  to  his  death. 

He  produced  two  editions  of  Ovid's  Heroides;  he 
also  edited  Terentianus  Maurus  and  Hesiod'. 

The  third  of  Wyttenbach's  pupils,  Philipp  Witlem  van  Heusde 
p.  w.  van        {^Tl^ — 1839),  who  was  born  and  bred  at  Rotterdam, 

Heuade  g^^j  Studied  at  Amsterdam  and  at  Ijcyden,  became 

professor  at  Utrecht  in  1804,  and  died  during  a  Swiss  tour 
in  1839. 

He  was  an  exceplion  to  the  rule  that  Wyttenbach's  pupils  were  repro- 
ductions of  Wyttenbach  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  confined  themselves  to  the 
study  of  Greek  Philosophy  and  Cicero.  A  wide  ran^e  of  interest  was 
displayed  in  his  Specimen  Crilicum  in  Plalonem  (1803).  But  the  expectations 
of  further  work  in  the  field  of  pure  scholarship,  raised  by  that  treatise',  were 
not  fulfilled  by  his  Initia  philosophim  Pl,<tenicai^.  Here,  and  in  a  Dutch 
work  on  Socrates  published  during  the  same  period,  he  insisted  on  ihe  educa- 
tional importance  of  the  Socratic  dialectic,  and  on  the  permanent  value  of  (he 
Platonic  philosophy.  He  was  in  fact  more  interested  in  philosophy  than  in 
scholarship,  and  his  lectures  lacked  the  foundation  of  a  sound  grammatical- 
knowledge''.  Among  his  pupils,  Karsten  showed  a  more  decided  interest  in 
scholarship,  while  his  two  sons,  and  De  Geer  and  Hulleman,  were  mainly 
concerned  with  writing  monographs,  either  on  Greek  Philosophy  or  on  the 
History  of  Roman  Literature'. 

His  younger  contemporary,  Petrus  Hoftnan-Peerlkamp  (1786 
— 1865),  belonged  to  a  family  of  French  refugees 
named  Perlechamp.  He  studied  at  his  birth-place, 
Groningen,  and  also  at  Leyden.  After  holding  scholastic  appoint- 
ments  at    Haarlem   and   elsewhere,    he  returned  to  I.eyden  as 

'  AXsa  Sufpi.  ad  Ef.  R.el  W.,ilimque  aiia...aiuciUta  (1847). 

'  Life  by  his  son,  ed,  4,  Amst,  18G1. 

'  Wyttenbach,  on  p.  xxxiii  of  the  epislala,  prefixed  to  ihe  Specimen,  heralded 
his  pupil  as  the  future  sospilalar  Plalonii.  Cp.  Bake,  Schotua  Hypomntmata, 
iii  10—16. 

*  1817-36;  ed.  1,  [841. 

'  This  is  emphasised  by  his  pupil  and  successor,  Karsten.  Cp.  Francken's 
Life  of  Karsten  (L.  Miiller,  104). 

'  L.  Miiller,  103-5  i  N.  C.  Kist  (Leyden,  1839] ;  Rovers  (Utrecht,  1841). 

D„:,|.,"lh;COOglC 


CHAP.  XXXVlI.]  PEERLKAMP.  2;7 

professor  from  1822  to  1848,  when  he  retired,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Cobet. 

At  Groningen,  Peerlkamp  had  been  a  pupil  of  Ruardi  (174C — 1S15),  who 
had  inherited  Schrader's  lasle  for  Latin  versification.  Under  the  influence  of 
Ruardi,  Peetlkainp  imitated  Cornelius  Nepos,  and  Cicero,  respectively,  in  his 
'Lives'  and  'Letters'  of  distinguished  Dutchmen  (1806-8);  and,  forty  years 
later,  he  found  his  model  for  a  biographical  composition  in  the  Agriiola  of 
Tacitus,  Itui  Ruardi  had  also  learned  Greek  under  Valckenaer  and 
Rnhnken  ;  Peerlkamp  was  thus  led  (o  produce  in  1806  a  critical  paper  on 
Xenophon  Ephesins,  followed  by  an  edition  in  i8r8.  This  edition  gave  no 
indication  of  the  editor's  future  line  as  a  critic.  In  the  same  year  the  Brussels 
Academy  offered  a  prize  for  the  best  account  of  the  lives  and  works  of  the 
Latin  poets  of  the  Netherlands',  and  thus  prompted  the  ultimate  production  of 
Peeilkamp's  work  de  vita,  doclritta  el  farultate  NedfrlandorHm  qui  carmina 
latina  composutrunt  (1838*).  Meanwhile  he  had  begun  to  give  proof  of  a  keen 
interest  in  Horace.  In  his  preface  to  Osterdyk's  Dutch  translation  of  the 
Odts  and  Epodes  (1819),  he  states  that  he  had  himself  collected  materials  for 
an  edition,  adding  that  all  the  difficulties  could  be  removed  by  a  careful  in- 
teipretation  of  the  text.  Thus  far,  there  was  no  indication  of  the  bold  line 
that  he  was  to  take  in  his  edition  of  1834.  At  Leyden,  his  critical  spirit  had 
been  awakened  by  scholars  such  as  Bake  and  Geel,  and  (he  orientalist, 
Hamaker.  The  iirst  result  of  this  influence  is  to  he  seen  in  his  edition  of  (he 
AgritoJa  of  Tacitus  (1837-63),  which  includes  a  few  happy  emendations,  and 
gives  (he  earliest  proof  of  the  editor's  wide  reading  in  Latin.  This  was 
followed  by  his  celebrated  edition  of  the  Odes  of  Horace  (1834),  which  gave 
rise  to  a  considerable  controversy. 

It  even  formed  a  school,  represented  in  Sweden  by  Ljungborg,  and  in 
Germany  by  Lehrs  and  Gruppe,  while  it  was  regarded  with  sympathy  by 
Hermann  and  Meineke.  On  the  other  hand,  Orelli'  said  of  its  editor; 
'  Horatium  ex  Horatio  ipso  expulit ' ;  Madvig  denounced  his  '  pravitas  et 
libido',  and  described  him  as  '  inaniter  et  prolerve  ludens'';  while  Munro 
characterised  him  'as  a  man  of  real  learning  in  his  way  and  of  much  reading 
in  the  later  Latin  poets ',  but  '  hardly  less  wild  (than  Gruppe)  in  his  mode  of 
dealing  with  the  odes  of  Horace  and  the  Aiiitid'.  ■  Some  ol  his  comments  ' 
(he  adds)  'such  as  those  on  Carm.  iii  19,  5 — 11,  are  enough  to  make  anyone 
blush  who  feels  that  a  philolc^r  should  be  something  more  than  a  pedant  at 
his  desk  ignorant  of  men  and  things.  Near  the  beginning  o[  the  Aeneid  he 
rejects  a  passage  closely  imitated  by  Ovid  '*. 

'  Meaning  from  i8[!i  I0  1830  the  Royaumt  dts  Pays-Bos,  and  including 
Belgium  as  well  as  Holland. 

»  Cp.  ed.  1,  p.  19;  L.  Muller  xaJaArh.f.  PKUol.  \9&i,  176-184. 

*  Ado.  Cril.  ii  jo  :  cp.  Boissier,  Sei/.  de  Philol.  1878,  and  L.  Mailer, 
"3-S- 

*  King  and  Munro's  Horaee,  xviii. 


,i^.ooglc 


278  HOLLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Peerlkamp's  edition  of  the  Odis  was  followed  nine  years  later  by  that  of 
Virgil's  Aeneid.  These  two  works  are  regarded  as  his  claim  lo  an  abiding 
reputation  as  a  Latin  scholar.  On  the  other  hand,  his  reconstruction  of  the 
Ats  Poelica  is  infelicitous',  and  hardly  one  of  his  conjectures  on  the  Sattrts* 
can  be  accepted,  though  his  wide  reading  in  the  Latin  poets  has  enabled  him 
to  contribute  much  towards  the  interpretation  of  the  text.  The  posthumous 
publication  of  his  edition  of  the  'Queen  of  Elegies''  did  not  add  to  his 
reputation.  In  Peerlkamp  a  hypercritical  spirit  was  combined  with  undoubted 
learning  and  acumen,  and  his  editions  of  Horace  had  at  least  the  merit  of 
adding  a  new  stimulus  10  the  study  of  that  poet*. 

Peerlkamp's  work  on  the  Latin  poets  of  the  'Netherlands',  first  published 
„      _^  in  1811,  was  preceded  in  1819  by  the  work  to  which  a  silver 

medal  had  been  awarded  in  the  same  competition :— The 
Pamasus  Laltna- Bctgicus"  of  Jacob  Henrik  Hoeulft  (1756—1843).  The 
Latin  poets  of  the  '  Netherlands '  are  there  comnieroorated  in  terse  epigrams 
followed  by  precise  biographical  and  biblit^^phical  details.  The  author  had 
already  collected  the  Latin  poems  of  Van  Santen,  and  had  published  bis  own 
Pericula  PelHca  and  Fericula  CtilUa.  His  name  is  still  remembered  in  con- 
nexion with  modern  Latin  verse.  By  bequeathing  to  the  Royal  Institute  of 
Amsterdam  a  sum  of  money,  now  held  by  the  Royal  Academy  of  that  city,  he 
founded  prizes  for  original  Latin  poems  on  any  subject,  which  are  open  lo 
scholars  of  any  nationality'. 

Janus  Bake  (1787 — 1864)  studied  under  Wyttenbach  at 
Leyden  ( 1 804-10),  where  he  was  successively 
'  extraordinary '  and  '  ordinary '  professor  of  Greek 
and  Roman  literature.  In  1810  he  edited  the  fragments  of 
Poseidonius,  in  1815  delivered  an  inaugural  discourse  on  the 
merits  of  Euripides  and  the  other  tragic  poets,  and  in  181 7 
showed  a  higher  degree  of  originality  in  his  second  inaugural 

'  1845;  Bemhardy,  RSm.  Lilt.  6o6».  '  1863. 

'  Prop.  iv.  11. 

'  L.  MuUer,  110—1(7;  presentation  portrait  lithographed  in  1841. 

'  Amsterdam  and  Breda,  1819  (cp.  L.  Mliller,  176  n*.  and  Van  der  Aa, 

<  The  prize  is  a  large  gold  medal  of  the  value  of  400  florins ;  it  was  won  in 
1899  by  the  Pater  ad  Filium  of  J.  J,  Hartman,  professor  of  Latin  at  Leyden; 
silver  medals  were  awarded  to  four  Italian  compelitois  who  were  highly 
coraroended ;  and  all  the  five  successfiil  poems  were  published  in  one  volume 
by  J.  Muller  of  Amsterdam  {CI.  Rev.  xiii  461).  The  prize  was  won  more 
than  once  by  Giovanni  Pascoli,  professor  of  Latin  at  Messina.  The  poems  are 
sent  before  the  first  of  January  to  the  Registrar  of  the  PkUolegUtk-Hktarische 
Afdetling  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  Amsterdam ;  the  ether  conditions 
are  correctly  given  in  CI.  Rev.  xiv  141. 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]  BAKE.  279 

discourse,   in  which  he  declared  his   adhesion  to  the   critical 
school  of  Ruhnken  and  Valckenaer'. 

This  new  depiituie  was  due  to  his  deeper  sludy  of  the  characteristics  of  Ihe 
two  critics  just  mentioned,  and  also  to  liis  intercourse  with  two  English 
adherents  of  the  school  of  Porson,  namely,  Dobtee  and  Gaisford,  both  of 
whom  visited  Leyden  in  xSii-6^.  He  was  specially  interested  in  the  Attic 
Oratois  as  authorities  on  Athenian  antiquities,  and  in  Cicero,  as  a  master  of 
style.  His  own  ideal  of  the  orator's  style  was  so  high  that  he  held  that  the 
Catilinarian  Orations',  and  the  speeches /ro  ArMa'  and/r<i  Mairiile,  were 
unworthy  of  Cicero*.  He  also  held  that  the  secret  of  Cicero's  style  was  lost 
after  his  death,  and  that  the  writers  of  the  silver  age  were  of  no  value  for  the 
higher  criticism  of  his  works'.  Lastly,  in  one  of  his  discourses,  he  insisted  that 
there  were  actually  certain  defects  in  Cicero's  style,  and  that  he  was  not  the 
best  model  for  the  orators  of  modem  times'.  In  the  higher  criticism  of  Cicero 
he  was  less  happy  than  in  the  textual  emendations  of  that  author  included  in 
his  Ssholica  Hypomnemata,  and  in  his  edition  of  the  De  Legiius  (iSfl),  which  is 
superior  in  this  respect  to  his  latest  work,  his  edition  of  the  De  Oralon  {1863}. 
In  hb  commentaries  on  Cicero,  his  models  were  mainly  Muretus  and  Emesti. 
He  rt^arded  with  suspicion  the  method  pursued  by  critics  like  Madvig  in 
distingnishing  between  interpolated  and  uninterpolated  and  intermediate  mss  ; 
in  reconstructing  the  archetype  ;  and  in  setting  aside  the  conjectures  due  to  the 
age  of  the  humanists.  Except  in  showing  more  regard  for  ancient  MSS  and  in 
reducing  the  mass  of  various  readings,  he  differs  little  from  the  Dutch  scholars 
of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  In  his  study  of  the  Attic 
Orators,  he  did  good  service  in  elucidating  points  of  Attic  law.  He  also  set 
his  ^e  against  the  indiscriminate  admiration  of  the  Athenian  democracy 
which  had  prevailed  since  the  time  of  Niebuhr'.  He  edited  for  the  Clarendon 
Press  the  Rkitaric  of  Apsines  and  Longinus  (1849},  his  only  edition  of  a 
Greek  work'. 

Bake's  pupil,  Rinkes^',  following  in  his  master's  footsteps,  maintained  in 
1856  the  spariousness  of  the  first  (as  well  as  the  other  three) 
of   the   Catilinarian   orations.      This  had  been   maintained 
before  their  lime,   but  the  audacit}'  of  the  declaration  that   the  oft-qaoted 


'  Dl  cuslBdia  vtlais  doclrinae  et  elegantiiu,  praecipug  grammatid  offido. 
'  Bake,  SchcUca  Hypomnemata,  vol.  ii,  pp.  iii — viii. 
'  ib.  V  I — 115  (mainly  against  Madvig). 

*  I'nu/.  dt  tmead.  Oratore,  ij.  '  Bakhuizen,  11. 

'  Cp.  Bake's  Dt  Or.  (1863)  i— xiv. 

'  Dt  tempiranda  admiralioru  tloquentiae  Tullianai,  in  Schol.  ffyp.  i  T — 33. 
'  L.  Muller,  96,  to£— 109. 

'  Cobet,  Alhculio  ad  Jok.  Batium  muncre  Acadcmico  dKcdentem  (1857)  i 
Bakhui2en  van  den  Brink,  Rtdt  {1865). 
"  1823— 1865. 


A.OO' 


ic^lC 


28o  HOLLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Quimsque  tandem  was  written,  not  by  Cicero,  but  by  some  unknown  orator  of 
the  first  century,  aroused  a  perfect  storm  in  HollanJ.  An  early  dealh 
unhappily  prevented  Rinkcs'  undoubted  acumen  from  reaching  fiill  malurily'. 
Of  Bake 's  other  pupils,  Suringar  (1805 — '895)  produced  a  useful 
Historia  critica  Scholiaslarum  lalinerum  (1829-35),  and  gave 
proof  of  his  inherited  interest  in  Cicero  in  the  two  volumes  of  his  'Life  nnil 
Annals  of  Cicero'  {1854).  Another  pupil,  Groen  van  Prinslerer,  was  the 
author  of  the  Prosofegraphia  Piatonica. 


Jacob  Geel  (1789 — i86z),  who  was  bom  and  bred  at  Amster- 
dam, was  Librarian  and  honorary  Professor  at 
Leyden  for  the  last  twenty-nine  years  of  his  life. 
Before  his  appointment  as  Head-Librarian,  he  edited  Theocritus 
(1820)  and  wrote  the  Historia  Crilica  Sophutarum  {1823),  the 
earliest  detailed  work  on  that  subject  in  modem  times.  After 
1833,  he  produced  an  excellent  edition  of  the  Phoenissae  of  Euri- 
pides (1846),  in  which  he  defended  the  opinions  of  Valckenaer, 
and  gave  proof  of  his  acumen  and  learning,  and  also  of  his 
affinity  with  the  English  adherents  of  Porson'. 

The  critical  school  of  Greek  scholars  that  gathered  round  Bake  and  Geel 
at  Leyden  included  Hamaker  {:789— 1835)',  Hecker  (1810—1865),  W.  A. 
Hirschig  (b.  1814),  editor  of  the  Scriptares  Erotki  Graeci  (1856),  and  his 
brother,  R.  B.  Hirschig  (b.  rSij),  editor  of  Plato's  Gorgias  (1873). 

A  short  life  fell  to  the  lot  of  Geel's  archaeological  contemporaiy  Caspar 
Jacob  Christian  Reuvens  (1793 — 1835),  who,  after  studying  at 
Leyden  and  Paris,  and  professing  Greek  and  Latin  for  three 
years  at  Harderwyk,  was  appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  classical 
archaeology  at  Leyden,  where  he  was  full  professor  for  the  last  nine  yeais  of 
his  life.  At  that  time  classical  archaeolc^y  was  not  a  popular  subject  in 
Holland,  and  his  lectures  were  scantily  attended,  but  his  papers  in  classical 
periodicals  made  him  well  known  abroad.  He  supported  the  opinions  of 
Quatremdie  de  Quincy  as  to  the  true  orientation  of  the  Parthenon,  and 
contributed  to  Thotbecke's  Commmtaiio  (i8]l)  an  appendix  on  the  monu- 
ments of  art  (hat  adorned  the  Library  founded  by  Asinius  PoUio.  He  died  in 
the  summer  vacation  of  1835,  shortly  after  visiting  the  monuments  of  Greek 
Art  in  the  British  Museum.  In  his  Collectanea  Utteraria  he  pubUshed 
conjectures  on  Attius,  Diomedes,  Lucihus,  and  Lydus,  with  a  brief  paper  on 
Greek  pronunciation.  Some  of  his  conjectures  are  good,  but  the  work  as  a 
whole  gives  proof  of  a  decline  in  the  study  of  old  Latin  in  Holland  since  the 

'  Cp.  L.  MuUer,  97.  Cobet's  letters  to  Geel  (1840-5)  in  Brieven  van  Cebet 
aan  Geel  (Leiden,  1891). 

^  Bake,  Schol.  Hyp.  i  37—48. 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]      GEEL.      REUVENS.      KARSTEN.  281 

days  of  Fr.  Dousa  and  of  G.  J.  Vossius'.  In  archaeology  Reuvens  had  a 
most  able  successor  in  Ihe  perjoii  or  llic  excellent  archae- 
ologist and  epigraphisl,  L.  J.  F.  Janssen  (1806— iS6g),  the  J«n»Kn 
unwearied  explorer  of  many  a  primaeval  grave-mound,  the  discoverer  of 
Roman  as  welt  as  Germanic  remains  in  the  Netherlands,  who  published 
illustrated  descriptions  of  the  principal  monuments  of  art  in  the  Museum  at 
Leyden,  and  repeatedly  urged  the  excavnlion  of  Katwyk,  between  Leyden  and 
the  sea'. 

The  History  of  Greek  Civilisation,  a  work  in  eight  volumes, 
written  in  French  (1833-42),  was  the  main  achieve- 
ment of  Pieter  van  Limbourg-Brouwer  ( 1 7  96 — 1847 ),        ^Bra^we?" 
Doctor  of  Philosophy  and  Medicine,  and  professor 
at  Groningen.     His  early  writings  on  philosophical  subjects  were 
followed  by  papers  on  the  poetry  of  Pindar,  Aeschylus,  Sophocles, 
and  Euripides.     During  the  publication  of  his  principal  work,  he 
incidentally  attacked  Forchhamnier's  opinion  as  to  the  cause  of 
the  condemnation  of  Socrates',      He  closed  his  career  with  a 
memoir  on  the  allegorical  interpretation  of  Greek  mythology. 

Van  Heusde's  lack  of  sound  scholarship,  as  we  have  already 
seen*,  was  noted  with  regret  in  the  inaugural  address 
of  his  pupil  and  successor  Simon  Karsten  (rSoz — 
1864),  who  was  professor  at  Utrecht  for  the  last  twenty-four 
years  of  his  life.  He  had  previously  collected  the  fragments 
of  Xenophanes,  Parmenides,  and  Empedocles  (1825-38),  and 
had  prepared  a  Dutch  treatise  on  'Palingenesis',  which  was  not 
published  until  1846.  In  the  same  year  he  wrote  on  Sophoclean 
trilogies.  His  principal  contribution  to  scholarship  was  an  edition 
of  the  Agamemnon  (1855),  Including  many  original  conjectures. 
The  'wise  and  weighty  words'  in  which  he  expresses  his  general 
principles  are  quoted  with  approval  in  Kennedy's  second  edition", 
where  the  English  editor  adopts  as  his  motto  the  phrase  of  the 
Dutch  critic ;— '  principium  et  fundamentum  critices  est  iusta 
interpretation.     Karsten's  work  on  Horace  (1861)  was  translated 

'  Latin  life  by  Leemans  in  Pref.  to  Catalogue  of  Reuvens'  Library ;  Bake's 
S(hnl.  Hyp.  i  33—36  ;  L.  MuUer,  130. 

>  Du  Rieu  in  the  Dutch  Sfectator,  1869,  366  f.  376  f ;  Stark,  39s ;  Report 
of  recent  excavations  in  Medidielingm  of  Leyden  Museum,  1907,  13  f. 

"  p.  117  mpra.  *  p.  176  sufira,  n.  j. 


"  Ed.  J 


t,  pp.  XXIV— xxvi,  '  p.  x: 


,i^.ooglc 


282  HOLLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

into  German.  His  abiding  interest  in  Greek  philosophy  was 
shown  in  the  posthumous  edition  of  the  Commentary  of  Simplicius 
on  the  fourth  book  of  Aristotle  De  Caelo.  Among  his  pupils  were 
his  bic^apher,  Francken,  and  his  son  H.  T.  Karsten,  the  author 
of  a  dissertation  on  Plato's  Letters  (1864)'. 

Cornelius  Marinus  Francken  (1810 — 1900),  a  pupil  of  K»rsten,  and  pro- 

fessot  at  Gioningen  and  Ulrecht,  was  the  author  of  the  Com- 

mtntatUmts  Lysiacae  (l86j].     His  productions  as  a  professor 

of  Latin  included  a  Dutch   edition   of  the  Aulularia  (1S77).     In  1891   he 

resigned   his  professorship,   and   nine  years  afterwards,   at   the  age   of  80, 

published  his  Varroitiana  in  liie  pages  of  Mmmosynt^. 

Johannes  Cornelius  Gerardus  Boot  (1811  — 1901)1  who  was  bom  and  bred 
^^  at  Amheim.  and  studied  at  Leyden,  was  Rector  at  Leenwatden 

(1839-51)  and  professor  at  Amsterdam  (1851— 1881).  He 
delivered  an  inaugural  discourse  De  ptrpetua  fhilelsgiae  dignitalt,  and  dis- 
tinguished hiimelf  mainly  by  his  admirable  commentaxy  on  Cicero's  Letters  to 
Atiicui^.  An  excellent  monograph  on  Atticus  was  produced  in  1838  by 
Jan  Gerard  HuUeman  (iBij— 1862)*. 

The  greatest  of  the  modern  Greek  scholars  of  the  Netherlands, 
Carolus  Gabriel  Cobet  (1813 — 1889),  was  born  in 
Paris.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Dutchman  in  the 
French  public  service,  who  had  married  a  Frenchwoman,  Marie 
Bertranet.  One  of  his  Dutch  biographers  protests  against  the 
frequent  remark  that  it  was  from  his  French  mother  that  Cobet 
derived  his  brilliant  wit  and  his  keen  acumen'.  When  he  was 
only  six  weeks  of  age,  he  was  taken  to  Holland.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Hague,  under  an  admirable  head-master,  Kappeyne  van 
de  Coppello,  whom  he  always  remembered  with  gratitude.  On 
entering  the  university  of  Leyden,  he  was  already  familiar  with 
the  whole  range  of  the  ancient  classics,  but  bis  father  was  then 
proposing  that  he  should  follow  a  theological  career,  and  his 
distinction  as  a  scholar  remained  unrecognised  until  the  publica- 
tion of  his  Prosopographia  Xmophontea  (1836).  This  was  a  prize- 
dissertation,  produced  when  its  author  was  only  twenty-three, 
but  its  high  promise  aroused  among  the  foremost  scholars  of 

'  Cp.  L.  MUller,  104. 

»  xxviii  (1900)   )8i— J(»7,    395,    411—435.     Lift    by  J.  van   der  Vliet 
(Amsterdam  Acad.,  10  March,  1909). 

*  r865-6 ;  ed.  a.  '  Cobet,  in  mtmirriam  If.,  t86». 

•  J.  J.  Hartnan  in  Biogr.  fahrb.  1889,  53. 

h.  i..  ii,l^.OOQIC 


CHAP.  XXXVir.]  COBET.  283 

Holland  the  expectation  that  its  author  would  rival  the  fame  of  a 
Ruhnken  or  a  Valckenaer.  Four  years  later,  he  produced  his 
critical  observations  on  the  fragments  of  the  Comic  Poet,  Plato', 
Shortly  afterwards,  on  the  proposal  of  Geel,  he  received  an 
honorary  degree  at  Leyden',  and  was  sent  by  the  Royal  Institute 
of  Amsterdam  on  a  mission  to  the  Italian  libraries.  The  ostensible 
object  was  the  examination  of  the  mss  of  Simplicius,  but  the  real 
aim  was  to  give  this  remarkably  promising  scholar  the  opportunity 
of  gaining  a  wide  acquaintance  with  Greek  mss  in  general.  His 
term  of  absence  was  extended  to  five  years  in  all',  and  by  the  end 
of  that  time  he  had  become  an  experienced  and  accomplished 
palaeographer.  He  had  also  incidentally  won  the  friendship 
of  a  congenial  English  scholar,  Badham. 

On  his  return,  he  was  appointed  to  an  'extraordinary'  pro- 
fessorship at  Leyden,  and  delivered  an  inaugural  address  which 
is  one  of  the  landmarks  of  his  career  (1846)'.  As  has  been  well 
said,  we  here  have  'Cobet  himself — strong,  masculine  writing,  a 
style  clear  and  bracing.  ...Every  sentence  has  its  work  to  do,  and 
there  is  a  moral  force  behind  it  all,  an  intense  enthusiasm  for 
truth,  a  quality  that  marks  the  whole  of  Cobet's  critical  work". 
He  succeeded  Peerlkamp  as  full  professor  in  1848.  In  1850-r  he 
presented  to  the  Royal  Institute  three  important  Commmtationes 
PhilologUae,  which  are  less  widely  known  than  many  of  his 
papers'.  These  were  followed  by  his  best-known  works,  the 
Variae  LecHones  (1854)'  and  the  Novae  Lediones  (1858),  and, 

'  Amst.  1840. 

*  The  ordinary  degree  involved  a  knowledge  of  Roman  law,  which  Cobet 
declined  to  study. 

'  Cp.  Britven  van  Cobet  aan  Gal  uit  Parijs  en  Italic,  Nov.  1840— Juli, 
1845  (Leiden,  1B91). 

'  Oratio  lie  arte  ittterpntandi  grammatUes  tt  critices  fundamcntis  innixa, 
36  pp.  +  113  pp.  of  notes.  1847.  In  1846  he  had  conitibuted  Scholia  Attliqua 
to  Geel'a  ed.  of  Eur.  Pkoenissae. 

0  W.  G.  Rutherford,  in  CI.  R&v.  m  473. 

'  (1)  De  tmmdaniiae  ralione  grammaticae  Graecae  discemendo  oratiomm 
itrtifieialim  ab  araliime  poputari ;  (1)  De  simerilale  GraeH  lermonis  fast 
Aristatelem...defraData;  (3)  De  auctorilate  et  um  grammaticorum  velerum  in 
explicandis  striptorihus  Grattis.     Printed  at  Amst.  1853. 

'  399  PP-;  *d-  ^'  +  SHpplementum  {399 — 400)  +  Epimetrum  (401 — 68i), 
'873- 


284  HOLLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

twenty  years  later,  by  others  of  the  same  general  type,  the  Miscel- 
lanea Critka  (1876)  mainly  on  Homer  and  Demosthenes,  the 
Collectanea  Critica  {1878),  and  the  critical  and  palaeographical 
observations  on  the  '  Roman  Antiquities '  of  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
camassus  {1877).  An  inaugural  lecture  on  the  study  of  Roman 
antiquities,  including  some  of  his  own  reminiscences  of  Rome, 
was  published  in  1853,  and  he  also  printed  six  professorial 
discourses  in  1852 — 1860',  He  reluctantly  edited  Diogenes 
Laertius  for  Didot,  without  any  prolegomena  (1850).  He  also 
published  critical  remarks  on  the  newly  recovered  work,  of 
Philostratus,  irepl  yu^vacmit^s  (1859),  as  Well  as  a  text  of  two 
speeches  of  Hypeteides  (1858-77),  and  school-editions  of  Xeno- 
phon's  Anabasis  and  Hdlenica  (1859-62)  and  of  Lysias  (1863)'. 
He  was  long  the  mainstay  of  the  classical  periodical  Mnemosyne*, 
which  derived  a  new  life  from  his  vigorous  contributions,  while, 
in  conjunction  with  his  friend  and  pupil,  K.  S.  Kontos  of  Athens, 
he  edited  three  volumes  of  the  Xoyu«  "Ep^^?,  written  entirely  in 
Greek,  and  including  Cobet's  corrections  of  Clemens  Aiexandrinus 

(.866-7). 

While  Cobet  shared  with  his  fellow-countrymen  their  aptitude 
for  conjectural  criticism,  he  rose  superior  to  them  in  the  strict 
severity  of  his  scientific  method.  With  Cobet,  the  ars  grammatica 
(or  the  intimate  knowledge  of  the  language,  and  its  historical 
developement,  attained  in  the  course  of  constant  reading)  was 
combined  with  an  intelligent  use  of  the  best  mss,  as  the  pre- 
liminary condition  for  the  ars  critica,  i.e.  the  detection  and  the 
correction  of  corruptions  of  the  text.  On  these  principles  he 
proposed  in  the  pages  of  Mnemosyne,  and  of  his  Variae  and 
l^iwae  Lectiones,  a  large  number  of  emendations  on  Greek  authors. 

'  Aihtuliii  ad  commilitQxes  (iSjl,  '53,  '56);  Praefatio  Icctionum  de  Histtria 
VeUrt  (1853-4);  Frotreptkus  [,\%%ii)  ajid  AMoiiatiu  {tS6o)  ad  Studia  Httma- 
nilalis.  Also  Or.  recloraHs  de  moiiumenlii  lilerarum  veterum  mo  pretio  attti- 
tnatidis  (i8€4). 

'  He  look  part  in  preparing  an  Altic  Greek  Reader  {1856),  and  a  text  of 
the  Greek  Testament  (i860).  The  only  Lalin  author  he  edited  wa£  Cornelius 
Nepos  (1893"). 

'  Founded  in  1851;  the  editorsof  i8ji-6]  were  E.  J.  Kiehl  (1837 — 1873), 
professor  in  Deventer,  Groningen  and  Middelburg,  E.  Mehler  (b.  1836),  Naber, 
Bake  and  Cobet.    The  new  series  was  slatted  in  1871. 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]  COBET.  285 

The  merits  and  the  defects  of  his  method  are  there  made  manifest. 
His  marvellous  familiarity  with  Greek,  his  wide  reading,  the  skill 
derived  from  the  study  of  many  mss  durii^  his  Italian  Wander- 

jahre,  enabled  him  to  detect  the  source  of  a  corruption,  and  to 
divine  the  appropriate  remedy.  On  the  other  hand,  his  excessive 
confidence  in  the  rules  founded  on  observations  made  in  the 
course  of  his  reading,  is  open  to  criticism.  No  sooner  has  he 
ascertained  what  he  regards  as  a  fixed  rule  of  Greek  usage,  than 
he  remorselessly  emends  all  the  exceptions.  But  it  cannot  be 
questioned  that  he  supplies  the  student  of  textual  criticism  with 
golden  rules  for  his  instruction,  and  the  advanced  scholar  with  rich 
stores  of  interesting  and  stimulating  information'.  With  Cobet  the 
study  of  institutions  is  subordinate  to  the  study  of  language,  and 
the  study  of  Latin  less  prominent  than  that  of  Greek.  But  his 
Latin  style  is  admirable,  and  his  singular  mastery  of  fluent  and  lucid 
Latinity  could  not  have  been  attained  without  long  and  laborious 
study  of  the  language'.  He  was  one  of  the  very  few  scholars  who 
were  capable  of  making  an  extemporaneous  speech  in  really  good 
Latin.  At  the  celebration  of  the  tercentenary  of  Leyden  in  1875, 
when  Cobet  and  Madvig  confronted  each  other,  the  delegates  of 
all  the  universities  of  Europe  looked  on  in  awe  at  the  prospect  of 
the  two  thunder -clouds  closing  in  conflict.  But  they  soon  found 
themselves  admiring  the  prompt  dexterity  of  the  great  Greek 
scholar,  as  he  caught  up  the  phrases  used  by  several  of  the 
previous  speakers;  the  generous  and  spirited  language  in  which 
he  addressed  Madvig: — pugnabimus  tecum,  eontendemus  tecum, 
eoque  vehementius  coftlendemus,  quo  le  vehementim  admiramur ;  and, 
lastly,  the  calm  exordium  of  the  great  Latinist's  reply; — post 
Cobetum  Latine  loqui  vereor".  In  1884,  at  the  age  of  70,  Cobet 
became  emeritus,  and  placed  on  the  screens  of  his  university  the 
notice,  which  was  read  by  at  least  one  passing  traveller:  — Care/aj 
Gabriel  Cobet,  propter  aetatem  immunis,  commilitonum  studia 
quantum  poterit  adjuvabit.    On  the  death  of  Cobet  it  fell  to  the 

■  UrlichB,  ni';  cp.  L.  MUUer,  78,  117— r«. 

*  His  Lalinitj  is  criticised  in  a  letter  purporting  lo  come  from  Kuhnken 
[Ex  Oreo,  Datvm  SaturnaUbus),  which  Cobet  publishes  in  Mnemosyne,  1877, 
irj — ij8,  with  hia  own  reply. 

o  Professor  Mayor,  cp.  CI,  Hev.  \  114. 


,1^.00' 


SIC 


286  HOLLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

lot  of  the  present  writer  to  send  to  Leyden  an  unofficial  letter  of 
condolence  signed  by  more  than  70  of  the  scholars  of  Cambridge', 
and  to  receive  on  their  behalf  a  kindly  reply  which  formed  a 
new  link  in  the  long  tradition  of  scholarly  sympathy  between  the 
Netherlands  and  England. 

Cobet  was  sometimes  charged  with  n^lecting  or  ignoring  the 
work  of  his  predecessors'.  He  was  attacked  by  Gomperz  in  1878', 
In  the  next  number  of  Mnemosyne*  he  replied  with  a  paper  on 
Philodemus,  praising  the  edition  produced  by  Gomperz,  adding 
his  own  elucidations  of  points  that  had  been  left  obscure,  and 
ending  with  the  apt  quotation  from  Menander : — 
^Siov  otSiv  wu8e  lunxTuuaTtftov 
Jitt'  ^  StfltMrSai  \oihopovii,tvov  ipfptiv. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  attacked  by  the  Greek  editor  of 
Plutarch's  Moralia,  Gregorius  Bernardakis,  who  accused  him  of 
appropriating  proposals  already  made  by  Koraes.  In  his  defence 
he  showed  himself  less  concerned  for  his  personal  fame  than  for 
the  credit  of  his  accuser".  His  discussion  of  Stein's  estimate  of 
the  MSS  of  Herodotus  is  a  delightful  example  of  kindly  and  genial 
criticism,  in  the  course  of  which  he  vividly  treats  the  mss  under 
examination  as  though  each  was  endued  with  a  living  personality*. 
Reiske  was  more  highly  appreciated  by  Cobet  than  by  the 
Germans  of  his  own  day.  He  had  a  high  regard  for  the  Dindorft, 
for  Bergk,  Meineke  and  Lehrs,  and  for  the  best  points  in  the 
work  of  Nauck.  He  was  ever  eager  in  confessing  his  debt  to  'the 
three  great  Richards ',  Bentley,  Dawes,  and  Person,  and  the  later 
representatives  of  the  Porsonian  school,  Elmsley  and  Dobree. 
The  influence  of  the  English  school  was  at  work  among  his 
teachers,  and  he  had  freed  himself  from  that  of  the  German 
school  by  the  time  of  his  return  from  Italy.  It  was  through 
Cobet  that  the  traditional  English  method,  which  was  in  danger 
of  being  forgotten  in  England  itself,  became  dominant  in  Holland 

'  Reprinted  in  CI.  Rev.  iii  474. 
'  Cp.L.MuUer,  li7f. 

'  Die  Bruehstiickt  lier  griechtschen  Tragiktr  and  Cohfts  neuesle  Mamer, 

*  vi  (1878)  373— 381  elc. 

"  Mnimosyne,  1878,  49— 54. 

'  ih.  1883,  400—413,  with  Stein's  reply  in  "Batsaxx'ijahrtsb.  1 


.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]    PLUVGERS.      NABER.      HALBERTSMA.     28/ 

and  attained  a  still  wider  range.  It  would  be  difficult  to  compare 
Cobet  with  any  other  scholar  than  Scaliger  or  Bentley.  He 
himself  regards  Scaliger  as  an  'almost  perfect  critic",  while  he 
resembles  Bentley  in  his  '  high-handed,  hard-hitting  criticism ', 
and  in  his  'consciousness  of  power'". 

In  conitast  to  the  genial  and  expansiye  Cobet,  a  calmer  and  more  reserved 
type  of  character  is  represented  by  his  colleague,  William 
Georg  PluyEers  {1811-1880),  who,  in  1861,  succeeded 
HuUeman  as  professor  of  Latin.  In  his  inaugural  oration  he  refers  in  fitting 
terms  to  his  predecessor,  and  also  to  Bake  and  Cobet.  In  middle  life  he  had 
been  interested  in  the  Alexandrian  editors  of  Homer  (1847),  and  he  subse- 
quently contributed  to  the  textual  criticism  of  Cicero  and  Tacitus.  He  was 
much  appreciated  at  Leyden  as  a  learned  and  original  lecturer  on  Horace  and 
Lucretius  *. 

Samuel  Adrianus  Naber  (bom  181B),  who  studied  at   Leyden  and  was 
professor  of  Greek  at  Amsterdam  until  1898,  is  best  known  as 
the  editor  of  the  lexicon  of  Pholius  (1864-5}.     Naber  was  ""*' 

present  at  Cobel's  celebrated  inaugural  lecture  of  1B46,  and  he  has  lived  to 
publish  in  the  pages  of  Mnemosyni,  sixty  years  later,  an  almost  complete 
bibliography  of  his  master's  writings. 

Among  the  other  pupils  of  Cobet,  we  may  here  mention  Tjalling 
Hallwrlsma  (18)9—1894),  who  studied  under  Bake,  Geel, 
and  Cobet  at  I-eyden,  and,  after  examining  mss  in  France, 
Spain,  and  Italy,  was  appointed  Rector  at  Haarlem  in  1864,  and  professor  of 
Greek  at  Groningen  in  1877.  He  was  far  from  being  a  prolific  writer,  but  he 
contributed  papers  on  Greek  and  Latin  criticism  to  the  pages  of  Mtuniosyne, 
and  published  Ltctionts  Lysiacae  (1868).  After  his  death  his  Adversaria 
Critica  were  edited  by  Herwerden'. 

His  contemporary,  Willem  Nicolaas  du  Rieu  (1819 — '896),  was  also  a 
pupil  of  Bake  and  Cobet,  and  worked  at  Mss  in  France  and 
Italy.  His  long  services  to  the  Library  at  Leyden  were 
crowned  by  his  appointment  as  principal  Librarian  in  i83i.  He  was  the 
originator  of  the  scheme  for  the  complete  photographic  reproduction  of 
important  Greek  and  Latin  MSS,  which  has  been  carried  out  under  the 
auspices  of  his  successor,  E.  S.  G-  de  Vries '. 


Du  Riei 


'  Dt  arit  inttrpretandi,  JS- 

'  W.  G.  Rutherford,  in  CI.  Rev.  iii  470-4.  Cp.,  in  general,  J.  J.  Haitman 
in  Bu>gr.  Jakrb.  1889,  53—66;  J.  J.  Comelissen,  ad  Cobili  memariam, 
1889;  H.  C.  MuUer,  in  memarian  (in  English),  Amst.  'EXXdt,  II  i  49—54; 
bibliography  by  S.  A.  Naber  in  Mnemosyne,  xxxiv  {1906)  430—443,  xxxv  440. 

'  On  this  last  point  cp.  K.  Kuiper  in  Bwgr.  Jahrb.  1903,  p.  98. 

*  Biegr.  fahrb.  1897,  8) — 87;  portrait  in  Adv.  Crit. 

'  i!#.  1899,  31 — 53  ;  Naber  in  Mnetiiesynt,  xxvi  177 — 18& 

D„:,iP<.-iM,G00glc 


288  HOLLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Cobel  was  the  only  masler  who  won  the  allegiance  of  J.  J.  Comelissen 
(lSj9-i8gi),  profe&sOT  of  Gieek  and  Latin  at  Deventei,  rector 
at  Arnheim,  and,  for  the  last  twelve  years  of  his  life,  successor 
af  Pluygers  in  the  Latin  Chair  at  Leyden.  The  influence  of  Cobet  is  manifest 
in  the  severe  review  of  Alexandrian  literature,  which  is  (he  theme  of  his 
inaugural  discourse  at  Deventer  {iS6j),  but  ihe  rest  of  his  work  is  mainly  that 
of  a  specialist  in  Latin.  It  includes  a  paper  attacking  the  credibility  of 
Caesar's  Cammtnta'-U  di  Bella  Civili  (1864),  dissertations  on  the  life  of 
Juvenal  (1B68)  and  the  text  of  Velleius  Faterculus  (1887),  a  volume  of 
CollfClanea  Critics  comprising  some  150  conjectures  on  Cicero  and  Caesar 
{1870),  and,  lastly,  editions  of  the  Agritgla  of  Tacilus  and  ihe  Oclavius  of 
Minucius  Felix  (i88t~i).  In  a  Dutch  manifeslo  of  his  educational  principles, 
published  after  four  years'  experience  at  Devenler,  he  urges  that  Ihe  growing 
indiflerence  towards  classical  learning  in  Holland  should  be  counleracted  (as 
in  Germany)  by  encouraging  the  study  of  history,  geography,  mythology, 
archaeology,  aitd  the  history  of  literature,  subjects  which  (as  he  held)  had  been 
unduly  neglected  in  comparison  with  grammar  and  textual  criticism'.  In  his 
inaugural  leclure.  delivered  ten  years  later  at  Leyden,  he  describes  in 
admirable  Latin  the  characteristic  merits  of  thai  par  twbilt  amkorum, 
J.  F.  Gronovius  and  N.  Heinsius,  and  draws  a  contrast  between  the  way  in 
which  Latin  wa.s  learnt  by  the  contemporaries  of  those  great  scholars,  during 
the  first  glow  of  classical  enthusiasm  in  Holland,  and  the  position  which  it 
holds  in  modern  times,  when  i(  is  no  longer  the  common  property  of  aU 
educated  persons.  'But'  (he  continues),  'if  our  study  of  Latin  has  lost  in 
breadth,  it  has  gained  in  depth.  The  evidence  of  mss  is  weighed  with  a  more 
judicious  care  ;  in  the  light  of  comparative  philology,  grammar  receives  a  more 
scientific  Ireatmenl ;  our  knowledge  has  been  enriched  by  the  recovery  of 
innumerable  inscriptions ;  an  indiscriminating  admiration  for  all  the  contents 
of  the  Classics  has  been  corrected  by  the  aid  of  historical  and  literary  criticism. 
The  various  branches  of  classical  learning  are  now  more  minutely  studied,  but 
there  is  a  danger  lest,  in  our  excessive  punctiliousness  on  minute  matters  of 
detail,  we  should  lose  the  vital  force  and  vigour  of  our  great  ancestors.  Latin 
has  now  left  Ihe  light  of  public  life  and  has  become  a  cloistral  language; 
Latin,  that  once  lived  and  breathed,  is  regarded  by  the  modem  man  as  inert 
and  well  nigh  dead.  If  any  one  of  those  great  ancestors  were  restored  to  life, 
there  is  grave  reason  to  fear  that  he  would  admonish  and  rebuke  us  in  the 
language  applied  by  Gronovius  to  Graevius : — "nae  lu,  qui  varia  et  mulliplici 
doctrina  eruditum  te  iactas,  Grammatici,  non  Latme,  scis"". 

From  a  Latin  professor  of  Leyden  we  finally  turn  to  a  Latin  professor  of 
Utrecht.  The  versatile  scholar,  J.  van  der  Vliet  (1847 — 1901), 
studied  Latin  literature  under  Pluygers  at  Leyden,  and  Greek 

'  Di  tludU  der  clasiiki  oiidheid  (in  Tijdspiigel,  1B69). 

'  Barmanni    Oralio    i»    milium     Graevii,     p.    91     (Cornelissen,    Oralie 
Inauguralis,  34) ;  the  passages  above  quoted  from  the  Oralio  are  only  a  brief 
summary  of  the  original;  cp.  Van  Leeuwen,  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1891,  51—63. 
„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]      CORNELISSEN.      VAN   DER   VLIET.  289 

pa1ae<^aphy  under  Cobet ;  and  the  influence  of  the  latter  is  clearly  marked  in 
his  Sludia  Critica  on  Dionyslus  of  HaJicatnassus  (1874).  Asa  schoolmaster  at 
HaarleiD,  he  had  sufficient  leisure  to  become  familiar  with  the  [ang;uage  of 
Java,  and  with  Sanskrit.  Ulliroatdy  he  succeeded  Francken  at  Utrecht 
(1891),  having  meanwhile  concentrated  himself  on  Latin,  especially  on  that  of 
the  Silver  Age.  In  the  course  of  his  Latin  studies  he  passed  from  Seneca  and 
Tacitus  10  Apuleius,  and  from  Apuleius  to  Tertullian  and  Sulpicius  Severus. 
In  his  interest  in  Latin  there  was  in  fact  no  lower  limit  of  time.  He  was 
^miliar  with  the  prose  and  the  verse  of  the  Italian  humanists';  he  discoursed 
on  the  results  of  the  Renaissance  as  exemplified  in  the  Latin  poems  of  the 
Dutch  statesman,  Konstantyn  Huygens  {1596—1687)';  he  composed  an  ode  of 
the  mediaeval  type  for  the  opening  uf  (he  new  university  buildings  b  1S91,  and 
he  even  imitated  the  style  of  Persius  in  an  annotated  satire  entitled  Vanitas 
Vanilalum.  In  all  the  minuteness  of  his  statistical  statements  on  points  of 
Latin  usage,  he  never  lost  his  line  sense  of  (he  importance  of  literary  form.  In 
a  revieu'  of  a  German  pamphlet,  bristling  with  references  and  citations,  he 
remarks: — 'I  am  well  aware  that  (as  a  reviewer)  the  ideal  scholar  ought  to 
have  the  digestion  of  an  ostrich,  which  is  capable  of  assimilating  the  driest  and 
hardest  substances  in  the  shortest  space  of  time,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  even  the  reviewer  is  a  human  being  and  that  a  writer  will  do  no  detriment 
lo  the  cause  of  learning,  if,  foi  the  reader's  sake,  he  lends  his  work  some  little 
charm  of  style".  As  a  professor  of  Latin  van  der  Vliet  produced  critical 
editions  of  the  Hisioriti  of  Tacitus*,  and  of  (i)  the  Melamerf  hoses,  and  (1)  the 
Apologia,  Florida  and  Dt  Dm  Sotratis,  of  Apuleius^.  For  Tacitus  he 
depended  mainly  on  the  collations  of  Meiser ;  for  Apuleius,  he  niinutelj 
examined  the  MSS  during  his  two  visits  to  Italy,  but,  however  careful  he  was  in 
recording  the  results  of  that  examination,  he  remained,  for  the  most  part,  true 
lo  the  precept  he  had  learned  from  Cobet : — Cedicibus  manascripiis  plane 
nihil  fidenduni  est*. 

Our  survey  of  the  nineteenth  century  has  thus  far  been  limited 

to  the  Northern  Netherlands.  It  began  with  the  pupils  of 
Wyttenbach,  and  it  has  ended  with  the  pupils  of  Cobet.  During 
the  whole  of  the  century,  the  staff  of  classical  professors  in  each 
university  continued  to  be  small ;  and  those  professors,  besides 
being  responsible  for  elementary  and  advanced  courses  on  Latin 

'  Trifdiuiit    Laimum    (Beyers,   Utrecht,    1893),   esp.   Petrarcae   Sludia 

"   Verkand.  v.  h.  UlrecAtsch  Genoolsckaf,  1894. 
'  Review  of  Slangl's  TuUiana,  in  the  Miiieam  for  1900. 
*  Groningen,  rgoo. 
"  Leipzig  (Teubner),  1897  and  1900. 
'  K.  Kniper  in  Biogr.  [akrh.  rgoj,  97— rij. 
S.    III. 


ih,.Qooglc 


290  HOLLAND.  [cent.  XIX. 

and  Greek,  were  compelled  to  give  more  or  less  popular  instruction 
on  Greek  and  Roman  History  and  Antiquities.  An  interest  in 
ancient  Art  was  hardly  represented  in  the  universities  except  by 
Reuvens  and  Janssen,  and  by  Du  Rieu,  who  studied  classical 
archaeology  (as  well  as  palaeography)  during  his  repeated  visits 
to  Rome.  In  the  published  works  of  the  professors,  as  contrasted 
with  their  oral  teaching,  the  dominant  note  was  textual  criticism. 
As  a  Latin  scholar  and  as  the  editor  of  Terence  and  Horace, 
Bentley  had  had  little  influence  on  Dutch  scholarship.  Editions 
of  the  Latin  Classics,  modelled  on  those  of  Burman,  with  a 
confused  mass  of  prolix  variorum  notes,  remained  long  in  vi^ue. 
The  acquisitive  instinct  of  Holland  seemed  to  delight  in  constantly 
adding  to  the  accumulating  pile  of  erudite  annotation.  Happily, 
however,  in  the  latest  Dutch  edition  of  Cicero's  Letters  to  Atiicus^, 
the  notes  are  never  over-loaded  with  unnecessary  detail,  but  are 
always  brief  and  terse  and  clear ;  and  the  same  is  true  of  a  still 
more  recent  edition  of  Aristophanes'.  The  influence  of  Bentley, 
as  a  Greek  scholar,  had  been  eflectively  transmitted  through 
Hemsterhuys  to  Valckenaer  and  Ruhnken,  and  ultimately  through 
Ruhnken  to  Wyttenbach.  But  the  attention  of  those  scholars 
had  not  been  concentrated  on  the  Greek  authors  of  the  golden 
age.  Lucian,  even  more  than  Aristophanes,  had  been  studied  by 
Hemsterhuys,  who  bestowed  on  Xenophon  of  Ephesus  the  time 
that  he  might  well  have  reserved  fof  Xenophon  of  Athens;  the 
Alexandrian  and  Hellenistic  writers,  no  less  than  Herodotus,  had 
been  explored  by  Valckenaer;  the  researches  of  Ruhnken  ranged 
over  a  wide  field  of  literature  extending  from  the  Homeric  Hymns 
to  Longinus,  and  from  the  early  Greek  Orators  to  the  late  Greek 
Lexicographers*;  while  Wyttenbach,  who  edited  only  one  dialogue 
of  Plato,  devoted  the  largest  part  of  his  life  to  Plutarch.  The  time 
that  Hemsterhuys  and  his  followers  thus  lavished  on  the  'Graeculi', 
on  late  writers  like  Lucian  and  other  artificial  imitators  of  the 
genuine  Attic  authors,  was  repeatedly  lamented  by  Cobet*,  who 

'  Ed.  Boot,  Amsi,  i865f.  '  Ed.  van  Leeuwen,  Leyden,  i896f. 

'  (Ruhnkenius)  ecquem  sprevit  ac  fastidivit  eorum  qui  diu  post  enstinclam 
Graeciam  balbutire  Graece  rectius  quam  dicere  ac  scribere  dicantur'  (Cobet, 
Commintaliones  Philological,  :8;3,  ii  6). 

*  t.g.  Commenlalione!,  U, 


X'OO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]       DUTCH   UNIVERSITIES.  29I 

found  his  main  occupation  in  studying  the  great  originals  them- 
selves, and  in  ascertaining  and  enforcing  a  fixed  standard  of  Attic 
usage.  The  love  of  reducing  classical  texts  to  the  dead  level  of  a 
smooth  uniformity  had  already  been  exemplified  by  Latin  scholars, 
such  as  N.  Heihsius  and  Broukhusius',  who  had  attempted  to 
assimilate  the  vigorous  and  varied  style  of  a  Catullus  or  a  Pro- 
pertius  to  the  monotonous  uniformity  of  an  Ovid.  The  same  love 
of  uniformity  was  exemplified  (as  we  have  seen),  in  the  case  of 
Attic  Greek,  by  Cobet  and  his  immediate  followers.  Such  a  ten- 
dency may  even  perhaps  be  regarded  as  a  national  characteristic 
of  the  clear-headed  and  methodical  scholars,  who  dwell  in  a  land 
of  straight  canals  rather  than  winding  rivers,  a  land  of  level  plains 
varied  only  by  a  fringe  of  sand-dunes,  a  land  saved  from  devasta- 
tion by  dikes  that  restrain  the  free  waters  of  the  sea.  But,  as  we 
look  back  over  the  three-hundred  and  thirty-three  years  which 
have  elapsed  since  the  foundation  of  the  first  of  the  universities  of 
the  Northern  Netherlands,  we  remember  that  it  was  the  breaking 
of  those  dikes  by  the  orders  of  William  the  Silent  that  brought 
deliverance  to  the  beleaguered  city  of  Leyden,  and  that  the  heroism 
of  its  inhabitants  was  then  fitly  commemorated  by  the  founding  of 
its  far-^med  university'. 

Leyden  became,  in  general,  the  model  for  the  later  universities 
of  the  Northern  Netherlands.     Franeker  was  thus 
founded  in  Friesland,  in  1585;  Groningen,  in  the    verelties""' 
northern  province  of  that  name,  in  1614 ;  Utrecht 
in  1636;  and  Harderwyk,  on  the  south-east  shore  of  the  Zuider 
Zee,  in  1648.     The  seventeenth  century  also  saw  the  foundation 
of  an   Athenaeum   at    Deventer  and  at  Amsterdam.     In    1811 
Franeker  and  Harderwyk  were  suppressed  by  Napoleon  I,  who 
was    happily  foiled    in   his  attempt   to  suppress    Utrecht.     The 
Athenaeum  of  Amsterdam  was  transformed  into  a  university  in 
1877.     At  the  present  time  the  number  of  students  exceeds  1300 
at  Leyden,  1100  at  Utrecht,  and  1000  at  Amsterdam,  while  it  is 
less  than  500  at  Groningen.    Leyden  and  Utrecht  have  long  been 
the  principal  seats  of  classical  learning. 

'  "  in-  330.  "'P'-"-  '  "  300  su/ra. 


292  BELGIUM.  [CENT.  XIX. 

(ii)    Belgium. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  Southern  Netherlands,  the  university  of 
Louvain  had  been  founded  in  1426  at  a  place 
venial" ""''  praised  by  its  founder  for  the  salubrity  and  the 
beauty  of  its  situation  amid  the  meadows  and  vine- 
yards of  Brabant'.  Within  twenty  years  of  its  foundation  it  began 
to  resemble  the  universities  of  England  by  its  institution  of  com- 
petitive examinations  and  by  its  adoption  of  the  collegiate  system'. 
The  most  famous  of  its  Colleges  was  that  for  the  study  of  Latin, 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  the  Collegium  Trilingue,  founded  in  1517  by 
Busleiden,  and  fostered  during  its  first  decade  by  Erasmus'.  This 
College  was  one  of  the  first-fruits  of  the  Revival  of  Learning  in 
the  Netherlands,  while  the  University,  which  was  opposed  to  the 
principles  of  the  Reformation,  was  the  chief  stronghold  of  the 
Catholic  cause  in  and  after  the  sixteenth  century. 

Some  of  the  leading  representatives  of  learning  at  Louvain  in 
the  sixteenth  century  have  already  been  briefly  noticed*.  Lipsius 
belongs  to  Leyden"  as  well  as  to  I.x>uvain,  the  university  of  his 
youth  and  his  old  age,  which  he  proudly  describes  as  the  'Belgian 
Athens".  During  his  life-time,  the  Northern  Netherlands  re- 
volted against  the  power  of  Spain,  and  a  struggle  that  began  in 
1 568  did  not  end  until  the  independence  of  the  'United  Provinces' 
was  formally  and  finally  recognised  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 
(1648).  The  Southern  Provinces  remained  subject  to  Spain  until 
1 7 14,  when  they  passed  under  the  power  of  Austria.  Eighty  years 
later,  after  a  single  year  of  independence  (1790),  they  fell  for 
twenty  years  under  the  power  of  France  (1794 — 1814).  The 
university  of  Louvain,  which  was  closed  for  a  time  under  the 
Austrian  emperor  Joseph  II,  was  suppressed  by  the  French  in 
1797.  When  the  united  kingdom  of  the  Southern  and  Northern 
Netherlands  had  been  brought  into  existence  in  1815  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  king  William  I  founded  in  i8i6-r7  the  two 
new  universities  of  Ghent  and  Li^ge,  and,  in  the  same  year,  placed 

•  Baron  de  Reiffenbeig's  Mimeires,  18J9,  p.  1911. 
'  Hamilton's  Z>it™j«iwii,  406 f,  645—650;  KashdaJI,  11  i  559—363. 
»  ii  jtl  supra.  *  ii  i\l{ supra.  '  ii  301  supra. 

'  Lovamum,  Lib.  iii,  cap.  1,  Salvete  AChenae  nostrae,  Atbenae  Belgicae. 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]    BELGIAN  UNIVERSITIES.     DE  WITTE.     293 

at  Louvain  a  ColUge  phUosophique,  making  attendance  at  that 
College  compulsory  on  all  future  inmates  of  the  episcopal  Semi- 
naries. The  resentment  thus  aroused  among  the  clergy  contributed 
towards  the  revolution  of  1830,  which  dissolved  the  union  between 
the  North  and  the  South  and  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  separate 
kingdom  of  Belgium.  The  universities  did  not  emerge  from  the 
crisis  without  serious  mutilation.  Late  in  1830  Li^ge  lost  its 
Faculty  of  Philosophy ;  Ghent  retained  only  those  of  Law  and 
Medicine ;  the  Faculties  of  Science  and  Law  disappeared  at 
Louvain,  but  that  of  I^w  was  partially  restored  soon  afterwards. 
The  general  aim  of  all  this  was  the  institution  of  a  single  central 
university,  which,  it  is  assumed,  would  have  been  located  at 
Louvain.  The  proposal  for  a  central  university  was  lost  in  1834 
by  five  votes;  thereupon  the  universities  of  Ghent  and  Liege  were 
retained  and  reorganised,  and  that  of  Louvain  suppressed.  In 
November,  1834,  a  'free'  university  was  founded  in  Brussels-  In 
the  same  month  the  Belgian  bishops  founded  at  Malines  a  catholic 
university  which  was  transferred  to  Louvain  in  the  following  year'. 

Brussels  is  the  seat  of  an  Academy  of  Science  and  Letters, 
founded  during  the  Austrian  rule,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
empress  Maria  Theresa,  in  1772.  This  Academy  was  suppressed 
during  the  French  occupation  in  1794,  was  re-estabhshed  in  1816, 
and  began  a  fresh  lease  of  life  in  1833.  In  the  sequel  we  shall 
notice  a  few  of  the  more  prominent  representatives  of  classical 
learning  in  the  nineteenth  century,  confining  ourselves  almost 
exclusively  to  members  of  the  Brussels  Academy.  With  the 
exception  of  Baron  de  Witte,  all  of  those  whom  we  propose  to 
mention  were  professors  at  one  or  other  of  the  Belgian  universities. 

While  textual  criticism  is  a  prominent  characteristic  of  Dutch 

scholarship,  the  study  of  classical  archaeology  and 

■      ■        ,  •      ■  •       ■        ,  ,     .    ,  .  O*  Witte 

of  constitutional  antiquities  has  been  admirably  re- 
presented among  natives  of  Belgium.  The  cosmopolitan  archaeo- 
logist, Jean  Baron  de  Witte  (1808— 1889),  was  bom  in  Antwerp. 
At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was  taken  to  Paris,  where  he  soon  gave 
promise  of  his  life-long  interest  in  art  and  archaeology.  He 
travelled  extensively  in  Europe  and  the  East  (1838-42).     During 

'  Cp.  in  general,  the  Intrgduclipn  to  Prof.  A.  Le  Roy's  UUnivirsUi  tit 
Liige  (1867),  xxxi,  xliii — xlvii. 

h.  i.,  ii,l^.OOglc 


294  BELGIUM.  [cent.  XIX. 

his  travels  he  became  a  full  Member  of  the  International  Archaeo- 
logical Institute  in  Rome;  after  his  return  to  Paris,  where  he 
resided  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  he  was  elected  a  Corresponding 
Member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  a  Foreign  Member  of 
that  body  in  1864,  and  in  1887  an  honorary  Foreign  Member  of 
the  Antiquarian  Society  of  France  (1887).  Meanwhile,  ever  since 
1851,  he  had  been  a  full  Member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  his 
native  land.  As  an  archaeologist,  he  was  profoundly  influenced 
by  Fanofka,  whom  he  aided  in  editing  the  Paris  volumes  of  the 
Annali  of  the  Archaeological  Institute  (1832-4).  He  published 
catalogues  of  several  archaeological  collections,  and  was  a  constant 
contributor  to  the  leading  archaeological  periodicals.  For  many 
years  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Gazette  archiologique  and 
of  the  Revue  Numismatiqve.  His  colleague  in  the  former  was 
Francois  Lenormant,  whose  father,  Charles  Lenormant,  had  been 
one  of  his  companions  during  his  visit  to  Greece,  Smyrna,  and  Con- 
stantinople, and  was  associated  with  him  in  the  most  important  of 
his  works.  This  was  the  well-known  &lile  des  monuments  'ceramo- 
graphiques,  in  four  quarto  volumes  with  four  further  volumes  of 
no  less  than  455  plates  {1844—61),  being  only  part  of  the  materials 
for  a  complete  representation  of  the  social  and  religious  life  of  the 
ancient  world.  De  Witte  also  published  elaborately  illustrated 
researches  on  the  Roman  Emperors  who  had  held  sway  in  Gaul 
during  the  third  century  (1868)'. 

For  nearly  forty  years  De  Witte  counted  among  his  correspon- 
dents the  able  representative  of  classical  archaeolc^ 
r™im         '"  Belgium,  J.  E.  G,  Roulez  (1806— 1878).     Bom 
in    Brabant,   he    studied   under  Creuzer's   pupil, 
G.  J.  Bekker,  at  Louvain,  and,  after  winning  the  prize  at  Ghent 
for  his  essay  on  Carneades,  and  at  Louvain  for  that  on  Heracleides 
Ponticus,  continued  his  studies  at  Heidelberg  under  Creuzer,  in 
Berlin    under    Boeckh,    and    at    Gettingen    under    Dissen    and 
K.  O.  Miiller.     His  interest  in  mythology  was  due  to  Creuzer; 
and,  a  year  after  his  return  to  his  native  land,  he  dedicated  to 
Creuzer  the  textual  criticisms  on  Themistius,  which  he  presented 

^  Biagr.Jahrb.  iBg),  ti8f;  A.  Michaelis,  Gesch.  dtr  deutschen  arch.  Inst. 
44,  S7f.  63;  Stark,  396,  36;;  BibliographU  Atadlmique,  tj  pp.  (Bruxelles, 
1 884 

h.  1.  iiA.OO^IC 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]     ROULEZ.     GANTRELLE.  295 

for  his  Doctor's  degree  at  Louvain.  In  1832  he  became  a  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  History  and  Ancient  Geography  at  the  Athenaeum 
of  Ghent,  and  in  1834  he  published  at  Leipzig  the  Novcu  Historiae 
of  Ptolemaeus  Hephaestion.  While  the  university  of  Ghent  was 
partly  in  abeyance,  he  was  an  active  member  of  the  Ftuulti 
libre  de  philosopMe  ei  Ultres.  When  the  university  was  fully 
restored  in  1835,  he  was  appointed  to  a  professorship,  and  con- 
tinued to  lecture  until  1863  on  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  on 
Art  and  Archaeology,  and  on  ancient  and  modern  Law.  He  had 
repeatedly  dischai^ed  the  duties  of  rector  with  conspicuous 
success,  and,  for  the  next  ten  years  of  his  life,  he  was  the  official 
supervisor'  of  the  university,  which  ultimately  acquired  his  valuable 
library.  In  the  controversies  as  to  the  primitive  inhabitants  of 
Belgium  he  played  a  good-tempered  and  a  dignified  part ;  he  also 
explored  the  Roman  roads  and  the  other  antiquities  of  the  country. 
The  principal  papers  which  he  presented  to  the  Brussels  Academy 
were  collected  in  the  seven  books  of  his  Melanges  (1838-54).  His 
masterpiece  was  a  fine  volume  on  select  vases  from  the  Leyden 
Museum,  published  in  Ghent  with  twenty  coloured  plates  (1854). 
His  archaeological  studies  had  been  fruitfully  pursued  during  his 
single  visit  to  Italy  in  r839;  he  repeatedly  published  vase-paintings 
from  the  Piazati  collection  then  in  Florence,  but  since  dispersed ; 
he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Annali  of  the  Archaeological 
Institute  in  Rome,  and  to  the  Gazette  arMologique  of  France.  As 
an  archaeologist,  he  was  even  better  known  abroad  than  in  his 
native  land.  At  Rome,  in  1877,  when  M,  Gevaert,  the  eminent 
Be^an  authority  on  ancient  music,  asked  Fiorelli  to  explain  the 
musical  instruments  in  a  bas-reUef  of  an  Archigallus  in  the  Capi- 
toline  Museum',  Fiorelli  replied  with  all  his  Neapolitan  vivacity: — 
'  When  you  return  to  Belgium,  ask  Roulez,  he  knows  more  about 
that  class  of  monuments  than  any  man  in  Europe". 

Among  the  contemporaries  of  Roulez  at  Ghent  was  Joseph 
Gantrelle  {1809 — 1893),  a  native  of  Echtemach, 
who  was  educated  at  the  Athenaeum  of  Luxem- 

*  Adminislratettr-inspecleur.  '  Miltin,  Galer.  myth.  Ixxxii  ij*. 

'  See  esp.  De  Witte  in  Annulare  of  Bnissels  Acad.  1879,  167 — 103,  wilh 
portrait  and  bibliography;  also  A.  Wagener,  in  Rev.  di  tinslruHiim  pubtiqui, 
Gand,  xxi  (187S)  i^ofi  and  Biogr.Jahri.  1878,  ff  j  Staik,  396. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


296  BELGIUM.  [cent.  XIX. 

burg.  He  studied  at  Ghent  under  Mahne  (the  biographer  of 
Wyttenbach),  who  left  for  Leyden  soon  after  Belgium  had  seceded 
from  Holland.  After  holding  scholastic  appointments  in  Brussels 
and  at  Hasselt,  Gantrellewas  appointed  in  1837  to  a  professorship 
at  Ghent,  where  he  became  professor  of  Latin  rhetoric  in  1851-4, 
inspector  of  intermediate  education  1854-64,  and  professor  once 
more  from  1864  to  the  end  of  his  career  in  1892.  He  had  been 
naturalised  as  a  Belgian  in  1839,  and  in  the  same  year  had  pub- 
lished a  valuable  memoir  on  the  early  historical  relations  between 
the  Southern  Netherlands  and  England',  and  a  Latin  Grammar, 
which  marked  a  new  departure  in  the  schools  of  Be^um*,  and 
was  highly  esteemed  by  Eckstein  in  Germany  and  by  Benoist  and 
Thurot  in  France.  His  classical  pubUcations  were  mainly  con- 
nected with  Tacitus.  He  published  m  Paris  a  Study  of  that 
historian's  'Grammar  and  Style",  as  well  as  contributions  to  the 
criticism  and  interpretation  of  his  works*,  with  highly  appreciated 
editions  of  the  Agricoia  (1874),  Germattta  {1877)  and  Histories 
{1881).  He  characterised  the  Agricoia  as  an  iloge  historiqm^,xaA 
the  same  was  the  general  character  of  his  own  'panegyrical  bio- 
graphy' of  Ratherius,  bishop  of  Verona  and  Li^ge'.  To  the 
publications  of  the  Brussels  Academy  he  contributed  three  papers, 
on  the  following  subjects: — (i)  the  order  of  words  in  a  Latin 
sentence:  (2)  the  Suevi  on  the  banks  of  the  Scheldt;  and  (3)  the 
rules  and  method  of  criticism,  in  connexion  with  the  controversy 
raised  by  the  previous  paper'.  He  steadily  resisted  the  attacks 
directed  against  a  classical  education;  in  conjunction  with  Wagener 
he  started  in  1874  a  'society  for  the  promotion  of  philological  and 
historical  studies ',  and,  late  in  life,  he  anonymously  assigned  to  the 
Brussels  Academy  the  sum  of  45,000  francs  for  the  foundation  of  a 
biennial  prize  for  the  encouragement  of '  classical  philology '.  In 
his  immediate  circle,  though  he  was  loyal  and  devoted  to  his 
personal  friends,  he  was  not  universally  popular;  he  was  recognised 

'  Nouvella  Archive!  historiques,  1839. 
*  Repeatedly  revised  and  improved;  ed.  ti,  18S9. 
'  1874,  1S81'.  *  1875;  partly  translated  into  German. 

'  Kevue  lU  P InstmcHim  puhUque,  1878;  anA  Hme  Jakri.  1881. 
'  Nouveltes  Archive!  histariguci,  1837,  written  in  accideDtal  ignorance  of 
the  great  work  of  the  brothers  Balierini  (Verona,  1765). 
'  Bulletin!,  Sii.  3,  vi  611,  xi  190,  xUi  344. 

„.,,„,  ^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]      GANTRELLE.      WAGENER.  297 

as  a  man  of  undoubted  learning,  but  of  uncertain  temper ;  his 
leading  characteristic  was  a  passionate  and  indomitable  energy ; 
labm-  improbus  was  in  fact  the  law  of  his  life'. 

The  Revut  de  ritutrucHon  publique  en  Bdgique  gave  scope  to 
a  large  part  of  the  editorial  energy  of  Gantrelle  and 
his  colleague,  Wagener.  Auguste  Wagener  {1829 — 
1896)  was  born  and  bred  at  Roeremonde  in  Limburg,  east  of 
the  present  boundaries  of  Belgium.  He  studied  for  two  years  at 
Bonn  under  Lassen,  Welcker  and  Ritschl,  and  for  one  year  at 
Li^ge;  he  also  spent  six  months  in  Paris,  where  he  became 
acquainted  with  Littr^,  E^er,  Daremberg  and  Renan,  before 
beginning  his  lectures  on  Moral  Philosophy  at  Ghent  {185 1).  The 
bishop  soon  detected  and  publicly  denounced  'five  dangerous 
errors'  in  his  teaching;  the  lecturer  replied  with  ■moderation  and 
dignity,  but  shortly  afterwards  he  was  happily  sent  on  an  archaeo- 
Ic^cal  mission  to  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and,  on  his  return, 
was  appointed  to  lecture  on  the  safe  subjects  of  the  Latin  language 
and  ancient  literature{i854).  He  becameafull  professor  in  1862, 
and,  after  the  resignation  of  Roulez  in  1864,  lectured  on  Roman 
Antiquities,  and,  subsequently,  on  constitutional  history.  For 
thirteen  years  he  was  superintendent  of  public  instruction  at 
Ghent,  and  in  1878,  when  the  liberal  party  came  into  power, 
became  general  supervisor  of  the  university,  thus  attaining  the 
distinction  of  being  afterwards  described  by  the  rector,  in  the 
familiar  English  phrase,  as  'the  right  man  in  the  right  place'.  In 
r882-6  he  was  Member  of  Parliament  for  Ghent,  and  had  charge 
of  the  budget  for  public  instruction.  After  resuming  his  duties 
as  professor,  he  lectured  on  Greek  Epigraphy  and  on  Roman 
Constitutional  History,  resigned  office  in  1895  and  died  in  the 
following  year. 

Wagener  and  Gantrelle,  though  differing  widely  in  character,  were  united 
in  their  devotion  to  classical  studies.  They  were  associated  as  editors  of 
Tacitus,  and  also  as  editors  of  the  Belgian  Kevut.  But,  while  Gantrelle  was 
interested  in  the  grammatical  side  of  Classics,  Wagener  had  a  distinct  taste  for 
archaeology  and  history.  As  a  scholar  Wagener  ranged  himself  under  the 
bannei  of  Boeckh  and  K.  O.  MuUer.     He  did  not  read  the  Classics  with  a 

'  A.  Wagener,  in  Atmuairt  of  Brussels  Acad.  1896,  45 — 114,  with  portrait 
and  bibliography. 


298  BELGIUM.  [CENT.  XIX. 


view  lo  constantly  delecting  the  errors  of  the  copyist,  and  the  few  ci 
thai  he  proposed  were  founded  on  solid  proof  of  Iheir  absolute  necessity. 
In  his  public  career,  he  proved  himself  a  bom  oiator  and  an  admirable 
lecturer;  he  assimilated  all  (hat  was  best  in  the  French  and  German  types  of 
scholarship,  while  he  remained  true  to  the  best  traditions  of  his  own  country. 
Shortly  before  his  death,  when  his  friends  and  former  pupils  assembled  to  do 
honour  to  his  past  services,  he  unconsciously  portrayed  his  own  character  in 
his  mtvissima  virba.  He  said  that  'he  had  found  the  law  of  his  life  in  the 
precept  ypwdi  staxrlai ;  he  was  conscious  of  his  own  limitations  ',  he  had 
played  an  unobtrusive  part,  had  made  some  small  discoveries  but  had  not 
thrown  a  new  light  on  whole  provinces  of  ancient  learning;  in  the  world  of 
public  and  social  life,  he  had  not  opened  out  any  new  paths,  and  he  would  not 
be  remembered  as  a  parliamentary  orator;  the  kind  sympathy  expressed  by 
his  friends  and  pupils  on  that  day  was  perhaps  inspired  by  the  fact  (hat  he  had 
always  walked  conoalently  in  Ihe  same  palh,  the  path  of  duty'.  The  classical 
authors  that  he  mainly  studied  were  Anliphon'  and  Plutarch',  Cicero'  and 
Tacitus.  He  wrote  a  remarkable  article  on  the  textual  criticism  of  the 
Dialogus  de  oratorihus*;  produced  an  excellent  edition  of  the  first  book  of  the 
Annals  (Paris,  1878),  and  easily  refuted  Hochart's  paradoxical  ascription  of 
the  Annals  and  Hislories  to  the  authorship  of  Poggio".  The  influence  of 
RitschI  is  apparent  in  his  Bonn  dissertation  on  the  Origines  of  Calo  (1849), 
that  of  Lassen  in  his  memoir  on  the  apologues  of  India  and  of  Greece*.  His 
visit  lo  Asia  Minor  led  to  his  discovery  and  elucidation  of  a  metrological  monu- 
ment in  N.W.  Phrygia^,  and  to  his  publication  of  fifteen  other  inscriptions", 
followed  by  one  connected  with  the  corporations  of  artisans,  which  he  had 
himself  copied  ac  Hierapolis'.  His  merits  were  not  overlooked  by  the  Academy 
of  Brussels,  but  he  was  elected  a  correspondent  of  the  Archaeolc^ical  Institute 

After  his  election  as  a  full  member,  he  gave  a  lecture  on  the  political  opinions 
of  Plutarch  and  Tacitus'",  and  on  liberty  of  conscience  at  Athens".     He  was 


'  Revue  de  PlnstrueHon  Publique,  xii  149^157,  xiii  88 — 113. 

'  De  EI  in  Delphi!,  ib.  xi  161  f,  xjxii  1  ;i  f. 

'  Esp.  in  his  repeated  revisions  of  his  father's  Pre  Milone,  with  the 
commentary  of  Asconius,  where,  in  c.  19,  luco  (for  lects)  Libitinae  is  due  to 
Wagener. 

■*  Revue,  XX  157— 484. 

''.a.xxxiiii4rf,xxxviiii49f- 

'  Brussels  Acad.  Minioires  des  savants  Grangers,  4°,  xxv  (1853). 

'  (At  Ouchak  i.e.  Ushak)  Mhn.  xKvii,  1855. 

"  ib.  XXX,  :859. 

*  Revu4,  xi  (1869)  I— 1+. 

■*  BulleHm,  Ser.  I,  1876,  ill  1109. 

"  i6.  Sir.  3,  1884,  vii  574. 


n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XXXVIt.]       WAGENER.      ROERSCH.  299 

also  an  expert  in  Music.  The  question  whether  'harmony'  was  known  in 
ancient  Music  had  been  repeatedly  asked  since  the  days  of  the  Renaissance ; 
it  had  recentlj'  been  answered  in  the  negative  by  Fr.  Fetis,  and  in  the 
afGrmalive  by  J.  H.  Vincent.  Wagener  took  the  affirmative  side  in  a  memoir' 
that  inspired  Francois  Augusle  Gevaert  with  a  desire  to  extend  his  knowledge 
of  the  subject.  When  Gevaert  embarked  on  his  memorable  work  on  the 
'History  and  Theory  of  Ancienl  Music'',  he  obl^ned  the  collaboration  of 
Wagener  on  points  connected  with  the  revision  and  the  interpretation  of  the 
ancient  texts.  Wiener  was  associated  with  Gevaert  and  Vollgraff  in  an 
edition  of  the  Musical  ProUims  of  Aristotle,  two  parts  of  which  were  published 
by  Wagener's  survivors  in  190a  and  in  igor.  Gevaert,  who  was  born  in  rSiS, 
and  owed  his  early  training  to  Ghent,  is  a  practical  musician  and  composer  of 
a  very  high  order,  and  is  also  known  as  the  accomplished  and  versatile 
historian  of  ancient  Music.  Since  1871  he  has  been  director  of  the  Royal 
Csnservaioiri  of  Music  in  Brussels'. 

Gantrelle  and  Wagener  had  been  preceded  as  editors  of  the 
Revue  by  Louis  Chretien  Roersch  {1831— 1891). 
Bom  at  Maestricht,  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  district  Roef»Vh 
of  Limbufg,  he  was  educated  at  the  local  Athenaeum 
before  beginning  his  studies  at  Louvain.  Owing  to  the  large 
number  of  new  appointments  created  by  a  law  of  1850,  he  soon 
obtained  a  place  on  the  staff  of  the  Athenaeum  of  Bruges.  He 
was  then  only  twenty,  and  so  youthful  was  his  appearance  that, 
on  the  prize-day,  when  he  was  seen  descending  the  steps  of  the 
Ii6tel  de  Ville  empty-handed,  the  boys  in  the  street  called  out: — 
'  Look  at  that  idle  dog !  he  has  not  carried  off  a  single  prize ! '. 
At  Bruges  he  remained  for  fifteen  years.  Meanwhile,  in  1855, 
he  had  contributed  to  the  Renue  Pedagogique  an  elaborate  notice 
of  J.  L.  Bumoufs  Greek  Grammar.  This  periodical  had  been 
started  in  1852  at  Mons ;  it  was  transferred  in  1858  to  Bruges, 
where  under  the  new  title  of  Revue  de  rinsiruction  publique  it  was 
edited  by  Roersch  and  his  colleague  Feys,  whose  sister  he  married. 
When  Gantrelie  and  Wagener  became  editors,  it  was  transferred  to 
Ghent,  hut  the  name  of  Roersch  was  retained  even  after  he  had 
been  compelled  in  1868  to  resign  the  immediate  direction  owing 

'  Sur  la  symphonie  dis  anciens,  \a  Mlm.  des  lav.  Strang.  XXM,  1861. 

'  Henzel,  Paris,  1875—1881;  cp.  Bursian's /a^fwi.  xliv  15 — 19;  also 
La  Mmpie  Antique  (1895),  ib.  Ixxxiv  185,  514. 

'  On  Gevaert,  cp.  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  ed.  1906 ; 
on  Wagener,  Annuaire  of  Brussels  Acad.  189S,  IS5— *«4' 


X'OO' 


SIC 


300  BELGIUM.  [cent.  XIX. 

to  the  pressure  of  his  new  duties  at  Li^ge.  In  1865  he  had  been 
appointed  at  the  Acok  Nonnale  to  an  important  lectureship,  which, 
in  1872,  was  combined  with  a  classical  professorship  in  the  uni- 
versity. He  was  convinced  that  the  study  of  the  old  classical 
world  was  an  indispensable  means  towards  the  progress  of  modern 
civilisation';  but  he  gave  a  wide  interpretation  to  that  study.  At 
Louvain,  he  had  combined  with  it  the  study  of  Sanskrit,  while,  at 
Li^ge,  he  gave  proof  of  his  interest  in  Germanic  {and  especially  in 
Flemish)  and  even  in  Semitic  philology.  He  delighted  in  studying 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  original  Hebrew  and  in  passing  his 
evenings  in  reading  the  Coran  with  the  aid  of  the  professor  of 
Arabic,  and  Homer,  Virgil  or  Dante  in  the  company  of  the 
professor  of  Criminal  Law.  Late  in  life  he  was  rector  of  the 
university  and  for  three  years  discharged  the  duties  of  that  office 
with  complete  success  during  a  transitional  time  of  extraordinary 
difficulty.  On  resigning  in  October,  1891,  he  delivered  a  discourse 
on  the  early  constitution  of  Athens,  in  connexion  with  the  recently 
recovered  treatise  of  Aristotle  ;  twelve  days  later,  he  was  listening 
to  the  classical  cantata  of  Andromeda,  and,  only  three  days  after- 
wards, he  died. 

As  a  classical  scholar,  he  had  devoted  special  attention  to  the 
Latinity  of  Cornelius  Nepos".  For  the  text,  he  had  collated 
four  MSS,  and  in  particular  the  Louvain  ms  from  the  adjacent 
abbey  of  Pare.  In  1861  he  produced  an  excellent  school-edition 
(ed.  2,  1884),  followed  by  similar  editions  of  Caesar,  De  Bello 
GalHco  (1864),  and  Cicero, /ro  Archia  et pro  rege  Deiotaro  (1867). 
In  1885  he  published,  in  conjunction  with  Paul  Thomas  of  Ghent, 
an  excellent  Greek  Grammar,  which  was  warmly  welcomed  by  the 
learned  Societies  of  Belgium.  For  the  national  encyclopaedia 
entitled  Van  Bemmel's  Patria  Belgica^  he  condensed  into  the 
brief  compass  of  26  p^es  a  'History  of  Philolc^y  in  Belgium', 
which  is  described  by  his  biographer  as  'a  difficult  task  involving 
long  and  laborious  research',  and  as  'undoubtedly  the  most 


'  Discow!  Rtctoral  of  1889.  and  Van  Bemmel's  Patria  Btlgica,  iii  431  (cp. 
P.  Wniems,  NolUt,  516  f). 
"  Rome,  1858,  1861  f, 
•  iii(i8;s)407— 431. 

D„:,i.,-ih,C00glc 


CHAP.  XXXVII,]  ROERSCH.      FUSS.  3OI 

important  of  his  works".  To  the  Biographk  Nationak  he  con- 
tributed, during  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  more  than  twenty 
notices  of  modern  Latin  poets  or  scholars  who  were  natives  of  the 
Southern  Netherlands,  the  most  prominent  of  these  being  Gruter, 
D.  Heinsius  and  Lipsius.  In  1888,  he  accompanied  his  future 
biographer,  Pierre  Willems,  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  house  in  which 
Lipsius  was  bom,  only  to  discover  that  the  great  scholar's  books 
and  furniture,  after  remaining  safe  for  three  centuries,  had  un- 
fortunately been  sold  by  auction  at  a  recent  date.  Thirty  years 
previously,  he  had  published  two  letters  from  Kuster  to  Bentley 
and  Hemsterhuys,  which  he  had  discovered  in  the  National 
Library  of  France".  His  studies  and  his  published  articles  ranged 
over  a  wide  field,  while  his  administrative  duties  left  him  little 
leisure  for  any  work  on  an  extensive  scale.  But  he  was  fully 
capable  of  producing  works  of  far  larger  compass,  any  one  of 
which  might  have  ensured  him  a  permanent  place  in  the  history 
of  the  scholarship  of  his  country*. 

We  may  here  add  a  brief  notice  of  one  or  two  of  the  early  German 
professors  in  the  Belgian  universilies.  In  1S17  the  govern- 
ment  of  the  united  kingdoms  of  Holland  and  Belgium  found 
it  necessary  to  invite  scholars  of  German  nationality  to  fill  certain  of  the 
professorships  in  the  newly  constituted  universities  of  Louv^n,  Ghent  and 
Liege.  Among  these  was  J.  D.  Fuss  (1781 — 186a),  who  had  been  educated 
by  (he  Jesuits  in  his  native  town  of  Diiren  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  He  had  afler- 
wardb  studied  at  Wiirzburg  under  Schelling  and  at  Halle  under  F.  A.  Wolf; 
he  had  also  made  the  acquaintance  of  W.  von  Schlegel  and  Madame  de  Staet, 
by  whose  advice  he  had  studied  for  some  years  in  Paris.  He  had  there 
translated  into  La.lin  the  treatise  of  loannes  Lydus  on  Ihe  Roman  magistrates, 
as  his  own  share  of  Hase's  edilio  prituepi  (1811).  In  1815  he  was  appointed 
by  the  Prussian  Government  to  a  classieal  mastership  in  the  gymnasium  of 
Cologne;  and,  two  years  later,  was  called  to  the  professorship  of  ancient 
literature  and  Roman  antiquities  at  Li£ge>  Among  his  best  works  was  a 
Latin  manual  of  Roman  Antiquities  (i8jo),  the  third  edition  of  which  was 
translated  into  English  at  Oxford  in  iS^o.     His  Jesuit  training  had  made  him 

'  P.  Willems  in  Anntiaire  of  Brussels  Acad.  1893,  with  summary  on 
pp.  S31-6- 

a  RevM,  1858,  318  f,  368  (incl.  a  letter  to  Bignon). 

'  P.  Willems,  b  Annuaire,  r893,  515 — 545,  with  portrait,  and  conspectus 
of  passages  in  Greek  and  Latin  authors  discussed,  £43  f>  also  complete 
bibliography  by  A.  Roersch,  ib.  545 — 565. 


,l^.OO' 


"&^^ 


302  BELGIUM.  [CENT.  XIX. 

a  skilful  composer  of  Latin  verse.  In  (he  course  of  an  excellent  Latin  ode  on 
ihe  foundation  of  the  University  of  Lifge,  he  thus  refers  to  Louvain,  as  well  as 
Liege  and  Ghent ; — ■ 

'  Priscum  en  refulgeC  Lovanii  decus, 
Binaeque  Belgis,  astra  velut  nova, 
Surgunt  sorores ;   en  Camoenae 
Auspidis  redieie  laetis '  *. 
He  was  also  an   adept  in   writing  accentual   rhj^miug  Latin   verse  of  the 
mediaeval  type.    A  good  example  of  this  is  the  rendering  of  Schiller's  LUi 
VCH  dtr  Glockt^,  included  in  his  original  and  translated  Carmina  Lalina'. 
In  1830,   when  the  Dutch  professors  were  expelled  from  the  Belgian  uni- 
versities, Fuss,  who  was  threatened  with  expulsion,  protested  that  he  was  not 
a  Dutchman  but  a  German  ;  the  plea  was  allowed,  but  he  soon  found  the  whole 
of  the  Faculty  to  which  he  belonged  suppressed  by  the  govemmenl.     Nothing 
daunled,  he  continued  to  leach  as  a  member  of  a  Faculty  Hire,  and,  five  years 
later,  was  reinstated,  as  professor  of  Roman  aniiquilies  only.     He  had  a  better 
command  of  Latin  than  of  any  other  language,  and  he  consoled  himself  for  the 
fact  that  be  was  no  longer  a  professor  of  Latin  literature  by  writing  volumes  of 
Latin  verse  and  by  enlarging  the  range  of  his  private  readir^.     He  was  rector 
of  the  university  in  iS44.-5,  ^'"^'  <>"  laying  down  hisofhce,  delivered  a  discourse 
on  the  permanent  importance  of  modern  Lalin.     Later  in  life  he  became  a 
diligent   student  of  Dante,   though   he   took   no   interest  in  the  mediaeval 
scholasticism  of  the  Divitia  Cenimedia*. 

The  counterpart  of  Fuss  at  Li^ge  was  G.  J.  Bekker  (1791 — 1837)  at 
Louvain.  As  a  pupil  of  Creuzer  at  Heidelberg,  he  prepared 
a  dissertation  on  Philoslratus'  Life  of  Apollonius,  which  was 
published  in  1S18.  In  the  previous  year  he  had  been  called  to  Louvain  aa 
professor  of  ancient  literature.  Within  a  year  he  acquired  a  perfect  knowledge 
of  Flemish  as  well  as  of  French ;  and,  as  the  envoy  of  Louvain  at  the  com- 
memoration of  (he  fifth  jubilee  of  Leyden,  he  gave  proof  of  his  perfect  com- 
mand  of  Dutch.  He  had  a  genuine  admiration  for  the  great  Dutch  scholars, 
especially  for  Wyltenbach.  On  the  suppression  of  the  university  of  Louvain 
in  1834,  he  left  for  Liege,  where  he  was  rector  of  the  universily  for  the  next 
academical  year,  and  died  not  long  after.  At  Louvain  he  bad  produced  liltle 
besides  an  edition  of  the  Odyssey  and  of  Isocrates  ad  Dcmotdcum  \  but  he  was 
a  man  of  no  small  merit,  and  he  derives  a  reflecled  fame  from  his  pupils, 
Baguet  and  Roulez'. 

'  Reprinted  in  Le  Roy's  LUgt,  $6  f. 

»  Extract,  I*.  333.  '  iSji;  ed.  1,  1845-6- 

*  Life  and  bibli<^aphy  in  Le  Roy's  LUgt,  31+ — 331- 

'  Baron  de  Reiffenberg,  in  Annuairt,  1838;  Le  Roy's  Liige,  70—77; 
portrait  in  IcenograpkU  da  UnvoersUis.  His  biographer,  (he  singularly 
versatile  Baron  de  Reiffenbeig  (1795 — 1850),  published  excerpts  from  Ihe 
elder  Pliny  (iSio),  a  paper  on  Lipstns  in  the  M^.  courvaues  of  the  Brussels 


O.  J.  Bekker 


lOO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]      G.  J.  BEKKER.      BAGUET.      NfeVE.  303 


The  foimer  of  ihese,  Francois  Baguet  (1801 — 1867},  belonged  to  i 
thoroughly  catholic  family  in  Ihe  south  of  Bra.banl. 
leaving  school  at  (he  age  of  16,  he  found  (he  u 
Ghen(  and  Liege  just  coming  into  being  and  that  of  Louvain  in  course  of 
reconstruction.  He  was  accordingly  compelled  (o  wait  foi  a  year  before 
entering  Louvain,  where  he  studied  Greek  and  Latin  under  G.  J.  Bekker. 
He  published  in  1811  in  a  quarto  volume  of  nearly  400  pages  an  elaborate 
prize-essay  on  Chrysippus,  and  ob(ained  his  Doctor's  d^ree  on  the  strength 
of  an  edition  of  the  eighth  book  of  Dion  Cbrysostom  (1813).  When  he  was 
offered  a  lectureship  in  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  newly  constituted  CoUige 
Pkilosofhiqilt  of  Louvain,  he  declined  the  offer,  buc,  as  soon  as  a  catholic 
university  was  established  at  Malines,  he  was  appointed  classical  professor  and 
secretaiy  of  (hat  body  and  retained  these  posts  on  its  transfer  to  Louvain. 
Though  he  was  familiar  with  Flemish  and  Dutch  (as  well  as  wi(h  French)  lie 
never  took  the  trouble  to  learn  German,  and  consequently  found  himself  at  a 
constant  disadvantage  as  a  classical  scholar.  His  papers  on  intermediate 
education  (1843-63)  were  published  in  the  Rivuc  Catholui%u  and  in  the 
Bulletins  of  the  Brussels  Academy,  which  included  in  its  MJtaoim  of  1849 
bis  only  exten^ve  production,  a  notice  of  the  life  and  works  ol  the  Jesuit 
scholar,  Andrf  Schott,  the  correspondent  of  Casaubon.  In  Baguet,  the  man 
was  worth  even  more  than  the  scholar.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  thorough- 
ness, his  devotion  to  duty,  and  his  resolute  self-effacement.  The  motlo  of  his 
life  was  ama  naciri'.     We  next  lutn  to  a  name  of  fat  greater  note. 

F^lix  N^ve  {1816 — 1893),  a  native  of  Ath  in  Hainaut,  was 
educated  beyond  the  borders  of  his  native  land  at 
Lille,  where  he  gave  early  proof  of  being  a  skilful 
versifier  in  Latin  as  well  as  in  French.  Like  Nam^che,  the  future 
historian  of  Belgium,  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  enter  Louvain  on 
its  reconstitution  as  a  catholic  university  in  1835.  In  addition  to 
his  ordinary  classical  studies,  he  there  attended  Arendt's  lectures 
on  oriental  literature,  and,  after  learning  a  little  Sanskrit,  continued 
that  study  under  Lassen  at  Bonn,  Windischmann  in  Munich,  and 
Eugene  Bumouf  in  Paris,  where  he  also  studied  Hebrew,  Syriac, 
and  Persian,  He  was  appointed  professor  of  ancient  literature 
and  oriental  languages  at  Louvain  in  1841,  and  became  a  full 
professor  twelve  years  later.  For  ten  successive  years  he  lectured 
on  ancient  philosophy,  and,  for  thirty-six  in  all,  on  Greek  and 

Acad.,  iii  {183 1),  Archivei phihli>gi</uet  (1835-6),  and  (ne  Minuiires  (1814-34) 
on  the  early  history  of  the  university  of  Louvain.  Cp.  Annuairi,  (853,  and 
Le  Boy's  LUge,  170—198. 

'  RoulesE,  b  Annuairi  of  Brussels  Acad.  1B70,  103 — 133,  with  biblio- 
graphy. 


A.oogic 


304  BELGIUM.  [cent.  XIX. 

Latin  literature,  though  all  the  while  his  main  interests  lay  in  the 
direction  of  oriental  studies.  From  time  to  time  he  lectured  on 
Sanskrit ;  and  among  those  who  attended  these  lectures  were  men 
of  no  less  mark  than  Roersch  and  Willems.  Of  his  published 
works  by  far  the  greatest  part  related  to  oriental  languages, 
especially  Sanskrit,  Armenian  and  Syriac.  But,  in  1846-55,  his 
interest  in  these  languages  incidentally  led  to  his  writing  a  series 
of  notices  of  the  Belgian  orientalists;  and  these  in  their  turn 
formed  the  prelude  to  his  important  memoir  on  the  Collegium 
Trilingue  at  Louvain'.  In  the  course  of  this  history  of  the 
College  from  1517  to  1797,  he  surveyed  the  study  of  the  learned 
languages  at  Louvain  during  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  The  merit  of  the  work  was  recognised  by 
the  award  of  the  gold  medal  of  the  Brussels  Academy.  Thirty- 
four  years  later,  in  the  evening  of  a  long  life,  the  author  returned 
to  the  same  theme  in  a  work  of  wider  scope  and  more  highly 
finished  form'. 

In  this  work  he  collected  and  revised  and  supplemented  all  his  scattered 
notices  of  the  minor  humanisls  of  the  Southern  Netherlands.  But  this  was 
not  all.  After  a  suggestive  Introduction,  in  the  course  of  which  he  urges  that 
the  Renaissance  had  only  accidental  points  of  contact  with  the  Reformation, 
he  devotes  nearly  a  hundred  admirable  pages  to  Erasmus,  with  special 
reference  to  his  life  at  Louvain.  He  next  dilates  on  Jerome  Busleiden  and 
Sir  Thomas  More,  and  on  the  theologian,  Martin  Dorpius  tH^S^'E'S),  the 
defender  of  humanistic  studies,  who  lectured  on  Plautus  and  wrote  amusing 
prologues  for  performances  of  the  Aulularia  and  the  Milts  Gloriasus  \  on 
Adrien  Barlandus  (1487—15^9),  a  commentator  on  Terence  (1530);  on 
Jacques  Ceratinus  de  Horn  (d.  1530!,  the  compiler  of  a  Greek  and  Latin 
dictionary  dedicated  to  Erasmus ;  on  the  Greek  scholar  and  magistrate, 
Francois  de  Craneveldt  (d.  1564),  the  friend  of  Erasmus  and  More,  and  the 
translator  of  the  work  of  Procopius  on  the  buildings  of  Justinian  ;  and  lastly 
on  Guy  Morillon  (d.  1548),  the  diligent  student  of  Livy  and  Suetonius,  and 
the  secretary  of  Charles  V.  Nothing  is  here  said  of  such  well-known  scholars 
of  the  sixteenth  century  as  Viv^  and  Lipsius,  but  we  have  a  comprehensive 
monc^raph  on  Clenaidus^.    The  seventeenth  century  is  represented  by  Jean 


■   1856;  Cp.  ii  siin.  ],  supra. 

'  La  Jitnaissanet  el  reiser  de  tlrudilion  cauienne  en  Belgiqut,  439  pp., 
Louvain,  1890. 

*  pp.  aJ4 — 174.  Cp.  Chauvin  and  Roersch  in  Mimtires  ceuroanh  of  the 
Brussels  Acad.  LX  (1900O' i^o.  5>  ^3  pp.,andii  ti^  supra. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXXVIl]  THONISSEN.  3OS 

Bapliste  Grammaye  (iS79~-'fi3s)>  'he  author  of  a  work  on  the  alphabets 
of  the  sixteen  besl-known  languages';  by  Petms  Caslellanus  (158; — 1631). 
professor  of  Greek  at  Louvain,  and  author  of  lives  of  famous  physicians,  also  of 
a  treatise  on  the  festivals  of  Greece,  and  another  on  the  viands  of  the  ancient 
world,  aflerwaids  incorporated  in  Ihe  Titsaurus'  of  Gronovius.  The  last  two 
chapters  deal  with  Andteos  Catullus  (i  j86— r667),  the  author  of  a  Latin  play 
on  the  origin  of  the  sciences,  under  the  (iile  o{  Pronuthcus  (1613),  and  Valerius 
Andreas,  the  compiler  of  a  gec^^phical  and  biographical  dictionary  of  Belgium 
(16^3),  and  of  the  earliest  history  of  the  university  of  Louvain  (1635)'- 

While  F^lix  Nfeve  was  an  orientalist  who  became  incidentally 
interested  in  the  scholarship  of  the  Southern 
Netherlands,  we  have  in  the  person  of  Jean  Joseph 
Thonissen  (1816— iSgi)  an  eminent  jurist  and  politician  who 
included  in  the  long  series  of  his  historical  and  legal  writings  a 
luminous  work  on  Criminal  Law  in  primitive  Greece  and  at 
Athens.  Bom  at  Hasselt,  the  capital  of  Limbourg,  and  educated 
at  his  native  place  and  at  Rolduc,  he  studied  at  Liege  and  {for 
two  years)  in  Paris,  For  36  years  professor  of  Criminal  Law  at 
Louvain  and  for  27  Member  for  Hasselt,  he  was  presented  with 
his  bust  in  marble  by  his  constituents  in  1873  and  by  his  friends  and 
pupils  seven  years  later.  In  1884-7  he  was  Home  Secretary  and 
Minister  of  Public  Iristruction,  The  rumour  of  his  death  in  1 888  led 
to  the  pre  mature  publication  of  generous  tributes  to  his  great  services 
as  a  liberal  catholic,  as  a  statesman,  and  as  the  author  of  a  highly 
appreciated  commentary  on  the  constitution  of  Belgium.  His 
study  of  modern  socialism  was  preceded  by  an  examination  of 
the  I^ws  of  Crete,  Sparta  and  Rome,  as  well  as  the  institutions 
of  Pythagoras  and  the  Republic  of  Plato'.  His  papers  on  the 
criminal  law  of  India,  Egypt,  and  Judaea",  and  his  two  large 
volumesonthesamesubject(i869),  were  succeeded  by  his  work  on 
the  Criminal  Law  of  Legendary  Greece  and  on  that  of  Athens 
under  the  democracy,  the  evidence  as  to  the  former  being  directly 

'  Speiiram  lilUrarunt  it  liuguarum,  Alh  (i6it). 

*  'X  35'— 404- 

»  On  the  life  of  Nive,  cp.  T.  J.  Lamy  in  Annuaire  of  the  Brussels  Acad. 
1S94,  90  pp.,  with  portrait  and  bibliography. 

*  Esp.  in  Le  sodalismc  depuit  F antiquili  jusqu'h... \it,i,  1  vols.  (Louvain, 
.855). 

"  Collected  in  his  Melanges,  1873. 
s.    III.  I,.  I  .,  II,  l^3fi"K"V^IC 


306  BELGIUM.  [CENT.  XIX. 

derived  from  Homer  and  Hesiod.     For  Athenian  I-.aw  he  relies 
on  the  Attic  orators  and  other  ancient  texts. 

He  begins  with  &  brief  review  of  Ihe  sources  of  oat  information.  In  ihe 
second  book,  he  deals  with  the  different  kinds  of  penalties ;  in  the  thitd,  he 
classilies  the  offences  against  the  stale,  against  the  person  etc ;  in  the  fourth, 
after  some  general  considerations,  he  examines  Plato's  and  Aristotle's  opinions 
on  punishments.  He  closes  with  reflexions  on  the  general  character  of  the 
Athenian  system  of  penalties,  its  merits  and  its  defects^. 

Even  before  the  publication  of  the  second  of  his  four  volumes 
on  the  History  of  Belgium  under  Leopold  I  (1855-8),  his  merits 
were  recognised  by  the  Royal  Academy  of  Brussels,  and  one  of 
his  most  permanent  services  to  that  body  was  his  comprehensive 
survey  and  methodical  analysis  of  several  hundreds  of  papers 
presented  to  the  Section  of  Letters  (under  the  head  of  epigraphy, 
linguistics,  ancient  and  mediaeval  literature  etc.)  during  the  first 
century  of  its  existence^ 

While  the  Criminal  Law  of  Athens  was  one  of  the  many 
subjects  that  attracted  the  attention  of  Thonissen,  the  Political 
Institutions  of  Rome  were  the  principal  theme  of  the  life-long 
labours  of  Pierre  Willems  (1840 — 1898).  Bom  and 
bred  at  Maestricht,  and  educated  at  Louvain,  he 
received  the  distinction  of  a  government  grant,  which  enabled  him 
to  study  for  two  years  in  foreign  universities  (1862-3).  In  Paris 
he  worked  at  oriental  languages  under  Oppert,  Greek  under  E^er, 
and  Latin  literature  under  Patin'.  He  continued  to  study  oriental 
languages  in  Berlin,  and  completed  his  Wamierjahre  by  visiting 
the  university  of  Utrecht,  and  by  working  at  Greek  under  Cobet 
at  Leyden.  During  his  absence  abroad  he  paid  hardly  any 
attention  to  the  Institutions  of  Rome,  nor  did  he  ever  attend 
any  lectures  on  that  subject  at  Louvain.  On  his  return  he  was 
appointed  to  a  professorship  which  he  held  for  the  remaining 
33  years  of  his  life.  For  the  last  25  of  those  years  he  was  also 
secretary  of  the  university. 

'  Lt  Droit  pfaal  de  la  Ripubliqui  athhiienne,  prkidl  d'une  itudi  lUr  le 
droit  criminel  de  la  Grid  Ugatdaire,  490  pp.,  1875. 

*  Rapport  Sfeulaire  sur  Us  Iravaux  de  la  Classt  dis  Uttres,  1773—1873, 
304  pp.  Cp-  T.  J.  Lamy  in  the  Atmuaire  for  1891,  106  pp.,  with  portrait 
and  bibliography. 

'  Rrvue  Btlge,  xv  (1863)  +91. 


.OO^^IC 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]  P.  WILLEMS.  3O7 

He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  standard  works  on  the 
Political  Institutions  of  ancient  Rome.  In  1870  he  published 
his  comprehensive  treatise  on  'Roman  Antiquities",  which  in  all 
subsequent  editions  bore  the  title  of  Le  droit  public  remain'.  The 
author  aims  at  combining  the  didactic  method  of  W.  A.  Becker 
and  the  historic  method  of  L.  Lange,  and  at  avoiding  the  draw- 
backs of  both.  He  displays  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  original 
authorities  and  the  best  modem  treatises  on  the  subject ;  and  he 
constantly  insists  on  drawing  a  sharp  distinction  between  facts 
and  hypotheses.  His  treatment  of  a  somewhat  dry  subject  is 
characterised  by  a  remarkable  clearness  of  style.  It  is  the  first 
complete  work  of  the  kind  that  has  been  written  in  French.  It 
passed  through  six  editions,  and  was  ultimately  translated  into 
Russian  by  command  of  the  Russian  Minister  of  Public  In- 
struction. 

An  even  higher  degree  of  success  attended  the  publication  of 
his  great  work  on  the  Senate  under  the  Roman  Republic*.  His 
fundamental  principle  is  that  the  Senate  remained  an  exclusively 
patrician  body  until  about  400  b.c.  It  is  on  this  basis  that  he 
grounds  his  description  of  the  composition  (and  the  attributes)  of 
the  Senate  down  to  the  pltbiscitum  Ovimum  {c.  338 — 312  e.g.), 
which  required  the  censors  to  choose  the  persons  best  qualified 
for  the  Senate  without  distinction  between  patricians  and  plebeians. 
Finally,  he  brings  his  subject  down  to  the  end  of  the  Roman 
Republic.  The  work  was  carefully  discussed*,  and  elaborately 
reviewed'  in  Germany  and  elsewhere.  As  many  as  twenty-seven 
reviews  are  enumerated  in  the  preface  to  the  second  edition  (1885) 
of  the  first  volume ;  and  Mommsen,  who  is  not  lavish  of  citations 
from  the  works  of  other  investigators,  makes  an  exception  in  the 
case  of  Willems*.     The  author's  single  aim  was  the  atuinment  of 

•  Lii  aniiquiih  mmaints  mvisagies  au point  dt  vut  des  initHuUons  poUtiques, 
331  pp.  (Louvain,  1870). 

'  Jusqu'h  Constatitin  in  ed.  1871,  '74;  juiqu'h  Juitinien  in  ed.  1880,  '8j, 
'8S  [nearly  700  pp.). 

'  Le  Sinai  de  la  ripublique  romaine;  i  (La  comfiesitiim),  ii  (Les  attribu- 
tiem  du  S4nat),\\\[Registres),  1878—1885;  638  (7»4')  +  784+ "S  PP- 

*  L.  Lange,  De  pltbhcilis  Ovinia  el  Atinio  disputalio.  Lips.  1878,  ;i  pp. 

*  e.g.  by  Hermann  Schiller  in  Bursian's /a^r«i.  xix  (1879]  411 — 417. 

•  Pief.  to  Romischcs  Staatsmhl,  ni  ii  {1888)  p.  vi.    It  has  been  noticed 


30?  BELGIUM.  [CENT.  XIX. 

historic  truth.  He  made  a  point  of  studying  all  the  original 
authorities,  and  of  never  consulting  any  modern  writers  until  he 
had  formed  his  own  opinion.  One  of  the  most  striking  features  of 
the  work  is  the  elaborate  biographical  roister  of  the  members  of 
the  Senate  in  179  and  in  55  b.c.  The  author  afterwards  began  a 
work  on  the  equestrian  and  senatorial  orders  under  the  Empire, 
and  his  register  of  the  Senate  of  65  a.d.  has  been  published  by 
his  son'.  His  work  was  highly  esteemed  in  other  lands,  in  France, 
England  and  Italy,  no  less  than  in  Germany,  but  he  never  visited 
Rome,  nor  indeed  any  part  of  Italy.  Among  his  minor  works  the 
most  widely  interesting  is  the  public  lecture  in  which  he  gives  a 
detailed  and  vivid  description  of  the  municipal  elecrions  at 
Pompeii'.  Such  slighter,  efforts  were,  however,  quite  exceptional; 
he  generally  preferred  concentrating  himself  on  an  opus  magnum, 
such  as  his  work  on  the  Senate  and  on  the  Droit  public  remain*, 
and  even  his  minor  publications  had  usually  some  connexion  with 
his  larger  undertakings.  At  Louvain,  in  1874,  he  founded  among 
the  inembers  of  bis  class  a  Sociefas  Philolaga,  the  first  of  its  kind 
in  Belgium ;  and  one  of  its  earliest  members  was  Charles  Michel, 
now  a  professor  at  Li^e  and  editor  of  the  compact  and  compre- 
hensive Recueil  £  Inscriptions  Gricques  (igoo).  Willems  was  also 
the  founder  and  first  oi^aniser  of  the  Classical  Quarterly  called 
the  Mush  Beige  (1897}.  In  his  own  works  he  showed  in  general 
a  greater  affinity  with  the  German  and  Dutch  than  with  the  French 
type  of  classical  learning*.  He  was  more  interested  in  the  pursuit 
of  positive  facts  than  in  the  elegant  literary  analysis  of  the  Classics. 
His  courses  of  lectures  dealt  with  a  considerable  variety  of  classical 
authors,  together  with  I^atin  inscriptions.  They  also  included  a 
general  outline  of  the  whole  province  of  'classical  philology',  which 


that,  in  the  third  edition  of  vol.  I,  Mommsen  is  apt  to  emphasise  points  of 
difference,  while  he  appears  to  have  modified  some  of  his  opinions  in  the  light 
oTthose  of  Willems. 

'  \\o  pp.,  Louvain,  1901  (extract  from  Music  Beigi,  vols,  iv — -vi). 

'  Lis  ileetions  munvipales  i  Pomfii,  with  tables  and  notes,  (41  pp.  ([886), 
extract  from  the  Bullttins  of  the  Brussels  Acad.,  S^r.  3,  xii  (1886)  51  f. 

'  '  He  also  collected  a  lai^  mass  of  materials  for  a  comprehensive  work  on 
Flenrish  dialects. 

*  In  medie  virtus  is  his  own  motto  in  Eevue  Beige,  xv  (l8(>3)  508  f. 


.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVII.]  P.   WILLEMS.  309 

-  he  defined  as  'the  science  of  the  civilisation  of  Greece  and  Rome". 
He  was  profoundly  impressed  with  the  importance  of  maintaining 
classical  studies  in  intermediate  and  in  higher  education.  He  was 
also  interested  in  the  earlier  fortunes  and  the  later  progress  of 
those  studies,  he  regretted  the  absence  of  a  complete  history  of 
the  humanists  of  Louvain,  and  he  was  devoted  to  the  memory  of 
men  like  N^ve  and  Roersch,  who  had  made  important  contribu- 
tions towards  such  a  history.  In  all  the  breadth  and  soUdity  and 
accuracy  of  his  own  attainments  he  gave  proof  of  his  possession 
of  that  genius  which  consists  in  an  infinite  capacity  for  taking 
pains',  thus  adding  a  new  glory  to  the  Chair  that  had  been  filled 
three  centuries  before  by  a  man  of  more  brilliant  hterary  talent, 
but  of  less  stability  of  character,  the  greatest  Latin  scholar  of  the 
Southern  Netherlands,  Justus  Lipsius', 

'  Letira  chtitiennes,  Paris  (1881)  453. 

'  "La  g^nie  n'esl  qu'une  grand e  aptitude  ik  la  patience'  (Buffon);  Cailyle'a 
FrecUriei,  i  415,  cd.  1870. 

'  On  the  life  and  works  of  Pierre  Willems,  cp.  esp.  Victor  Brants  in  the 
Annuaire  of  the  Brussels  Acad.  1899,  60  pp.,  with  poitrait  and  biblic^raphy  ; 
also  Lamy  in  BtdUtim  o(  Brussels  Acad.  (1898)  397,  and  Walking  in  Jlfus/e 
Belp,  1898. 


n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


Prom  a  photograph  reproduced  in  the  Opuscula  Academica  [ed.  1S87)  and 
in  the  Nordisk  Tidskrift,  Ser.  11,  vol.  viii;  p.  319  it^ra. 


D„:,i.,-ii>,C00glc 


CHAPTER    XXXVIII. 

SCANDINAVIA. 

Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  the  three  constituent  portions 
of  the  ancient  Scandinavia,  formed  a  single  kingdom  Denmark : 
from  1397  to  1523,  that  is,  from  the  accession  of  university  of 
queen  Margaret,  the  Semiramis  of  the  North,  to  the 
proclamation  of  Gustavus  Vasa  as  king  of  Sweden.  Copenhagen," 
the  capital  of  Denmark  in  and  after  1443,  became  the  seat  of  a 
university  founded  in  1479  by  Christian  I  under  the  sanction  of 
Sixlus  IV  (1475).  The  statutes  which  it  received  from  the 
archbishop  of  Lund  were  modelled  on  those  of  Cologne.  Sweden 
{as  already  implied)  became  a  separate  kingdom  in  1523;  from 
1523  to  1560  Gustavus  Vasa  was  king  of  Sweden,  and  Frederic  I 
and  Christian  III  successively  kings  of  Denmark  and  Norway, 
and  in  1527-36  protestantism  was  established  in  all  three  countries. 
In  1539  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  which  had  collapsed  during 
a  time  of  civil  and  religious  commotion,  was  refounded  by 
Christian  III  on  the  model  of  the  protestant  university  of  Witten- 
berg. It  was  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1728,  and  rebuilt  and 
reorganised  in  1732  under  Christian  VI,  who  was  also  the  patron 
of  the  'Society  of  Sciences"  founded  in  1742.  The  university  was 
finally  reorganised  in  1788°.  Nearly  three  centuries  before  the 
foundation  of  that  university,  the  Latin  secretary  of  the  archbishop 
of  Lund,  and  the  earliest  authority  for  the  tragic  story  of  Hamlet, 
was  known  by  the  name  of  Saxo  Grammaticus',  and  we  shall  see 
in  the  sequel  that  the  preparation  of  text-books  of  Latin  Grammar 

'  Del  Kongelige  Danske  Videnskabernes  Selskab.     Cp.  p.  314  infra. 

*  Cp.  Malien's  Retskistorie  (1879)  '<  Rashdall,  ii  lyi  f ;  and  Mintrm,  n. 

*  His  eleganlly  wrilten   Datiorum  Rigum  Hereumqtu  Historia  (f.  ijoo) 
was  first  published  by  ihe  Danish  man  of  letters,  C.  Fed«rsen  (Paris,  isi4)- 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


312  DENMARK.  [CENT.  XVII. 

was  a  prominent  part  of  the  work  of  scholars  in  Denmark  from 
the  days  of  Jersin  and  Bang,  Ancherson  and  Baden,  down  to  those 
of  Madvig. 

Our  list  of  scholars  begins  with  Thomas  Bang  (1600 — i66i), 
whOj  after  spending  three  years  abroad  in  the  study 
of  Latin,  Hebrew  and  Theology  at  Franeker  and 
Wittenberg,  became  professor  of  Hebrew,  librarian,  and  professor 
of  Theology  in  the  university  of  Copenhagen.  An  orientalist  by 
profession,  he  was  a  layman  in  Latin,  but  he  was  convinced  of  the 
supreme  importance  of  maintaining  that  languE^e  in  the  schools  of 
Denmark.  As  a  Latin  scholar,  he  is  best  known  for  having  revised 
at  the  royal  command  the  Latin  Grammar  (1623)  of  J.  D.  Jersin, 
rector  of  the  school  at  Soro  and  ultimately  bishop  of  Ribe. 
Bang's  praecepta  minora  and  majora  of  1636-40  were  followed  in 
the  latter  year  by  his  principal  grammatical  work,  the  Observatioms 
Fkilologuae,  in  two  volumes  of  more  than  700  pages  each.  He 
also  published  a  Latin  primer  under  the  attractive  title  of  Aurora 
LatinitatU  (1638).  Oriental  languages  are  the  main  theme  of  two 
of  his  other  works: — the  Caelum  orientis  et  prisci  mundi  (1657), 
and  the  Exerdtationes  litterariae  aniiquitatis  (1638-48)'.  In  the 
latter  he  starts  from  Pliny's  phrase,  aetemus  liilerarum  usus',  and 
discourses  at  large  on  the  'book  of  Enoch'  and  the  language  of 
the  angels.  In  accordance  with  the  general  belief  of  his  time,  he 
holds  that  all  languages  (as  well  as  all  alphabets)  have  their  source 
in  Hebrew'. 

Bang's  contemporary,  Johan  Laurembei^  {(.  1588 — 1658), 
professor  of  Latin  Poetry  at  Rostock,  left  Germany 
for  Denmark  in  1623,  and  was  mathematical  master 
at  Sor<>  for  the  remaining  22  years  of  his  life.  His  edition  of 
the  Sphaera  of  Proclus  (1611),  his  Latin  Aitiiquarius,  or  vocabu- 
lary of  archaic  and  antiquarian  words  and  phrases  (1624),  and  his 
collection  of  maps  of  ancient  Greece*,  are  now  of  little  note  in 

'  Replinted MCticovitExercitatianei.. -de i)rtuttfragratu/itUrarum,l6^i. 

'  vii   193. 

'  Professor  M.  ,C.  Geriz,  in  Bricka's  Datisi  Biograjisk  Lexikon  (18S7 — 
1904).  Prof.  Gerix  has  al^o  written  on  most  of  (he  scholars  mentitwed  below  ; 
all  these  articles  have  been  carefully  consulted. 

'  Ed.  Pufendorf,  i6fo. 

h.  !■,  II,  l^.OOQIC 


CHAP.  XXXVin.]   BANG.   LAUREMBERG.   OLUF  BORCH.      3(3 

comparison  with  the  literary  interest  of  his  Danish  and  Latin 
Satires^. 

In  the  same  century  Oluf  Borch,  or  Olaus  Borrichius  (i6zg — 
1690),  after  studying  medicine  at  Copenhagen, 
travelled  in  Holland,  England,  France  and  Italy, 
and,  on  his  return  in  1666,  became  professor  in  the  university,  and 
physician  to  the  king.  He  was  one  of  the  most  versatile  of  men. 
He  lectured  on  philology,  as  well  as  on  medicine,  botany  and 
chemistry,  besides  filling  (late  in  life)  the  office  of  librarian.  In 
philology  his  earhest  work  was  a  compendious  guide  to  Latin 
versification,  quaintly  named  Parnassus  in  nuce  (1654).  His 
dissertatio  de  lexicis  Latinis  et  Gratcis  {1660)  was  followed  by  his 
principal  work  in  this  line  of  study : — the  Cogitationes  de  variis 
linguae  Latinae  adatibus  {1675).  This  was  supplemented  by  his 
Analecta,  and  by  his  dissertation  De  studio  furae  Latinitatis.  The 
historical  side  of  scholarship  is  represented  by  his  notable 
Conspectus  of  the  principal  Latin  authors,  and  by  his  '  Academic 
dissertations'  on  the  Greek  and  Latin  poets,  and  on  the  topography 
of  Rome  and  the  oracles  of  the  ancients'.  The  science  of  language 
is  exemplified  in  his  Dissertalto  de  causis  diversltatis  Hnguarum 

(1675). 

Language,  in  his  view,  was  originally  given  to  man  by  God,  and  there 
was  the  closest  correspondence  between  the  original  words,  as  images  of 
thugs,  and  the  things  themselves.  Man  had  also  received  the  gift  of  an 
aptitude  for  inventing  new  words,  on  which  common  custom  impressed  certain 
meanings;  hence  the  further  developement  of  languages.  After  the  building 
of  the  tower  of  Babel,  there  was  a  confusion  of  tongues.  The  primitive  lan- 
guage was  preserved  completely  among  the  Hebrews,  and  only  patlially 
among  other  nations.  Hence  in  all  languages  there  were  some  words  which 
were  related  to  Hebrew,  but  these  languages  had  diveiged  in  difFecent 
directions.  This  wa.^  due  to  a  variety  of  causes,  such  as  diversities  of  climate 
and  of  modes  of  livbg,  which  alfecled  the  oigans  of  speech.  In  the  conception 
of  language  which  is  here  presented,  anamatapoeia  plays  an  important  part. 

■  Ed.  Lappenberg,  Stuttgart,  1S61  (Bursian,  i  310);  cp.  L.  Daae,  Om 
Humanislen  og  Satirikeren,  Johati  Lauremherg,  Chr.  1884.  His  Satires  were 
not  without  influence  on  thai  versatile  man  of  genius,  Holbei^  (1684 — 1754), 
the  Moli^re  of  Denmark,  who,  in  his  Comedies,  owed  much  to  Planlus.  One 
of  those  Comedies,  Niels  Klims'  stibUrranean  jgurmy,  «"as  actually  written  in 
Latin  (1741). 

"  1676-87  ;  ed.  I,   1714-5- 

„.,,„,  ^.oogic 


314  DENMARK.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

In  the  rest  of  Borch's  vien'S  there  is  much  thit  is  obscure,  aJid,  as  a  whole, 
they  are  out  of  date ;  but  Ihey  are  not  devoid  of  interest,  while  they  have  the 
advantage  of  being  dothed  in  an  attractive  form '. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  next  century  Hans  Gram  (1685 — 1748) 
was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  (1714),  as  well  as 
historiographer,  librarian  and  archivist  of  Copen- 
hagen (i73of).  We  still  possess  the  rectorial  oration  in  which  he 
dilated  on  the  literary  history  of  Denmark  and  Norway  down  to 
the  foundation  of  the  university'.  It  was  in  his  time  that  the 
university  was  rebuilt  and  reopened,  and  it  was  owing  to  his 
influence  that  the  '  Society  of  Sciences '  was  founded  in  1742.  He 
was  specially  interested  in  Greek  science  and  in  Greek  history. 
He  wrote  on  the  '  Egyptian  origin  of  geometry ',  and  published 
observations  on  Archytas  and  Aratus.  He  carefully  studied  the 
works  of  Xenophon  and  the  scholia  on  Thucydides,  and  edited  the 
Characters  of  Theophrastus.  He  also  published  a  brief  history  of 
Greek  literature,  and  he  is  the  reputed  author  of  a  Latin-Danish 
and  Danish- Latin  Dictionary,  called  the  Nucleus  Latinitatis,  which 
remained  in  use  until  it  was  superseded  by  the  work  of  Jacob 
Baden.  Gram  never  left  his  native  land,  but  he  counted  Fabricius, 
Havercamp  and  Duker  among  his  correspondents  abroad.  It  was 
once  the  fashion  to  describe  him  as  'the  greatest  man  in  Denmark ', 
but  he  never  produced  any  magnum  opus.  He  buried  his  extensive 
learning  in  a  twnsiderable  number  of  minor  lucubrations,  and  he 
was  only  too  apt  to  lose  himself  in  mazes  of  minute  detail. 
Nevertheless  he  did  good  service  to  his  country  by  the  organisa- 
tion of  learning  and  by  the  critical  examination  of  its  ancient 
history'. 

Gram's  contemporary  Christian  Falster  (1690 — 1752)  was  in- 
terested in  Greek  and  Roman  literature  and  criti- 
cism.    He  produced  at  Flensborg  his  supplement 
to  Latin  lexicons  {1717)  and  a  comprehensive  introduction  to  the 
study  of  Latin  literature  entitled  Quaestiones  Romanae  (1718), 
At  Ribe  he  prepared  his  notes  on  Gellius'.     When  the  com- 
'  Geriz,  in  Bricka. 

'  17451  Aliauttd Nrues  aus  Damumari,\(\^fl'S\  \yi — 518. 
'  Cp.  Harless,  Vitat  Philol.,  iii   146—156;  NottvetU  Biografihu  GiniraU, 
s.v.\  and  esp.  Gerlz,  in  Bricka. 

*  Vigilui  prima  ntitium  Ripensiam  (yfix). 

„.,,„,  ^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVIII.]  GRAM.      FALSTER.  3IS 

mentary  was  completed,  it  was  calculated  that  it  would  fill  three 
folio  volumes.  It  was  impossible  to  find  a  publisher,  and  the 
author  accordingly  bequeathed  his  ms,  with  all  his  other  books, 
to  the  library  of  the  university  of  Copenhagen.  Meanwhile, 
his  friend,  Hans  Gram,  'on  hearing  that  the  Nodes  Hipensa 
had  been  doomed  to  eternal  darkness",  prevailed  on  the  author 
to  allow  some  small  portions  of  these  Noctes  to  see  the  light  of 
day'.  His  Memoriae  Obscurae,  largely  derived  from  Gellius,  and 
published  at  Hamburg  in  1722,  is  practically  a  supplement  to  the 
Bibliolheca  Latino  of  the  great  Hamburg  scholar,  Fabricius.  In 
his  Cogitationes  Variae  Philologicae  (1715)  he  regards  classical 
literature  as  a  handmaid  to  theology  and  protests  against  the 
opinion  that  the  '  pagan '  Classics  should  be  avoided  by  the 
Christian  student.  Among  the  classical  desiderata  of  his  time,  he 
here  mentions  a  history  of  Greek  literature  and  adds  an  outline  of 
a  fiature  work  on  the  subject.  He  also  discusses  the  essential 
points  in  an  ideal  edition  and  incidentally  denounces  the  Dutch 
fashion  of  accumulating  a  mass  of '  various  readings". 

He  recurs  to  the  same  theme  in  a  work  originally  described  by 
himself  as  Sermones,  to  which  his  Dutch  publisher  adroitly  gave 
the  more  attractive  title  of  Amoenitates  Philologicae*.  It  is  written 
in  a  style  that  is  eminently  readable  without  being  perfectly  pure. 
One  of  the  chapters  describes  the  author's  conversation  with  a 
youth  of  high  promise  who  found  his  chief  delight  in  reading  the 
lives  of  great  scholars  and  was  inspired  with  the  ambition  of 
following  in  their  steps".  Another  conversation,  on  the  scholar's 
religion,  ends  with  the  author's  description  of  himself  as  a 
'  Christian  philosopher ' : — '  studeo,  non  tam  ut  doctior  quam  ut 
melior  evadam".  This  is  the  most  celebrated  of  his  works,  but, 
notwithstanding  its  title,  the  largest  part  of  it  has  no  connexion 
with  '  philology '.     Its  writer  is  also  known  as  a  Danish  satirist,  as 


Ameenitalis  Philologiiae,  ill  ix^. 
Primed  ib.  at  end  of  vols,  ii  and  iii. 

P.   \\,C0git.Xi\,   V. 

iii  7,  Amst.  1719-31,  3  vols.,  with  vignette. 
>l.  i  Hans  Gmm  is  apostrophised  as  amfilissim. 

In  Ihe  dedicatory  prefa 
r  and  nebilinimi  Gram. 

,i^.ooglc 


3l6  DENMARK.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

a  commentator  on  the  fourteenth  satire  of  Juvenal,  and  as  the 
author  of  a  Danish  rendering  of  Ovid's  Tristia^. 

Later  in  the  same  century  Jacob  Baden  (1735 — i8p4),  who 
began  his  studies  at  Copenhagen  and  continued 
them  at  Gdttingen  and  Leipzig,  held  scholastic 
appointments  at  Altona  and  at  Helsingor  (Elsinore),  and  was 
professor  of  'eloquence'  at  Copenhagen  for  the  last  24  years  of 
his  life.  His  portrait  was  engraved  by  Lahde^  and  his  bust 
modelled  by  Thorwaldsen.  A  compendious  Latin  Grammar 
produced  in  1751  by  the  Danish  schoolmaster,  Soren  Ancherson 
(1698— 1781),  was  the  authorised  text-book  for  use  in  all  the 
schools  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  and  it  held  its  ground  until  the 
author's  death,  thirty  years  later.  In  the  very  next  year  it  was 
superseded  by  Baden's  Grammar,  just  as  Baden's  was  ultimately 
superseded  in  1846  by  that  of  Madvig.  Baden  was  also  the 
compiler  of  standard  Latin-Danish  and  Danish-Latin  Dictionaries 
(1786-8),  the  former  of  these  being  founded  on  Gesner.  He 
produced  creditable  editions  of  Phaedrus,  Virgil  and  Horace,  and 
translations  of  Xenophon's  Cyropaedeia,  and  of  Horace,  Suetonius, 
Tacitus  and  Quintilian  (x,  xi).  He  was  far  less  successful  as  the 
author  of  a  Greek  Grammar  and  Chrestomathy. 

His  son,  Torkil  Baden  (1765— 1849),  studied  at  Gottingen 
and  acquired  an  interest  in  art  during  his  travels 
in  Italy.  He  was  a  professor  at  Kiel  in  Holstein 
(then  part  of  Denmark)  and  (in  1804-23)  at  Copenhagen.  His 
published  works  (such  as  his  dissertation  on  Philostratus)  were 
partly  inspired  by  his  interest  in  ancient  art.  He  'had  read 
nearly  all  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics ',  but  the  result  of  all 
this  reading  is  inadequately  represented  in  his  edition  of  the 
Tragedies  of  Seneca'.  His  edition  of  his  grandfather's  Roma 
Danica  brought  him  into  feud  with  other  scholars.  He  was 
more  fortunate  in  his  new  and  improved  edition  of  bis  father's 
Dictionaries  {1815-31). 

Intermediate   in  date   between  the  two    Badens   is   Rasmus 

•  Cp.  Thaarup,  in  Christian  Falsltrs  Satirer  (1840);   Bursian,  i  367-9; 
and  Geitz,  in  Bricka. 

'  Lahde  og  Nyerup,  Portraile,  iii  (1806). 
'  Leipzig,  1815-11. 

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XXXVIII.]      J.  BADEN.      T.  BADEN.      NVERUP.  31/ 

Nyerup  (1756 — iSag),  the  learned  librarian  of  Copenhagen,  who, 
besides  producing  numerous  works  connected  with 
Scandinavian  literature,  was  the  first  to  pubhsh 
the  contents  of  eight  Glossaria  antiqua  Latino- Theottsca'.  The 
fifth  of  these  is  ultimately  derived  from  the  important  Latin 
and  Anglo-Saxon  glossary  preserved  in  a  Leyden  ms  of  the 
eighth  century,  which  formerly  belonged  to  Isaac  Vossius  and 
was  probably  once  at  St  Gallen'. 

One  of  Nyerup's  less  productive  contemporaries  is  Niels  Iversen 
Schow  (1754 — 1830),  the  professor  of  Copenhagen, 
who  studied  mss  in  Rome  and  Venice,  edited  the 
Homeric  Allegories  of  Heracleides  Ponticus  {1782)  and  Joannes 
Lydus  De  Mensibui  (1794),  and  began  editions  of  Stobaeus  and 
Photius,  which  unfortunately  remained  unfinished-     In  bygone 
years  he  had  studied  at  Gottingen  under  Heyne;  he  had  thus 
acquired  an   interest   in   archaeology,  and  be  had  produced  a 
handbook  of  the  subject;  but  his  early  promise  remained  un- 
fulfilled.    He  is  far  less  distinguished  than  the  able  and  versatile 
archaeologist  and  historian,  Friedtich  Miinter  {1761 
— 1830),  who  had  also  studied  under  Heyne  and 
ultimately  became  bishop  of  Seeland.     His  youi^er  contemporary 
Birgerus  (B6rge)  Thorlacius  (1775 — 1829),  professor 
at  Copenhagen  for  the  last  twenty-six  years  of  his 
life,  edited  Hesiod's  Works  and  Days,  the  Speech  of  Lycurgus 
against  I.eocrates,  and  Cornelius  Nepos,  besides  discussing  the 
Republic  of  Cicero,  and  producing  a  considerable  series  of  Opus- 
cula  (1806-22).     His  editions  of  Greek  texts  were  mere  reprints 
from   those   of  foreign   scholars.     He  was  a  man  of  wide  but 
superficial  learning ;  ineffective  as  a  Latin  professor,  he  did  good 
service  as  one  of  the  revisers  of  the  Danish  translation  of  the  Greek 
Testament.    The  briefest  mention  must  sufiice  for 
S.  N.  J.  Bloch  (1772—1862),  rector  of  the  school         °'"* 
at  Roeskilde,  a  compiler  of  elementary  text-books  and  an  editor 
of  Select  Speeches  of  Cicero,  who  advocated  a  reform  in  the 

*  (Nyerap),  Symbolai  ad  literaturam  Teuttinkam  anltquiarem,  Hauoiae, 
1787,  pp.  174— 4'o- 

'  The  Laden  Latin-AnglB-Saxon  Glossary,  ed.  J.  H.  HesseU,  Cambridge 
Univ.  Press,  1906,  pp.  xiii — xvi. 

h.  i.,  ii,l^.OOglc 


3l8  DENMARK.  [CENT.  XVIII, 

pronunciation  of  Greek,  and  thus  came  into  conflict  with  Matthlae 
in  Germany,  and  with  Henrichsen  in  Denmark  (1826).     It  was 

from  a  paper  on  the  Latin  Imperative  (1825)  by 

Niels  Bygom  Krarup  (1792 — 1842),  a  teacher  at 
Christianshavn,  that  Zumpt  derived  the  name  of  the  'future 
imperative'.      Among   natives   of   Iceland   may  be  mentioned 

Gudmundur  Magndsson  (1741 — 1798),  an  editor 
"AraeK'n"       °f  Terence  {1780),    and    Paul    Amesen    {1776— 

1851),  who  was  educated  at  Helsingor,  held  a 
mastership  at  Christiania,  and  finally  taught  Greek  and  Latin  at 
Copenhagen.  His  Greek  and  Danish  dictionary  was  the  first  of 
its  kind  in  Denmark  (r83o),  and  was  followed  by  his  new  Latin 
dictionary  (1845-8). 

Meanwhile  archaeology  was  represented  by  Johann  Georg  Zoega  (1755 — 

1S09),  who  studied  at  Gottingen  and  repeatedly  visited  Italy 

in  and  after  1780.  He  joined  the  Church  of  Rome  in  1783 
and  died  in  Rome  in  1S09.  His  earliest  work,  that  on  the  impeiatortal  coins 
of  Egypt,  was  followed  by  his  important  folio  '  on  the  origin  and  use  of 
obelisks'  (1797),  by  his  'Coptic  mss  of  the  Museum  Boigianum',  and  his 
'ancient  Roman  bas-reliefs''.    He  was  commemorated  by  a  medallion  executed 

by  his  friend  Thorwaldsen.     Another  Danish  archaeolt^ist, 
™"  "  Pelet  Oluf  Brondsted  (1780—1841),  after  studying  at  Copen- 

hagen, worked  at  archaeology  in  Paris  and  in  Italy,  and  in  1810-4  travelled  in 
Greece  with  Mailer  and  Stackelberg,  Cockerell  and  Foster.  Brondsted's  own 
share  in  this  eventful  lour  is  partly  recorded  in  the  two  volumes  of  his  travels 
(1810-30).  Meanwhile,  he  had  returned  to  Copenhagen  in  1814,  to  leave  it  in 
1810  for  a  tour  among  the  Ionian  Islands  and  in  Italy'.  He  visited  England 
in  1814  and  1831,  and  was  professor  of  Philology  and  Archaeolc^  for  the 
last  ten  years  of  his  life.  His  paper  on  '  Panathenaic  vases'  was  published 
by  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature  (1831),  and  his  '  Bronzes  of  Siris '  by  the 
F  C  Petersen     ^''*"^"t'  Society  (1836).    As  professor  he  was  succeeded  in 

1841  by  F.  C.  Petersen  (1786—1859),  who  held  this  position 
for  the  remaining  17  years  of  his  life.  His  '  Introduction  to  Archaeoli^y' 
(1815),  which  includes  a  full  account  of  Winckelmann,  was  translated  into 
German'.     He  also  published  a  handbook  to  Greek  literature,  besides  com- 

^  Aihandhingat   {1817),  Leben,   etc.,   Welcker   (1819);    Stark,    145-9; 
Michaelis,   Arch.  Enid.  13  f. 

'  Stark,  160-1. 

■  1819,  3S3  pp.  (n  ' 
61  on  Winckelmann) ; 
(Stark,  51,  s8). 


CHAP.  XXXVni.]      ZOEGA.      BRONDSTED.     PETERSEN.      '319 

ments  on  Libanius  and  an  excellent  paper  on  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Ephelae 
(1854).  During  the  student-days  of  Henrichsen,  Elberling  and  Madvig, 
Petersen  was  the  only  thoroughly  eHtdent  lecluier  on  Che  classical  side  of 
Ihe  university.  It  was  owing  lo  the  inadequacy  of  the  other  lecturers  that 
these  three  students  (with  two  of  their  companions)  formed  a  philological 
society  of  their  own,  which  had  an  important  influence  on  their  early  career'. 
The  fourth  of  ihe  Danish  archaeologists,  Olaus  Kellermann 
(1805 — 1837),  began  to  reside  in  Rome  in  1831  and  gave 
proof  of  high  promise  in  Latin  Epigraphy'.  Lastly,  the  Danish  expedition  to 
the  island  of  Rhodes,  in  1901-4,  led  Co  the  discovery  of  inscriptions  which 
determine  the  date  and  birthplace  of  the  sculptor  Boethus  to  be  Chalcedon  in 
the  Hellenistic  age,  and  prove  Chat  the  group  of  Laocodn  may  be  approxi- 
mately placed  at  Ihe  beginning  of  the  rule  of  Augustus'. 

The  foremost  representative  of  scholarship  in  Denmark  was 
Johan  Nicolai  Madvig  (1804—1886),  the  son  of  a  «  j  - 
subordinate  legal  official  on  the  Danish  island  of 
Bomholm,  off  the  Swedish  coast,  from  which  his  great-grandfather 
had  migrated  to  Danish  territory.  His  name  was  derived  from 
a  fishing- village  in  the  South  of  Sweden  that  once  belonged  to 
Denmark.  At  the  early  age  of  eleven,  he  began  copying  legal 
documents  for  his  father,  and  he  always  retained  a  keen  interest 
in  law.  After  his  father's  death  he  was  educated  at  Frederiks- 
borg  in  Nordseeland  under  Bendtsen,  in  whose  memory  he 
delivered  a  public  eulogy  in  1831,  but  he  was  mainly  setf-taught. 
After  studying  at  Copenhagen  (1820-5),  ^^  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  (1829)  and  held  that  position  for  more  than  half 
a  century.  In  and  after  1848  he  was  a  member  of  the  Danish 
Diet,  Inspector  of  all  the  Schools  of  Denmark,  and  for  three 
years  Minister  of  Education,  He  was  President  of  the  Council 
from  1856  to  1863,  and  continued  to  take  part  in  politics  until 
he  reached  the  age  of  seventy.  At  the  fourth  centenary  of  the 
university  of  Copenhagen  (the  commemoration  of  which  was, 
for  political  reasons,  confined  to  the  Scandinavian  nations),  he 
discharged  his  duties  as  rector  in  the  most  admirable  manner. 
Throughout  the  whole  of  his  long  life  of  more  than  80  years,  he 

'  Gerti  on  Petersen  and  Henrichsen,  in  Bricka. 

'  Vigilum  Somanorum  latircula  (1835);    O.  Jabn,   Sftc.  Epigr.,  184I, 
pp.  v^xv;  Jorgensen,  in  Bricka. 

'  Micbaelis,  Arch.  Entd.  i68f ;  p.  18  n.  1  mfra. 


.oogic 


320  DENMARK.  [CENT.  XIX. 

was  never  seriously  ill,  and  his  mental  powers  remained  unim- 
paired to  the  very  end. 

His  best  work  was  that  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  Latin 
language  and  to  the  textual  criticism  of  Cicero  and  Livy,  In 
1825,  in  conjunction  with  four  young  scholars  of  Copenhagen, 
he  edited  a  volume  of  Garatoni's  notes  on  the  Speeches  of  Cicero. 
The  dissertation  for  his  degree  consisted  of  emendations  of 
Cicero,  De  Legiius  and  Academica  (i8z6),  followed  by  a  treatise 
on  Asconius  (1827),  an  Epistola  Critica  on  the  last  two  of  the 
Verrine  Orations  (1828),  and  criticisms  on  Select  Speeches  (1830), 
a.nA  the  Caio  Maior  unA  Laelius  {li^^).  His  duties  as  professor 
involved  the  preparation  of  the  Latin  programs  of  the  uni- 
versity, afterwards  published  in  his  Opuscula  Academka  (1834- 
42)'.  In  the  first  of  these  Opuscula,  a  paper  originally  published 
in  1829,  he  proved  that  certain  alleged  orthographical  fragments 
of  'Apuleius',  which  had  imposed  on  Mai  and  Osann,  were 
forgeries  of  the  fifteenth  century'.  He  attained  a  European  repu- 
tation by  his  masterly  edition  of  Cicero,  De  Pinibus  (1839)', 
one  of  those  standard  works  which  instruct  and  stimulate  the 
student  not  only  by  the  knowledge  they  impart  but  also  by  the 
way  in  which  they  impart  it'.  His  Latin  Grammar  (1841), 
followed  by  a  volume  of  'Observations'  (1844),  was  translated 
into  all  the  languages  of  Europe.  '  The  great  merits  of  the  book 
are  its  clearness,  and  grasp  of  the  subject,  within  the  limits  which 
the  writer  set  himself;  its  power  of  analysis,  and  its  command 
of  classical  usage".  Meanwhile,  he  was  pursuing  those  wider 
studies  of  the  text  of  the  Greek  as  well  as  the  Latin  Classics, 
which  bore  fruit  in  his  Adversaria  Critica.  In  1846  he  produced 
his  Greek  Syntax'^,  and,  in  the  same  year,  a  tour  in  Germany 
gave  him  the  opportunity  of  making  the  acquaintance  of  Schneide- 
win,  and  also  of  Boeckh,  with  whom  he  had  a  close  affinity. 
He  was  on  friendly  terms  with  Halm,  and  the  sixth  volume  of 
Baiter  and  Kayser's  Cicero  was  dedicated  by  Baiter  to  Madvig, — 
Tullianorum  criticorum  principi. 

'  Ed.  1,  1887.  »  Nettleship,  U  5—7.  '  Ed.  3,  1876. 

*  Bursian,  ii  946  ;  cp.  Nettleship,  ii  7— ro. 

'  Neltteship,  ii  10  f. 

'  Followed  by  Beinerkungen  in  Philoiogus,  Suppl.  1848. 


i.MM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXXVETI.}  MADVIG.  321 

When  he  resumed  his  professorship  in  1851,  on  ceasing  Co 
be  Minister-of  Education,  his  study  of  Roman  Constitutional 
History  led  to  his  devoting  his  main  attention  to  Livy.  He 
produced  his  well-known  Emendationes  Livianae  in  i860',  and 
his  edition  of  the  text,  in  conjunction  with  Ussing,  in  i86i~6'. 
On  the  completion  of  his  Livy,  he  made  a  lengthy  tour  in 
Switzerland,  Italy  and  France,  and,  in  1869,  saw  still  more  of 
Italy.  In  187 1-3  he  published  the  two  volumes  of  his  Adversaria 
Critica,  with  an  admirable  introduction  on  the  general  principles 
of  textual  criticism,  illustrated  by  examples.  After  producing  a 
German  edition  of  his  minor  philological  writings  (1875),  he 
began  to  suffer  from  increasing  weakness  of  sight,  but. did  not 
resign  the  duties  of  his  professorship  until  five  years  later.  Mean- 
while, he  brought  out  new  editions  of  his  works,  including  several 
volumes  of  his  Livy,  a  German  translation  of  his  Greek  Syntax, 
a  selection  from  Cicero's  Speeches,  and  nearly  completed  a  new 
edition  of  his  Opuscula  Academica  (1887).  He  had  also  returned 
to  the  study  of  the  text  of  Cicero,  had  produced  in  1884  an 
Appendix  to  his  Adversaria,  and  an  important  work  in  two 
volumes  on  the  Constitution  and  Administration  of  the  Roman 
Slate  (1881-2)'.  Finally,  when  the  eyesight  of  the  unwearied 
veteran  began  to  grow  dim,  he  dictated  his  Memoirs  from  the 
days  of  his  childhood  down  to  1884. 

From  the  outset  of  his  career  as  a  scholar,  his  special  field 
had  been  verbal  criticism.  A  rational  method  of  estimating  the 
value  of  Mss,  and  applying  the  results,  had  lately  come  into 
vogue ;  MSS  were  no  longer  to  be  counted,  but  to  be  weighed  in 
comparison  with  the  original  archetype.  This  method  was  ex- 
tended by  Madvig,  and  was  carried  through  with  remarkable 
clearness  and  precision*.  In  the  preface  to  the  De  Finibus  there 
is  a  characteristic  passage  in  which  he  compares  the  textual 
critic  to  a  judge  whose  duty  it  is  to  elicit  the  truth  from  the 
conflict  of  evidence'. 

•  Enlarged  ed.  1877. 

'  Cp.  Nettleship,  ii  11—14. 
'  Cp.  Netcleship,  ii  16 — 19. 

*  Cp.  his  preface  lo  the  11  Oialions  of  Cic,  reprinled  in  his  Oputc, 
'  Transl.  in  Neltleahip,  ii  8. 

s.   III.  I,.  i„  iiAi-OOi^lc 


322  DENMARK.  [CENT.  XIX. 

He  had  a  lemarkable  aptitude  for  conjectural  emendation. 
In  Cicero,  pro  Caelio,  no  less  than  six  of  his  corrections  were 
subsequently  confirmed  by  the  ms  formerly  in  the  abbey  of 
St  Victor".  But  his  conjectures  were  not  all  of  equal  value; 
he  was  certainly  less  successful  with  the  text  of  Plato  than  with 
that  of  Cicero ;  and  he  himself  regretted  that  he  was  not  more 
familiar  with  the  style  of  the  Greek  Tragic  Poets.  Quam  vellem 
poetas  Graecos  tt  praesertim  Atticos  non  ailigissel,  was  Cobet's 
saying  of  Madvig ;  Munro  would  have  extended  the  remark  to 
the  Roman  poets';  and  KitschI  had  occasion  to  attack  him  for 
the  metrical  mistake  of  changing  mutasse  into  natasst  in  a  passage 
of  Ovidl 

Verbal  criticism  he  regarded,  however,  as  a  means  to  an  end, 
and  that  end  was  the  vivid  realisation  and  the  perfect  presentation 
of  the  civilisation  of  Greece  and  Rome,  whether  in  literature,  or 
in  public  or  private  life.  A  lecture  of  1881  gives  proof  of  the 
breadth  of  his  interest  in  the  study  of  language^  but  he  cared  little 
for  the  minor  details  of  Comparative  Philology.  The  subject- 
matter  of  the  I-alin  Classics  was  less  largely  represented  in  his 
published  works  than  in  his  professorial  lectures.  In  his  paper 
on  Asconius,  he  followed  Niebuhr  in  maintaining  the  spuriousness 
of  part  of  the  commentary.  The  earliest  of  his  papers  on  the 
Institutions  of  Rome  were  those  on  the  Equites,  the  Colonies, 
and  the  tribuni  aerarii^. 

'  His  familiarity  wilh  ante-  and  post-classical  I^lin  was  by  no  means  on  a  par 
with  his  mastery  of  Ciceronian  and  Livian  style.  Nor  does  he  display  that  nice 
sense  of  usage  which  makes  the  study  of  J.  F.  Utonovius,  Ruhnken,  Heindorf, 
Collet,  so  instructive.  Robust  common  sense,  revoking  against  impossibilities 
in  thought  and  expression,  a  clear  perception  of  what  the  context  requires,  a 
close  adherence  to  the  ductus  litltrarum  seem  to  me'  {says  Professor  Mayor) 
'his  great  merits  as  a  critic'". 

'Whatever  ftultsmaybe  found  in  his  work,, ..it  has  always'  (adds  Professor 
Netlleship)  'the  characteristic  of  a  sound  humanity.  The  whole  man  is  there  : 
it  is  not  a  fragment  of  a  mind,  or  a  half-grown  mind,  which  we  see  active 

'  A.  C.  Clark,  Anad.  Oxoti.  X,  xxxi  f. 

^  Jeumal  of  PhiM.  vi  78. 

'  Met.  iv  46 ;  OpHsc.  Pkilol.  iii  (cp.  Nettleship,  ii  15). 

*  Was  ill  Sprachv/isstHschqft  f 

*  All  reprinted  in  Opusc.  "  CI.  Rev.  i  114. 


ogle 


CHAP.  XXXVIII.]  MADVIG.  323 

bernr«  us  '■  He  has  '  a  certain  simpticily  and  wholesome  iiidepen<)ence  '.  and 
he  was  '  uninfluenced  bj  any  definite  philological  tradition  '',  'Clear,  sound, 
and  independent  judgement,  formed  always  on  first-hand  study,  is  one  of 
Madvijj's  greatest  characteristics  ''.  '  He'never  lost  sight  of  the  real  position 
and  value  of  classical  philoli^y.,..  It  is  not  in  the  literary  enjoyment  afforded 
by  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers,  nor  in  the  gymnastic  training  given  to  the 
mind  by  mastering  their  grammar,  that  he  places  their  educational  value  1  hut 
in  the  fact  that  they  offer  the  necessary  and  the  only  means  of  obtaining  a 
first-hand  view  of  the  Giaeco- Roman  world,  and  therefore  of  the  fore-iime  of 
European  civilization''.  '  He  was  always  impressing  on  the  students  that  the 
ultimate  and  highest  aim  of  their  studies  was  to  gain  a  sure  insight  into  history, 
3  clear  and  living  idea  of  the  life  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  world  ''■ 

All  the  classical  scholars  of  modern  Denmark  were  trained 
by  Madvig  during  the  half  century  of  his  tenure  of  the  Latin 
Professorship.  His  general  character  was  marked  by  a  hatred 
of  empty  talk  and  exaggerated  phrases,  a  strong  sense  of  justice 
and  an  unswerving  integrity-  He  had  a  singular  grace  and  ease 
of  manner".  In  carryii^  out,  however,  the  principle  of  his 
favourite  motto,  'speaking  the  truth  in  love',  he  often  appeared 
to  emphasise  the  first  part  of  that  motto  even  more  than  the 
second.  One  of  his  pupils  has  aptly  applied  to  his  master  the 
language  once  applied  by  the  latter  lo  the  Father  of  History : — 

'quern  ob  argumenli  amplitudinem  ingeniique  candorem  et  suavilatem 
veneramur  el  diligimus". 

The  jubilee  volume  of  Opuscula  presented  to  Madvig  in  1876 
by  some  of  his  former  pupils  included  papers  by  R.  Christensen 
{1843 — 1876),  the  student  of  Greek  history  and  archaeolc^y', 
criticisms  on  Aristotle's  Rhetoric  and  Poetic  by  Ussing',  emenda- 
tions of  Plautus  by  Sophus  Bugge  of  Christiania',  and  of  other 
Latin  authors  by  Whitte,  the  translator  of  Terence'",  translations 
from  Hesiod  by  C.  P.  Christensen  Schmidt'",  and,  lastly,  emenda- 

'  Nettleahip's  Essays,  ii  4  f.  '  ib.  19. 

»  Kleiru  SchrifUn,  385  f  (Nettleship,  20). 

*  Gerti,  ib.  Ji  f.  "  CI.  Rn,.  i  114. 

■  J.  L.  Heibei^,  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1886,  201— aji ;  cp.  M.  C.  Getti  in 
Btrlin.  PkU.  Woch.  5  and  11  Feb.  1887,  and  esp.  iit  Brick a's  Dansk  Bto- 
grafisk  Lexicon ;  John  Mayor  in  CI.  Rcv-'aiii;  Nettleahip's  i'jjafj,  ii  1—53. 

'  Life  in  Tidskrift,  Ser.  It  iii  279. 

'  P-  m  infra.  °  )>■  331  'V"- 

•''p.3i8W>-«- 


324  DENMARK.  [CENT.  XIX. 

tions  of  Quintilian  by  M.  CI.  Gertz,  and  remarks  on  early  medi- 
aeval Latin  by  V.  Thomsen,  both  of  whom  are  still  professors  at 
Copenhagen. 

Among  Danish  editions  of  Cicero,  which  had  the  advantage 
of   contributions  from    Madvig,  were  Rudolf  Henrichsen's  De 
Oratore  (1830),  P.  H.  Tregder's  Tusculan  Disputations  (1841), 
and  G.  F.  W.  Lund's  De    Officiis  (1848).     The  first  of  these, 
Henrichsen  (1800— 1871),  was  one  of  the  students 
associated  with  Madvig  and  Elberling  in  their  joint 
edition  of  Garatoni'.     He  was  afterwards  a  schoolmaster  at  Soro 
and    Odense,  and   was    specially   interested    in    the    Anthologia 
Patatina,  and  in  Byzantine  and  modem  Greek ;  but  his  principal 
work  was  the  above-mentioned  Dt  Oratore,  in  which  he  was 
further  aided  by  Elberling.    Carl  Wilhelm  Elberling 
(1800 — 1870),  the  rector  of  a  school  in  Copenhagen, 
produced  a  useful  edition  of  Plato's  Apology  and  Crito ;  he  also 
studied  the  Greek  lexicographers,  and  contributed  to  the  London 
edition  of  the  Greek  Thesaurus  tyl  H.  Stephanus. 
E.  F.  C.  Bojesen  (1803 — 1864),  whose  Copenhagen 
dissertations  on  Greek  Music  and   on    Aristotle's  Problems   ac- 
quired some  celebrity  in  Germany,  was  ultimately  rector  of  Soro. 
He  edited  Sallust;  his  Handbook  of  Roman  Antiquities  (1839), 
mainly  founded  on  Madvig's  lectures,  and  his  similar  work  on 
Greek  Antiquities',  were  translated  into  German  and  other  lan- 
guages.    His  later  papers  on  Aristotle's  Polities',  and  his  trans- 
lation of  Ethics  viii  and  ix',  attained  a  considerable  popularity. 
A.  S.  Wesenberg  (1804—1876),  who  was  a  pupil 
and  afterwards  a  master  at  Viborg,  owes  his  repu- 
tation to  his  critical  edition  of  Cicero's  Letters',  which  was  pre- 
ceded and  succeeded  by  the  publication  of  '  Emendations '  on  the 
text.     He  also  published  Emendatiunculae  Livianae   in   modest 
imitation  of  Madvig's  Emendationes.     The  editor  of  the  Tusculan 
Disputations,  P.  H.  Tregder  (1815—1887),  rector 
of  Aalborg,  wrote  a  Danish  history  of  Greek  art,  a 
handbook  of  Greek  and  I^tin  literature  (twice  translated  into 

'  p.  110  supra.  '  E.  T.  1848. 

'  Soro  prc^r.  1844  f,  1851  f.  *  1838. 

'  Teubnertext,  Lcipiig,  187J-3. 


..oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVni.]      BOJESEK.      WESENBERG.      USSING.        325 

German),  a  handbook  of  Greek  Mythology,  and  a  distinctly 
meritorious  Greek  Grammar  (1844).  Lastly,  G.  F. 
W.  Lund  (rSzo — 1891),  who  began  his  scho- 
lastic career  at  Christianshavn  and  Copenhagen  and  ended  it 
at  Aalborg  and  Aarhus,  was  'adjunct'  to  the  cathedral-school  of 
Nykjobing  during  the  intermediate  time  when  he  was  editing  the 
Cato  Major  and  Laelius  as  well  as  the  De  Offidis  of  Cicero,  and 
the  Fhiiippics  and  De  Corona  of  Demosthenes. 

The  scholar  associated  with  Madvig  in  his  edition  of  the  text 
of  Livy  was  Johan  Louis  Ussing  {1820—1905). 
As  a  student  at  Copenhagen,  Ussing  was  not 
attracted  by  Brondsted  to  the  study  of  classical  archaeology, 
for  Brondsted  was  then  lecturing  on  classical  philology.  He  was 
fer  more  distinctively  a  pupil  of  Madvig,  who  inspired  him  with 
a  keenly  critical  temper,  without  succeeding  in  interesting  him 
either  in  Roman  Institutions  or  in  Latin  Syntax.  Madvig,  in 
fact,  recommended  Ussing  to  devote  himself  to  archaeology,  and 
introduced  him  to  the  art-critic  Hoyen,  who  prompted  him  to 
study  Greek  vases,  and  thus  led  to  his  writing  the  dissertation 
de  nominibus  vasorum  Graecorum  (1844), 

After  travelling  for  two  years  in  Italy  and  Greece',  he  lectured 
on  the  topography  and  monuments  of  Athens,  and  was  appointed 
Reader  in  Philology  and  Archaeol<^y  in  1847,  the  date  of  his 
publication  of  certain  Greek  inscriptions.  Madvig's  absence  on 
public  service  led  to  Ussing's  taking  a  larger  share  in  the  philo- 
logical lectures,  and  he  became  a  full  professor  three  years  later. 
While  he  was  associated  with  Madvig  in  his  edition  of  I-.ivy,  his 
own  masterpiece  was  his  annotated  edition  of  Plautus  (1875-87). 
In  that  work  his  sobriety  as  a  textual  critic  is  suggestive  of  the 
influence  of  Madvig.  He  published  critical  observations  on 
Aristotle's  Rhetoric  and  PoetW;  and  a  commentary  on  the  Cha- 
racters of  Theophrastus,  and  on  Philodemus  De  Vitiis  (1868).    His 


1  Cp.  ReJMhitltdtr  fra  Sydtn,  1847;  the  'Thessalian  tout'  and  the  paper 
on  the  Parthenon  are  included  in  Gr.  Rtisen  und  Sludicu,  1857.  His  later 
reminiscences  are  entided  Fra  en  Kijse  (1873),  Fra  Hellas  eg  lAUeasien  (1883), 
and  Nfdre-Mgypten  {r889). 

'  Opuscula  ad Madoig'mm  mislay  \i\  i. 


,l^.OO' 


SIC 


326  DENMARK.  [CENT.  XIX. 

brief  sketch  of  Greek  and  Roman  Education',  and  his  manual 
of  Metrik*  (1893),  were  translated  into  German.  One  of  his 
papers  (1896),  in  which  he  proposed  a  new  date  for  Vitruvius, 
was  translated  into  English'.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Museum 
of  Classical  Archaeolc^y  at  Copenhagen,  and  bequeathed  to  the 
Museum  his  collection  of  archaeological  books.  Even  in  extreme 
old  age  he  was  one  of  the  keenest  and  most  eager  of  workers, 
and  we  are  assured  by  the  author  of  a  tribute  to  his  memory  that 
the  expression  of  weariness  prominent  in  his  portrait  at  Copen- 
hagen is  untrue  to  his  real  character'. 

One  of  the  ablest  and  most  promising  of  the  pupils  of 
Madvig,  H.  F.  F.  Nutzhom  (1834—1866),  began 
his  brief  career  by  publishing  valuable  papers  on 
Greek  mythology,  and  on  the  history  of  Greek  literature,  and  the 
lost  Epics  of  the  Trojan  Cycle'.  As  a  candidate  for  the  degree 
of  Doctor,  he  discussed  the  origin  of  the  Homeric  poems,  and  his 
treatise  on  that  subject  was  published  in  Danish  in  1863.  He 
soon  began  to  lecture  with  remarkable  success  on  Aristophanes; 
and,  with  a  view  to  his  further  studies,  he  paid  two  visits  to  Italy, 
late  in  1863  and  in  1865.  On  the  second  of  these  visits  he 
collated  the  Venice  Mss  of  Aristophanes,  and  was  looking  forward 
to  visiting  Greece  for  the  purpose  of  studying  its  modem  lan- 
guage and  literature,  when,  at  the  early  £^e  of  thirty-one,  he 
died  of  typhoid  fever  in  February,  1866'.  A  German  translation 
of  his  treatise  on  the  Homeric  poems,  which  had  been  con- 
templated while  he  was  still  living,  was  successfully  completed 

'  rSfij-s;  Germ,  trans.  1874,  1885'. 

»  New  cd.  1895. 

'  Refuted  by  Krohn,  Birl.  Pkilol.  Week.  1897,  773  i  cp.  Schaiu  %  355. 
p.  350;  and  M.  H.  Morgan,  in  Harvard  Studies,  xvii  (1906)  9;  also  Degeriiig, 
in  Rhein.  Mas.  1901,  and  Bert.  Phil.  Woch.  1907,  nos.  43—49-  In  1894 
Ussing  deall  with  the  'developement  of  the  Greek  column',  and  in  1897  wilh 
the  'history  and  monuments  of  Pecgamos'  (Germ,  trans.  1899). 

*  J.  L.  Heiberg,  Danike  Videmiaderaes  Selsiab  (Copenhagen),  3  Nov., 
•9051  7' — 75  '•  <^P'  ^-  Trojel  in  Nordisk  Tidsskrift.  Set.  Ill,  xiii  91 — 96,  with 
porlrail  and  bibliography;  and  Sam  Wide  in  Bert.  Phil.  Wxh.  1898,  87Sr; 
also  bii^raphical  sketch  and  liibliograph]'  by  Drachmann  in  Biegr.  Jakrb. 
1907,  115— 15  r,  partly  founded  on  Ussing's  autobiography  (1906). 

'  Tidiirifi,  Ser.  1,  ii-vii. 

•  Cp.  Gerli,  in  Bricka. 

h.  !■,  ii,l^.OOglc 


CHAP.  XXXVIII.]  NUTZHORN.  327 

three  years  after  his  death,  when  it  was  published  with  a  preface 
by  Madvig'.  Woirs  views  had  been  criticised  by  Madvig  in  his 
lectures  on  Greek  literature,  and  it  was  these  lectures  that  had 
impelled  his  pupil  to  take  up  the  question.  Madvig,  while 
admitting  the  importance  of  Wolfs  famous  Prolegomena  as  a 
stimulating  work,  which  had  justified  its  existence  by  destroying 
a  'far  too  naive  tradition,'  himself  describes  it  as  lacking  in 
perspicuity,  as  illogical  and  inconclusive,  and  as  having  turned 
the  criticism  of  Homer  on  to  a  wrong  track'. 

Nutzhom  compares  the  consequent  condition  of  Hometic  criticism  to  "a 
pathless  wililemess  in  whicii  the  'guiding  star'  might  possibly  prove  a  mere 
will  o' the  wisp"'.  Dividing  his  own  work  intolwoparts,  'historical  evidence', 
and  'internal  criteria',  he  deals  with  the  Toimer  under  four  heads;— {■)  the 
evidence  on  the  text;  {■x)  the  story  about  Peisistratus ;  (3)  the  Homeridae ; 
and  (4)  the  contrast  between  the  earlier  ojiiioi  and  the  later  pa<i»fial.  He 
shows  (1)  that  the  known  variations  of  reading  do  not  point  to  more  than 
one  ancient  redaction ;  (i)  that  the  evidence  as  to  Peisislratus  is  late,  con- 
flicting, and,  in  general,  unsatisfactory,  while'Wolfs  inference,  that  the  Jliad 
and  Odyssty  did  not  exist  in  a  complete  form  before  the  time  of  Peisistralus, 
is  disproved  by 'Homeric  reminiscences'  in  poeis  as  early  as  Hesiod,  Archi- 
lochus,  Alcman  and  Hipponax,  and  by  scenes  from  the  Iliad  on  the  chest 
of  Cypsclus.  (3)  Modem  criticism  is  not  justified  (he  urges)  in  regarding  the 
Chian  clan  of  the  Homeridae  as  rhapsodes;  this  chapter  is  less  satisfaclaiy 
than  the  rest  of  the  work.  (4)  Tlie  contrast  betureen  the  leisurely  bards 
of  the  olden  age,  who  sang  successive  portions  of  lengthy  epic  poems  at  the 
courts  of  chieflains,  and  the  rhapsodes  of  a  later  time,  who  huniedly  rehearsed 
selected  passages  amid  the  excitement  of  a  popular  festival,  suggests  that 
the  former  is  the  mode  of  recitation  for  which  epic  poeliy  was  originally 
intended,  and  shows  that,  in  form  as  well  as  substance,  the  Homeric  poems 
are  the  creation  of  a  pre-historic  age.  The  rhapsodes  were  'an  uncongenial 
and  even  destructive  element ',  but  the  mischief  done  by  them  was  counteracted 
by  statesmen  like  Solon*,  and  by  the  more  eilended  use  of  writing  in  Greece. 

In  the  second  part  Nulzhorn  criticises  the  various  attempts  that  had  been 
made  to  resolve  the  Iliad  into  short  lays,  and  contends  that  the  small 
discrepancies,  which  had  been  noticed  by  modern  'critics   with  the   printed 

'  Dit  EnlslthungSToeist  der  HonterischtH  Gcdiehtt;  [/n/trsucAungen  iilier 
dii  Btrtchtigung  der  aufioimden  Homtrkrilik  (Teubner,  Leipzig,  1869,  ^68 
pp.). 


,i^.ooglc 


328  DENMARK.  [CENT.  XIX. 

pige  before  Ihem,  would  have  passed  unobserved  by  the  original  audience, 
and  did  not  suffice  to  prove  a  difleience  of  authorship.  He  also  discusses 
Grole's  Ackilltid,  pointinj;  out  that  the  lengthy  porlioos  of  the  Iliad,  which  do 
not  beloi^  to  the  AchilUid,  nmy  be  regarded  as  episodes  characteristic  of 
the  earliest  epic  poetry,  and  as  serving  to  help  the  original  audience  to  realise 
the  long  absence  of  Achilles  from  the  field  of  battle. 

The  author  is  perhaps  unduly  violent  in  his  inveclive  against  the  views 
then  prevalent  in  Northern  Germany,  and  political  diHerences  between 
Denmark  and  Prussia  appear  to  give  a  keener  edge  lo  his  controversial 
temper.  But  the  permanent  value  of  his  work  is  hardly  impaired  by  the 
patriotic  spirit  which  makes  il  (for  out  present  purpose)  a  characteristic 
product  of  the  scholarship  of  Denmark'. 

From  the  classical  scholars  we  may  now  turn  to  four  of  the 
Danish  translators  of  the  Classics  : — (i)  the  learned  lady,  Birgitte 
Thott  (1610— 1662),  who  translated  Seneca  (1658),  and  Epictetus 

and  Cebes  (1661);  (2)  the  Danish  poet,  C.  F.  E. 

Wilster(i797 — 1840),  whose  renderings  of  Homer 
and  of  eight  plays  of  Euripides  are  among  the  classics  of  his 
country;  (3)  the  scholar  and  schoolmaster,  H,  K.  Whitte 
{1810 — 1894),  who  translated  Terence  into  Danish  verse;  and 
(4)  C.  P.  C.  Schmidt  (1832—1895),  who  continued  Wilster's 
translation  of  Euripides,  and  also  published  excellent  renderings 
of  Hesiod',  Heliodorus  and  ApoUonius  Rhodius',  Meanwhile, 
in  Iceland,  Sveinbjorn  Egiisson  (1791 — '852)  had  produced,  in 
verse  as  well  as  prose,  a  magnificent  translation  of  the  whole  of 
Homer,  revealing  in  his  vigorous  poetic  rendering  of  the  Odyssey 
in  particular*  a  perfect  consciousness  of  the  kinship  between  the 
spirited  style  of  the  old  Greek  Epic  and  that  of  the  Northern 
Sagas.  His  marvellous  command  of  the  poetic  resources  of  the 
old  Norse  language  is  also  fully  proved  by  his  important  Lexicon 
poetkum  antiquae  linguae  Sepientrionalis  (1860)°. 

In  conclusion  we  must  briefly  mention  two  Comparative  Phi- 

'  See  esp.  D.  B.  Monro's  discriminating  notice  in  the  Aeadimy,  i  16  f, 
'  Opmcuia  ad...Madvigium...mlisa  (:876),  179—393. 
'  Life  in  Tidsskrifl,  Ser.  in,  iv  94;  papers  on  Greek  Syntax,  ib.  Ser.  11 
('874-9S). 

*  Ed.  1S54;  Iliad  in  prose,  Reykjavik,  iSjj ;  LjSdmaiU,  ib.  1856  (Latin 
poems  on  pp.  147—193 ;  Greek,  193). 

•  Late  in  the  previous  century  an  edition  of  Terence  (1780)  had  been  pro- 
duced in  Iceland  by  Gudmundur  Magnusson  (1741 — '798)  ;  p.  318  lupra. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XXXVIII.]  RASK.      VERNER. 


lologists,  Rasmus  Kristian  Rask  (1787 — 1833)  and  Karl  Adolf 
Verner  (1846 — 1896).  Rask  studied  Icelandic  in  comiJ»T«tiv« 
Copenhagen  in  1807  and  subsequently  visited  Ice-  Phiioioeim ; 
land.  His  '  Investigations  on  the  origin  of  the  old 
Northern  or  Icelandic  language'  were  completed  in  1814,  but 
the  work  was  not  published  until  four  years  later.  Meanwhile  he 
was  enabled  to  extend  his  knowledge  of  European  and  Asiatic 
languages  by  going  abroad  for  six  years  (1816-22).  The  first 
third  of  this  lime  was  spent  in  Stockholm,  the  next  in  Finland, 
Russia  and  Persia,  and  the  third  in  India.  It  was  during  this 
memorable  tour  that  he  wa^  the  first  of  European  scholars  to 
acquire  a  grammatical  knowledge  of  '  Zend '.  In  1825  he  became 
professor  of  the  history  of  Asiatic  literature  at  Copenhagen,  and, 
late  in  life,  attained  the  goal  of  his  ambition  in  a  professorship  of 
oriental  langu^es.  But  he  was  already  in  failing  health,  and 
died  soon  after  at  the  early  age  of  45 '. 

The  point  of  interest  in  Rask  is  his  partial  anticipation  of  a 
law  laid  down  by  Jakob  Grimm.  Rask,  in  his  work  on  Icelandic 
and  other  languages,  gave  proof  of  his  having  already  partially 
discovered  the  law  underlying  the  relations  between  the  mute 
consonants  (more  especially  the  dentals)  in  Gothic,  Scandinavian, 
and  German.  The  work  (published  in  1818)  did  not  come  to 
the  knowledge  of  Grimm  until  the  eve  of  the  publication  of  the 
first  edition  of  his  Deutsche  Grammatik  (1819)';  he  immediately 
recognised  its  importance,  and  this  recognition  left  its  traces  on 
bis  second  edition  (1822)',  It  was  here  that  he  fully  and  scien- 
tifically enunciated  the  law  as  to  the  consonantal  relations  between 
(i)  Sanskrit,  Greek  and  Latin;  (z)  High  German  and  (3)  Low 
German  (including  English),  which  in  England  has  always  been 
known  as  'Grimm's  law".  But  the  law  has  its  exceptions.  The 
discovery  that  these  exceptions  were  due  to  the  original  accentua- 
tion of  the  Indo-Germanic  languages  was  made  by  Verner.    The 

■  Life  by  N.  M.  Petersen  in  Rask's  and  in  Tetersen's  Afhandlingtr ;  and 
by  V.  Thomsen,  in  Bricka;  cp.  Max  Mliller's  Leclurrs.x  185,  ijr'. 

'  Pref.  p.  xviii  (quoted  by  R.  von  Raumer,  508). 

'  R.  von  Rauraer's  Gtsch.  der  Girm.  Pkilot.  (1870)  470 — 486,  507 — 515  ; 
H.  Paul's  Gruttdriis  (ed.  1901)  80 — 83;  cp.  Giles'  Manual,  §  39. 

*  Giles,  g  99. 


330  DENMARK.      NORWAY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

son  of  a  Saxon  father  and  a  Danish  mother,  he  was  born  and 
bred  in  Denmark,  was  absent,  for  six  years  only, 
as  a  librarian  at  Halle,  and  on  his  return  in  18S3 
became,  for  the  last  sixteen  years  of  his  life,  lecturer  and  ultimately 
'  extraordinary '  professor  of  Slavonic  languages  at  his  own  university 
of  Copenhagen'.  He  was  not  a  classical  scholar  ;  he  never  wrote 
on  anything  but  comparative  philology,  phonetics,  and  Russian 
literature,  and,  except  at  his  matriculation,  never  passed  a  clas- 
sical examination.  Even  in  his  special  province  of  Comparative 
Philology  he  only  published  three  papers,  but  the  name  of  the 
author  of  '  Verner's  law '  will  probably  be  perpetually  remembered 
in  the  history  of  the  science  of  language'.  The  discovery  of 
'Grimm's  law'  had  been  partially  anticipated  by  a  Dane;  and  it 
was  another  native  of  Denmark  who  happily  explained  its  apparent 
exceptions. 

So  long  as  Norway  was  united  to  Denmark,  Copenhagen  was 
J,  .         the   university  frequented  by  students  from  both 

university  of  Countries,  except  so  far  as  they  resorted  to  seats 
of  learning  in  foreign  lands'.  The  desire  of  the 
Norwegians  for  a  university  of  their  own,  first  openly  expressed  in 
r66i,  remained  unsatisfied  until  1811,  when  the  university  of 
Christiania  was  founded  by  Frederick  VI*.  Three  years  later, 
Norway  was  separated  from  Denmark  and  was  united  with 
Sweden,— a  union  recognised  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815 
and  peacefully  dissolved  in  1905,  when  the  throne  of  Norway  was 
accepted  by  a  prince  of  Denmark. 

In  1814  the  separation  of  Norway  from  Denmark  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  an  independent  Norwegian  literature;  but  the  literature 

'  Life  by  M.  Vib*k  (wilh  Ihree  porlrails)  in  Verner's  Afhandlingir  og 
Breve  (Cop.  1893).     Cp-  V.  Thomsen,  in  Bricka. 

'  The  law  was  first  propounded  in  Kuhn's  Zcilsckrift,  xxiii  {li^!^)  97  — :30, 
Eint  Atisnahinf  der  ersUn  Lauivcrsehitbung  (reprinted  in  the  Afhandlingtr, 
wilh  Iwo  other  papers,  and  with  reviews  and  lettera,  and  phonometric  investi- 
gations). Cp.  H.  Paul's  Grundriss  (1901)  116  f,  569,  386—506  ;  King  and 
Cookson's  lutroditclion  (1890)  83  f ;  and  Giles,  §S  ^i,  104. 

^  e.g.  Cologne,  Prague  and  Rostock  {ep.  L.  Daae,  Nordiski  Sludtrende, 
Chr.  1875,  1885). 

'  Minei-Ka,  11. 

„.,.,, .A.tXYSic 


CHAP.  XXXVIII.]  VERNER.      BUGGE.  331 

of  Norway  has  proved  to  be  more  independent  than  its  scholar- 
ship. As  we  shall  see  in  the  immediate  sequel,  the  foremost 
representative  of  classical  and  comparative  philology  in  Christiania 
owed  much  to  his  training  in  Copenhagen  and  Berlin.  But,  in 
more  than  one  point,  his  work  is  marked  by  a  distinct  in- 
dependence. 

'Vemer's  law',  propounded  (as  we  have  seen)  by  a  native  of 
Denmark',  was  further  investigated  by  a  native  of 
Norway.  The  investigator  was  Soph  us  Bugge 
('833 — 1907).  At  the  age  of  seventeen,  while  he  was  still  a 
student  in  Christiania,  he  produced  a  paper  on  consonantal 
changes  in  the  Norwegian  dialects';  and  he  was  barely  twenty 
when  he  began  to  contribute  to  Kuhn's  Zeitschrift".  His  high 
promise  in  the  science  of  language  was  recognised  by  his  receiving 
a  royal  grant  which  enabled  him  to  spend  two  years  at  the 
universities  of  Copenhagen  and  Berlin  (1858-60).  In  Copen- 
hagen he  studied  I^tin  under  Madvig,  and  Sanskrit  under. 
Westergaard ;  in  Berlin,  Sanskrit  under  Weber  and  Bopp,  and 
Germanic  philology  under  Haupt.  In  1864  the  offer  of  a 
professorship  of  Old  Norse  at  the  Swedish  university  of  Lund 
expedited  his  appointment  to  a  professorship  of  Comparative 
Philology  in  Christiania,  a  position  which  he  held  for  the  more 
than  forty  remaining  years  of  his  life.  His  numerous  distinctions 
included  honorary  degrees  at  the  fourth  centenary  of  Upsala 
(1877),  and  at  the  third  of  Edinbui^h  (1884).  His  reputation 
mainly  rests  on  his  researches  into  (he  languages  and  literatures 
and  mythology  of  Scandinavia,  on  his  works  relating  to  the 
ancient  Italic  dialects,  and  on  his  acute  (though  perhaps  unduly 
bold)  emendations  of  the  text  of  Plautus'.  In  1873  he  edited  the 
Mastei/arta\   and,   two  years  later,   the  play  was  performed  in 


'  p.  no  supra. 

"  Gubemalis,  Diet.  Int.  1888  j.i/. 

"  ii  38J-;  (on  Oscan). 

*  Tu/skrifl  for  Filelogt,  I  vi  (1865-fi)  i-io,  vil  1—58;  Phiklogus, 
XXX  636,  xxxi  147-61;  Ncue/ahrb.cVa  (1873)  401-19;  Ofun.  ad  Madvigiuia, 
'53—19'- 

'•  Reviewed  by  Loienz  in  Philol.  Anzeiger  vii  sis-g  (on  Lofenz.  cp. 
MfSm^i  Suam  mique  m  Tidskrifl,  I  viii  (1868  f)  104—111). 


,1^.00' 


gic 


332  NORWAY.      SWEDEN.  [CENT.  XV  f 

honour  of  the  jubilee  of  one  of  the  professors  of  Christiania',  The 
papers  which  he  published  in  German  included  etymological 
contributions  to  Curtius'  Studien',  and  studies  on  '  Verner's  law", 
and  on  the  old  Italic  dialects' ;  he  also  aided  Whitley  Stokes  in 
his  '  Old  Breton  Glosses '.  In  his  '  Studies  on  the  origin  of  the 
old  Northern  legends  of  gods  and  heroes '  he  aroused  considerable 
controversy  by  maintaining  that  the  Scandinavian  mytholc^y  was 
partly  derived  from  Greek  and  Latin,  and  Jewish  and  Christian, 
sources,  and  by  further  su^esting  that  this  element  was  imported 
in  the  age  of  the  Vikings  by  Northmen  who  had  visited  the 
British  Islands  *.  From  Scandinavian  mythology  he  suddenly 
turned  to  the  study  of  runic  inscriptions,  and  to  the  investigation 
of  the  Etruscan  language*,  the  origin  of  which  he  endeavoured  to 
elucidate  by  means  of  two  inscriptions  of  Lemnos'.  By  all  these 
vigorous  incursions  into  several  important  provinces  of  learning 
he  gave  signal  proof  of  being  a  most  versatile  representative  of 
Scandinavian  scholarship'. 

During  the  Revival  of  Learning  it  was  the  school  of  Law  at 

Perugia  which  supplied  the  link  between  certain 

^RMg"  scholars  of   Sweden  and   the  Italian   humanists. 

Conrad  Ro^e,  a  Swede  of  Westphaltan  origin,  who 

had  graduated  at  Leipzig  in  1449,  resumed  his  studies  by  spending 

live  years  (1455-60)  at  Perugia*.    He  there  transcribed  for  himself 

'  L.  C.  M.  Aubert  (born  in  1807),  f rofessor  of  Lalin ;  a  writer  on  Terence, 

and  on  Lalin  Verbal  jlixion  (1875). 

"  iv  (i87i)30if.3»S— 354- 

'  Paul  and  Braune's  Beitrase  K^&We),  xii  (1887)  S99— 4J0;  xiii  (1888)  167— 
186,  3"— 332. 

*  ChrUliania,  i8;8;  and  Kuhn's  ZtUickrifl,  xxLi  385—466. 

'  Chr.  1881;  Germ.  Trans.,  Munich,  1881-1;  criticised  by  G.  Stephens 
(London,  1S83),  and  olhers;  cp.  A.  J.  P.  iii  80,  and  further  literature  in 
Halvorsen's  Nonk  FarfalUr- Lexikon  {:885— 1901),  i  513  f. 

'  Deecke's  i'/r.  Forschuttsin,\y  (i9&^\  Bezzenberger's  Stilragr  xi  (1886); 
Elr.  utid  Armenitch,  Chr.  1890. 

'  Chr.  tS86  (Bursian's/<iV»j.  Ixxxvii  111). 

'  Bibliography  in  Halvorsen's  Ltxiton,  and  in  Upsala  Juttlfest^  1877, 
P-  3.'3- 

*  Similarly  Bi^erus  Magni,  the  future  bishop  of  Vester&,  had  graduated  at 
Leifizig  (1438)  and  Perugia  (1448);  Annersledl,  Upsala  Univtrsilels  Hisleria, 
iti877)ii. 


CHAP.  XXXVin.]      ROGGE.      THE   BROTHERS   MAGNI.         333 

a  speech  of  Demosthenes  and  several  of  the  works  of  Cicero, 
besides  two  of  the  recent  orations  of  the  Italian  humanist,  Aeneas 
Sylvius  Piccolomini.  During  his  stay  in  Italy  he  purchased  a  fine 
MS  of  Lactantius,  'the  Christian  Cicero',  and,  on  the  blank  pages 
at  the  end,  preserved  a  copy  of  the  brief  and  unimportant  Latin 
speech  delivered  by  himself  in  1460,  with  a  view  to  his  receiving 
the  Doctor's  degree.  As  the  first  of  the  long  series  of  Latin 
orations  written  by  natives  of  Sweden,  it  has  a  peculiar  interest ; 
it  is  clearly  founded  on  classical  models,  it  is  rich  in  rhetorical 
phrases,  but  it  has  hardly  any  other  merit*.  Before  returning  to 
Sweden,  Rogge  visited  Florence,  and  stayed  for  two  months  at 
Siena,  where  Aeneas  Sylvius  was  then  residing.  From  1479  to  his 
death  in  1501  he  was  bishop  of  Strengnas,  where  his  hs  of 
Lactantius  is  still  preserved'.  He  deserves  to  be  remembered  as 
the  earliest  of  the  humanists  of  Sweden'. 

The  spirit  of  the  Revival  was  still  more  strongly  represented 
by  the  brothers  Johannes  and  Olaus  Magni.  The 
elder  of  these,  Johannes  Magni  (1488 — 1544X  had  '^'"m)!^*'" 
studied  at  the  Catholic  universities  of  Louvain  and 
Cologne ;  and  his  character  was  doubtless  fully  formed  when,  at 
the  age  of  32,  he  was  sent  to  Rome  as  the  envoy  of  Sweden,  and 
received  a  degree  in  Theolc^y  at  Perugia*.  The  influence  of 
Italian  humanism  is  nevertheless  clearly  visible  in  the  correctness 
of  his  Latinity  and  in  his  inordinate  passion  for  fame.  In  1523 
he  was  sent  as  Legate  to  Sweden  by  Adrian  VI  (his  former 
preceptor  at  Louvain).  He  was  soon  elected  archbishop  of 
Upsala,  but  in  1536  was  compelled  to  go  into  exile,  living  first 
at  Danzig  and  finally  in  Rome.  As  the  last  of  the  Catholic 
archbishops  of  Sweden,  he  wrote  a  Latin  history  of  all  his 
predecessors,  and  also  a  history  of  'all  the  kings  of  the  Goths  and 
Swedes ',    The  latter,  with  its  infinite  series  of  fabulous  princes,  is 

1  Printed  in  Beiuelius,  Monum.  acUs.  (1709)  106;  cp.  Henrik  SchUck,  in 
SchUck  a.nd.  ViMhaT^s  Illustrerad  Svm.<i  LiStrraturAislBria,  i  (1896)  nS7- 

'  Aminson,  Bibl.  Timpli  Calh.  Slrengensis,  Praef.  iv,  and  Suppl. 

•  Svtnskt  Biegrafiskt  Ltxikan  (Upsala,  1835  0- N.  F.  (1883)  i.!/.  For  lives 
of  all  (he  natives  of  Sweden  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  cp.  the  above  Ltxikon, 
33  vols-,  and  Linder's  Nerdiii  Familjebsk,  18  vols.,  Stockholm,  1876-94. 

'  Life  by  Olaus  Magnus  in  Script.  Rer.  Suec.  iii  (1),  1876,  p.  7+,  'accepto 
in  theologia  magisteiio '  during  his  residence  at  the  '  gymnasium  Peiusinum '. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


334  SWEDEN.  [cent.  XV  f 

a  still  more  uncritical  performance  than  the  elaborately  written  and 
curiously  illustrated  '  history  of  the  northern  nations ',  which  was 
published  in  Rome  in  1555  by  his  younger  brother,  'Olaus 
Magnus' (1490— 1557)'. 

Meanwhile,  not  long  before  the  birth  of  the  brothers  Magni, 

the  university  of  Upsala  had  come  into  being.     In 

"t^'u  "      accordance  with  a  solemn  decree  of  the  Swedish 

clergy,  the  university  was  formally  founded  by  arch- 

. bishop  Ulfsson  in  1477-     In  that  year,  Sixtus  IV  sanctioned  the 

-institution  of  a  studium  generale  in  Sweden,  on   the  model   of 

Bologna;  the  actual  pattern  adopted  was  probably  that  of  Cologne 

or  Rostock,  while  the  archbishop  and  the  regent  of  the  realm 

conceded  to  the  new  seat  of  learning'the  royal  privileges  of  Paris'. 

Hitherto  the  Swedes  had  studied  mainly  in  Paris,  Prague,  Erfurt, 

Leipzig,  Rostock  or  Greifswald^.     Even  after  1477,  they  resorted 

to  the  last  three  universities*,  and,  early  in  the  next  century,  to 

the  Protestant  university  of  Wittenberg  or  the  Catholic  university 

of  Cologne'.     The   university   of  Upsala,    founded    during  the 

regency  of  Sten  Sture  (1470 — 1503).  ""^^  splendidly  endowed  by 

Gustavus  Adolphus   (1611-31),  who,  in    1630,   followed  up  his 

conquest  of  Livonia  by  founding  the  university  of 

and  Abo        Dorpat.     Ten  years  later,  during  the  minority  of 

his  daughter,  Christina,  a  university  was  founded 

for  Finland  at  Abo,  there  to  remain  until  the  town  was  destroyed 

by  fire  in  1827  and  the  university  transferred  to  Helsingfors- 

The  first  Swede  who  certainly  studied  Greek  was  the  turbulent 

archbishop,  Gustaf  Trolle  {c.  1485—1535),  who,  as 

Sweden:         a  Student  at  Cologne  in  1512,  was  instructed  in  the 

Trolle  Erotemata  of  Chrysoloras.     His  own  copy  of  that 

catechism  of  Greek  Grammar,  dated  1507,  passed  with  the  books 

of  the  younger  Benzelius  into  the  library  at  Linkoping.     On  the 

blank  leaf  next  to  the  preface,  Trolle  wrote  a  short  Latin  life  of 

Chrysoloras,  preceded  by  the  items  given  below : — firstly,  his  own 

'  Sehilck,  167-9.  '  Anneraledt,  i  13  f;  Rashdall,  ii  igof. 

'  Annersledi,  i  S^l^.  . 

*  Slieriihielm  (p.  338  ify9-a)  graduated  at  Greifswald,  which  subsequently 
belonged  to  Sweden  from  1648101815. 
'    '  Annerstedt,  i  IJ,  44. 

h,  i.MiA.OOt^lC 


CHAP.  XXXVIII.]  STUDY   OF   GREEK.  335 

name  written  in  the  capital  letters  of  the  newly  acquired  language, 
and  next,  the  name  of  his  instructor,  and  the  date  on  which  he 
began  his  study  of  Greek. 

TPOAAB 

Pfcuiiarii  if  la  Greet  Liltrrature  inftilalio  a  Jokanne  Ci/ario  Juliaccn/i* 
in  Cotonimfi  AckacUmia pridie  Kalend.  Majas  Anni  duodtHmi fupra  <.diclii-3- 
fcculs  profftro  Herculi  ftliciler  aufpicata^. 

In  the   same  age   l^urentius  Andreae,  or  Lars  Andersson 
(1482 — 1552),  archdeacon  of  Upsala  and  chancellor 
of  Gustavus  Vasa,  gives  proof  of  an  independent         Andrea" 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  text  in  his  Swedish  version 
of  the   New    Testament   founded   on    Luther's    translation   and 
published  at  Stockholm  in  1526'.     The  same  holds  good  of  the 
Swedish  Bible  produced  in  1541,  and  partly  revised        oibu«  »nd 
in  1543-9.  by  the  brothers  Glaus  and  Laurentius        Laurentiu* 
Petri,  or  Olof  and  Lars  Petersson,  both  of  whom 
had  studied  Greek  under  Melanchthon  at  Wittenberg*.    Laurentius 
Petri  {1499 — 1573)  was  archbishop  of  Upsala  from  1531  to  his 
death  in  1573-     His  son-in-law,  Laurentius   Petri 
Gothus  {1529—1579),  who  similarly  studied  Greek    ^^^"ciothus 
at  Wittenberg,  prefixed  to  his  I^tin  elegiac  poem  of 
•559  *  Greek  epigram  of  his  own  composition*.     In  1566  he  was 
appointed  by  Erik  XIV  to  leach  Greek  at  the  university  (which 
had   meanwhile   passed   through  a  period    of  decline),   and   in 
1573-9  he  was  the  successor  of  his  father-in-law  as  archbishop  of 
Upsala. 

In  1580,  under  the  catholic  king,  Johan  III,  the  university 
was  closed,  and  the  professors  imprisoned ;  but  the  king  was  not 
uninterested  in  Greek,  for  he  instructed  Erik,  bishop  of  Abo,  to 
translate  the  Swedish  liturgy  into  Greek  and  to  present  it  to  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople'.  In  15S4  the  first  item  in  a  collec- 
tion of  Carmina  congratulating  Christian  Barthold  of  Viborg  on 

'  Of  Juliets  or  Jlilich,  near  Cologne  {1460—155:).    Cp.  Jocller,  t.v. 
'  E.  M.  Fanl,  Nisleriola  LUttralurae  Graecat  in  Suicia  (id  ann.  1700),  in 
14  parts  forming  two  vols,  with  Suppl.,  Upsala,  1775 — 1786,  i  i|. 
'  Fant,  i  13;  Colophon  in  Schilck,  177. 
*  Fant,  i  isf-  '  I'i.  i  19. 


i.MM,Googlc 


336  SWEDEN.  [CENT.  XV  f 


■  Martini 


receiving  a  degree  from  Johann  Possel  (1528 — 1591),  the  Greek 
professor  at  Rostock,  was  a  set  of  24  Gret^k  hexame- 
ters contributed  by  Olaus  Martini,  archbishop  of 

Upsala,— one  of  the  first  Greek  poems  produced  in  Sweden'. 
In  the  same  year,  Jacob  Erik,  Greek  professor  at 

Jacob  Brik  . 

Upsala,  published  an  edition  of  Isocrates  ad  Demo- 
nicum'. 

In  1604-13  professorships  in  Mathematics  and  Hebrew  were 
held  by  Johan  Rudbeck  {1581— 1646),  the  future 
bishop  of  Vester^s,  who  studied  Greek  at  Witten- 
berg, and  required  his  pupils  always  to  speak  either  Latin  or 
Greek'.     In  a  synod  which  he  held  at  Reval  in  1627,  the  less 
learned  clei^  listened  in  amazement  while  his  secretaries  dis- 
puted in  Greek  with  Gabriel  Holsten  of  Vesteras  (1598^1649), 
who,   like  Rudbeck,  had  learnt  his  Greek  at  Wittenberg*.     In 
[621  a  professorship  of  Greek  was  instituted  at  Upsala  by  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  the  Chair  being  filled  in  1622  by  Laurentius 
Matthiae,  and  in  1624^40'  by  Johannes  Stalenus, 
who  held  disputations    in    Greek  and  produced 
fifteen  sets  of  verses  in  that  language*. 

The  'Constitutions'  of  1616  required  the  professor  to  teach  the  Gram mai 
of  Clenardus  or  Gvalperius',  and  to  Illustrate  it  in  a  '  Si>cralic '  manner  from 
the  Greek  Testament  and  the  Fathers,  and  from  Homer,  Euripides,  Hndar, 
Theocritus,  Sophocles  and  Gregory  Naiianien,  at  7  o'clock  in  the  mornbg. 
At  3  P.M.  the  professor  of  Poetry  was  10  give  instruction  in  the  att  of  writing 
verses  in  accordance  with  the  precepts  of  Aristotle,  or  any  other  approved 
author,  with  examples  from  the  Greek  poets  and  from  Virgil,  Horace, 
Buchanan,  Ovid  etc."  In  the  Cotligium  Ripum,  founded  at  Stockholm  in 
161s  by  the  celebrated  statesman  Johan  SkyUe,  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek 

*  Quoted  by  Fant,  i  it— iSi  wt*"  '"  'he  note  adds  a  list  of  jo  sets  of 
Greek  verses  by  other  Swedes,  not  mentioned  elsewhere  in  his  work,  with 
50  more  on  pp.  ii7f. 

>  Fant.  i  15  f. 

■  Fant,  141;  Annersledt,  i  ii6f,  iiif;  portrait  in  SchUck,  193. 

*  Fant,  i  53.  *  Annerstedt,  i  194,  ijfi. 
'  Fant,  i  64,  ii  107. 

'  'Otho  Gualtperius'  of  Witlenbei^  ('54*' — i6i4). 

*  Lundstedt,  Bvfrag  till  kiinmdemen  om  Grtkiika  SprHi/ls  S/mHum  vidiit 
Svtiuka  Larovtrken  fraH  dtdsta  till ndrvarande  rfif  {Stockholm,  1875,  84  pp.), 
18,  with  many  other  details  as  to  the  leaching  of  Greek  in  schools. 


lOO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXXVIII.]  LATIN    VERSE.  337 

is  enjoined,  quia  at  Lalina  line  Gratra  reclt  nen  intelligftar,  sic  ni  Graeia 
siut  Latins  fxplicari  guidmi  il  Iradi  fvial^.  Greek  is  to  be  studied,  not 
merely  in  the  Grammar,  but  also  in  some  libdlus  sued  plmta.  Tlie  authors 
specialty  named  are  Demosthenes,  Isocrates,  and  Homer*. 

The  Study  of  Greek  rose  to  a  higher  level  under  a  pupH  of 

Stalenus  named  Henricus  Ausius  (1603 — i6s9).  a 

"^ '"  Auaiua 

man  of  such  high  reputation  in  his  day  that  no 
foreigner  (we  are  informed)  visited  Upsala  without  calling  upon 
him.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  in  1641-6,  and  his  inaugural 
oration  de  ntcessitate  Graecarum  liiterarum  led  to  his  being  recog- 
nised as  the  stator,  or  true  founder,  of  the  study  of  Greek  in 
Sweden.  He  published  tive  disputations  and  fifteerveptgrams  in 
that  language'.  He  was  a  many-sided  man,  being  also  proficient 
in  Law  and  Natural  Science. 

In  Sweden  Che  Reformation  of  1527  was  followed  by  a  pale 
reflexion  of  the   Italian   Renaissance.     Even  the 
distant  North  awoke  to  a  new  admiration  for  the 
unapproachable  perfection  of  the  ancient  Latin  poets,  and  en- 
deavoured to  realise  the  literary  associations  of  the  Augustan  age. 
Every  princeling  was  eager  to  play  the  part  of  an  Augustus  or  a 
Maecenas,  and  looked  for  a  new  Virgil  to  sing  his  praises.     The 
demand  soon  created  the  supply.     By  the  orders  of  1571  and 
1611,  the  boys  in  the  highest  class  of  the  public  schools  were 
required  to  write  a  set  of  Latin  verses  once  a  week.     The  model 
for  these  verses  was  Vii^il,  just  as  Cicero  was  naturally  the  model 
for  prose ;  and,  even  in  the  case  of  versifiers  of  maturer  years,  the 
poem  which  was  a  perfect  cento  of  Virgilian  phraseolc^y  was 
invariably  deemed  the  best.     This  type  of  artificial 
composition  was  introduced  by  a  German  humanist, 
Henricus  Mollenis,  Hessus  <^.  1557-9),  who  was  summoned  to 
Sweden  by  Gustavus  Vasa  to  celebrate  her  ancient  kings'.  The  first 
Swede  to  win  repute  as  a  Latin  poet  was  Laurentius 
Petri  Gothus,  who  was  followed  by  Ericus  Jacobi,     ^p"Jri"Qo*h 
by  the  prolific  versifier  Sylvester  J ohannis  Phrygius, 

'  Lundstedt,  17  f.  *  ib.  18. 

'  Fanl,  i  78—81.  ii  108,  Annerstedt,  i  4o8f. 

'  Ke  was  one  of  the  tutors  of  the  youngirr  sous  uf  Gustavtu  Vasa ;  cp. 
Gvatt'va,  De  Statu  Rd Litl.  in  Sutda,  i  (ijSj)  9  (ap.  Font,  ii  1);  and  Sditick, 


i,V.ooglc 


538  SWEDEN.  [CENT.  XVII. 

and  byLaurentius  Fornelius  (1606 — 1673),  the  compiler  of  an  art 
of  poetry,  the  Poitica  Tripartita  (1643),  whose  own 
verses  (we  are  assured)  could  not  be  distinguished 
from  those  of  Vii^il,  for  the  simple  reason  that  they  were  exclu- 
sively vinlttn phrasibus  Virgilianis'.  The  only  importance  of  this 
kind  of  '  poetry '  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  taught  the  Swedes  to 
appreciate  for  the  first  time  the  significance  of  form,  not  only  m 
Latin,  but  also  in  their  own  language'.  A  few  hexameters  were 
written  in  Swedish  by  the  royal  librarian,  Buraeus  (1568 — 1652)', 
the  tutor  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Buraeus  was  also 
stinnhie'm''  ^^^  tutor  of  Stiemhielm,  the  'father  of  Swedish 
poetry'  (1598 — 1672),  who,  by  his  greatest  poem, 
the  didactic  allegory  on  the  Choice  of  Hercules,  made  the  classical 
hexameter  one  of  the  national  metres  of  Sweden*.  Stiemhielm 
was  at  once  poet  and  geometer,  philosopher  and  philolc^st.  As 
a  philologist  he  held  the  patriotic  view  that  almost  all  languages 
were  descended  from  Old  Norse', 

A  sounder  and  more  scientific  study  of  the  Classics  was 
represented  by  his  contemporary,  Johannes  Loc- 
cenius  (1598 — 1677),  a  native  of  Holstein,  one  of 
the  three  foreigners  who  were  offered  professorial  Chairs  at 
Upsala  in  the  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  The  Chair  accepted 
by  Loccenius  in  1625  was  that  of  History;  he  was  afterwards 
extraordinary  professor  of  Political  Philosophy,  and  (in  the  reign 
of  queen  Christina)  professor  of  Law,  librarian,  and  historio- 
grapher. He  was  the  first  librarian  of  Upsala  who  constructed 
and  printed  a  catalogue,  the  first  foreign  scholar  who  made 
his  permanent  abode  in  Sweden.  His  Curtius  went  through 
twenty  editions,  only  one  of  which,  however,  was  printed  in  the 
North*.  His  other  works  were  connected  with  the  history  and 
geography,  the  law  and  antiquities,  of  his  adopted  country'. 

>  L.  O.  Willius  to  Job.  Strlle.  1631  (Fanl.  i  66  note  v). 

'  Schilck,  1 19  f.  ■  ib.  14S  f  (portrait  facing  156). 

*  a.  148,  158  f,  311—330  {portrait  facing  313). 

'  Origints  VBcabulfmm  in  Unguis  patnt  omnibus  ex  lingua  Svtiica  vetiri, 
Upsala,  s.a. 

•  Stockholm,  1637;  Nepos,  ib.  1638. 

'  Schilck,  361  r  (with  portrait);  and  Annersledl,  i  logf.  ,^]6;  further  details 
ill  the  Swedish  biogri|>liica1  dictionariea. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XXXVIII.]     LOCCENIUS.     CHRISTINA.  339 

Queen  Christina  (1616—1689),   'he  daughter  and  successor  of  Gastavus 
Adolphus,  is  connected   with   Ihe  history  of  scholarship  by 
het  wide  and  varied  attainments  and  also  by  her  patronage  of       Timpn^/ 
learning  durii^  the  ten  years  of  her  reign  (1644-54)  and  the       of  leomins 
thirty-five  years  of  her  exile  (16S4-S9).     At  the  age  of  ten  she 
wrote  a  Latin  letter  to  her  tutor  with  the  solemn  promise  poslhat  velli  loqtii 
Latim  cum  tteliro  PraaiflariK     In  Latin  her  favourite  author  was  Tacitus. 
At  fourteen  she  knew  all  the  languages  and  all  the  sciences  and  accomplish- 
ments her  instructors  could  teach  her^    At  eighteen  she  could  read  Thucydides 
and  Polybius  in  Greek ;  in  1649  she  reminded  Descartes  how  much  he  owed 
to  Plato';  in  1653  Naudi  wrote  to  Gassendi :— ^//^  a  teul  vH,  eili  a  loul  16. 
clle  sail  l»uC*.     Educated  far  in  advance  of  her  subjects,  she  made  a  spirited 
attempt  to  '  engraft  foreign  learning  on  the  Scandinavian  stock''.     In  pursuit 
of  this  aim  she  turned  to  the  Netherlands  and  France,  to  Northern  Germany 
and  to  the  free  imperial  city  of  Strassburg,  which,  owing  to  its  neutral  position, 
remained  unmolested  as  a  seat  of  learning,  while  Germany  at  large  was  suffer- 
it^  from  the  Thirty  Years'  War  {(618-48).     The  Peace  of  Westphalia,  largely 
due  to  her  own  efforts,  left  her  at  liberty  to  carry  out  her  plan. 
Grotius,  her  envoy  in  France,  had  already  visited  her  court        ,   y^T"' 
on  the  occasion  of  his  recall,  but  he  had  soon  withdrawn,  to       N.  Heiniins 
die  on  his  homeward  journey  (1645)'      Isaac  Vossios.  who 
obeyed  her  summons  in  1649,  besides  acquiring  on  her  behalf  the  library  of 
Alexander  Petavius  of  Paris^,  sold  her  his  own  father's  library,  reserving  to  him- 
self its  superintendence,  and  subsequently  appropriating  part  oF  its  contents'. 
Nicholas  Heinsius,  a  man  of  tai  nobler  character,  who  arrived  in  the  same 
year,  was  sent  to  Italy  in  i6{[  to  purchase  books  and  Mss  on  her  behalf,  and, 
after  her  abdication,  returned  twice  as  \m  country's  envoy.     Of  two  distin- 
guished natives  of  France,  who  had  recently  resided  in  the 
Netherlands,  Descartes  'found  an  honourable  asylum  and  a        ^^"'^' 
premature  death'  at  her  court'",  while  Salmasius  left  Leyden 
late  in  life  to  spend  a  single  year  under  the  patronage  of  Christina,  who,  in  rect^- 
nition  of  his  pedantry,  as  well  as  his  learning,  once  described  him  as  omnium 
faiuemm  doclissimutH^^,  and,  by  her  supposed  preference  for  Milton,  in  his 
great  controversy  with  Salmasius,  won  from  the  author  of  the  'Second  Defence 
of  the  English  People '  the  splendid  encomium  beginning  with  the  words ; —  Ti 

'  J.  Arckcnholtz,  Hist.  Merkmurdigkiilcn,  iv  164. 

*  J.  Arckenholtz,  Mimoira  ;  French  ed.,  iii  jj. 
'  Arck.  Mim.  i  344  f ;  cp.  Fant,  i  S9  f. 

*  Arck.  ii  Appind.  39.  '  Pattison,  i  147. 

*  Cp.  Arck.  i  77—81  ;  ii  jr7  supra.  '  Arck.  i  368,  170. 

'  Heinsius  and  Vossius,  in  Eurman's  Syllagt,  iii  333,  6S3  ;  Arck.  i  171. 
'  lb.  i  178 — 188,  and  Heinsius  to  Christina,  in  Burman's  SjUogi,  v  734 — 
774-     The  MSS  included  Dioscorides  and  PoUum. 

"  Hallam,  ii  461*;  Atck.  i  113— 131.  "  Arck.  i  136. 


r,,.,'SX'.008lc 


c™en'i«  pension  > 


340  SWEDEN.  [cent.  XVIL 

%iiro   magnammam,   Augusta,    le  ttilam    undique   divina  plane  virluie  ac 

sapientia  munilam^.  Marcus  Meibom  {[630^ — 'T'o)!  the 
NaudT  author  of  a  treatise  on  ancient  music,  cnme  from  Uenmark, 

and  Gabriel  Nauiid  (1600—1653).  a  Frenchman,  wbo  had 
lived  long  in  Rome,  waa  now  her  librarian  in  the  North.  He  had  written  on 
Ihe  art  of  dancing,  and  when,  to  amuse  the  queen,  her  French  physician  com- 
pelled Naudj  to  dance  to  the  singing  of  Meibom,  the  scene  which  ensaed  led 
to  the  student  of  ancient  music  being  banished   from   the  court'.     Samuel 

Bochart,  the  geographer  and  orientalist,  arrived  from  Caen, 
.nd^"Jilt        bringing  with  him  the  youthful  Hnet,  who  spent  his  time  in 

Iranscrihing  a  MS  of  Origen  in  the  royal  libiai^,  and  soon 
returned  to  Normandy*.      Hermann  Conring,  who  had  vigorously  refuted  the 

Papal  Bull  condemning  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  received  a 
I   Councillor   of  Sweden,    and    went    back    to   his 

learned  labours  at  Helmiititdt,  uhere  he  eloquently  maintained 
the  cause  of  Sweden  against  Poland*,  and  gained  a  high  reputarion  as  the 
earliest  historian  of  jurisprudence  in  Germany'.  Comenius,  whohad  published 
his/an«a  linguarum  reserata  in  1631,  was  invited  to  reform  the  schools  of 
Sweden  in  i6j8,  but  declined  on  the  ground  that  he  bad  already  been  invited 
to  reform  the  schools  of  England,  and  his  subsequent  visit  in  1641  had  no 
permanent  result'.     Strassburg  sent  no  less  than  three  of  the  representatives 

of  her  flourishing  school  of  Roman  history.  The  hrst  of  these, 
Fre  n«  eim  Frejnsheira,  the  editor  of  Florus  and  Curtius,  whose  Latin 
panegyric  on  Gustavus  Adolphus  (1631)  led  to  bis  invitation  to  Sweden  ten 
years  later,  remained  for  nine  years  as  librarian  and  historiographer,  delivered 
at  least  twenty-lhree  Latin  orations',  lauded  Christina  in  prose,  apostrophised 
her  in  verse  as  l\te  unicum  leflim  columtn  liioaum^,  and  ultimately  returned  to 
a  more  genial  clime  to  complete  his  restoration  of  Ihe  lost  decades  of  Ijvy*. 

Freinsheim's  fellow.pupil,   Boekler,    was  made  professor  of 

Eloquence  at  Upsala  in  1649  and  historiographer  in  the 
following  year',  but  the  favours  granted  him  made  him  unpopular  nith  the 
Swedish  professors,  nor  was  he  more  successful  with  the  students.  Once,  in 
1650,  during  a  lecture  on  Tacitus,  he  unfortunately  observed  that  'he  would 
say  more,  if  the  plumbta  capita  of  the  Swedes  could  comprehend  it,'  where- 
upon be  was  soundly  beaten  by  the  students  outside  the  lecture-room,  and 
found  himself  compelled  to  return  to  his  native  land,  but  not  without  goldeii 
consolations  on  the  part  of  Christina,  as  well  as  the  perpetual  title  of  historio- 


'  Milton's  iVi>«  IVarki.iv  181  Mitford, 

•  Aiek,  i  141- 

»  Huel,  Cirmment.  Jt  rebus  suis,  107  ;  Arck.  i  151  J";  cp.  ii 

•  Arck.  i  197,  37S- 

'  O.  Stobbe,  Berlin,  i8;o;  cp.  ii  i6&  supra. 

•  Arck.  ii9i  f.  '  Ell.  rfisj- 

»  Arck-  i  19a  *  ii  3^7  supra. 


D„:,iP<.-jM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XXXVIIL]  SCHEFFER.  341 

grapher  of  Sweden,  which  he  fully  justified  by  writing  the  history  of  the  war 
with  Denmark*.  Boekler  had  been  accompanied  by  his 
papil,  Scheffer  (1611 — 1679),  who,  while  the  rest  were  only 
birds  of  passage,  mule  Sweden  his  permajient  abode.  During  the  remaining 
jr  years  of  his  life  be  was  at  first  professor  of  Eloquence  and  Political  Philo- 
sophy, and  afterwards  librarian  and  professor  of  Inlernalional  Law  at  Upaala. 
He  publislied  treatises  on  Latin  style  and  on  Roman  antiquities,  together  with 
editions  of  Fhaedrus  and  Aphthonius,  and  of  writers  on  tactics  (Arrian  and 
Manricius],  which  gave  proof  of  an  aptitude  for  textual  criticL^im,  though  the 
library  of  Upsala  afforded  him  few  opportunities  for  the  study  of  ancient  MSS. 
His  own  Greek  Mss  were  ultimately  purchased  for  the  Library'.  In  a  far 
higher  sense  than  l.occenius  of  Holstein  (whose  daughter  he  married),  or  than 
his  own  countryman,  Freinsheiro,  he  was  the  true  founder  of  classical  philology 
in  Sweden.  His  work  in  Sweden  was  in  fact  the  principal  permanent  result 
of  Christina's  patronage  of  learning  in  the  North". 

Having  long  resolved  on  leaving  the  Lutheran  communion,  Christina 
found  herself  constrained  to  resign  the  (hrnne  in  1654.  The  daughter  of  the 
great  champion  of  the  protestant  cause  in  Europe  joined  the  Church  of  Rome 
at  Innspnick,  rode  into  Rome  in  the  garb  of  an  Amazon,  received  the  rile  of 
confirmation  from  Alexander  VII,  and,  in  compliment  to  the  Pope  and  in 
avowal  of  her  favourite  hero,  assumed  the  name  of  Christina  Alexandra. 
The  rest  of  her  life  was  mainly  spent  in  Rome,  varied  with  visits  to  Paris 
where  she  attended  a  meeting  of  [be  Academy,  and  where  Manage  once  bored 
her  by  presenting  to  the  impatient  Amazon  an  inordinate  number  of  '  men 
of  merit''.  In  Rome  she  took  up  her  abode  at  ihe  Famese  palace,  though 
this  was  not  her  only  place  of  residence.  As  in  the  North,  she  surrounded 
herself  with  savanls.  She  enlai^ed  her  choice  collections  of  manuscripts  and 
of  works  of  art'.    She  permitted  Spanheim  to  reproduce  her  . 

.  coins  and  medals  in  his  work  on  Numismatics,  and  to  dedicate 
that  work  to  herself  in  gratitude  for  her  aid  and  her  inspiration*.  Manyof 
the  coins  were  also  published  by  Havercamp'  and  Ihe  gems  engraved  by 
Bartoli".  Early  in  1656,  she  formed  an  Academy  whose  members  met  once 
a  week  at  her  palace'.  The  first  rule  of  literary  style  laid  donTi  for  her 
Academy  shortly  belore  i58o  was  the  avoidance  of  false  ornament,  and  Ihe 

'  Arck.  i  395  f.  "  O.  Celsius,  BIN.  Ups.  Mist.  (174})  49. 

^  Cp-  Arck.  i  194  ;  Fant,  i  iij — i  jj| ;  SchUck  161  I  (with  portrait,  164); 
and  ii  368  supra. 

*  JUtaagiana,  iv  34';  Arck.  i  555. 

'  Catteau-Calleville,  ii  191  f  ^  Grauert,  ii  31]  f. 

'  'ConsCriplus  hie  liber  non  solum  luo  nutu  sed  gazae  tuae  opihus  instnic- 
tus.' 

''  Namophylaaum  Christinae  (1741) ;  Arck.  ii  S3,  314  f. 
»  Musaita  Odmalcum,  Rome,  r747-ii. 

•  Arck.  i  501  f,  Jan,  1656. 

n,:i.,-iM,G00glc 


342  SWEDEN.  [cent.  XVII. 

imitadon  of  Ihe  models  followed  in  the  ages  of  Augustas  and  of  Leo  X'.    Sbe 

was  also  recognised  as  ihe  virtual  founder  of  the  quaint  Academ]'  of  the 
Arcadians'.  In  1668  she  had  some  passing  hopes  of  receiving  (he  crown  of 
Poland,  but  the  self-exiled  queen  of  Sweden  was  never  really  happier  than 
when  she  whs  breathing  the  atmosphere  of  Rome.  Thirty-five  years  after  her 
abdication  she  died  and  was  buried  in  the  Basilica  of  St  Peter's.  In  1690  her 
Mss,  which  had  been  caiali^ed  by  Montfaucoo',  were  purchased  for  the 
Vatican  by  Alexander  Vlll,  who  caused  a  medal  to  be  struck  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  event*.  Her  collection  of  gems,  medals,  statues  and  pictures  was 
bought  by  Don  Livio  Odescalchi,  the  nephew  of  Innocent  XI.  Many  of  the 
works  of  sculpture  were  removed  to  Spain,  and  one  of  theK  is  well  known  as 
'the  group  of  San  Ildefonso'*.  The  Vienna  Cameo  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus 
and  Arslnoe,  and  Correggio's  picture  of  '  Mercury  teaching  Cupid  to  read  in  the 
presence  of  Venus,'  now  in  the  National  Gallery  of  England,  once  belonged 
to  the  vii^n  queen  Christina,  while  the  Royal  Library  of  Stockholm  still 
possesses  seventeen  of  her  marblebusis  of  famous  men  of  old,  including  Homer, 
Demosthenes  and  Zeno*. 

The  minority  of  Charles  XI,  the  son  of  Christina's  martial 

successor,  Charles  X,  was  marked  by  two  events 
"tv^^  connected  with  the  history  of  learning.     The  first 

of  these  was  the  foundation  of  the  university  of 
Lund  (1668)  in  the  district  of  Scania  in  South  Sweden,  which 

had  ceased  to  belong  to  Denmark  in  1658'.     The 
An"  quitatum      second  was  the  institution  of  the  Collegium  Anliqui- 

tatum  for  the  study  of  the  languages,  legends,  laws, 
ecclesiastical   history,   and  antiquities  of  Sweden   (1667).     Its 

'  Arck.  iv  18  (p.  41  of  Germ,  ed.),  §  18.  '  Arck,  ii  137  f. 

'  itii  MSS  in  Bihliolheia  Bibl.  14 — 97;  about  1900  was  the  number  which 
passed  into  Ihe  Vatican;  cp.  Dudtkii  Iter  Romanitm  (Vienna,  1855),  Codua 
mil.  Graid  Reginai  Sut!iat...eA.  H.  Stevenson  sen.,  including  Plutarch's 
Moraliii  and  Strabo  and  a  few  other  clas^cal  MSS  (188S),  and  Mantheyet  in 
Melanges  (tarckJalogieet  ^hisloiri,  ivii — xix,  also  Narducci's  flilW.  AUxandrina 
('877)- 

*  Copied  in  Arck.  ii  jji. 

'  HUbner,  Anl.  Bild.  in  Madrid,  :i  f,  73-g;  Friederichs-Wolters,  Anl. 
Bild.  no.  i66s. 

■  Fant,  i  96.  Cp.,  in  general,  J.  Arckenholli,  Mfmoira  cotKernant  Chris- 
tim...,  4  vols.  4"  (Amsl.  and  Leipzig,  1751-70),  the  French  ed.  of  the  same 
author's  Hist.  MtrkwHrdigiiitm  (1751-60);  Catteau-Calleville's  Hisloire, 
I  vols.  (Paris,  1815):  Ranke's/'n/w^/jVoiB*.  Book  viii  §g;Grauert's  Christifia 
and  ihr  Hof  (Bonn,  1837-41) ;  Pattison's  Essays,  i  146—355  ;  F.  W,  Bain's 
Christina  (1890),  and  the  authorities  quoted  in  most  of  these  works. 

^  WeibuU  and  Tegnir.  Lunda  Universilets  Niitaria,  1868. 

■       !■  i.iiA.OOgIC 


CHAP.  XXXVIir.]   VERELIUS.   FIGRELIUS.   J.  COLUMBUS.   343 

founder  was  Count  Magnus  Gabriel  de  la  Gardie ;  Stierahielm 
was  its  first  president,  while  its  earliest  members  included  classical 
scholars,  such  as  Loccenius  and  Scheffer,  whom  we  have  already 
noticed,  and  Veretius  and  Normann,  to  whom  we  shall  shortly 
return.  In  the  autograph  list  of  their  undertakings  {1670)',  Stiem- 
hielm  proposes  to  write  on  the  origin  and  affinities  of  languages', 
while  Loccenius  announces  that  he  is  already  engaged  on  a  Latin 
translation  of  the  laws  of  Sweden.  In  1684  the  Collegium  was 
transferred  to  Stockholm,  and,  in  169a,  merged  into  a  department 
of  the  State. 

At  the  time  when  Christina  was  gathering  scholars  around  her 
in  the  North,  an  excellent  Latinist  of  Dorpat  and  - 
Upsala,  Olof  Verelius  (1618 — 1682),  was  travelling 
abroad  and  delivering  I^in  orations  in  Paris  on  the  Coronation 
of  Christina,  and  at  Leyden  on  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.     He  was 
afterwards  professor  of  History,  and  of  Swedish  Antiquities.     His 
Latin  Opuscula  were  deemed  worthy  of  publication 
in   1730'.     The  tutors  of  Charles  XI   included    (ort^hWm) 
Edmund  Figrelius  (1632 — 1675),  professor  of  His- 
tory,   and  subsequently  librarian   and   chancellor   to   his   royal 
pupil.     Figrelius  was  a   capable  composer  of  Latin  verse,  and 
was  the  author  of  eighteen  learned  dissertations  in  Latin  prose, 
while  his  treatise  De  statuis  illustritim  Romanorum  (1666)  makes 
him  an  exception  to  the  rule  that  the  Swedish  successors  of  the 
Gennan  scholars  patronised  by  Christina  mainly  confined  them- 
selves to   attempting   the    composition   of  Ciceronian  prose  or 
Virgilian   verse*.      Among   these   typical    Swedish 
humanists  was  Johan  Columbus  (1640 — 1684),  who 
married  a  daupjhter  of  Scheffer.     Columbus   was   professor  of 
Latin  poetry  at  Upsala.   He  corresponded  with  N.  Heinsius'^  on  the 
text  of  Valerius  Flaccus,  and  was  one  of  the  best  of  the  Latin  poets 
of  Sweden'.     He  gave  proof  of  an  interest  in  Greek  by  translating 

'  Facsimile  in  Schilck,  facing  p.  184.  •  p.  338,  n.  5  supra. 

1  Portrait  in  SchUck,  165. 

*  Schuck,  306 ;  ennobled  under  Ihe  name  of  Gnpenhlelm. 

'  Barman's  Sylloge,  v  163 — 187. 

'  'Onimuin,,.suavissimu5',  says  Ihre  in  his /}m«r/.  De  Po'elU,  ■^.  Y}.  His 
contemporacf,  A.  Nordeohielm  {1633 — 1694),  professor  of  Eloquence  at  Up- 
sala (1671),  was  a  master  al  Latin  style. 

h.  i.MiA.OOt^lC 


344  SWEDEN.  [CENT.  XVII. 

and  annotating  'an  uncertain  Greek  writer's'  Homeric  allegories 
on  the  wanderings  of  Ulysses  {1678)'.  Lastly,  he  wrote  Swedish 
verse  and  had  a  wide  knowledge  of  modem  languages'.  An 
interest  in  Latin  and  Swedish  literature  was  also 
combined  in  the  person  of  Petrus  L^ertof  (1648 — 
r699),  who,  at  the  age  of  30,  distinguished  himself  as  a  Latin  poet 
and  orator,  and  alter  travelling  on  the  continent  and  in  England, 
was  professor  successively  of  Logic,  Poetry,  and  Eloquence  at 
Upsala,  and  finally  historiographer  of  Sweden.  In  his  T^tin 
'  Introduction  to  Swedish  poetry '  he  opposed  Stiemhielm's  adop- 
tion of  the  Latin  hexameter  as  the  metre  of  vernacular  versed 
His  Latin  'orations,  programs  and  poems'  were  published  in 
1780,  nearly  a  century  after  his  death.  The  Latin 
iLars 
rof  a 

dignified  type  of  Academic  Latinity,  whose  gravest  and  most 
solemn  orations  were  not  unfrequently  enlivened  with  flashes  of 
wit*,  was  ennobled  under  the  name  of  Rosenadler,  and  ended  his 
days  as  an  honorary  Secretary  of  State.  Norrman 
(1651 — 1703)  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
and  Greek  at  Lund  (1682)  and  of  Greek  at  Upsala  (1686),  and 
was  ultimately  archbishop  of  Upsala,  and  bishop  of  Goteborg. 
During  the  third  of  his  tours  abroad  he  examined  all  the  mss  of 
Vossius  and  Scaliger  at  Leyden,  collected  a  large  number  of 
books,  and,  on  his  return,  was  appointed  librarian  at  Upsala. 
From  a  ms  of  c.  r35o,  brought  from  Constantinople  in  1658  by 
the  diplomatist,  K.  B.  Rfllamb,  he  published  two  orations  of 
Aristides'  (1687-8)  and  the  edi/io  princeps  of  the  encomium  of 
Thomas  Magister  on  Gregory  Nazianzen,  with  four  other  speeches 
and  eight  letters  (r693).    The  same  ms  contained  154  Let/ert  of 

'  Reprinled  L.  B.  17+5,  as  Porpliyrius,  De  crroribus  Ulizis,  but  really 
writlen  by  Nicephorus  Gregoras  (Creuzet,  D/iitsche  Stkr.,  V  ii  r6j).  It  had 
already  been  prinled  by  Conrad  Gesner,  1541- 

>  Cp.  Fant.  ii  13—16.  »  Cp.  SchUck,  334  f. 

*  Lunitvalt,  in  Lioder,  s.v. 

'  Or.  JO,  Dt  inepiiis  Sopiistarum  (i68ji;  Or.  51,  Ad  AchilUm,  with  the 
Aldine  Art  Rhttorica  (1-687).  Norrman  was  not  at  first  aware,  that  Or.  %i  had 
already  been  edited  by  Camerarius  (1535)  and  translated,  wilh  Iheresl  olthe 
orations,  l^  Canter  (r566). 


CHAP.  XXXVIII.]    LAGERLOF.      UPMARK.      NORRMAN.      345 

Libanius',  originally  collected  by  Lacapenus,  and  afterwards 
edited,  mainly  from  other  mss,  by  J.  C.  Wolf.  Norrman  wrote 
Greek  as  well  as  Latin  verses,  and  produced  no  less  than  72 
academic  dissertations.  Olaus  Rudbeck  the  elder  (1630— 1702), 
the  celebrated  anatomist,  botanist,  and  antiquarian,  the  '  zealous 
patriot',  who  r^arded  Sweden  as  the  veritable  land  of  the 
Hyperboreans  and  the  true  prototype  of  Plato's  Atlantis',  had 
so  high  an  admiration  of  Norrman 's  Latin  prose  that,  if  the 
occasion  were  to  arise,  he  was  prepared  to  say  of  him :  Ciceronem 
vidimus,  audivimus,  amisimus,  but'  it  so  happened  that  Norrman 
survived  his  earlier  contemporary  by  a  single  year.  Many  of 
Norrman's  books  were  purchased  for  the  Upsala  Library'.  His 
Oratiotus  pamgyricae,  parentalts,  et  programmaia  were  collected 
in  1738,  and  his  Addenda  to  the  Greek  Thesaurus  of  Stephanus 
published  by  J.  H.  Schroder  in  1830.  His  services  to  scholarship 
have  been  recounted  at  considerable  length  by  Fant,  who  describes 
him  as  multiplici  erudilione  celtbrem  and  as  Graecae  litteratiirae 
in  Sueda  ferHissimum'. 

Norrman  was  doubtless  a  scholar  of  wide  attainments,  but, 
with  his  contemporaries  even  more  than  with  himself,  the  main 
interest  lay  in  the  imitation  of  ancient  models  of  style.  Like  the 
early  Italian  humanists,  they  regarded  the  old  classical  world  less 
as  a  vast  empire  of  learning,  every  part  of  which  was  to  be 
systematically  subjected  to  historical  research,  than  as  a  realm 
of  beauty,  rich  with  varied  treasures  which  were  to  be  enjoyed, 
and  replete  with  perfect  patterns  of  art  and  literature  which  were 
to  be  faithfully  reproduced'. 

In  editing  classical  authors  the  scholars  of  Sweden  were 
hampered  by  the  absence  of  mss.  Gustavus  Adolphus  had 
enriched  the  Library  of  Upsala  with  the  spoils  of  Wiirzbui^,  and, 
after  his  death,  Christina  had  added  those  of  Olmutz  and  of 
Prague.     Among  these  last  was  the  Codex  Argenteus,.  Ulphilas' 

'  Cp.  R.  Fiirster,  Di  Liianii  libris  MSS  Upsalieusibus  it  Lincffpienslbus, 
Roslock,  1877. 

'  Amst.  1738  (preface);  cp.  O.  Celsius,  Bibl.  Ups.  Hist.  (\ui)  nj— "32. 
and  Anonymi  (sc.  A.  Norrelii)  Slriclurae  (1746}.  48 — 60. 

'  Attanliea  {,i6-ii^\  Gibbon,  1117  Bury ;  Schilck,  368—181  (with  portnui). 

*  Celsius,  48.  °  fiisleriola,  ii  53 — 76. 

■  Cp.  SchUclt,  306  t 

h,  i.MiA.OOt^iC 


34*  SWEDEN.  [CENT.  XVII  f 

Gothic  translation  of  the  Greek  Gospels,  formerly  in  the  Abbey 
of  Werden  near  Cologne,  a  MS  which  was  sent  by  Konigsmark 
to  Christina,  and,  after  passing  into  the  hands  of  Isaac  Vossius, 
was  purchased  by  Count  Magnus  de  la  Gardie  and  presented 
to  the  Upsala  Library'.  Of  the  66  niss  which  the  Count  gave  to 
that  library  in  1669*,  it  is  the  only  one  of  supreme  impiort- 
ance.  By  the  removal  of  Christina's  collection  scholars  in  the 
North  were  deprived  of  the  best  opportunity  of  consulting  or 
editing  classical  mss  in  their  own  country'.  The  ancient  classics 
were  entirely  unrepresented  in  the  few  Greek  or  Latin  hss 
included  among  the  hundred  given  to  Upsala  in  1705  by  the 
great  traveller  and  diplomatist,  Johan  Gabriel 
Sparwenfeldt'  (1655 — 1727),  who  spent  five  years 
in  visiting  all  the  great  libraries  of  Europe  (including  that  of  the 
Vatican),  and  in  diligently  noting  down  his  observations  and  in 
transcribing  mss.  As  a  diplomatist,  he  afterwards  studied  Slavonic 
and  other  languages  for  three  years  in  Russia  and  the  adjoining 
parts  of  Asia;  and,  finally,  he  was  sent  abroad  for  a  second  period 
of  five  years  to  search  in  Southern  Europe  and  in  Northern  Africa 
for  ever>'  vestige  of  the  '  Goths  and  Vandals ',  who,  even  down  to 
the  present  day,  are  named  among  the  subjects  of  the  king  of 
Sweden'.  Late  in  life,  Sparwenfeldt,  a  descendant  of  an  ancient 
Danish  king,  and  a  man  of  majestic  presence',  was  Master  of 
Ceremonies  at  the  Court  of  Sweden.  He  spoke  and  wrote 
fourteen  languages,  and  in  the  evening  of  his  days,  when  he  had 
retired  to  his  ancestral  estates,  he  kept  up  an  extensive  correspond- 
ence with  the  foremost  scholars  of  Europe-  But,  from  the  begin- 
ning to  the  end  of  his  brilliant  career,  his  main  interest,  lay  far 

'  Arckeoholti,  i  307  t.  '  Celsius,  Bibl.  Ups.  76—115. 

.  ■  On  UpsaJa  mss,  cp.  P.  F.  Aurivillius,  ^n/rVia  Co^iVun  (Lalin),  1806-13; 
(Greel),  1806;  Graux,  Notices,  ed,  A.  Martin.  Paris,  1S89;  MS  of  Wvj, 
J.  H.  Schrbder,  Ups.  1831-1,  and  A.  T.  Broniann,  ib.  1855;  of  Tibulius, 
J.  Bei^man,  ib.  iS89;.and  of  Libanius.  Forslet,  Ri>stock.  1877.  See  also 
Annecsteitt,  in  Upsala  Ftslskrift,  1894,  ii  41 — 66  passim,  and  in  Bibtiographe 
moderru,  1898,  407 — 436. 

*  (E.  Benzelius),  Catalogtis  Centuriae  Librorum  (Ups.  1706);  Cp.  Celsius, 
Bibl.  Ups.  SO— 57. 

'  A  confusion  due  lo  the  Tad  thai  medieval  writers  applied  (he  name  of  the 
Teutonic  Vandals  lo  [he  Slavonic  Wends  (Bury  on  Gibbon,  iv  196). 

'  Portrait  in  Schiick,  193. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XXXVIIl]     SPARWENFELDT.     BENZELIUS.  347 

less  in  classical  than  in  oriental  and  Slavonic  literature.  However, 
in  1721  he  prepared  for  the  press  a  Swedish  translation  of  Epic- 
tetus,  and,  among  the  rarer  works  which  he  presented  to  the 
Upsala  Library  in  the  following  year,  was  his  own  Russian  trans- 
lation of  Epictetus  and  Cebes'. 

AH  the  scholars  above  mentioned,  beginning  with  Stiemhielm 
and  ending  with  Sparwenfeldt,  belong  to  the  seventeenth  century, 
in  which  Sweden  was  one  of  the  greatest  powers  in  Europe.  In 
the  next  age  learning  was  well  represented  by  Erik 
Benzelius  the  younger  (r67s — 1743).  who,  like 
Sparwenfeldt  (his  senior  by  twenty  years),  spent  three  years  abroad, 
collecting  mss  and  making  the  acquaintance  of  men  of  mark 
(1697 — 1700).  He  returned  to  Upsala  with  a  goodly  store  of 
Greek  and  Latin  mss,  and  was  promptly  appointed  librarian.  In 
and  after  1716  he  was  bishop  of  Gdteborg  and  of  Linkoping;  he 
was  archbishop  of  Upsala  for  the  last  year  of  his  life'. 

In  r7o8  he  produced  an  edition  of  the  Characters  of  Theo- 
phrastus,  the  only  original  element  being  the  emendations  pro- 
posed here  and  there  in  the  index'.  In  one  of  the  Selden  mss  in 
the  Bodleian  he  detected  the  fourth  book  of  the  '  Special  I.aws ' 
of  Philo;  he  afterwards  collected  considerable  materials  for  an 
edition  of  that  author,  and  handed  all  of  them  over  to  Thomas 
Mangey,  canon  of  Durham,  whose  edition  appeared  in  two 
large  folio  volumes  in  1742,  with  a  very  inadequate  acknowledge- 
ment of  the  generous  aid  he  had  obtained  from  Benzelius*.  In 
contrast  with  this  conduct,  we  find  J.  C-  Wolf,  the  editor  of  the 
Letters  of  Libanius  (1738),  warmly  thanking  Benzelius  for  the 
loan  of  two  of  his  own  mss,  which  were  among  the  fifteen  subse- 
quently purchased  from  his  former  library  by  the  gymnasium  of 
linkoping'. 

In  1 7 10,  in  a  year  remarkable  for  the    ravages    of  fire  and 

.  sword  and  pestilence,  he  founded  the  first  of  the  learned  societies 

of  Scandinavia.     It  was  known  as  the  Collegium  Curiosorum.    In 

'  Fanl.  Suppl.  I4.  '  Schllck  and  Warburg,  ii  (189;)  II,  wilh  portrait. 

•  Cp.  J.  F.  Fiicher,  ed.  1763,  Praef.  (Fani,  ii  96  i). 

'  Praef,  p.  xvii.     The  discovery  made  by  Benzelius  is  ignored  in  vol.  ii 


OgIC 


348  SWEDEN.  [CENT,  xvni  f 

1716  it  produced  its  first  publication,  iinder  the  fanciful  title  of 
Daedalus  kyperborevs;  in  1719  it  was  transformed  into  the  Soaetas 
literaria  Sueciae;  in  1728  (after  its  founder  had  become  a  bishop) 
it  was  definitely  placed  under  royal  patronage,  with  archaeoli^y 
and  linguistics  as  part  of  its  province,  and  finally  (in  the  year  of 
its  founder's  promotion  to  the  archbishopric  of  Upsala)  received 
the  fiermanent  designation  of  the  Socieias  Regia  Scientiarum  Upsa- 
liensis^.  Benzelius  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Swedish 
Academy  of  Sciences,  founded  by  Linnaeus  and  others  at 
Stockholm  in  1739- 

A  brief  survey  of  the  early  history  of  the  study  of  Greek  in 
Sweden  was  published  at  Wittenberg  in  1736  under 
the  title  of  Hellas  sub  Arcio*.     Its  author,  Olaus 
Plan  tin,  then  residing  in  Germany,  was  born  in  1701  on  the  little 
island  of  Hernosand,  where  he  afterwards  superintended  the  local 
school.     He -is  the  last  of  the  long  series  of  Greek  scholars  of 
Sweden  enumerated  in  a  more  elaborate  work  on  the  same  subject, 
the  Historiola  completed  in  1786  by  the  erudite  Swedish  historian 
and  archaeologist,  E.  M.  Fant  (1754 — 1817)^   Not 
a  few  of  these  scholars  were  in  the  habit  of  writing 
original   Greek   compositions,    either  in    prose  or  in  elegiac  or 
hexameter  verse,  but  they  very  rarely  produced  any  edition's  of 
Greek  authors,  and  such  authors  as  they  happened  to  edit  were 
seldom  of  sfiecial  importance.     Only  the  most  prominent  scholars 
have  been  selected  for  the  briefest  mention  in  the  previous  pages, 
but  all  of  them  deserve  credit  for  continuing  to  tend  and  cul- 
tivate in  that  northern  clime  the  exotic  plant  of  Greek  learning, 
which  had  flourished  for  a  while  in  the  Adonis-garden  of  queen 
Christina. 

Fant  does  not  profess  to  trace  the  fortunes  of  Greek  beyond 
the  year  1700.  In  contrast  with  his  detailed  notice  of  the  thirteen 
professors  of  Greek  before  that  date,  he  only  records  the  names  of 
the  six  who  were  subsequently  called  to  that  Chair,  beginning  with 

*  Sett  Vindimiola  Lilltraria,  qua  merita  Svecorum  in  Utiguam  Grateam . . . 
ixponuniiir,  84  pp. 

°  p.  335  n.  1  supra.  The  author  is  best  known  as  editor  of  Ihe  ScrifUms 
renim  Suecicarum  Medii  Arm,  posthumously  published  in  1818  f.' 

n, I',  11,1^.001^10 


CHAP.  XXXVUI.]  FANT.      TEGNfeR.  349 

Olaus  Celsius  (1703)  and  ending  with  Johannes  Floderus  (1763), 
under  whose  auspices  he  began  the  work.  We  must  here  be  con- 
tent with  noting  that  Olaus  Celsiusthe  elder  {1670 — 1756)1  the 
polykistor  who  filled  the  Greek  Chair  for  some  twelve  years  only, 
is  less  well  known  as  a  professor  of  Greek  than  as  the  author  of 
the  HieroboiartUon  and  the  earliest  patron  of  Linnaeus,  and  that 
Hoderus   {r72i — 1789)   was  also   an    able    Latin 

,  ,  .  ,  ,  Plodirus 

orator,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  no  less  than 

108  Latin  disputations,  and  left  behind  him  a  large  number  of 

Opusaila  oratoria  et  poelUa,  posthumously  published  in  1791. 

The  above  professors  belong  to  Upsala.     At  Lund,  the  Chair 
of  Greek  and  of  Oriental  Languages  was  filled  in 
1780  by  the  Syriac  and  I^tin  scholar,  M.  Norberg        ^"^I'^j 
(1747 — 1826),  and  that  of  Latin  in  1789  by  J.  Lund-         Undfon 
blad  (1753 — i8zo),  an  able  writer  of  Latin  verse. 
The  same  chair  was  held  in  1826  by  his  pupil,  A,  O.  Lindfors 
{1781 — 1S41),  the  author  of  a  successful  Handbook  of  Roman 
Antiquities  and  a  Swedish-Latin  Dictionary. 

Lund  was  also  the  university  of  a  versatile  professor  of  Greek, 
who  is  far  better  known  in  the  history  of  Swedish  literature  than 
in  that  of  classical  scholarship.  Esaias  Tegner 
{1782 — 1846),  the  son  of  a  pastor  whose  parents 
were  peasants,  graduated  at  Lund  in  r832,  was  lecturer  in 
Greek  in  iSio,  and  professor  from  1812  to  1824,  and  finally 
bishop  of  Wexio  for  the  remaining  twenty-two  years  of  his 
life.  He  is  famous  as  the  most  popular  of  Swedish  poets,— 
the  author,  not  only  of  the  modern  version  of  the  Frithiofsaga, 
but  also  of  the  dithyrambic  war-song  which  made  him  in  1808  the 
Tyrtaeus  of  Sweden.  Many  of  his  early  poems  were  written  in 
the  little  room  at  Lund  which  was  then  the  study  of  the  professor 
of  Greek,  and  is  still  a  place  of  pilgrimage  for  the  votaries  of 
Swedish  literature'.  It  may  be  added  that,  in  two  of  his  letters, 
he  expresses  his  strong  approval  of  Latin  verse  composition  as  an 
indispensable  part  of  a  classical  education  ^ 

-  SchUck  and  Warburg,  ii  674 — 719,  with  several  portraits,  etc 

"  Eflerlemiiaiie  Sirifler,  i  {Bref)  361,  376,  Letters  10  ihe  accompMshed 
diplomatist.  Von  Brinkinan  (17(1+— 1847),  on  his  admirable  Eli^ia  ad  'J'ra- 
Hemm.  Tegner  considers  Ttanir  superior  to  Lundblad  in  poetic  fancy  but 
inferior  in  his  command  of  llie  Latin  language. 

h.  i.,  ii,l^'.00'^lC 


350  SWEDEN.  [cent.  XIX. 

Greek  scholarship  is  more  distinctively  represented  by  Karl 
Vilhelm  binder  {1825 — 1882),  professor  at  Lund 
(1859-69),    who  produced  a  critical    edition    of 
Hyperides,  pro  Euxmippo  (1856),  and  a  treatise  on  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  topics  in   Antiphon   and  Andocides  (1859).     He 
published  a  commentary  of  Psellus  on  Plato's  opinions  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  souF,  and  an  extract  from  an  Upsala  ms  on  Plato's 
theory  of  ideas'.     In  conjunction  with  K.  A.  Walberg,  he  pro- 
duced a  Swedish-Greek  lexicon  (t86z).     He  also  published  papers 
on  the  Greek  Theatre  and  on  Greek  Synonyms,  and  on  the  longest 
of  the  elegiac  poems  of  Solon'.     Finally,  he  was  the  author  of  a 
collection  of  original  Latin  poems.     The  latest  of  these  was  a 
Carmen  Saecttlare  in  elegiac  metre,  written  in  commemoration  of 
the  second  centenary  of  the  university  of  Lund  (1868)'.     For  the 
rest  of  his  life  he  devoted  himself  to  theological  studies  as  dean  of 
the  cathedral  churches  of  Vesteris  and  Linkoping.     As  professor 
he  was  succeeded  by  Walberg,  his  fellow- labourer 
Cavauin        '"  lexicography'.     Walberg  was,  in  turn,  succeeded 
in  1875  by  Christian  Cavallin  {1831 — 1890),  who 
edited  the  PhilocUtes  and  the  Iphigeneia  in  Tauris,  and  produced 
a  Greek  Syntax,  as  well  as  a  Latin-Swedish  and  Swedish-Latin 
Dictionary  (i87r-6). 

Meanwhile,  at  Upsala,  Greek  was  represented  by  J.  Spongberg 

(1800 — 1888),  the  Greek  professor  of  1853-74, and 

^^^ifii'n'*       author  of  a  Swedish  translation  of  the  Ajax,  and  by 

Lefttedt  Lars  Axel  Aulin  (1820-^1869),  ^  lecturer  on  Greek 

at  Upsala  and  a  schoolmaster  in  Stockholm,  who 

not  only  published  a  translation  of  Kriiger's  Greek  Grammar  and 

various  text-books  on  Homer,  Herodotus  and  Xenophon,  but  also 

wrote  on  the  style  of  Callimachus  (1856),     Einar  Ldfstedt  (1831 

— 1S89),  who  had  studied  in  Germany  in  1869,  succeeded  Spong- 

bei^  as  professor  in  1874,  and  worked  at  archaeology  in  Italy, 

Greece,    and    Asia    Minor    in    1876-7.     His  published  works 

included  a  highly  successful  Greek  Grammar',  and  an  outline  of 

>  Ups.  1SJ4;  published  by  Vincent  in  Not.  et  Exir.  xvi  (1S47),  1,  316  f. 
»  Philologus,  1H60,  513  f. 

*  Phihhgus,  185S.     He  had  ahead)'  iranslaled  it  inlo  Latin  verse. 

*  Lnmli-.-Seailarf est,  16 — 30;  bibliography  in  Upsala /uiel/ist  [li'ii) -^oi. 

>  iBa;  -1374.  Cavallin,  in  Tidsk.ifi,  Ser.  11  ii  73.  »  iS63;   1885'. 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXVIH.]        LUND   AND   UPSALA.  351 

lectures  on  Greek  'philological  criticism' (1871).  Admirableas 
a  teacher,  he  is  gratefully  remembered  by  his  former  pupils,  four 
of  whom  are  now  professors  in  the  university'.  His  younger 
contemporary,  O.  V.  Knbs  (183S — 1907),  appointed  Greek 
lecturer  in  1873  and  1S80,  is  best  known  for  his  papers  on 
the  digamma  (1872-8). 

In  the  early  part  of  the  same  century,  at  Upsala,  Olof  Ktrf- 
modin  the  younger  (1766— 1838),  who,  as  professor 
of  political  philosophy,  included  the  Roman  histo- 
rians in  his  province,  published  translations  of  lai^e  portions  of 
Liry  and  Tacitus'.    Towards  the  end  of  Kolmodin's  life,  the 
Chair  of  Latin  was  held  by  Adolf  Torneros  (1794— 
1839),  a  Ciceronian  scholar,  who  began  his  career 
by  supplementing  the  current  lexicons  of  Greek  and  ended  it  by 
leaving  behind  him  materials  for  completing  a  Swedish-Latin 
lexicon,  edited  by  Ljungberg  in  1843.     Among  the  subsequent 
professors  of  Latin,  we  may  mention  P.  J.  Petersson 
(1816 — 1874),  the  orator  and  poet,  who  translated       Hitefiitrfm 
Stagnelius'  'Vladimir  the  Great'  into  Latin  hexa- 
meters {1840-2),  and  TibuUus  into  Swedish  verse  (i860).     He 
held  the  professorship  in  1859-74.     His  successor  from  1875  to 
1879  was  F.  W.  Haggstrom  (1827 — 1893),  who  had  studied  in 
Germany,  France  and  Italy,  and  had  produced  a  successful  edi- 
tion of  Caesar's  Gallic  War.     His  contemporary, 
Anders  Frigell  (180a — 1898),  'extraordinary'  pro- 
fessor of  Latin,  besides  editing  Caesar  and  the  Odfs  of  Horace, 
paid  special  attention  to  the  textual  criticism  of  Livy',  insisting 
on  the  importance  of  taking  note  of  the  readings  of  other  mss 
besides  the  Medicean,     He  also  translated  and  expounded  the 
Tadula  of  Cebes  (1878).    Not  many  years  later, 
J.  P.  Lagergren  (bom  in  1842),  rector  of  the  school       s'SIu^m 
at  Jonkoping  in  1889,  produced  a  comprehensive 
treatise  on  the  life  and  style  of  the  younger  Pliny  (1872),  while 
C.  E.  Sandstrom  (1845 — 1888),  lecturer  on  Latin  (1872),  pub- 

'  O.  A,  Danielsson,  P,  Persson,  K,  J.  Johansson,  S.  Wide. 

•  His  contemporary,  J.  V.  Traner  (1770—1835),  titular  professor  of  Latin 
in  i8i,(,  gave  proof  of  high  abilil;  as  a  Latin  poet  nnd  also  as  a  (ran<:lalor 
from  Ovid,  and  from  Homer,  Sapgiho  and  Anacreon. 

'  CuIlaliB  CodLam,  lib.  i— iii  (l8;8) ;  EfHigomtita  ad  lib.  i  11  j-ji'  (1881) ; 
miigomtna  ad  lib.  xxU—xxiii  (1883-5).     Viaxata.  Jahrttb.  So,  !<9r~,W(M;iC 


352  SWEDEN.  [cent.  XIX. 

lished  a  dissertation  on  Seneca's  Tragedies,  followed  by  emenda- 
tions of  Propertius,  Lucan  and  Valerius  Flaccus,  and  critical 
studies  on  Statius  (1878)'. 

The  prosperity  of  the  university  of  Upsala  under  the  rule  of 
the  late  king  Oscat  II  has  been  fully  set  forth  in  the  comprehen- 
sive Festskrifl  of  1897,  commemorating  the  completion  of  the 
first  25  years  of  his  beneficent  reign,  and  including  an  import- 
ant monograph  on  the  history  of  the  university,  with  a  detailed 
description  of  all  its  departments,  an  account  of  the  classical 
Seminar,  and  a  complete  list  of  publications. 

The  above  survey  of  the  careers  of  scholars  in  Scandinavia 
has  incidentally  shown  that  not  a  few  of  the  foremost  of  their 
number  have  derived  considerable  benefit  from  studying  in  foreign 
universities,  and  from  travelling  (or  residing)  in  Italy  and  Greece. 
It  is  the  lands  last  mentioned  that  have  naturally  supplied  the  best 
training  to  her  archaeologists,  from  the  time  of  Zoega  down  to  the 
present  day.  Again,  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  Scandinavian 
languages  has  been  the  starting-point  from  which  men  like  Rask 
and  Verner  and  Sophua  Bugge  have  attained  a  notable  position 
among  the  Comparative  Philologists  of  Europe;  and,  lastly,  in 
the  province  of  the  language  and  institutions  of  ancient  Rome, 
any  country  might  well  be  proud  of  a  Latin  scholar  like  Madvig. 

Norway  is  no  longer  politically  united  with  either  Denmark  or 
Sweden ;  but,  although  the  ancient  Scandinavia  has  been  parted 
into  three  separate  kingdoms,  friendly  relations  have  been  main- 
tained in  the  domain  of  scholarship  by  means  of  a  classical 
periodical  common  to  all  three  countries',  by  philological  con- 
gresses held  in  a  regular  order  of  rotation',  and  also  by  a  common 
interest  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  and  in  classical 
archaeology.  Among  the  scholars  of  the  three  countries,'  all 
these  three  elements  of  union  have  combined  in  forming  a  '  three- 
fold cord '  that  '  is  not  quickly  broken'. 

'  For  lome  of  the  above  details  as  10  recent  scholars  1  am  indebted  to 

-  Prof.  Sam  Wide  j  for  others  to  the  Swedish  bit^raphical  dictionaries,  and  to 

Aksel  Andersson's  '  Bio-bibliografi '  in  the  Upsala  Ftstskrift  of  1897,  vol,  ill. 

'   Tidskrifl  for  Filologi,   begun   in   i86j,   and  continued  ever  since,  with 

slight  changes  of  lille. 

'  Nordiska  filologmoiin,  Copenhagen,  i8;6,  '91;  Cliristiania,  1881,  '98; 
Slockholm,  1886,  and  Upsala,  1902.  ,  ~  1 

^        ^  D„:,i..ii,L.OOglc 


CHAPTER    XXXIX. 

GREECE  AND  RUSSIA. 

However  deep  may  be  the  debt  that  Europe  owes  to  Italy  for 
the  part  she  played  in  the  Revival  of  Learning,  the 
debt  of  Italy  to  Greece  is  deeper  still.  To  a  large 
extent  the  very  learning  that  was  then  revived  in  Italy  had  its 
ultimate  or  immediate  origin  in  Greece.  In  the  age  of  the 
Revival  Italy  became  the  heir  of  the  renewed  interest  in  the 
Greek  Classics  represented  in  Constantinople  about  1150  by 
Eustathius  and  about  1300  by  PlanddSs  and  MoschiSpQius ;  and, 
even  before  the  Eastern  Empire  fell  beneath  the  tyranny  of  the 
Turk,  the  old  Greek  learning  had  gained  a  new  lease  of  life  by  its 
transfer  to  a  land  that  was  ready  and  even  e^er  to  receive  it. 

We  have  already  noted  the  names  and  recorded  the  services 
of  the  most  prominent  of  the  Greek  scholars  who  fled  to  Italy, 
whether  before  or  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople'.  Little  is 
known  of  those  who  remained  in  the  East ;  much  more,  of  those 
who  left  it.  Not  a  few  of  these  came  from  the  lands  that  were 
free  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  and,  in  particular,  from  Crete  and  the 
Ionian  Islands.  Crete,  which  for  four  and  a  half 
centuries  belonged  to  Venice  (1204 — 1650),  became 
one  of  the  strongholds  of  Hellenism',  and  Venice  was  naturally 
the  immediate  destination  of  the  scholars  who  left  this  island 
for  the  West.  Among  the  earlier  Cretan  immigrants  was 
Geoi^us  Trapezuntius';  among  those  of  later  date  were  Marcus 
Mdsurus,  2^charias  Calliei^es'  and  Nicolaos  Blastds.  The  Mty- 
mologitvm  Magnum  of  1499,  the  first  book  produced  in  Venice 

'  ij  59—80  sujra. 

'  Thereianos,  A'fl™«(i890),  i  18:  Bikelas, -O/o/ejiir  (1893),  I04f. 
'  ii  tisufira.  '  ii  79f. 

s.    III.  ,..,■,  II,  l^^-)Oglc 


3S4  GREECE.  [CENT.  XVI  f 

by  Caljierges  under  the  supervision  of  Musurus,  was  printed  at 
the  expense  of  the  patriotic  Blast6s,  who  is  described  by  Musurus 
as  'full  of  the  Hellenic  spirit'.  The  Greek  press  of  Calliei^es 
was  in  fact  a  Cretan  workshop ;  Cretans  cast  the  types,  Cretans 
printed  and  corrected  the  proofs,  and  Cretans  were  the  publishers'. 
Even  when  the  press  was  removed  to  Rome  in  1515-7,  it  con- 
tinued, under  the  promptings  of  Lascaris,  to  do  good  service  to 
Greek  scholarship  by  printing  the  icholia  to  Pindar  and  Theo- 
critus, and  the  eclogae  of  Thomas  Magister  and  Phrynichus'.  It 
was  a  Cretan,  Demetrius  Dukas,  who  aided  Aldus  in  editing  the 
Rhttores  Graeci,  and  the  Moralia  of  Plutarch;  a  Cretan,  Arsenios, 
who  published  the  scholia  to  Euripides*;  while  the  same  island 
supplied  the  West  with  its  most  noted  calligraphers*.  Crete, 
again,  was  the  native  land  of  Franciscus  Portus  (1511—1581), 
professor  of  Greek  in  Venice  and  elsewhere,  and  an  industrious 
commentator  on  the  Greek  Classics".  A  century  later  another 
Cretan,  Franciscus  Scuphus,  a  teacher  in  Venice,  published  his 
Rhetoric  in  Vienna  (1681)*.  Crete  can  also  claim  Cyril  Lucar', 
who  studied  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands  and  England,  and  was 
the  patriarch  of  Alexandria  and  Constantinople.  He  it  was  who 
in  1627  received  the  first  printing-press  brought  to  the  latter  dty 
from  London  by  Nicodemus  Melaxas  of  Cephalonia',  and  in  the 
following  year  presented  to  Charles  I  the  codex  AUxandrinus 
of  the  Greek  Scriptures.  Of  the  350  scholars  enumerated  by 
Sathas',  under  the  years  1500  to  1700,  as  many  as  two-fifths  were 
natives  of  Crete  or  of  the  Ionian  Islands. 

'  Musurus  in  Etym.  Magtt. ;  cp.  Didol,  Aide  Mantici,  ;jo. 

»  Didol,  544— S78-  »  1544!  ^-  443- 

'  «■*■  579-586. 

»  Nicolai,  Geschkhtc  der  neugritcAischm  LUeralur  (i8;6),  41  f ;  Legrand, 
Bibliogr.  Hellln.  xv,  xvi  i.,  ii  pp.  vii— kx.  In  the  next  generation  the  Cretan 
Emmanuel  Margunius  (f.  1549 — 1601),  after  sludying  at  Padua,  was  for  five 
yeais  an  inmate  of  a  Cretan  monastery,  and  in  1584  was  consecrated  bishop  in 
Constantinople.  At  Padua  he  produced  a  merilorious  edition  of  Aristotle  Dt 
Colorilnts  {'57j)i  his  Hymni  Anaereonlici  were  published  at  Augsburg  (iGoi), 
and,  al  the  time  of  his  death  in  Venice,  he  was  proposing  to  lake  part  in  Sir 
Henry  Savile's  Chrysesiom  (viii  \nf).     Cp.  L^rand,  ii  pp.  xxiii — Imvii. 

•  Thereianos,  i  18.  '  1575 — 1638. 

■  Nicolai,  49  f.  *  NiimXX.  ^tkoKrfia  (1453— rSii),  1868. 


A.OO' 


IC5IC 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]      CRETE.      IONIAN   ISLANDS.  355 

The  Ionian  Islands  belonged  to  Venice  for  four  centuries 
(1386 — 1797).  In  the  fifteenth  century  Corfu  gave 
birth  to  Nic61aos  Sophian6s,  a  pupil  of  the  Greek 
school  in  Rome,  where  he  edited  the  ancient  scholia  on  the  Iliad 
and  on  Sophocles  (1517-8).  He  was  the  first  to  produce  a 
Grammar  of  modem  Greek  {1534)',  and  to  translate  Plutarch's 
treatise  on  education  into  the  ordinary  Greek  of  the  day,  which, 
in  a  purified  form,  .was  regarded  by  him  as  the  best  medium  for 
literature  and  for  instruction  in  modern  Greece',  Modem  scholia 
on  Pindar  were  written  by  Al^xandros  Phdrtios  of  Corfu',  while 
Leondrdos  PhiSrtios  wrote  a  rhyming  poem  on  the  soldier's  life 
(Venice,  1531)-  In  1537  another  native  of  Corfu,  Antdnios 
Eparchos,  fled  to  Venice,  where  he  supported  himself  by  teaching 
Greek.  Though  he  was  compelled  by  poverty  to  sell  most  of  his 
MSS,  he  generously  presented  as  many  as  thirty  to  Francis  I.  A 
devoted  adherent  of  Greek  learning,  he  pleaded  the  cause  of  the 
Greek  Church  at  the  diet  of  Ratisbon,  and  also  composed  a 
celebrated  elegiac  poem  on  the  unhappy  fate  of  Hellas*.  The 
Corfiote,  Nikandros  Nukios,  visited  England  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII,  and  described  his  travels  in  the  style  of  Aiiian'. 
Lastly,  Fhlangines  devoted  the  whole  of  his  fortune  to  establish- 
ing a  Greek  school  in  Venice",  while  Venice  herself  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  made  Italian  the  official  language  of  the  Ionian 
Islands.  But  the  clei^y  and  the  people  happily  remained  true  to 
their  native  tongue'.  In  the  previous  century  Zante  had  given 
birth  to'Nicolaos  Lucanos',  whose  paraphrase  of  the  Iliad  was  the 
first  work  printed  in  modem  Greek',  and  to  Demetrios  Z^nos,  who 
translated  the  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice  into  a  popular  form  of 
rhyming  verse".     We  shall  see   in    the  sequel  that  the  Ionian 

I  Reprinted  by  L^;ran<],  1874. 

•  Nicolai,  40,  49 ;  Thereianos,  i  it  f. 
"  Sakkelion,  in  Pandora,  nv  354. 

•  Venice,  1544  (Legrand,  Bibliogr.  Hellht.  mi,  xtii  1.,  i  159);  Nicolai,  86; 
Thereianos,  i  13 — 17. 

•  Book  ii,  ed.  J.  A.  Cramer  (Camden  Soc),  1841. 
■  1664.  '  Bikelas,  106. 

'  Also  called  Lucanis,  cp.  Legrand,  I.e.,  \  188  f.  "  Venice,  iji6. 

"•  f.  1539,    adia  rtpnntcA  {'Lvs^ni,  Bibliogr.  HilUn.  XV,  rvi  s.,  i   ilgi; 
Constantinides,  //ta-ff./Uw>a  {1S91)  i;6— r83). 


.'S-ii.ooi^lc 


3S6  GREECE.  [CENT.  XVII. 

Islands  (as  well  as  Crete)  became  the  home  of  the  popular  type 
of  Greek  literature'. 

Chios  was  subject  to  Genoa  for  two  centuries  {1346 — 1566), 
It  was  not  until  twenty  years  after  its  conquest  by 
the  Turks  that  its  most  prominent  scholar,  Leo 
Allatius,  was  bom  (1586^1669).  He  was  educated  in  Calabria 
and  in  Rome,  whither  he  returned  to  study  medicine  after  living 
for  some  time  in  obscurity  in  Chios,  In  1622  he  was  the  papal 
agent  for  the  transfer  of  the  Heidelberg  mss  to  the  Vatican 
Library,  over  which  he  presided  for  the  last  eight  years  of  his  life. 
Alienated  from  Greece  by  his  adhesion  to  the  Latin  Church,  it 
was  solely  for  the  benefit  of  the  Catholic  inhabitants  that  he 
founded  a  school  in  his  native  island.  He  is  best  known  for  his 
valuable  services  to  Byzantine  literature  and  for  his  patriotic  paper, 
De  patria  Homeri  (1640),  He  holds,  in  fact,  the  highest  place 
among  the  Greek  scholars  of  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury'. As  a  writer  of  panegyrical  poetry  he  was  followed  by  other 
Chiotes  of  less  distinction,  AntOnios  Koraes,  who  travelled  in  Italy 
and  dedicated  a  Pindaric  ode  to  a  chancellor  of  France,  and  C6n- 
stantinos  Rhodokandkes,  who  studied  in  Oxford  and  attracted  at- 
tention bya  Greek  encomium  on  Charles  II'.  In  the  same  century 
England  was  visited  by  two  other  representatives  of  Greece,  the 
Peloponnesian  Christ(Sphoros  Angelos,  who  resided  in  Cambridge 
and  Oxford  in  1608-17,  *"d  published  at  the  former  university  a 
popularaccount  of  the  condition  of  Greece  (1619)*,  and  Leonardos 
Philar^  of  Athens,  to  whom  Milton  addressed  two  Latin  letters  in 
1652-4.  The  first  of  these  contains  the  sentence  which  has 
suggested  'the  inspiring  motto  of  the  Philhellenic  movement*': — 
'Quid  enim  vel  rorlissimi  olim  viri  vel  eloquenlissimi  gloriosius  aut  se 
dignius  esse  duxenint  quam  vel  suadendo  vel  forliler  faciendo  iktuSlpvn  Koi 
airatiiiovt  rottiaBut  nvj'SWtpiajV  * 


'  P-  375  "Vra- 

*  Legrand,  Bitliogr.  HelUn.  xvii  s.,  iji  435 — 471  !  Nkolai,  64  f, 

*  Oxon.  1660,  Legrand,  I.e.,  ii  ii6f;  Nicalai,  93. 

*  A.  Gennadlos,  in  Pandora  (1S51).  81  j  ;  Legrand,  /.c.  i  iii  f. 

°  Drakoules,  NfahilUnU  Langiiagt  and  Liitrature  (Oxford,  189;),  4 

*  Cp,   [Dfm.)   7  S  30;    Milloiti  Epp.   1674,   J4f,   jpf;  Legraiid 
-416. 


./Coot^ic 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]     CHIOS.      STATE   OF   LEARNING.  35/ 

The  first  step  towards  the  recovery  of  Greek  independence 
was  a  literary  revival  of  the  Greek  language.     It  is 
difficult  to  ascertain  how  far  a  knowledge  of  classical      onek  little 
Greek  was  preserved  among  the  common  people  in  ™™ 

the  i6th,  17th,  and  i8th  centuries.  We  learn,  however,  that  in 
Constantinople,  in  1575,  the  clergy  preferred  to  preach  in  the  'old 
Greek  language'  {i.e.  in  Byzantine  Greek),  although  this  language 
was  intelligible  to  only  two  or  three  in  their  congregations'.  At 
Athens,  in  1672,  very  few  besides  the  three  public  teachers  of 
theoli^,  philosophy  and  language  understood  the  old  Greek 
literature'.  After  visiting  Crete  in  1700,  a  French  traveller  (per- 
haps prematurely)  writes  that  'in  the  whole  Turkish  dominions 
there  are  hardly  twelve  persons  thoroughly  skilled  in  the  know- 
lei^  of  the  ancient  Greek  tongue**.  At  Patmos,  in  1801,  E.  D. 
Clarke  declares  that  neither  the  superior  of  the  monastery  nor  the 
bursar  (who  acted  as  librarian)  was  able  to  read*.  Even  in  an 
important  centre  of  Greek  learning,  the  Byzantine  authors  were 
sometimes  preferred  to  those  of  the  golden  a^ge  of  Greek  literature. 
In  1813,  Cyril  VII,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  could  not  com- 
prehend the  preference  given  to  Thucydides  and  Demosthenes 
over  'polished  writers'  such  as  Synesius  and  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
and  considered  the  iambic  lines  of  PtOchoprddromos  more 
musical  than  those  of  Euripides'.  It  is  maintained,  however,  by 
Finlay'  that,  during  the  centuries  preceding  the  Revolution,  the 
parish  priests  had  kept  up  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  old 
Greek  language  and  that  any  Greek  who  could  read  and  write 
had  some  knowledge  of  the  old  Greek  literature.  A  high  degree 
of  learning  was  certainly  represented  among  the  laity,  and  nume- 
rous works  were  published  by  Greeks  in  the  classical  and  the 
popular  forms  of  the  language.  These  works  were  printed  in 
many  parts  of  Europe'.  Venice  in  particular  long  remained  an 
important   centre  for  the  printing  of  modern  Greek  literature*. 

■  Martin  Cnisius.  197.  "  Pere  Bahin,  Relation  (1674),  S4f. 

»  Toumefort,  Voyage,  i  10+  (E.  T.  1741). 

*  Travels,  vi  41,  ed.  )8i8.  "  Thereianos,  141.  •  v  183, 

'  See  the  biblic^raphical  works  of  Bretos  {1854-7),  Sathas  (1B68),  and 
Legrand,  Biblisgr.  HilUn.  xv,  jt'i{i885— 1906),  .itiV  J.  (1894—190,1). 

'  Citali^e  f'Sii)  of  Ihe  long  established  house  of  Glykys,  in  Carl  Iken's 
Liukothea  (1815).  "  '39  '■ 

h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lC 


3S8  GREECE.  [cent.  XVII  f 

In  1791  a  Greek  press  was  founded  in  Vienna  by  GeOrgios  Ben- 
ddt^  of  Zante,  the  compiler  of  a  valuable  Greek,  Italian  and 
Romaic  lexicon,  and  the  translator  of  Barthelemy's  Anacharsis. 
After  his  death  in  1795  the  press  continued  to  flourish,  and  it  was 
here  that  the  important  periodical  called  the  Logios  Hermes  began 
its  course  in  181  r',  The  Greek  colony  at  Vienna  was  connected 
with  the  Philbmusoi  Hetairia,  a  literary  club  founded  at  Athens 
in  1812  which  enabled  some  of  the  future  leaders  of  the  Revolu- 
tion to  acquire  a  European  education". 

The  traditions  of  Byzantine  rather  than  classical  culture  were 

maintained  in  the  patriarchal  school  of  Constanti- 
^»u^t'nopi°"     nople-     The    patriarch    Gennadios  (1400— 1468), 

who  held  that  office  for  the  five  years  immediately 
succeeding  the  Turkish  conquest,  was  an  eager  student  of  law, 
theolt^  and  philosophy,  a  translator  of  some  of  the  works  of  the 
Aristotelian  churchman,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  a  persecutor  of  the 
paganism  and  an  opponent  of  the  Platonism  of  Gemtstos  Plethon'. 
By  the  side  of  the  ancient  patriarchal  school  restored  by  the  in- 
fluence of  Gennadios,  rose  the  famous  Phanariote  school  of  1661 
and  that  of  Kuru-Tschesme  founded  on  the  Bosporus  in  1803*. 
In  1581,  ZygomaUs,  the  chief  secretary  of  the  patriarch,  described 
Greece  in  general  as  destitute  of  schools,  though  the  inhabitants 
had  a  natural  genius  for  profiting  by  education;  'but  the  clouds 
of  an  ever-during  calamity  suffer  not  the  sun  of  such  blessings  to 
shine  forth,  or  learning  to  flourish".  During  the  interval  of  little 
more  than  30  years,  while  the  Morea  was  subject  to  Venice  (1684 
— 1 718),  education  was  fostered  by  the  Catholic  clergy  at  the 

college  of  Tripolitza'.     In  the  early  part  of  that 

brief  period  the  Parthenon  was  destroyed  during 
the  Venetian  siege  of  1687,  but,  towards  its  close,  the  recovery  of 
Corinth  by  the  Turks  in  1715  was  soon  followed  by  the  founding 

'  Nicolai,  99.  '  Finlay,  vi  98- 

»  «or4  ^liy  nX**iwot  iiropiaf  ir' ' AptaTorfkii,  ed.  MenSs  (Paris,  1858)  i 
il  61  supra.  Cp.  Gibbon,  vii  175  f  Bury  ;  Finlay,  iii  501,  v  137  ;  Krumbacher, 
Bys.  Liu.  iigf ;  Nicolai,  jjf.  Gentile  Bellini's  '  Gennadios  and  Mahomet  II', 
in  frontispiece  to  Legrand,  Biiliogr.  HdUn.  xv,  xvi  s.  iii  (1903). 

*  Nicolai,  14,  109. 

•  Martin  Cmsiiis,  Turcograecia  (1584),  9+. 


n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]  SCHOOLa  359 

of  a  Greek  School  at  Athens.  About  the  same  time  schools 
established  in  the  previous  century  began  to  flourish  in  Mace- 
donia and  Thessaly.  In  1723  the  third  of  the 
three  great  schools  of  loannina  came  into  being 
in  the  metropolis  of  Epirus*.  Evidence  as  to  the  fairly 
flourishing  condition  of  the  Greek  schools  is  supplied  in 
1714  by  Alexander  Helladius,  who  had  visited  London  and 
0)d'ord  and  had  spent  some  years  in  Germany'.  The  year 
1758  marks  the  dissolution  of  a  once  important  Athoi 

academy  on  Mount  AEhos,  and  the  foundation  of  Meioionshl 
another  at  Mesolonghi'.  In  1764  the  ancient 
school  in  the  small  Arcadian  town  of  Dimitzina  was  restored  by 
the  learned  Agipios'.  During  the  same  century,  and  especially 
under  the  rule  of  Daniel  Kerameus',  there  was  a  successful  school 
on  the  island  of  Patmos,  which  supplied  teachers  to 
Chios   and   Smyrna'.     In  the  second  half  of  the  Bmyrol 

century  the  'Evangelical  School  of  Smyrna'  had 
some  famous  pupils  (including  Koraes,  the  future  r^enerator  of 
the  Greek  language),  and,  at  the  'philological  gymnasium'  in  the 
same  city,   the    Greek    Classics    were    effectually 
studied  in  1809-18'.    There  were  Greek  schools  at  sinop* 

Trebizond  and  Sinope ;  while,  in  the  Danubian 
Principalities,  the  Hellenic  school  of  Bucharest  had  assumed  the 
status  of  ati  academy  in  1698,  and  the  central 
school  of  lassi  was  already  well  known  in  1755" 
The  study  of  the  old  Greek  language  and  literature 
in  the  above  schools,  and  especially  in  those  of  the  Danubian  Princi- 
palities, was  among  the  causes  that  led  to  the  Revolution  of  1821. 

'  Further  endowed  by  Ihe  brothers  Maruizi  in  1741-  Cp.  Niculai,  54  f> 
and  A.  R.  Kangal)^,  Lill.  Nio-Hemnique  (iSjj),  i  54. 

'  Sla/ui  praiitns  e(cl.  oritrUalis,  dedicated  to  Peter  Ihe  Great  (Norimb. 
1714)  60,  '  iti  gymnasiis  quae  iam  E>ei  gratia  in  omnibus  Gtaeciae  civilatibus 
mediocriter  llorenl ' ;  Nicolai,  55  f. 

*  Nicolai,  I  rof. 

*  Cp.  Kast6rches,  rtpl  t^i  ir  iri/tTiTiiars  iix<>\J)S  (Alh.  1847). 

'  Thereianos,  i  80.  '  Nicolai,  110,  n.  H5.  '  Nicolai,  114. 

'  Nicolai,  117  f.  On  Greek  education  from  1453  lo  iBji,  see  pp.  1—31  of 
C.  P.  Oikonomos,  Die  fddagegitchtn  Antchauungm  dts  AJamarUias  Kerais, 
1 16  pp.  (Leipzig,  1908),  and  the  earlier  literature  there  quoted. 


A.OO' 


IC5IC 


36o  GREECE.  [CENT.  XVII. 

In  Greece  itself,  early  in  the  century,  'classic  history  was  studied; 
classic  names  were  revived ;  Athenian  liberty  became  a  theme 
of  conversation  among  men ;  Spartan  virtue  was  spoken  of  by 
women;  literature  was  cultivated  with  enthusiasm  as  a  step  to 
revolution". 

Greek  education  owed  not  a  little  to  the  influence  of  the 
Phanariots  resident  in  the  Phatiar  or  Greek  quarter  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  in  particular  to  those  who  attained  high  positions  in 
the  service  of  the  Turks.  The  interests  of  the  Greeks  were 
advanced  by  Panagiotakes  NiciSsios,  who  in  1630  attained  the 
diplomatic  d^nity  of  chief  interpreter  to  the  Sublime   Porte'. 

The  same  position  was  ultimately  attained  by  Al^x- 
^*Viam'       andros  Mavrocordatos  (1637^1709),  the  son  of  a 

silk -merchant  of  Chios  and  the  founder  of  a  highly 
influential  family.  He  studied  medicine  in  Italy,  produced  at 
Bologna  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood  (1664), 
became  physician  to  the  Sultan,  and,  from  1665  to  1672,  presided 
over  the  patriarchal  school  of  Constantinople.  He  looked  down 
with  contempt  on  the  popular  language  of  his  fellow-countrymen, 
and  formed  his  own  style  on  the  old  Greek  Classics — without 
succeeding  in  assimilating  their  merits.  His  text-book  of  Greek 
Syntax  was  deficient  in  method  and  in  clearness,  and  failed  to 
supersede  the  current  manuals  of  Gaza  and  of  Lascaris'.  After 
his  appointment  as  principal  interpreter  to  the  Porte  he  obtained 
permission  to  found  schools  in  Constantinople  and  loannina  and 
on  the  island  of  Patmos,  and  presented  these  schools  with  texts  of 
the  Classics  printed  in  Europe*.  His  example  was  followed  by 
his  son,  Nicolas,  who  was  the  first  Greek  subject  of  Turkey  to  rise 
to  the  position  of  governor  of  Wallachia  and  thus  'to  forge  a 
sceptre  from  his  chains".  These  officials  gave  a  certain  impulse 
to  education  among  those  who  aspired  to  public  appointments, 
but,  'fortunately  for  the  Greeks,  other  contemporary  causes 
tended  to  disseminate  education  from  a  purer  source'*.  During 
'  Finlay,  vi  17.  '  Kangabe,  i  4J— 48. 

*  Rizo  (lakOb^kes  Rizos  Nerulos,  prime  minister  uf  Wallachia  and  Mol- 
davia), Court  de  Utldraturt  Gr«que  MeHtnie  (Cenevs,,  18171,18;  Nicolai,  74; 
Finlay,  v  141. 

*  Rangabe,  i  Ji.  •  Finlay,  v  145. 

h.  |.,  iiA.OOt^lC 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]     MAVROCORDATOS.     BULGARIS.  361 

this  time  modern  Greek  literature  acquired  a  higher  degree  of 
polish  under  the  influence  of  the  pulpit,  the  synod,  and  the  various 
select  societies  of  Constantinople*. 

The  second  half  of  the  iSth  century  was  marked  by  a  further 
multiplication  of  schools  and  by  the  translation  of  European 
works  of  science,  history,  fiction  and  philosophy.  These  trans- 
lations played  an  important  part  in  the  developement  of  a  literary 
language  approximating  to  the  old  Greek  type. 

Among  the  scholars  who  applied  their  knowledge  of  ancient 
Greek  to  giving  a  literary  character  to  the  language 
of  the  modern  Greeks,  the  earliest  name  of  note  is  BtiiBari»  "' 
that  of  Eug^nios  Biilgaris  of  Corfu  {1716— 1806), 
who  was  educated  at  loannina.  He  studied  modern  languages 
and  Latin  in  Italy  and  elsewhere,  and  was  the  first  reformer  of 
the  traditional  ecclesiastical  type  of  Greek  education,  as  director 
of  schools  at  lodnnina.  Mount  Athos  and  Constantinople.  He 
subsequently  spent  ten  years  in  Leipzig,  writing  works  in  ancient 
as  well  as  modern  Greek  (1765-75),  and  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  a  school  for  young  Russian  noblemen  in  St  Petersburg,  where 
he  died  after  holding  for  a  time  the  bishopric  of  Sclavonia  and 
Kherson.  His  masterpiece  in  ancient  Greek  was  his  rendering 
of  the  Georgia  and  Aeneid  in  Homeric  verse;  ancient  Greek 
was  also  the  language  of  all  his  strictly  philosophical  writings, 
while  modern  Greek  was  the  medium  used  in  his  more  popular 
works*. 

Modem    Greek   was   still    more    effectively    moulded    into   a 
literary  form  by  the  far-reaching  influence  of  Ada- 
niantiosKoraes(i748 — 1833),    A  native  of  Smyrna, 
where  he  was  aided  in  his  early  studies  by  the  chaplain  to  the 
Dutch    consulate,  he  spent  six  years  as  his  father's  mercantile 
agent  at  Amsterdam  (1772-8),  returned  to  Smyrna  for  four  years, 

•  James  Clyde,  Metnaic  and  Modirrt  Grak  compartd  loi/k  mte  another  and 
lailh  aiKUnt  Greek  (Edin.  1855),  45—49;  Finlay,  Nislery  of  Greece,  v  184 
Toier;  Iken,  ii  7,  losT;  Rizo,  34 — 371  Nicolai,  113;  Guudas,  Blot  IlapctX- 
X^Xm,  ii  (1874)  I — 40,  with  port  rail  1  RaugaW,  i  63;  and  esp.  Thereianos, 
Adamanlios  Korals  (18890  i  63 — 76.  His  industrious  and  contentious  con- 
lempomry,  Nedpliytos  Kausoltalybites,  produced  at  Bucharest  in  1761  a  com- 
mentary of  1400  pages  on  the  fourth  liook  of  Theodoras  Gaza  (ib.  79  f). 


lOO' 


SIC 


362  GREECE.  [cent.  XVIII  f 

and  was  allowed  by  his  father  to  abandon  a  business  career  and 
to  enter  the  medical  school  of  Montpellier,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  as  a  student  of  medicine  (1782-8).  He  removed  to 
Paris  in  1788,  and  there  devoted  himself  to  literary  labours  for 
the  remaining  forty-five  years  of  his  life. 

Palriotism  and  a  passion  for  learning  were  (he  two  guiding  principles  of  his 
whole  career.  One  of  his  earliest  works  (his  '  Emendations  on  Hippocrates ') 
was  printed  at  Oxford  in  i;9i'.  His  excellent  edition  of  Hippocrates,  di  atre, 
aguis,  loHs  (1800),  was  immediately  preceded  hy  the  Characters  of  Theo- 
phrastus,  and  succeeded  by  Longus  and  Heliodoms.  The  most  important  of 
his  literary  undettaltings,  the  '  Library  of  Greek  literature ',  was  inspired  by  a 
distinctly  patriotic  motive.  Long  before  ihe  outbrealt  of  the  Greek  revolaljon, 
four  brothers  of  the  wealjby  house  of  Zosimades  consulted  Koraes  as  to  the 
best  means  for  accelerating  the  regeneration  thai  had  already  begun  in  Greece. 
Koraes  advised  the  publication  of  the  old  Greek  Clasiiics  with  notes  in  ancient 
and  introductions  in  modem  Greek.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  celebrated 
'  Greek  Library ',  a  series  of  seventeen  volumes  edited  by  Koraes  in  1805-16. 
T^t  prodromos  (containing  Aelian's  Varia  Hh/eria,  Heracleides  Ponlicus,  and 
Nicolaus  Damascenus)  was  followed  by  two  volumes  of  Isocrates,  six  volumes 
of  Plutarch's  Lives,  four  of  Stiabo,  the  Patiiics  and  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  the 
Mtmerabilia  of  Xenophon  with  the  Corgias  of  Plato,  and  lastly  the  Ltecratet 
of  the  Attic  orator  Lycurgus.  All  these  were  printed  by  Didot  in  an 
exquisitely  neat  type  specially  designed  for  the  series,  the  whole  cost  of 
publication  was  met  by  the  munificence  of  the  brothers  Zosimades,  and  many 
copies  were  gratuitously  distributed  among  deserving  Greek  students  in 
Hellenic  lands.  Meanwhile,  Koraes  was  producing  a  series  of  'paretga'  in 
nine  volumes,  comprising  Pulyaenus,  Aesop,  Xenocrates^  and  Galen  Di 
AltHunto  tx  AqiuUilibus,  the  Medifations  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  the  Tactics  of 
'Onesander'*,  five  political  treatises  of  Plutarch,  Cebes  and  Cleanlhes  with 
the  Enc/uiridiim  of  Epictetus,  and  the  two  volumes  of  Arrian's  version  of  his 
discourses  {tZog-if).  Homer  had  already  lieen  specially  edited  for  the  modem 
Greeks',  but  Koraes  produced  an  edition  of  Iliad  i — iv  (1811-30).  He  also 
edited  Hierocles.  He  translated  Herodotus  into  modern  Greek ;  his  notes  on 
Herodotus  were  printed  by  Larcher,  those  on  Thucydides  by  Levesque,  and 
those  on  Athenaeus  by  Schweighauser :  while  those  on  Hesychius  were  post- 
humously published  (1889).  His  notes  in  general,  especially  those  in  his 
'Greek   Library',  have   met   with  appreciative   teci^nition   on  the  part  of 

•  Musci  OxonieHsis...spicimina. 

'  Already  published  by  him  in  Naples  (1794). 

•  'Qriaiaiipat  (Christ,  §  66j).  Ap[iended  was  a  poem  of  Tyrtaeus,  trans- 
lated into  modem  Greek  by  Koraes,  and  into  French  by  Didot. 

•  By  Spyridon  Blantes  (1765 — '1830),  Ven.,  with  the  scholia  of  Didynius 
(Thtretoo,,  il  8.). 

,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]  KORAfiS.  363 

subsequent  editors'.  The  live  volumes  of  his  Alaila  (1818-35)  were  largely 
concerned  with  Greek  lexicography.  In  his  writings  in  general  he  umed  at 
assimilating  the  language  of  literature  with  the  living  language  of  modem 
Greece,  and,  even  in  his  most  scholarly  works,  he  showed  his  interest  in  the 
idiom  of  the  people,  while  others,  such  as  Kndrikas  and  Dnkas,  abandoned 
this  intetmediale  position  and  went  lo  the  extreme  of  ignoring  the  living 
language  and  uiging  the  adoption  of  an  artificial  style  founded  on  the  grammar 
and  the  literature  of  ancient  Greece*.  His  autobicgraphy  (1S19)  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  and  into  French.  The  latter  version  is  prefixed  to  his  Corre- 
spondence, which  includes  many  emendations  of  the  Greek  Anthoit^*. 

tie  was  on  Friendly  terms  with  scholars  in  Holland'.  In  1805  Wyttenbach 
wrote  lo  Larcher  describing  Koraes  as  'not  only  a  Grecian  but  a  veritable 
Greek',  and  in  1S07  his  Isocrates  won  him  the  title  of  the  '  patriarch  of  Greek 
philology'*.  His  correspondents  in  England  included  Thomas  Burgess, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Salisbury,  and  Holmes,  the  editor  of  the  Septuagint.  He 
was  an  ardent  admirer  of  the  United  States  of  America*.  In  the  land  of  his 
adoption,  he  was  associated  with  Gosselin  and  La  Porte-du-Theil  (and  after- 
wards with  Lelronne)  in  a  French  translation  of  Strabo  (iSoj-ig)  begun  under 
the  generous  patronage  of  Napoleon.  Among  his  principal  friends  in  Paris 
were  ^lienne  Clavier,  the  elder  Thurot,  and  Chardon  de  la  Rochette  ;  he  was 
less  intimate  with  Villoison^,  while,  as  a  scholar,  he  was  highly  esteemed  by 
Boissonade*.  His  devotion  to  his  country's  cause  was  a  ruling  passion  10  the 
end  of  his  life.  With  his  latest  breath  he  spoke  of  the  land  of  his  fathers,  and 
on  his  death-bed,  while  his  failing  eyesight  rested  on  a  portrait  of  Demosthenes, 
he  exclaimed  : — '  Thai  was  a  man'*.  His  epitaph,  written  by  himself,  told  of 
his  love  for  the  land  of  his  adoption  as  well  as  for  the  land  of  his  birth",  and  his 
character  is  thus  summed  up  by  the  English  historian  of  Modem  Greece  : — 

'  Koraiis...was  the  great  popular  reformer  of  the  Greek  system  of  instruction, 
the  l^slator  of  the  modem  Greek  language,  aniT  the  most  distinguished 
apostle  of  religious  toleration  and  national  freedom. ..He  was  indifferent  to 
wealth,  honest  and  independent,  a  sincere  patriot,  and  a  profound  scholar... 
He  passed  his  life  in  independent  poverty,  in  order  that  he  might  a 


'  Thereianos,  paisim. 

'  Krumbacher's  Feilrfdt,  Das  Preblem  dtr  neugritchUcktn  Schri/lsfrache 
(19OJ),  44f,  and  Koraes'  Gk  Grammitr  (posthumously  published  at  Athens, 
i888);  Saihas  (iSjoJ,  and  Beaudouin  (1883),  quoted  by  Kiumbacher,  U. 
195  ;  also  the  criticisms  of  Halzidakis,  La  Question  de  la  Laiigui  Scritt  Net- 
Grecque  (1907),  106. 

'  Letlres  inidites,  1874-7  (Bursian's  Jahrtsb.  li  87  f). 

•  Thereianos,  {  103,  105.     Cp.  J.  Gennadios,  iplaui  tai  <siri<ltit,  54-71- 
'  Clyde.  50. 

•  Thereianos,  iii  61 ,  t«»  'Ayt^'^I^'PI'"*''''''  iiirvpm  Sou^MiirTjJt. 
'  ii.i  i;9f.  '  1*.  i  +05  f- 

•  'En?i>at  TTO  irBpuwot,  ib.  iii  151  f.  '*  ib.  iii  155. 


A.oogic 


364  GREECE.  [CENT.  XVIII  f 

his  whole  time,  and  the  undivided  strength  of  his  mind,  to  improve  the  moral 
and  political  feelings  of  the  Greeks.  His  eflbrts  have  not  been  fruitless.  He 
methodized  the  literary  language  of  his  countrymen,  while  he  infused  into  their 
minds  principles  of  true  libeity  and  pure  morality''. 

The  inlermediate  position   assumed   by   Koraes  in  moulding  a   litemry 
Kniirikt  language  for  modern  Greece   found   its  keenest   and  most 

implacable  opponent  in  Panl^Clikes  Kodrik&s  (1750—1817), 
an  Athenian  of  distinguished  descent,  extraordinary  gifts,  wide  learning  and 
high  social  standing.  He  was  an  adherent  of  the  ultra-classical  Greek  style 
that  had  come  down  from  the  Byzantine  age  arvd  was  still  retained  in  the 
documents  issued  by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  other  official  per- 
sonages. Before  1801  he  was  chancellor  to  the  governor  of  Wallachia ;  and 
after  that  date  he  was  a  professor  of  Greek  in  Paris,  and  interpreter  to  the 
Ministry  of  Foreign  Aflairs.  His  controversy  wilh  Koraes  began  with  a  letter 
to  the  editors  of  the  LS^es  Htrnils  (1S16)  urging  them  to  resist  the  reforms 
proposed  by  Koraes.  As  this  advice  was  not  followed,  he  publi^edan  anony- 
mous 'Apology  for  the  Greeks  in  Pisa'  (1817),  which  was  promptly  repudiated 
by  the  Creeks  concerned.  His  iinal  contribution  to  the  controversy  was  the 
Mdll'e,  dedicated  in  1818  to  Alexander  I,  emperor  of  Russia*.  In  all  this 
bitter  controversy  the  only  benefit  that  incidentally  accrued  to  the  cause  of 
learning  was  an  admirable  treatise  published  by  Koraes  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Stephanos  Pantaif  s'. 

The  opinions  of  Korai^s  were,  in  general,  supported  by  the  versatile  and 

^  accomplished  scholar,  Konstanttnos  Kumas  {17J7 — 1836),  a 

native  of  Laiissa,  who  studied  in  Vienna,  was  head  of  the 


'  Finlay,  Hislary  ef  Grace,  v  iSf  Toier;  cp.  Gervinns,  ap.  Thereianos,  iii 
155.  BfM  (Paris,  iSjg) ;  Fr.  T.  1833;  Lat.  T.  1834-49;  Germ.,  Sinner-Olt 
(Zurich,  1837);  Boissonade  in  Michaud's  Biagr.  Univ.;  I.  Bywater  in 
y.  If.  S.  i  305-7 ;  Nicolai,  103  f ;  Rangab*,  i  81—90;  Constantinides,  331 — 
361 !  and  esp.  D.  Thereianos,  Adamanlios  Koraes,  3  vols.  (Trieste,  1889-90). 
In  France  he  adopted  the  name  of  Cotay;  Villoison  considered  that  Cora!(s) 
would  have  been  more  correct  (i^.  i  179).  Portrait  in  Goudas,  ii  73—108. 
Posthumous  works  in  7  vols.  (Ath.  i88t-9),  including  materials  for  a  French 
and  Greek  lexicon  (1881),  Grammar  of  modem  Greek  (1888),  notes  and  emen- 
dations on  Hesychius  (1889),  and  3  vols,  of  Letlcrs  (1885-7).  On  his  Letters, 
cp.  J.  Gennailios,  K^tn  xai  (m^^Ed  (Trieste,  1903),  and  on  bis  services  (o 
Greek  education,  C.  P.  Oikonomos,  Die  pddagogischen  Attschauuagm  da 
Adamantios  Korais  (Leipzig,  1908). 

*  The  presentation  copy  now  belongs  to  Mr  J.  Gennadios. 

'  On  the  ancient  dt^ma  rifuf  icaXov,  tiiuf  ccuov  (Leipzig,  1819),  Thereianos, 
ii  348f  and  reprint  in  iii  (Appendix  v).  On  Kodrikis,  in  general,  ib.  ii  183 — 
3;j;  Nicolai,  130;  Rangabe,  i  90f;  Haliidakis,  7of.  His  opponent,  Daniel 
Philippfdes,  regarded  the  popular  type  of  Greek  as  ihe  true  medium  of  litera- 


lOO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]      KODRIKAS.      KUMAS.      PHOTIADES.  365 

school  of  Kuni-TGchesme  in  1S13,  joined  Stephanos  Oekoa6Qios  in  foandii^ 
the  'philoloEical  gymnasium '  at  Smyrna  in  1810,  and  spent  the  last  15  years 
of  his  life  at  Trieste.  A  Greek  style  resembling  that  of  Koraiis  was  the 
characteristic  of  his  numerous  translations  from  literary  and  scienlilic  French 
and  German  works.  His  publications  amounted  to  45  volnmes.  He  produced 
a  Greek  and  German  lexicon,  founded  on  Riemer  (iSi6),  and  a  Greek 
Grammar  (TS33),  but  his  greatest  achievement  was  a  universal  history,  the 
litb  volume  of  which  included  his  own  autobiography,  tie  is  held  in  high 
repute  for  his  teaming  and  hia  patriotism,  and  also  for  his  remarkable  success 
in  the  organisation  of  schools'. 

While  Eugenios  BiJlgaris  had  done  good  service  as  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  old  scholastic  type  of  teaching,  a  new  era  was 
opened  by  one  who  combined  intellectual  eminence  with  all  the 
intensity  of  moral  force  and  patriotic  enthusiasm. 
This  was  hone  other  than  Ldmpros  Photiades  (1750 
— 1805),  a  native  of  loinnina,  who  presided  over  the  Greek 
school  at  Bucharest  for  the  last  13  years  of  his  life.  He  was 
interested  in  imitating  Anacreon,  Sappho  and  Pindar,  but  he  fore- 
saw that  a  reform  was  needed  in  the  scholastic  education  of  his 
day,  and  that  Greece  had  a  greater  need  of  progressive  patriots  than 
of  imitative  grammarians.  Instead  of  spending  his  time  on  the 
exclusive  explanation  of  words  and  phrases,  he  inspired  his  pupils 
with  admiration  for  the  lofty  thoughts  of  the  old  Greek  writers. 
He  is  credited  with  having  prepared  translations  from  Herodotus, 
Thucydides,  Xenophon,  Plutarch  and  Lucian',  but  he  published 
nothing  in  person.  His  two  books  on  the  theory  of  metre'  and 
his  notes  on  the  text  of  Synesius  and  of  the  Attic  orators'  were 
printed  by  his  pupils".  In  his  old  age  he  welcomed  the  reforms 
proposed  by  Koraes,  and,  while  he  is  less  prominent  than  that 
great  scholar,  he  did  signal  service  to  his  nation.  He  is  remem- 
bered mainly  as  the  able  instructor  of  the  leading  scholars  of  the 

ture  (cp.  Rangab^,  i  91  f),  and  the  same  is  true  of  Athanisios  Psalldas,  head  of 
the  patriarchal  school  at  loinnina  in  1797 — iSio  (Nlcolsi,  141  n.). 

'  Iken,  i  300 f;  Goudas,  ii  »63— a88  (with  portrait);  Nicolai,  iij  ;  cp. 
Halzidikis,  73,  106  f. 

* .Liguit  Htrmls,  i8tl. 

'  Ed.  Zenobios  Pop  (Vienna,  1803).  *  Ed.  Dukas  (i*.  1811). 

'  Cp.  in  general  Nicolai,  117;  Rangab^,  i  78! ;  Thereianos,  i  Si ;  Con- 
stantinides,  330  f ;  and  Gnudas,  ii  in~-A%  (with  portrait ;  the  original  belongs 
lo  Mr  J.  Gennadiot). 


>,Cooglc 


3(56  GREECE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Greek  Revolution.  Among  these,  the  most  conspicuous  were  Neo- 
phytos  Dukas  and  Georgios  Gennadios,  who  were  united  in  their 
devotion  to  a  common  master,  but  in  their  published  works  stood 
in  the  strongest  contrast  to  each  other. 

Shortly  after  the  death  of  Photiades,  a  war  between  Turkey 
and  Russia  made  it  necessary  to  close  the  school  of  Bucharest 
,  from   1806  to   1810.     NeiSphytos  Dukas  (1760— 

1845),  a  native  of  Epirus  and  a  devoted  pupil 
of  Photiades,  had  already  left  for  Vienna.  In  Vienna  he  pre- 
pared his  Greek  Grammar,  which  he  dedicated  to  his  former 
master  {1804);  he  also  edited  (in  1803-15)  a.  lai^e  number  of 
Greek  authors  including  Thucydides,  Arrian,  Dion  Chrysostom, 
Maximus  Tyrius,  the  Bibliotheca  of  Apollodorus,  Synesius,  as  well 
as  the  Attic  orators,  Herodian,  and  Aeschines  Socraticus.  Most 
of  these  editions  included  translations.  In  1815  he  became  the 
head  of  the  school  at  Bucharest.  After  the  war,  he  established  a 
printing-press  at  Aegina,  and  continued  to  spend  all  his  resources 
in  producing  his  editions  of  the  Classics.  In  1834-45  he  devoted 
himself  mainly  to  editing  the  poets :— Homer,  Euripides  and 
Sophocles  (1834-5),  Aeschylus  and  Theocritus  (1839),  Pindar 
and  Aristophanes  (1842-5).  In  the  controversy  as  to  the  best 
literary  language  for  modern  Greece,  he  preferred  the  old  classical 
style  to  the  via  media  advocated  by  Koraes',  who  was  far  superior 
to  him  as  a  scholar  and  as  an  editor  of  Greek  texts.  Dukas,  how- 
ever, deserves  credit  for  the  industry  which  he  displayed  in  adding 
more  than  70  volumes  of  Greek  authors  to  the  scholastic  libraries 
of  his  day.  His  edition  of  Thucydides  in  ten  volumes  alone  gives 
proof  of  any  critical  faculty,  but  there  is  good  reason  for  stating 
that  the  credit  for  this  is  undoubtedly  due  to  his  teacher  Pho- 
tiades. He  continued  to  teach  in  Athens  to  the  end  of  his  life, 
and,  when  he  died,  he  was  lamented  as  a  'benefactor  to  the 
nation". 

Constantine  Bardalichos  (1775 — 1830),  a  coadjutor  of  Pho- ' 
tiades,  and  afterwards   director  of  the  schools  at    ■ 
Bucharest,  Chios  and  Odessa,  is  best  known  as  the 
author  of  a  Greek  Grammar  founded  on  the  works  of  Lennep, 

'  Theteianos,  ii  171 — iSj.  '  Cp-  Nieolai,  131  f ;  Rtuigali^,  i  i6j. 

.^.oogic 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]  DUKAS.   BARDALACHOS.   G.  GENNADIOS.   367 

Koraes  and  Buttmann  (1832)'.  His  memory  is  enshrined  in  the 
introduction  to  the  edition  of  the  Cyropaedeia  published  by  his 
colleague  at  Odessa,  Georgios  Gennadios. 

Ge^i^ios  Gennadios  (1786^1854),  who  belonged  to  the  same 
family  as  the  patriarch  of  that  name',  was  born  at 
Selymbria  and  was  the  favourite  pupil  of  Photiades. 
In  1809  he  began  to  study  medicine  at  Leipzig,  and,  in  1814, 
returned  to  Bucharest  and  was  soon  assisting  Dukas  in  the 
management  of  the  school.  In  1817  he  became  the  head  of  the 
Greek  School  then  founded  at  Odessa  (where  he  began  a  series  of 
school-books).  Three  years  later  he .  returned  to  Bucharest  as 
head  of  his  former  school-  Then,  as  ever,  he  gave  proof  of  being 
a  bom  teacher ;  and,  in  that  eventful  time,  he  was  also  an  ardent 
patriot  The  study  of  Demosthenes  and  Plutarch  had  inspired 
him  with  the  love  of  liberty,  and,  under  his  enthusiastic  teaching, 
his  pupils  at  Bucharest  were  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
patriotism. 

One  oF  those  pupils,  the  brilliant  scholar,  poet,  archaeologist,  politician 
and  diplomatist,  Al^xandros  Rizos  Rangabes,  has  told  us  how,  on  a  day  when 
his  master  was  expounding  some  ancient  classic,  the  Panegyric  of  Isociates  or 
the  Peridcs  of  Plutarch,  being  deeply  moved  by  the  recital  of  the  ancient 
glories  of  Athens,  he  bade  his  pupils  bar  the  door  and  forthwith  delivered  a 
glowing  discourse  on  the  golden  age  when  Greece  was  still  a  teacher  of  the 
nations,  thus  arousing  in  hb  audience  the  keenest  enthusiasm  for  the  cause  of 
liberty*.  Not  a  few  of  (hose  pupils  were  among  the  five  hundred  of  the 
Sacred  Band,  most  of  whom  fell  in  the  first  conflict  with  the  foe  on  the  19th 
day  of  June,  \%i\*.  Genoadios  withdrew  for  a  time  to  Odessa  and  was  soon 
afterwards  studying  theology  at  Leipzig  and  Gbttingen.  The  next  great  event 
of  his  life  was  his  patriotic  speech  beneath  the  plane-tree  in  Nauplia,  which  led 
to  his  being  called  the  'saviour  of  his  country''-  He  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battle  of  Karystos,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  in  iftiS  he  declined  the 
rank  of  general.  Early  in  1830  he  opened  the  school  at  Aegina  by  giving  an 
impressive  lesson  on  the  Clloice  of  Hercules,  in  the  presence  of  Capodistria, 
who  'madeagreat  show  of  promoting  education',  but  afterwards  forbade  the 
reading  of  the  Gorgias  of  Plato*.     The  first  modem  library  worthy  of  the  name 

>  Nicolai,  101-  »  p.  3s8  ™/™. 

■  Mfotoins  etc.,  quoted  by  Xenophon  Anastasiades,  Giorgios  Gennadies,  18. 

*  Kinlay.  viii4,  133. 

»  1816  ;  ib.  387  ;  Anastasiades,  33,  37,  56;  J.  Gennadios,  G.  Getina-lias  if 
Sa^Xfv  (190S-6)- 

'  Anastasiades,  4$  f  {cp.  Finlay,  vii  ^Sf,  61). 

h.  i.,  11,1^.001^10 


368  GREECE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

in  the  East  was  founded  by  Gennadios  al  A^[na;  on  its  removal  to  Athem, 
it  reni.iined  under  his  care  until  184S;  and,  when  (he  'central  school'  wastiwis- 
ferred  to  Athens,  he  presided  over  it  until  the  day  of  his  death,  declining  to  be 
nominated  one  of  tlie  first  professors  when  the  university  was  established  in 
1837,— the  year  in  which  he  took  part  in  founding  the  Archaeological  Society. 
He  was  inspired  by  the  same  spirit  as  his  great  contemporary,  Koraes.  While 
Koraes  remained  abroad,  editing  the  Greek  Classics  in  a  patriotic  spirit  and 
arousing  the  martial  atdour  of  his  countrymen  by  a  new  edition  of  his  iri\Tiff/ui 
voXc/iurr^/Mor,  Gennadios  actually  fought  in  the  war.  While  Koraes  was  a 
great  writer,  Gennadios  was  a  great  teacher,  and  in  this  respect  was  the  true 
heir  of  Ihe  traditions  of  Photiades.  It  is  from  his  Greek  Grammar  of  1831 
that  the  modem  Greeks  have  learnt  their  own  ancient  language  for  the  last 
three  generations.  As  an  honorary  doctor  of  Leipiig,  he  was  described  as  vir 
di  lillais  in  Crateia  inslaurandii  bent  mtritus.  His  tomb  in  Athens  has  been 
adorned  with  elegiac  verses  in  ancient  and  in  modem  Greek,  but  he  can  hardly 
have  a  terser  tribute  to  his  memory  than  a  single  line  from  the  Elegy  of  Zaia- 
costas'  that  is  thus  translated  in  the  Greek  Lays  and  Idylls: — 

'Here  the  apostle  of  light  and  the  father  of  learning  is  sleeping''. 
'  Father  of  learning '  is  a  free  translation  for  '  father  of  teachers '.  Of  his 
many  pupils  the  most  distinguished  was  A.  R.  Rangab6s.  Some  of  Ihem, 
such  as  Phyntiades  and  Kustrattides,  look  an  active  part  in  the  work  of  Ihe 
Archaeological  Society;  among  the  rest  were  Papasliotes  (i8ao — 1877)  and 
Mavrophr^es  (1818 — i8fi6),  both  of  whom  were  thorough  scholars  and 
exemplary  preceptors.  The  latter  wrote  on  elegiac  poetry  and  on  Lucian, 
besides  publishing  mediaeval  texts,  and  preparing  a  history  of  Ihe  Greek 
language  (1871)'. 

The  university  of  Athens  had  been  preceded  by  the  university 
of  Corfu.     Owing  to  the  influence  of  the  French 
itiandcthc      Revolution  a  literary  and  political  Htttutia  had 
"""cMfu*^ "^      been  founded  in  that  island  in  1802;  this  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  'Ionic  Academy'  of  i8o8;  and,  finally, 
in  1824,  the  famous  philhellene,  Frederick  North,  fifth  Earl  of 


*  Anastasiades,  107.  Cp.  Goudas,  ii  311 — 338;  Xenophon  Anastasiades, 
Georgiat  Geanadies  (with  portrait),  ill  pp.,  London,  1901;  J.  Gennadios, 
Gforgias  Gennadios  it  NouxMy,  1905-6;  Constantinides,  450 — 431;  and  L. 
Sergeant,  Gretee  in  Itie  xixlk  «fl/Hrf  ( 1 897),  335,  370,  Of  his  sons  the  eldest 
(Athanasios)  is  a  Greek  scholar  still  living  m  Athens,  whose  emendations  on 
the  'XBifa'.iot  iroXtrtfa  have  been  mentioned  in  the  preface  to  my  edition  of 
that  work,  while  the  second  was  Creek  Minister  in  London  in  1886-91  ('^P- 
I/ellmic  Aanual  1880,  143—153). 

'  Rangabi,  Lilt,  i  i6m,  r;,;. 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]      ASOPIOS.      MUSTOXYDES.  369 

Guilford  (1766 — 1827),  who  had  joined  the  Greek  Church  in 
179 1  and  was  Governor  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  founded  the  'Ionian 
Academy',  as  the  first  university  of  modem  Greece,  a  university 
which  lasted  to  the  end  of  the  English  occupation  in  1864. 

The  first  professor  of  Greek  at  Corfu  was  Kdnstantinos 
Asipios  (a  1790 — 1872),  who  had  been  educated 
under  Psalidas  at  lodnnina,  and  (with  the  aid  of 
Lord  Guilford)  had  continued  his  studies  in  Gottingen,  Berlin, 
Paris  and  London.  He  had  taught  at  Trieste  since  1817  and 
was  professor  at  Corfu  in  1824-43,  when  he  accepted  a  call  to 
Athens.  His  most  important  production  was  an  unfinished 
History  of  Greek  Literature,  prefaced  by  a  history  of  Greek 
philolt^y  (1850).  His  'Introduction  to  Greek  Syntax'  is  a 
diffuse  work  of  1000  pages  (1841)'. 

The    first    professor    of   Latin    was  another  proteg^  of  Lord 
Guilford,  Christ6phoros  Pbiletiis',  the  author  of  a 
Latin  Grammar  (1827),  while  tbe  first  professor  of         pfkioit' 
philosophy  was  N.  S.  PIkkolos  (1792 — 1865),  who 
afterwards  taught  in  Paris  and  Bucharest,  and  prepared  a  supple- 
ment to  the  Greek  Antholt^y  (Paris,    1853),   and  editions  of 
Aristotle's  Jfistoty  of  Animals  {i/i.  1863)'  and  of  Longus  (1866)'. 

An  account  of  the  successive  'Academies'  of  Corfu  and  of  the 
scholars  contemporary  with  them'  was  written  by 
Andreas  Mflstoxydfis  (1785  —  1860),  a  native  of  the 
island,  who  was  nearly  40  years  of  age  at  the  foundation  of  the 
university.  He  published  his  Italian  history  of  Corfu  in  1804 
and  was  historiographer  of  the  Ionian  Islands  until  1819,  besides 
receiving  academic  distinctions  in  France,  Germany  and  Italy.  In 
1820,  a  diplomatic  position  (that  of  secretary  to  the  Russian  envoy 
at  Turin)  was  assigned  him  by  the  Foreign  Minister  of  Russia, 
Capodistria,  who,  as  President  of  Greece  nine  years  later,  made  him 
Director  of  Education.  After  his  patron's  assassination  in  i83r, 
he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  his  native  island,  where  he  founded 

'  Goudas,  ii  iij — 141   (with  portrait);  Nicolai,  i^if;   Rangabj,  i  171; 
Thereianos,  *i\o\o7M«i  tFOTVirisiHii  (1885),  116 — 115. 

*  Thereianos,  158  f.  *  Nicolai,  141. 

*  Tliernanos,  Kbraes,  i  378  f,  iii  7. 

'  Pandora,  %' ,  188—198,  _^ 

!.  111.  ,..,.ih,.^OOQlc 


370  GREECE.  [cent.  XIX. 

a  philological  and  historical  journal,  the  HtlUnomnemdn^.  He 
was  restored  to  the  position  of  historic^rapher,  and,  at  the  time  of 
bis  death,  was  at  the  head  of  the  education  department  Early  in 
his  career  (in  1S12)  he  dedicated  to  Koraes  the  80  new  pages  of 
Isocrates,  De  Permulatione,  which  he  had  discovered  in  the  MSS 
of  the  Ambrosian  and  Laurentian  libraries.  In  1816-7,  in  con- 
junction with  Demfitrios  SchinAs  of  Constantinople,  he  published 
five  small  volumes  of  Ambrosian  Anecdota,  including  'arguments' 
to  seven  of  the  orations  of  Isocrates,  and  the  scholia  of  Olympio- 
donis  on  Plata  Lastiyi  he  contributed  to  a  collection  of  Italian 
translations  of  Greek  historians  an  excellent  translation  of  Hero- 
dotus {1822)  and  some  notes  on  Polyaenus. 

One  of  the  most  scholarly  members  of  the  '  Ionian  Academy' 
was  a  favourite  pupil  of  As^pios  named  J,  N.  Oeco- 
nomfdSs  (1812^1884).  He  was  a  member  of  a 
wealthy  family  in  Cyprus,  which  fled  from  the  Turkish  dominions 
to  Trieste  in  i8ai,andtwo  years  later  to  Corfu,  where  he  completed 
his  education.  He  taught  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  local  gymna- 
sium, and,  when  Sir  George  Bowen  was  anxious  to  introduce  into 
the  curriculum  a  translation  of  an  English  text-book,  Oeconomides 
pointed  out  the  mistakes  in  the  original  and  won  the  goodwill  of 
the  governor.  Late  in  1857  he  became  secretary  for  education, 
early  in  the  following  year  professor  in  the  Ionian  Academy, 
and,  in  i860,  minister  of  education  as  the  successor  of  Mustoxjfdfis. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  returned  to  Trieste,  where  he  died 
in  obscurity  and  destitution,  64  years  after  his  first  arrival  in  that 
city  as  a  fugitive  from  Cyprus. 

His  works  have  been  the  theme  of  a  full  and  inleresting  monograph  b7  one 
of  his  ablest  pupiU,  who  gives  a  complete  analysis  of  his  master's  dissertation 
on  Cleatithes',  and  of  his  scholarly  interpretations  of  passages  in  Thucydides 
and  other  Greek  Classics,  besides  dealing  full]'  with  his  studies  on  Syntax  and 
on  Synonyms  and  on  Comparative  Philology.  Oeconomfdes  contributed  to 
Mustox^des'  History  of  Corfu  a  lengthy  monograph  on  the  local  inscriptions, 
including  that  on  a  silver  lamp  belonging  to  the  treasurer  of  the  Ionian 
Islands*.     He  elaborately  elucidated  two  Locrian   inscriptions  in  the  same 


'  Athens,  18+3-53. 

^  I.  1845  ;  Theieianos,  #iXoXiry»iu  i-rorvwuistii,  131 — 171. 

'  James  Woodhouse ;  i^,  i^^l;   Curt  Wachsmulh  in  RMn.  Mm.  xviii 

(lasj)  537—583- 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]      OECONOMIDES.      THEREIANO.S.  371 

collection,  (1)  a  covenant  between  Oeanlhia  and  Chaleion  on  the  Corinthian 
gulf,  and  (1)  a  law  of  the  Opunlian  Locrians  regulating  their  lelations  with 
Iheir  colonists  a(  Naupactus'.  He  also  wrote  a  comprehensive  monograph  on 
the  fonn  fri^iKSaBav  in  an  Athenian  inscription  on  the  settlement  of  Chalcis*. 

A  special  aptitude  for  surveying  the  history  of  classical  learn- 
ing and  analysing  the  published  works  of  classical 
scholars  was  displayed  by  Dionysios  Thereiands  (c. 
1833 — 1897)  a  native  of  Zante,  who  was  educated  at  Corfu  under 
Oeconomldes.  His  excellent  account  of  the  life  and  writings  of 
that  scholar  fills  the  last  269  pages  of  the  ^iXoXoyuial  firortnrtMrcis 
published  in  1885  at  Trieste,  where  the  author  was  for  many 
years  editor  of  the  Kldo*.  The  work  includes  a  short  essay  on 
the  political  and  literary  developement  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
and  an  ample  literary  and  historical  dissertation  on  'Hellenism'. 
An  admirable  retrospect  of  the  modern  history  of  Greek  learning 
from  Chrysolords  to  Photiades  fills  the  first  chapter  of  the  three 
volumes  in  which  he  fully  sets  forth  the  varied  aspects  of  the  life 
of  Koraes.  Some  of  his  hero's  minor  writings  are  reprinted  in 
the  appendix".  It  is  a  work  in  which  the  highest  degree  of  learn- 
ing is  expressed  in  the  most  pellucid  form  of  modem  Greek  prose. 
The  eloquence  and  the  accuracy  of  the  author  have  been  justly 
commended  by  Constantintdes'. 

Leaving  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  we  turn  once  more  to 
Athens.  When  the  university  was  opened  in  1837,  the  Acharnians 
of  Aristophanes  was  the  theme  of  the  first  lecture,  which  was  given 
by  the  professor  of  Greek,  Ludwig  Ross'.  The  first  professor  of 
Latin  was  H.  N,  Ulrich,  who  had  already  taught  that  language  in 
the  'central  school'  at  Aegina  and  Athens,  and  had  produced  a 
Greek  Grammar  and  Reader.     His  Latin  and  Greek  lexicon  was 

'  Aojt/nicij  «riTjJQ0^,  Corfii,  iSjo ;  Hicks,  no.  31 ;  Thereianos,  173-7. 
'  'EroiKia  Aocpur  ypiiiimTa ;  Hicks,  no.  63  ;  Thereianos,  17  7 — 187. 

*  Hicks,  no.  18  ;  Thereianos,  187 — 196. 

*  '  A  treasury  of  literary  and  political  informalion,  written  in  as  admirable 
a  style  as  any  modem  Greek  has  yet  attained  '  (L.  Sergeant,  Greece  in  tie 
xixlk  Cen/ury,    375). 

'  Demetrio  E^onomo,  Trieste,  1889.   He  aDerwards  published  a  iiAypaima 
ZrwiK^  ^xXnro^ai,  |8()2. 
'  NeB-HellenUa,  337. 
'  ErinnervngiH  (Berlin,  1863)  ix  and  x. 

D„:ji4**^00<^lc 


372  GREECE.  [cent.  XIX. 

published  in  1843,  the  year  of  revolution  that  'put  an  end  to  the 
government  of  aUen  rulers",  and  even  removed  foreigners  from 
the  public  service.  For  obvious  reasons  the  study  of  Latin  has 
been  much  neglected  in  Greece',  but  Latin  scholarship  has  been 
well  represented  by  Kast6rches,  Kumantfdes,  and  Bas€s.  In  the 
more  congenial  department  of  Greek  literature,  a  comprehensive 
Homeric  dictionary  was  produced  by  I.  Pantazfdes.  The  Homeric 
question  has  been  elaborately  discussed  by  G.  Mistri6tes  (sub- 
sequently a  professor  of  Greek  at  Athens),  who  maintains  the 
unity  of  the  Iliad  and  Odjssey  and  regards  Homer  as  the  author 
of  both',  and  a  French  treatise  on  the  topography  and  the  strategy 
of  the  Iliad  was  published  in  Paris  in  the  same  year  by  the  Cretan 
scholar,  M.  G.  Nicolafd^s,  while  private  life  in  Homer  has  been 
ably  treated  by  K.  R.  RangabSs  (1883)'.  The  criticism  of  the 
Greek  dramatists  is  well  represented  by  the  Antigone'' 
of  Semftelos  (1828  — 1898),  who  subsequently  pub- 
lished numerous  emendations  on  the  text  of  Euripides'.  The 
Jerusalem  palimpsest  of  that  poet  has  been  carefully  described 
by  A.  PapaddpQlos-Kerameus  (1891),  who  has  also  catalogued  a 
large  part  of  the  numerous  mss  in  the  patriarchal  library  of  Jerusa- 
lem, as  well  as  all  the  mss  and  works  of  art  in  the  '  Evangelical 
School'  of  Smyrna  (1877).  An  excellent  edition  of  the  scholia  in 
the  Laurentian  ms  of  Sophocles  is  the  principal  work  of  P.  N. 
Papagefii^ios  of  Thessalonica  (1888).  Treatises  on  the  discourses 
of  Isocrates  and  on  the  Hellenica  of  Xenophon  were  produced  by 
A.  Kyprian6s  of  Paros  (1830 — i86g).  A  critical  text  of  the 
G  N  Betnar-  Moralla  of  Plutarch'  was  published  by  G.  N.  Ber- 
d4kCB  nardakes  (1834 — 1907),  a  native  of  Lesbos,  who 

studied  in  Germany  and,  after  holding  a  professorship  at  Athens, 
spent  the  evening  of  his  life  in  the  island  of  bis  birth. 

1  Finlay,  vji  (;8.  '  Birlin.  Phil.  Wad.  1884,  i)6r  f. 

'  Leipzig,  1867.  The  same  subject  has  been  discussed  by  Theieianos, 
N.  Balettas,  and  A.  Blachos. 

*  N.  Balettas,  be^des  writing  on  the  life  and  works  of  Homer,  has  been 
associated  with  Kypriands  in  the  translaiion  of  MUller  and  Donaldson's  Grtfi 
Lileraturi. 

'  Athens,  1887  ;  cp.  Bcrl.  PAH.  iViKh.  1888,  p.  I077f. 

'  Buisian,  Ixxi  139. 

'  Teubner,  1888-96,  7  vols,  with  Efilcgus;  a\io  Dt  V.lin  DelJ>Mi,  1894. 

„.,,„,I..OOglC 


CHAP.  XXXXIX.]      SEMITELOS.      BERNARDAKES.  373 

He  bad  Trequenl  controversies  with  scholars  in  Holland,  Germany,  and  his 
own  country.  His  review  of  an  edition  of  the  Ciw^W  by  MislriStes  (1871)  led 
to  a  war  of  words  between  the  editor  and  ibe  reviewer'.  His  attack  on  Cobet 
for  'appropriating'  the  emendations  of  KoraSs  met  with  a  good-tempered  and 
dignified  reply'.  His  own  rejoinder?  to  the  criticisms  of  Wilamowitz'  may  be 
found  in  the  prefaces  to  the  second  and  fourth  volumes  of  his  Plutarch,  and  in 
his  Epilogui.  Lastly,  his  controversies  with  Kdnslanttnos  Kontos,  profiissor 
of  Greek  at  Athens',  have  left  (heir  mark  on  many  passages  of  a  work  pub- 
lished by  a  pupil  of  Kontos,  named  Charitonides'. 

The   Cretan,    Dem^trios   Bernardakes,  fortnerly  professor  of 
History  at  Athens,  followed  the  example  of  Kuma- 
n(ides°  in  combining  the  cult  of  literature  with  that       ^'^^" 
of  scholarship.     He  was  a  dramatist  and  satirist,  as 
well  as  the  author  of  an  excellent  Greek  Grammar'.     Another 
professor  of  History  at  Athens,  Constantlnos  Papar- 
rigdpulos  of  Constantinople,  produced  an  important  'JIoim 

work  in  five  large  volumes  on  the  History  of  Greece 
in  classical,  Byzantine,  and  modern  times.     A  French  abridge- 
ment of  this  work  has  been  published  in  a  single  volume.     Its 
general  aim  is  to  set  forth  the  continuous  life  of  Greek  civilisation 
from  the  earliest  ages  to  the  present  day*.     Among  recent  books 
of  reference  one  of  the  most  important  is  a  Lexicon 
of   ancient   and    modem   fireek,   the  concluding 
voltime  of  which  was  published  in  1907  by  An^ste  ConstantinidSs. 

Many  of  the  Greek  Classics  have  been  translated  into  modern 
Greek,  but  these  translations  are  less  and  less 
needed  in  proportion  as  the  literary  langu^e 
approaches  a  more  classical  standard*.  Among  them  may  be 
mentioned  the  version  of  Plutarch's  Lives  by  A.  R.  Rangabes, 
who  also  made  the  experiment  of  rendering  the  first  book  of  the 
Odyssey  into  accentual  hexameters'".     The  versification  of  ancient 

'  BuTsian,  xvii  I43  f.  '  p.  1S6  supra. 

'  Gottingen  pr(^.  1889;  dermis,  xxv  (iSgj)  '99f;  ^^"-  GrUkrI.  Am. 
(1896)  .04- 

*  Author  of  fft/i/iiicii  tpiriti,  in  B.C.N,  i— iii,  elc. 
'  *«El\a  ^iXoXiryKii,  907  pp.  (Ath.  1904). 

*  p.  383  infra.  '  Kangab^,  i  164,  ii  1 1%. 

*  Ranga1>£,  i  184  f;  medallion  portrait  in  L.  Set^eanl's  Greect,  facing 
p.   375.  '  Nicolai,  201  f ;  RangaM,  i  164  f. 

'"  Rangabi,  ii  73  ;  Constanlinides,  (13. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


374  GREECE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Greece  was  skilfully  imitated  by  A.  G.  Levkfas  of  Philippopolis, 
who  wrote  2200  hexameters  on  the  coronation  of  king  Olho', 
Philippos  I&dtinu  of  Thessaly,  professor  of  philosophy  at  Athens, 
translated  into  classical  Greek  the  Germania  of  Tacitus,  with 
three  of  Virgil's  Eclogues,  two  of  the  longer  poems  of  Catullus 
(Ixiv  and  Ixvi),  and  the  first  five  books  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses, 
besides  composing  original  poems  in  the  old  (Jreek  style".  The 
same  volume  includes  his  well-known  rendering  of  a  Klephtic 
poem  into  Homeric  hexameters : — 

SoiAiSiir  S6raiJju-  rirpvrai  ftw  ulap  trior'. 

His  letter  to  Bret6s  on  the  controversy  as  to  the  best  literary 
language  for  the  modern  Greeks  is  an  excellent  introduction  to  the 
study  of  that  subject*. 

For   moie   than   nineleen   centuries   the  Greek  nationality  had  survived 
subjection  to  the  Romans,  the  Byzantines,  and  the  Turks;  and,  for  all  those 
centuries,  the  Greek  language  had  maintained  an  unbroken 
''^  QteA^'    ''**'  *•"' '"  '"'^  divergent  forms.     The  tirst  of  these  was  the 
literature        language  of  the  higher  literature ;  the  second  the  language 
of  ordinary  life  and  of  the  popular  literature  founded  on  the 
popular  language.    At  the  end  of  the  classical  period  (about  300  B.C.),  the 
Attic  dialect  survived  all  others  as   the   normal  type  for  prose  and  as  (he 
foundation  of  a  universal  literary  languBge^    Its  earliest  important  representa- 
tive is  Polybius.     Since  his  lime  the  natural  developement  of  the  common 
literary  language  has  been  avtilicially  checked  at  three  successive  stages : — 

(l)  in  the  first  four  centuries  of  our  era,  when  Attic  Greek  was  specially 
cultivated  by  DIonysius  of  Hallcamassus  and  his  followers  ;  (i)  in  the  last  four 
centuries  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  when  there  was  a  marked  revival  of  interest 
in  classical  Greek ;  and  (3)  in  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the  purists  gained 
a  predominant  position  In  the  prose  literature  of  modem  Greece*. 

The  spoken  language  of  ordinary  life  is  represented  in  the  Alexandrian  age 

by  the  non-literary  papyri,  and  even  to  some  extent  in  the 

'^'onhM*'*    Egypto-Aleiandrian  dialect  used  in  the  cramped  translational 

life  style  of  the  Septuagint'.     It  is  also  represented  in  the  lai^er 

part  of  the  Greek  Testament';  and  it  has  left  its  mark  on  the 

'  Rangab^,  ii  198— 106.  '  *iXoXo7n4  xdptp7ii  ( 1 865),  i*.  107  f, 

*  Constant inides,  390.  *   i860;  Constantinides,  1—16. 

"  Cp.  Thumb,  Die  gr.  Sptatht  im  Zeilaiter  des  Hellmismus  {tgoi). 
'  Krumbacher's  Fislrttlc,  Das  Problem  dcr  neugriechisckm  Stkri/tsfrtKhe 
(1903)18-11. 

'  Delssmann'sSii/(.S'/ii^i(E.  T.  1901),  66  f.  and  Giessen  Vortrag,  1898- 
°  J.   H.  Moulton's  Winer,  1906,  Deissmann  in  TAeol.  RimdicluM  (1901) 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]     THE  LANGUAGE  CONTROVERSV.  375 

Chronicles  of  John  Mnlalas  (cent  vi)  and  on  that  of  Theophanes  (ik),  and  on 
the  writings  of  Constantine  Porphyrogenilua  (x)'.  The  first  important  repre- 
senlalive  of  the  distinclively  popular  lileialure  is  (he  great  national  epic  of 
Digenis  Akrilas  (the  earliest  elements  in  which  are  ascribed  to  the  itCh 
cenlury)'.  This  popular  literature  flourished  in  Crete  in  the  i6lh  and  ijlh 
centuries,  its  most  prominent  products  being  Ihe  Erolokritt!  of  Vincenio 
Cornaro  and  (he  Eropkile  of  Georgios  Chortalzes'.  I(  also  found  represen- 
tatives in  the  Ionian  Islands  in  the  i6th  and  in  the  early  iijth  century.  In  the 
latter  the  most  conspicuous  name  is  that  of  Sot6m6s  of  Zante,  who  has  been 
succeeded  by  Bataoriles  (Valaoritis)  of  Leukas,  and,  later  still,  by  I.  Polylas 
{d.  1896),  and  G.  Kalo^uros  (d.  1901),  the  translators  ot  the  //iarfand  the 
Proniethem  respectively*. 

The  conlioTcrsy  turns  mainly  on  the  question  whether  the  literary  language 
should  be  founded  on  the  language  of  the  people'  or  on  the  language  of  Ihe 
purisls.  Of  (he  purists  a  majority  have  fallowed  in  the  general  lines  al  the 
compromise  between  colloquial  and  classical  Greek  ad¥oca(ed  by  Koraes', 
while  some  have  ui^ed  a  return  lo  a  more  stricdy  classical  standard'.  This 
apparently  interminable  controversy  is  preeminently  one  (hat  must  be  settled 
by  tbe  Greeks  themselves.  They  are  apt  to  warn  foreign  scholars  that  a 
stranger  must  not  intermeddle  in  the  fray,  but  it  has  its  points  of  interest  to 
every  student  of  the  history  of  classical  scholarship,  to  whatever  nation  he  may 
belong.  Some  of  these  points  are  indicated  in  (he  calm  and  dbpassionate 
language  of  an  eminent  representative  of  modern  Greece,  who  has  a  special 
right  to  be  heard  on  this  subject; — 


58  f;  Thumb,  ib.  8s  fj  and  Milligan  on  Thns.  (1907)  iJif;  also  Deissmann's 
Ltclura  on  Biblical  Crak  (1908). 

'  Krumbacher,  16  f,  33  f.  '  ib.  35.  '  ib.  39. 

*  ib.  53  f,  and  Byi.  Lilt.  787 — 801  f.  For  specimens  of  the  popular 
language  of  Ihe  earlier  part  of  centuries  v  to  xvi,  see  E.  A.  Sophocles,  Ck  Lex. 
51 — 56,  and,  for  that  of  the  whole  period,  M.  Constantinides,  NeehtUenica 
(1895)60-80,  14-2  f,  r73f. 

'  J.  Polylas,  1;  0iXiAa7u)i  )Mt  ^Xwtfdo  (Ath.  1S91)  ;  Psycharis,  ^ia,  tal 
fi^Xa  (Alh.  1901),  and  Krumbacher's  Futrede  (Munich,  1903)  with  Ihe  litera- 
ture there  quoted. 

•  G.  H.  Hatiidakis,  La  QueUign  de  la  langui  kritt  nle-grecqui  (Ath.  190;), 
and  earlier  works.  Many  examples  of  (his  intermediate  style,  beginning  with 
the  Greek  Testament  and  ending  with  1759,  are  quoted  ib.  133— IS9- 

'  S.  D.  Byiantios  (the  lexicographer,  (835),  P.  SQtsos  (poet,  and  author 
of  the  vln  tx<i\ii)  and  G.  Chrysob^i^fs,  who  have  been  opposed  by  the 
moderate  purists  AsfSpios,  D.  Bemardikes,  KontiSs,  and  Hatzidikis  {La 
QtuUion,  75  f).  For  a  conspectus  of  the  existing  forms  of  modem  Greek,  cp. 
Jannaris,  Modem  Grak  Dictionary  (1895),  p.  xiii.  This  scholar  has  also 
produced  an  '  Ancient  Greek  Lexicon  for  Modern  Greeks',  and  a  '  Historical 
Greek  Grammar'  (1897). 

h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lC 


376  GREECE.  [cent.  XIX. 

'The  Greek  people  were  guided  in  ihe  progressive  developmeni  of  iheir 
tangnage  by  practical  and  urgeni  needs.  The  movement  which  has  made, 
wilhin  (he  last  century,  such  rapid  and  giant  strides,  nas  not  the  result  of 
scholastic  pedantry  or  of  political  fanaticism  ;  it  was  not  imposed  or  foiced  ;  it 
was  not  mechanical.  It  was  Ihe  result  of  the  spread  of  education  and  of  the 
grradual  re -civilization  of  the  country.  I(  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  it  preceded 
political  emancipation.  The  culture  of  tbe  Greek  languagje  and  the  study  of 
Greek  literature  have  undoubtedly  had,  at  all  limes  and  places,  and  still  have, 
as  an  immediate  result,  the  awakening  of  a  sense  of  individual  dignity  and  of 
national  freedom.  But  that  is  one  of  the  primary  reasons  why  the  study  of 
Greek  is  advocated  the  world  over  as  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  a  liberal 

Another  important  controversy,  that  on  the  pronunciation  of  Greek,  must 
here  be  very  briefly  noticed.     The  earlier  stages  of  this  con- 
*'"'!'  P.™'        troversy  have  been  duly  set  forth  by  Blass'.      Tbe  'Erasmian' 
method,  dating  from  1518,  prevails  in  various  forms  through- 
out Europe,  and  has  even  been  accepted  in  Russia'.    This  method  has  been 
criticised  by  Theodoros  Dcmelrakopulos'  and  others*.    The  modern  Greeks  in 
general  hold  that  their  own  pronunciation  has  descended  to  them  by  an  un- 
broken tradition  from  the  Greeks  of  the  classical  age.     This  view  has,  how- 
ever, been  refuted  by  their  foremost  living  scholar,  G.  N.   Hatzidakis.  who 
has  shown  that  neither  the  'Erasmian'   nor  the  modern  Greek  pronuncia- 
tion can  be  identical  with  any  single  ancient  pronunciation  of  the  language, 
although  he  admits  that,  in   many  points,  and  especially  with  regard  to  the 
vowels,  the  'Erasmian'  method  comes  theoretically  nearer  to  the  truths 

The  East  has  retained  a  comparatively  scanty  store  of  its 
ancient  classical  manuscripts.     During  the  Revival 
Conatanti-        of  Learning,  and  in  particular  between  1408  and 
"*^"'  14271  scholars  such  as  Guarino,  Aurispa  and  Filelfo 

transferred  not  a  few  important  mss  from  Constantinople  to  places 
of  greater  security  in  the  West*.  On  the  fall  of  Constantinople, 
large  numbers  of  Greek  MSS  are  said  to  have  been  sold  by  tbe 
Turks';  but  there  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  any  were  delibe- 
rately destroyed,  though  they  may  easily  have  been  damaged  or 
lost  for  want  of  proper  care.     In  1574  Martin  Crusius  wrote  to 

'  J.  Gennadios,  Preface  to  Kolokotrones,  ed.  Mrs  Edmonds,  1891,  p.  vii. 
'  ProHuniialion  of  AncUnt  Greek  (E.  T.  1890),  1  —  6. 
'  pimwc!  Tiir  wipi  T^i  'EXXi|)'i]t5i  rpo^pa!  ipaa/iitulr  dioieifeaip. 
*  Cp.  J.  Gennadios  in  Nineteenlh  Century,  Oct.  1895  and  Jan.   1896,  and 
in  Conteniporttry  Reman,  March,  1897  i  and  Constantinides,  304  f. 
°  'Aruiji/ieird  dm^niir/iaro  (1904),  184  f  (Knimbacher,  91). 
'  ii  36  f  iupra.  ^  i  437  f  ^/™- 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XXXIX]      GREEK   PRONUNCIATION.  377 

Stephan  Gerlach,  chaplain  of  the  German  legation,  inquiring  after 
Mss  of  Aristotle's  Constitutiora,  Theophrastus  etc.,  and  was 
informed  in  reply  that  even  the  more  learned  Greeks  confined 
their  reading  to  the  Fathers,  to  the  neglect  of  the  old  poets  and 
philosophers,  and  that  any  mss  of  the  Classics  which  still  survived 
had  doubtless  been  bought  up  by  the  agents  of  Italy  or  France'. 
When  the  library  of  Michael  Cantacuzenus  (who  had  fallen  into 
disfavour  with  the  Sultan)  was  sold,  a  few  Greek  mss  were  bought 
by  Gerlach'  and  ultimately  sent  to  Germany'.  In  1543  Soliman 
the  Magnificent  presented  a  smalt  collection  to  Diego  de  Men- 
do^  the  envoy  of  Charles  V.  After  1561,  under  the  same 
Sultan,  another  envoy,  Busbecq  (1522 — 1592),  sent  to  Vienna 
some  240  MSS,  including  the  famous  illustrated  Dioscorides  (v), 
which  he  had  bought  from  a  Jew,  the  son  of  the  physician  to  the 
Sultan*.  In  1565-75  catalogues  of  private  libraries  in  Constanti- 
nople and  Rhaedestos*  included  mss  of  Ephorus  and  Theopompus, 
Philemon  and  Menander,  but  the  authority  of  these  ascriptions  is 
very  doubtful'.  The  collection  of  mss  in  the  old  Seraglio,  the 
ancient  palace  of  the  Sultans,  which  presumably  includes  part  of 
tlie  former  library  of  the  Palaeologi,  has  long  been  veiled  in  a 
certain  degree  of  mystery.  During  the  revolution  of  1687  the 
Paris  Library  acquired  from  the  Sultan's  collection  fifteen  Greek 
MSS  of  centuries  xi— xv,  including  a  Herodotus  (xi)  and  a  Plutarch 
(xiii)*.  On  the  same  occasion,  203  other  Greek  mss  were  dis- 
persed, and  the  representative  of  France  informed  the  librarian 
in  Paris  that  there  were 'no  Greek  mss  left.  It  was  almost  exclu- 
sively Latin  mss  from  the  library  of  Matthias  Corvinus  that  were 
restored  to  Budapest  in  1869  and  1877'.  During  the  19th  cen- 
tury several  scholars  had  access  to  the  mss,  including  J.  D.  Carlyle 
(i8oo),  Weissenborn  (i857)'»,  and  E.  Miller  (1864)".    To  the  last 

'  Turca-Gratcia,  419,  48;.  '  ib.  509. 

'  Krumbacher,  Byi.  IMI.  jofi'. 
'  Graux,  L'Escurial,  iji— 183. 

>  Ep.  iv  (1561)  ad  Jin.;  Life  and  Lttters  {ed.  Forster  and  Diniell,  1881), 
i  417. 

•  R.  Foersler  (Rostock,  1877).  '  Krumbacher,  509*. 

'  Delisle,  Cabitut  dcs  MSS,  i  (iSfiS)  396  f;  list  iu  Nicolai,  58 1 
»  Blass  in  ffimies,  xxiii  (1888)  128. 
"  Ntuejakrb.  Ixxvi  (1857)  joi  f.  "  Melangis,  p.  iv. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


378  GREECE.  [CENT.  XIX. 

of  these  we  owe  the  list  of  Greek  Mss  reproduced  by  Blass  in  the 
account  of  his  visit  in  1887*.  This  list  includes  paper  mss  of  the 
Hiad  (xiii)  and  Polybius  i— v  (xv).  Among  the  six  other  Greek 
MSS  independently  noticed  by  Blass  is  a  volume  on  Tactics  (xv). 
One  or  two  of  the  ecclesiastical  mss  may  have  belonged  to  the 
library  of  the  Palaeologi.  A  I^ivy  mentioned  by  Miller  was  not 
found  by  Blass.  It  was  in  a  private  collection  that  the  ms  of 
Joannes  Lydus  (x)  was  identified  by  Choiseul-Gouffier  in  1785. 
and  It  was  in  the  ancient  library  of  the  Jerusalem  monastery,  in 
the  Greek  quarter,  that  the  unique  ms  of  the  'Teaching  of  the 
Apostles'  was  discovered  in  1873  by  Bryennios  (ed.  1883)*. 

An  important  ms  of  the  Constantinian  excerpts  from  Polybius 

and  other  historians  was  discovered  in  Cyprus  in 

1631  by  the  agents  of  Nicolas  Peiresc'. 

In  1650  the  library  of  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  contained 

'more   mss   than   could  be  read  in  a  life-time'*, 

but  it  now  has  little  of  classical  interest  except  a 

palimpsest  of  parts  of  Euripides',  fragments  from  the  comic  poets, 

and  from   the  Bibliotheca  of  'Apollodorus'*,  and  some  of  the 

letters  of  the  emperor  Julian. 

The  MSS  belonging  to  the  monastery  of  St  John,  founded  in 
1088  on  the  island  of  Patmos,  have  been  recorded 
in  three  early  catalogues  dated  1201',  1355'  and 
1382.  At  the  earliest  of  these  dates  the  number  was  already  330. 
When  Villoison  visited  the  island  in  1785,  the  monks  assured  him 
that,  twenty  years  previously,  they  had  burnt  from  two  to  three 
thousand!'  The  library  was  'in  a  most  neglected  state'  in  i8or, 
when  E.  D.  Clarke  identified  and  purchased  the  important  us 
now  known  as  the  Bodleian  Plato'".  Next  year,  after  the  monks 
had  become  better  aware  of  the  value  of  some  of  their  possessions, 

'  Hirmes,  xxiii  i\^\,  6ij  f. 

'  The  library  of  ihe  Syllngoi  has  been  caialogued  by  A.  Papadopulos 
Kerameus  (1891)1  who  has  also  catalogued  ihe  mss  in  Jerusalem,  Smyrna, 
Lesbos  etc.  (Knimbacher,  Sio^O- 

'  i  4O5  iupra.  *  Nicolai,  61. 

'  p.  371  supra.  °  Rhtin.  Mas.  xlvi  (1891)  i6[  f. 

'■  Diehl  in  E.  Z.  \  488  f.  *  Mai,  Nova  palrum  bib!,  vi  (i)  537  f. 

»  E.  D.  Clarke,  Travels,  vi  44  n. 

"'  ib-  47;  and  cp.  Sakkelion  in  AfXrfoi',  ii  417. 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]  MANUSCRIPTS.  379 

an  inscription  in  unmetrical  hexameters  to  the  following  effect  was 
placed  over  the  door  of  the  library : — 

In  ihis  place  are  lying  whatever  hss  there  are  of  note  ;  more  estimable  are 
Ihey  to  a  wise  roan  than  gold ;  guard  Iheiu,  therefore,  watchfully,  more  than 
your  life;  for  on  Iheir  account  is  this  monastery  now  become  conspicuous'. 

The  library  is  now  'a  spacious  and  airy  room,  and  the  books 
are  arranged  in  cases  along  its  walls'^.  Its  735  hss,  including 
a  not  very  important  Diodorus  (xi),  have  been  catalogued  by 
I.  SakkeHon',  who  discovered  certain  scholia  on  Thucydides^ 
Demosthenes  and  Aeschines';  and  some  scholia  on  Pindar  in  two 
copies  of  the  edttio  princtps.  These  last  were  published  by  Semi- 
telos ;  those  on  the  Pythian  odes  (which  correspond  to  the  scholia 
in  the  Breslau  Mss)  have  been  ascribed  to  Triclinius*. 

On  the  monastic  library  of  Megaipelaion,  near  Corinth,  we 
have  only  to  note  that  some  of  the  many  mss  saved 
from  the  fire  of  1600  were  acquired  m  1840  for  the 
library  of  the  Sorbonne'.  The  mss  found  in  different  parts  of  the 
kingdom  of  Greece  are  now  preserved  in  Athens, 
but  only  14  of  the  1856  MSS  are  connected  with 
classical  Greek". 

The  libraries  of  Mount  Athos  were  successfully  explored  by 
Janus  Lascaris  on  behalf  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici*, 
and  by  Nict5laos  Sophian6s  on  behalf  of  Mendoza, 
the  envoy  of  Charles  V'°.  mss  of  Homer,  Hesiod  and  the  Greek 
dramatists  and  orators  are  mentioned  by  travellers  in  the  i8ch 
century,  and  in  the  first  third  of  the  19th".  In  and  after  i8zo 
many  were  destroyed.  The  codex  Athous  of  Ptolemy's  Geography, 
formerly  part  of  the  same  volume  as  the  Strabo  (xii),  has  been 

'  Walpole,  ib.  44  n.  *  Tozer,  Iilaadi  of  Ike  Aegean,  190. 

'  Ath.  1890;  cp.  Krumbacher,  510'. 

*  Revue  de  PhUoIogie,  i  181  f. 

'  B.C.Xi  1-16,  13,-  isj  (BunUn.  i.  ijj). 
'  Bursian,_/ii^nM^.  V  10;. 

^  Th.  Zographos,  HeflaUphos  (Ath.  1861)  143  f. 
'  Nos.  1055-68  in  Sakkelion's  Catalogue,  1891. 

*  ii  37  sufim.  ■"  p.  377  supra. 

"  J.  D.  Carlyle  in  Watpoie's  Turkey,  196,  and  Hunt,  H.  101,  109;  E.  D. 
Clarke,  viii  19  (ed.  (gi8) ;  and  R.  Curzon's  Monasteries  of  the  Levant,  309, 
3i8{ed.5)- 


38o  GREECE.  [cent.  XIX. 

published  mfacsimik^.  In  1880  Spyridon  P.  Lampros  spent  four 
months  in  cataloguing  the  mss,  and  his  woik,  in  its  fmkX  form,  wa^ 
published  by  the  Cambridge  University  Press'.  Among  the  very 
few  classical  mss  there  recorded  are  single  plays  of  Sophocles, 
Euripides  and  Aristophanes,  and  separate  speeches  of  Demos- 
thenes, with  parts  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  There  are  also  several 
MSS  of  portions  of  the  fables  of  Aesop  and  of  Babrius. 

Babrius  is  the  author  special]]'  associated  with  Minofdes  MenSs  or  'Mynas' 
(1790 — 1860),  formerly  professor  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric 

MinSf*  ^'  Serrae  in  Macedonia,  who  fled  to  France  on  ihe  outbreak 
of  the  Greek  Revolntion  of  1811.  Id  1840  he  was  commis- 
sioned by  Viltemain  to  search  for  MSS  in  the  East.  In  Ihe  library  of  Si  Laura 
on  Mount  Athos  he  discovered  a  us  confining  lU  fables  of  Babrius,  of  which 
he  made  a  fairly  accurate  transcript.  This  transcript  was  promptly  edited  by 
Boissonade  (1844)  and  more  accurately  by  Lachmann  and  his  friends*.  On  a 
subsequent  visit  he  acquired  ihe  original,  a  parchment  ms  (x  or  xi],  which  was 
purchased  by  Ihe  British  Museum  in  1857.  In  this  MS,  fable  113  was  repre- 
sented by  a  single  line,  bul  Menas  in  his  transcript  added  six  bart>arous  lines 
of  his  own'.  The  success  of  this  little  venture  led  him  10  produce  95  more 
fables,  his  copy  of  which  was  purchased  by  the  Museum  in  the  same  year,  and 
edited  in  1859  by  G.  C.  Lewis,  who  was  fully  conscious  of  the  imperfections 
of  the  text  but  accepted  it  as  Equine".  The  spuriousness  of  ihis  second 
collection  was,  however,  soon  detected  and  exposed  by  Dilbner*  and  Cobet'. 
It  was  from  a  genuine  Ms  found  by  Menas  that  Boissonade  produced  in  1S4S 
a  new  edition  of  Ihe  Faceliat  of  Hietocles  and  Philagrius.  Menas  also  brought 
hack  from  Mount  Athos  a  MS  of  century  x  including  a  new  cotleclion  of 
Poliorcetica  and  part  of  Ihe  work  of  a  previously  unknown  but  unimportant 
historian,  Arislodemus,  once  believed  to  be  a  foi^ery'  bul  now  accepted  as 
genuine'.     Laslly,  he  discovered  an  important  ms  ideniified  by  E.  Miller  as 


'  Paris,  1867,  with  introd.  and  biblic^.  by  V.  Langlois. 
'  Two  large  quarto  vols.  1895,  1900.     He  has  since  written  on  the  medi. 
aeval  and  modern  Greek  copyists  and  collectors  of  MSS  (Ath.  1901-3). 
'  p.  119  SMfira. 

*  Rutherford's  ed.,   p.  Ixvii  f  1    cp.,  in  general,   Freli^nuna  to  ed.   by 
O.  Crusius  (1896). 

'  This  continued  to  be  ihe  view  of  Bei^k  and  Benihardy. 
'  Seviit  di  Pittslruclian  fuHique  en  Belgique  (i860)  84. 
'  MHtm.  ix  (i860)  378  f  (cp.  viii  (1859)  jjgf).    See  also  Ficus  in  Ross- 
bach,  .Mfw.' 808  f. 

'  C.  Wachsmuth,  in  Rhtin.  Mus.  xxiii  303  f. 

*  Cp.  Schwaiti  in  Pauly-Wissowa. 

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]      MENAS   AND  SIMONIDES.  38I 

the  lost  books  iv—x  of  the  'Refulalion  of  all  Heresies',  sometimes  called 
(frotn  the  title  of  liook  i)  the  Philesofhttaitna  of  Hippolytus'. 

It  vas  also  on  Mount  Athos  that,  in  or  tiefore  1851,  the  lost  '  Sktpkerd  of 
Hermas'  was  discovered  by  Constaotine  Simonides  ([814— 
1B67).  The  discoverer  made  a  copy  of  sin  leaves,  carried  off  .  g1"^JUe°* 
three  others,  and  submitted  the  whole  to  certdn  scholars  at 
Leipzig,  where  the  author  was  at  once  identified  by  Gersdorf  and  the  work 
published  by  Dindorf  (1856)'.  The  discoverer  described  himself  as  a  native 
of  Hydra,  who  had  been  educated  at  Aegina  and  on  his  mother's  native  island 
of  Syme,  N.W.  of  Rhodes.  It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  these  pages  to  dwell  on 
his  extensive  travels  and  his  extraordinary  adventures'.  SufBce  it  to  say  that 
he  paid  three  visits  to  Mount  Alhos,  in  1839 f,  1S48  and  [S51  f.  On  the  lirst 
of  these  visits  he  professed  to  have  discovered  a  secret  store  of  mss,  including 
an  Anacreon,  a  Hesiod  and  a  Homer  of  unprecedented  antiquity.  In  iS^S 
these  MSS  were  examiaed  at  Athens  without  any  unanimous  result,  and  they 
were  afterwards  bought  in  England  by  Sir  Thomas  PhilHpps*.  Simonides 
pretended  to  have  found  (among  many  other  Hss)  the  lost  work  of  Demetrius 
Magnes  'On  authors  bearing  the  same  names',  and,  being  unaware  that  the 
writer  in  question  lived  in  the  first  century  n,C.',  repeatedly  quoted  it  as  his 
authority  for  mailers  of  later  date,  such  as  the  life  of  Nunnus  in  the  fifth,  or  of 
Uranius  in  the  fourth  century  A.D.,  the 'Egyptian  History' of  the  latter  being 
one  of  his  most  flagrant  forgeries.  In  1861  he  even  claimed  to  have  written 
on  Mount  Athos  in  1840,  the  most  ancient  MS  of  the  Greek  Bible,  the  Codtx 
SinaiUcut  discovered  by  Tifchendorf  on  Mount  Sinai  in  1844-59,  a  MS  which 
(curiously  enough)  ends  with  the  opening  chapters  of  the  'Shepherd  of 
Hermas''.  Many  years  had  then  passed  since  the  Greeks  themselves  had 
discovered  that  Simonides  was  an  impostor.  Kumaniides  had  pronounced 
against  him  in  1S48;   Rangahes  had  denounced  all  his  MSS  as  foigeries  in 


'  p.  1J4  sHpra.  Minoides  Menaa  wrote  00  Greek  pronunciation  (1814), 
edited  the  '  Dialectic'  of  Galen  (1844),  and  translated  into  French  .Aristotle's 
Rhttark  (183;)  and  Philostralus,  De  Gymnatlica  (1853).  He  was  the  first  to 
print  in  1858  the  treatise  of  the  patriarch  Gennadios  against  the  Platonism  of 
Plethon.  He  has  sometimes  been  unjustly  confounded  with  Constantine 
Simonides  (as  in  Chrbt's  Gr.  Litt.  pp.  655,  9«'). 

'  On  these  six  leaves  see  Lampros  in  Catalogue,  no.  643  and  in  Dr  Aimilage 
Robinson's  pamphlet  on  Hermas  (Cambridge,  188S);  also  Prof.  Lake's  prekce 
to  t.\\e  facsimile  (Oxford,  1907). 

'  Cp.  C.  Stewart's  Memoir,  78  pp.,  1859;  and  J.  A.  Farrer's  Literary 
Forgeries  (1907),  39—66. 

*  Athenaeum,  4  Feb.  1857.  *  i  161  supra. 

'  On  this  claim,  cp.  Prothero's  Life  ef  Henry  Bradshain,  9* — 99;  also 
Journal  of  Saered  LiUralure,  Oct.  1861  (148—253)  and  Jul.  1863  (478—498), 
and  (on  Uranius)  Apr.  i8j6  (134-9). 


382  GREECE.  [cent.  XIX. 

1851  *,  while  in  1849  Mustoxydes,  on  receiving  from  him  a  presentation  copy 
of  the  'Symais  of  Meletios',  acknowledged  the  gift  in  a  Tetter  of  exemplary 
courtesy,  making  it  perfectly  plain  that  he  had  detected  the  fraud'.  The  fact 
that  he  was  a  notorious  impostor  is  almost  ail  that  is  now  generally  associated 
with  his  name.  It  is  only  fair,  however,  to  remember  that  some  of  his  MSS 
were  genuine  and  some  of  his  statements  were  true.  The  true  and  the  &lse 
uere,  in  fact,  so  strangely  intermingled  that  he  might  with  perfect  truth  have 
said  of  himself  in  the  words  of  the  poet  whose  'most  ancient'  MS  he  falsely 
claimed  to  have  discovered : — 


While  the  old  Greek  Classics  (as  edited  by  Koraes  and 
others)  have  naturally  been  studied  with  enthusiasm  in  modem 
Greece,  a  prottiinent  place  has  also  been  taken  by  the  study  of 
archaeology.  Kyriak6s  Pittakes  (^.  1806^1863), 
who  in  1836  succeeded  Ludwig  Ross  as  Conser- 
vator of  Antiquities  at  Athens,  had  published  in  1835  a  meri- 
torious work  entitled  VAncUnne  Atfutnes.  He  spent  most  of 
his  energies  on  editing  inscriptions*.  The  interest  in  archaeol<^y, 
exhibited  in  1837  by  the  foundation  of  the  Greek  Archaeological 
Society  and  the  c^jj/«pU  apx^f^oyi'"?.  was  revived  by  the  energy 
of  Al^xandros  Risos  Rangabes  (1810 — 1892),  who 
was  born  at  Constantinople,  was  educated  at 
Odessa,  and  studied  in  Munich.  At  Athens  he  successively 
became  Minister  of  Education  (1832),  professor  of  Archaeology 
(1845-56),  and  Foreign  Minister  (1856-9).  He  was  afterwards 
Greek  Minister  in  Washington,  Paris  and  Berlin,  As  professor, 
he  published  his  Antiquities  HelUniques  (1842-55)  and  his  Hel- 
/eniai{i&55).  He  excavated  part  of  the  Heraeumof  Argos(i855)', 
translated  Plutarch's  Lives  into  modern  Greek  (1864-6),  wrote 
a  history  of  modern  Greek  literature  (1877),  and  published  no 
less  than  fourteen  volumes  oJ  philological  'AroitTa  (1874-6)'. 

'  Pandata,  185 if,  and  Lilt.  NtohiUhi.  i  188— rpi. 

*  /liBfltra,  1(1851)  163;  Constan  tin  ides,  376—380. 
'  Hesiod,  Tkeog.  17. 

*  Cp.  Michaelis,  Arch.  Enid.  49;  RangaM,  i   179;  Edmond  About  and 
S.  Reinach  quoted  by  Th.  Reinach  in  L'NtlUnismc,  1  July  1907. 

'  Michaelis,  111. 

*  Cp.  Litt.  Nh-HtlUn.  ii  48 — 104 ;  portrait  in  Hellenk  Aanual  {Lond. 
1880)  140. 

h,  i.MiA.OOt^lC 


CHAP.  XXXIX.J      RANGABES.      KUMANUDES.  383 

The  Archaeolt^cal  Society  founded  amid  the  ruins  of  the 
Parthenon  in  April,  1837,  was,  for  the  first  thirty  years  of  its 
existence,  mainly  concerned  with  inscriptions^.  A  valuable  col- 
lection of  Greek  epitaphs  was  published  in  1871  by  Stephanos 

KumaniidSs*   (1818 — iSgg).     It   comprised   more 

„       ,  .  ,    ,  ,      ,    .  ,       Kum»nMe» 

than  2800  Items,  it  represented  the  work  of  sis  and 

twenty  years,  and  was  printed  at  the  author's  own  expense.     The 

author,  a  native  of  Philoppopolts,  was  an  ideal  scholar  and  an 

ideal   teacher.     He  had   bfeen  appointed  professor  of  Latin  in 

1845,  had  made  his  mark  as  a  poet  {1851),  and,  owing  to  his 

high  character  and  his  many-sided  learning,  had  been  appointed 

instructor  to  the  young  king  of  the  Hellenes  on  his  first  arrival  in 

Greece.     Meanwhile  the  Society  had  resumed  the  excavation  of 

the    Dionysiac  theatre,    vigorously  taken  in  hand  by  Strack  in 

1862".      The   success    of   Konstantinos    Karapanos   at    Dodona 

(18750  pfonipted  the  Society  to  explore  the  precinct  of  Askle- 

pios,  S.  of  the  Acropolis  (1876),  the  shrine  of  Amphiaraiis  at 

Orfipus  (18S4-7),  the  sacred  sites  of  Eleusis  (1882-91)  and  Epi- 

daurus  (1881-3)',  ^^^  '^^e    Heraeum  of  Samos   (igoz)*.     The 

excavation  of  the  platform  of  the  Acropolis,   begun  by  Stama- 

takes  in  1884,  was  completed  by  his  successor  Kabbadias',  the 

explorer  of  Epidaurus. 

A  Hellenic  Philolt^ical  Society  was  founded  in  Constanti- 
nople, and  was  supported  by  Germans  such  as  Mordtmann, 
Frenchmen  such  as  Dethier,  and  Englishmen  such  as  Alexander 
van  Millingen'.  Smyrna,  which  has  for  centuries  been  a  place 
of  resort  for  collectors  of  antiquities,  ending  with  the  numis- 
matist, Borreli,  is  well  known  as  a  centre  of  Greek  culture". 

A  series  of  mediaeval  Greek  texts  has  been  edited  by 
Konstantinos  Sathas'.     The  History  of  the  study  of  Byzantine 

'  Kastorches,  'loropii:?!  fnffivit  (1837-79),  Ath.  1879 ;  Kabbadias,  'laropla 
T^  'Apx^o^T"^  ' Eroi/K (hi.  1900;  and  Th.  Reinach,  Za  Gri^e  retmuvie 
par  la  Grus,  in  VHiUiaistne  for  i  July— i  August,  1907. 

'  P-  373  '«f<^' 

*  Michaelis,  104.    The  excavation  extended  over  twenty  years  (1858-78). 

*  ib.  106.  ^  oiiXXoyoi,  i86of. 

*  Cp.,  ingenera.1,  Slark,  345. 

»  MwoiBWiirii  jSi^Xioe^mj,  i— vi  (Veo.  1871 ;  Paris,  1874-7)  i  M«w«!ii,  i  ii 

h,  i.MiA.OOgIc 


384  RUSSIA.  [CENT.  XIX. 

and  Modem  Greek  lies  beyond  the  limits  of  the  present  work. 
An  interesting  outline  of  the  scope  of  such  a  History,  with  a 
summary  of  the  extant  literature  of  the  subject,  has  been  given  by 
Krumbacher,  the  scholar  who  is  most  competent  to  fill  the  lacuna*. 

In  Russia,  the  systematic  study  of  the  classical  langu^es 
goes  back  to  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the 
ecclesiastical '  Academy'of  Kiev, founded  in  1620, 
I-atin  was  thoroughly  studied  from  1 63 1  to  the  end  of  the  century ; 
in  fact,  it  was  almost  the  only  medium  of  instruction,  and  the 
use  of  even  a  single  word  of  the  vernacular  language  was  severely 
punished'.  One  of  the  students  produced  a  translation  of  Thu- 
cydides,  and  of  Pliny's  Panegyric. 

From  Kiev  the  study  of  the  Classics  was  transmitted  to 
Moscow.  The  Latin  Grammar  in  use  was  that  of  Alvarez'.  The 
printing-school,  founded  at  Moscow  in  1679,  was  the  first  insti- 
tution involving  the  study  of  Greek,  that  was  subsidised  by  the 
government.  Throughout  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Slavo- 
Greco-Latin  Academy  (founded  in  1685)  was  the  principal  source 
of  classical  learning.  The  first  teachers  of  note  were  two  brothers 
of  Greek  origin,  named  Likhftdes,  who  were  natives  of  Cepha- 
lonia.  They  had  taken  their  doctor's  degree  at  Padua ;  and, 
under  their  tuition,  the  students  acquired  a  remarkable  facility  in 
Latin*.  The  Academy  was  highly  favoured  during  the  reign  of 
Peter  the  Great  (1689— 1725). 

During  the  eighteenth  century,  and  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth,  classical  publications  were  limited  to  translations. 
The  principal  Greek  and  Latin  authors  were  translated  in  twenty- 
six  volumes  by  Martynov  (1771  — 1883).  The  first  quarter  of 
the  nineteenth  saw  the  publication  of  the  earliest  works  on  the 
archaeolc^y  of  the  Northern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea*. 

(Paris,  iSSo-l) ;  Digtnis  Airitas  (ed.  Sathas  and  E.  S.  Legrand.  1875);  His- 
tory of  Psellus  (London,  1899).     Cp-,  in  general,  BuT^an,  ii  IJ44-8. 

'  Ff stride,  186  f. 

'  Boulgakov,  Hist,  de  rAeadhnie  dt  Kiev  (Kiev,  1873)  13,  175  f. 

'  ii.  163  su/<ra. 

'  Srsmenski,  Les  Icelts  tccllsiasliqats  en  Russit  avani  la  riforme  de  1808 
{Kazan.  1881),  740. 

•  Moutaviev-Apostol,   Li  voyage  en    Tauride  en   i8so  (St  P^teisbourg, 

r,,,„n,^.OOglC 


CHAP,  xxxrx.]  MOSCOW.  38s 

At  the  university  of  Moscow  (founded  in  1755)  R.  T.  Tim- 
kovski  (1785 — 1820),  who  had  listened  with  admi- 
ration to  Heyne's  lectures  at  Gottingen,  produced      Timvovsiii 
an  edition  of  Phaednis,  and  a  Latin  thesis  on  the        Kriukov 
Dithyramb  (1806),  in  which  he  gave  proof  of  his'        ivanov 
command  of  a  clear  Latin  style.     D.  L.  Kriukov  eonuev 

(1809 — 1845),  who  attended  the  lectures  of  Morgenstern,  Francke, 
and  Neue  at  Dorpat,  and  of  Boeckh  in  Berlin,  published  papers 
on  the  age  of  Quintus  Curtius,  and  on  the  tragic  element  in 
Tacitus,  with  an  edition  of  the  Agricola,  and  a  work  on  the 
original  differences  in  religion  between  the  Roman  Patricians  and 
the  Plebeians'.  K.  K.  Goerz  {1820 — 1883),  one  of  the  earliest 
professors  of  archaeology  in  Russia,  wrote  on  the  Peninsula  of 
Taman,  also  on  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  on  the  discoveries  of 
Schliemann.  The  admirable  Latin  scholar,  G.  A.  Ivanov  (1816 — 
1901),  besides  producing  excellent  renderings  of  the  niasteq>ieces 
of  Latin  literature,  wrote  on  Cicero  and  his  contemporaries  (1878), 
and  translated  Plutarch,  De  facie  in  orbe  lunae,  and  the  '  Harmonic 
Introduction '  ascribed  to  Euclid.  Leontiev,  who  lectured  on 
Roman  Antiquities  and  Greek  Mythology,  and  published  a  work 
on  the  worship  of  Zeus  in  ancient  Greece,  founded  in  1850  a 
periodical  called  the  Propylaea,  including  papers  on  classical 
subjects  by  Katkov  (on  Greek  philosophy),  Kudriavtsev  (on 
Greek  literature  and  on  Tacitus),  and  Kriukov  (on  Roman  litera- 
ture and  antiquities). 

The  university  of  Vilna,  founded  in  1803,  was  superseded  in 
1833  by  that  of  Kiev,  which  was  not  placed  on  the 
same  level  as  the  other  universities  until  1863-84. 

At    the    university    of    St    Petersburg    (founded    in     1819), 
N.  M.  Blagoviestschenski  (1821  — 1891),  who  attended  the  lectures 

1813  i  German  Iransl.  1815-6 ;  Italian  transl.  1833).  J.  Stemporalii, 
Retkirches  sur  la  sUaalion  des  anriennts  lehnies  grxi/ues  ilu  Pmil-Eaxin, 
St  P^t.,  1816).  Both  of  these  schokts  published  many  other  works  in 
Russian  and  in  French. — For  the  principal  works  in  Greek  and  Latin  scholar- 
ship published  in  Russia,  cp.  Paul  Prozorov,  Index  SystSnialiqut,  xvi  +  374  pp., 
St  Pet.,  1898;  and  Naghouievski's  Bibliographie  de  rkistoire  de  la  littiralurc 
lalineen  Russie  1709—1889,  +8  pp.  (Kaian,  1889). 

'  Posthumously  published  under  the  pseudonym  of  Dr  Pellegrino  (Leipiig, 
.849). 

^-  "'■  h,  i.,ii,i?5oo^ic 


386  RUSSIA.  [cent.  XIX. 

of  Hermann,  W.  A.  Becker,  and  Haupt  at  Leipzig,  and  of  Creuzer 
and  Schlosser  at  Heidelberg,  was  the  earliest  notable 
*  ,*"",  "'^      professor  of  Russian  birth.     His  masterpiece  was  a 
schensjci  worlc  OH  Horace  and  his  age^.     He  also  produced 

lerniKcdt  ^"  annotated  translation  of  Persius,  and  wrote 
papers  on  Vii^il's  Cofia,  on  Niebuhr's  views  as 
to  the  relation  of  the  lays  of  ancient  Rome  to  the  early 
histories  of  the  city,  and  on  the  coincidence  between  the  story 
of  the  Matrona  Epkesia  of  Petronius  and  a  popular  narrative 
of  the  district  of  Perm.  Karl  Joachim  Lugebil  (1830 — 1888), 
who  was  of  German  parentage,  studied  at  St  Petersburg,  where 
he  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  Graefe  an  able  dissertation 
De  Venere  Coliade  Genetyllide  (1859).  Accompanied  by  his  wife, 
he  travelled  in  Germany,  Italy  and  Greece.  His  best-known 
works  were  connected  with  Athens: — (i)  On  Ostracism  and 
(z)  On  the  history  of  the  Athenian  Constitution'.  His  Cornelius 
Nepos  passed  through  several  editions.  Among  his  contributions 
to  classical  periodicals  may  be  mentioned  his  papers  on  the 
untrust worthiness  of  the  Alexandrian  system  of  accentuation'. 
He  was  a  man  of  fine  character,  and  an  admirable  teacher*. 
V.  K.  lemstedt  {1854 — 1902),  one  of  the  best  of  Russian  Hel- 
lenists, produced  an  excellent  edition  of  Antiphon  {1880)',  which 
had  been  preceded  by  studies  on  the  minor  Attic  Orators- 
He  also  published  the  'Fragments  of  Attic  comedy  acquired  by 
bishop  Porphyrius'  (1891),  adding  largely  to  the  portions  of 
these  fragments  that  had  been  deciphered  by  Tischendorf',  and 
contributing  many  important  criticisms  on  points  of  palaeography 
and  exegesis.  The  Historico- Philological  Institute  was  founded 
at  St  Petersburg  in  1867  with  a  view  to  training  school-masters 
in  history,  literature,  and  the  classical  languages. 

At  the  university  of  Kazan  (founded  in  1804),  the  earliest 
writings  of  D.  T.  Bieliaev  (1846 — 1901)  were 
mainly  concerned  with  '  Hiatus  in  the  Odyssey ', 
and  with  the  political  and  religious  opinions  of 

1  1864;  ed.  2,  1878. 

'  Jahrb.f.  d.  PhU.  Suppl.  iv— v  (1861-71). 

'  Rkein.  Mus.  1888.  *  Biogr.  yakrb.  1888,  16—35. 

"  Cobet,  in  Aftum.  v  i6gi.  •  Ed.  Cobet,  1876. 


>,Cooglc 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]      ST   PETERSBURG.      KAZAN.      ODESSA.     387 

Euripides  (1876).  He  is  best  known  in  connexion  with  his 
Byzantina,  a  work  including  a  detailed  commentary  on  the  court 
of  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus'. 

At  the  university  of  Odessa  (founded  in  1865),  L.  F.  Voe- 
vodski   (1846 — 1901)    studied    Homer,    and    the 
primitive  Greek  mythology.     In  his  earhest  work, 
'on  cannibalism  in  Greek  Mythology',  he  regarded 
the  myths  as  inspired,  not  by  a  creative  imagination,  but  by  the 
observation  of  the  daily  phenomena  of  nature  (1874).     His  'in- 
troduction to  the  mythology  of  the  Odyssey'  (i88rl  was  mainly 
on  'Solar  Monotheism'. 

Lastly,  at  the  university  of  Kharkov  (founded  1804),  1. 1.  Kro- 
neberg   {1788 — 1838)   was    one    of    the    foremost 
representatives  of  classical  scholarship  in   Russia 
during   the   early  part  of  the    rgth  century.     He  '    "    's 

was  of  German  origin,  but  acquired  a  perfect  mastery  of  the 
Russian  language.  His  Latin -Russian  Dictionary  passed  through 
six  editions  (1819-60).  He  also  published  a  compendium  of 
Roman  Antiquities,  and  editions  of  Horace's  Epistola  ad  Au- 
gustum,  Cicero  pro  lege  Manilia,  and  Sallust,  and  a  paper  of 
literary  criticism  on  Persius.  His  numerous  articles  on  the 
Classics,  as  well  as  on  general  literature  and  art,  appeared  in  the 
periodicals  entitled,  Amalthie,  Brochures,  and  Minerve,  which 
filled  the  same  place  at  Kharkov  as  the  Profylaea  founded  by 
Leontiev  at  Moscow.     He  was  celebrated  for  his  aphorisms,  e.g. 

'  Tout  livre  doit  etre  cosmopolite;  mais  il  y  en  a  qui  ne  reflitent  que  la 
nielle,  ou  lis  sont  nes'i  'Tel  bomme  lessemble  i  un  livre,  et  (el  livre 
ressemble  i  un  homme.  La.  vraie  lecture  est  une  lutte.  On  ne  commence 
souvenl  k  aimer  un  homme  qu'aprcs  s'etre  bien  querelle  Bvec  lul ;  il  en  est  de 
m?me  pour  leslivres''. 

The  above  survey  is  mainly  limited  to  scholars  of  Russian 
birth,  among  whom  Lugebil  and  Kroneberg  alone 
were    of   German    parentage.     The    university   of 
Dorpat,  founded  in  Livonia  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632,  was 

»  Cp.  Byx.  Zeilschr.  1  .i+s,  iii  184. 

'  Almost  (he  whole  of  the  above  account  of  native  Russian  Scholarship  is 
abridged  from  a  survey  of  the  subject,  which  Prof.  A.  Maleyn  of  St  Petersbui^ 
has  kindly  written  in  French  on  my  behalf,  at  the  request  of  Prof.  Zielinski. 

25—3 

h.  i.,  ii^l^.OO^IC 


388  RUSSIA.  [CENT.  XIX. 

reconstituted  by  Alexander  I  in  1802.  Four  years  previously, 
all  Russian  subjects  had  been  recalled  from  the  universities  of 
Germany,  but  Dorpat  remained  a  centre  of  German  influence 
from  1S02  to  189s';  thenceforward  the  Russian  language  alone 
was  allowed  to  be  used  in  the  lecture-rooms. 

The  university  of  Finland,  founded  by  Sweden  at  Abo  in 
1640,    was  transferred   to    Helsingfors    by    Russia 
in   1827.     The    professor  of  Latin    in  that  uni- 
versity, F.  W.  Gustafsson  (b.  1825),  has  published  criticisms  on 
the  text  of  Cicero  De  Finibus,  and  on  that  of  Apollinaris  Sidonius. 
At  Borgo,  E.  of  Helsingfors,  a  professorship  of  Classics  was  as- 
signed in  1837  to  the  Swedish   poet,  Runeberg  (1804— 1877), 
who  was  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  Greek  and  Latin  poets. 
The  earliest  of  the  German  scholars,  who  resided  in  Russia 
for    a    large  part   of   their   lives,    was   Christian 
Russia:  Friedrich  Matthaei  (1744 — 1811),     He  had  been 

a  pupil  of  Ernesti  at  Dresden,  and  had  also  studied 
at  Leipzig;  he  was  rector  and  professor  in  Moscow 
(1772-85),  and,  after  spending  four  years  as  head  of  the  school 
at  Meissen,  and  sixteen  as  professor  of  Greek  at  Wittenberg, 
returned  to  Moscow  for  the  last  six  years  of  his  life.  He  is  best 
known  for  having  discovered  at  Moscow  in  1780  a  MS  of  the 
Homeric  Hymns,  including  the  Hymn  to  Detneier  (first  published 
by  Ruhnken')  and  twelve  lines  of  a  Hymn  to  Dionysus'.  Almost 
all  his  own  work  was  connected  with  Byzantine  literature. 

One  of  Hermann's  pupils.  Christian  Friedrich  Graefe  (1780 — 

1851),  who  became  professor,  librarian,  and  keeper 

"*  *  of  Antiquities  at  St  Petersbuig,  studied  Meleager 

and  the  Bucolic  poets,  and  edited  Nonnus  (1819-20).     He  gave 

'  The  lung  lisl  of  Germans  appointed  to  teach  classical  or  cognate  subjects 
at  Dorpat  b^ns  with  K.  Moi^enslein  (i8ci),  C.  L,  Struve  (1805),  J.  V. 
Francke  (r8ii),  W.  F.  Clossius  (1814).  F.  K.  H.  Kruse  (i8^8).  C.  F.  Neue 
(1831),  L.  Preller  (1838),  and  E.  Osenbruggcn  (1843).  Among  ihe  latest  was 
L.  Mendelssohn  ([876). 

'  Bursian,  ii  551  f-  Matthaei  mutilated  certain  Greek  Mss  in  Moscow  and 
carried  his  plunder  off  to  Cermany.  He  was  charged  with  this  theft  as  early 
as  1789,  and  the  charge  has  since  been  conRimed  (Oscar  von  Gebhardt,  in 
Cenlialbl.  fiir  Btbl.,   i8()8). 


,1^.00' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]   HELSINGFORS.     GERMANS   IN   RUSSIA.     389 

instruction  in  Greek  to  his  friend  Count  Uvarov  (1785 — 1855), 
the  Russian  Minister  of  Education,  who  wrote  in  French  on  the 
Mysteries  of  Eleusis  and  in  German  on  the  Poetry  of  Nonnus 
and  on  the  Prae-Homeric  Age-  He  uses  German  in  his  work 
on  Nonnus  because  'the  revival  of  classical  learning  belongs 
to, the  Germans".  He  exemplifies  the  influence  of  the  New 
Humanism  beyond  the  borders  of  Germany'. 

Friedrich  Vater,  son  of  J.  S.  Vater,  studied  at  Berlin,  where 
he  died  {1810— 1866).    Of  his  earlier  works,  the  best 
known  is  his  edition  of  the  R/iesus  (1837).     His 
papers  on  Andocides,  begun  in  Berlin,  were  continued  at  Kazan, 
and  he  also  published  at  Moscow  an  edition  of  the  Iphigenia  in 
Aulis  {1845).     During  the  forties,  classical  studies  in  Russia  were 
much  influenced    by   German    scholarship,  as   represented    by 
Boeckh  and  K.  O-  Miiller  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  Ritschl  on 
the  other.     The  last  33  years  of  the  life  of  Nauck 
(1822-92),  and  the  greater  part  of  the  last  28  years        L^Miiiier 
of  that  of  Lucian  Miiller  (1836-98),  were  devoted 
to  the  teaching  of  Greek  and  Latin  respectively  at  St  Petersbui^'. 

Jacob  Theodor  Struve  (1816 — 1886),  who  studied  at  Dorpat 
and  Konigsberg,  taught  for  twenty  years  at  the 
university  of  Kazan,  was  Greek  professor  at 
Odessa  (1865-70),  and  Anally,  for  eight  years,  director  of  the 
gymnasium  at  St  Petersburg,  He  is  best  known  for  his  criticisms 
on  Quintus  Smymaeus'',  having  been  led  to  study  that  poet  by 
his  uncle,  Carl  Ludwig  Struve,  whose  Opusmla  SeUcta  he  edited. 

'  Reprinted  in  his  Eludes.  Cp.  Geoiu  Schmid,  Ziir  rmHschen  Gelehrttn- 
^eschiihte,  99.  Count  Uvarov's  German  Essa.y  was  dedicaled  in  1S17  to 
Goethe,  who  calls  him  eitten  Jdhigen,  talentvoUin,  gdsireick  gcaiandlm  Mann 
(in  Ftrams  iiber  deutscke  Lilleratur,  xxvii  150  Cotta,  quoted  by  Schmid  l.i: , 
mSuss,  Rtvue,  xxv  77 — 108,  ij6 — i6j). 

''  For  ten  years  (1S56-46)  Graefe  counted  among  his  colleagues  the  pro- 
fessor of  Latin,  T.  F.  Freflag  (1800—1858).  Most  of  the  brief  memoranda 
on  classical  scholars  in  Russia,  prinled  by  Creuzer,  Zur  Gtsch.  do-  cl.  Pkitol. 
(1854),  166—171,  were  supplied  in  1846  by  Fieytag,  who,  besides  the  more 
obvious  name;,  mentions  Groddeck  (1762 — 1814),  professor  at  Vilna,  and 
Karl  Hofmann  in  Moscow,  editor  of  Thucydides,  1S40-J. 

*  See  pp.  i49fand  i8gfj/i/ra. 

*  Petrop.,  1843;  Casani,  i860. 

h.  i.MiA.OOgIc 


H.  Kilhler 


390  HUNGARY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

At  Odessa,  he  worked  at  the  local  Greek  inscriptions,  publishing 
the  results  of  his  researches  in  his  Pontiscke  Brie/e^iZTiY- 

The  study  of  classical  archaeology  in  Russia  dale^  from  the  reign  of  Feler 
the  Great  (A.  1715).  The  Academy  of  Sciences,  founded  in 
Arch>col<^>»  jj^^^  included  the  name  of  Theophil  Siegfried  Bayet  (1694— 
1738)  of  Konigsberg,  who  applied  an  accurate  knowledge,  oi 
numismatics  to  his  works  on  Greek  Chronolc^,  the  Achaean  League,  and  the 
Greek  rule  in  Asia,  besides  writing  a  monograph  on  the  '  Venus  of  Cnidos ',  in 
connexion  with  a  statue  (lurchased  in  Rome  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1 ;  18. 

The  conquest  of  Ihe  Crimea  in  1783,  and  of  the  Northern  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea  in  1791,  led  lo  those  former  sites  of  Greek  civilisation  being 
explored  by  Russia  under  an  organisation  whose  centre  was  in  St  Petersburg. 
Under  Alexander  1  (iSoi-is)  Classical  Philoli^y  and  Archaeology  were 
delinitely  recognised  in  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  the  President  of  Che 
Academy,  Count  Uvarov,  took  the  keenest  interest  in  the  atchaeotf^cal 
exploration  of  the  southern  parts  of  Rus^a.  The  discoveries  in  that  region 
were  the  Iheme  of  the  letters  addressed  to  the  Academy  by  a 
pupil  of  Heyne,  Heinrich  K.  E.  Kohler  (tjfis — 1838),  who 
devoted  most  of  his  time  to  the  study  of  ancient  gems.  His  collected  papers 
on  archaeolt^ical  topics  were  edited  for  the  Academy  in  six  volumes  by 
Ludolf  Slephani  (1850-3).  Von  Stackelberg  (1787—183+), 
who  studied  al  Gotlingen,  and  spent  many  years  in  Dresden 
and  in  Greece  and  Italy  in  the  study  of  archaeology',  did  not  return  to  Russia 
until  the  last  year  of  his  life.  In  the  meantime,  his  German  contemporary, 
Hermann's  pupil,  Graefe',  who  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Russian  Academy 
in  18)0,  was  working  at  the  Greek  inscriptions  of  the  South  coast,  while 
Moi^enstem  of  Halle  (1770—1851)  was  awakening  an  interest  in  Greek  ait 
at  Dorpat.  The  archaeological  work  begun  by  Kohler  was  ably  continued  by 
Stephani  (1816—1887),  "ho  studied  at  Leipzig,  was  professor 
at  Dorpat  (1846-50),  and  keeper  of  the  Antiquities  of  the 
Hermitage  at  St  Peterslmrg  for  the  last  37  years  of  his  life.  He  was  the 
author  of  many  important  monographs  on  the  archaeological  discoveiies  in 
South  Russia'. 

Hungary  was  among  the  homes  of  humanism  in  the  reign  of 
Matthias   Corvinus  (d,    1490),  whose    library   was 
scattered  on  the  occasion  of  the  capture  of  the 
capita]  by  the  Turks  In  1526'. 

'  BUgr.  yahrb,  1886,  11—13. 

"  p.  2 18  SHjn-a.  '  p.  388  sufra. 

*  P-  123  "'/»'•'■ 

s  ii  175  and  iii  377  sufra. 


i-MM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XXXIX.]  TfiLFY.      ABEL.  391 

Latin  long  remained  in  use  as  a  living  language  in  Hungary'; 
the  debates  of  the  Diet  were  conducted  in  Latin  until  1825'; 
but  there  was  little  interest  in  classical  literature  until  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  there  was  a  revival  of  learning 
attested  by  numerous  translations  of  the  Classics,  as  well  as  the 
publication  of  classical  text-books.  Among  those  who  aimed  at 
producing  works  of  more  permanent  value  was 
Ivan  Telfy  (1816— 1898),  Greek  Professor  at  Buda-  " 

pest,  whose  Studies  on  Greek  pronunciation  (1853)  were  followed 
by  his  Corpus  Juris  A  Uia  {1&68),  and  by  his  edition  of  Aeschylus 
(1876).  On  his  retirement  in  1886,  he  was  succeeded  by  Eugen 
Abel  (1858 — 1889),  who  owed  his  knowledge  of 
English  and  German  to  his  mother  (a  native  of 
England),  and  who  added  to  the  French  that  he  had  learnt  at 
school  the  Italian  that  he  acquired  at  the  university.  At  Buda- 
pest he  attracted  the  attention  of  the  restorer  of  classical  learning 
in  Hungary,  Emil  Thewrewk  de  Ponor'.  In  1877  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  his  knowledge  of  palaeography,  and  of  the  history 
of  humanism  in  Hungary,  in  the  study  of  certain  mss  from  the 
library  of  king  Corvinus,  which  were  then  restored  by  the  Turks. 
He  was  thus  led  to  explore  the  libraries  of  Europe  in  quest  of 
MSS  of  the  Epic  poets  of  Greece  and  the  humanists  of  Hungary. 
On  his  return  he  succeeded  T^lfy  as  professor  of- Greek,  but  held 
that  position  for  three  years  only,  dying  at  Constantinople  on  the 
eve  of  his  examination  of  the  ancient  mss  of  that  city. 

In  Ihe  department  of  Greek  Epic  poetry,  he  produced  critical  editions  of 
KoUuthos  (18S0),  ihe  Orphic  Lithska  and  tlie  Orphica  (18S1-5),  the  Homeric 
Hymns  and  Epigram!,  and  the  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice  (18B6).  He 
introduced  the  digamma  into  his  ediliAi  of  the  Homeric  Hymns;  his 
Hungarian  commentary  on  the  Odyssey  was  preceded  by  a  Homeric  Giaminar 
published  in  18S1,  a  year  before  that  of  Monro.     He  also  edited  two  volumes 


'  On  the  language  of  Latin  literature  in  Hungary,  cp.  Bairlal,  Glossarium 
mediae  et  infimai  Laltnilalis  rtgni  Hungariae  (Leipzig,  1901). 

>  In  Hungary,  Croatia,  and  Transylvania,  'Latin  conversation  was  last 
heard  in  1848,  and  then  only  from  Croat  lips'  (67.  Rev.  xxi  117).  Possibly 
here  (as  in  Italy)  colloquial  Latin  was  killed  by  the  revival  of  learning. 

'  Born  18385  founder  of  the  Budapest  Philolc^ical  Society,  and  joint- 
editor  of  its  literary  organ,  since  1871. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


392  HUNGARY.  [CENT.  XIX. 

o(  scholia  on  Pindai{iS84-Qi),  and  published  tlie  Ancient  and  Mediaeval  Lives 
of  Terence  (1887).  Among  his  publications  connected  with  the  history  of 
humanism  in  Hungary  were  his  Anaiecia  on  [he  Hungarian  humanists  and  ihe 
'learned  society  of  the  Danube  '  (1880),  his  article  on  Hungarian  unlveisilies  in 
the  Middle  Ages  088i)>  and  his  edition  of  the  remains  of  Isofta  Nogarola  of 
Verona  (iS86).  His  work  in  this  department  is  of  special  importance  for  the 
period  between  the  accession  of  king  Corvinus  (1464)  and  the  battle  of 
Mohacs  (1516)'. 

The  publications  of  the  Hungarian  Academy  are  in  the 
Magyar  language,  which  is  also  used  in  the  principal  philological 
journal",  but  a  medium  of  communication  with  the  scholars  of 
Europe  is  provided  by  the  Likrarische  Berichte  aus  Ungarn  and 
by  the   Ungarische  Revue*. 

'  Biogr.Jahrtsb.  i8go,  47—51;  cp,  Bursian's/a^riwA.  xv  (1878)  ijof. 
'  Egyetimis  phiUlogiai  kdztony,  1871  f. 
^  Bursian,  ii  1143, 


iM,Googlc 


CHAPTER   XL. 

ENGLAND   IN  THE   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

Dr  Parr,  who  died  in  1825,  writes  thus  in  his  Diary: — 
'  In  the  reign  of  Plulemy  Greece  boasted  of  her  Pleiad ;  England,  in  my 
day,  may  boast  ol  a  Decad  of  literary  luminaries,  Dr  Samuel  Butler, 
Dr  Edward  Makby,  bishop  Blomfield,  dean  Monk,  Mr  E.  H.  Barker, 
Mr  Kidd,  Mr  Surges,  professor  Dobree,  professor  Gaisford,  and  Di  Elmsley. 
They  are  professed  critics  :  but  in  learning  and  tasle  Dr  Routh  of  Oxford  is 

The  last  of  these,  Martin  Joseph  Routh  (1755 — 1854),  died 
in  the  hundredth  year  of  his  age,  after  having  been 
President  of   Magdalen  for  three  and  sixty  years. 
He  edited  the  Euthydemus  and  Gorgias  of  Plato  in  1784,  lived  to 
produce  the  fifth  volume  of  his  Relliquiae  Sacrae  in  1848,  and,  at 
the  age  of  92,  summed  up  his  long  experience  in  the  precept : — 
'I  think,  sir,  ...you  will  find  it  a  very  good  practice  always  to  verify 
your  references'".    Edward  Maltby  {17  70 — 1859),  of  Winchester  and 
of  Pembroke,  Cambridge,   successively  bishop   of 
Chichester  and  of  Durham,  was  the  author  of  a  useful         Kidd'"'' 
Lexicon  Graecoprosodiacum  (1815)'.     Thomas  Kidd 
(1770 — 1850),    of    Trinity,    Cambridge,    head-master    of    Lynn, 
Wymondham  and  Norwich,  edited  the  philological  and  critical 
works  of  Ruhnken,  the  'Tracts'  of  Porson,  and  the  'Miscellanea 
Critica*  of  Dawes.     '  It  was  amusing',  says  Maltby, '  to  see  Kidd 
in  Person's  company;    he  bowed  down  before  Porson  with  the 
veneration  due  to  some  being  of  a  superior  nature'*. 

'  Memoirs,  \  751  n. 

'  Billion's  Twelve  Good  Men,  i  73. 

'  Founded  on  Morell's  Thesaurus  (1761).  In  supplementing  that  work 
Maltby,  the  pupil  of  Parr  and  the  friend  of  Porson,  received  valuable  assist- 
ance from  both. 

*  Ri^rs,  Table  Talk,  Persmiana,  325. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lC 


394  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

The  Porsonian  tradition  passed  for  a  time  from  Cambridge 
to  Oxford  in  the  person  of  Peter  Elmsley  (1773 — 
1825)  of  Winchester  and  Christ  Church.  After 
spending  several  years  in  Edinburgh,  he  lived  in  Kent  from  1807 
to  1816,  when  he  paid  his  first  visit  to  Italy.  For  the  rest  of 
his  life  his  headquarters  were  at  Oxford.  He  spent  the  winter 
of  1818  in  Florence,  studying  the  Laurentian  ms  of  Sophocles. 
He  collated  the  ms  in  1820,  and  the  earliest  recognition  of  its 
superiority  is  to  be  found  in  the  preface  to  his  edition  of  the 
Oedipus  Coloneus^.  In  1819  he  aided  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in 
examining  the  Herculanean  papyri  in  the  Museum  of  Naples. 
For  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  he  was  principal  of  St  Alban 
Hall  and  Camden  professor  of  Ancient  History  at  Oxford. 

At  Edinbui^h  he  edited  the  text  of  Tliucydides  with  a  Latin  translation 
(1804),  and  contributed  to  the  Edinbur^  Review  scholarly  articles  on  Heyne's 
Uiad,  Schweighauser's  Alhenaeus,  Blom  field's  Prometheus  Vinttus,  and 
Porson's  Hectiba^.  His  most  important  works  were  his  editions  of  Greek 
plays,  all  of  them  published  at  Oxford,  namely  the  Acharnians  of  Arislo- 
phanes,  the  Oedipus  Tyrannus  and  Oedipus  Coloneus  of  Sophocles,  and  Ihe 
Heraclidae,  Medea,  and  Bacchae  of  Euripides.  His  editions  of  the  Media 
and  Heraclidae  were  teptinled  by  Button,  with  additions  from  Elmsley'i 
papers.  The  latter  were  also  the  source  of  the  readings  of  the  Laurentian  us 
printed  in  the  Oxford  Sophocles  of  1816. 

As  a  scholar  whose  editorial  labours  were  almost  entirely  confined  (o  the 
Greek  drama,  Elmsley  had  a  close  affinity  with  Porson,  who  held  him  in  high 
esteem  until  he  found  him  appropriating  his  own  emendations  without  men- 
tioning his  name.  Porson's  property  was  thus  annexed  by  Elmsley  in  his 
review  of  Schweighauser's  Athenaeus^,  and  in  his  edition  of  the  Achamiaits'. 
Elmsley  attempted  to  suppress  the  latter,  but  found  to  his  dismay  thai  it  had 
already  been  reprinted  at  Leipzig".  In  his  Media  be  observed  that  an  editor's 
duly  consisted  in  two  things  : — correcting  the  author's  texl,  and  explaining  his 
meaning ;  Ihe  foimei  duty  had  been  dischai^ed  by  Porsun,  while  Ihe  latter 
had  been   neglected.      In  all  his  edilions  of  Greek  plays,  Elmsley  devoted 

'  1813  ;  Jebb,  in  Pref.  to  Facs.  10,  n.  5,  and  in  Inlro,i.  to  Text  (1897) 
xliii  f. 

'  Nos,  4,  5,  3;,  37  respectively.  He  reviewed  Markland's  three  plays  in 
Ihe  Quarterly;  Hermann's  SufipUces  and  Hercules  Furms  in  the  Cl./aumal; 
and  published  his  own  notes  on  the  ^/«jr  in  ihe  Museum  Cn/Kwm,!  351  f,  4691. 

'  Edin.  Rev.  no.  5,  Oct.  1803;  cp.  Quarterly  Rev.  v  107. 

'  Church  cf  England  Quarterly  Rev.  v  413  f. 

'  Walson-sZyia//b™»,3.of. 


|.MM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XL.]  ELMSLEY.      GAISFORD.  39S 

him&etr  mainty  lo  Che  illustration  of  the  purport  of  the  text,  and  to  the 
elucidation  of  the  laws  of  Atlic  usage'.  He  had  a  wide  knowledge  of  modem 
history.  He  was  'an  accurate  critic,  and  a  profound  and  el^ant  scholar', 
remarkable  for  '  the  charm  of  his  conversation ',  and  for  '  the  gentleness  and 
goodness  of  his  heart''...  He  was  also  a  man  of  caltn  temper  and  impartial 
ju^ment,  while  his  fondness  for  light  reading  was  one  of  the  points  in  which 
he  resemhled  Person'.  In  his  illustralive  notes  he  showed  himself  fully  alive 
to  the  value  of  ihe  worli  done  by  his  predecessors,  such  as  Brodaeus  and 
Barnes,  Heath  and  Musgrave*.  Elsewhere  he  says  of  Casaubon's  Athenaeus, 
'  we  know  of  no  work,  except  perhaps  Bentley's  Dissertation  on  Phalaris,  in 
which  the  reader-is  presented  with  such  a  mass  of  pertinent  infoimation''. 
His  merits  as  a  scholar  were  highly  esteemed  by  Hermann',  whose  edition  of 
the  Bacchae  was  published  solely  as  a  supplement  to  that  of  Elmsley,  cuius 
viri  el  dettrinam  admiror  it  anitni  ingcnuitattni  maximi facio. 

Among  the  merits  of  Elmsley  was  a  high  appreciation  of  the 
value  of  the  Laurentian  ms  of  Sophocles.  His  a  \  t  rA 
careful  edition  of  the  scholia  in  that  ms  was  brought 
out  by  Thomas  Gaisford  (1779 — 1855),  who  was  bom  only 
six  years  later  than  Elmsley  and  survived  him  by  thirty.  A 
native  of  Ilford  in  Wiltshire,  he  was  appointed  Regius  professor 
of  Greek  at  Oxford  in  1812,  and  was  dean  of  Christ  Church 
for  the  last  twenty-four  years  of  his  life.  The  Gaisford  prizes 
for  Greek  verse  and  prose  were  founded  in  his  memory. 

,  Early  in  his  career  he  produced  school-editions  of  the  W/«j/i'j,  £'/<rc/r3,  and 
Andromache,  and  saw  through  the  press  Musgrave's  Hecuba,  Orestes,  and 
Pkotnisioe,  and  Markland's  Suppliies  and  the  two  IphigettHas.  In  1S09  he 
published  the  paraphrase  of  the  Nicomachean  Ethics  by  Andronicus  of 
Rhodes,  and  in  the  following  year  first  made  his  mark  by  the  edition  of 
Hephaeslion,  which  led  Hermann  lo  describe  its  editor  as  dignus  qui  multa 
cum  iaude  commeniorarelur'' .     When  Ihe  professorship  of  Greek  fell  vacant  in 


'  His  notes   on   the   Heraclidae,   Medea  and    Bacchai, 
linguam  usumque  quantum  attinet'  were  reprinted  in  Gretton's  Elmsleiana 
Criliea,  1833.' 

'  Brilish  Crilic,  April.  1817,  181. 

'  Gentleman's  Mag.,  April,  1815,  374-6  (ascribed  by  Luard  to  Edward 
Copleston.  then  Provost  of  Oriel).  Luard's  bound  volume  of  Elmsleiana  has 
been  lent  to  me  by  Professor  Mayor. 

'  Preface  lo  Heraclidae.  ^  Edin.  Rev.  Oct.  1803,  185. 

•  Opasc.  vi  95, 

'Ed.  (with  Proclus,  Chrest.)  1810  (Leipzig,  1821);  and  (with  Ter. 
Mautus)  i8j6. 


A.oogic 


Thomas  Gaisford. 

Reproduced  (by  permission  of  Messrs  Ryman)  from  the  loezzolint  by 
T.  L.  Atkinson  (18+8)  of  Ihe  porltail  hy  H.  W.  Pickei^lt,  R,A., 
in  the  Hall  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 


iM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XL.]  GAISFORD.  397 

1811,  acting  on  the  judicious  advice  of  Cyril  Jackson,  Ihen  dean  of  Christ 
Charchi  he  sent  a  handsomely  bound  copy  of  his  Hepkaeslion  (with  a  tetter, 
dictated  by  the  dean)  lo  Lord  GrenviJle,  the  ministei  in  whose  hands  the 
appointment  lay ;  and,  shortly  aflerwards,  he  was  duly  appointed  to  the  posi- 
tion which  he  adorned  for  the  remaining  forty-lhree  years  of  his  life'. 

In  igii  he  published  catalogues  of  the  Greek  Hss  of  D'Orville  and  of 
E.  D.  Clarke,  followed  by  readings  from  Ihe  Bodleian  Plalo  in  his  Lecliones 
Ptatoniceu  fiSio).  In  the  latter  year  he  produced  a  variorum  edition  of 
Aristotle's  Rhetoric,  and  completed  the  critical  notes  and  scholia  to  a  new 
edition  of  Winterton's  Pailae  Minsres  Graeii.  He  also  edited  the  Fleriltgium 
and  the  Eclogae  of  Stobaeus,  as  well  as  Herodotus,  Sophocles,  Sutdas  ( 1834-7), 
the  Elymelogic-uBi  Magnum  {1S4S),  and  Pearson's  Adiietsaria  Hesyekiana, 
besides  editions  of  the  Greek  Proverbs,  and  the  Latin  writers  on  metre,  with 
Choeroboscus,  several  of  the  works  of  Eusebius  and  Theodoret,  and  the 
Septuagint.  It  was  in  allusion  to  his  Suldas  and  his  Elymolegicum  Magnum 
that  the  future  lexicographer,  Robert  Scott,  in  his  Homeric  verses,  described 
Gaisford  as  Sou  ivyj.xb'Tt'.a  riXkua'  \  Xtfiua  Sva^araicTa*. 

With  a  view  to  his  editions  of  the  Greek  poels,  and  of  Stobaeus  and  Sutdas, 
he  spent  four  months  at  Leyden  studying  (he  MSS  in  Ihe  Library,  ti^ethei 
with  the  Adversaria  of  Valckenaer.  His  visit  was  agreeably  remembered  by 
his  constant  companion,  Bake*.  During  this  visit  one  of  the  professors  made 
some  metrical  mislSike,  whereupon  Gaisford  poured  forth  in  Latin  a  flood  of 
learning  from  Ilephaestion  and  other  authors,  till  the  Dutch  professor  held  up 
his  hands,  and  exclaimed  : — O  vir  mtignat  profecto  sapiailiat,  si  lam  in  rtbiis 
qaam  in  verbis  imalidsses*.  The  learning  and  industry  that  be  bestowed  on 
the  Greek  Poels  were  eulogised  by  Hennann',  wbo,  on  being  visited  by  an 
English  scholar,  after  enpressing  in  vigorous  language  a  certain  contempt  for 
Scholefield,  reverently  added: — 'But  Gaisford  I  adore'*.  George  Gaisford 
used  to  relate  how,  when  he  went  with  his  father  to  call  on  Dindorf  at 
Leipzig,  'the  door  was  opened  by  a  shabby  man,  whom  they  took  to  be  the 
famulus,  but  who,  on  the  announcement  of  Gaisford's  name,  rushed  into 
his  arms  and  kissed  him''. 

'  H.  L.  Thompson's  Life  0/  If.  G.  Liddell,  139;  cp.  Jourtial  of  CI.  and 
Sacred  Philology,  ii  343  f,  iii  (13;  W.  Tuckwell's  RtminiSMtues  of  Oxford, 
119-134. 

»  W.  Tuckwell,  566.  '  Schol.  Hyp.  vol.  n  v— vii. 

*  H.  L.  Thompson's  Zjft  of  H.  C.  Liddell,  15. 

s  1831,  <3/wc.  vigS. 

'  The  English  scholar  was  George  Butler,  Head  Master  of  Harrow.  I 
owe  this  anecdote  to  his  son,  the  Master  of  Trinity.  In  Opusc.  vi  97  Hermann 
notices  the  lack  of  originality  in  Schotetield's  Aeschylus  (i8i8).  while  he 
describes  the  editor  of  the  Potlae  Minores  as  '  der  fleissige  und  gelehrie 
Gaisford '  {ib.  98). 

'  W.  Tuckwell,  131. 


,l^.OO' 


IC5IC 


398  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

A  certain  deflexion  from  the  critical  Porsonian  tradition  is  ex- 
emplified bySamuel  Butler  (1774 — 1839),  the  editor 
of  Aeschylus.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby,  and  was 
on  the  point  of  being  entered  at  Christ  Church  under  Cyril 
Jackson,  when,  by  the  advice  of  Dr  Parr,  who  had  been  struck 
by  a  copy  of  his  Latin  verses,  he  became  a  member  of  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  At  Cambridge  he  won  the  gold  medal  for 
the  Greek  and  the  Latin  Ode,  and  was  also  Craven  Scholar  and 
Chancellor's  Medallist.  A  year  before  his  M.A.  degree,  his 
College  elected  him  head-master  of  Shrewsbury,  a  position  which 
he  held  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  College  as  well  as  the 
School  from  1798  to  1836,  when  he  became  bishop  of  Lichfield 
for  the  last  three  years  of  his  life. 

The  Syndics  of  the  Cambridge  Press  had  invited  Porson  to  edit  Aeschylus, 
with  Stanley's  text,  llie  offer,  which  had  been  declined  by  Porson,  was 
accepted  by  Butter,  whose  edition  filled  four  quarto  volumes  (1809-11;), 
including  Ihe  Gieek  scholia,  and  all  the  notes  of  Stanley  and  his  predecessors, 
with  selections  from  those  of  subsequent  editors,  and  a  synopsis  of  the  'various 
readings '. 

It  was  ably  reviewed  by  C.  J.  Blomfield',  who  protested  against  Ihe 
'  literal  reprint  of  Ihe  corrupt  text  of  Stanley's  edition ',  againsl  '  the  extreme 
deficiency  of  illustration  from  Aeschyliis  himself  and  his  brother  Imgedians', 
and  '  the  implicit  deference '  paid  lo  '  the  authority '  of  Hesycbius,  Suldas,  and 
the  Etymologicum  Magnum.  He  also  r^retted  that  the  lucubrations  of 
Tumebus,  Muretus,  and  Beroaldus.  and  'their  unworthy  imitator,  Schiltz', 
tilled  up  '  a  space  which  would  have  1>een  more  advantageously  occupied  '  by 
the  'more  useful  and  concise'  notes  of  the  critics  of  the  Dutch  school, 
Hemsterhuys,  Valckenaei,  Pierson,  Koen  and  Ruhnken;  it  was  'an  indiscrimi- 
nate coacervation '  of  all  thai  had  been  'expressly  written  on  Aeschylus'.  Butler, 
in  the  course  of  his  reply,  remarks  Ihat  '  probably  no  man  ever  undertook  a 
work  of  this  nature  with  so  little  assistance.  '  Of  the  many  thonsand  passages' 
from  ancient  authors  '  not  one  has  been  pointed  out  to  me  by  any  learned 
friend  '.  He  honestly  confesses  to  certain  mistakes,  but  '  continually  betrays 
ibe  jealousy  which  Pan's  circle  entertained  towards  the  Porsonians''.  Many 
yeara  afterwards  bishop  Blomfield  said  of  Butler,  'he  was  a  really  learned  as 
well  as  amiable  man,   but  his  forte  did  nol  lie  in  verbal  criticism''.     His 


>  Edin.  Reu.,  Oct.  1809,  and  Jan.  1810;  Feb.  iSii  (full  extracts  in 
J.  E.  B.  Mayor's  ed.  of  Baker's  Hitt.  of  St  yohnh  Coll.  ii  908—911);  cp. 
Life  and  Ltlters  of  Dr  S.  BulUr  (tig6),  i  11  f,  53—6*. 

=  Lcller  to  the  Rev.  C.  J.  Blomfield,  1810  (J.  E.  B.  Mayor,  911—915). 

>  ib.  9.7. 


A.OO' 


1C5IC 


CHAP.  XL.]       S.  BUTLER.   DOBREE.  399 

'  Praxis  on  the  Latin  prepoMtions '  (1813)  held  its  ground  for  about  twenly-five 
years,  when  it  was  superseded  by  books  of  less  interest.  The  only  other  work 
that  need  here  be  mentioned  is  his  '  Sketch  of  Modem  and  Ancient 
Ge<^aphy'  (1813),  which  passed  through  ten  editions,  ic^ether  with  'An 
Alias  of  Ancienl  Geography '  (1811,  elc.)'.  In  his  'Ancienl  Geography'  he 
'endeavoured  to  make  a  dry  catalogue  of  names  interesting  and  useful,  by  Ihe 
application  of  history,  chronology  and  poetry',  and  especially  by  quoting 
select  passages  from  the  best  classical  poets*.  His  interest  in  classic  travel  is 
well  exemplified  in  one  of  his  letters  to  Parr  :  — 

'  My  journey,  though  very  laborious,  and  not  free  from  peril,  completely 
succeeded.  I  visited  every  spot  connected  with  the  most  interesting  parts  of 
the  Roman  hbtory — including  Mons  Sacer,  Tibur,  Tuscutum,  and  Alba,  and, 
of  course,  pari  of  the  old  Appian  way.  From  Cicero's  Tusculan  Villa  I 
looked  down  upon  that  of  his  neighbour  Cato....     I  visited  the  Alban  Villa  of 

Domitian,.,.and  the  emissary  of  the  Alban  Lake,  made  by  Camillus At 

the  grotto  of  Egeria  I  trod  upon  a  fragment  of  marble  and  drank  from  the 
stream  running  once  more  through  its  native  tophus..,'^. 

The  Porsonian  type  of  scholarship,  represented  at  Oxford  by 
Elinsley,  was  maintained  at  Cambridge  by  Dobree, 
Monk,  and  C.  J.  Blomfield.  The  first  of  these,  Peter 
Paul  Dobree  (1782 — 1825),  was  born  in  Guernsey,  and  was 
indebted  to  the  place  of  his  birth  for  the  mastery  of  French  that 
made  him  so  acceptable  during  his  visit  to  Leyden  in  1815*. 
Meanwhile,  he  had  been  elected  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  and  had 
joined  in  founding  Valpy's  Classical  Journal  in  1810,  while  he 
was  a  frequent  contributor  to  Bumey's  Monthly  Review.  He 
edited  (with  many  additions  of  his  own  and  in  particular  with  his 
own  commentary  on  the  Plutus)  Porson's  Aristophanica  (1820)°, 
which  was  followed  by  Porson's  transcript  of  the  lexicon  of 
Photius  (1822).  When  Monk  vacated  the  Regius  Professorship 
of  Greek,  Dobree  was  elected  in  his  place  and  held  that  position 
for  the  two  remaining  years  of  his  life.  His  Adversaria  on  the 
Greek  Poets,  Historians,  and  Orators,  were  posthumously  pub- 
lished in  four  volumes  (1831-3)  by  his  successor,  Scholefield'. 
His  transcript  of  the  Lexicon  rhetoricum  Cantabrigiense  was  printed 

'  Republished  by  Dent,  without  date,  1907. 

"  Mayor,  l.c.  936.  •  Parr's  Werh,  vii  371  (i8it). 

*  Bake's  Schol.  Hyp.  11,  ii— v. 

*  Cp.  Hermann,  Ofust.  vi  96. 

'  Ed.  Wagner  b  l  vols.  1874,  with  the  Oiservatiaiies  Aristopkaneae  of 
1810, 


400  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

in  1834,  and  his  'Miscellaneous  Notes  on  Inscriptions'  in  the 
following  year. 

While  Dobree  was  a  follower  of  Porson  in  the  textual  criticism 
of  Aristophanes,  he  broke  new  ground  as  a  critic  of  the  Attic 
Orators,  and  of  Demosthenes  and  Lysias  in  particular.  In  the 
Praelection  that  he  delivered  as  candidate  for  the  professorship 
once  held  by  Porson,  he  dilated  on  Person's  merits,  and,  after 
expressing  the  general  regret  that  Porson  had  mainly  confined  his 
attention  to  the  poets,  himself  discoursed  on  the  Funeral  Oration 
ascribed  to  Lysias,  giving  conclusive  reasons  for  supporting 
Valckenaer's  opinion  that  it  was  a  spurious  production.  In  the 
person  of  Dobree,  the  old  alliance  between  the  scholarship  of 
England  and  the  Netherlands  received  a  new  ratification  that  re- 
called the  age  of  Bentley  and  of  Hemsterhuys, 

James  Henry  Monk  (1784 — 1856),  who  was  educated  at 
■  Charterhouse  and  was  Fellow  of  Trinity,  held  the 
professorship  of  Greek  from  1809  to  1823,  having 
in  1822  been  appointed  dean  of  Peterborough.  He  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Gloucester  in  1830,  and  held  the  bishopric  of 
Gloucester  and  Bristol  from  1836  to  his  death  twenty  years  later. 
Following  in  the  footsteps  of  Porson  and  Elmsley',  he  edited  four 
plays  of  Euripides,  the  Hippolytus  and  the  Alctstis,  while  he  was 
still  professor,  and  the  two  Iphigeneias,  when  he  was  already  a 
bishop.  All  four  plays  were  republished  in  1858.  In  conjunction 
with  E.  V,  Blomfield  he  edited  the  two  volumes  of  the  Museum 
Critiattn  (1814,  1826),  which  was  continued  under  the  name  of 
the  Philological  Museum  (1832-3).  The  year  of  his  consecration 
as  bishop  was  that  of  the  publication  of  his  admirable  Life  of 
Bmlley. 

Monk's  fellow-editor  of  Person's  Adversaria  in  1812  was 
Charles  James  Blomfield  (1786—1857),  who  was 
educated  at  Bury  St  Edmunds,  and  was  a  Fellow 
of  Trinity.  He  edited  with  notes  and  glossaries  the  Prometheus^ 
Seplem,  Persae,  Agamemnon  and  Choiphoroe  (1810-24),  and  it 
may  safely  be  assumed  that  he  would  have  edited  the  Eumenides, 
had  he  not  been  appointed  bishop  of  Chester  in  1824.  Four 
years  later  he  was  transferred  to  the  see  of  London,  which  he 

'  Cp.  Hermann,  Opusi.  vi  ^. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lC 


C.  J.  Blomfield 


CHAP.  XL.]  MONK.      THE   BLOMFIELDS.  401 

held  for  the  remaining  nineteen  years  of  his  life.  Besides  the 
Aeschylean  plays  above  mentioned,  he  edited  Callimachus  {1815), 
and  contributed  to  the  Museum  Criticum  (1814-26)  editions  of 
the  fragments  of  Sappho',  Alcaeus,  Stesichorus  and  Sophron. 
The  best  characteristic  of  his  edition  of  Aeschylus  was  the 
glossary'.  He  was  an  active  and  vigorous  contributor  to  the 
Classical  periodicals  of  the  day'. 

His  younger  brother,  Edward  Valentine  Blomfield  (1788— 1816),  Scholar 
of  Caiu5  and  Fellow  of  Emmanuel,  was  an  admitable  writer 
of  Greek  verse,  who  translated  Matlhiae's  Greek  Grammar,     ^-  ^fi^fa'"""" 
and  began  to  prepare  a  new  Greek  Lexicon.    The  former 
was  published  after  his  death  by  his  elder  brother*. 

E.  V.  Blomfield's  contemporary,  Edmund  Henry  Barker  (1788— 1839),  of 
Trinity,  Cambridge,  was  ihe  author  of  controversial  works 
on  C.  J.  Blomfield  (1811),  followed  by  Arisiarehus  Anti-Blom-  '  ^"^" 

fieUlianus  (iSio)'.  In  the  latter  jiear  he  produced  from  a  Paris  MS  the  tditio 
pritKtps  of  Arcadius  ■•epi  tlivaif.  Besides  writing  reminiscences  of  Person  and 
Farr,  and  editing  text-books,  he  took  an  important  part  in  A.  J.  Valpy's 
edition  (1816-15)  of  the  Greek   Thesaurus  of  Stephanus. 

A  very  successful  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  and  an  excellenl  anno- 
lated  translation  of  Thucydides   (1819),   were  the   principal 
works  of  Dr  S.  T.  Bloomfield,  of  Sidney  Sussex  College,      *"  '^j^''"""" 
Cambridge. 

Richard  Valpy  {1754 — '836),  of  Pembroke,  Oxford,  the  successful  head- 
master of  Reading  (1781 — 1830),  produced  many  classical 
school-books  in  1809-16,  including  the  well-known  Greek 
Delectus  (1816,  etc.).  His  younger  brother,  Edward  (1764  —  1831},  of  Trinity, 
Cambridge,  head-master  of  Norwich,  edited  (he  Greek  Testament ;  while,  of 
his  sons,  Abraham  John  (1787—1854),  Fellow  of  Pembroke,  Oxford,  was 
publisher  of  a  classical  journal  and  pari -editor  of  numerous  classical  texts  in 
1807-37,  including  a  reprint  of  the  Delpbin  Classics,  1819-30;  and  Francis 
Edward  Jackson  (1797 — 1882),  of  Trinity,  Cambridge,  produced  a  'second' 
and  '  third '  Greek  Delectus  and  an  Etymological  Latin  Dictionary. 


'  Cp.  Hermann,  Opusc.  vi  100.  Blomfield's  recension  of  Sappho,  Alcaeus 
and  Stesichorus  was  included  in  vol.  iii  of  the  Leipzig  edition  of  Gaisford's 
Poetae  Minores  Graeci  (1853). 

'  Hermann,  l.c.  96. 

'  Memoir  by  Luard  in  Journal  of  CI.  and  SacreJ  PhUal.  iv  (1858)  96  — 
100;  and  by  A.  Blomfield,  18G4,  chaps,  i,  ii. 

*  Memoir  in  Musmm  Criiiium,  ii  510-8. 

>  A  reply  to  C.  J.  Blomfield's  brilliant  article  on  Ste|diens'  Greek  Thetau- 
rus  in  the  Quarlerly  Rev.  Jan.  1810 ;  cp.  Memeir  of  C.  J.  Blomlield,  le  f, 

s.  III.  ,M,,,,;^oogic 


402  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

C.  J.  Blomfield  was  attacked  in  Valpy's  Cla$skal  Journal^  by  George 
Bui^s  (1786? — 1864},  formerfy  of  Charterhouse,  Fellow  of 
Trinily,  who  was  for  many  years  a  private  tutor  in  Caiobridge. 
Blomfield  was  charged  with  plagiarising  certain  emendations  from  Person's 
unpublished  papers,  and  eflTecClvely  repelled  the  chaise  in  the  Museum 
CritUum^.  Burges  edited  several  Greek  plays'  and  some  of  Ihe  minor 
dialogues  of  Plato.  His  rashness  as  a  textual  critic  is  the  theme  of  several 
pages  in  Foppo's  Thucydides',  but  a  kindlier  judgement  is  passed  on  him  by 
the  Dutch  scholar,  Bake,  who  saw  much  ofhim  at  Leyden^ 

In  1815  a  contemporary  of  Blomfield  aud  Surges,  James  Scholelield, 
Fellow  of  Trinily  (1789—1853),  was  elected  over  the  heads  of 
Julius  Charles  Hare  and  Hugh  James  Rose  to  the  Greek  pro- 
fessorship vacated  by  Monk's  successor,  Dobree.  He  did  good  service  to  the 
memory  of  his  predecessors  in  the  Chair  by  seeing  through  the  press  three 
editions  of  Porson's  Euripides  (1826,  '29,  'jo),  and  two  volumes  of  Dobree's 
Admrsaria  (1831-3),  which  were  followed  by  the  Lixiion  RhetoricHm  Canta- 
brigiense  and  the  NoUs  on  Imiriptions.  His  life-long  mterest  in  Ihe  Greek 
Testament  is  partly  embodied  )n  his  'Hints  for  an  improved  Translation' 
(18.^1).  In  1818  he  had  repriuted  Bishop  Middleton's  'Treatise  on  the  Greek 
Article';  in  the  same  year  he  produced  his  edition  of  Aeschylus,  the  earliest 
English  attempt  to  embrace  in  a  single  volume  the  results  of  modem  criticism  on 
that  poet.  A  second  edition  (1830)  was  reviewed  in  the  FhUologkal  Museum 
of  1831  by  John  Wordsworth,  who  describes  the  text  as  mainly  a  reproduc- 
tion of  the  ultra- conservative  text  of  Wellauer.  Scholefield  was  not  endued 
with  the  acumen  of  a  Benlley  or  a  Porson,  but  he  fully  appreciated  their  skill 
and  readily  accepted  Ihe  results  of  their  able  contributions  to  the  criticism  of 
the  text.  In  a  separate  edition  of  the  Eumenides  {1843)  he  commends  K.  O. 
Miiller  for  'rising  beyond  the  school  of  mere  verbal  criticism '°,  and  he  is  not 
held  in  high  esteem  by  Miiller's  opponent,  Hermann'.  Dr  T.  W.  Peile,  who 
gratefully  acknowledged  that  he  owed  to  Scholefield  'his  first  effectual  intro- 
duction to  the  gigantic  mind  of  Aeschylus'",  described  his  scholarship  as  '  more 
exact,  perhaps,  than  elegant,  but  always  sound  and  solid  and  practically 
useful'';   while  Dr  Kennedy  was   'accustomed  to  regard  him  as  a  strong, 

'  xxii  (e8io)  104—118;  cp.  xxiv  (1811)  403 — 424. 

'  No.  vii,  Nov.  1811,  vol.  ii  496 — 509;  cp.  Memoir  of  C.  J.  Blomfield,  30. 

>  Eur.  Tre.  Phoen.,  Aesch.  Suppl.  Eum.  P.V.,  Soph.  Phil.  Cp. 
Hermann,  Opusc.  vi  97.  On  his  additions  to  the  Bacehai,  see  Appendix  to 
the  present  writer's  ed.  (ed.  1885,  etc.). 

*  Pars  111,  vol.  iv  (1838)  pp.  iv— vii. 
'  Schol.  Hyp.  II  pp.  viii— xii. 

*  W.  Selwyn's  'Notice  of  prof.  Scholefield's  Lectures  and  Editions'  on 
pp.  3^3—339  of  Memoir  by  his  Widow  (185s),  337- 

'  Scholejieldium  nihil  moror  was  one  of  his  phrases ;  see  also  p.  397  supra. 
"  il>-  3'8.  *  ib.  339. 


,1^.00' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XL.]      SCHOLEFIELD.      B.  H.  KENNEDY. 

sound,  Greek  scholar,  with  fair  critical  a 
brilliant  imagination,  and  exquisite  taste,  h 

Among  the  ablest  of  Samuel  Butler's  pupils  at  Shrewsbury 
was  Benjamin  Hall  Kennedy  (1804 — 1889),  who 
entered  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1823, 
was  thiice  awarded  the  Porson  Prize  for  Greek  Iambic  Verse, 
and  ended  a  brilliant  undergraduate  career  as  the  'Senior  Classic' 
of  1827.  After  spending  two  years  as  a  Lecturer  at  Cambridge, 
and  six  as  a  Master  at  Harrow,  he  was  in  1836  appointed  by  his 
College  to  succeed  Butler  as  head-master  of  Shrewsbury,  a 
position  which  he  filled  with  the  highest  distinction  and  success 
for  thirty  years.  For  the  last  twenty-two  years  of  his  life,  he  was 
Regius  Professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Cambridge 
(1867-89).  He  was  elected  to  an  honorary  fellowship  at  St  John's, 
where  his  portrait  by  Ouless  may  be  seen  in  the  College  Hall, 
while  a  marble  bust  of  the  great  school-master  has  a  place  of 
honour  in  the  College  Library.  It  bears  the  following  inscription 
from  the  pen  of  Professor  Jebb : — 

KoGpoJ  itiuf,  Kdfiov  r&p  Sorajitaat  nXiot- 
tlt  S'  a»J/iot  TeX^DiTii  a    appoot  fHf  So^Sp/nj 

wSXXdp  iUI  ao^at  dr^ea  SpfTTdpervf. 
■yijpoWiw  Sf  rd>Liy  SpHreipa  a   ii4ia.T0  rpatni, 

OT^fif/a  KaXbv  toXiAv  ffflira  joj  Ap^l  ic6fxas. 

His  best-known  works  are  his  'Latin  Primer"  and  his  'Public 
School  Latin  Grammar'^  He  also  published,  with  translations 
and  notes,  the  Agamemnen  of  Aeschylus,  the  Oedipus  Tyrannus 
of  Sophocles  and  the  Birds  of  Aristophanes,  as  well  as  the 
Theaeielus  of  Plato.  His  school-edition  of  Virgil'  was  followed 
by  an  edition  of  the  text.  His  name  is  associated  with  a  large 
number  of  admirable  renderings  in  Greek  and  Latin  Verse,  as 
the  principal  contributor  to  the  Sabrinae  Corolla,  and  as  the  sole 
author  of  Between  Whiles'.  His  extraordinary  facility  as  a  Latin 
poet  may  be  exemplified  by  the  fact  that  he  was  even  able  to 

'  Mimeir,  358. 

■  1S66  (rounded  on  his  worli  of  iSfj);  revised,  1888.  Cp.  his  Crilicat 
Bxam.  e/Dr  Donaldsoti'i  Latin  Grammar  (1855). 

»  1871,  *  1876;  ed.3,  1881.  '  187;;  cd.  »,  1881. 


404  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

compose  a  Latin  epigram  of  twelve  lines  during  the  hours  of 
sleep'.  The  secret  of  his  'unri^'alled  success'  as  a  head-master 
is  thus  revealed  by  one  of  his  former  pupils  ; — 

'  The  main  cause  of  his  success  was  lo  be  found  in  the  man  himself.  To 
him  (he  literature  of  anliquity  was  not  a  dead  letter,  but  a.  living  voice ;  it 
animated  and  stirred  and  quickened  every  pulse  of  his  energetic  nature  ;  his 
enthusiasm,  like  all  genuine  enthusiasm,  was  contagious,  and  the  fire  of  his 
own  zeal  communicated  itself  to  everything  inflammable  that  came  within  its 
range.  It  was  not  the  amount  he  taught  that  was  wonderful,  but  the  manner 
in  which  he  taught  it.  He  seemed  to  breathe  into  every  subject  he  dealt  with 
the  breath  of  life.  There  was  nothing  dead,  nothing  inert,  nothing  stereO' 
typed  about  his  method ;  it  was  the  reflection  of  his  own  vivacious  temperament 
— eager,  brilliant,  impulsive,  indomitable  ;  bis  pupils  left  him  possessed  of  the 
true  key  of  knowledge,  a  genuine  and  vigoroits  love  of  knowledge  for  its  own 

Another  of  his  pupils  vividly  describes  his  vigorous  and 
dramatic  renderings  of  Demosthenes: — 

'  He  is  not  merely  translating  Demosthenes,  he  is  Demosthenes  speaking 
extempore  in  English.  The  voice  is  modulated  in  a  most  expressive  manner — 
description,  question,  dilemma,  invective,  sarcasm,  all  are  rendered  in  their 
most  appropriate  tones'*. 

As  professor  of  Greek,  he  retained  much  of  the  head-master's 
manner,  and  he  was  keenly  tenacious  of  the  views  he  had  long 
held  as  to  the  exact  interpretation  of  certain  passages  of  Sophocles. 
The  two  parts  of  his  Studta  Sophocka  (1874-84)  were  devoted 
to  a  criticism  of  the  opinions  held  on  these  points  by  Professor 
Lewis  Campbell,  and  Professor  Jebb.  In  connexion  with  these 
controversies  it  was  happily  remarked  by  the  former  that,  in  the 
region  of  Attic  tr^edy,  'the  shrine  of  the  Muses...  is  hard  by 
that  of  Achelous,  so  that  you  may  chance  to  be  swept  away  by 
the  torrent,  if  you  approach  too  near.  And  the  Hereon  of 
Dr  Bentley  is  not  far  off".  Professor  Jebb's  graceful  tribute  to 
his  predecessor  has  been  quoted  on  a  previous  page". 

'  BeltBeiH  Whiles,  161. 

'  {T.  E.  Page),  in  Tlu  Times,  g  April,  1889. 

'  W.  E.  Heilland,  in  I'he  Eagle,  Jtv  455.  See  also  J.  E.  B.  Mayor  in  CI. 
Rev.  iii  1*6-7, 178—281. 

*  yeurti.  of  Philol.  v  1. 

'  Kennedy's  genuine  appreciation  of  Jebb  is  recorded  in  Betairen  Whiles, 
PP-  viii,  337- 

„.,,„,  ^.oogic 


CHAP.  XL.]  WORDSWORTH.   BLAKESLEY.   LUSHINGTON.  405 

Dr  Kennedy's  younger  brother,  Charles  Rann  Kennedy 
(1808 — 1867),  Senior  Classic  in  1831,  was  called 

^       .."'.,  ,  .  ,  .      C.R.  Kennedy 

to  the  bar,  and  is  best  known  as  the  translator  of 
Demosthenes.     Intermediate  in  age  between  the  two  Kennedys 
was  Thomas  Williamson  Peile  (1806— i88a),  head-       t  w  p  ii 
master  of  Repton,  a  pupil  of  Samuel  Butler,  whom 
he  gratefully  remembers  in  his  elaborate  editions  of  the  Agamemnon 
and  Choephoroe  ( 1 839) '.     Christopher  Wordsworth      „,  ^ 
(1807 — 1885),   nephew  of  the   poet,   son  of  the 
Master   of    Trinity,    and   Senior   Classic   in    18 jz,    travelled   in 
Greece  and  discovered  the  site  of  Dodona';    he  was  afterwards 
head-master  of  Harrow,  archdeacon  of  Westminster  and  bishop 
of  Lincoln.     As  a  classical  scholar  he  is  well  represented  by  his 
Athens  and  Allica   (1836),   by    his    'pictorial,    descriptive,  and 
historical'  work    on    Greece  (1839  etc.),  and  by  his  edition  of 
Theocritus'.    Among  the  contemporaries  of  the  younger  Kennedy 
was  Joseph  William  Blakesley  (1808— 1885),  Fellow        ^^  ^  ^^ 
and  Tutor  of  Trinity,  Vicar  of  Ware,  and  Dean  of 
Lincoln.     Breadth  of  geographic  and  historic  interest,  rather  than 
minute  scholarship,  was  the  main  characteristic  of  his  able  edition 
of  Herodotus  (1852-4).     He  is  the  'clear-headed  friend'  of  one 
of  the  earliest  poems  of  Tennyson',  who  said  of  him  in  prose : — 
'  He  ought  to  be  Lord  Chancellor,  for  he  is  a  subtle  and  powerful 
reasoner,  and  an  honest  man  ". 

In  the  Cambridge  Classical  Tripos  of  1832  the  first  place 
was  assigned  to  Edmund  Law  Lushington  (1811—       l    hi  « 
1893),  of  Charterhouse  and  Trinity.     Long  after- 
wards one  of  the  examiners,  Dr  Kennedy,  described  his  'papers 
in  every  subject'  as  'more  finished  and  faultless'  than  any  he 

'  Porlrait  in  Ihe  Library  of  Replon  School. 

=  Gretie,  p.  147,  ed.  1839. 

'  [S44and  1S7;.  In  the  fiist  of  these  two  editions  he  proposed  at  least 
two  memorable  emendations.  In  Theocritus,  xiv  16,  he  corrected  piih.pb^  m 
tayyXax  into  fio\p^,  «T(it,  Kox^las  ('bulb,  scallop,  and  cockle'),  and  in 
St  Clement's  EpislU,  c.  6,  he  skilfully  altered  Ttvaixct  Aavof^!  icol  Afjuai  into 
TwcuJift,  i'eo»£3et,  waiJlir™!.  Cp.  his  Conjectural  Emendations,  etc  (1883), 
II,  19,  with  his  Address  on  Dodona,  ib.  33 — 41. 

'  Mrs  BrookfieM's  Cambridge  '■Apostles^,  1906,  with  porltait  of  Blakesley 
facing  p.  84.  •  Memoir  i  (1907)  38. 

n,i.iiA.OOt5IC 


406  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

had  ever  seen'.  He  had  the  highest  reputation  as  professor  of 
Greek  for  many  years  at  Glasgow',  and  one  of  his  ablest  pupils 
has  recalled  his  'certainty  of  touch'  and  'unfailing  strength  of 
presentation".  In  the  epilogue  to  In  Memoriam,  Tennyson  told 
of  his  'wearing  all  that  weight  of  learning  lightly  like  a  flower'; 
and,  late  in  life,  described  his  Greek  rendering  of  Crossing  the 
Bar  as  one  of  the  finest  translations  he  had  ever  read*. 

The  second  place  in  the  same  Tripos  was  awarded  to  Richard 
Shilleto  (1809— 1876),  of  Repton,  Shrewsbury,  and 
Trinity.  He  soon  became  famous  as  a  private 
tutor  in  Classics.  For  more  than  forty  years  a  large  majority  of 
those  who  attained  the  highest  honours  in  the  Classical  Tripos 
were  among  his  pupils.  He  was  a  great  master  of  Greek  idiom, 
and  his  skill,  in  Latin  as  well  as  Greek,  is  attested  by  the  numerous 
compositions  which  have  appeared  in  the  Sabrinae  Corolla,  the 
Arundines  Cami,  and  in  a  special  volume  of  his  collected  versions 
(igoi).  His  genius  as  a  writer  of  original  verse  was  exemplified 
in  fugitive  fly-sheets  in  the  style  of  Aristophanes  or  Theocritus. 
His  edition  of  Demosthenes  De  Falsa  Legationt,  a  masterpiece 
of  its  kind,  was  written,  printed,  and  published  in  the  marvellously 
short  interval  of  five  months  (1844).  His  long-expected  edition 
of  Thucydides  might  well  have  been  brought  to  a  successful 
completion,  had  it  been  begun  while  he  was  still  in  the  prime  of  life. 
As  it  was,  only  two  books  were  ever  published  (1872-80).  The 
beauty  of  his  Greek  handwriting  was  a  characteristic  that  he 
shared  with  Richard  Person.  On  his  death-bed  his  thanks  for 
some  grapes  from  Dr  Kennedy's  garden  were  expressed  in  three 
Greek  lines  'written  in  his  usual  hand,  clear  and  fine,  though 
somewhat  tremulous  from  long  illness': — - 


'  yournal  d/ Philal.  vii  164. 

"  '838-75;  inaugural  discourse  On  the  Sludy  ef  Greii  {\Si^). 

'  Lewis  Campbell,  in  Ct.  Hev.  vii  476,  and  tb.  +25-8.  Among  his  other 
pupils  were  W.  Y.  Sellar  {cp.  CI.  Rev.  iv  419,  and  Mrs  Sellar's  EecollatuMs, 
49)  and  D.  B.  Monro,  whom  he  inspired  with  a  life-long  interest  in  Homer.  In 
scholarship,  his  chief  admiration  was  for  Hermann  and  Boeckh  {CI.  ftev.  vii  417). 

*  Quoted  in  Mtmoir,  ii  367  n.  »  yourual  of  PhUcl.  ta  163-8. 

h,  i.ii.X.OOglc 


CHAP.  XL.]      SHILLETO.      THOMPSON.      BADHAM.  407 

Shilleto's  distinguished  contemporary,  William  Hep  worth 
Thompson  (1810— 1886),  was  Regius  Professor  of 
Greek  from  1853  to  1867,  and,  for  the  last  twenty 
years  of  his  life,  Master  of  Trinity.  Singularly  effective  as  a 
professorial  lecturer  on  Euripides',  Plato*,  and  Aristotle,  he  un- 
happily published  little  besides  his  excellent  edition  of  Archer 
Butler's  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Greek  Philosophy  (1855),  and 
his  admirable  commentaries  on  the  Phaedrus  and  Gorgias  of 
Plato  (1868-71).  Of  his  minor  works  the  most  important  is  a 
paper  'On  the  genuineness  of  the  Sophist  of  Plato  and  on  some 
of  its  philosophical  hearings'',  in  which  he  indicates  the  influence 
of  the  Eleatic  Logic  on  the  developement  of  Greek  Philosophy. 
Euripides,  Aristophanes,  and  Plato  are  the  main  subjects  of  bis 
other  papers*.  By  his  published  writings  and  by  his  personal 
influence  he  did  much  towards  widening  the  range  of  classical 
studies  in  Cambridge,  and  preventing  their  being  unduly  limited 
to  verbal  scholarship.  'His  dry  humour  is  exemplified  in  many 
memorable  sayings,  but  his  sensitiveness  and  kindliness  of  feeling 
were  certainly  far  greater  tlian  the  world  in  general  was  aware.... 
The  serene  dignity  of  his  noble  presence  still  survives  in  the 
portrait  by  Hcrkomer  in  the  hall  of  his  College". 

Thompson  had  a  high  appreciation  of  that  strikingly  original 
and  independent  scholar,  Charles  Badham  {1813 — 
1884),  whose  father,  a  translator  of  Juvenal,  was  a 
professor  of  Medicine  at  Glasgow,  and  a  collector  of  gems  in 
Rome,  while  his  mother  was  a  cousin  of  the  poet,  Thomas 
Campbell.  In  early  life  a  pupil  of  Pestalozzi,  he  was  subsequently 
educated  at  Eton,  and,  after  taking  bis  degree  at  Wadham  College, 

'  His  introductory  leclure  (1857)  is  printed  in  Journ.  of  Phil,  xi  143  f. 

'  Cp.  Intrcxiuctory  Remarks  on  Ihe  Phikbiis  (1855),  it.  li  1  f. 

>  Trans,  of  Camhr.  Philos.  Sec.  \  (1858}  I46f,  reprinted  in  Jeiirn.  of 
Philel.  viii  (1879),  aijof. 

•  PleUmica-Itccraltaiafaurn.afCI.  and  Sacred  Phitol.  iv;  Arhlophanica 
and  Ptalonica  \ajeum.  of  PAilol.  iv  ;  On  the  Fhilebus  aiul  Euripidea,  ii.  xi ; 
Aristophanes,  Nabes,  and  Baitiana,  tb.  xii. 

s  J.  E.  Sandys,  in  Social  England,  vi  304 ;  cp.  C.  Merivale  in  fourn.  of 
Philol.  XV  306-8  ;  il,  Jackson,  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1886,  111-3 :  J'  W.  Clark, 
Old  Friends  at  Cambridge,  301—313  {Sat.  Rev.,  9  Oct.,  1886);  Life  af 
H.  Sidgaiick,  458. 


,l^.OO' 


SIC 


408  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

Oxford,  and  travelling  for  seven  years  in  Germany,  France  and 
Italy,  proved  his  affinity  with  the  Cambridge  school  of  scholarship 
by  becoming  a  member  of  Peterhouse-  He  was  ordained,  and 
proceeded  to  the  degree  of  D.D.,  and  successively  became  head- 
master of  Southampton,  Louth  and  Edgbaston,  but  his  restless 
temperament  was  little  suited  for  such  duties.  In  1863  he  was 
classical  examiner  in  the  University  of  London,  and,  from  1867 
to  1884,  he  won  the  highest  regard  by  his  services  to  Australian 
education  as  professor  of  Classics  and  Logic  at  the  University  of 
Sydney. 

He  edited  the  /phigetiia  in  Tauris.  Ihe  Heleua,  and  the  Ion  of  Euripides, 
the  Phatdrits  and  PhUtbus,  the  Eulhydeima  and  Laches,  and  the  Symposium 
of  Plato.  He  also  wrote  on  Plato's  Episltes,  and  ctmtrihuted  papers  lo  ihe 
Rheinisihes  Museum,  and  lo  Mnniwsyiu.  Lastly,  he  published  his  innuguial 
discourse  al  Sydney  under  the  title  of  Adhorlatie  ad  discipules  aradtmiai 
Sydaeiensis. 

In  i-choiarsbip  he  was  especially  attracted  In  the  school  of  Porson,  and  of 
Cobet.  He  received  an  honorary  degree  at  Leyden  in  i860,  and  then  met 
Cobct  Tor  the  first  time  ;  in  1865  he  dedicated  to  Cobet  his  edition  of  the 
Etttkydimus  and  Laches  (with  a  prefatory  epislle  lo  the  senate  of  the 
university  of  Leyden) ;  and  It  was  on  his  deathbed  that  be  dictated  his  latest 
letter  to  the  great  Dutch  scholar.  His  corrections  of  the  text  of  Aristophanes 
won  the  high  appreciation  of  Thompson,  whom  he  visited  at  Ely  in  1857,  and 
10  whom  he  addressed  the  prefatory  letter  prefixed  to  the  Sympoiiiim  (i866). 
Among  his  other  friends  were  F.  D.  Maurice,  and  Sir  Theodore  Martin'. 

One  of  the  foremost  candidates  for  the  Greek  Professorship 
vacated  by  Thompson  in  1 867  was  Edward  Meredith 
Cope  (1818— 1869),  who  was  educated  under 
Kennedy  at  Shrewsbury,  and  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  an 
elaborate  Introduction  to  the  Rhetoric  of  Aristotle  (1867),  the 
precursor  of  a  comprehensive  edition,  which  was  posthumously 
published  (1877).  His  translation  of  the  Gorgias  was  printed  in 
1864;  that  of  the  Fhaedo,aitef  his  death.  He  criticised  the  views 
of  Grote  on  the  Sophists  in  a  series  of  papers  in  the  Journal  of 
Classical  and  Sacred  Philology,  but  it  was  to  Grote  that  he 
dedicated  his  Introduction  to  the  Rhetoric*. 

'  Lewis  Campbell,  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1884,  91— yS. 

°  Biographical  Notice  by  Munro  prefixed  (o  Cope's  Rhiloric  (ed. 
Sandys). 

„.,,„,I..OOglC 


CHAP,  XL.]         COPE.      DONALDSON.      PALEV.  409 

Among  Thompson's  ablest  contemporaries  was  John  William 
Donaldson  (rSii— 1861),  Fellow  of  Trinity,  and  oonMaca 
head-master  of  the  School  at  Bury  St  Edmund's 
(1841-55).  In  his  N^ew  Cratylus^  he  gave  a  considerable 
impulse  to  the  study  of  Comparative  Philology  in  England  ;  in 
his  Varronianus'  he  advanced  a  theory  of  the  Gothic  affinities 
of  the  Etruscans.  He  was  the  principal  author  of  a  work  on  the 
Theatre  of  the  Greeks;  he  edited  Pindar  (1841),  the  Antigone  of 
Sophocles  (1848)  and  a  text  of  Thucydides  {1859);  he  also 
completed  K.  O.  MUller's  History  of  Greek  Literature  (1858), 
and  wrote  an  interesting  and  suggestive  work  entitled  Classical 
Scholarship  and  Classical  Learning  (1856).  His  Complete  Latin 
Grammar"  was  enlarged  in  i860;  his  Greek  Grammar  attained 
a  third  edition  in  1862.  A  volume  in  which  he  contended  in 
1854  that  the  lost  book  of  Jasher  constituted  'the  religious 
marrowof  the  Scriptures' produced  much  excitement  in  theological 
circles,  and  ultimately  led  to  his  resigning  his  position  at  Bury, 
and  devoting  himself  to  classical  work  in  Cambridge. 

A  wide  variety  of  interests  was  represented  by  Donaldson's 
younger  contemporary  [''rederick  Apthorp  Paley 
(1816— 1888),  of  Shrewsbury  and  St  John's.  An 
e^er  botanist,  and  an  enthusiastic  student  of  ecclesiastical 
architecture,  he  was  an  active  member  of  the  Camden  Society 
at  Cambridge;  he  joined  the  Church  of  Rome  in  1846,  returned 
to  Cambridge  as  a  private  tutor  from  i860  to  1874.  was  professor 
at  a  Catholic  College  in  Kensington  (1874-7),  and  spent  the  last 
eleven  years  of  his  life  at  Bournemouth. 

He  first  made  Jiis  mark  by  an  edition  of  Ae!K^]1}'lu3  with  Latin  notes 
(1844-51),  followed  by  an  English  edilion  (i8ss.  etc,),  which  il  widely 
reCf^ised  as  bis  liesi  work.  He  also  edited  Euiipiiles,  Hesiod,  Theocritus, 
and  the  Iliad,  as  well  as  several  plays  of  Sophocles,  with  Ovid's  Fasti,  and 
Propeniiis.  He  was  associated  with  ihe  present  writer  in  an  edition  of 
'Select  Private  Orations  of  Demosthenes'  (1874).  His  numerous  English 
translations  were  not  marked  by  any  such  distinction  of  style  as  that  which  he 
attained  in  Latin  prose.  An  incidental  remark  of  Donaldson's  on  certain 
resemblances  lielween  Quinlus  Smyrnaeus  and  the  Iliad  led  him  to  produce  a 
series  of  papers,  maintaining  that  Ihe  Homeric  poems  in  their  present  fi^rm 


'  1839;  ed.  3,  1859.  =  18+4;  ed.3,  1; 

'  Criticised  by  B.  H.  Kennedy  (1851). 


i.MM,Googlc 


410  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

weie  not  earlier  than  the  age  of  Alexander,  and  that  it  was  mainly  through 
oral  tradition  Ihat  they  reached  the  age  of  Thucydides'.  He  was  unbmiliai 
with  German,  and  his  wide  and  varied  learning  was  the  result  of  his  own 
reading.  Some  of  his  best  work  is  lo  be  found  in  his  prefaces.  In  the 
preface  to  his  '  Euripides '  he  protests  against  Ihe  purely  textual  noles  that 
were  the  characteristic  of  the  Porsonian  school.  The  notes  lo  his  own  edition 
were  composed  '  with  the  hope  of  inducing  students  to  pay  no  less  attention  to 
the  mind  and  feelings  than  to  the  language  and  idioms  of  their  author ''. 

Shrewsbury  and  St  John's  were  also  represented  by  Paley's 

contemporary,   Thomas  Saunders    Evans    (1816 — 

1889),    for    many   years   master  at    Rugby.      His 

remarkable   skill    in    classical    composition  was  attested  by  the 

volume  of  Latin  and  Greek    Verse  published  in    1893   'as  a 

memorial  of  an  original  and  highly  gifted  man,  considered  by 

many  to  have  few  rivals  in  his  special  departipent  of  Scholarship'. 

The  same  school  sent  to  Cambridge  an  accomplished  scholar 

in  the  person  of  William  Georee  Clark  {1821 — 

W.  O.  Clark  o  \ 

1878),  who  ably  filled  the  office  of  Public  Orator 
from  1857  to  1869.  He  visited  Spain,  Italy  and  Greece,  and, 
besides  other  works  of  travel,  published  in  his  Peloponnesus  the 
results  of  his  Greek  tour  in  the  company  of  Thompson.  A 
critical  edition  of  Shakespeare  designed  in  i860  was  successfully 
completed  by  Clark  and  Aldis  Wright  in  1866.  He  also  designed 
an  edition  of  Aristophanes. 

The  lext  of  that  author  had  been  already  illustrated  at  Cambridge  by  tbe 

varied  learning  of  Thomas  Mitchell  (1783—1845),  Fellow  of 

Sidney,  in  his  translations  of  1 810-1,  and  his  editions  of  several 

plays  in  1835-9;  "'"'  ^  *'''*  rendering  of  five  of  Ihe  plays  had 

been  produced  at  Malta  between  1830  and  1840  by  John  Hookham  Frere 

(1769—1846),  Fellow  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College'. 


'  '  On  the  lale  dale  and  the  composite  character  of  our  Ilias  and  Odyssey  ' 
(]  868) ;  '  Pseudo-archaic  words  and  inflexions  in  the  Homeric  vocabulary,  and 
their  relation  lo  the  antiquity  of  Ihe  Homeric  poems'  {Journal  of  Philol. 
vi  ii4f,  1876);  '  Qn.  Smyrnaeus  and  the  Homer  of  the  Tragic  poets'  {1876) ; 


'  Homerus  Periclis  aelate  quinam  habitus  sil  cjuaeritur  (1877)' ; 

'  Homeri  quae 

.  siut'(.878)-, 

'The  truth  about  Homer'  (rSSj). 

>  Vol.  i,  pp.  liv— Iviii,  ed.  \%ii.—The  Timts,  to  Dec.,  188 

8;  S.S.  I..ewis 

in  Biogr.Jahrb.  1889,  15— '7- 

^  Life  and  Works,  ^.  1,  1874. 

OgIC 


CHAP.  XL.]        W.  G.  CLARK.      H.  A.   HOLDEN.  411 

Clark  devoted  part  of  1867  to  examining  the  mss  at  Ravenna 
and  Venice,  and  began  a  commentary  on  the  Achamians',  which 
his  failing  health  compelled  him  to  leave  unfinished.  Munro, 
his  friend  for  nearly  forty  years,  thought  that  'his  was  the  most 
accomplished  and  versatile  mind  he  had  ever  encountered'; 
his  work  was  marked  by  a  'surprising  tact  and  readiness',  a 
'consummate  ease  and  mastery'*.  A  Fellow  of  Trinity  for  the 
last  34  years  of  his  life,  he  left  his  estates  to  the  Collie,  where 
his  name  has  been  commemorated  by  the  establishment  of  the 
'Clark  Lectureship  in  the  Literature  of  England'. 

Clark's    contemporary,    Churchill    Babington    (1821 — 1889), 
Fellow   of   St   John's,   and    Disney  professor   of 
Archaeology  from    1865    to    1880,    produced   in       B«XlJi"n 
1851-8  the  editio  princeps  of  four  of  the  speeches 
of  Hypereides,  beginning  with  the  'Speech  against  Demosthenes' 
and  ending  with  the  'Funeral  Oration".     Born  a  year  later  than 
Clark    and    Babington,    Hubert    Ashton    Holden      „   .  „  ,j 
(1822 — 1896),  Fellow  of  Trinity,  and  head-master 
of  Ipswich  School  from  1858  to  1883,  edited  a  text  of  Aristo- 
phanes with  an  onomastUon,  and  produced  elaborate  commentaries 
on  the  Seventh  Book  of  Thucydides,  the  Cyropaedeia,  Hieron, 
and  Oeconomicus  of  Xenophon,  eight  of  Plutarch's  Lives,  and  the 
Pro  Piando,    Pro   Seslio,    and    -De    Officiis   of  Cicero.     In   his 
Foliorum  Silvula   he   published  a  collection   of  passages   from 
English  poetry  for  translation  into  Greek  and  Latin,  followed  by 
versions  of  the  same  by  various  scholars  in  the  Folia  Silvulae. 

Among  the  most  brilliant  of  the  classical  scholars  who  con- 
tributed to  the  Folia  was  Arthur  Holmes  (1837 — 
1875),  of  Shrewsbury  and  St  John's,  who  edited 
the  Midias  and  the  De  Corona  of  Demosthenes,  and  also  published 
a  Prelection  on  'the  Nemeian  Odes  of  Pindar"  {1867). 

'  Notes  on  ^fA.  i— •,^9,\a  Journal  rf PkUotogy,  viii  I77f,  ix  i  f,  13  f, 

'  ib.  viii  17J-5.  His  '  silvery  talk '  is  noted  in  the  Lift  of  H.  Sidgwitk, 
171. 

■  J.  E.  Sandys  in  CI.  Jtev,  iii  135,  AaA  Biegr.  yahrb.  1889,  26  f;  and  C- C. 
Bahinglon,  in  Tkt  Eagle,  xv  361-6. 

*  E.  W.  Bowling  in  Tie  Eaglt,  ix  3J9f;  his  giaceful  rendeiing  of 
Tibutlus,  iv  1  (Sulfiicia),  there  quoted  on  p.  334,  is  reprinted  in  Postgate's 
SiUctiotts  from  Tibutlus,  p.  xl. 


Richard  Claverhouse  Jei 


.opgic 


CHAP.  XL.]  JEBB.  413 

Richard  Claverhouse  Jebb  (1841 — 1905),  of  Charterhouse, 
Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  after  winning 
the  Person  Prize,  and  the  Person  and  Craven 
Scholarships,  took  his  d^ree  as  Senior  Classic  in  1862.  He  was 
elected  Public  Orator  of  Cambridge  in  i86g,  was  Professor  of 
Greek  at  Glasgow  from  1875  to  r889,  and  at  Cambridge  from 
1889  to  his  death.  For  the  last  fourteen  years  of  his  life  he  was 
M.P.  for  his  University,  he  received  honorary  degrees  from  niany 
seats  of  learning,  was  knighted  in  1900,  and  in  the  summer  of 
1905  attained  the  crowning  distinction  of  the  Order  of  Merit. 
In  the  autumn  of  that  year,  his  address'  as  president  of  the 
educational  section  was  the  most  impressive  incident  of  the 
meeting  of  the  British  Association  in  South  Africa;  and,  before 
the  end  of  the  year,  he  died. 

He  will  long  be  remembered  as  the  editor  of  Sophocles 
(r883— 96)  and  of  Bacchylides  (1905),  and  as  the  author  of  the 
'  Attic  Orators".  His  other  works  included  a  translation  of  Theo- 
phrastus,  an  'Introduction  to  Homer',  with  lectures  on  Modem 
Greece,  on  Greek  poetry,  and  on  Humanism  in  Education',  mono- 
graphs on  Erasmus  and  on  Bentley,  a  brief  life  of  Porson*,  and 
an  appreciation  of  Macaulay.  He  contributed  articles  on  Greek 
literature  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and  to  the  Cambridge 
Companion  to  Greek  Studies,  and  papers  on  Delos  and  Pindar 
to  the  organ  of  the  Hellenic  Society,  of  which  he  was  the  honoured 
President  for  the  last  sixteen  years  of  his  life.  In  1883  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  founding  the  British  School  at  Athens',  A 
humanist  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word,  he  had  '  not  only 
mastered  the  form  of  classical  literature',  but  had  'assimilated 
its  spirit,  and  applied  it  to  the  understanding  and  criticism  of 
modern  life'.  His  'Attic  Orators'  revealed  to  the  literary  world 
the    fact    that  one  who  was    '  among  the  first  of  living  Greek 

'  University  Education  and  National  Lift  in  Essays  and  Advenes  (\^l), 
61 +—648. 

'  1876;  ed.  1,  1893. 

'  Reprinted  in  Essays  and  Addresses,  506 — 544. 

'  D.  N.  B. 

■  The  scheme  was  propounded  by  him  first  in  Ihe  Cattlemforaty  Reiriem, 
Nov.  1878,  and  next  in  the  Fortnightly  Revirai,  May,  1883.  See  also  Lifehy 
Lady  Jebb,  21  if,  144  f. 


414  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

scholars'  was  himself '  an  artist  in  English  prose' '.  In  that  work 
he  ably  dealt  with  the  life,  style,  and  speeches  of  the  earlier 
Orators,  closing  with  a  chapter  on  the  matured  civil  eloquence, 
as  exemplified  in  Demosthenes.  In  his  'Sophocles'  he  gave 
further  proof  of  his  being  a  critical  scholar,  as  well  as  a  cultivated 
humanist  and  an  accomplished  master  of  English,  who,  without 
pretending  to  be  a  specialist  either  in  comparative  philology  or 
in  archaeology,  was  able  to  present  the  results  of  the  current 
research  in  those  departments  in  a  perfect  literary  form.  It  has 
been  justly  characterised  as  'one  of  the  most  finished,  compre- 
hensive, and  valuable  works,  in  the  sphere  of  literary  exposition, 
which  this  age  or  any  has  produced".  The  same  qualities  were 
exhibited  in  his  'Bacchyl ides',  where  the  defects  of  the  MS  left 
still  further  scope  for  restorations  worthy  of  a  genuine  Greek 
poet.  His  powers  as  a  composer  of  Greek  lyric  verse  had 
already  been  proved  by  his  three  Pindaric  odes,  (i)  his  version 
of  Browning's  Abt  Vogler^,  welcomed  as  admirable  by  the  author 
of  the  original';  (z)  his  rendering  of  Rann  Kennedy's  Rei^  of 
Youth,  a  rendering  characterised  as  a  '  beautiful  work  of  extra- 
ordinary genius,  learning,  and  taste";  and  (3)  his  ode  on  the 
eighth  centenary  of  the  university  of  Bologna  (1888)'.  To  the 
third  of  these  odes  allusion  was  made  by  Tennyson  in  dedicating 
to  its  author  his  classic  poem  oi  Detneter: — 
'Fait  things  are  slow  to  fide  away. 

Bear  witness  you,  Ihal  yesterday 
From  out  the  Ghost  of  Pindar  in  you 

Roll'd  an  Olympian '. 
His  volume  of  Translations  includes  not  a  few  fine  renderings 
in  Latin  as  well  as  Greek  verse,  while  his  mastery  of  a  highly 
felicitous  form  of  Latin  prose  was  exemplified  in  the  speeches 
delivered  by  him  during  his  tenure  of  the  office  of  Public  Orator'. 

'  Quarterly  Reoiew,  1881. 
'  Verrall  in  Biogr.Jahrb.  1906,  77. 

'  Tramlations  into  Greek  and  Latin  Verse,  1873;  new  ed.  1907. 
*  Browning's  AgamentHcn,  pief. 
■  Kennedy's  Betwem  Whiles,  339,  3.151— 377- 

°  All  these  three  Pindaric  odes  are  printed  in  the  new  ed.  of  (he  Trans- 
lalions,  1907. 

'  e^,  Canib.  Univ.  Reporter,  13  June,  1874,  481H5. 


CHAP.  XL.]  JEBB.  415 

The  best  English  parallel  to  these  was  his  admirable  speech  in 
honour  of  the  members  of  foreign  Academies  in  the  Hall  of 
Peterhouse  in  May,  1904.  He  has  been  aptly  described  as  'one 
of  the  most  brilhant  scholars  and  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
men  of  tetters  of  his  time — a  great  humanist,  who,  in  his  com- 
bination of  wide  learning,  consummate  critical  faculty,  and  exquisite 
taste,  had  few  equals  and  perhaps  no  superiors,  among  his 
contemporaries'';  and  it  has  been  well  said  that  he  was  un- 
consciously pourtraying  his  own  gifts  when  he  translated,  in 
his  memorable  monograph  on  Bentley,  the  passage  in  which  that 
great  scholar  says  that  wide  reading  and  erudite  knowledge  of  all 
Greek  and  Latin  antiquity  are  not  enough  for  the  modern  critic 
of  a  classical  author : — 

'A  man  should  have  all  that  al  his  fingers'  ends....  Bui  besides  this  there 
is  need  of  the  keenesi  judgment,  of  sagacity  and  quickness,  of  a  certain 
divining  tact  and  inspiration,  as  was  said  of  Arislarchus — a  faculty  which  can 
be  acquired  by  no  constancy  of  toil  or  length  of  life,  but  comes  solely  by  Ihe 
gift  of  nature  and  by  the  happy  star''. 

In  1885  an  improved  edition  of  Sixteen  Sfeichis  of  Lysias  was  dedicated 
to  Professor  Jebb  by  Evelyn  Shirley  Shuckburgh  {1843 — 
1906),  Librarian  and  lale  Fellow  of  Emmanuel,  who  pro- 
duced a  large  number  of  annotated  editions  of  the  Clashes,  including  a 
historical  Commenlaiy  on  Suetonius'  Augustus,  followed  by  his  own  Life  of 
that  emperor.  He  was  the  author  of  two  histories  of  Kome  and  (wo  of 
Greece,  and  of  a  number  of  translations.  Foremost  among  these  were  his 
widely  appreciated  Polybius,  and  his  eminently  readable  rendering  of  Cicero's 
Lcl/ets.  Of  the  latter  he  characteristically  says  in  his  preface ; — '  No  critic 
can  take  away  from  me  the  days  and  nights  spent  in  closer  communion  with 
Rome's  greatest  intellect '.  He  has  justly  been  described  as  '  a  true  lover  of 
liteiature ''•  He  dedicated  his  version  of  Cicero's  Essays  on  Old  Age  and 
Friendship   to   two  of   his    oldest   friends : — sencsienlibus   smtstens,   amids 

■  Thi  Times,  11  Dec.  190s,  p.  6. 

'  The  Times,  a.s.\  cp.  S.  H.  Butcher  in  Class.  Rni.,  Feb.  1906,  yi  f ; 
A.  W.  Verrall  in  Biogr.  Jakrb.  1906,  76 — 79,  and  in  Appendix  (437 — 487)  to 
Lady  Jebb's  Life  and  Letters  of  Sir  Richard  Claverhouse  /ebb,  with  portrait, 
1907.  The  collected  Essays  and  Aiidresses  {i^j)  have  among  their  subjects 
Sophocles  and  Pindar,  the  age  of  Pericles  and  the  Speeches  of  Thucydides, 
ancient  organs  of  public  opinion,  and  the  exploration  of  Delos,  together  with 
Caesar,  Lucian,  Erasmus  and  Samuel  Johnson.  '  Humanism  in  Education ' 
and  other  kindred  topics. 

*  H.  J.  in  Ca-iibr.  Rev..  iS  Oct.  1906,  8. 

h,  i.MiA.OOt^lC 


4l6  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

amicus.  Though  it  was  not  granted  him  lo  '  atlain  the  happiness  of  old  age  ' 
he  possessed  in  a  marked  degree  the  'genius  for  friendship',  and  the  gift  of  an 
apparently  perennial  youth'. 

Among  those  whose  lo^s  was  lamented  by  Sir  Richard  Jebb,  in  his  speech 
as  President  of  the  Hellenic  Society  in  June,  1901,  were 
'  Professor  George  Charles  Winter  Warr  (1846 — 190  i)t  author 
of  many  valuable  contributions  to  classical  literature*,  who  at  ihe  time  of  his 
death  was  engaged  on  a  work  designed  to  render  the  masterpieces  of  the 
Attic  drama  more  fully  intelligible  to  English  readers ;  and 
Mr  Robert  Alexander  Neil  (185? — '90'),  Fellow  and  Tutor 
of  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  University  Reader  in  Sanskrit  and  a 
classical  scholar  of  rare  learning  and  acumen  '.  Elsewhere  he  said  of  Neil  :— 
'  The  ancient  Classics  were  always  lo  him  great  works  of  literature,  and  a  fine 
literary  sense  invariably  guided  his  treatment  of  them ''.  The  sole  memorial 
of  his  exact  and  varied  scholarship  is  a  posthumous  edition  of  the  Knighls  of 
Aristophanes.  The  friends  who  wrote  the  preface  to  that  work  have  rightly 
s^d  of  him:— 'He  was  familiar  with  the  work  accomplished  by  scholars, 
both  in  the  present  and  the  past,  on  every  side  of  Classical  life  and  thought 
and  language  '.  '  While  there  is  no  part  of  Classical  life  or  thought,  which  he 
did  not  explain  and  illuminate,  he  sought  parallels,  illustration  and  comment 
from  the  whole  range  of  literature  '*.  Neil  was  bound  by  many  ties  to  his 
devoted  friend,  James  Adam  (i860— tpo;),  who,  like  himself, 
was  a  loyal  son  of  Aberdeen  and  of  Cambridge.  Adam  was 
born  in  the  same  region  of  Aberdeenshire  as  the  Scottish  humanist,  Arthur 
Johnston,  and  Ihe  author  well  remembers  the  patriotic  pride  wilh  which  Adam 
once  told  him  of  that  poet's  graceful  lines  on  the  home  beside  the  river  Ury, 
below  the  ridge  of  Bennachie; — 

'  Mille  per  ambages  nitidis  argenleus  undts 

Hie  trepidat  laetos  Vrlus  inter  agros. 
Explicat  hie  seras  ingens  Bennachius  umbras'*. 
At  Aberdeen,  Adam  tame  under  the  inspiring  influence  of  Professor  Geddes, 
the  editor  of  Ihe  Phaido,  '  whose  high  enthusiasm  and  encouragemenl  in  early 

'  J.  Adam,  ii.  6 — J. 

'  The  story  of  Orestes  (i886) ;  Echoes  of  Hellas  (1888) ;  The  Greek  Epic 
([895);  Teuffel's  ^nwaH  Lil.  E.  T.  (1900).  Cp.  Athenaeum,  1  March,  1901. 
He  was  for  35  years  professor  of  Clascal  literature  at  King's  College,  London. 
His  epitaph  in  St  Saviour's,  Liverpool,  ends  as  follows : — '  An  eager  scholar, 
he  was  infinitely  patient,  and  gladly  gave  up  his  best  to  the  humblest  student. 
His  delight  was  in  beauty  ;  he  laboured  to  right  wrongs.  He  had  courage  to 
live  by  the  highest  revealed  to  him,  and,  loving  others  better  than  himself,  he 
won  great  love '. 

■  Cami.  Jieti.  Oct.  1901,  33,  38- 

*  See  also  the  admirable  tribute  10  his  memory  by  his  friend.  J.  Adam,  in 
Cam*,  ^rt'- Oct.  1901,  31  f,  37  f-  '  ai^qsupra. 


J.  Adan 


,l^.OO' 


IC5IC 


CHAP.  XL.]  NEIL.      J.ADAM.  417 

da^s '  were  afterwards  described  by  his  pupil  as  Ilie  ultimate  source  of  all  his 
knowledge  of  Plato'.  At  Cambridge,  as  Scholar  of  Gonville  and  Caius,  he 
took  his  degree  with  distinction  in  pure  scholarship,  in  philosophy  and  in 
comparative  philology,  while,  as  Fellow  of  Emmanuel,  he  won  a  wide  appre- 
cialion  by  his  enthusiastic  and  slimolaling  lectures  on  the  Greek  lyiic  poets,  on 
Ptato  and  Aristotle,  and  on  the  post- Aristotelian  philosophers.  Similarly  at 
Aberdeen  in  1904  he  aroused  Ihe  keenest  inlerest  by  his  Giffbrd  Lectures  on 
The  RiligioHS  Teachers  of  Grtict,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  his  Cambridge 
lectures  of  [906  on  the  Hymn  of  Clcanlhrs.  For  the  Cambridge  Press  he 
produced  excellent  editions  of  Plato's  Apology,  Crilo  and  Eulhyphro.  In  the 
Protagoras  he  was  associated  with  his  wife,  a  no  less  enthusiastic  student  of 
Plato.  He  also  prepared  a  text  (1S97),  and.  ultimately,  an  elaborately  anno- 
tated edition,  of  the  Rrpui/ic  ( 190]).  For  this  last  work,  which  is  his  master- 
piece as  a  classical  editor,  he  was  compelled  to  read  and  digest  '  an  enormous 
mass  of  critical  and  exegetical  liteialuie,'  while  he  contributed  to  the  elucida- 
tion of  his  author  much  that  was  distinctly  original.  It  was  in  the  course  of 
the  preliminary  studies  for  this  work  that  he  wrote  his  treatise  on  The  Nuptial 
Number  of  Plato  (1891)',  and  an  Assyrian  scholar,  professor  HilprechI  of 
Philadelphia,  has  since  shown  that  Adam's  interpretation  agrees  with  the 
Babylonian  'perfect  number',  which  HilprechI  had  himself  discovered  10  be 
the  fourth  power  of  (3  x  4  x  s).  '■'-  1 1,960,000'.  In  his  lectures  on  Plato  he 
was  apt  to  be  a  severe  ciidc  of  scholars  who  proposed  what  he  r^arded  as 
unwarrantable  alterations  of  the  manuscript  text.  Among  his  more  obvious 
characteristics  in  ordinary  life  were  a  love  of  irony  and  paradox,  an  alacrity  of 
mind  and  an  archness  of  manner,  and  a  singular  sprightlfness  of  temper,  com- 
bined with  a  serious  ioterest  in  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  old  classical  world. 
In  the  praelection  which  be  delivered  in  the  Senate  House  in  January,  1906,  he 
made  a  fragmeot  of  Pindar  the  text  of  an  eloquent  and  impressive  discourse  on 
the  ancient  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul'.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
too  brief  life  he  was  attracted  to  the  study  of  the  points  of  contact  between 
Stoicism  and  Christianity.  Amid  his  new  interests,  he  laid  aside  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Republic  and  the  introductory  volume,  to  which  he  had  once  been 
looking  forward  when  he  inscribed  on  the  opening  page  of  his  completed 
commentary  the  pathetic  dedication  : — '  To  the  memory  of  Robert  Alexander 
Neil  I  gratefully  and  atTeclionately  dedicate  this  book— s/i  ckSiiiic  rir  (SJor, 
Jj-Bj.  oBBis  yer&iicinH  Tott  TOioifroiJ  IrrSxi^tur  Xifoii''.     It  was  also  to  Neil  that 

1  Pklo,  Sep.  Pref.  x. 

'  See  also  his  Commentary  on  p.  545  (ii  101  f.  364- — 313). 

'  Sir  W.  R.  Ramsay,  in  Aberdeen  Free  Press,  31  Aug.  190J. 

*  Cambridge  Praelections,  ^^ — 67  (on  Pindar,  frag.  131),  reviewed  by 
Wilamowitz  in  CI.  Rev.  xx  445- 

'  .ff//.  498  c.  Cp.  obituary  notices  in  Times,  3  Sept.;  Athenaeum,  7  Sept.; 
P.  Giles  in  Camb.  Rev.  17  Oct.  190J,  and  in  Emm.  Coll.  Mag.  1908;  also  the 
Memoir  hy  Mrs  Adam  prefixed  to  Ibe  Gifford  Lectures,  190S. 

s.   III.  ,.,,,,,,l,,OOSIC 


4l8  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

John  Strachan  (1861 — 1907)1  who  entered  Aberdeen  a  year  later  ihan  Adam, 
dedicated  the  two  volumes  of  the  Thesaurus  Palatohibemicus 
(1901-3).  At  Camtiridge,  where  he  was  elected  Fellow  of 
Pembroke,  his  university  dislinclions  had  been  almosl  exactly  the  same  as  those 
attained  by  Adam,  but  his  main  strength  lay  in  Compatalive  Philolc^.  He 
studied  Sanskrit  at  Gotlingen  and  Cambridge,  and  at  Jena,  where  he  also 
worked  at  Celtic.  Elected  professor  of  Greek  at  Manchester  in  1S89,  he 
edited  the  sixth  book  of  Herodotus  with  an  excellent  summary  of  the  Ionic 
dialect,  and  towards  the  end  of  his  short  life  was  making  many  discoveries  in 
mediaeval  Welsh  and  also  preparing  an  extensive  work  on  the  Greek  language'  ■ 
Mr  Gilbert  Norwood's  volume  on  '  the  Riddle  of  the  Bacchae '  is  dedicated  to 
the  memory  of  (his  '  single-hearted  scholar'. 

In  the  generation  succeeding  that  of  Elmsley  and  Gaisford, 

Greek  scholarship  was  well  represented  at  Oxford  by 

and  Henry  George  Liddell  (181 1—1898)    of  Charter- 

^""*  house,  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  and  by  Robert  Scott 

(1811 — 1887)  of  Shrewsbury,  Master  of  Balliol  and   Dean  of 

Rochester,  the  joint  authors  of  the  standard  Greek  and  English 

Lexicon.      Founded  partly  on  that  of  Passow,  the  first  edition 

appeared  in  1843  ;  the  eighth  in  1897.     It  marked  a  vast  advance 

on  the  lexicons  of  Donnegan,  Dunbar,  and  Giles;  it  led  to  an 

immediate  abandonment  of  Dindorfs  plan  for  producing  a  similar 

work  ;  and  it  still,  deservedly,  holds  the  field  in  England^. 

As  Master  of  Balliol,  Scott  was  succeeded  in  1870  by  Benjamin 
Jowett  {1817 — 1893),  who  in  1855  had  succeeded 
Gaisford  as  professor  of  Greek.  One  of  his  able 
biographers'  has  placed  in  a  clear  light  'the  admixture  of 
error '  in  the  '  popular  prejudice  of  the  scholastic  world '  that 
Jowett,  though  a  professor  of  Greek,  was  not  an  exact  scholar,  in 
the  technical  sense  of  the  term.  He  once  said,  with  an  ironic 
smile,  '  I  often  think  with  pleasure  that,  unworthy  as  I  am,  I  have 
to  do  with  the  greatest  literature  in  the  world '.  We  are  told  that, 
early  in  his  professorial  career,  he  'read  a  book  of  Homer  nightly, — 
studied  Buttmann's  Lexilogus  at  breakfast  time,  went  several  times 
through  Pindar  and  the  lyric  poets,  and  carried  Herodotus  about 
with  him  on  railway  journeys.     As  for  Aeschylus  and  Sophocles 

'  nmts,  «  Oct.;  Alhenatum,  5  Oct.;   P.  Giles  in  Camb.   Rezi.   17  Oct. 
1907. 

>  H.  L.  Thompson's  Lifi  of  H.  G.  Liddill  (with  portraits).  65-81. 
'  Lewis  Campbell,  in  CI.  Rev.  vii  473-6. 


1.  iiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XL.]      LIDDELL  AND  SCOTT.      JOWETT.  419 

he  had  always  loved  them. ...At  a  later  time  he  had  always  some 
author  on  hand,— Lucian  and  Plutarch  for  example,— outside  his 
immediate  studies'.  In  the  domain  of  classical  learning,  the 
foremost  of  his  plans  was  an  Oxford  edition  of  the  principal 
dialt^ues  of  Plato.  The  Philebus  was  edited  in  i860  by  Edward 
Poste  (1821— 1902),  the  TheaeUtus  (1861)  and  the  SophisUs  and 
Politicus  (1867)  by  Professor  Lewis  Campbell;  and  the  Apology 
by  Riddell  (1867)'.  Jowett's  own  part  in  the  scheme  was  a  long- 
delayed  edition  of  the  Republic  with  text,  notes,  and  essays,  in 
which  he  was  associated  with  Professor  Campbell  (1894).  Mean- 
while, he  had  conceived  the  design  of  a  complete  translation  of 
Plato,  which  was  happily  accomplished  in  187 1.  This  was  followed 
-by  his  translation  of  Thucydides  { 1 881)  and  the /"oA'/w-j  of  Aristotle 
(1885),  both  of  which  were  accompanied  by  a  Commentary.  AH 
these  three  great  works  are  justly  rect^nised  as  masterpieces  of 
English,  and  his  rendering  of  Plato  in  particular,  with  its  admirably 
written  Introductions,  has  done  much  towards  popularising  the 
study  of  Plato  in  England  and  elsewhere;  it  has,  in  fact,  'made 
Plato  an  English  classic".  When  some  minor  mistake  was  pointed 
out  to  him,  he  would  look  up  and  say  : — '  It  is  not  that  I  do  not 
know  these  elementary  things;  but  the  effort  of  making  the  English 
harmonious  is  so  great,  that  one's  mind  is  insensibly  drawn  away 
from  the  details  of  the  Greek".  He  was  sceptical  about  the  value 
of  epigraphy  and  archaeolt^y,  and  of  conjectural  emendation. 

He  wrote  of  (he  latter :— 'the  more  we  think  of  the  follies  inio  which 
great  seholais  have  been  betrayed  by  the  love  of  it,  the  nattower  ate  the 
limits  which  we  are  disposed  to  assign  to  it  '*. 

His  doubts  as  to  the  importance  of  the  study  of  epigraphy  may  almost  be 
forgiven  (or  the  sake  of  the  graceful  phrases  m  which  those  doubts  are  finally 
summed  up  ; — '  To  be  busy  on  Greek  soil,  under  the  light  of  the  blue  heaven, 
amid  the  scenes  of  ancient  glory,  in  reading  inscriptions,  or  putting  together 
fragments  of  stone  or  martile,  has  a  charm  of  another  kind  than  that  which  is 
to  be  found  in  the  language  of  ancient  authors.  Yet  even  to  appreciate  truly 
the  value  of  such  remains,  it  is  to  the  higher  study  of  the  tnind  of  Hellas  and 
of  her  gieal  men  tbal  we  must  return,  finding  some  little  pleasure  by  the  way 


>  p.  4»*  >"fi-^- 

*  jebb's  Essays  and  Addresses  (1907),  534,  61 S- 
'  CI.  Rev.  vii  475. 

*  rlalo.  Rep.  vol.  11  p.  xiii. 

i..i.a7fC00glc 


[cent.  XIX. 


Jo wett's contemporary,  MarkPattison(i8i3 — 1884),  Rector  of 
Lincoln,  was  deeply  read  in  the  History  of  Scholar- 
ship, especially  that  of  the  Renaissance  in  France, 
as  is  proved  in  part  by  his  Life  of  Casaubon*  and  his  Essays  on 
Scaliger*. 

Intermediate  in  age  between  Pattison  and  Jowett  was  George 
Rawlinson(i8i5 — 1902),  Fellow  of  Exeter,  Camden 
professor  of  Ancient  History,  and  Canon  of  Canter- 
bury, who  produced  in  1858  a  standard  translation  of  Herodotus, 
with  notes  and  essays,  partly  contributed  by  the  translator's  brother, 
the  Assyriologist,  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  and  by  the  Egyptologist, 
Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson.  George  Rawlinson  also  published — in 
1862-71 — the  successive  volumes  of  his  'Five  Great  Monarchies 
of  the  Eastern  World ',  followed  by  volumes  on  the  sixth  and 
seventh  Monarchies  in  1873-6.  His  portrait  in  the  hall  of 
Trinity  represents  him  transcribing  letters  for  his  memoir  of  his 
distinguished  brother*. 

Among  the  contemporaries  of  George   Rawlinson  was   the 
learned    physician,   William    Alexander   Greenhill 
Qreenhiii        (i8,4_,894),  of  Rugby  and  Trinity  College,  Ox- 
ford, who  contributed  to  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography  a  series  of  important  articles  on  the  ancient  writers  on 
medicine. 

Comparative  Philology  was  ably  represented  at  Oxford  by 
Friedrich  Max  Miiller  (1823 — 1900),  who  studied 
under  Bopp  and  Schelling  in  Berlin  and  under 
Eugene  Burnouf  in  Paris.  He  was  welcomed  in  England  by 
Bunsen,  and  was  invited  by  the  East  India  Company  to  edit  the 
Rigveda  (1849-73)-  Defeated  in  i860  in  his  candidature  for  the 
Chair  of  Sanskrit  at  Oxford,  he  gave  two  admirable  courses  of 
Lectures   on   the  Science  of  Language   at   the  Royal    Institution 

•  Tkiieydides,  vol.  1  p.  cii  ed.   1900.    Cp.  Lift  by  Campbell  nnd  AbbotI 
(wilh  portraits),  1897. 

"  iSjs;  ed.  1,  189J. 

■  Reprinted  in  his  Essays,  1889. — Cp.  Memoirs  down  to  i860,  dictated  in 
1883  ;  Bhgr.  lakrb.  1884,  47  f;  and  Life  of  H.  SiiigaiicS,  404. 

•  Notice  in  Tie  Times,  7  Oct.  1901. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XL.]      MAX   MOLLER.      COWELL.      GRANT.  421 

(1861-4),  which  made  the  general  results  of  the  study  of  Compara- 
tive Philology  familiar  to  Englishmen,  and  led  to  his  appointment 

to  a  professorship  of  that  subject  at  Oxford  in  1868.  'Though 
much  in  his  works  and  methods  may  already  be  superseded,  his 
writings  exercised  an  extraordinarily  stimulating  influence  in  many 
fields".  Comparative  Philology  was  part  of  the  wide  province 
explored  by  Edward  Byles  Cowell  (1826 — 1903), 
of  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford  (1854),  president  of  the 
Sanskrit  Collt^e,  Calcutta,  and  afterwards  professor  of  Sanskrit  at 
Cambridge  for  the  last  36  years  of  his  life.  Host  of  his  published 
work  consisted  of  editions  and  translations  of  Sanskrit  texts.  He 
was  also  specially  interested  in  botany,  as  well  as  in  Welsh, 
Spanish  and  Italian  literature.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce 
FitzGerald  to  Omar  Khdyyam  and  to  the  Mosella  of  Ausonius'. 
One  of  his  own  English  poems,  written  late  in  life,  tells  '  how 
"  the  slumbering  student  in  his  heart "  had  been  awakened  in  his 
earliest  teens,  and  he  had  become  the  blissful  owner  of  a  many- 
volumed  Livy  and  the  newly-published  Corpus  Poetarum''. 

Henry  William  Chandler  {1828— 1889),  Fellow  of  Pembroke, 
Oxford,  produced  in  1862  a  standard  work  on 
'Greek  Accents'.  As  professor  of  Moral  Philosophy 
he  lectured  with  great  success  on  Aristotle ;  he  had  a  remarkable 
knowledge  of  the  bibliography  of  the  Ethics,  and  left  behind  him 
a  large  collection  of  Aristotelian  literature  which  has  found  a 
permanent  home  in  his  former  College. 

An  excellent  edition  of  the  Ethics  with  an  English  commentary 
and  illustrative  essays  (1857,  1884')  was  the  most 
important  classical  work  published  by  Sir  Alexander 
Grant,  Scholar  of  Baliiol  and  Fellow  of  Oriel  {1826— 1884).  His 
eight  years  in  India  as  holder  of  important  educational  positions 
in  Madras  and  Bombay  were  followed  by  the  sixteen  years  of  his 
distinguished  tenure  of  the  principalship  of  the  university  of 
Edinburgh,  'where  his  intellectual  powers,  his  knowledge  of  men, 

'  D.  y.  S.;  cp.  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1901,  7 — 39.  '  i  ii^'  supra. 

'  p.  110  of  'C.  W.  M."s  delighlful  sketch  in  xhe /oamai  0/  Philology, 
xsix  iig — 135.  Cp.  Life  by  G.  Cowell  (with  appendix  including  an  outline 
of  the  history  of  Sanskrit  studies  in  England,  drawn  up  for  the  use  of  the 
present  writer  in  his  article  on  Enghsh  Scholaiship  in  Social  England,  vi  316). 


lOO' 


SIC 


422  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

and  his  dignity  and  urbanity,  made  him  a  striking  figure".  The 
year  of  the  completion  of  hts  '  Story  of  the  University',  and  of  the 
commemoration  of  its  tercentenary,  was  also  that  of  his  death. 
The  series  of  'Ancient  Classics  for  English  Readers'  was  the 
richer  for  his  admirable  volumes  on  Xenophon  and  Aristotle. 

An  edition  of  the  Ethics  was  produced  in  1856  by  William 
■  Edward  Jelf  of  Christ  Church  (1811—1875),  who  is 

best  known  as  the  translator  of   Kiihner's  Greek 
Grammar  (1842-5,  etc.). 

In  1855  two  annotated  editions  of  the  Politics  were  simul- 
taneously published   at   Oxford,  that  of  J.  R.  T. 
^on'ereve'       Eaton,  Fellow    of   Merton,  and    that   of   Richard 
Congreve  {1818 — 1899),  Fellow  of  Wadham,  who 
in  the  same  year  founded  the  positivist  community  in  London, 
and  by  the  date  of  the  unaltered  second  edition  of  his  commen- 
tary (1874)  had   abandoned  the  study  of  the  Classics  for  the 
practice  of  medicine.     The  Greek  index  of  his  edition  is  far  fuller 
than  that  of  Eaton's,  '  several  excellent  English  expressions '  are 
borrowed  from  Congreve's  notes    in    Jowett's    translation,  while 
both  editors  are  repeatedly  mentioned  in  the  comprehensive  work 
of  Mr  W.  L.  Newman  (1887—1902). 

An  edition  of  Plato's  Euthydeinus  was  the  latest  work  produced 

in  Oxford  at  the  close  of  a  long  life  by  Edwin 

Hamilton    Gifford    (1820 — 1905)    of   Shrewsbury 

School  and  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  who  is  best  known 

as  the  learned  editor  of  the  Praeparatio  Evan^lica  of  Eusebius 

{1903).     The  Apology  of  Plato  was  excellently  edited,  together 

with  an  admirable  '  Digest  of  Platonic  Idioms ',  by 

James  Riddell   (1823 — 1866)    of  Shrewsbury  and 

Balliol,  who  began  an  edition  of  the  Odyssey,  which  was  continued 

by  Dr  Merry  and  completed  by  Monro. 

Among  Oxford  scholars  who  devoted  special  study  to  the  Greek 

poets  was  WiUiam  Linwood  (1817 — 1878)  of  Christ 
Llnwoo<'  „.        ,        ,  .         .  ,  ,     . 

Church,  whose  best-known  works  were  a  lexicon  to 

Aeschylus,  and  an  edition  of  Sophocles  with  brief  Latin  notes 

(1846).    JobnConington(i82S— 1869),  in  the  early 

part  of  his  career,  edited  the  Agamemnon  (1848) 

'  Mrs  Sellat's  A'nrn/ilcc/WHi,  119;  73,311. 


■X'OO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XL.]  MONRO.  423 

and  Choephoroe  {1857)  of  Aeschylus,  and  afterwards  completed  the 
Spenserian  rendering  of  the  Iliad  by  P.  S.  Worsley 
(1835 — 1866),  the  translator  of  the  Odyssey  {1861}.  "    '' 

Among  the  most  successful  of  Homeric  translations  was  the 
rendering  of  the  Iliad  in  blank  verse,  published  in 
1864  by  the  Earl  of  Derby  (1799—1869).  The  ^'"^^^^y 
eloquent  leader  of  the  opposite  party  in  politics,  William  Ewart 
Gladstone  (1809 — 1898),  has  described  the  study 
of  Homer  as  a  '  palace  of  enchantment ',  and  has 
compared  the  spells  of  the  enchanter  to  a  'remedial  specific, 
which,  freshening  the  understanding  by  contact  with  the  truth  and 
strength  of  nature,  should  both  improve  its  vigilance  against  deceit 
and  danger,  and  increase  its  vigour  and  resolution  for  the  discharge 
of  duly".  The  Homeric  poems  were  the  central  theme  of  the  life- 
long labours  of  David  Binning  Monro  {1836 — 1905), 
who  was  educated  at  Glasgow',  was  a  Scholar  of 
Brasenose  and  Balliol,  and  Provost  of  Oriel  for  the  last  twenty- 
three  years  of  his  life.  His  earliest  publication  was  a  Latin  prize- 
essay  on  the  voyage  of  the  Argonauts  {1852),  while  the  latest 
memorial  of  his  learning  wbs  an  edition  of  the  second  half  of 
the  Odyssey  (1901).  The  Appendices  to  this  valuable  edition 
extend  to  more  than  200  pages,  dealing  with  the  composition  of 
the  Odyssey,  the  relation  of  the  Odyssey  to  the  Iliad,  Homer  and 
the  Cyclic  poets,  the  History  of  the  Homeric  poems,  the  time  and 
place  of  Homer,  and  the  Homeric  house.  Nineteen  years 
previously  he  had  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  James  Riddell  his 
Grammar  ef  the  Homeric  Dialed  (1882),  a  monument  of  sound 
and  solid  learning.  The  Homeric  Question  was  the  theme  of  his 
able  articles  in  the  Quarterly  Review  {}%(>%)  ^■nA'Cae^ Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  {1880  etc.).  An  important  contribution  to  the  solution 
of  a  difficult  problem  was  supplied  by  his  Modes  of  Greek  Music 
{1894).     He  has  been  well  described  as 

'  A  man  of  singularly  leliring  disposition,  shy,  indeed,  and  never  given  to 
anything  like  display.     In  general  company  he  spoke  little,  but  always  lo  the 


'  Studit!  in  Homir 

Mundi  (1869) ;  Hom^r 

'  p.  406,  u.  3  supra. 


OgIC 


424  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

point. ..His  sound  judgment,  his  latent  humour,  and  his  sbrewd  aphoristic 
speech  endeared  him  as  few  men  of  his  time  were  endeared  to  their  con- 
temporaries. He  was  an  accomplished  scholar  who  had  also  the  trainii^  of 
the  exact  sciences. ..He  was  an  excellent  linguist,  and,  during  his  term  of 
oHice  as  Vice- Chan  eel  lor,  he  was  able  to  address  audiences  of  foreign  scholars 
in  French,  Italian,  German  and  modern  Greek ''. 

The  accurate  study  of  the  Homeric  poems  has  been  materially  promoted  by 
the  Concordance  to  the  Iliad  prepared  by  Guy  Lushinglon 
■nd"Du?^r  I'rendergast  (187s),  and  that  to  the  Odyssey  and  Homtru 
Hymns  (1880)  by  Dr  Henry  Dunbar,  formerly  of  Gairloch 
Headfd.  1883),  the  author  of  a  complete  Concordance  to  Aristophanes  (1883). 
All  three  works  were  published  by  the  Oxford  Press,  while  the  name  of 
Prendergast  has  been  commemorated  by  (he  foundation  of  a  Greek  Scholarship 
at  Cambridge. 

Amor^  the  numerous  text-books  published  by  Henry  Musgrave  Wilkins, 
H.  M.  Wilkin,     ^'"'^  °^  "^'■'™  (1833-1887),  we  may  mention  his  transla. 
tion  of  the  Speeches  of  Thucydides  (iR;o)  and  his  school 
edition  of  the  Olynthiats  of  Demosthenes. 

A  joint  edition  of  the  '  Orations  of  Demosthenes  and  Aeachines  On  the 

Crown'  was  produced  in  1873  by  two  able  brothers,  George 

'"""  Augustus  (1841— 1905)  and  William  Henry  Simcox  (18+1-3— 

i88g),  both  Fellows-  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.     The  elder  brother  was 

also  the  author  of  an  interesting  '  Histoiy  of  Latin   Literature'  (1883).     A 

translation  of  the  Promdheus  ha.s  been  described  as  perhaps  '  his  most  effective 

The  Greek  drama  was  the  subject  of  the  two  published  works  of  Arthur 
Elam  Haigh  (1855—1905),  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Corpus, 
whose  .^//w  Theatre  (\%%i))'' nvA  Tragic  Drama  of  the  Greeks 
(1896)  have  been  recognised  as  marked  by  'careful  study,  sound  knowledge, 
and  independent  judgment'*. 

Greek  scholarship  had  a  singularly  able  and  vigorous  repre- 
sentative  in  the  person  of  William  Gunion  Ruther- 
ford (1853 — 1907),  a  son  of  the  manse,  who  was 
educated  at  the  High  School,  Glasgow,  and  was  under  Lewis 
Campbell  at  St  Andrews,  and  under  Jowett  at  Balliol.  After 
taking  a  first  class  in  Classical  Moderations  and  a  second  in 
Natural  Science,  and  hesitating  for  a  while  between  the  careers  of 
a  physician,  an  architect  or  a  soldier,  he  found  his  true  vocation 
decided  for  him  by  Jowett,  who  divined  that  he  was  '  one  of  the 

'  The  Times,  13  Aug.  1905.     Cp.  esp.  J.  Cook  Wilson  in  Biogr.  Jahrb. 
1906,  30 — 40;   E.  T.  (with  portrait)  Oxford,   1907. 

>  The  Times,  16  Sept.  1905.  »  Ed.  3,  1907. 

•  A.  Sidgwick  in  Biogr.Jahrb.  1906,  Bo;   The  Times,  13  Dec.  rgoj. 


Haieh 


i."ii,Cooglc 


CHAP.  XL.]  RUTHERFORD.  425 

few  men  who  could  really  think  upon  language'.  This  decision 
led  to  his  becoming  a  master  at  St  Paul's  in  1877.  His  six  years 
at  that  school,  under  the  inspiring  influence  of  Mr  F.  W.  Walker, 
were  followed  by  eighteen  as  headmaster  of  Westminster,  while, 
for  part  of  the  remaining  six  years  of  his  life,  he  was  an  examiner 
in  Greek  in  the  university  of  London. 

His  earliest  work,  an  EletnerUaty  Accidence  of  Attic  Greek  (1S7S),  briefly 
embodying  some  of  the  resnits  of  his  researches,  has  since  been  incorporaled 
in  the  admirably  lucid  Firsi  Greek  Grammar  (Accidinct  and  Syntax)  of  1891. 
He  made  his  mark  mainly  by  his  New  Phrynichus  (i88i),  which,  under  the 
guise  of  a  commentary  on  the  grammatical  rules  of  an  Atlicisl  of  the  second 
century,  was  really  1  comprehensive  treatise  on  the  history  and  on  the 
distinctive  characteristics  of  Attic  Greek'.  I(  was  the  work  of  a  loyal,  but 
independent,  follower  of  Cobel.  The  Nca>  Phrynicku!  was  soon  succeeded 
by  an  elaborate  edition  of  Babrius  (1S83),  with  a  dissertation  on  the  history  of 
the  Greek  fable,  and  on  pointa  of  metre,  and  many  other  topics.  His  Fourth 
Book  of  Thucydides  (1889)  exemplified  the  theory  that  the  text  of  that  author 
had  been  corrupted  by  the  addition  of  numerous  'adscripts';  but,  when  all 
these  'adscripts'  had  been  eliminated,  the  rest  was  in  general  so  easy  that  it 
became  difficult  to  understand  why  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  found  the 
historian  so  hard.  His  recension  of  Herondas  (1891)  was  a  somewhat  prema- 
ture production;  his  Lex  Rex,  a  collection  of  cognate  words  in  Greek  and 
Latin  and  English  (the  title  of  which  was  borrowed  from  a  Rutherford  of  the 
17th  century),  gave  proof  of  an  interest  in  Comparative  Philology;  while  his 
new  rendering  of  the  Bpislle  to  the  Remans  arrested  the  attention  of  those  who 
had  long  acquiesced  in  the  authorised  version.  The  two  volumes  of  the 
Scholia  Arislophanica  {1896),  in  which  he  'arranged,  emended,  and  translated' 
the  scholia  to  the  Ravenna  MS,  were  followed  by  a  third  volume  of  commentary 
and  criticism  under  the  title  of  'A  chapter  in  the  history  of  annotation'  (icjoj). 
This  last  volume,  his  latest  legacy  to  the  literature  of  learning,  teems  with 
matters  of  interest  to  scholars,  setting  forth  inter  alia  the  genesis  of  the  scholia 
in  the  class-room  of  the  professional  teacher ;  their  connexion  with  the  dramatic 
recital  of  the  leil,  and  with  its  use  in  illustration  of  certain  tabulated  lists  of 
figures  of  speech ;  the  contrast  between  Ihe  scholiast's  neglect  of  textual  criti- 
cism and  the  interest  in  that  subject  shown  by  Galen's  remarks  on  (be  current 
texts  of  the  old  Greek  Classics ;  and,  lastly,  the  significance  oi  the  ancient 
method  of  catechetical  instioclii:«i.  The  author  is  justified  in  implying  that  his 
work  '  has  a  bearing  upon  questions  of  some  importance  at  the  present  time' ;  it 
conl^ns  materials  for  many  essays  on  modem  education,  which  might  well 
have  appealed  to  a  wider  audience  in  a  work  of  more  popular  form'. 

'  Reprint  of  Reviews.  41  pp.  (Macmillan,  1881). 

=  Cp.  a.  Ren.  iv  110  f,  sx  115  f,  and  obituary  notice  /*.  xxi  190  f;  Titiies, 
10  July;  axA  Athenaeum,  17  July,  1907;  portrait  by  Seymour  Lucas. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOt^lC 


426  SCOTLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

In  Scotland  the  study  of  Greek  was  combined  with  that  of 
Medicine   by   Francis   Adams  (1796 — 1861),  the 
A^mi""'' '      physician   and   classical   scholar   of  Banchory   on 
the  Dee,    who  translated   and    edited    the    Greek 
medical  writers  Paulus  A^ineta  (1844-7),  -Hippocrates  (1849), 
and  Aretaeus  (1856),  and,  in  recognition  of  the  merits  of  these 
works,  was  made  an  honorary  M.D.  of  Aberdeen  in  the  year  last 
mentioned.     He  contributed  an  appendix  on  the  names  of  Greek 
plants  and  animals  to  the  lexicon  compiled  in  1831 
by  George  Dunbar  (1774 — 1851),  the  professor  of 
Greek  in  Edinburgh  {1807-51),  who  edited  Herodotus  (1806-7), 
and  incidentally  attempted  to  derive  Sanskrit  from  Greek  (1827). 
As  professor  of  Greek  he  was  the  successor  of  Andrew  Dalzel 
(1750 — 1806),  the  editor  of  the  Analeda    Graeca  Minora   and 
Majora  whom  his  pupil,  Lord  Cockburn',  describes  as  'an  abso- 
lute enthusiast  aI)out  learning".    Dunbar's  younger  contemporary, 
a  son  of  the  bishop  of  Edinburgh,  was  at  this  time  professor  of 
Greek  at  Glasgow  : — Daniel  Keyte  Sandford  (1798 
— 1838),  who,  in  1830,  was  knighted  for  his  elo- 
quent advocacy  of  the  cause  of  Reform,  and  in  the  same  ^ear 
published  his  translation  of  the  Greek  Grammar  of  Thiersch.    To 
the  end  of  his  life  he  contributed  to  Blackwood'  many  articles  on 
classical  subjects,  with  translations  from  the  Greek   poets  ^    his 

'  Henry  Cockbum's  Memorials  {1856),  19  f. 

*  Among  those  who  learnt  (heir  Greek  from  DaUel  was  Sir  Waltei  Scott's 
short-lived  friend,  John  Leyilen  (1775 — 181 1),  who  Iranslated  the  marljal  poems 
of  Tyrlaeus,  with  Ihe  w»r-!ong  of  Hybrias  the  Cretan,  and  Arislotle's  Ode  to 
Virtue,  He  went  to  the  East  as  a  sut^eon  with  a  view  to  investigating  the 
langirages  and  the  learning  of  India.  He  had  a  remarkable  gift  for  the  study 
of  Arabic,  Persian,  Sanskrit,  and  other  oriental  languages.  '  I  may  die  in  the 
attempt '  {he  writes  to  a  friend),  'but  if  I  die  without  surpassii^  Sit  William 
Jones  a  hundredfold  in  oriental  learning,  never  let  a  tear  foi  me  pro&ne  the 
eye  of  a  Borderer'.  In  his  eagerness  to  examine  an  ill- ventilated  library  of 
Indian  Mss,  he  caught  a  fever,  of  which  he  died  in  the  island  of  Java.  His  brief 
career  a;  a  student  of  eastern  langui^cs  has  a  close  resemblance  to  that  of 
Rask.  He  left  many  treatises  in  MS,  as  well  as  translations  from  Sanskrit, 
Persian  and  Arabic.  His  death  was  lamented  in  The  Lord  of  Iht  Isles  {iv  ij, 
and  his  life  was  admirably  sketched  by  Scott  in  the  Memoir  which  has  since 
been  prefixed  to  his  friend's  Poems  and  Ballads  (ed.  1858). 

3  See  xi  6;8  for  his  Letter  to  Elmsiey  (Oxford,  1812). 


A.OO' 


ic^lC 


CHAP.  XL.]      SANDFORD.      VEITCH.      BLACKIE.  427 

Stretch  of  the  literature  of  Greece  was  iricluded  in  a  new  edition 
of  Potter's  Archaeologia  Graeca ;  and  his  '  Extracts  from  Greek 
Authors'  found  a  new  editor  in  William  Veitch'. 

William  Veitch  (1794 — 1885),  who  was  educated  at  Jedburgh, 
the  capital  of  his  native  county,  and  afterwards  at-  «  ■   h 

tended  Dunbar's  lectures  in  Edinburgh,  devoted  the 
whole  of  his  life  to  the  duties  of  a  private  tutor.  His  well-known 
precision  led  to  his  being  invited  to  read  the  proofs  of  Dunbar's 
Lexicon,  and  to  do  the  same  service,  at  the  age  of  eighty,  for  that 
of  Liddell  and  Scott.  A  comprehensive  work  on  the  Gretk  Verbs, 
produced  in  1S41  by  A.  N.  Carmichaei,  one  of  the  masters  at  the 
Edinburgh  Academy',  was  superseded  in  1848  by  the  fuller  work 
of  Veitch  entitled  Greek  Verbs,  Irregidar  and  Defedive,  afterwards 
thrice  reprinted  by  the  Clarendon  Press.  It  embraces  'all  the 
tenses  used  by  Greek  writers,  with  reference  to  the  passages  in 
which  they  are  found '.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that,  while  new 
references  were  added  in  the  later  editions,  the  evidence  of  In- 
scriptions was  never  introduced.  But  it  still  remains  the  best 
book  of  its  kind'. 

A  vivid  contrast  to  the  quiet  and  retiring  scholar  just  mentioned 
is  presented  by  the  far  more  prominent  personality 
of  John  Stuart  Blackie  (1809— 1895),  who  was 
educated  at  Aberdeen  and  Edinbuigh,  and  at  Gottingen  and 
Berlin,  and  was  for  eleven  years  professor  of  Latin  at  Aberdeen, 
and  for  thirty  professor  of  Greek  at  Edinburgh  (1852-82).  He 
was  mainly  interested  in  the  Greek  poets.  He  translated  the 
'  lyrical  Dramas  of  Aeschylus '  into  English  verse,  and  produced 
more  than  one  edition  of  his  'Lays  and  I^egends  of  Ancient 
Greece'.  In  1866  he  dedicated  to  Welcker,  Finlay  and  W.G.Clark 
his  principal  classical  work,  consisting  of  two  volumes  of  a  vigorous 
and  flowing  translation  of  the  Iliad  in  a  ballad  measure  of  fourteen 
syllables,  followed  by  a  volume  of 'philological  and  archaeolc^cal' 

'  On  Ihe  backward  stale  of  Greek  in  the  time  of  Dunbar  and  Sandford 
(an<i  A.  Alexander  of  S(  Andrews),  cp.  Westminstir  Review,  xvi  (1831)  90 — 
no,  Greek  Literature  in  Scotland.  On  Sandford's  distinguished  successor, 
Lushington,  see  p.  405  supra. 

'  Greek  Verbs,  their  leering  formations,  defects,  and  irregularities,  ascer- 
tained and  tUustraied  by  lopiaus  and  speeial  referetues  Is  Ihe  Classical  Authors. 

»  W.  G.  Rutherford,  in  Biogr.fahrb.  188s.  136-9- 


428  SCOTLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

notes,  and  preceded  by  another  of  'Dissertations'.  In  the  course  of 
these  he  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  there  is  'a  soul  of  truth  in 
the  Wolfian  theory,  but  its  operation  is  to  be  recognised  among 
the  rude  materials  which  Homer  used  and  fused,  not  among  the 
shapely  fragments  of  the  finished  work  which  Fisistratus  collected 
and  arranged ' '.  These  Dissertations  are  well  worthy  of  an  attentive 
perusal.  In  his  teaching  of  Greek  he  insisted  on  recognising  the 
rights  of  Greek  accent',  and,  with  a  view  to  facilitating  the 
acquisition  of  the  language,  published  a  small  volume  of  Greek 
and  English  Dialogues  (1871).  He  was  little  concerned  with  the 
details  of  a  purely  verbal  scholarship,  but  he  took  a  lai^e  and 
humane  view  of  the  abiding  value  of  the  poetic  literature  of 
Greece'. 

The  Homeric  question,  ably  discussed  by  Blackie,  was  more 
minutely  studied  by  an  admirable  Greek  scholar  of 
northern  Britain,  William  Duguid  Geddes  (1828 — 
1900),  professor  of  Greek  at  Aberdeen  from  1856  to  1885,  when 
he  became  Principal,  while  he  attained  the  further  distinction  of 
knighthood  in  1892.  He  was  the  editor  of  a  collection  of  Greek 
and  Latin  verses  by  members  of  his  university,  and  he  also 
produced  an  interesting  edition  of  the  Phaedo  (1863)*. 

In  his  Problem  of  the  Homeric  Poims  (1878)  he  accepted  Grote's  definition 
of  the  original  Achilleid  as  consisting  of  Iliad  i,  viii,  xi — xxii,  and  maintained 
that  the  rest  was  composed  by  a  later  poet,  the  author  of  the  Odyssey,  who 
'engrafted  on  a  more  ancient  poem,  the  Achilleid,  splendid  and  vigorous 
saplings  of  his  own,  transforming  and  enlai^ing  it  into  an  Iliad,  but  an  Iliad 
in  which  the  engrafting  is  not  absolutely  complete,  where  the  "sutures"  are 
still  visihle'.  'The  kinship  between  the  Odyssey  a^A  the  'non-Achillean' 
books  of  the  Iliad  is  rect^ised  especially  (i)  in  the  mode  of  presenting 
Odysseus,  Hector,  Helen,  and  some  other  persons ;  fi)  in  the  aspects  of  the 
gods  and  their  worship  ;  (3)  in  ethical  purpose ;  (4)  in  local  marks  of  origin,— 
the  traces  of  an  Ionian  origin  being  common  (o  the  Odyssey  with  the  non- 
Achillean  books  of  the  Iliad,  and  with  those  alone '.  The  work  '  will  always 
rank  as  a  veiy  able  and  original  contribution  to  the  question'". 

1  i  ,jg. 

'  Discourse  on  Greek  PronutKialioti,  Accent,  and  Quantity  (iSjj),  and  The 
Place  and  Power  0/  Accent  in  Languor  (Royal  Soc.  of  Edin.  1870). 

»  Times  for  4  March,  1895  ;  /.,/e  (with  portrait)  by  A.  M.  Stodart  {new 
ed-  1906);  esp.  chap,  iii  (Gotlingen),  and  xiv  (Homer). 

*  Cp.  R.  A.  Neil,  in  Aurora  Borealis  Acadsmica,  32. 

'  Jebb's  Hemer,  135  f 


i.MM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XL.]  GEDDES.      W.  RAMSAY.      KEY.  429 

Among  Latin  scholars  in  Scotland  we   have  James  Pillans 
(1778— 1864),  Rector  of  the  High  School,  Edin- 
burgh, and  Professor  of  Humanity  in  the  University  caraon 
(1820-63),  *"  editor  of  selections   from  Tacitus, 
Curtius,andLivy;  and  A.  R.  Carson  (1780 — 1850),  who  succeeded 
him  as  Rector,  and  produced  editions  of  Tacitus  and  Phaedrus, 
Cicero,  pro   Cluenlw,  and  the  Mostellaria  of  Plautus  were  well 
edited  by  William  Ramsay  (1806^1865),  professor 
of  Humanity  at  Glasgow  for  the  last   thirty-four 
years  of  his  life,  and  author  of  an  excellent  '  Manual  of  Roman 
Antiquities'    (1851)   and    of  important   articles   in    Dr   William 
Smith's  Dictionaries  (1842-3)'. 

Meanwhile,  in  England,  James  Tate  (1771 — 1843)  of  Sidney 
Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  Master  of  Richmond 
School  from  1790   to   1833,   gave    proof   of   the 
enduring  influence  of  Bentley  in  his  Horatius  Restitutus,  a  >vork 
in  which  the  poems  are  arranged  in  chronological  order  in  ac- 
cordance with  Bentley's  views. 

Late  in  the  life  of  Bentley,  Virgil's  Georgia  had  been  edited  in 
1741  by  John  Martyn  (1699 — 1768),  professor  of 
Botany  at  Cambridge  for  the  last  36  years  of  his        K^igSey 
life.     His  edition  of  the  Georgia  was  followed  in 
1749  by  that  of  the  Bucolics,  and  both  of  them  were  repeatedly 
reprinted  during  the  next  generation.     A  special  interest  attaches 
to  the  illustrations  representing  the  plants  mentioned  by  the  poet. 
About  a  century  later,  notes  on  the  Bucolics  and  Georgia  were 
published  in    1846-8  by  Thomas  Keightley  (1789— r872),  the 
author  of  popular  histories  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

Thomas  Hewitt  Key  (1799 — 1875),  of  St  John's  and  Trinity, 
Cambridge,  studied  medicine  in  London  and  pro-, 
fessed  pure  mathematics  in  Virginia,  but  was  far 
better  known  as  professor  of  Latin  (1828-42)  and  of  Compara- 
tive Grammar  (1842-75)  at  University  College,  London.  His 
essays  on  Terentian  Metres  and  other  subjects  were  published  in 
a  collected  form  in  1844,  his  'Philological  Essays'  in  1868,  and 
his  work  on  the  'origin  and  development'  of  language  in  1874. 
His  Latin  Grammar  bad  already  been  completed  in  1846,  while 
'  e.g.  on  Agricullura,  Cicero,  Juvmalis,  Ludlius,  Lturelius. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


430  ENGLAND.  [cent.  XIX. 

his  Latin  Dictionary  was  posthumously  printed  at  Cambridge  from 
his  unfinished  ms  in  1888.  He  was  head-master  of  University 
College  School  in  1828-75.  I"  1833-42  his  colleague  in  that 
office  was  Henry  Maiden  {1800 — 1876),  Fellow  of 
Trinity,  Cambridge,  and  professor  of  Greek  at 
University  College  from  1831  to  his  death.  He  was  an  excellent 
teacher,  but  he  published  hardly  anything  except  an  'Introductory 
Lecture'  (1831),  a  small  volume  'on  the  origin  of  universities  and 
academical  degrees'  (1835),  and  a  paper  'on  the  number  of  the 
chorus  in  the  Eumemdes'  (1872). 

Their  contemporary,  George  I-ong  (1800 — 1879),    Fellow  of 
Trinity,  Cambridge,  who,  as  Craven  Scholar,  was 
declared  equal  to  Macaulay  and  Maiden,  preceded 
Maiden  as  professor  of  Greek  in  1838-31  and  succeeded  Key  as 
professor  of  Latin  in  1842-6'.     He  published  'two  dissertations 
on  Roman  Law '  in  1827,  edited  Cicero's  Orations  in  the  Biblio- 
theca  Ciassica',  and  produced  a  school  edition  of  Caesar's  Gailk 
War,  together  with  translations  of  thirteen  of  Plutarch's  Lives 
connected  with  the  Civil  Wars  of   Rome  (1844-6),  and  of  the 
MedilalioHS  of  Marcus  Auretius  (1862)  and  the  Manual  of  Epic- 
tetus  (1877).     His  work  as  a  historian  is  mentioned  at  a  later 
point*.     He  contributed  numerous  articles  on  Roman  Law  and 
other  subjects  to  the  great  series  of  Dictionaries 
organised   by    William  Smith   (1813 — 1893),    who 
was  educated  at  University  College,  and,  after  holding  professor- 
ships in   London,  became  classical  examiner  in  the  University 
(1853).     Smith's  Dictionaries  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities 
(1842  etc.)*.   Biography  and   Mytholt^y  (1843  etc.)   and   Geo- 
'  Like  Key.  he  had  begun  his  career  is,  a  professor  (of  ancient  languages) 
in  Virginia  {1814-8)- 

'  In  organising  and  superintending  this  series  in  1851-8  Long  was  asso- 
cialed  with  A.  J.  Macleane  (who  edited  Horace,  Juvenal  and  Persius).  The 
series  included  Paley's  editions  of  Aeschylus  and  Euripides  and  of  Homer's 
Iliad  and  Hesiod;  Blakesley's  Herodotus,  R.  Whiston's  Demosthenes,  P. 
Frost's  Annah  of  Tacitus,  Thompson's  Phaidrut  and  Gtrgias,  Btaydes  and 
Paley's  Sophocles,  and  Coninglon's  Virgil. 
"  p.  439  '«/™- 

'  The  third  edition  was  revised  and  enlarged  in  1890  under  the  editorship 
of  W.  Wayte  (editor  of  Plalo's  Protagoras  and  Demosthenes,  Atidroiitm  and 
Timoiratii),  and  G.  E.  Marindin,  late  Fellows  of  King's  College,  Cambridge. 


.oogic 


CHAP.  XL.]  LONG.      W.  SMITH.      MUNRO.  431 

graphy  (1857),  were  followed  by  Dictionaries  of  the  Bible  and  of 
Cliristian  Antiquities  and  Christian  Biography.  The  abridgements 
of  the  first  two  of  these  are  well  known  to  classical  students*.  The 
Latin  and  English  Dictionary  of  1855  etc.,  founded  on  Forcellini 
and  Freund,  has  its  counterpart  in  the  English  and  Latin  Dic- 
tionary of  1870,  compiled  with  the  aid  of  Theophilus  D.  Hall, 
Fellow  of  University  College,  Ixindon,  and  other  scholars.  Smith's 
series  of  Latin  and  Greek  textbooks  included  an  excellent  School 
History  of  Greece  (1854  etc.).  The  notes  to  his  editions  of  parts 
of  Tacitus  and  Plato  were  avowedly  borrowed  from  German 
sources.  Many  articles  in  his  Dictionaries  were  written  by  his 
brother,  the  Rev.  Philip  Smith  (181 7 — 1885),  whose  most  sub- 
stantial work  was  an  Ancient  History  in  three  volumes  (1868). 
William  Smith,  who  was  editor  of  the  Quarterly  Review  for  the 
last  26  years  of  his  life  and  was  knighted  in  189a,  deserves  to  be 
remembered  as  a  great  organiser  of  teamed  literary  labour.  When 
he  received  his  honorary  degree  at  Oxford,  he  was  justly  described 
by  Lord  Salisbury  as  vir  in  Utterarum  republica  potentissimus. 

A  '  Dictionary  of  Roman  and  Greek  Antiquities,  with  nearly 
2000  engravings  illustrative  of  the  industrial  arts 
and  social  life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans',  was 
the  best-known  work  of  Anthony  Rich  (1821 — -1891),  honorary 
Fellow  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College',  who  also  published  an 
illustrated  edition  of  Horace's  StUires  {1870).  His  Dictionary 
attained  a  third  edition  in  1873,  and  had  meanwhile  been  trans- 
lated into  French,  Italian,  and  German. 

Editions  of  the  Mmaechmi  and  Aulularia  of  Plautus,  with 
Latin  notes  and  glossaries,  were  published  in  1836-9 
by  James  Hildyard,  Fellow  of  Christ's  (1809^1887). 

A  revised  text  of  Horace,  with  illustrations  from  ancient  gems, 
selected  by  the  learned  archaeologist,  C.  W.  King', 
was  produced  in  1869  by  Hugh  Andrew  Johnstone 

'  The  'Classical  Dictionary'  has  long  superseded  thai  of  Drjohn  Lem- 
ptiere  (1788  etc.),  a  native  of  Jersey,  who  was  educated  a(  Winchester  and  at 
Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and  was  headmaster  of  Bollon,  Abingdon  and 
Exeter  Schools  (1765 ?— '824)- 

"  Cp.  Venn's  Biographical  History,  ii  183  (1898). 

'  1818 — 1888,  Fellow  of  Trinity,  Cambtidge,  and  author  of  six  works  on 
gems  in  1860-71. 

,^.oogic 


Hildyard 


Hugh  Andrew  Joi 
From  a  photograph  by  Sir  William  Davidson  Niren 


i.MiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XL.]  MUNRO.  433 

Munro  (1819 — 1885),  educated  at  Shrewsbury,  Fellow  of  Trinity, 
and  first  professor  of  Latin  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  He 
held  the  professorship  for  three  years  only  (1869-72),  but,  in  those 
years,  he  gave  the  first  impulse  to  a  reform  in  the  English  pro- 
nunciation of  Latin'. 

The  reform  was  independently  supported  by  Mr  H.  J.  Roby  in  his  Lniin 
Grammar  (1871),  an<l  by  Mr  A.  J.  Ellis  in  his  PraitUal  Hint!  on  the 
Quantilative  Pronunciation  of  Latin  ( 1874!,  and  was  further  promoted  by  llie 
Cambridge  Philological  Society  in  a  pamphlet  on  (he  Pronundalion  of  Latin 
in  the  Augustan  Period  (1886),  and  by  Professors  E.  V.  Arnold  and  R.  S. 
Conway  in  the  Restored  Pronundation  of  Creek  and  Lalin^.  The  question  of 
Latin  in  particular  was  taken  up  by  the  Classical  Association  of  Scolland 
(1904),  and  by  that  of  England  and  Wales  (1905) ;  a  scheme  of  pronunciation 
was  approved  by  the  Philological  Societies  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  dis- 
cussed by  the  various  Conferences  of  Head-Masters  and  Assistant-Masters; 
sanctioned  by  the  Board  of  Education  (1906),  and  unanimously  recommended 
by  the  Special  Board  for  Classics  in  Cambridge  {1907)'. 

In  1864  the  fruit  of  many  years  of  strenuous  study  appeared 
in  Munro's  inasterly  edition  of  Lucretius,  with  critical  notes  and 
with  a  full  explanatory  cotnmentary,  and  a  vigorous  rendering  in 
English  prose.  Of  the  editor  it  has  been  justly  observed,  that 
of  I^chmann  and  Ritschl,  '  though  a  sincere  admirer,  he  was  no 
slavish  imitator;  but  rather  an  independent  discovererin  regions 
which  their  labours  made  accessible  to  other  explorers'*.  His 
other  works  include  an  edition  of  the  Aetna  of  an  unknown  poet, 
'Criticisms  and  Elucidations  of  Catullus",  and  Emendations  of 
the  fragments  of  Lucilius".  He  was  hardly  less  masterly  as  a 
Greek  critic.  In  r855  he  was  the  first  to  maintain  the  Eudemian 
origin  of  the  fifth  book  of  Aristotle's  Ethics'';  and  late  in  life  he 
paid  special  attention  to  the  text  of  Euripides'.     His  Translations 

'  Pamphlet,  1871;  Palmer  and  Munro's  .Sy/Zaiaj,  1872. 

"  '8ijs;  ed.  3,  1907. 

■  Cp.  Proceeding!  of  CI.  Assoc,  of  England  and  iVales,  Jan.  1905,  7 — 18  ; 
Oct.  1906,  44-611  and  The  Tinits,  t  Apr.  1907  {S.  E.  Winboll) ;  3  Apr. 
(J.  E.  Sandys) ;  6  Apr.  (G-  G.  Ramsay);  also  Appendix  B  and  C  fp.  19)  to 
J.  P.  Poslgate's  pamphlet,  Hotb  la  pronounce  Latin,  1907. 

*  W.  H.  Thompson  mfoum.  af  Philol.  xiv  to?  f. 
"  1878;  newed.  1906. 

*  Joum.  of  Philol.  vii  391  f.  viii  101  f. 

'  Journal  of  CI.  and  Sacred  Philol.  ii  58—8 1 . 
«  Journ.  of  Philol.  x  133  f ;  xi  167  f. 


434  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

inio  Latin  and  Greik  Verse^  are  justly  held  in  high  repute. 
Though  not,  like  Kennedy,  '  an  original  Latin  poet'",  he  displayed 
in  his  Latin  verse  'a  masculine  vigour'  that  was  all  his  own.  He 
won  the  admiration  of  another  master  of  the  craft  by  his  version 
of  Gray's  'Elegy,' — qui  slant  quasi  ntarmore  versus  \  et  similes 
solido  structis  adamante  columnis*.  He  was  apparently  in  the 
enjoyment  of  vigorous  health,  when  he  died  at  Rome  at  the  age 
of  sixty-five*. 

A  standard  edition  of  Cicero,  Z>e  Oratore,  was  prepared  for 
the  Clarendon  Press  in  1879-92  by  Augustus  Samuel 
Wilkins  (1843— 1905),  of  St  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, for  thirty-four  years  professor  of  Latin  at  Owens  College, 
Manchester,  who  also  edited  Cicero's  Speeches  against  Catiline  and 
Horace's  Epistles,  contributed  to  the  ninth  edition  of  the  Encyclo- 
paedia Brilannica  the  long  and  important  articles  on  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Mr  E.  B.  England, 
translated  G.  Curtius'  Principles  of  Greek  Etymology,  and  also 
his  work  on  the  Greek  Verb.  His  fine  scholarship  and  his  wide 
literary  knowledge  gave  real  value  to  his  editions  of  classical 
texts,  and  he  also  did  good  service  in  introducing  to  English 
readers  the  results  of  German  research.  One  of  his  earliest 
publications  was  a  Prize  Essay  on  National  Education  in  Greece. 
Education  was  the  subject  of  his  contribution  to  the  Cambridge 
Companion  to  Greek  Studies  (1905);  and  a  sketch  of  Roman 
Education  was  his  latest  work  (1905)', 

The  first  professor  of  Latin  at  Oxford  was  John  Conington 

(1825 — 1869),  who  was  educated  at   Rugby  and 

held  the  Latin  Professorship   for   the    last  fifteen 

years  of  his  short  life.     He  is   widely  known   as  the  editor  of 

Virgil  (1863-71)  and  of  Persius  {187a).     Besides  translating  both 

of  these  poets  into  English  prose,  he  rendered  into  English  verse 

'  Privaiely  printed,  1884;  published  (with  portrait),  1906. 

'  Thompson,  fount,  of  Philol.  xiv.  109. 

'  T.  S.  Evatis,  Latin  and  Greek  Verse,  25. 

*  W.  H.Thompson, /««■».  of  Philol.  siv  107—110;  J.  D.  Ha^ia  Biogr. 
fahrb.  1885,  III  — 117,  and  in  preface  to  Munro's  Translations,  ed.  1906,  and 
to  reprint  of  bis  Translation  of  Lucretius,  1908. 

»  J,  E.  Sandys,  in  The  Eagle,  xxvii  69—84,  and  in  Biogr.  Jakrb.  1906, 

41 -+s- 

.^.oogic 


CHAP.  XL.]      WILKINS.      CONINGTON.      NETTLESHIP.       435 

the  whole  of  Horace,  and  the  Aeneid.     His  rendering  of  Horace 
was  regarded  by  Munro  as  'on  the  whole  perhaps  the  best  and 
most  successful  translation  of  a  Classic  that  exists  in  the  English 
language ',  while,  in  the  judgement  of  the  same  scholar,  his  edition 
of  Vii^il  'displays  a  minute  diligence,  as  well  as  a  fine  taste,  a 
delicate  discrimination,  and  a  mastery  of  language,  which  it  requires 
long  study  properly  to  appreciate".     His  work  as  a  Greek  scholar 
has  already  been  briefly  noticed'.     William  Young 
Sellar   (1825 — 1890),    who    was    educated   at   the 
Edinbuigh  Academy  and  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  at 
Balliol,  was  a  Fellow  of  Oriel,  and  held  the  Professorship  of 
Humanity  at  Edinburgh  for  the  last  twenty-seven  years  of  his 
life*.    Immediately  before  his  appointment  (1863),  he  produced  his 
'  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic ',  a  masterpiece  of  literary  criticism, 
which  was  happily  followed  in  due  time  by  similar  works  on  Virgil 
(1877),  and  on  'Horace  and  the  Elegiac  Poets'  {1892)*.      The 
AnncUs  o(  Tacitus  were  ably  edited  at  Oxford  in 
1884  by  Henry  Fumeaux  (1829 — 1900),  Fellow  of 
Corpus. 

Conington's  work  on  Persius  was  edited  by  his  successor  in 
the  Chair  of  Latin,  Henry  Nettleship  (1839 — 1893) 
of  Charterhouse  and  of  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  He  attended  Haupt's  lectures  in  Berlin  and  wrote  a 
graphic  account  of  that  master's  method'.  After  five  years  as  a 
master  at  Harrow,  and  five  more  as  a  lecturer  at  Oxford,  he  was 
elected  Latin  professor  in  1878.  As  Conington's  successor,  he 
completed  the  latter  half  of  his  predecessor's  edition  of  the  Aeneid. 

'  Journal  of  Philology,  ii  334-6.  Cp-  Memoir  by  H-  J.  S.  Smith,  prefixed 
to  his  MisccUaneou!  Writings  (iSji). 

'  p.  4II  iUpra. 

'  He  had  previously  been  assistant  to  Professor  W.  Ramsay  in  Gla^ow 
(1851-3)  and  assistant  professor  and  professor  of  Greek  at  St  Andrews 
(1853-63);  he  had  also  contributed  to  the  Qj^ord  Essays  admirable  papers  on 
Lucretius  (1855)  and  on  Tht  Characleristies  of  Tkucydides  (1857). 

*  With  Memoir  by  his  nephew  and  pupil,  Andrew  Lang.  Paper  on  The 
Birth-place  of  Proferlius  in  CI.  Rev.  iv  (1890)  393  f,  and  Obituary  Notice  by 
Lewis  Campbell,  ib.  418  f.    See  also  Mrs  Sellar's  Recollections  and  ImfirtS' 

si0KS«907). 


ioot^lc 


436  IRELAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

In  1875  he  planned  a  great  Latin  dictionary,  but  was  only  able  to 
publish  a  tenth  part  of  the  proposed  work,  under  the  title  of 
'Contributions  to  Latin  Lexicc^raphy '  (1889)'.  He  was  familiar 
with  the  ancient  Latin  grammarians,  and  especially  with  the 
successive  epitomes  of  Verrius  Flaccus.  One  of  his  latest  (asks 
was  the  revision  of  the  edition  of  Nonius,  which  had  been  left 
unfinished  by  his  former  pupil  J.  H.  Onions  (1852— 1889)'.  Many 
of  his  most  valuable  papers  have  been  collected  in  the  two 
volumes  of  his  Essays  {1885-95)'. 

Several  editions  of  prose  authors  were  produced  by  scholars 
who  are  best  known  as  historians.  Thus  Cicero's  Speeches  and 
Caesar's  Gallic  War  were  edited  by  Long*,  Sallust  by  Merivale, 
and  the  first  book  of  Livy  by  Seeley. 

Among  Latin  scholars  in  Ireland  we  note  the  name  of  James 

Henry  (1796 — 1876),  the  gold  medallist  of  Trinity 

College,  Dubhn,  who  practised  as  a  physician  till 

1845,  when  he  published  a  verse  translation  of  Aeneid  i  and  ii. 

After  travelling  abroad,  he  produced   in    1853  his   'Notes  of  a 

Twelve  Years'  Voyage  of  Discovery  in  the  First  Six  Books  of  the 

Aeneis'.    His  personal  knowledge  of  all  the  best  mss  and  editions 

of  Virgil  is  embodied  in  the  four  volumes  of  his  larger  work,  the 

Aeneidea  (1873-89),  which  includes  many  original  and  valuable 

contributions  to  the  interpretation  of  the  text.    Several  of  Cicero's 

philosophical  works  were  ably  edited  in  Dublin  in 

1836-56  by  Henry  Ellis  Allen  (1808— 1S74)  under 

the  Latinised  name  of  Henrieus  Alanus^.     Textual  criticism  was 

the  forte  of  Arthur  Palmer  (1841 — 1897),  a  scholar 

of  Canadian  birth,  who  was  educated  at  Cheltenham 

'  The  English  edilion  of  Seyfferl's  DicHomiry  of  Claisical  Antiguitiis, 
begun  by  Nelllcship,  was  completed  by  the  present  writer,  who  superintended 
(he  second  half  of  the  work  and  selected  the  illustrations  fur  the  whole  (1891). 

'  Biogr.Jahrb.  1889,  67  f. 

>  With  Memoir  (and  portrait)  in  vol.  li;  cf.  Haverfield  in  Biogr.  Jahrb. 
i897-  79-81. 

*  p.  4.10  iufira,  and  p.  439  infra. 

'  Df  Nat.  Dtor.,  De  Div.,  De  Fato,  De  Off.,  Cato  maior,  Lael,  De  Fimhus; 
also  notes  on  Livy,  Sallust  and  Caesar.  His  originality  is  lauded  in  the 
Chiir::h  of  England  Quarterly  Review  [i%i^),  iv  101  f,  v  420.  His  excellent 
MS  of  Propertius  now  belongs  to  his  son. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XL]  PALMER.      THIRLWALL  •       437 

and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  was  successively  elected 
Fellow  (1867),  Professor  of  Latin  {1880)  and  Public  Orator  (1888). 
He  was  specially  interested  in  the  criticism  of  the  Latin  Elegiac 
poets  and  of  Plautus.  He  edited  the  Amphiiruo  of  Plautus,  the 
Satires  of  Horace,  and  the  Heroides  of  Ovid.  Many  of  his 
emendations  were  first  published  in  Hermathena.  His  skill  in 
emending  Greek  poets  was  best  exemplified  in  Bacchylides  and  in 
Aristophanes,  whose  position  in  Greek  literature  was  the  theme  of 
his  article  in  the  Quai-lerly  Review  for  October,  1884.  One  who 
knew  him  well  avers  that  his  'published  works,  though  quite 
sufficient  to  be  the  basis  of  a  high  reputation  as  a  scholar  and  a 
man  of  letters,  gave  but  a  pale  reflexion  of  his  intellect". 

From  editors  of  Greek  and  Latin  Classics  we  pass  to  the 
historians.  Connop  Thirlwall  (1797 — 1875)  'was 
taught  Latin  at  three  years  of  age,  and  at  four  read  xhiHwaii'"" 
Greek  with  ease  and  fluency'^.  At  Charterhouse 
he  was  the  school-fellow  of  George  Grote,  and  of  Julius  Charles 
Hare.  At  Cambridge  he  won  the  Craven  in  his  first  year.  After 
his  election  to  a  Fellowship  at  Trinity,  he  visited  Rome,  where  he 
saw  much  of  Bunsen,  but  apparently  nothing  of  Niebuhr,  whose 
'  History'  was  afterwards  translated  by  Thirlwall  and  Hare.  The 
two  friends  were  the  founders  and  editors  of  the  Philological 
Museum  {1831),  which  included  Thirlwall's  well-known  essay  on 
the  Irony  of  Sophocles.  As  a  lecturer  at  Trinity,  he  gave  a  greater 
breadth  to  the  teaching  of  Classics,  but  his  College  career  was 
cut  short  by  his  'Letter  on  the  Admission  of  Dissenters  to 
Academical  Degrees',  which  led  to  the  Master,  Dr  Wordsworth, 
calling  on  him  to  resign  his  office  (1834).  On  the  nomination 
of  Lord  Melbourne,  he  became  Rector  of  Kirby  Underdale, 
in  Yorkshire  (1834-40),  and  Bishop  of  St  David's  (1840-74). 
Thirlwall  produced  the  first  volume  of  his  History  of  Greece 
in  1S35  and  the  last  in  1844.  His  work  as  a  historian  was 
characterised  by  soundness  of  scholarship  and  refinement  of  style, 
by  a  judicial  temper  and  a  fine  sense  of  proportion.  Over  his 
grave  are  inscribed  the  words,  cor  sapiens  et  inldligens  ad  dis- 
cernendum  judicium. 

'  Tyrrel]  in  Hermathena,  x  it; — 111- 

*  From  his  lather's  preface  to  Primiliae  (1809). 

h.  i."iM,Googlc 


438  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

His  school-fellow,  George  Grote  {1794 — 187 1),  had  embarked 
on  his  history  as  early  as  1823,  but  did  not  publish 
his  first  volume  until  1846,  or  his  last  until  ten 
years  later'.  Though  Thirlwall  and  Grote  not  unfrequently  met, 
the  former  knew  so  little  of  his  school -fellow's  plans,  that  he  was 
heard  to  say,  'Grote  is  the  man  who  ought  to  write  the  History  of 
Greece';  and,  when  it  appeared,  he  welcomed  it  with  a  generous 
enthusiasm'.  He  was  afterwards  buried  beside  Grote  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  As  a  historian,  Grote  shows  the  keenest  sympathy 
with  the  Athenian  democracy,  and  even  with  the  Athenian  dema- 
gogue; but  he  is  an  intelligent  interpreter  of  the  ancient  historians 
of  Greece,and  his  opinions  on  the  political  and  economic  condition 
of  Athens  derive  fresh  weight  from  his  experience  as  a  banker  and 
as  a  Member  of  Parliament.  His  'great  work,  the  work  of  a  man 
of  affairs,  has  done  much  more  perhaps  than  any  other  one  book 
of  the  century,  to  invest  his  subject  with  a  vivid,  an  almost 
modern  interest  for  a  world  wider  than  the  academic'*. 

His  represenlalion  of  Athenian  constitutional  hislory  was  critically  examined 
by  Schomann*,  and,  in  certain  points,  must  now  be  revised  with  (he  aid  of 
Aristotle's  Cons/itutian  of  Athem.  A  special  importance  attaches  to  his 
opinions  on  the  '  Homeric  Question  ';  he  regards  Homer  as  '  belonging  to  the 
second,  not  the  first,  stage  in  the  development  of  epos, — as  the  composer  of 
the  la^e  epic,  not  as  Ihe  primitive  bard  of  ihe  short  lays';  but  he  holds  thai 
Homer's  original  AihiltHd  has  been  converted  by  a  later  poet  or  poels  into 
our  present  Iliad^.  One  of  the  most  original  parts  of  the  HUlory  is  Ihe 
celebrated  chapter  on  the  Sophists'. 

His  great  work  on  Plato  was  a  solid  contribution  to  the  in- 
telligent study  of  that  philosopher'.  Of  his  proposed  sequel  on 
Aristotle  only  two  volumes  were  completed*.  The  wide  range  of 
his  interests  is  admiringly  acknowledged  by  his  friend,  John  Stuart 

'  Ed.  6  in  10  vols.  1888. 

•  J.  W.  Clark,  Old  Friends  at  Cambridgt,  131. 
'  ^ehVs  Eaays  and  Addresses,  533  f. 

*  1854;  E.  T.  by  B.  Bosanquet,  1878. 

°  Cp.  Jebb's  Homer,  IJI-5,  and  Friedlander,  Die  HemerUche  Krllik  von 
Wolf  bU  Grote  {\%ii),i%. 

'  c.  67  ;  cp.  Quarterly  Rev.  TiQ.  175,  3.nACo^'v\Joam.  of  CI- and  Satred 
Philol.  nos.  3,  6.  7.  9 ;  also  H.  Jackson  in  Enc.  Brit.,  s.v.  Sophists. 

'  3  vols.  1865. 


A.oogic 


George  Grote. 

duclion   of  the  portrait    by  Stewartso 
in  possession  of  Mr  John  Murray. 


ITo  Jm  f.  u%  .f  V,L  in. 


iM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XL.]        GROTE.      ARNOLD.      MERIVALE.  439 

Mill,  who  says  of  him: — 'Scholarship  fills  but  a  comer  of  his 
mind". 

In  the  History  of  Greece,  Grote,  as  compared  with  Curtius, 
stands  at  a  certain  disadvantage  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  never 
visited  the  land  whose  history  he  describes.     That  land  was  not 
left  unexplored   by  William   Mure  (1799 — 1860), 
who  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Bonn,  travelled 
in  Greece  in  1838,  and  was  for  nine  years  a  Member  of  Parliament. 
His  full  and  sympathetic  treatment  of  Xenophon  lends  a  special 
value  to  part  of  the  five  volumes  of  his  '  Critical  History  of  the 
Literature  of  Ancient  Greece'  (1850-7).     Historians  of  Greece 
and  Rome  alike  are  indebted  to  the  chronological  researches  of 
Henry  Fynes  Clinton  {1781— 1852), of  Westminster, 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  Member  for  Aldborough 
(i8o6-z6),  the  learned  author  of  the  Fasti  HelUnid  (1824-32), 
a.ni  the  Fasti  Katnani {i%^e,-^oY.    Thomas  Arnold 
('795 — 1842),  head-master  of  Rugby  and  professor 
of  History  at  Oxford,  did  much  for  the  historical  and  get^raphical 
elucidation  of  Thucydides(  1830-5),  and  left  behind  him  a  splendid 
fragment  of  a  History  of  Rente  (1838-43),  ending  with  the  close 
of  the  second  Punic  War'.    Arnold's  history  was  written  under  the 
influence  of  Niebuhr.     Twelve  years  later  an  '  Inquiry  into  the 
Credibility  of  Early  Roman  History'*  was  published  ^^ 

by  Sir  George  Comewall  Lewis  (1806 — 1863),  of 
Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  who  translated  Eoeckh's  'Public 
Economy  of  Athens',  edited  Babrius,  and  wrote  on  the  'Astronomy 
of  the  Ancients '.     The  '  History  of  the  Decline 
of  the  Roman  Republic'  (1864-74),  written  with 
special  reference  to  the  evidence  of  ancient  authorities,  was  the 
last   work  produced  by  George   Long".     The   'History  of  the 
Romans  under  the  Empire '  was  written  in  1850-62, 
at  the  College  living  of  Lawford,  by  Charles  Merivale 

'  Gomperi,  Essays  etc.,  i86.^Cp.  Life  (with  portrait)  by  Mrs  Grote,  and 
Minor  iVm-is  (with  sketch  of  Lift  by  BainJ,  1873  ;  Lehrs,  Populiire  AufsiUat, 
1875;  Gomperz,  Essays  und Erinnervngin,  ipoj,  1S4 — 196. 

^  Aulobiopaphy  etc.  in  Literary  Remains  (1854). 

»  Ufi  by  A.  P.  Stanley. 

*  Rev.  by  Grote,  Minor  Warks,  207 — 336. 

'  p.  430  supra. 


n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


440  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

{1808 — 1894)  of  Harrow  and  St  John's,  Cambridge,  who  was  dean 
of  Ely  for  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life-  He  also  wrote  a 
short  'History  of  the  Roman  Republic'  and  was  the  author  of  the 
Boyle  Lectures  '  On  the  Conversion  of  the  Roman  Empire '.  His 
skill  as  a  writer  of  Latin  verse  is  exemplified  in  his  fine  rendering 
of  Keats'  Hyperion,  which  he  published  on  the  completion  of  his 
History.  Seven  years  later  he  produced  a  translation  of  the  Iliad 
in  English  ballad  metre'. 

The  comparative  study  of  ancient  institutions  was  successfully 
pursued  by  Henry  James  Sumner  Maine  (1822 — 
1888),  of  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  for  seven 
years  professor  of  Civil  Law  at  that  university,  for  another  seven 
years  legal  member  of  the  supreme  government  of  India,  in 
1869-78  professor  of  Jurisprudence  at  Oxford,  and  for  the  last 
elevenyearsof  his  hfe  Master  of  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge.  In  1887 
he  was  elected  professor  of  International  Law.  His  best-known 
works  are  'Ancient  Law'  (1861),  'Village  Communities*  (1871), 
'Lectures  on  the  Early  History  of  Institutions'  (1875)  and 
'  Dissertations  on  Early  Law  and  Custom '  (1883).  It  has  been 
well  said  that  '  the  impulse  given  by  Maine  *  to  the  intelligent 
study  of  law  'in  England  and  America  can  hardly  be  overrated... 
At  one  master-stroke  he  forged  a  new  and  lasting  bond  between 
law,  history,  and  anthropology". 

The  '  Unity  of  History '  was  the  theme  of  the  memorable  Rede 
Lecture  delivered  at  Cambridge  in  1872  by  Edward 
Augustus  Freeman  (1823 — 1892),  Fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  and  Regius  Professor  of  Modern  History  at 
Oxford  for  the  last  e^ht  years  of  his  life.  The  lecture  included 
a  characteristic  protest  against  the  Revival  of  Learning  on  the 
ground  that  'it  led  men  to  centre  their  whole  powers  on  an 
exclusive  attention  to  writings  contained  in  two  languages,  and  for 
the  most  part  in  certain  arbitrarily  chosen  periods  of  those  two 
languages',  while  it  warmly  welcomed  'the  discovery  of  the  Com- 
parative method  in  philology,  in  mythology ',  and  '  in  politics  and 
history ',  as  marking  '  a  stage  in  the  progress  of  the  human  mind  at 

'  Aulobiography  and  Litters  (1898);  J.  E.  Sandys,  in  The  Eagle,  xviii 
183-196. 

'  Sir  F.  Pollock,  Oxferd  Lectures,  1890,  158. 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XL.]         MAINE.      FREEMAN.      PELHAM.  441 

least  as  great  and  memorable  as  the  revival  of  Greek  and  Latin 
learning'*. 

Nine  years  had  already  passed  since  Polybius  had  been  fruit- 
fully studied  by  Freeman  in  the  preparation  of  the  volume  in 
which  he  had  'traced  the  action  of  the  federal  principle  in  the 
Achaian  league'  of  b.c  281- — 146.  A  visit  to  Sicily  in  1878, 
followed  by  three  long  sojourns  in  the  island  between  1886  and 
1S90',  bore  fruit  in  the  single  volume  on  Sicily  in  the  'Story  of  the 
Nations '  (1892),  and  in  the  four  volumes  of  the  History  of  Sicily 
from  the  earliest  times  (1891-4)  down  to  the  death  of  AgaChocles 
in  289  B.C., — volumes  founded  on  a  thorough  study  of  Pindar  and 
Thucydides  and  other  ancient  authorities.  The  author's  essays  on 
'  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age',  on  the  'Athenian  democracy',  on 
the  'Attic  historians',  on  'Ancient  Greece  and  mediaeval  Italy', 
and  on  'Mommsen's  History  of  Rome',  have  been  reprinted  in 
the  second  and  third  series  of  the  Historical  Essays  (1873-9)'. 

Three  volumes  of  a  '  History  of  Greece'  ending  with  403  b.c. 
were  published  in  1888 — 1900  by  Evelyn  Abbott 
(1843—1901),  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Balliol,  writer 
of  a  popular  work  on  Pericles  (1891),  editor  of  Nellenica  {18S0), 
and  joint-author  of  the  Life  of  Joivetl*.     The  teaching  of  Roman 
history  at  Oxford  was  greatly  advanced  by  the  inspiring  influence 
of  Henry  Pelham  {1846 — 1907)  of  Harrow  and  of 
Trinity,  Oxford,  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Exeter,  who,  in 
1889,  became  professor  of  Ancient  History  and  Fellow  of  Brase- 
nose,  and,  in  1897,  President  of  the  first  of  his  three  Colleges. 
His  small  volume  of  '  Outlines  of  Roman  History'  (1890)  has  been 
described  as  'the  most  useful',  and  'the  most  able,  sketch  of  the 
subject  that  has  yet  been  published'.     A  special  value  attaches  to 
his  printed  articles  and  lectures  on  the  same  theme,  though  he 
did  not  live  to  publish  his  proposed    '  History  of  the    Roman 
Empire'.     In  his  public  teaching  he  rose  far  above  'pedagogic 
ends  of  the  narrower  sort';  '  follower  and  personal  friend  of  the 

'  The  Unity ef  History  {^%^^),^,g. 

*  W.   R.  W.  Stephens,  Life  and  LetUrs  of  E.  A.  Freeman  (1895),  ii  n6. 


178-185. 
<es,  6  Sepl.  1 


n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


442  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

great  Mommsen,  he  conceived  the  study  of  antiquity  in  its  larger 
and  severer  sense'.  A  loyal  friend  to  the  Hellenic  Society  and 
to  the  British  School  at  Athens,  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
foundation  of  the  British  School.at  Rome  (1901),  and  was  one 
of  the  original  Fellows  of  the  British  Academy  (1902)'. 

One  of  the  foremost  of  the  Greek  topographers  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  William  Martin  Leake  (1V77 — 1S60), 
who,  after  serving  with  his  regiment  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  training  Turkish  troops  in  Constantinople,  travelled 
in  Asia  Minor  in  1800,  and  surveyed  Egypt  (1801-2)  as  welt  as 
European  Turkey  and  Greece  {1804-7),  where  he  continued  to 
reside  from  1808  to  iSio.  On  retiring  from  active  military  service 
in  1815,  he  devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  cause  of  classical 
learning.  The  commission,  which  he  received  from  the  Foreign 
Office  in  1804,  included  an  item  of  special  importance  in  con- 
nexion with  the  topography  of  Greece.  He  was  there  instructed 
'  to  acquire  for  the  British  government  and  nation  a  more  accurate 
knowledge  than  has  yet  been  attained  of  this  important  and 
interesting  country '.  His  singular  activity  as  a  traveller,  great 
powers  of  observation,  and  his  vivid  realisation  of  the  close 
connexion  between  topography  and  history,  ensured  his  carrying 
out  this  instruction  with  complete  success.  He  thus  became  'the 
founder  of  the  scientific  geography  of  Greece".  His  reputation 
as  a  learned  and  scientific  topographer  rests  on  his  '  Researches 
in  Greece'  (1814),  his  'Topography  of  Athens  and  the  Demi' 
(i8zi),  his  'Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Asia  Minor'  (1824),  his  'Travels 
in  Northern  Greece'  (1835-41),  his  'Morea'  (1830),  and  his 
' Peloponnesiaca '  (1846).  His  volume  on  the  'Topography  of 
Athens'  was  translated  into  German  by  Baiter  and  Sauppe,  and 
that  on  the  '  Demi '  by  Westermann.  His  work  on  Athens,  which 
attained  a  second  edition  in  1841,  was  the  earliest  scientific 
reconstruction  of  the  ancient  city  with  the  aid  of  all  the  evidence 
supplied  by  Greek  literature,  inscriptions,  and  works  of  art.  It 
has  been  rightly  recognised  by  Curtius  as  a  work  of  permanent 
value ;  it  is,  in  fact,  the  foundation  of  all  subsequent  research  on 


»  F,  Haverfield  and  "  M.",  in  Alhenaeum,  16  Feb.  1907,  197. 

*  Micbaelis,  Arch.  Enid.  10.  1 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIC 


CHAP.  XL.]  LEAKE.      NEWTON.  443 

the  same  subject.  His  collection  of  Greek  marbles  was  presented 
by  himself  to  the  British  Museum  in  1 839,  while  his  library  and  the 
great  collection  of  coins  described  in  his  '  Numismata  Hellenica' 
(1859)  were  purchased  by  the  University  of  Cambridge,  which  has 
placed  his  bust  in  the  vestibule  of  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  '. 

In  classical  geography  useful  work  of  a  less  original  character 
was  done  by  John  Antony  Cramer  (1793 — 1848), 
Principal  of  New  Inn  Hall,  and  Regius  professor 
of  Modern  History,  Oxford,  in  his  'Geographical  and  historical 
description '  of  ancient  Italy  (1826)  and  Greece  (1828)  and  Asia 
Minor  (1832).  Of  the  rest  of  his  works,  the  Anecdola  Graeca 
from  MSS  of  Oxford  {1834-7)  and  Paris  (1839-41)  are  those  that 
appeal  most  directly  to  scholars. 

His  anonymous  dissertation  on  Hannibal's  passage  of  the  Alps  {1810)  was 
welcomed  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  as  '  a  scholailjke  work  of 
first-rale  ability '.   It  argues  in  favour  of  the  Little  St  Bernard,  '  •■      ™ 

a  view  also  maintained  by  Niebuhr  and  Arnold,  by  W.J.  Law 
(1787—1869),  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (in  1855-66),  and  by  Mommsen.    The 
rival  claims  of  the  Litlle  Mont  Cenis  were  ably  supported  by  Robert  Ellis, 
FellowofSt  John's,  Cambridge  (d.  1885)". 

Lycia  was  traversed  m   1838  and  1840  by  Charles  Fellows  {1799 — 1860), 
the  discoverer  of  the  Xanlhian  marbles",   and   in  1841  by 
T.    A.   B.   Spiatt  (1811  — 1888)  and  Edward  Forbes  (1815—  *'*  ™ 

1854).     Crete  was  visited  in  1851-3  by  Sprait,  who  published 
his  'Travels  and  Researches'  in  1S65.    Cyrene  was  examined  in  iS6o~i  by 
R.  Murdoch  Smith  and  E.  A.  Porcher ;  the  surroundings  of        Murdoch 
Cyrene  explored  by  George  Dennis,  the  author  of  the  '  Cities        Smith  and 
and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria  '* ;  and  the  necropolis  of  Cameiros  Porcher 

in  Rhodes  excavated  by  Sakmann  and  Biliolti  in  i8j8 
1865.  Lastly,  Nineveh  was  explored  in  1845  by  that  emi 
public  servant.  Sir  Austen  Henry  Layard  (1817 — 1894). 

Layard's  able  contemporary,  Charles  Thomas  Newton  (1816 — 
1894),  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  and  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  where   he    impressed    Ruskin   as 
'already  notable  in  his  intense  and  curious  way  of  looking  into 

'J.  H,  Marsden's  Memoir  (1864);  cp.  E.  Curtius,  Alterthum  und 
Gtgen-aiart,  ii  30J — 31a. 

•  Treaiiit  (1853);  Jourtt.  0/  CI.  and  Sacred  Pkilel.  1855-6;  Ancient 
Xcules  detweeii  Ilidy  and  Gaul  (1867). 

'  Michaelis,  Arch.  Enid.  77—81.  '  1848;  ed.  3,  1883. 


.oogic 


444  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

things".  His  work  in  the  British  Museum  b^an  in  1840 
and  ended  with  the  twenty-four  years  of  his  tenure  of  the 
office  of  Keeper  of  the  Department  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities  (1861-85). 

In  1S46  his  altenlion  was  arrested  at  the  Museum  b;  some  fragmenls  of 
reliefs  from  ihe  Castle  of  the  Knights  of  St  John  at  Budrum,  the  ancient 
Ilalicarnassus.  He  divined  that  these  reliefs  must  have  once  tielonged  to  tlie 
great  monument  erected  in  memory  of  Mausolus.  In  iSji  he  was  ap|ioinled 
Vice-Consul  at  Mytilene  with  a.  roving  commission  to  search  for  ancient 
remains  in  the  neighlK)uring  lands.  From  Le>;bos  he  visited  Chios,  Cos  and 
Rhodes,  where  he  was  consul  in  1853-4,  ^""1  w^^  quietly  superintending  the 
excavations  at  Calymnos  amid  all  the  excitement  of  the  Crimean  war.  In 
November,  iSjs,  he  made  some  excavations  in  the  hippodrome  of  Constanti' 
nople,  and  thus  cleared  away  ihe  ground  concealing  the  base  of  the  column  of 
the  three  entwined  serpents  of  bronze,  which  once  supported  at  Delphi  Ihe 
memorial  of  the  victory  of  Plalaea*.  In  1856  he  explored  the  site  of  (he 
Mausoleum,  and  recovered  a  large  part  of  the  noble  sculptures  that  adorned 
the  tomb.  From  Didyma  neat  Miletus  he  sent  home  a  number  of  the  seated 
archaic  figures  that  lined  the  approach  to  Ihe  temple  of  Apollo  at  Branchidae. 
From  Cnidos  he  brought  away  Ihe  colossal  lion,  probably  set  up  by  Conon  in 
memory  of  his  victory  over  the  Spartan  fleet  in  394  B.C.,  as  well  as  a  famous 
statue  of  the  seated  Demeter,  and  an  exquisite  staluette  of  Persephone.  TTie 
record  of  all  these  acquisitions  is  enshrined  in  his  official  History  ef  Discoveries 
at  Halicanutssus,  Cnidus,  and  Bratuhidae  (1861),  and  in  his  popular  Travels 
and  Discamrifs  in  Ihe  Levant  (1865). 

Meanwhile,  he  had  been  appointed  Consul  at  Rome,  whence 
he  was  recalled  two  yeat^  later  to  fill  the  place  of  Keeper  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Antiquities  at  the  British  Museum,  an  appointment 
that  marked  the  dawn  of  a  true  interest  in  classical  archaeology 
in  England.  In  1864-74  he  obtained  special  grants  of  more 
than  ;£ioo,ooo  for  purchases  in  his  department,  thus  acquiring 
some  of  the  Farnese  statues,  and  the  treasures  of  the  Castellani 
and  Pourtales  and  Blacas  collections.  He  also  encouraged  and 
supported  the  excavations  in  Rhodes  and  Cyprus,  at  Cyrene  and 
Priene  and  Ephesus'.  In  1877  he  visited  the  excavations  of 
Schliemann  at  Mycenae  (and  of  Ernst  Curtius  at  Olympia),  and 

»  Praeterita,  i  S  us  ;  cp.  ii  %  155  f,  ed.  1899. 

'  The  inscription  was  afterwards  deciphered  by  Frich,  Jahrb.  CI.  Phil. 
Suppl.  iii  (rSsg)  554;  and  by  Dethier  and  Mordtmann,  Vienna  Acad.  1S64, 
330. 

'  Cp.  Staidey  Lane  Poole,  in  National  Review,  1894,  6it  I. 

n,,„n,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XL.]  PENROSE.  445 

satisfied  himself  of  the  fact  that  the  finds  of  Mycenae  really 
belonged  to  the  prehistoric  ^e.  In  1880  he  collected  his  papers 
of  1850-79  in  a  single  volume  entitled  £ssays  in  Art  and 
Archtuology,  including  his  excellent  Essay  on  Greek  Inscriptions. 
Even  when  he  had  retired  from  the  office  of  Keeper  in  1885,  he 
continued  to  edit  the  great  collection  of  the  Greek  Inscriptions 
of  Ike  British  Museum.  He  received  the  distinction  of  knight- 
hood, and  of  honorary  degrees  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  From 
1880  to  r888  he  was  the  first  holder  of  the  Professorship  of 
Archaeology  at  University  College,  London,  his  lectures,  however, 
were  too  popular  to  be  really  instructive.  Competent  students,  and 
even  experts,  learned  much  from  his  ordinary  conversation.  Er 
ist  ein  volltr  Mann  was  the  phrase  applied  to  him  by  one  of  the 
ablest  of  German  archaeologists.  His  keen  and  refined  features 
were  perhaps  best  represented  in  the  portrait  painted  at  Rome  by 
Severn,  a  small  reproduction  of  which  he  once  gave  to  the  present 
writer.  His  marble  bust  stands  in  the  noble  hall  buitt  under  his 
direction  for  the  sculptures  he  had  discovered  at  the  Mausoleum 
of  Halicarnassus.  He  was  among  the  first  to  welcome  the 
opening  of  the  museums  of  classical  archaeology  at  Cambridge 
and  Oxford.  At  the  inaugural  ceremony  at  Cambridge  in  1884 
the  cast  of  the  little  figure  of  Proserpine,  which  he  had  himself 
discovered  at  Cnidos,  reminded  him  of  '  her  oroSoj  from  the 
darkness  of  Hades  into  the  light  of  the  upper  world ',  and  he 
happily  described  the  occasion  as  '  the  avoSw  of  archaeology,  so 
long  buried  in  England ' '. 

In  the  study  of  Greek  Architecture  an  eminent  position  was 
attained  by  Francis  Cranmer  Penrose  (1817—1903) 
of  Winchester  School  and  of  Magdalene  College, 
Cambridge,  who  in  three  successive  years  rowed  in  the  university 
boat,  and  for  the  next  three  years  was  'travelling  bachelor  of  the 
university' (1812-5).  As  'travelling  bachelor'  he  studied  archi- 
tecture at  Rome  and  at  Athens,  where  he  was  led  by  the  theories 
of  Pennethorne  to  determine  the  hyperbolic  curve  of  the  entasis  of 
the  columns  of  the  Parthenon.     He  resumed  his  measurements 

'  Percy  Gardner,  in  Biogr.  Jakrb.  i80,  131—141;  and  Emesl  Gardner, 
in  Annual  of  British  School  al  Aliens,  i  67— 77.  See  also  Sir  Richard  Jebh, 
in/.  B.  S.  xxiv,  p.  li. 


OgIC 


446  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

in  the  following  season  under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  of 
Dilettanti,  and  the  results  were  published  in  The  Principles  of 
Atltenian  Architecture^.  He  was  the  honorary  architect  and  the 
first  director  of  the  British  School  of  Archaeology  at  Athens, 
where  his  name  is  commemorated  in  the  Penrose  Memorial 
Library'.  An  expert  in  astronomy,  he  elaborately  investigated 
the  orientation  of  Greek  Temples.  He  was  for  many  years  sur- 
veyor of  the  fabric  of  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  he  was  repeatedly 
consulted  by  the  Greek  Government  in  connexion  with  the  temples 
of  Athens.  He  was  probably  the  only  person  who  ever  stood  on 
the  highest  point  of  the  pillars  of  the  Otympteum,  as  well  as  on 
the  summit  of  the  dome  of  St  Paul's.  In  1898  he  received 
honorary  degrees  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and,  towards  the 
close  of  a  long  life,  he  read  a  paper  on  the  evolution  of  the  volute 
in  Greek  Architecture'. 

Newton's  successor  at  the  British  Museum,  Alexander  Stuart 

Murray  (i84i>— 1904),  who  studied  in  Glasgow  and 

in  Berlin,  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  a  'History 

of    Greek    Sculpture '    {1880—3),    ^"^d    a    '  Handbook   of   Greek 

Archaeology' (1892);  also  of  Lectures  on  'Greek  Bronzes' (1898), 

and  on  'The  Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon'  (1903)*. 

In  the  field  of  Roman  Archaeology,  Robert  Burn  (1829 — 1904), 
of  Shrewsbury  and  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
produced  a  comprehensive  work  on  Home  and  the 
Campagna  (1871),  which,  at  the  time  of  its  publication,  was 
'  the  best  book  on  the  subject  in  English ',  and  hears  ample 
evidence  of  careful  study  of  the  classical  authors  and  the  modem 
topographical  hterature'.  He  also  published  an  epitome  of  this 
work  under  the  title  of  Old  Rome  (1880),  and  a  volume  of  essays 
on  Roman  Literature  in  relation  to  Roman  Art  (i888).     He  has 

'  1851,  enlarged  ed.  1888. 

^  Annual  x  iji — i^t.  Sir  Richard  Jebb's  inscription  was  printed  with 
the  list  of  Subscribers. 

>  Obituary  nolice  by  F.  G.  P.,  also  in  the  Alhenaeum,  1  Feb.,  the  Builder, 
11  Feb.  and  (by  J.  D.  Grace)  in  ih.e  Journal  of  the  Royal  Imtitute  of  British 
Archilerls,  9  May,  1903  (with  reproduction  of  Ihe  portrait  by  Sargent). 

*  See  memoir  and  bibliography  by  A.  H.  Smith,  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1907, 
100-3. 

'  T.  Ashby,  quoted  by  Dr  Postdate,  Biogr.  fahrb.  190J,  143.        . 

"     ■'  ' '  ■     '        cS 


CHAP.  XL-l  CLASSICAL   ARCHAEOLOGY.  447 

been  well  described  as  *a  man  of  lovable  character— simple, 
generous,  and  sincere,  with  a  high  sense  of  diity,  and  a  kindly 
heart".  His  work  on  Rome  and  the  Campagna  was  succeeded 
by  that  of  the  Oxford  bookseller,  John  Henry  Parker 
(1806 — ^1884),  whose  Archaeology  of  Rome  appeared 
in  1874-6.  The  works  on  'Ancient  Rome  in  1885'  and  'in 
1888',  produced  by  John  Henry  Middleton  {r846— 1896)  of 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  Slade  Professor  and  Director  of  the 
Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cambridge,  were  revised  and  greatly  enlarged 
in  the  two  volumes  of  his  Remains  of  Ancient  Rome  (rSga). 

The  study  of  classical  archaeology  has  been  fostered  in  England 
by  the  foundation  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Hellenic  Studies  {1879)',  and  by  the  institution  aKh"oi!I^y 
of  the  British  School  of  Archaeology  at  Athens 
(1883 f)  and  at  Rome{i9oi).  The  Hellenic  Society  has  taken 
part  in  promoting  the  exploration  of  Asia  Minor,  of  Naucratis, 
of  Samos  and  Thasos,  Cyprus  and  Crete.  Cyprus  and  Crete, 
as  well  as  Melos  and  Megalopolis  and  Sparta,  have  been  the 
scenes  of  excavations  carried  out  by  the  School  at  Athens,  while 
that  at  Rome,  besides  entering  on  researches  in  Rome  itself,  has 
minutely  surveyed  the  classical  topography  of  the  Campagna. 
Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  pure  scholarship  of  the 
Porsonian  school  was  still  in  the  ascendant.  At  the  end  of  its 
first  quarter,  in  the  fancy  of  a  writer  who  failed  to  forecast  the 
future,  the  'last  rays'  of  English  scholarship  'were  seen  to  linger 
on  the  deathbed  of  Dohree".  But,  since  that  date,  much  has 
been  done  for  the  accurate  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature ; 
the  ancient  Classics  have  also  been  popularised  by  means  of 
admirable  modem  renderings  of  the  great  master-pieces;  the 
Greek  drama  has  been  revived ;  new  periodicals  have  been 
founded  for  promoring  and  for  recording  the  advance  of  classical 

'  Dr  Postgate,  ii.     Cp.  Cambriiigt  Review,  xxv  174. 

'  An  Outlitu  of  the  History  of  Iht  Hillenic  Sociity  1879—1904,  by  the 
Hon.  Secretary,  G.  A.  Macmillan ;  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  hegaa  in 
1880-1.  Archaeology  has  been  included  in  the  Clasiica I  Review  from  the  first 
(1887);  papers  connected  with  Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew  scholarship  have 
been  published  in  t^t  Journal  of  Philology  (begun  in  1868). 

'  Church  of  England  Quarterly  Review,  v  (1839)  14J. 


,1^.00' 


SIC 


448  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XIX. 

research.  Late  in  1903  we  have  seen  the  birth  of  the  Classical 
Association,  which  aims  at  'promoting  the  development  and 
maintaining  the  well-being  of  classical  studies',  while  a  new 
interest  in  the  Classics  has  also  been  aroused  by  the  triumphant 
progress  of  classical  archaeology. 

Turning  from  archaeological  exploration  to  literary  discovery, 

we  may  recall  the  fact  that  many  of  the  charred  rolls 
dUc'i^riei        of  Greek  papyri  discovered  at  Herculaneum  in  1752, 

including  fragments  of  Epicurus  and  Philodemus, 
were  published,  not  only  at  Naples  in  and  after  r793,  but  also 
at  Oxford  in  1824  and  1891'.  Private  and  public  enterprise  has 
since  recovered  a  large  variety  of  papyri  from  the  sands  of  Egypt. 
The  first  of  the  literary  papyri  to  come  to  light  was  the  last  book 
of  the  Iliad,  acquired  by  W.  J.  Bankes  in  iSar.  Fragments  of 
many  other  portions  of  the  Homeric  poems  were  afterwards 
found,  and  it  is  an  interesting  indication  of  the  wide  popularity 
of  those  poems  that,  in  all  these  finds.  Homer  is  r^arded  as 
'inevitable'.  A  far  keener  interest  was  awakened  by  the  recovery 
of  lost  Classics.  The  two  parts  of  a  large  roll  containing  three 
of  the  speeches  of  Hypereides  were  independently  obtained  by 
Arden  and  Harris  in  1847,  and  the  same  orator's  Funeral  Oration, 
by  Stobart,  in  r8s6.  About  1890  the  British  Museum  acquired 
a  remarkable  series  of  literary  papyri,  including  part  of  the 
Philippides  of  Hypereides,  the  'AftjKu'oic  iroXiTcia  of  Aristotle, 
and  the  Mimes  of  Herodas,  followed  in  1896-7  by  the  Odes  of 
Bacchylides '.  Scholars  began  to  realise  something  of  the  rapture 
which  the  quest  and  the  recovery  of  lost  Classics  had  excited  in 
a  Petrarch  or  a  Salutati,  or  in  a  Pf^gio  Bracciotini,  in  the  days 
of  the  Revival  of  Learning.  They  awoke  to  find  themselves 
living  in  a  new  age  of  editiones  principrs.  Many  a  'Theban 
fragment',  in  the  form  of  paeans  of  Pindar,  has  since  been 
discovered  during  the  fifth  season  of  the  fruitful  excavations  on 
the  site  of  Oxyrhynchus'.     Art  rather  than  literature  may  hope 

'  Walter  Scotl,  FragmttHa  Htrc,  ed.  Nicholson,  1891. 

'  Cp.,  in  general,  F.  G.  Kenyon's  Palaeography  of  Greek  Papyri,  1899, 
3-7.  j6— "I- 

»  Grenfell  and  Hunt,  in  Heforl  of  Egypt  ExploralioH  /»«rf  (1905-6)  10  f, 
and  in  Oxyrkynchui  Pafyri,  v  (1908)  n— no. 


X'OO' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XL.]  LITERARV   DISCOVERIES.  449 

to  profit  by  the  renewed  exploration  of  Herculaneum,  and  it  is 
to  the  banks  of  the  Nile  rather  than  to  the  bay  of  Naples  that  we 
may  look  for  the  further  fulfilment  of  the  poet's  fancy ; — 

'  O  ye,  who  patiently  explore 
The  wreck  of  Herculanean  lore. 
What  rapture  I  could  ye  seize 
Some  Theban  fragment,  or  unroll 
One  precious,  tender-hearted,  scroll 
Of  pure  Simonides''. 


'  Wordsworth,  Poems  of  SenlimenI  and  Rejlecliim  \x\'\\  (Sept.  1819).  The 
date  is  significant.  It  was  in  the  first  two  months  of  that  year  that  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  spent  a  considerable  time  in  endeavouring  to  unroll  the 
Herculanean  papyri  in  the  Naples  Museum.  He  was  fairly  well  receivei],  but  his 
endeavours  were  attended  with  very  slight  success ;  and,  in  Feb.  i8ig,  'when 
the  Reverend  Peter  Elmsley,  whose  leal  for  the  promotion  of  ancient 
literature  brought  him  to  Naples  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  in  the  under- 
taking began  to  examine  the  fragments  unrolled,  a  jealousy,  with  regard  to  his 
assistance,  was  immediately  manifested'  (p.  304  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy's 
Report  to  the  Royal  Society  in  PMl.  Trans,  15  March,  iSii,  pp.  191—108). 


n,g,t,7rjM,(?OOglc 


CHAPTER    XLI. 

THE  UNITED    STATES   OF  AMERICA. 

Less  than  half  a  century  after  the  discovery  of  America,  the 

Italian  poet,  Marcantonio  Flaminio,  foretold  that, 

''wMid"        ^^^"  '"  '^®  ^^™  World,  the  Latin  poets  of  Italy 

would  be  studied  by  those  Western  nations,  'on 

whom  the  light  of  dawn  arises,  when  the  sky  of  Italy  is  wrapped  in 

darkness', — 


But,  in  Flaminio's  lines  as  to  this  love  of  Latin  in  the  Western 
hemisphere,  we  discern  not  so  much  a  statement  of  fact,  as  an 
intelligent  anticipation  of  future  events.  We  have,  indeed,  to  wait 
for  three  quarters  of  a  century  before  finding  any  proof  of  the 
cultivation  of  Latin  literature  across  the  Atlantic. 

It  so  happens  that  the  first  considerable  work,  written  (though 
not  published)  in  the  New  World,  was  connected  with  the  study 
of  the  Latin  Qassics.  In  the  year  1623,  while  the  Colony  of 
Vii^inia  was  still  in  an  unsettled  state,  the  treasurer  of  the 
Vii^inia  Company,  George  Sandys  (1577 — 1643), 
the  youngest  son  of  the  archbishop,  was  engaged  on 
his  poetic  translation  of  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid".  In  dedicating 
to  Charles  I  the  complete  work,  printed  in  London  in  1626,  the 
translator  describes  it  as  'sprung  from  the  stock  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  but  bred  in  the  New  World,  of  the  rudeness  of  which  it 

I  'Nam  (mirabile  dictu}  in  iis  quoque  oris  |  Nunc  lingua.e  studium  viget 
Latinae' (CormiBfl,  used.  X743) ;  written  before  1550;  ii  ito  sufira. 

'  Stilh's  History  of  Virginia  (1747),  303;   Hooper's  Inlrad.  to  Paeliail 
Warks  of  George  Sandfs,  xnvii — slii. 

„.,,„,I..OOglC 


CHAP.  XLI.]  INCUNABULA.  45 1 

cannot  but  participate ;  especially  having  wars  and  tumults  to 
bring  it  to  light,  instead  of  the  Muses'.  But  'rudeness'  cannot 
justly  be  predicated  of  a  poem,  which  was  admired  by  Pope, 
and  was  described  by  Dryden  as  the  work  of  '  the  best  versifier  of 
the  former  age". 

A  cenlur;  elapsed  berore  the  Rrsl  Latin  poem  was  printed  in  America.  It 
is  entitled  '  Muscipula  :  the  Mouse  Trap,  or  the  Battle  ol  the 
Cambrians  and  the  Mice:  a  Poem  bf  Edward  Iloldsworth, 
translated  into  English  by  R.  Lewis,  Annapolis,  171S '.  The  translator 
proudly  calls  it  'This  First  Essay  [of  Za/in /'oe/rj',  in  £nf/)j*  Z-rajj,  |  which 
Maryland  hath  publi&h'd  from  the  Press'.  The  alternative  Greek  title  of 
the  Latin  text  is  Kaii^poiatviiaxia,  and  the  purpose  of  the  poem  is  la  celebrate 
the  high  antiquity  of  the  Cambrians  and  lo  show  that  the  Mouse-trap  was 
invented  by  the  Cambrians,  and  not  by  the  Greeks.  The  'first  translation  of 
a  Greek  or  Latin  Classic  printed  in  America  '*  was  a  rendering  of  Epictetus  : — 
'Epictetus  his  Morals,  done  from  the  Original  Greek,  and  the  Words  taken 
from  his  own  Mouth  by  Anian.  The  Second  Edition.  Philadelphia,  printed 
by  S.  Keimer,  1719'.  The  printer  was  Benjamin  Franklin's  master,  and  in 
the  same  year  Franklin  b^an  business  on  his  own  account.  Cato's  Moral 
Distichs,  Englished  in  couplets'  (by  Chief  Justice  James  Logan"),  printed  and 
sold  by  B.  Franklin,  Philadelphia,  1735,  may,  if  '  Cato '  be  regarded  as  a 
classic,  pass  for  the  '  first  translation  of  a  Classic  which  was  both  made  and 
printed  in  the  British  colonies''.  A  better  claim  may,  however,  be  urged  on 
behalf  of  a  real  Classic,  •  Cicero's  Colo  Major,  or  his  Discourse  of  Old  Age ; 
with  explanatory  notes ;  printed  and  sold  by  B.  Franklin,  Philadelphia, 
1744''.  The  translator  and  annotator  was  James  Logan,  and  Franklin  calls  it 
the  '  first  Translation  of  a  Classic  in  this  Western  World'.  Forty  years  later 
we  have  'The  Lyric  Works  of  Horace,  translated  into  English  Vetse,...by  a 
Native  of  America',  Philadelphia,  E.  Oswald,  1786.  The  translator  was 
John  Parke  (1754 — 1789},  who  became  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army  of 
General  Washington,  lo  whom  the  work  is  dedicated*.  It  is  probably  one  of 
the  earliest  translations  published  by  a  native-born  American^. 

'  Preface  to  Dryden's  Fables. 

"  C.  H.  Hildeburn,  The  Issues  sf  Che  Press  in  Pennsylvania  1685—1784; 
Brinley  Catalogue,  no.  3396  (Hartford,  1878-97). 

'  Cp.  J.  G.  Wilson  and  J.  Flske,  Appleton's  Cyclopaedia  of  Amerkan 
Biography  (1886-9),  s.v. 

*  Brinley  Catalogue,  no.  3179.  '  ib.  nos.  3181-4. 

'  Brinley  Catalogue,  no.  6910. 

'  In  the  aliove  paragraph,  the  bibliographical  material  (which  I  have 
recast  and  arranged  in  chronolr^cal  order)  has  been  kindly  supplied  by 
Prof  Wilfred  P.  Mustard,  of  Haveiford  Coll.,  Pennsylvania,  now  of  Johns 
Hopkins,  Baltimore. 

h.  ia9rT^.OO'^lc 


452  UNITED   STATES   OF   AMERICA.      [CENT.  XVIII. 

The  earliest  centre  of  classical  learning  in  the  New  World  was 
Harvard  College,  founded  in  1636,  and  deriving  its  * 
unitt^tiM*'  name  from  John  Harvard  of  Emmanuel  (1607— 
1638).  He  bequeathed  half  of  his  fortune  and  the 
whole  of  his  library, — his  Homer  and  his  Plutarch,  his  Terence 
and  his  Horace,  to  the  College  which  the  little  colony  of  Puritans 
had  on  November  15,  1637,  resolved  on  founding  at  Newtown. 
.  On  May  2,  1638,  four  months  before  the  death  of  John  Harvard, 
Newtown  assumed  the  name  of  Cambridge,  in  memory  of  the 
university  with  which  many  of  the  colonists  were  connected. 

Next,  in  order  of  time,  was  the  'collegiate  school  of  Con- 
necticut', founded  at  Saybrook  in  1701,  and  transferred  to  New 
Haven  in  1716,  which  in  1718  took  the  name  of  'Yale  Collie' 
from  its  benefactor  Elihu  Yale.  Princeton,  founded  elsewhere  in 
1746,  was  transferred  to  its  present  home  in  1 757.  In  Philadelphia, 
at  the  instance  of  Benjamin  FrankUn,  an  Academy  was  founded  in 
1751,  and,  forty  years  later,  was  niei^ed  into  the  'University  of 
Pennsylvania',  In  17541  George  II  founded  in  New  York  an 
institution  known  as  King's  College  until  1787,  when  its  name  was 
changed  into  Columbia  College,  reorganised  as  a  university  in 
1890.  These  were  the  five  earliest  centres  of  learning  in  the 
United  States.  The  fifth  was  soon  followed  by  the  Brown 
university  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island  (1764). 

Among  the  universities  founded  in  the  nineteenth  century 
may  be  mentioned  those  of  Virginia  at  Charlottesville  (1S19),  of 
Michigan  at  Ann  Arbor  (1837),  of  Wisconsin  at  Madison  (1849), 
the  Cornell  university  at  Ithaca  {1865),  that  of  California  at 
Berkeley  {1868),  the  Johns  Hopkins  university  in  Baltimore  {1876), 
the  Leland  Stanford  at  Palo  Alto  (1891),  and,  lastly,  that  of 
Chicago  (1892)'.  There  are  also  between  400  and  500  universities 
or  colleges  of  varying  degrees  of  importance.  Out  of  all  these 
there  is  gradually  emerging  'a  limited  number  of  true  homes  of 
learning  and  research',  that  'satisfy  the  somewhat  exacting  defini- 
tion of  "a  place  where  teaching  which  puts  a  man  abreast  of  the 
fullest  and  most  exact  knowledge  of  the  time  is  given  in  a  range 
of  subjects  covering  all   the  great  departments  of  intellectual 

'  Cp.  Minerva,  fiaiiim. 

n,:i.,-iM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XLI.]      COLLEGES  AND   UNIVERSITIES.  453 

life"".  The  model  for  the  old  Collt^es  was  mainly  derived  from 
England,  that  for  the  modern  Universities  mainly  from  Germany. 
We  may  now  mention  a  few  of  the  more  prominent  classical 
scholars,  with  some  notice  of  their  published  writings,  so  tar  as 
they  come  within  the  scope  of  the  present  work. 

At  Boston  in  1836  a  'Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New 
Testament'  was  produced  by  an  able  scholar,  Edward 
Robinson  (1794 — 1863),  a  graduate  of  Hamilton 
and  tutor  in  Greek  and  Mathematics,  who  in  December,  1821, 
went  to  Andover  to  see  through  the  press  an  edition  of  '  the  first 
Books  of  the  Iliad'  with  Latin  notes  selected  chiefly  from  Heyne. 
His  lexicon  passed  throi^h  many  editions,  and  his  work  on  the 
Geography  of  Palestine,  entitled  'Biblical  Researches',  was  equally 
successful.  In  1826-30  he  studied  at  Halle  and  also  in  Berlin, 
and,  for  the  last  twenty-six  years  of  his  life,  was  a  professor  of 
Biblical  Literature  in  New  Vork*. 

Early  in  the  century,  as  we  are  assured  by  a  highly  cultivated 
native  of  Boston,  Geoi^e  Ticknor  (1791— 1871),  'a 
copy  of  Euripides  in  the  original  could  not  be  bought 
at  any  bookseller's  shop  in  New  England".  In  1815  Ticknor  was 
sent  to  Gottingen,  and,  in  his  admiration  for  his  Greek  tutor  at 
that  university,  he  exclaims,  with  reference  to  his  own  country- 
men:—'we  do  not  yet  know  what  a  Greek  scholar  is".  At 
Gottingen  he  remained  until  the  end  of  1816,  and  'saw  a  good 
deal  of  Dissen,  and  also  of  Wolf,  the  coryphaeus  of  German 
philol(^sts',  who  was  there  on  a  visit'.  In  the  course  of  his 
travels  he  subsequently  met  Schaefer  at  Leipzig,  and  Schiitz  at 
Halle",  Thiersch  (as  well  as  Goethe)  at  Weimar,  Welcker  at 
Cassel,  Voss  and  Creuzer  at  Heidelbeig,  F.  Schlegel  at  Frankfurt, 
A.  W.  Schlegel  and  Humboldt  in  Paris,  Byron  in  Venice,  Sir  William 
Gell  in  Naples,  Bunsen  and  Niebuhr  in  Rome,  Monk  and  Dobree 
at  Cambridge^.    After  his  four  years  of  study  in  Germany,  France, 

'  Bryce,  AmtrUatt  Comnumvieallh,  chap,  cv  (ii  667.  ed.  1895);  Papillon, 
in  Mostly  Cemmission  (1904),  254. 

'  Portrait    in    Appleton's   Cyclopaedia   of  American  Biography,   6  vols. 
(1887-9). 

'  Ticknor's  Li/e  0/ Preicott,  p.  13,  ed.  1904. 

'  G.  S.  Hillard  etc..  Life  of  Ticknor,  i  73  n. 

*  ib.  i  10J-7.  '  ib,  i  108,  in.  '  ib.  patiim. 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


4S4  UNITED   STATES   OF  AMERICA.      [CENT.  XIX. 

Italy,  and  Spain,  he  delivered  at  Harvard,  as  professor  of  the 
French  and  Spanish  Languages  and  Literatures,  an  inaugural 
oration  described  as  the  'utterance  of  the  ripest  scholarship 
America  could  then  boast'^. 

Among  Ticknor's  fellow-students  at  Gotttngen  was  his  life- 
long friend,  Edward  Everett  {1794 — 1865).  As  a 
young  man  of  high  promise,  he  had  been  appointed 
Eliot  professor  of  Greek  at  Harvard  in  1815,  on  the  understanding 
that  he  spent  some  time  studying  in  Europe  before  entering  on 
his  professorial  duties.  He  remained  at  Gdttingen  for  two  years. 
Cousin,  who  met  him  in  Germany,  regarded  him  as  one  of  the 
best  Grecians  he  ever  knew'.  During  his  four  years  in  Europe, 
he  travelled  in  Greece,  and,  before  the  outbreak  of  the  Greek  War 
of  Independence,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Koraes,  who  held 
him  in  the  highest  esteem'.  In  1819  he  entered  on  his  duties  as 
a  professor';  and,  in  that  capacity,  produced  a  translation  of 
Buttmann's  Greek  Grammar  (1822)  and  a  new  edition  of  Jacobs' 
Greek  Reader.  He  resigned  his  professorship  for  a  political 
career  in  1826,  represented  the  United  States  in  London  in 
1841-5,  and  was  Secretary  of  State  in  iSga,  His  reputation 
mainly  rests  on  the  stately  eloquence  of  his  orations.  In  the 
tenacity  of  his  memory,  and  in  his  singular  command  of  a  lai^e 
variety  of  historic  parallels,  he  resembled  Macaulay.  In  1819, 
after  his  four  years  in  Europe,  he  expressed  the  opinion  that,  in 
regard  to  university  methods,  America  had  at  that  date  'nothing 
to  learn  from  England,  but  every  thing  to  learn  from  Germany '. 
English  scholars  have  been  known  to  accept  the  remark  as 
being,  'a/  ike  period  indicated,  absolutely  true".  But  Everett 
lived  to  receive  honorary  d^rees  in  1842-3  from  Oxford,  Cam- 
bridge, and  Dublin;  his  speech  at  Cambridge  ended  with  the 
respectful  greeting  Salve,  magna  parens*;  and  he  'practically 
recognised'  a  change  in  the  conditions  of  1819  when,  forty  years 

'  Hillard  etc.,  i  310.     Pottraii  in  Appleton,  I.e. 
°  Hay  ward,  in  Quarterly  Review,  Dec  1840. 
'  Thereianos,  Adamantios  Koraes,  iii  33. 

'  'He  leclnted  on  Greek  literature  with  the  enthusiasm  of  another  Abe-- 
lard'  {Appleton,  I.c.). 

'  T.  W.  Hi^inson,  in  Harvard  Graduates'  Magazine,  Sept.  189J. 
'  Ev«tell's  Orations,  ii  431  (1841). 


,i^.ooglc 


CHAP.  XLI.]      EVERETT.      BANCROFT.      FELTON.  455 

later,  he  sent  his  own  son  to  Cambridge'.  His  son's  lectures 
On  the  Cam  have  since  given  to  many  besides  the  Boston 
audience  of  1864  a  vivid  picture  of  College-life  in  that  University. 

Gottingen  was  also  the  goal  of  another  Harvard  graduate, 
George  Bancroft  (1800 — i8gi),  who  studied  under 
Heeren  and  translated  his  master's  '  Reflections  on 
the  Politics  of  Ancient  Greece'  in  1824,  after  resigning  a  tutorship 
in  Greek  at  Harvard.  He  afterwards  represented  his  country  in 
England  and  in  Germany  (1867-74);  he  is  best  known  as  the 
Historian  of  the  United  States  (1840-74)'. 

Among  the  Greek  professors  at  Harvard,  Cornelius  Conway 
Felton  (1807 — i86z)  held  that  position  from  1834 
to  i860,  and  was  President  of  Harvard  for  the  two 
remaining  years  of  his  life.  He  annotated  Wolfs  text  of  the  Iliad, 
with  Flaxman's  illustrations  (1S33  eta),  and  also  edited  the 
Clouds  and  Birds  of  Aristophanes,  the  Agamemnon  of  Aeschylus, 
and  the  Panegyriats  of  Isocrates.  In  conjunction  with  professors 
B.  Sears  and  B.  B.  Edwards,  he  produced  in  1849  a  volume  on 
'Classical  Studies',  including  selections  from  the  correspondence 
of  several  Dutch  scholars.  During  his  first  visit  to  Europe 
(1853-4),  he  spent  five  months  in  Greece,  and  in  1856  he 
punished  his  'Selections  from  Modem  Greek  Writers'.  His 
popular  lectures  on  '  Greece,  Ancient  and  Modem ',  display  his 
keen  enthusiasm  for  the  old  Greek  world.  His  interest  in  the 
comparative  study  of  the  Greek  and  the  modern  drama  is  vividly 
represented  in  his  early  review  of  Woolsey's  edition  of  the  Alcestis 
(1836).  He  was  familiar  with  German  literature  and  with  the 
works  of  German  scholars,  but  he  refers  more  frequently  to  Heyne, 
Mitscheilich,  and  Wolf  than  to  Hermann'.   As  professor  of  Greek 

,  '  T.  W.  Higginson,  in  Atlantic  Monthly,  vol.  93  (1904)  8  f.  This  later 
fact  is  (not  unnatucally)  suppressed  in  Professor  Hoblfeld's  Chicago  Fistredt 
{fiir  Minfiua  dattseha-  Univenitdtm  auf  Ameriia),  1904,  p.  6,  wh«re  the 
eailier  lemark  of  i8ig  is  duly  emphasised.  On  Everett,  cp.  biographical 
dates  in  Qtdngutnnial  Catalvgue  0/  Harvard  Utai/iraty,  1636 — 1905,  under 
181 1 ;  die  Ene.  Brit,  etc;  portrait  in  Appleton,  i.c. 

•  D.C.L.  Oxford,  1S49;  Harvard  (Quinquennial)  C\atalBgus),  under  1817; 
portrait  in  Appleton,  /.c. 

■  E.  SiUer  (Prof,  at  New  York  Univ.),  KiatsiscAi  Siudien  und  ilastiscitr 
UnterrichI  in  tUn    VertinigUn  Staattn,   three  articles  in  Nok  /ahrbiichtr 


.oogic 


456  UNITED   STATES  OF  AMERICA.       [CENT.  XIX. 

he  was  succeeded  in  i860  by  W.  W.  Goodwin  (b.  1831),  the  well- 
known  author  of  the  'Syntax  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses  of  the 
Greek  Verb",  who  held  the  professorship  until  1901. 

Felton's  exact  contemporary,  Evangelinus  Apostolides  Sophocles 
(1807 — 1883),  who  was  born  at  the  foot  of  Mt  Pelion, 
SophrKiM       *"**  spent  his  early  youth  near  the  home  of  Achilles 
and  some  of  his  maturer  years  at  Cairo  and  on  Mt 
Sinai,  emigrated  to  the  New  World  in  1828.     He  taught  Greek  at 
Yale  (i837f)  and  for  many  years  at  Harvard  (1840 — 1883),  where 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Ancient,  Byzantine,  and  Modem 
Greek  in  i860.     Of  his  publications,  the  most  successful  was  his 
Greek  Grammar  (1838  etc.),  while  the  most  important  was  his 
Greek  Lexicon  of  Ike  Roman  and  Byzanline  Periods^.     He  be- 
queathed to  Harvard  his  literary  collections  and  the  whole  of  his 
private  fortune'. 

The  Latin  professorship  at  Harvard  was  held  from  1832  to 
1851  by  Carl  Beck  (1798—1866),  who  had  lived  in 
Germany  for  the  first  twenty-six  years  of  his  life. 
Like  Lieber  and  Follen,  he  was  one  of  the  'highly  educated 
Germans,. ..who  were  driven  from  their  country  by  political  up- 
roar about  1825".     In  1846,  on  the  eve  of  a  visit  to  Europe,  that 
'fine  Petronian  scholar"  declared  that  'he  had  never  before  had  a 
pupil  who  could  write  Latin  as  well  as  Lane'.     The 
pupil  in  question,  George   Martin   Lane  (1823— 
1897),  took  the  professor's  place  for  a  single  term  'with  entire 
success'.     In  1847,  like  Ticknor  and  Everett  and  Bancroft,  he 
left  for  Germany,  where  he  spent  four  years,  attending  the  lectures 
of  Schneidewin  and  K.  F.  Hermann  at  Gottingen*,  and  those  of 

(1901)  508  f.  OnFelton,  cp.  Harvard  Q.  C,  under  1827;  Amtr.  Joum.  of 
Bduc,  March  1861,  x  165-— 196;  Mass.  Hist.  Sk.  Proc.  1869,  t.  351— 368. 
Portrait  in  Appleton,  l.c. 

'  1859  etc.;  rewritten  and  enlarged,  1889.  *  1870.  and  [887. 

'  Cp-  Harvard  Q.C.,  hon.  degree,  184; ;  Biogr.  Jahrb.  1883,  p.  98.  He 
was  long  a  valued  correspondent  of  the  Nation  (xi  46).  Cp.  Allibone,  i.v.  ; 
and  Seymour,  in  Bulletin,  v  (1901),  S  f ;  portrait  at  Harvard. 

*  T.  W.  Hi^inson,  u.  s.  ;  Ph.  D.  Tuhingen,  1813 ;  hon.  LL.D.  Harvard, 
1865. 

°  'The  Mss  of  Pet ronius... described  and  collated',  tSdj. 

0  Ph.D.  iSji. 

h.  i."iM,Googlc 


CHAP.  XL!.]     E.  A.  SOPHOCLES.      BECK.      LANE.  457 

Ritschl  at  Bonn,  as  well  as  courses  at  Berlin  and  Heidelbeig. 
In  the  library  of  his  son,  Mr  Gardiner  Martin  Lane  of  Boston,  his 
notes  of  Ritschl's  lectures  and  his  sketch  of  the  professor  were 
seen  by  the  present  writer  during  a  visit  in  1905.  His  review  of 
an  edition  of  Flautus  in  1853  has  been  described  by  his  biographer 
as  'probably  the  first  rect^ition'  in  America  'of  the  results  of 
Ritschl's  studies".  He  was  Latin  professor  from  1851  to  1894. 
'As  a  teacher',  he  'had  all  that  fine  literary  appreciation  which 
characterizes  the  English  school,  combined,  however,  with  the 
minute  and  exact  knowledge  of  the  Germans'.  Among  his 
marked  characteristics  were  a  never-failing  good  nature,  great 
originality  of  thought,  a  prodigious  memory,  and  a  familiarity  with 
the  most  varied  types  of  literature'.  'His  teaching  was  always 
clear  and  incisive";  his  'sparkling  wit  was  ever  ready  to  illuminate 
dark  corners  in  even  the  abstrusest  departments  of  learning,  and 
he  could  make  the  driest  subject  interesting  by  his  skilful  and 
original  way  of  presenting  it'*.  The  chief  work  of  his  life  was  his 
excellent  Latin  Grammar,  completed  and  published  in  1898  by 
his  former  pupil,  professor  Morris  H.  Morgan;  he  generously 
co-operated  in  the  production  of  Lewis  and  Short's  ZaA'n 
Dictionary;  and  it  was  mainly  owing  to  his  pamphlet  of  1871 
that  a  reformed  pronunciation  of  Latin  was  adopted  in  all  the 
Colleges  and  Schools  of  the  United  States'. 

Among  line's  older  friends  was  John  L.  Lincoln  (1817— 1891),  who,  like 
Lane,  studied  fat  several  years  in  Gennany ;  he  was  Latin 
professor  in  Brown  university  (184+  f),  and  produced  editions         HMkneM 
of  Horace  and  of  Selections  from  Livy".     Albeit  Harkness 
(1811 — '907),    Greek    professor   at    Brown,    whose    Latin    Grammar    was 
published  in  1864'.  was  a  niember  of  the  Managing  Committee  of  the  American 

'  Morris  H.  Morgan,  in  Harvard  Studiti,  U  9. 

*  ib.  7,  •  Eliot,  (*.  8.  *  Goodwin,  ib.  8. 

'  ib.  9.  Some  misgivings  on  this  pronunciation  have  foand  a  voice  in 
Bennett  and  Bristol's  Teaching  0/  Latin  and  Creti  (i9or)  66 — io.^Mtmoir 
{with  portrait)  by  Morris  H.  Morgan,  in  Harvard  Studies,  ix  1^11;  post- 
humous papers,  it.  13 — 16 ;  papers  by  ij  of  his  pupils,  ib.  vii ;  cp.  Harvard 
Q.  C.  under  1846 ;  -4.  /.  P.  xviii  1+7,  371  f ;  ATatian,  kv,  8  July,  1897,  18. 

'  National  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Biography  (N.  Y.  1881-  ),  viii  30. 

'  A  very  widely  popular  work,  revised  in  1874,  18S1;  Harkness  also 
edited  Caesar  and  Sallust  etc.  (1S70-8). 

,^.oogic 


458  UNITED   STATES  OF  AMERICA.      [CENT.  XIX. 

School  of  Classical  Studies  at  Athens  from  ils  foundation  to  the  end  of  his  life'. 
.  Another  graduate  of  Brown,  Henry  Simmons  Frieze  (1817 — 

1S89),  is  known  as  an  editor  of  Virgil  and  of  Quintilian  x,  xii. 
As  professor  of  Latin  in  the  university  of  Michigan  for  the  last  35  years 
of  his  life,  he  gave  to  his  leaching  'the  flavour  of  a  noble  realism',  being 
'  more  desirous  that  his  pupils  should  be  Romam  than  that  they  should  be 

lime's  younger  contemporaries  at  Harvard  included  Joseph  Heniy  Thayer 
(:8i8— 1891),   the   able  editor  of  a  Grammar  (1873!  and  a 
'''*'  Lexicon  (1886)  of  the  Greek  Testament,  originally  produced 

by  Winer  and  by  Willie  and  Grimm  respectively'. 

Lane's  colleague  as  professor  of  Latin  was  James  Bradstreet 
Greenough  (1833 — 1901),  a  student  of  Harvard, 
who,  after  following  the  profession  of  the  Law  for 
nine  years  in  Michigan,  was  invited  to  return  to  Harvard  as  a 
tutor  in  Latin.  This  appointment  led  to  his  becoming  assistant 
professor  in  1873,  and  to  his  holding  one  of  the  two  professorships 
of  Latin  for  nearly  twenty  years  (1883 — 1901). 

Early  in  his  career  as  a  teacher,  he  eagerly  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
Comparative  Philology,  and  soon  made  himself  acquainted  with  Sanskrit. 
He  was  stimulated  by  Goodwin's  Greek  Meods  and  Tenses  to  attack  the 
corresponding  problems  in  Latin,  and  the  first  result  was  his  privately  printed 
Analysis  of  the  l^liu  Subjunetive  (1870),  in  the  course  of  which  he  main- 
tained that  the  only  meaning  which  seemed  to  be  common  to  all  uses  of 
the  Subjunctive  was  that  oi  futurity.  In  this  Analysis  he  anticipated  the 
method  adopted  in  the  following  year  by  Delbriick,  in  his  Conjanctiv  und 
Optaiiv,  a  work  which  became  a  grammatical  classic.  The  results  of  the 
Analysis  were  incorporated  in  J.  H.  Allen  and  J.  B.  Greenoagh's  Latin 
Grantmca-  founded  on  Comparative  Grammar  (1871).  DelbrUck's  work  was 
the  subject  of  an  appreciative  but  searchbg  review  by  Greenough,  in  which 
the  reviewer  declined  to  accept  loill  and  iiiish  as  the  distinction  between  the 
Subjunctive  and  the  Optative',  and  Delbriick  subsequently  admitted  that  the 
original  idea  of  both  might,  after  all,  be  that  0^ futurity  rather  thanwiT/. 

Greenough  was  the  first  to  lecture  on  Sanskrit  and  Comparative  Philology 
at  Harvard  (1873-80),  and  his  services  in  fostering  those  studies  'the  historian 
of  American  learning  will  not  fail  to  recognise'^.     He  embodied  the  main 


*  Brown  Alumni  Monthly,  viii  (1907)   31,  with  portrait  outside  n 
Rev.  xxi  189. 

»  Cl.Rev.\-i  131  f. 

'  Harvard  Q.  C-,  under  1850. 

*  North  Amer.  Rev.,  yiA.  113  (1871),  4rj-i7. 
°  Harvard  Studies,  xiv  10- 


n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc 


CHAP.  XLI.]  GREENOUGH.  4S9 

resulis  of  his  studies  and  discoveries  in  his  contributions  to  the  text-books 
known  as  (J.  H.)  'Alien  and  Greenough's  Latin  Series '.  Among  these  were 
his  inde|>endent  editions  of  Horace's  Satires  and  Efistla,  and  Livy  I,  ll'. 

He  was  keenly  interested  in  Etymology,  and  contributed  learned  and 
ingenious  notes  on  thai  subject  to  several  volumes  of  the  Harvard  Sitidies  in 
Classical  Philology.  His  originality  in  the  analysis  of  linguistic  forms  is 
exemplified  in  his  essay  on  Laiin  Stem  Formation  in  the  tenth  volume  of  those 
Studies,  a  series  founded  and  in  part  edited  by  himself.  He  wrote  English 
and  Latin  verse  with  a  singular  facility  and  grace,  and  he  was  rect^nised  by 
his  friends  as  distinctly  a  man  of  genius*. 

Among  those  primarily  associated  with  Greenough  in  the 
'Latin  Series'  were  the  two  sons  of  the  Rev.  Joseph 
ADen  of  Northborough  (1790— 1873).  The  elder  of  {ir*V.^5i"n 
these,  the  Rev.  Joseph  Henry  Allen,  D.D.  (1820— 
1898),  besides  producing  elementary  works  on  Latin,  was  the 
joint  author  of  'Allen  and  Greenough's'  above-mentioned  Latin 
Grammar  of  1872.  He  also  published  a  Manual  Latin  Grammar 
(1868),  and  a  Latin  Reader,  in  conjunction  with  his  younger 
brother,  William  Francis  Allen  (1830 — 1889),  a  graduate  of 
Harvard,  who  in  1867  became  professor  of  Ancient  Languages 
and  History  at  Madison,  Wisconsin, 

Early  in  his  career,  W.  F.  Allen  studied  at  GiiUingeQ  and  Berlin,  and  aiso 
travelled  in  Italy  and  Greece.  He  was  less  interested  in  the  linguistic  than  in 
the  historical  side  of  classical  learning ;  he  was  the  contributor  of  '  the 
admirable  historical  and  archaeological  notes'  in  'Allen  and  Greenough's 
Latin  Series';  and  he  produced  independent  editions  of  the  Cermania, 
Agriiola,  and  Annals  of  Tacitus.  He  was  remarkable  for  an  extraordinary 
capacity  lor  work,  a  singular  breadth  of  sympathy,  and  a  keen  interest  in 
the  cause  of  freedom'. 

The  first  professor  of  Classical  Philology  at  Harvard  was 
Frederic  de  Forest  Allen  (1844 — 1897),  a  graduate 
of  Oberlin,   who,  after  holding  a  professorship  of 
Greek  and  Latin  for  two  years  at  Knoxville,  studied  under  Geoi^ 
Curtius  at   Leipzig  in  1868—70,  taking  an  active  part  in   the 

'  In  other  editions  he  was  associated  with  Mr  J.  H.  Allen  and  with 
Professors  F.  D.  Allen,  Tracy  Peck,  and  Kittredge. 

'  G,  L.  Kittredge,  in  Harvard  Studies,  liv  (1903)  1 — 16,  with  biblit^raphy 
and  portrait ;  Harvard  Q.  C,  under  1856. 

'  C.  L.  Smith,  in  CI.  Rrs.  iv  416-8;  cp.  National  CycL.  vi  160;  Wiscontin 
Academy,  viii  439;  Essays  and  Monographs  (with  Memoir,  i — »r,  and 
Biiliograf&y,  351 — 381),  Boston,   189a 


lOO' 


SIC 


460  UNITED   STATES   OF   AMERICA.      [CENT.  XIX. 

Grammatische  Gesellschaft  and  obtaining  his  d^;ree  by  a  thesis 
on  the  dialect  of  the  Ijocrians'.  The  remarkable  impression 
made  at  New  Haven  in  1871  by  his  paper  on  the  'Attic  Second 
Declension"  led  to  his  appointment  as  a  tutor  at  Harvard  in 
1873,  He  was  professor  of  Ancient  Languages  at  Cincinnati  in 
1874-9,  ^'^'^1  ^^^  *  '>"sy  year  at  Yale,  became  professor  at 
Harvard  for  the  remaining  seventeen  years  of  his  life.  In  1885-6 
he  was  in  charge  of  the  American  School  at  Athens;  in  1891-2 
he  studied  the  scholia  of  Plato  at  Oxford  and  Paris,  with  a  view  to 
an  edition,  which  he  did  not  live  to  complete. 

One  of  his  earliesl  works  was  an  excellent  edition  of  the  Mtdea  (1876I; 
among  his  mote  important  papers  were  those  on  ihe  origin  of  Homeric  verse', 
on  classical  studies  at  the  universit]'  of  Leyden*,  on  Greek  and  Latin  Inscrip- 
tions from  Palestine*,  on  Greek  Versification  in  Inscriptions*,  and  on  the 
Delphian  Hymn  to  Apollo'.  It  was  during  his  lime  at  Cincinnati  that  he 
prepared  his  compact  and  comprehensive  hand'book  of  Rimaaitts  of  Early 
Latin  (iSSo),  Ihe  value  of  which  has  been  recognised  in  England  and 
Gennany. 

In  his  chosen  department  of  study  he  was  primarily  'an  investigator'. 
'  He  had  no  interest  in  the  Classics  as  a  mere  accomplishment,  a  pleasing 
ornament  of  a  man  of  letters.  For  him  classical  learning  was  a  real  science,  a 
great  branch  of  anthropology,  giving  insight,  when  rightly  studied,  into  the 
mental  operations  and  intellectual  and  moral  growth  of  ancient  peoples". 
He  produced  the  music  for  the  performance  of  the  Phormio  at  Harvard  in 
1894,  and  it  has  been  said  of  him  by  Professor  Seymour  that  'piobably  no 
other  American  scholar  understood  ancient  Greek  music  so  well  as  he'.  It 
has  also  been  said  by  the  same  writer  :— '  Never  was  mind  more  open  than  his 
to  the  receipt  of  light  from  any  quarter.... His  kindly  patience,  his  accuracy, 
his  absolute  sanity,  and  his  clearness  of  exposition  made  him  a  remarkable 
teacher  as  well  as  a  great  scholar ' '. 

'  Curtios,  StuiSm,  iii  J05 — J79  {1870). 

'  Trans.  Amer.  Phil.  Assoc,  ii  18—34  {l8;t). 

*  Kuhn's  Zeilsckrift.  xiiv  556—591  (1879). 

*  Proc.  Amir.  Phil.  Assoc.  Xlll  (1882)  xviii  f, 
5  A.J.P.ti  190—116. 

*  BulUtin  of  the  School  at  Athens,  iv  37 — 104. 
'  Harvard  Studies,  ix  55 — 60. 

«  a.  ix  30  f. 

■  Seymour  in  A.  J.  P.  xviii  375.  Cp.  Memoir  by  J.  B.  Greenough  in 
Harvard  Studies,  ix  17 — 36,  with  bibliography  and  portrait,  and  with  post- 
humous papers,  it.  37 — 60.  Cp.  A.  f.  P.  xviii  147,  371-5;  Tlu  Nation, 
Ixv,  19  Aug.  1897,  144. 


,1^.00' 


SIC 


CHAP.  XLI.]  F.  D.  ALLEN.      WARREN.  461 

Latin  scholarship  at  Harvard  lost  much  by  the  death  of  Minton 
Warren  (1850 — 1907),  a  graduate-student  of  Sanskrit 
and  the  Classics  at  Yale,  who  by  holding  scholastic  wlimn 
appointments  for  three  years  in  the  United  States, 
was  enabled  in  1876-g  to  pursue  the  advanced  study  of  Com- 
parative Philology  and  other  subjects  at  Leipzig,  Bonn  and  Strass- 
bui^  where  the  bent  of  the  rest  of  his  life  was  determined  by  the 
influence  of  the  school  of  Kitschl.  From  1879  to  1S99  he  presided 
over  the  advanced  and  graduate  instruction  in  Latin  at  the  Johns 
Hopkins  university;  in  1896-7  he  was  director  of  the  American 
School  in  Rome;  and  in  1899  was  appointed  Latin  professor  at 
Harvard, — a  position  which  he  held  with  the  highest  distinction  for 
the  remaining  eight  years  of  his  life.  His  first  publication,  '  On 
the  enclitic  Ne  in  early  Latin",  was  followed  by  the  editio pritueps 
of  the  '  Glossary  of  St  Gallen",  while  his  latest  article  dealt  with 
the  oldest  of  Latin  inscriptions, — that  on  the  ^  Slele  in  the  Roman 
Forum '".  From  his  College-days  in  Germany  to  his  death  he 
was  mainly  occupied  in  collecting  materials  for  a  critical  edition 
of  Terence,  in  which  he  was  latterly  associated  with  Prof.  Hauler 
and  Prof.  Kauer  of  Vienna.  Of  his  work  as  a  teacher  at  Harvard, 
his  colleague  Prof.  Wright  has  said : — '  No  American  Lacinist  can 
point  to  a  larger  number.. .of  able  and  productive  scholars  in  his 
own  field,  who,  if  not  members  of  his  *  school ',  at  least  owed  to 
him  their  inspiration  and  their  method".  'Active,  fond  of  out- 
of-door  life,  vigorous;  sunny,  serene,  witty;  appreciative,  sympa- 
thetic;...he  endeared  himself  to  his  friends  as  few  men  have  done 
in  his  generation*". 

Among  the  most  promising  scholars  of  a  later  generation 
was  Herman  Wadsworth  Hayley  {1867 — 1899),  a 
graduate  of  Amherst,  who  completed  his  studies  at 
Harvard,  where  he  served  as  tutor  before  receiving  an  appoint- 
ment in  the   Wesleyan  university  at  Middletown,    Connecticut. 
He  produced  an  edition  of  the  Alcestts  ( 1 898),  and  a  pamphlet  on 

•  Slrassbq^,  1879:  A.  J.  P.  1881.  =  Cambridge,  U.S.A.,  1885. 
'^./.Z-.  i907,nos.  iii-i. 

*  Cp.  A.J.  P.  Dec.  1907,  489  ;  Haniard  Mag.,  Jan.  1908  :   Prof.  Lindsay 
in  CI.  Rev.  xxii  aj  f. 

"  Harvard  Univ.  Cm.  10  Jan.  1908. 

„.,,„,  ^.oogic 


462  UNITED  STATES   OF  AMERICA.      [CENT.  XIX. 

the  Verse  of  Terence,  besides  contributing  to  Lane's  'Grammar'  the 
chapter  on  versification.  Five  of  his  papers  have  been  published 
in  the  Harvard  Studies^. 

Harvard  has  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  modem  revival  of 
the  Attic  drama.  It  was  there  that  in  May,  1881,  after  seven 
months  of  preparation,  the  Oedipus  Tyrannus  was  admirably 
acted  in  the  original  Greek.  Art  and  archaeology,  as  well  as 
scholarship,  united  in  making  the  presentation  perfect  in  every 
detail*.  Since  then  we  have  had  the  memorable  performance  of  the 
Agamemnon  by  members  of  the  university  of  Oxford,  the  impres- 
sive and  stimulating  series  of  Greek  plays  at  Cambridge,  and  the 
singularly  interesting  representations  amid  the  idyllic  surroundings 
of  Bradfield ;  while,  at  Harvard  itself,  the  Oedipus  Tyrannus  of 
1881  has  been  succeeded  by  the  Agamemnon  of  1906. 

At  Yale  the  pioneer  professors  of  Classics  included  James 

Luce  Kingsley  {1778 — 1852),  editor  of  Tacitus  and 

ThtSeV        °^  Cicero,  De  Oralore,  and  a  master  of  Latin  style*. 

He  was  professor  of  Latin  from  1831  to  1851,  when 

he  was  succeeded  by  Thomas  A.  Thacher  (1815 — 1886),  editor 

of  Cicero,  De  Officiis*.     Thacher's  contemporary, 

*""  William  Seymour  Tyler  (1810—1897),  a"  editor  of 

select  portions  of  Homer,  Demosthenes,  and  Tacitus,  was  one  of 

the  pioneers  as  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  at  Amherst^ 

The  'Literary  Convention'  held  at  Yale  in  1830  marks  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  university  education  in  the  United  States. 
The  avowed  aim  was  to  form  a  genuine  university.  On  this 
occasion  liberal  studies  were  effectively  defended  in  a  long  and 
luminous  letter  from  Geoi^e  Bancroft,  while  among  those  who 
took  part  in  the  debates  were  Francis  Lieber  of  Berlin  and 
Boston,  who  had  fought  in  Greece,  and  had  lived  with  Niebuhr 

'  '  Social  and  domestic  poution  of  women  in  Arjslophanes '  (vol.  i) ;  Quats- 
titmes  Petronianae  (ii) ;  Kbrrapat  ra-raetbt  (v) ;  Varia  Critica  (vii) ;  Notes  on 
lie  Pkormio  (xi). 

'  Heniy  tioTiDarCi  Harvard  Grtek  Play  {\iiz);  cp.  Jebb's  Introd.  to  D«/. 
T,r.  p.  1  (. 

^  Woolsey  in  AUiboiie,  and  Appleloo. 

•  Nalionat  Cycl.  xi  160  with  portrait. 

'  ib.  X  34;  ;  Appleton,  vi  301 ;  hon.  S.  T.  D.,  Harvaid,  1857. 


,i^.ooglc 


Hadley 


CHAP.  XLI.]      WOOLSEY.      HADLEY.      PACKARD.  463 

in  Rome,  and  Woolsey,  who  had  recently  returned  from   his 
triennium  in  Europe'. 

The  Greek  Professorship  at  Yale  was  held  from  1831  to 
1846  by  Theodore  Dwight  Woolsey  (1801— 1889),  a 
graduate  of  Yale',  who  had  studied  for  three  years 
in  France,  as  well  as  in  Germany,  where  he  attended  the  lectures 
of  Welcker,  Hermann  and  Boeckh  at  Bonn,  Leipzig  and  Beriin 
respectively.  During  his  tenure  of  the  professorship,  he  edited 
the  Antigone  and  Ekctra  of  Sophocles,  as  well  as  the  AUesits,  the 
Promelhius,  and  the  Gorgias.  He  had  a  remarkable  influence 
over  his  pupils  in  Greek,  and  a  still  wider  fame  when,  in  middle 
life,  he  became  President  of  Yale,  and  professor  of  International 
Law'.  As  professor  of  Greek,  he  had  an  able  successor  in 
James  Hadley  (1821 — i^T^),  who  had  also  a  genius 
for  mathematics,  and  lectured  with  success  on 
Roman  Law.  His  best-known  work  was  his  Greek  Grammar'. 
His  '  Essays  Philological  and  Critical'  (1873)  were  edited  after  his 
death  by  his  distinguished  colleague  William  Dwight  Whitney, 
who  generously  described  him  as  'America's  best  and  soundest 
philologist'". 

Hadley  was  succeeded  by  Lewis  Richard  Packard  (1836 — 
1884),  who  studied  in  Berlin,  and  visited  Greece 
(1857-8)  and  was  a  professor  of  Greek  at  Yale  from 
1863  to  1884,  when  he  died  of  an  illness  contracted  at  Athens  as 
director  of  the  American  School.  In  conjunction  with  Prof. 
J.  W.  White  of  Harvard,  he  projected  the  'College  Series  of 
Greek  authors',  since  edited  by  Professors  White  and  Seymour. 
He  translated  the  lecture  of  Bonttz  '  On  the  Origin  of  the  Homeric 
Poems',  prepared  an  edition  of  the  Odyssey,  which  remained  un- 
published, and  produced  a  considerable  variety  of  essays  and 
lectures,  which  were  posthumously  collected  under  the  title  of 

'  Sihler  in  Evening  Pest,  N.Y.,  7  Sept.  1907. 

»  Hon.  S.T,  D..  Harvard,  1847. 

»  Sihler,  jogf;  Timothy  Dwighl,  Memorial  Address,  New  Haven, 
114  June,  1890. 

•  1860,  etc. ;  revised  and  largely  rewritten  by  F.  D.  Allen  (1884). 

'  Sihler,  511;  Noah  Porter,  Memoir,  with  biblii^raphy,  New  Haven, 
1873.  Sketch  by  Whitney  in  'Yale  College'  (1879);  National  Academy  of 
Sciences,  Biogr.  Memoirs,  1905,  v  149 — 154,  with  portrait. 


,1^.00' 


SIC 


464  UNITED  STATES   OF   AMERICA.      [CENT.  XIX. 

'  Studies  in  Greek  Thought'.  The  address  which  he  delivered  in 
1881  on  the  '  Morality  and  Religion  of  the  Greeks'  has  been  well 
described  as  '  the  expression  of  the  carefully  formed  opinions  of  a 
student  of  life  as  well  as  of  books,  upon  a  topic  of  wide  human 
interest,  indicating  the  true  final  object  of  the  enlightened  student 
of  Philology  to  be  the  knowledge  of  man,  and  the  acquisition  of 
the  means  for  the  judgment  of  conduct  and  the  understanding  of 
history''. 

W.  D.  Whitney  (1827 — 1894),  a  member  of  a  family  'remark- 
able for  scholarly  attainments  and  achievements', 
Whitney  graduated  at  Williams  College  at  the  age  of  18, 
and,  in  the  early  part  of  his  career,  took  the  keenest 
interest  in  Natural  Science.  His  elder  brother  had  gone  to 
Germany  to  study  mineralogy  and  geology,  but  had  incidentally 
attended  a  course  of  lectures  on  Sanskrit  at  the  University  of 
Berlin ;  and  it  was  in  his  elder  brother's  library  that  W.  D.  Whitney 
found  the  books  that  enabled  him  to  begin  the  study  of  Sanskrit. 
Late  in  1849  he  entered  Yale,  to  continue  the  study  of  Sanskrit 
under  Edward  E.  Salisbury,  who  had  been  appointed  professor 
of  Arabic  and  Sanskrit  in  1841.  Whitney  and  Hadley  were 
Salisbury's  first  (and  last)  pupils  in  Sanskrit,  and  they  were 
pupils  of  whom  he  might  well  be  proud.  In  1850  Whitney  went 
to  Germany,  spending  three  winter  semesters  under  Weber,  Bopp 
and  Lepsius  in  Berlin,  and  two  summer  semesters  under  Roth  in 
Tiibingen.  Salisbury's  foresight  and  generosity  led  to  Whitney's 
being  appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit  {1854)  and  of  Comparative 
Philology  at  Yale.  In  course  of  time  a  graduate  school  of  philol<^y 
was  organised,  which,  shortly  after  1870,  included  some  of  the 
ablest  of  the  future  professors  in  the  United  States.  Whitney 
revived  the  American  Oriental  Society,  and  presided  over  the  first 
meeting  of  the  Philological  Association  in  1869. 

His  first  great  work  was  the  publication  of  the  fitsl  volume  of  the 
Alharva.Veda-Saiiihita  (1855-6),  the  second  volume  of  which  was  post- 
humously published  under  the  editorial  care  of  his  former  pupil,  Professor 
Lanman.  Two  other  Sanskrit  texts  were  published  it)  1861-71;  and  the  value 
of  his  work  was  lecc^nisedby  the  award  of  the  Bopp  prize  in  1S7Q,  followed  by 

'  J.  W.  White  in  Bullain  of  Amer.  School,  ii  (i88j)  7-9  ;  cp.  Seymour 
in  Bicgr.  fahrb.  1884,  68—70- 

,^.oogic 


CHAP.  XLI.]         W.  D.  WHITNEY.      SEYMOUR.  465 

the  crowning  distinction  of  the  Pmssian  Order  of  Merit ;  but  it  tins  been  said 
of  him  that  he  loved  learnLng  for  its  own  sake  and  not  for  its  rewaid  of  fame. 
Meanwhile,  he  had  produced  his  important  Sanskrit  Grammar',  and  he  was 
one  of  Ihe  four  principal  collaborators  in  the  St  Petersburg  dictionary.  Among 
his  besl-known  works  were  his  Lectures  on  '  Language  and  the  Study  of 
Language'  t'^7}>  ^*^  'Oriental  and  Linguistic  Studies'  (1S71-4),  and  his 
volume  on  the  '  Life  and  Growth  of  Language  '  (1875),  which  was  translated 
into  five  of  the  languages  of  Europe.  He  was  among  the  very  first  10  draw 
attention  to  analog  as  a  force  in  ihe  growth  of  language,  and  also  to  demur 
to  the  ordinary  view  that  Asia  was  the  original  home  of  tbe  Indo-European 


Yale  was  the  university  of  Martin  Kellogg  {1828 — 1903),  who 
in  1859-93  was  professor  of  Latin  first  at  the 
College  and  afterwards  at  the  newly  founded  uni- 
versity of  California,  of  which  he  was  president  from  1893  to  1899, 
He  is  best  known  as  the  editor  of  an  excellent  edition  of  Cicero's 
Brutus*.  He  also  published  a  pamphlet  on  Latin  pronunciation 
(1864),  while  among  his  popular  papers  may  be  mentioned 
'Gorgias  in  Cahfomia'  and  'Fine  Art  in  Ancient  Literature'*. 

The  teaching  of  Greek  at  Yale  was  for  a;  years  associated 
with  the  name  of  Thomas  Day  Seymour  (1848 — 
1907)1  who,  after  graduating  at  Western  Reserve, 
spent  two  years  at  the  universities  of  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  besides 
travelling  in  Italy  and  Greece.  On  his  return  he  taught  Greek 
for  8  years  at  Western  Reserve,  and  held  a  professorship  of  Greek 
at  Yale  from  1S80  to  the  end  of  his  life.  Apart  from  a  useful 
volume  of  'Selected  Odes  of  Pindar'  (1882),  his  published  work 
was  mainly  concerned  with  Homer.  He  produced  inter  alia  two 
editions  of  Iliad  i — vi,  and  (a  few  months  before  his  death)  com- 
pleted his  scholarly  and  comprehensive  work  on  'Life  in  the 
Homeric  Age'.^the  ripe  result  of  35  years  of  Homeric  study. 
His   comparatively  early  death   was  ascribed   to   overwork   in 

*  Leiprig,  1879  ;  ed.  t,  1889 ;  Suppl.  1885. 

'  Seymour,  in  A.  /.  P.  xv  171 — 19S  ;  and  Lanman  in  Inttod.  to  Alharva- 
Veda-Samhila  ;  The  NalioH,  14  June,  1894;  /eunud  of  Amer.  Oriental  See. 
xix  (1897)  I. 

*  1889;  J.  E,  Sandys  in  CI.  Rev.  iii  354  f. 

*  Overland  Msmlhly,  Dec.  1868,  and  June  1885.  For  a  complete  bibHo- 
graphy  I  am  indebted  lo  the  Secretary  of  the  President  of  the  University  of 


466  UNITED   STATES   OK   AMERICA.      [CENT.  XIX. 

connexion  with  this  volume,  and  with  the  preparations  for  an 
important  meeting  of  the  American  Institute  of  Archaeology.  He 
was  of  the  highest  service  to  that  Institute,  and  he  was  also  the 
historian  of  the  first  twenty-five  years  of  the  School  at  Athens'. 
Though  he  never  allowed  himself  to  become  a  mere  specialist, 
he  could  keep  abreast  with  specialists  in  many  lines.  '  One  of 
the  most  genial  and  companionable  of  men",  he  was  endued  with 
a  singular  charm,  and  those  who  (like  the  present  writer)  have 
shared  his  hospitality  at  Yale,  and  have  viewed  the  Homeric 
scholar's  study  and  lecture-room  with  their  lofty  situation  and 
their  wide  outlook  ivS/i^ov  airo  wupyov,  will  ever  retain  a  kindly 
regard  for  his  memory.  His  teaching  at  Yale  will  always  be 
associated  with  that  lofty  tower.  Here  let  us  leave  him, — 
'  Leave  him— still  loftier  than  ihe  world  suspects, 
Living  and  dying'. 
At  Columbia  College,  Cliarles  Anthon  (1797—1867),  the  son  of  an  English 

army- surgeon',  hecame  full  professor  of  Languages  in  1835. 

He  was  the  principal  classical  book-maker  of  his  time;  the 
number  of  volumes,  which  he  prepared  for  Harper's  firm,  amounted  to  about 
fifty,  including  a  latge  edition  of  Horace  (1836),  founded  mainly  on  Doring's, 
and  a  Classical  Dictionary  (1841),  which  resulted  from  several  revisions 
of  Lempriere.  He  also  produced  handbooks  of  Gec^raphy,  Antiquities, 
Mythology  and  Literature,  and  many  editions  of  the  ordinary  Greek  and 
Latin  authors.  The  lavish  amount  of  help  provided  in  some  of  these  editions 
left  the  student  little  to  do  on  his  own  account.  For  the  last  thirty  years  of 
his  life,  he  is  said  to  have  produced  one  volume /er  annaffi. 

Anthon  founded  no  school,  but  the  best  of  his  pupils  was  his 
.  biographer*,  Henry  Drisler  (1818 — 1897).     Drisler 

held  professorial  appointments  in  Columbia  College 
for  more  than  fifty  years,  and,  in  his  literary  work,  devoted  him- 
self almost  exclusively  to  Greek  lexicography,  preparing  American 
editions  of  Liddell  and  Scott  (1851-2)  and  of  Yonge's  Englisb- 

'  BulUlin  v  (1901). 

'  Yale  Alumni  Weekly,  8  Jan.  1908,  36*.  364  f  (with  portrait  of  Prof. 
Seymour  in  his  study) ;  Prof.  Goodwin  in  The  Nation,  and  Prof.  J.  W. 
White's  Address;  cp.  Classical  Philology,  iii  (1908)  no.  1. 

'■'  Originally  a  German  physician,  who  served  in  the  British  Army  until 
1788,  and  then  married  a  French  wife  and  settled  in  New  York.  The  son 
was  at  first  headmaster  of  the  Grammar  School  attached  to  Ihe  Collie. 

*  Discourse,  N.  Y.  1868,  40  pp. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


CHAP.  XLI.]  DRISLER.      LEWIS.  467 

Greek  Lexicon  (1858).  The  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  is 
attested  by  the  volume  of  'Classical  Studies'  dedicated  to  him 
by  nearly  twenty  of  his  most  prominent  pupils^.  The  Greek 
Club  founded  by  him  in  1857  in  conjunction  with  Howard  Crosby 
{1826 — 1891),  not  for  writing  about  the  Classics,  but  for  reading 
them,  came  to  an  end  40  years  later.  Drislet  has  been  described 
by  a  former  member  of  this  club  as  'placid  and  imperturbable, 
curiously  non-perceptive  of  the  aesthetical  and  historical  side  of 
classic  letters';  and  Crosby  as  'charmer  of  souls,  vivacious  and 
earnest'.  One  of  the  fruits  of  this  club  was  Mr  Horace  White's 
'admirable  version  of  Appian". 

Tayler  I^ewis  (1802 — 1877),  of  Union  College  near  Albany, 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  the  New  York  university 
(1838-49),  and  then  returned  to  Union  College 
and  taught  Hebrew  as  well  as  Classics  for  the  remaining  twenty- 
eight  years  of  his  life.  In  Classics,  his  principal  work  was  an 
elaborate  edition  of  the  tenth  book  of  Plato's  Laws,  in  which 
special  attention  is  paid  to  the  philosophical  and  religious  bearings 
of  the  subject-matter'. 

Charlton  Thomas  Lewis  (1834 — 1904),  a  graduate  of  Yale,  who 
was  for  a  few  years  a  professor  of  Greek  at  Troy 
near  Albany,  produced  in  1879  a  new  and  revised 
edition  of  the  Latin  dictionary  {1850)  of  Dr  E.  A  Andrews 
(1787 — 1858),  another  graduate  of  Yale,  who  founded  his  work 
on  Wilhelm  Freund's  abridgement  (i834f)  of  Forcellini,  The 
part  including  all  the  words  beginning  with  the  letter  A  (216  pp.) 
was  the  work  of  Charles  Lancaster  Short  {i3zi-86),  professor  of 
Latin  in  Columbia  College,  New  York  (i868f)'.  'Lewis  and 
Short"  was  recognised  by  Nettleship  as  'a  real  advance  on  any 
previous  Latin-English  dictionary',  without  embodying  'much  of 

>  Classiral  Studies  in  hmour  of  Henry  £>risL-r  (UAcmiWax,,  N.  Y.,  1894). 
Cp.  AppUton's  Cyd.  ii  J31. 

"  Sihler  in  EveftiHg  Post,  N.  V,  j  Sept.  190J. 

'   1845;  Sihler,  51°;  E.  N.  Potter,  Discourse,  Albany,  1878;  porlrail  in 
Appleton. 

'Harvard  Q.  C,  uoder  184$;   MeiiioiT,  i8gi,  39  pp.;    NatiBnai  Cytl. 
vii  7. 

'  '  Harper's  Latin  Dictionary  '  (1879) ;  also  published  by  Clarendon  Press, 
Oxford  (1880). 

h.  i39r-t?.OOglc 


468  UNITED   STATES   OF  AMERICA.      [CENT.  XIX. 

the  results  of  modem  research".  In  extenuation  of  any  errors 
and  defects  that  have  been  noticed  in  this  useful  dictionary,  it 
is  fair  to  remember  that  it  was  mainly  the  work  of  a  busy  lawyer 
in  New  York,  who  was  only  able  to  devote  his  early  mornings  to 
the  completion  of  his  laborious  task'. 

The  professorship  of  Greek  Archaeology  and  Epigraphy  in 
Columbia  College  was  held  in  1889-94  by  Augustus 
Chapman  Merriam  (1843^1895),  who  was  on  the 
staff  for  nearly  twenty-seven  years.  He  edited,  with  notes  and 
illustrations,  'the  Phaeacian  episode  in  the  Odyssey'  (1880),  and 
was  director  of  the  American  School  at  Athens  in  1887-8.  His 
chief  enterprise  as  director  was  the  successful  exploration  of  the 
ancient  deme  of  Icaria,  the  home  of  Thespis  and  of  the  earliest 
Attic  drama.  He  was  the  first  scholar  in  the  United  States  to 
devote  himself  mainly  to  classical  archaeology.  It  was  during  his 
'sabbatical  year'  that  he  died  at  Athens,  early  in  1895'. 

New  York  was  the  scene  of  the  last  six  years  of  the  scholarly 
life  of  Mortimer  Lamson  Earie  (1864 — 1905),  in- 
structor in  Greek  at  Barnard  College  and  Bryn  Mawr, 
and  professor  of  Classical  Philology  at  Columbia  in  1899 — 1905. 
He  edited  the  Akesiis  and  Medea  (1894,  1904)  and  the  Oedipus 
Tyramius  (1901),  while  his  latest  work  was  an  elaborate  study  of 
the  composition  of  the  first  Book  of  Thucydides*.  He  spent  a 
year  at  the  American  School  in  Athens  (1887-8),  and  died  of  a 
fever  contracted  in  Sicily  after  a  summer  spent  in  Dalmatia, 
Greece  and  Crete". 

Among  the  Classical  Institutions  of  the  United  States  may  be 

menrioned  the  'American  Philological  Association', 

ciauicai         founded  in  New  York  in   1868,  which    publishes 

Proceedings  and  Transactions.  The  American  Journal 

of  Philology,  founded  at  Baltimore  in  1880,  has  been  ably  edited 

ever  since  by  Professor  Gildersleeve  (b.  1839),  whose  paper  on 

^  Acad,  xvii  199;  cp.  Mayor,  in  Comb,  Univ.  Reporter,  18  Ocl.  1879;  and 
Geoiges,  in  Buirsian's_/aAreji.  xxiii  393-8. 
*  Cp.  National  Cycl.  xi  61,  with  portrait. 
'  Seymour,  in  Bulletin,  v  39  ;  also  Report  for  1893-4,  p.  15  f. 
*A.J.P.  1905.  4<ff- 
'  E.  D.  Perry,  in  A.  /.  P.  1905,  454-S- 


A.oogic 


CHAP.  XL!.]      SCHOOLS   AT  ATHENS   AND   ROME.  469 

Oscillations  and  Nutations  of  Philological  Studies  is  an  interesting 
chapter  in  the  History  of  Scholarship'.  The  Harvard  Studies  in 
Classical  Philology  have  been  published  annually  since  1890,  and 
similar  volumes  have  been  published  from  time  to  time  in 
connexion  with  Cornell  and  Columbia  and  the  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Two  new  periodicals,  77ie  Classical  Journal  and 
Classical  Philology,  were  started  at  Chicago  in  1906, 

The  first  American  to  study  in  Greece  (1851  f)  was  Henry 
M.  Baird,  the  author  of  Modern  Greece  (1856).  The  brief  visits 
of  Felton  and  others  were  followed  in  i860  by  a  longer  stay  on 
the  part  of  J.  C,  van  Benschoten  of  the  Wesleyan  university 
(d.  1902),  the  first  American  to  lecture  on  Pausanias.  The 
Archaeolc^cal  Institute  of  America  {1879)'  has  founded  the 
American  Schools  of  Classical  Studies  at  Athens      _     ... 

The  Schools 

(1881)  and  at  Rome  (1895),  and  Papers  are  at  Athens 
published  by  both'.  The  chief  excavations  of  the  ""'  """" 
School  at  Athens  have  been  those  of  the  Argive  Heraeum  and 
Corinth ;  the  School  has  also  excavated  the  ancient  theatres  at 
Thoricus,  Sicyon,  and  Eretria ;  has  published  the  Inscriptions  of 
Assos  and  Tialleis  and  of  other  parts  of  Asia  Minor;  and, 
finally,  has  investigated  the  Attic  deme  of  Icaria  and  the  grotto 
of  Vari,  the  remains  of  the  Pnyx  and  the  Theatre  of  Dionysus,  the 
Erechtheion  and  the  Olympieion,  the  Metopes  of  the  Parthenon 
and  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  and  the  historic  scenes 
of  the  battles  of  Plataea  and  Salamis*.  The  first  director  of  the 
School,  Professor  Goodwin,  prepared  in  1882-3  *"  important 
paper  on  the  Patlle  of  Salamis,  published  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  Papers  of  the  School^,  and,  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  a 
quarter  of  a  century,  he  has  '  fought '  his  battle  '  o'er  again '  in 
the  latest  volume  of  the  Harvard  Studies  (1906). 

'  Jakns  HopMns  Untvcrsily  Circulars,  no.  150,  March,  ipor,  13  pp.  Cp. 
^././■.xxviii  (1907)  113. 

^  Index  to  publications  1879-89  by  W.  S.  Merrill  (1891).  Since  1885  its 
principal  organ  has  been  the  American  JottmcU  of  Anhaeology. 

*  Conspectus  in  last  three  pages  of  ButUtin  v. 

'  See  Seymour's  '  First  Twenty  Years  '  of  the  School,  in  Bulletin  v  (1901) 
7 — 49,  with  'Head  of  Hera',  and  'Theatre  at  Sicyon';  also  letrospect  of 
first  twelve  years,  by  J.  W.  White,  in  Bulletin  iv. 

»  See  also  Refort  in  BuUetin  i  (1883). 


,l^.OO' 


gic 


47°  UNITED   STATES  OF   AMERICA.      [CENT.  XIX. 

An  increasing  sense  of  the  importance  of  Latin  as  an  essential 
element  in  secondary  education  has  been  noticed  by  those  who 
are  familiar  with  the  recent  history  of  the  United  States.  The 
statistics  of  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  show  that 
'the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  is  advancing  by  leaps  and  bounds'. 
In  1898,  half  the  scholars  in  the  secondar)'  schools  were  learning 
Latin,  and  the  number  then  learning  Latin  was  more  than  three 
times,  that  of  those  learning  Greek  nearly  twice  as  many  as  in 
1890'.  In  the  American  universities,  the  piosition  of  Greek  as 
an  '  elective '  or  '  optional '  subject  is  regarded  with  approval  by 
some  eminent  authorities',  and  with  regret  by  others'.  Mean- 
while, the  School  at  Athens  has  had  a  most  salutary  effect  on  the 
stalT  of  all  the  American  educational  institutions  that  have  con- 
tributed to  its  original  existence  and  to  its  continued  prosperity*. 
Moreover,  it  is  owing  in  no  small  measure  to  the  far-reaching 
influence  of  the  School,  that  the  voices  of  the  old  Hellenic  art 
and  archaeology,  the  old  Hellenic  history  and  literature,  voices 
no  longer  'mute'  among  the  modern  Greeks,  have  found  an  echo 
'  further  west 
Than'  Iheir  'sires'  "Islands  of  the  Blest'". 

'  Statistics  quoted  in  G.  G.  Ramsay's  Address  on  Efficieniy  in  Education, 
Gla^ow  (1901,  ed.  i),  17  f.     See  Trans.  Amer.  Phil.  Aaec.  (1899)  p.  cxvii. 

'  Eliot  and  Goodwin,  in  Birkbeck  Hill's  Harvard  College,  117  f,  144. 

'  e.g.  Prof.  Seymour,  in  the  letter  to  L.  Dyer,  printed  in  Cambridge 
Review,  13  Feb.  1905,  ii6r.  Cp.  H.  B.  Gray  in  Reports  of  Mostly  Com- 
miuion,  London,  1904,  170;  also  Sihler  in  Evening  Post,  N.  Y.  7  Sept.  1907. 

*  J.  W.White,  in  5«/iWiniv8f;  and  Seymour,  in  Bulletin  y  ji  f. 


Medallion  of  the  American  School  of  Ci-AssrcAi,  Sri 
AT  Athens  {i88r). 
Panathenaic  Vase,  with  olive-wrealh   and   inscription,  irop*^«u  ^ 
Aesch.  Eum.  1000. 


OgIC 


CHAP.  XLI.]      RETROSPECT,   594  B.C.   TO   529  A.D.  471 


The   Panathenaic  vase  on  the  medallion  of  the  American 
School  at  Athens  marks  the  close  of  our  survey 
of  the  two  thousand  five  hundred  years  which  began 
with  the  recitation  of  the  Homeric  poems   at  the  Panathenaic 
festivals  of  the  age  of  Solon.     In  the  course  of  that 
survey  we  have  briefly  reviewed  the  history  of  the 
early  study  of  epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic  poetry,  the  rise  of  rhetoric, 
and  the  beginnings  of  grammar  and  etymology,  in  the  Athenian 
age.     From  Athens  we  have  turned  to  Alexandria 
with  its  learned  librarians,  and  its  scholarly  critics      Aiexandnan 
of  Homer  and  of  other  ancient  poets.     From  Alex- 
andria we  have  passed  to  Pergamon,  and  have  taken  note  of  the 
grammar  of  the  Stoics,  and  of  the  influence  of  Pergamon  on  the 
libraries  and  on  the  literary  studies  of  Rome.     In  the  Roman  age 
we  have  traced,  in  Latin  literature,  the  influence 
of  the  Greek  Classics  and  the  Greek  critics  and 
grammarians.     In  Greek  literature,  we  have  surveyed  the  literary 
criticism  and  the  verbal  scholarship  of  the  first  century  of  the 
Empire,  the  literary  revival  at  the  close  of  that  century,  the 
grammar  and  lexicography  of  the  second  century,  the  rhetoric  of 
the  second  and  third,  and  the  rise  of  Neo-Platonism.     At  the 
end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  fourth  century  we  have  seen  Con- 
stantinople come  into  being  as  a  new  centre  of  Greek  learning, 
while,  in  the  same  century,  Demosthenes  was  beii^  studied  in  the 
school  of  Antioch,  and  Homer  imitated  by  a  poet  of  Smyrna.    We 
have  witnessed  the  end  of  the  Roman  age  in  529  a.d., — the 
memorable  year  in  which  the  school  of  Athens  was  closed  by 
Justinian   in  the   East,  and  the   monastery  of  Monte  Cassino 
founded  by  St  Benedict  in  the  West. 

We  have  since  traversed  the  eight  centuries  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Beginning  with  the  East,  we  have  noticed 
in  detail  the  important  services  rendered  by  Byzan- 
tine scholars  in  the  careful  preservation  and  the  studious 
interpretation  of  the  Greek  Classics.  Turning  to  the  West,  we 
have  seen  in  the  monks  of  Ireland  the  fosterers  of  the  Greek 
language,  and  the  founders  of  the  monasteries  of  Bobbio  and 
St  Gallen.  We  have  watched  the  revival  of  classical  learning  in 
the  age  of  Charles  the  Great;  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century, 

,^.oogic 


Middle  Agea 


472  THE   MIDDLE   AGES,   529  TO    1321  A.D. 

we  have  marked  the  keen  interest  in  the  Latin  Classics  displayed 
by  Servatus  Lupus,  the  abbot  of  Ferri^res,  and,  near  its  close,  we 
have  hailed  'our  first  translator'  in  the  person  of  king  Alfred.  In 
the  tenth  century  we  have  seen  learning  flourishing  anew  in  the 
ancient  capital  of  Aachen,  and  have  elsewhere  found  in  Gerbert  of 
Aurillac  the  foremost  scholar  of  his  generation.  We  have  identified 
the  tenth  and  the  eleventh  centuries  as  the  golden  age  of  St  Gallen. 
We  have  marked  the  rise  of  the  age-long  conflict  between 
Realism  and  Nominalism  in  the  twelfth  century,  the  century  in 
which  the  school  of  Paris  was  represented  hy  Abelard  and  that  of 
Chartres  by  the  preceptors  of  John  of  Salisbury.  The  thirteenth 
century  was  (we  may  remember)  made  memorable  by  'the  new 
Aristotle',  by  the  great  schoolmen,  Albertus  Magnus  and  Thomas 
Aquinas,  by  translators  such  as  William  of  Moerbeke,  by  Roger 
Bacon  and  Duns  Scotus  and  William  of  Ockhani,  and  finally  by 
Dante,  the  date  of  whose  great  poem  marks  the  close  of  the 
century,  while  the  date  of  his  death  may  well  be  r^arded  as  the 
end  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Lastly,  we  have  traced  the  survival  of 
each  of  the  Latin  Classics  in  the  age  beginning  with  the  close 
of  the  Roman  i^e  in  529  and  ending  with  the  death  of  Dante  in 
1321- 

Our  second  volume  has  begun  with  the  Revival  of  Learning. 

In  its  opening  pages  we  have  found  in  Petrarch 
LesminK         'the  first  of  modern  men',  and  the  discoverer  of 

Cicero's  Letters  to  Atticus;  in  Boccaccio,  the  first 
'''^odof"  student  of  Greek,  and  in  Chrysoloras,  the  first 
classical         public    professor    of    that    language    in    Western 

Europe.  We  have  watched  the  recovery  of  the 
Latin  Classics  by  Poggio  and  his  contemporaries,  and  that  of  the 
Greek  Classics  by  Italian  travellers  in  the  East  and  by  Greeks 
who  fled  for  refuge  to  Italy,  even  before  the  fall  of  Constantinople. 
We  have  recorded  the  rise  of  the  study  of  classical  archaeology, 
the  foundation  of  the  Academies  of  Florence,  Naples,  Rome  and 
Venice,  and  the  publication  of  the  editiones  principes  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Classics  by  Aldus  Manutius,  and  by  other  scholarly 
printers  in  Italy,  We  have  seen  the  'golden  s^e'  of  Leo  X 
followed,  under  another  Medicean  Pope,  by  the  sack  of  Rome  in 
1527,  an  event  which  marks  the  close  of  the  Italian  Revival  of 
„.,,n,^.OOglC 


CHAP.  XL!.]       THE   REVIVAL  OF   LEARNING.  473 

Learning.  In  the  Italian  ^e  of  scholarship  the  chief  aim  (as  we 
have  noticed)  has  been  the  imitation  of  classical  models  of  style 
and  of  life. 

An  important  link  between  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  Italy 
and  its  diffusion  in  Europe  has  been  found  in  the 
widely  extended    influence   of   the    cosmopoHtan 
scholar,  Erasmus.     The  sixteenth  century  in  Italy      century  xvi, 
includes  the  names  of  Victorius  and  Robortelli,  of 
Sigonius  and  Muretus;  it  is  marked  by  a  special  '""' 

interest  in  Aristotle's  treatise  On  the  Art  of  Pottry,  and  also  by 
the  eager  study  of  classical  archaeology.     Italy  has  .^ 

points  of  contact  with  Spain  in  the  persons  of  An- 
tonio of  Lebrixa  and  Agostino  of  Saragossa,  and         **<"*"■ 
with  Portugal  in  that  of  Achilles  Statius.     Greek         Franc* 
learning,  as  we  have  seen,   was  transmitted  from 
Italy  to   France    by  Gregorius    Tifernas,  by  John       The  French 
Lascaris  and  by  Jerome  Aleander.     The  French  *" 

period  of  classical  learning,  with  its  many-sided  erudition,  begins 
with  Budaeus,  the  inspirer  of  the  foundation  of  the  College  de 
France.  Budaeus  is  soon  followed  by  the  printer-scholars  Robert 
and  Henri  Estienne,  the  authors  of  the  great  Thesauri  of  Latin 
and  of  Greek.  The  elder  Scaliger,  an  immigrant  from  Italy,  is 
succeeded  by  Lambinus,  by  the  younger  and  greater  Scaliger,  and 
by  Casaubon. 

In  the  Netherlands  the  influence  of  Erasmus  is  best  seen  in 
his  fostering  of  the  Collegium  Trilingue  of  Louvain. 
In  the  period  between  1400  and  the  foundation  of 
the  university  of  Leyden  in  1575,  the  interests  of  education  are 
well  represented  by  Vivfes,  those  of  Greek  scholarship  by  Canter 
who  died  in  1575,  and  those  of  Latin  by  Lipsius,  who  lived  on  to 
1606.     In  England  the  fifteenth  century  is  marked 
by  the  visits  of  Poggio  and  Aeneas  Sylvius,  and  by 
the  early  renaissance  which  had  its  source  in  the  Latin  teaching 
of  Guarino  at  Ferrara.     In  the  same  century  the  study  of  Greek 
was  begun  by  the  Benedictine  monk,  William  of  Selling,  and  was 
continued  by  his  nephew,  Linacre,  and  by  Grocyn,  and,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  by  Sir  John  Cheke  and  his  contemporaries.    In 
Scotland,  during  the  same  century,  the  foremost  name  in  scholar- 

„.,,„,  ^.OOgK 


474  THE   XVIITH   AND   XVIIITH   CENTURIES. 

ship  was  that  of  Buchanan.     The  spread  of  learning  in  Germany 
is  associated  with  the  names  of  Agricola  and  Reuch- 
lin,  followed  by  those  of  able  and  industrious  pre- 
ceptors such  as  Melanchthon  and  Camerarius  and  Sturm,  and  by 
erudite  editors  such  as  Xylander  and  Sylburg. 

The  seventeenth  century  in  Italy  has  proved  to  be  mainly  an 

Century  XVII      ^^  ^^  archaeologists  and  of  imitators  of  the  Latin 

Italy  poets.     In  France  its  greatest  names  are  Salmasius, 

France  Y)a    Cangc,    and    Mabillon.     In   the   Netherlands 

Netherlands       Lipsius    was    Succeeded    in    1593    by    Scaliger   at 

Leyden,  which  was  also  the  principal  scene  of  the  labours  of 

Salmasius.     In  the  period  between  T575  and  1700,  the  natives  of 

the  Netherlands  included  Gerard  Vossius  and  Meursius,  the  elder 

and  the  younger  Heinsius,  with  Gronovius,  Graevius,  and  Peri- 

zonius.     In  the  seventeenth  century  in  England  we 

have  had  Savile  and  Gataker  and  Selden,  with  the 

Cambridge  Platonists,  and  the  scholarly  poets,  Milton  and  Cowley 

and  Dryden.     Towards  its  close  we  have  seen  the  stars  of  Dodwell 

and  of  Barnes  beginning  to  grow  pale  before  the  rising  of  the  sun  of 

Bentley.    In  the  same  century  in  Germany  we  have  a 

link  with  England  and  the  Netherlands  in  the  name 

of  Gruter,  while  erudition  was  well  represented  by  the  Polykisior 

of  Morhof. "  A  school  of  Roman  history  flourished  at  Strassbui^. 

Improved  text-books  are  associated  with  the  name  of  Cellarius, 

and  we  have  points  of  contact  with  several  of  the  countries  of 

Europe  in  the  cosmopolitan  Spanheim, 

The  eighteenth  century  in  Italy  is  marked,  in  Latin  lexico- 

Century         Si^p'*)''  ^^  '^^  great  name  of  Forcellini;  in  Greek 

XVIII,  chronology,  by  Corsini,  and,  in  Italian  history,  by 

Italy  Muratori,     France  claims  Montfaucon  and  a  long 

array  of  learned  archaeologists,  while  a  knowledge  of 

Prance  ^^  ^j^  Greek  world  was  popularised  by  Barth^lemy. 

Alsace  was  the   home  of  able  scholars,   such  as  Brunck  and 

Schweighauser.     The  century  closes  with  Villoison,  whose  publi- 

Eo  land        cation  of  the  Venetian  Scholia  to  the  Iliad  led  to 

the  opening  of  a  new  era  in  Homeric  controversy. 

and  Dutch       In  England,  in  the  first  half  of  the  century,  our 

*""  greatest  name  is  that  of  Bentley,  and  in  the  second 

h.  1.  iiA.OOgIc 


CHAP.  XLI.]    THE   XVIHTH   AND   XIXTH   CENTURIES.      475 

that  of  Porson.     It  is  the  age  of  historical  and  literary,  as  well  as 
verbal,  criticism. 

In  the  Netherlands,  the  native  land  of  the  learned  Latinists, 
Burman  and  Drakenborch,  it  was  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Bentley  that  Hemsterhuys  attained  his 
mastery  of  Greek.  Hemsterhuys  handed  on  the  tradition  to 
Valckenaer  and  to  Ruhnken,  who  in  his  turn  was  succeeded  by 
Wyttenbach.  The  friendly  relations  between  the  English  and 
Dutch  scholars  of  this  age  have  led  to  the  eighteenth  century 
being  r^arded  as  the  English  and  Dutch  period  of  scholarship. 

Meanwhile,  Germany  is  represented  by  the  learned  Fabricius, 
by  the  lexicographers  Gesner,  Scheller  and  J.  G. 
Schneider,  by  the  I^tin  scholar  Ernesti,  and  the 
self-taught  Greek  scholar  Reiske.  An  intelligent  interest  in  the 
history  and  criticism  of  ancient  art  is  awakened  by  Winckelmann 
and  Lessing ;  Herder  becomes  one  of  the  harbingers  of  the  New 
Humanism ;  and  a  new  era  in  classical  learning  is  opened  by 
Heyne  at  Gottingen. 

Late  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  Homeric  controversy  is 
raised  anew  by  F.  A.  Wolf,  and  is  carried  on  with  varyii^  fortunes 
during  the  whole  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  whole  of  that  century  belongs  to  the  German  period, 
which  is  characterised  by  the  systematic  or  encydofaedic  type  of 
classical  learning  embodied  in  the  term  Allerlhumswissenschafi. 

The  early  part  of  the  century  is  the  age  of  Wolf's  contempora- 
ries, Voss  and  Jacobs,  Humboldt  and  the  Schlegels ;     cenwry  xix 
of  Heeren  and  Niebuhr,  Schleiermacher  and  Hein- 
dorf,  Buttmann  and  Bekker.  After  the  death  of  Wolf        <5e""«ny 
two  rival  schools  of  classical  learning  confront  one      The  GennBn 
another  in  the  grammatical  and  critical  school  of         **" 
Hermann,  and  the  historical  and  antiquarian  school  of  Boeckh. 
The  school  and  the  traditions  of  Hermann  are  represented  by 
Lobeck,  Passow,  Meineke,  Lachmann,  Lehrs,  Spengel,  RitschI, 
Halm,  Sauppe,  Nauck,  Ribbeck,  and  Blass.    The  school  of  Boeckh, 
who  had  been  preceded  by  Niebuhr  and  had  Welcker  for  his 
great  contemporary,  is  ably  represented  by  his  pupils  K.  O.  Miiller 
and  Bernhardy-     Among  independent    scholars  with   a   certain 
affinity  with  this  school  are  the  archaeologists,  Jahn  (a  pupil  of 
Hermann,  as  well  as  of  Boeckh),  and  Brunn  and  Furtwanzler  i 


476  THE   XIXTH   CENTURY. 

the  historians,  Curtius  and  Mommsen ;  the  geographers,  Kiepert 

and  Butsian ;  mythologists  such  as  Preller ;  students  of  ancient 

music  such  as  Westphal ;  investigators  of  ancient  religions  such  as 

Usener  and  Rohde.     In  the  Science  of  Language  the  principal 

names    include    Bopp   and    Benfey,   Corssen  and  G.   Curtius, 

Schleicher  and  Steinthal,   and  the  'New  Grammarians'  of  the 

present  generation.     In  France  the  foremost  names 

have  been  those  of  Boissonade  and   Quicherat, 

E^er  and  Thurot,  Riemann  and  Graux,  together  with  a  long  line 

of  geographers,  historians  and  archaeologists,  whose  work  has 

been  largely  inspired  by  the  French  School  of  Athens.     Classical 

archaeology  has  in  fact  proved  the  main  strength,  and  the  very 

Holland         salvation  of  French  scholarship.     In  Holland,  the 

Beidiun         greatest  name  has  been  that  of  Cobet,  while  Senium 

Scandinavia      '^  ^^^  represented  by  Thonissen  and  Willems,  the 

Scandinavian  nations  by  Madvig,  Greece  by  Koraes, 

Russia   by  a  group  of  scholars    beginning  with 

Graefe  and  ending  with   lemstedt,  and  Hungary 

by  Telfy  and  Abel.     In  England   the    beginning 

"^'"  and  the  end  of  the  century  have  been  marked  at 

Cambridge  by  the  names  of  Porson  and  Jebb,  at  Oxford  by 

those  of  Elmsley  and  Monro,  while  the  outer  world  claims  the 

great   name  of  Grote.     In   the  United  States  of 

"or'Ameriia"    America  Latin  was  well  represented  by  Lane  and  by 

others  at  Harvard,  and  Greek  at  Yale  by  Seymour, 

whose  latest  publicarion  dealt  with  the  earliest  possible  theme  of 

classical  study,  Ztfe  in  the  Homeric  Age.    The  present  work  began 

with  the  study  of  Homer,  and  with  the  study  of  Homer  it  ends. 

The  great  classical  authors  live  for  ever,  but  they  are  interpreted 

anew  by  the  scholars  of  each  succeeding  generation.     In  our  own 

times,  the  Homeric  controversy  has  proved  as  immortal  as  the 

Homeric  poems,  which,  in  the  language  of  an  English  critic, 

remain  unsurpassed  in  the  poetry  of  the  world  r — 

Read  Homer  once,  and  you  can  read  no  more; 

For  all  Books  else  appear  so  mean,  so  poor, 

Verse  will  seem  Prose;   but  still  persist  to  read, 

And  Homtr  will  be  all  the  Books  you  need'. 

'  John  Sheffield,   Duke  of  Buckingham,  An  Esiay  upon  Poetry  (1681), 
'«''"'•'"=■"'•■'"•  „    ,,n,I..OOglC 


ADDENDA. 

MuUum  nuper  amisimus.     Quint,  x  i  90. 

The  veteran  historian  of  Greek  philosophy,  Eduard  Zeller(i3i4 
— 1908),  a  native  of  Wurtemberg,  was  educated  at 
the  seminary  of  Maulbronn  and  at  the  universities 
of  Tiibingen  and  Berlin.  After  he  had  held  professorships  of 
Theol(^y  at  Bern  and  at  Marburg,  the  hberality  of  his  opinions 
led  to  his  being  transferred  to  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy,  and  he 
filled  a  professorship  in  that  Faculty  for  ten  years  at  Heidelbei^ 
(1862-72)  and  for  twenty-two  in  Berlin  (1872-94).  Even  in  his 
life-time  he  received  the  distinction  of  a  statue  outside  the  Bran- 
denburger  Thor,  the  counterpart  in  Berlin  of  the  Propylaea  at 
Athens.  The  evening  of  his  days  he  spent  at  Stuttgart,  the 
capital  of  the  land  that  gave  him  birth.  He  is  remembered  as 
the  author  of  the  standard  work  in  three  volumes  on  the  'Philo- 
sophy of  the  Greeks",  tt^ether  with  an  outline  of  that  subject 
in  a  single  volume'.  His  principal  work  was  preceded  by  his 
Platonische  Stttdien  (1839),  and  followed  by  his  annotated 
translation  of  Plato's  Symposium,  by  his  collected  Vortragt  and 
Abhandlungen',  and  by  a  volume  on  'Religion  and  Philosophy 
among  the  Romans'  (1866).  One  of  his  numerous  subsequent 
publications  on  questions  connected  with  the  history  of  Greek 
philosophy*  discusses  Dr  Henry  Jackson's  papers  on  Plato's 
earlier  and  later  theory  of  ideas ;  and  the  closing  words  of  the 
paper,  in  which  Dr  Jackson,  in  opposition  to  Bonitz  and  Zeller, 

>  1844-53;  vol.  i',   1903;  ii*.  1889;   iii*,   1901;  E.T.  in  6  vols.  (1868- 
97)-  '  1883;  1905'. 

"  jvolsi,  186s,  '75';  u, ':;[  iii,  '84. 

'  S.  Bcr.  Berlm  Acad.   1887,  197—230  (Bursian  Ixvii  43);  Ibt  in  Index 
to  Burslan's /<!  jrri J.  1873-95. 

h,  i.MiA.OO^IC 


4/8  ZELLER.      KIRCHHOFF. 

maintains  that  the  Phikbus  was  later  than  the  Republic,  may  serve 
as  an  appropriate  conclusion  to  this  brief  notice  of  the  historian 
of  Greek  philosophy: — 

'  As  I  have  found  myself  thioughout  in  antagooism  to  two  great  scholais 
who  are  honoured  wherever  Plato  is  studied,  it  seems  fitting  that  the  last  words 
of  this  paper  should  express  the  admiring  (^lilude  which  1  feel  toward 
Eduard  Zeller  and  Hermann  Bonilz". 

Berlin  was  the  life-long  home  of  the  classical  scholar  and 
epigraphist,  Adolf  KirchhofF  (1826 — 1908),  who 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  in  i860  and  a 
professor  five  years  later.  As  a  textual  critic  he  is  best  known  as 
an  editor  of  Aeschylus"  and  Euripides'  and  Plotinus*,  and  of  the 
PseudoXenophontic  treatise  on  the  constitution  of  Athens". 
The  Odyssey  he  regarded  as  the  work  of  three  poets  : — the  authors 
of  (i)  the  '  Return  of  Odysseus',  and  (z)  the  hero's  adventures  after 
his  return  to  Ithaca,  whose  '  older  redaction '  of  the  poem  (before 
800  B.C.)  was  completed  (about  600)  by  a  third  poet,  the  author 
of  the  adventures  of  Telemachus".  He  discussed  the  origin  of 
Hesiod's  Works  and  Days  in  connexion  with  a  critical  text  of 
that  poem'.  He  also  published  papers  on  the  date  of  the  history 
of  Herodotus',  on  the  text  of  Thucydides'  and  the  documents 
quoted  by  the  historian'",  and  on  the  redaction  of  the  De  Corona 
of  Demosthenes".  As  an  eminent  epigraphist,  he  was  associated 
with  Aufrecht  in  an  important  work  on  the  Umbrian  inscriptions 
(1849-5 ');  ^^  ^'^°  wrote  on  the  tabula  Bantina  {1853),  and  edited 
part  of  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Graecarum 
(1859),  and  the  whole  of  the  first  volume  of  the  Corpus  Inscrip- 
tionum  Atticarum  (1873).  His  'Studies  on  the  Greek  Alphabet' 
(1863)  attained  a  fourth  edition  in  1887". 

^  Journal  0/ Philology,  x  198  (18S1). 

'  1881  i  list  of  emendations  in  Bursian,  xxvi  5. 

=  1855;  1867-8.  *  i8s6.  '  1874;  1881. 

*  Die  Homerische  Odyssee  etc.,  1859,  1879  (Bursian,  xxvi  J70— 195) ;  Die 
Comfosiliaa  der  Odyssee,  1869  ;  Jehh's  Homir,  119 — 131. 

'  Hesiodo!^  Mahnliedir  an  Ferses  (1889).  '  1868  ;  1878. 

"  Hernits,  xii  {1877}  368—381.  "*  Berlin,  r895. 

"  Berlin  Abhandl.  (1875)  59-99. 

"  On  his  work  in  connexion  with  llie  Berlin  Academy,  see  Wilamowilz' 
Nachruf(i.^\. 

,^.oogic 


DITTENBERGER.      HARTEL.  479 

Another  eminent  epigraphist,  Wilhelm  Dittenberger  (1840 — 
1906),  who  began  his  career  at  Gottingen  with  a 
dissertation  De  Ephebis  AlUcis  (1863),  was  professor 
at  Halle  for  the  last  thirty-three  years  of  his  life.  In  the  Corpus 
Inserip/ionum  Altuarum,  he  edited  the  volume  containing  the 
inscriptions  of  the  Roman  age  (1878 — 8z),  and  in  the  Corpus 
Inscriptionum  Gratcarum  part  of  those  of  Northern  Greece  (1892 
-7),  while  his  comprehensive  Sylloge  of  select  inscriptions  (1883} 
attained  a  second  edition  in  1898^1901,  which  was  soon  followed 
by  his  selections  from  the  Greek  inscriptions  of  the  East  (1903-5). 
As  a  boy  at  Weimar  and  as  a  student  at  Gottingen,  he  had  been 
under  the  immediate  influence  of  Sauppe.  In  the  course  of  his 
preparation  of  no  less  than  eleven  editions  of  Kraner's  commen- 
tary, he  incidentally  became  a  specialist  on  Caesar,  De  Bella 
Gallko;  but  he  is  far  better  known  as  an  editor  of  important 
collections  of  Greek  inscriptions.  He  regarded  their  study,  not 
as  an  end  in  itself,  but  as  a  means  for  the  attainment  of  a  more 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  history  and  the  public  life  of  ancient 
Greece.  He  was  specially  interested  in  the  Politics,  as  well  as 
the  Metaphysics  and  De  Anima  of  Aristotle,  and  in  the  minute 
study  of  the  style  and  language  of  Aristotle  and  Plato.  His  paper 
on  the  linguistic  criteria  for  determining  the  chronology  of  the 
Platonic  dialogues'  was  followed  by  similar  investigations  on  the 
part  of  M.  Schanz,  C.  Ritter,  and  W.  Lutoslawski.  His  exami- 
nation of  the  speeches  ascribed  to  Antiphon  led  to  his  rejecting 
the  Tetralogies  on  legal  as  well  as  stylistic  grounds'. 

Greek  Epigraphy  was  one  of  the  branches  of  learning  ably 
represented  in  Austria  by  Wilhelm  von  Hartel 
{1839 — 1907)1  who  was  educated  in  Prag,  and  who 
studied  in  Vienna',  where  he  was  appointed  to  an  extraordinary 
professorship  in  i86g.  He  elaborately  examined  the  prosody  of 
the  Homeric  poems,  including  the  statistics  of  the  observance 
and  the  neglect  of  the  digamma*,  discussed  the  text  of  Theognis 

'  Hermes,  xvi  (iSSi),  3JI— 3+5- 

*  Hermes,  xitxif,  xl  (i896f,  1905),     See  esp.  Wissowa  in  Biogr.  /aArb. 
1908,  I— Si. 

'  Under  Bonilz  and  Vahlen. 

*  S.  Ber.  Vienna  Acad.  vols.  68,  76,  78  (1871-4).     In  his  earliest  papers 


ogic 


48o  furtwAngler. 

and  of  Phaedms',  and  summed  up  his  researches  on  the  consti- 
tutional customs  of  Athens  in  an  important  series  of  Studien  in 
1887-8*.  He  published  an  important  Greek  papyrus  in  the 
collection  acquired  by  the  Archduke  Rainer.  He  also  produced 
editions  of  Eutropius  and  of  Cyprian,  and  was  the  general  editor 
of  the  Vienna  series  of  the  Latin  Fathers,  As  Rector  of  his 
university  in  1890,  he  delivered  a  comprehensive  discourse  on 
the  problems  and  aims  of  the  study  of  classical  philolc^y*.  In 
1896  the  completion  of  his  35th  year  of  service  as  a  professor 
was  celebrated  by  the  publication  of  the  Serta  HarUliana,  with 
his  portrait  as  the  frontispiece.  During  the  last  five  of  those 
years  he  was  also  Director  of  the  Hqfbibliglhek,  and,  in  that 
capacity,  published  a  facsimile  of  the  Tabula  Peutingeriana.  He 
did  much  towards  promoting  the  union,  not  only  of  the  German 
Academies,  but  also  of  the  Academies  of  Europe ;  and,  towards 
the  close  of  his  life,  he  was  for  five  years  the  Austrian  Minister  of 
Education*. 

Classical  archaeolc^y  suffered  a  severe  loss  by  the  early  death 
of  Adolf  Furtwai^ler  (1853 — 1907),  who  had 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Freiburg  and  Leipzig, 
and  (under  Brunn)  in  Munich.  It  was  Bninn  who  impressed  him 
with  the  supreme  importance  of  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  the 
works  of  ancient  art,  and  thus  enabled  him  to  restore  the  traditions 
of  Winckelmann.  He  also  owed  much  to  the  influence  of  the 
Italian  art-critic,  Morelli.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
excavations  at  Olympia,  and,  after  a  brief  stay  at  Bonn,  was 
attached  in  1884  to  the  Museum  in  Berlin,  where  he  held  a 
professorship  until  he  was  called  in  1891  to  fill  the  Chair  vacated 
by  Brunn.  As  an  enthusiastic  and  stimulating  lecturer  he 
attracted  students  from  every  quarter  of  the  civiUsed  world.  He 
had  the  mastery  of  an  expert  in  the  departments  of  vases,  gems 

he  had  discussed  the  origin  of  the  Odyssey  {Ztitsckr.  fur  Oeslerr.  Gymn., 
1864-5). 

'   frw«»-i'/<(rf««,  1(1879),  vii  {1889). 

'  Studien  iibtr  altisckes  SCaalsrec&t  und  Urknndemvam ;  see  also  Demos- 
thenistht  Antrd^  in  Mommsen  Comm,  (i8;j),  518-36,  and  Dim.  SludUn  in 
S.  Bcr.  of  Vienna  Acad.  1877-8. 

*  Utbtr  Ait/gabeH  und  Ziele  der  kl.  Fhilalegie. 

*  See  esp.  Engelbrecht  in  Btegr.  fahrb.  1908,  75 — 107,  wilh  bibliography. 


X'OO' 


SIC 


BUCHELER.  481 

and  works  of  sculpture;  he  was  an  original  discoverer  in  the 
domain  of  numismatics ;  and  a  constructor  of  catalogues  that  bore 
the  stamp  of  his  own  genius.  He  found  in  Roman  copies  the 
materials  for  recovering  some  of  the  lost  master-pieces  of  Greek 
sculpture,  and,  finally,  he  was  admirably  successful  as  an  excavator. 
It  was  at  Munich  that  he  first  made  his  mark  as  the  author  of 
'Eros  in  vase-paintings'  (1874).  In  collaboration  with  Ldschcke, 
he  produced  two  important  works  on  Mycenaean  vases.  He  also 
published  masterly  catalogues  of  the  Berlin  vases,  the  antiques  in 
the  Sabouroff  and  Somzee  collections,  as  well  as  the  bronzes  of 
Olympia  and  the  marbles  of  Munich,  His  '  Masterpieces  of  Greek 
Sculpture'  {1893)  was  promptly  translated  into  English'.  The 
modem  knowledge  of  ancient  gems  rests  mainly  on  the  three  vast 
volumes  of  his  great  work  on  the  subject  (1900).  In  Greece  he 
explored  Aegina,  Orchomenos  and  Amyclae.  It  was  at  Amyclae 
that  he  caught  the  germs  of  the  malady  which  brought  him  to  an 
early  grave.  At  Aegina,  as  the  result  of  excavations  begun  in 
J901,  he  discovered  inscriptions  which  led  him  to  identify  the 
so-called  temple  of  Zeus  or  Athena  as  the  shrine  of  Aphaia,  a 
local  counterpart  of  Artemis.  He  also  discovered  fresh  fragments 
of  the  famous  pediments,  and  proposed  a  completely  new  arrange- 
ment of  the  figures  which  they  contained'.  His  exploration  of 
Aegina  was  the  theme  of  his  latest  work,  and  it  was  soon  after  his 
last  visit  to  that  island  that  he  met  his  end  in  Athens,  falling  on 
Greek  soil  as  a  martyr  (like  K,  O.  Muller  and  Charles  Lenormant) 
to  the  cause  of  classical  archaeology.  He  was  an  eager,  and  even 
passionate  controversialist;  his  great  discoveries  and  the  results 
of  his   stimulating   teaching  remain,   but  his    fighting  days  are 

'The  great,  the  fierce  Achilles  fighls  no  more''. 
Latin  scholarship  laments  the  loss  of  Franz  Biicheler  (1837— 
igo8),  a  student  of  Bonn,  who,  after  holding  pro- 
fessorships at  Freiburg  and  Greifswald,  was  pro- 
1  Ed.  E.  Sellers  {1895). 

"  Atgina,  das  Heiligtum  der  Aphaia,  1906  ;  cp.  CI.  Jfev.  xx  337  f. 
'   The    Times, ...Oc\.    1907;    see    esp.     Solomon    Reinach,    in   GaatU  dis 
Beaux-Arls,  SuppUment  ig  Oct.,  309  f ;  also  BuUe,  in  Beilage  to  AUgtmdm 
Zeilung,  Munich,  ij  Oct.;  Percy  Gardner,  in  CI.  Rev.  xxi  151  f;  Studniczka, 
in  Ntuijahrb,  1908  (i)  1 — 6,  with  portrait. 

S.    III.  -  n,i.ii,Jj.OOt^lC 


SCHWABE. 


fessor  in  his  first  university  for  the  last  38  years  of  his  life.  His 
editions  of  Frontinus,  On  Aqueducts,  and  of  the  Pervigilium 
Veneris,  were  followed  in  1862  by  the  first  of  his  critical  editions 
of  Petronius,  and  by  his  recensions  of  the  Homeric  Hymn  to 
Dtmeter  and  of  the  remains  of  Q.  Cicero  (1869).  His  brief 
monc^raph  on  the  Latin  Declensions  and  Conjugations  (1862), 
expanded  by  Havet  in  French  (1875),  "^  thence  re-edited  by 
Windekinde  In  German  {1879).  In  1886  and  1893  he  produced 
the  second  and  third  editions  of  Jahn's  Persius,  Juvenal  and 
Sutpicia;  in  1895  the  Carmina  Latina  Epigrapkica.  He  was 
also  a  specialist  in  the  dialects  of  ancient  Italy.  His  scattered 
researches  on  the  Iguvine  inscriptions  were  collected  and  com- 
pleted in  his  Umbrica  (1883),  and  Oscan  and  Pelignian  inscrip- 
tions were  repeatedly  elucidated  by  his  skill-  While  he  was 
mainly  a  I-atin  scholar,  Greek  was  ably  represented  in  the 
important  work  on  the  'Laws  of  Gortyn'^,  in  which  he  was  asso- 
ciated with  Zitelmann  (1885),  and  in  his  edition  of  Herondas 
(1892).  He  was  the  devoted  friend  of  his  distinguished  colleague 
Usener,  in  whose  memory  he  delivered  a  funeral  oration  in  1906. 
In  the  same  year,  the  'golden  jubilee' of  his  doctorate  was  cele- 
brated at  Bonn,  when  the  scholars  of  Europe  subscribed  in  his 
honour  more  than  8000  marks,  about  half  of  which  was  expended 
on  a  bronze  bust,  while  the  rest  was  devoted  by  Biicheler  himself 
to  forming  a  fund  for  encouraging  scholars  of  Bonn  to  take  part 
in  the  Latin  Thesaurus  and  also  in  the  proposed  Thesaurus  of 
Greek. 

Ludwig  von    Schwabe    (1835 — 1908),   who  studied  at    his 

birthplace,  Giessen,  and  also  at  Gbttingen,  held  a 
Schwabe  ,,.  ,  .         -,n 

professorship  at  the  former  university,  and,  after 

representing  classical  archaeology  for  a  time  at  Dorpat,  returned 

to  fill  the  Chair  of  Classical  Philology  at  Tubingen.     He  is  best 

known  for  his  work  on  Catullus, — his  Quaestiones  of  r862,  and 

his  edition  of  1886  which  includes  an  excellent  index.     It  was  in 

honour  of  the  philological  congress  at  Tiibingen  that  he  published 

'  Franz  Biichtier's  Co'Jines  Daktorjubildum,  reprint  from  Bonner  Zeilung, 
19  Apr.  1906  ;  photc^aph  of  bust  presented  to  all  subscribers  (c.  570).  See 
also  Usener,  in  Bonner  Zeitung,  15  Apr.  1895,  and  F.  Mam,  in  Neat  /ahrb. 
1908  (i)  358—364,  with  portrait.    Cp.  A.  /.  F.  jixix  147. 


,1^.00' 


gic 


BOISSIER.  483 

a  paper  on  Musaeus,  in  which  he  conclusively  proved  that  the 
author  of  Hero  and  Leander  was,  in  metre,  prosody,  accentuation 
and  phraseology,  an  imitator  of  Nonnus  {1876).  The  poem, 
which  the  elder  Scaliger  regarded  as  the  work  of  the  ancient 
Athenian  bard,  was  thus  finally  placed  among  the  latest  products 
of  Greek  literature. 

Brilliancy  of  style,  combined  with  a  sympathetic  insight  into 
Latin  literature  and  a  genuine  interest  in  Roman 
archaeology,  was  the  leading  characteristic  of 
Gaston  Boissier  (1823 — 1908).  Born  amid  the  memorials  of 
Roman  civilisation  at  NJmes,  he  became  a  classical  professor  in 
1847  at  his  native  place,  and  ten  years  later  in  Paris,  where  he 
rose  to  the  distinguished  position  of  professor  of  Latin  literature 
at  the  College  de  France  (1865),  and  Member  of  the  French 
Academy  and  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1876  and  1886 
respectively.  His  early  writings  on  Attius  and  Varro  (1857-61) 
were  surpassed  in  fame  by  those  on  Cicero's  Letters,  and  in 
particular  by  that  on  'Cicero  and  his  friends'  (1865,  1892'),  with 
its  accurate  and  life-like  portraits  of  the  orator  and  his  great 
contemporaries.  His  subsequent  works  dealt  with  'Roman  religion 
from  Augustus  to  the  Antonines  '  and  '  the  Opposition  under  the 
Caesars'  (1874-5).  His  work  on  Tacitus,  with  an  appendix  on 
Martial  (ed.  2, 1904),  was  exceeded  in  importance  by  his  admirable 
volumes  entitled  La  Fin  du  Paganisme  (1891).  As  a  felicitous 
restorer  of  the  old  Roman  world,  he  attained  the  highest  dt^ree 
of  success  in  his  Promenades  archeoiogi^es  on  Rome  and  Pompeii 
{1880),  followed  by  Horace  and  Virgil  (1886),  and  L'A/ri^ue 
Romaine  (1895)'.  The  present  writer  vividly  remembers  being 
part  of  the  lai^e  audience  at  the  College  de  France,  during  one 
of  Boissier's  lectures  on  the  Letters  of  St  Augustine,  and  also 
being  accompanied  by  the  Nouvelles  Promenades  during  a  solitary 
ramble  near  the  site  of  Horace's  Sabine  farm  in  the  valley  of  the 
Digentia. 

Greek  literature  was  well  represented  by  Amedde  Hauvette 
(1856 — 1908),   in   his   early  days  a  skilful   writer   of   original 

'  Cp.  La  Grande  Encycl.  £.v. ;  Athenarum,  13  June,  1908 ;  uid  Salomon 
Reinach,  in  Revue  arMolcgiqtte,  Mai — Juin.  The  Milanges  Boissier  jwilh  a 
porlrait)  were  published  in  his  honour  ia  1903. 


|.,*n,V.^OOglc 


484  HAUVETTE. 

Latin  verse,  who  entered  the  School  of  Athens  in  1878,  visited 
Ionia  and  Caria,  I.«sbos  and  Cos,  and  took  part 
in  the  archaeological  exploration  of  Delos.  He 
was  the  first  to  write  a  paper  on  the  small  copy  of  the  Athena 
Parthenos  discovered  near  the  Varvakeion'.  In  1885  he  published 
his  valuable  constitutional  treatises  on  the  Athenian  Stralegi*  and 
on  the  King-Archon.  The  literature  of  Greece  was,  however,  the 
main  theme  of  his  lectures  in  Paris.  A  second  visit  to  Hellenic 
lands  was  followed  by  his  attractive  volume  on  'Herodotus,  as 
the  historian  of  the  Medic  wars'.  He  also  published  learned  and 
interesting  monographs  on  Simonides,  Archilochus,  and  Callima- 
chus,  which  can  be  studied  with  advantage  by  the  side  of  the 
comprehensive  volumes  on  Greek  Literature  by  the  brothers 
Croiset*. 

We  turn  in  conclusion  to  our  latest  loss  in  our  own  land. 
Walter  Geoige  Headlam,  of  Harrow  and  of  King's 
i^^i™        College,    Cambridge     {1866—1908),    gave    early 
promise  of  his  distinction  as  a  composer  of  Greek 
verse.     As  Fellow  and  Lecturer  of  King's,  he  devoted  not  a  few 
years  of  his  brief  life  to  emending  and  translating  Aeschylus,  and 
a  brilliant  passage  from  this  translation  was  quoted  in  his  memor- 
able praelection  of  January,    1906,     He   also   collected  a  large 
mass  of  materials  for  the  illustration  of  the  Mimes  of  Herondas. 
On  the  death  of  Sir  Richard  Jebb,  he  was  entrusted  with  the 
revision  and  completion  of  that  scholar's  edition  of  the  Fragments 
of  Sophocles.     His  aptitude  for  emendation  was  exercised  from 
time  to  time  on  the  text  of  Greek  authors  of  all  ages,  whether 
writers  of  prose  or  of  verse*.     He    had    a    special  gift  for  the 
elucidation  of  Greek  lyrical  metres,  while  his  volume  of  verse- 
translations  from    Greek  into   English,  and  from  English  into 
Greek,  gave  signal  proof  of  his  exquisite  taste  as  a  sympathetic 
interpreter  and  a  felicitous  imitator  of  the  Greek  poets'.     Only 
'  S.  C.H.  V  54 — 63.  °  Biil.  del  &coles fratifoisis.  no.  41. 

•  S.  Reinach  in  Rev.  Arck.  1908,  181-4 ;  cp.  Rev.  Int.  de  I'Emeignement, 
170  f,  and  Rev.  des  £tudes  grecques,  i — u. 

•  Jffumai  of  Philology,  xx  194  f,  xxi  75  f,  xxiii  a6o  f,  xxvi  133,  xxx  190  f ; 
Class.  Rev.  xiil  3  f,  etc. ;  Restorations  of  Menander  {190S). 

'  A  Book  of  Greek  f<wj-f  (1907);  cp.  Mileager  {igoo)  and  contributions  lo 
Cambridge  Compositions  (1899). 

„.,,n,^.OOglC 


HEADLAM.  485 

nine  days  before  his  death,  he  had  the  pleasure  of  meeting 
Wilamowitz,  who,  in  the  course  of  his  brief  visit  to  Cambridge, 
said  of  some  of  Walter  Readlam's  Greek  verses  that,  if  they  had 
been  discovered  in  an  Egyptian  papyrus,  they  would  imme- 
diately have  been  recognised  by  all  scholars  as  true  (ireek  poetry^. 
Many  of  his  happiest  renderings  were  inspired  by  the  poets  of  the 
Greek  Anthology,  In  the  words  of  one  of  those  poets,  we  may 
say  of  him,  as  of  few  besides,  that,  so  long  as  he  survived  the 
Cambridge  composer  of  the  Pindaric  ode  to  Bologna',  some 
echoes  of  the  old  Greek  music  could  still  be  heard : — 

'  Some  litlle  spark  of  ancient  song, 
Some  fragment  still 
Was  left  ns,  lingering  in  thy  soul 
And  in  thy  sltili'". 


'  ne  Time!,  n  June,  1908 ;  cp.  Alhenaeum,  June  17. 
'  p.  414  ^«pra- 

'  A  Book  of  Greek  Verse,  147,  from  Leontiui  in  Atilk.  Pal.  vii  {Epigra 
mala  Sepukralid)  571, 


iM,Googlc 


AbboH,  Evelyn,  441 

Abeken,  (l)  Bernard  Rudolf  (1780- 

1S66),     149,     171;    (1)    Wilhelm 

(1813-43),      »'9;      (3)      Heinrich 

(rSog-?!),  i"? 
Abet,  Eugen,  391 
Jbo,  univ.,  334,  388 
About,  Edmond,  167 
Academy,  Berlin,  i  f,  98,  ^37,  478 ; 

British,  441;  Brussels,  293/,  195  f, 

304,  306;  French,  171;  Italian,  344; 

Mantua,  154;  St  Petersburg,  149  f; 

union  of  Academies,  480 
Accent,    Greek,    41 1,    4*8 ;     Latin, 

I4ir;  accentuation,   19 
Achilles  Tatius,  Jacobs  (i8ii),  64; 

in  Hirschig's  Scr.  Eret.  (1856) 
Adam,  James,  4i6f 
Adams,  Francis,  436 
Addison,  on  Mednh,  16  ;  ii  410 
Aegina,    K.    O.    Mtlller    on,     113; 

FurtwSngler,  481 
Aelian  (Q.  Aelianus) ;  Hercher  (1858, 

'64),  186  ;  De  Animalium  Nattira, 

J.  G.  Schneider  (1784),  11  \  Jacobs 

(1831),    64;     Var,    Hist.    Koraes 

(1 80s).  36^ 
Aelianus  Tacticus,  in  Kochly-RUstow  s 

^fr.r^-m//.,  Ili{i8sS) 
Aeneas  Poliorceticus,  Hercher(i87o), 

186;  Hug  ('74),  160 
Aeschines,  Keiske  in  Or.  Gr.  (1771), 

17;  Bekiier,  Dobson,  Baiter- Sauppe, 

Or.    All.;    Bremi    (i8j3f),    164; 

Fianke   (1891,  '73),   169;   Schulti 

('6s);  Weidnet  ('71) ;  Blass  ('96); 

/n  Cits.  Simcox  ('75),  4S4,  Weidoet 

(•78),  Shuckbutgh  JV) ;  Germ.  tr. 

Benseler,   168:  Scholia,   14s,  167, 

IT) 
Aeschylus,  Laur.  MS,  Merkel  (1871), 
194,  facsimile  (1896);  ed.  Schiitz 
(1800,   i8o9-i2'),  45;  S.  Butler 


(1809-15),  398  ;  Wellauer  ('33  f), 
115;  Scholefield('i8),40i;  Paley 
(1844-51  etc.),  409;  Hermann 
('5»)-  91.  135;  Weil  (1858-67, 
'85,  1907),  158;  Kirchhofr(i88o); 
Wecklein  (1885) 

Pnm.,  Stptem,  Ptrsae,  Agam., 
Chiieph.  Blomiield  (1810-14), 
400;  Agam.,  Che/pi.,  Etim. 
Wecklein  (1888);  Wilamowiti: 
(i88s-r90i);  Verrall  (1880- 
1908)-,  Agam.,  Choeph.  Peile 
(1839),  405;  Conington,  411  f, 
Agam.  NSgelsbach,  106,  Schnei- 
de  win ,  1 1 1 ,  Karsten.  i8i,Kennedy, 
403iCAiv>i.,£uin.MUlter(i833), 
114;  Schomaiin,  106;  Persae, 
Oberdick,  154,  Merkel,  194, 
Tenflel- Wecklein ;  Promelhtut, 
Schomaon  {r844),  166)  Week- 
\e\-a\Scplem,  Rilschl(i876'),  141, 
Verrall,  Tucker;  Su^.  Ober- 
dick,   154,  Tucker 

Halm  on,  196;  M.  Schmilz,  153; 
Rauchenstein  on  Agam.,  Bum. 
165;  Goethe  and  Bum.  69  f; 
Welcker,  117,  and  Martin,  357, 
on  Aeschylean  tril(»y ;  Passow 
on  Pcrsat,  115;  Koechly  aa 
Prom.  131;  simile  of  'struck 
eagle',  149 

Engl.  tr.  PI  umpire,  Swanwick, 
Morshead,Campbell;/'r0m.  414; 
Webster;  Sufpl.  Paul;  Fr.  tr, 
161 ;  Germ.  tr.  330,  Agam,  68, 
71;  Srpl.  73!  Oratcia,  Wilamo- 
witzj  mod.  Gk,  Pram.  375. 
La.  AachyUttm,  Wellauer  ( 1 830) , 
I>indorf(l873),  Msf 
Aesop,  ed.  Koraes  (iS  10),  j6i ;  Halm 

(1874).    196;    new    version,    354; 

Latin  Ir.  11  \  facsimile  of  illustrated 

Ademar-MS  (L.  B.) 


,1^.00' 


gic 


Aeslhetics,  ii 

Attna,  ed.  Jacob  ( 1818),  117 ;  Munro 

(:867).   433;   Haupl   (1873),   136; 

R.  Ellis  (1896)  in  Postgate's  Corpus, 

vol.  ii  (1905} 
Agathias,  ed.  Niebuhr,  81 
Agalhon,  Rilschl  on,   139 
Agrigentum,  )J3 

Ahlwardl,  Christian  Wilhelm,  97  n.  1 
Ahrens,  Ileinrich  Ludolf,  (lo;  IJ7 
Albani,  Cardinal,  ijf 
Alberti,  Johann,  ed.  Hesychius,  15 
Alcaeus,  Herder  on,  35  ;  Blomtield, 

4or;     A.      Malthiae     (1817),     75; 

Schneidewin   (1839),    no;    Bergk 

(■84s),  147 
Alciphron,    ed.   Bei^ler   (i7r5),    3; 

Meineke  (1853),  118;  Seilet(iS56); 

Hercher  in  Scr.  Ep.  (t873) 
'Aldobrandini  maiTiage',  Meyer  and 

Bottieer  on  the,  70 
Alexander,  (i)  theGreal,  Droysen  on, 

130;  (1)  of  Aphiodisias,  In  Arist. 

Anal.fr.  rl  Tofica,  ed.  Wallies  in 

Cemm.    Arts/,    u ;    di   sensu,  ed. 

Tharot   (1875),   ij7,   and    Comm. 

Aria.   Ill   \;Mtt.   Bonitz   (1847), 

175,  and  Hayduck,  Comm.  Arist.  t; 

Scrifia  Minora,    Bruns   in  Suppl. 

Arist.    I]  ;    Prgbl    Busaemaker   in 

Comm.  Arist.   IV   (1857),    Usener 

(i8s9),  1845  (3)  de  Villa  Dei,  157  ; 

(4)  [lope  Alexander  VIII,  341 
Alexandre,  Charles,  151 
Alexandrian  accentuation,  386 ;  gram- 
marians, 106;  libraries,  Rilschl, 139; 

literature,   Susemihl,    181,   Come- 

lissen,  388 ;  poels,  Meineke,   118, 

Couat,  %i% 
Alladus,  Leo,  3j6',  ii  361 
Allen,  (i)H.  E.  436J  (i)  J.  H.  459; 

4S8;(3)W.F.4S9;  (4)F.D.4S9f 
Alschefski.  K.  F.  S.,  mi 
AUerthums-  Wissenschafi,  60 

Alvarez.  384 ;  ii  163 
amentata,  hasta,  JJ4 
America.  United  States  of.  450-470; 

chronological  table,  49 
Ammianus   Marcellinus,    Hertz    on, 

r99 ;  ed.    Valeaius-J.   A.  Wagner 

(t8oS);  Eyssenhardt  (1871),   100; 

Gardthausen  (1S74-5) ;  Gimazane, 

A.    M.,    sa     Vie    el    son     (Euvre 

(Toulouse,  1889) 
Amsterdam,    Roj^    Institute,    183; 

univ.  591 
Anacreon,  J.  F.  Fischer  (1754  etc.). 


!X.  487 

14  ;  V.  Rose  (1868) ;  Bei^k  in  Foel, 
Zjr.  O.  iii  296*;  Hanssen  (1884); 
Didot  on,  173 

Anaximenes,  Rhet.,  ed.  Spenget 
(1847I,  Rhit.  Gr.  (1853);  Hdm 
on,  196;  Usener,  Qiuust.  Anax. 
(1856).  184;  Wendland,  Anax.  von 
Lamfsakos  (1904) ;  Nitsche,  Dim. 
und  Anax.  (ipw) 

Ancyranum,  Mon.,  137 

Andocides,  in  Reiske's  Or.  Gr.; 
Bekkei,  Uobson,  and  Bailer- 
Sauppe,  Or.  All.;  K.  C.  Schiller 
(1836),  164;  Blass  (1871,  '80"); 
Lipsius  (188S);  Meier  on,  168; 
IJnder,  350 ;  Valer,  3S9 ;  Marchant, 
De  Myst.,  Di  Red.  (1889);  Index, 
Forman  (1897) 

Andreas  Lopadioles,  Ijj;  (1)  Val. 
Andreas,  305 ;  (3)  Andreae  Lauren' 
lius  (Lars  Andersson),  335 

Andresen,  G.,  %o\ 

Andrews,  E.  A.,  467 

Anecdota  Graeca,  Bekker,  87;  Bois- 
sonade,  14^;  Cramer,  443 

Angelos,  Christophoros,  356 

Anthelegia  Graeca,  Antk.  Pal.  i — iii, 
Reiske  (1714);  '7;  Bnmck'a  Ana- 
/«:/j(i77]-6)ii39S;i<n((i.Cr.Jacobs 
{i794-'8M.  '8'3-'7t,  ■64;  Pil" 
kolos,  Jh/»>/.  (1853),  369;  DUbner 
(1864-71)  and  Cougny  (1890),  171 ; 
.4»M.^a/.  i— ix,Stadtmllller(i894- 
1906);  Delectus,  Jacobs  (1856), 
Meineke  (1849},  iiS;  Mackail 
(190;');  Lessing  on,  39;  Koraes, 
363.  Transl.Engl.R.G.Macgregor 
(1864);  Gamtll  (1871);  Fr.  (1863), 
361;  Germ.  (1838-70)  Weber-Thu- 
dichum ;  Herder,  Jacobs,  and  Regis ; 
Wellesley,  Anthol.Pol}iglotla{iS^g) 

Anlkolegia  Lyrica  (Graeca),  ed. 
Hiller,   191 

Anlkolegia  Laiina,  BUcheler-Riese 
(1893-1906) 

Anihon,  Charles,  460 

Antiphon,  in  Reiske's  Or.  Gr.,  and 
Bekker.  Dobson,  and  Bajtei' 
Sauppe's  Or.  Atl. ;  Maeliner  (1838), 
Blass  (t88i'),  lemsledt  (1880), 
386;  Herwerden  (1883);  Lbder 
on,  350;  Diltenberger,  479;  Index, 
van  Cleef,  Cornell  (189s) 

Antiquities,  Greek,  331  f,  Roman, 
67,  136  f;  Diet.,  Darembere-Saglio, 


OgIC 


Antisthenes,  ed.  Winckelmann,  i6i 
Aphthonius,  ed.  Scheffei  (1670),  341 ; 

in  Walz  and  Spengel,  Rhel.   Gr.; 

Petiholdl  (1835) 
Apollinaris  Sidonius,  ed.  Barret  fPar. 

1878),    Mohr    (1895);    Gusfflfsson 

Apollodorus,  (1)  chianologer,  Juoliy, 
Apettodors  Chronik  (1901);  (1) 
inyth<^rapher,  Bihliotheca,   Heyne 


1  Mythegr.  gr.  i  (1894)  ;  Fragm. 

5''     .  .         , 

Apollonius  Dyscolus,  ed.  Bekker,  de 

pTottomint  (1813),  de  eonstructioni 

(1817),   di  cmiiuncHonibus    (t8i8), 

86  f ;  Schneider  and  Uhlig  (1878  f) ; 

L.  Lange,  Das  Syitem  der  Syntax 

des  A.   D.  (i8ji)i   Eraer,  A.  D. 

(■8s4),  iSS 
Apollonius    Khodius,    ed.    Wellauei 

(i!.«),   us;  MerW  (,»5,).  ,5;, 

1 93,  103  ;  Seaton  ( 1 900) ;  Danish 

tr.,318;  Germ.  Osiander;  Fr.,  H. 

de  la  Ville  Mirmont ;  Scholia,  103 
Appian,  Schweighaaser  ( 1 78;):  Bekker 

(i85t/).86;MendelssohD(i879-8i), 

198 
Apsines.in  Walz  and  Spengel,  Rhel. 

Gr.;  Bake  (1849),  179 
Apuleius,    Hildebrand    (1841);   Scr. 

Philoi.    Goldachpf     ('76) ;     Met. 

Eyssenhardt  ('69),  wo;  Psychi  et 

Cupido,  Jahn    ('83'),    ijo;   Mel., 

Apel.,   piar.,   de   Deo  Socr.,  Van 

der   Vliet   (1897-1900),   189;  Mel. 

Engl.  tr.  0.  Head  (1851) ;  Pseudo- 

Apuleius,  310 
AraluB,    ed.    Buhle    (:793);    Halma 

(Par.  '11);  F.  C.  Mauhiae  (1817), 

75  n.  5  i  Bekker  ('18),  85  f  ;  Maass 

('93) '.  Germ.  Ir.,  Voas,  63 
Arcadians,  Roman,  Academy  oF,  341 
Archaeology,  Classical,  in  Germany, 

■10-14,  39.  ^7,  J4f,  gSf,  3i3-jJ7i 

Ilaly,    144-7;    France,     163-170; 

Holland,   iSof;   Belgiam,  193-5; 

Denmark,    3i8f;    Greece,    381  f ; 

Russia,     390 ;     England,     441-7 ; 

Uniled  States,  468? 
Archiiochus,  Hauvette  on,  484 
Architecture,     Classical,     113,     344, 

445-J 
Archytas,    Fragm.    in    Mullach,    i ) 

moni^raphs  by  Egger,  151;,  Harten- 

stein  (1833),  Blass  ('84) 


Aretaeus,  ed.  Kuhn,  187  ;  Ermerius 

(1847);  Adams  ('j6),  416 
Aigos,  Heraeum  of,  3S1,  469 
Aiistaenelus,  ed.  Boissonade  (1811), 

and  in  Herchei's  Scr.  Episl.  ('73) 

Aristarchus,  Lehrs  on  (1S81'),   107  ; 

Ludwich,   Aristarchs  Horn.    Text- 

kritik  ('85) 

Aristeas,   ad   Philoeratem    ep.,     ed. 

Mendelssohn-Wendland  (1901),  198 

ArisCides,   ReJslie   on,    17;   Welckei 

[>n,3i7;  ed.  Dindoif  (1819),  145; 

Bruno  Keil 

Aristodemus,  380;  in  Miillei's/1  H. 

G.  V 
Aristophanes,  facsimile  of  Cod. 
Venetus  (London,  1901)  and 
Ravennas  (L.B.  1904) ;  Brunck 
(i78[-3);  Invemizi,  Beck,  Din- 
dorf  (1794-1834),  144;  Bothe 
(1818-30  etc.),  103 ;  Bekker 
(1819),  86;  Boissonade  (1831), 
149;  Bergk  (1851,  '7i't.  147  J 
Meineke  (1S60  etc.),  1 18 ;  Holden 
(1868'),  411;  Blaydes  (18B6, 
1880-93)  i  l-eeuwen 
£ecl.  Eq.  Plul.  San.  Theim.  von 
Velsen,  isj ;  Av.  Eq.  Nub. 
Ran.  Kodc,  155;  Aik.  Av.  Eq. 
Nui.  Ran.  VesJ.  Meny;  Aek. 
Av.  Eq.  Nub.  Pax,  Vtsp.  Green } 
Nub.  Vap.  Graves 
Ach.  Elmsley,  394,  A.  MUlIer,  W. 
Ribbeck,  Clark,  41 1 ;  Eq.  W. 
Ribbeck,  Neil,  416;  Nub.  WoU, 
Hermann,  91,  Teutfel ;  Pax,  Jul. 
Richtet,  Uerwerden;  Sanae, 
Ftitische,  185,  Tucker;  Thetm. 
Fritische,l8j;  r<tj^, Jul.  Rich ter. 

Scholia,  ed.  Dindorf  (1838),  DUbnei 
('41),  171;  Zacheron(i888),.Sir,ff>/. 
Ran.,  Martin  (t88i),  Rutherford 
('96),  415.  Onomaiticon,  Holden 
('71');  Concordance,  Dunbar,  414 

Reiske  on,  17;  Reisig,  109;  Forch- 
hammer,  Rotscher,  74;  Muller- 
Strilbing,  ii;6 ;  O.  Schneider, 
157;  Couat,  ij8;  Aves  imitated 
by  Goethe,  69;  KSchly  on  Aves, 
1 33 ;  Stlvem  on  Aves  and  Nuhes, 
73  ;  TransL  Engl.  Ach.  Av.  Eq. 
Pax,  Ran.  Frere,  410  ;  Ach.  Eq. 
Nub.  fiip.  Mitdiell,  410;  8 
plays,  Rudd  ;  Av.  Kennedy,  403 ; 
Nub.  Vesp.  Pax,  Av.  Eccl. 
Thesm.Plut.  Rogers ;  Fr.  Zevoit, 


A.oogic 


Anaud,  Poysrd;  Germ.  Voss, 
61,  Droysen,  130;  Nui.  Ran. 
Welcker,  117 

Aristophanes  of  Byzantium,  Fr^m., 
ed.  Nauck  (184S),  149;  E.  Milkr 
in  Mitangt!  (1S6S),  5S4 

Arislolle,  in  MA,  C.  Waddineton  on, 
1611  ed.  Bekkec  (Berlin,  1831),  87 
{Oxon.  '37);  DUbner,  Bussemakei 
andHeiti;(rar.i848-7j);  OrganoH, 
Waitz  (1844),  174!  Di  CiUeg. 
Trendelenburg,  174;  Soph.  El. 
Poste;  PAyi.,  De  Colaribui,  De 
Cath,  Prantl,  [81;  Mtt.  Rrandis 
(1813,  Sckol.  '37),  173;  Schwt^ler 
(■47*).  174;  Bonitz  {'480,  176; 
Christ  ('86),  153;  Fr.  tr.  »6i ; 
Metear.  Ideler,  187;  De  Anima, 
Toistrik,  181;  Trendelenbuii;,  174; 
WaUace  ('81),  Hicks  (1907))  De 
SemuB  it  Vigilia,  W.  A.  Becker, 
67;  Hist.  Anim.  Schneider  (1811), 
11;  Pikkolos  ('63),  369;  Aubert- 
WimmerrfiS);  Prantl,  181;  Rhel. 
Gaisford  ('jo),  397  ;  Spengel  ('67!, 
180;  Cope  \Inlrod.  '67,  Coram.  '77), 
408;  Engl.  lr.Welidon,Jebb;  Reitz 
on  Rhtt.  Pol.  Poet.  19;  Thuiot  on 
Rhet.  Poet.  Pel.  Hist.  An. ,  Miteor. 
Elk.  via,  157;  Ussing  on  Rhet. 
Poet.  313,  325  ;  Poet,  facsimile  (Par. 
1891);  ed.  Buhle  (1794)1  Hermann 
Coi),  94I  Grafenhan  ('11);  Kitter 
('39).  lO'i  ^"  ('8+9.  '78"), 
15s;  Susemihl  (1865,  '74'),  :8i ; 
Vahlen(i867,  '74,  '8s);  Ueberweg 
(1869-75),  183;  Chiisl  (i8;8, '83), 
153;  Butcher  (1895,  1907');  By- 
water  (1897,  Comm.  I9t5)  ;  Tucker 
'"""*"    Lessing  on,   16,   j8,   30; 


HaHung('45),  146;  Weil  ('48),  177 
n.  s;  Bemays(i8s7.  '80'),  177  fi 
Stahr  ti.  ( 1 8s9  f) ;  TeichmUUer  ('67), 
179 ;  Schmidt  tr.  {'75),  158;  Prickard 
('91) ;   Gompera  Ir.  ('95) ;  Finsler 


(1819-48);  Jelf  (1856),  4J1;  Grant 
(1857  f,  %%  4*1  ;  Ramsauer  ('78), 
174;  Susemihl  {'87),  i8j;  i-iv, 
Moore  (1890) ;  v,  H.Jackson  (1879), 
V,  Munroon,  433;  viii,  ix  and  Eth. 
Eudem.,  Frilzsche  (1847-31),  157; 
Magn.  Mor.,  EtA.  Eudtm.  Bonitz, 


176;  Lessing  on  Eth.  Pol.  Rhet. 
16 ;  Eng.  tr.  Chase  (1877'),  Williams 
(■6j),  Weldon;  Pol.  ed.  Gottling 
V%i\,  117;  Schneider  C^S).  "7: 
Eaton,  Congreve  fss),  4]];  Suse- 
mihl(i872,';9,'8»),  181  f;  Newman  . 
{1887-1901);  i,  ii,  iii,  Bernays,  178; 
i-v,  Susemihl  and  Hicks  (1894); 
Bojesen,  314;  Oncken,  i8j  ;  order 
of,  161 ;  Engl,  tr.  WeiUlon  ;  Act/. 
Ath.  Kenyon,  448  (1891;  Berlin 
1003*) ;  Kaibel-Wilamowiti,  155, 
Herwerden-Leeuwen  (1S91);  Blass, 
(189*),  171;  Sandys  (1893);  Gil- 
bert on,  148;  Wilaraowiti,  Ar.  und 
Alhen ;  Kaibel,  Styl  und  Text 
(1893),  ijj;  Betgk  on  the  Berlin 
ftagm.,  148  1  Oec.  Schneider  (1815), 
ii;  Gottling  (1830),  117;  Ptebl. 
Mus.  199 ;  Aristotelian  Studies, 
Bonili,  176;  Biese,  174;  Teich- 
mUller,  179;  Grole,  43S  ;  Ft.  Ir. 
961  ;  Scholia,  Brandis  (1836),  173; 
Fragm-ileiUanH  Rose, iSt ; /noSu:, 
Bonit!:(i87o),  176 

Aristoxenus,  Mahne  on  (1793),  275; 
Norm.  Fragm.  Marquard  (1868); 
Westphal  (1883-93),  158;  Ruelle 
(1871);  Macran  (Oxon.  1903) 

Arnesen,  Paul,  318 

Arnold,  Thomas,  439 

Arrian,  Dubner-Milller  (Par.  1846), 
171;  H etcher- Eberhard,  185;  Anab. 
Krilger  (i83s-48).Sintenis,  Abicht; 
Ef4a.  SchweighSuser  (1799),  H. 
Schenkl  (1S94-8)  ;  Geegr.xa  Mijller, 
G.  G.  M.  i;  Ptrifilui,  Fabricios 
(1883)  ;  TV/.  Kochly  (1853) 

Arsenios,  354 

Art,  ancient,  Winckelmann  on,  13  ; 

Lessing,  36f;  Herder,  35  ;  Urlichs, 

101:  Furtwangler,  480;  no,  ill, 

113-216;    263-370;     3i8f,    324; 

Roman,  446 
Artemidorus,     OneirocriHca,    Reiske 

on,  17;  ed.  Hercher,   1S64 
Ascoli,  Graziadio,  242 
Asconius,   ed.  A.  Kiessling  and   R. 

Scholl  (1875),  185, 198;A.  C.Clark 

(Oxon.   1907);  Madvig  on  (i8t81), 

322 
Asia   Minor,   Le  Bas,   Texier,   265; 

Waddii^on,  168 ;  Wagener,  298 ; 

Leake,  442;  Fellows,  443;  Newton, 

444  f 
Asianism,   186 


A.OO' 


1C5IC 


Askew,  Anthony,  8,  17 

Asopios,  Konstantinos,  369 
Asi,  Geoi^  Anton  Friedrich, 


Athenaeus,     Jacobs 


64; 


(1817),  14s;  Meineke  (1858-67), 
iifl;  Kttibel  (iSSfi-go),   ijS 

Athenian  Antiquities,  Schiimann,  166 ; 
Constitution,  Lugebil,  386 ;  Public 
Economy,  Boeckh,  98 

Athens,  Leake,  441;  E.  Curtios,  Curt 
Wachsmuth,  110;  Athens  in  (he 
Pelop.  war,  Gilbert  on,  133;  in 
MA,  139,  366;  Acropolis,  166; 
A.  Bolticher  (1888);  Areopagus, 
117,  i3];coinage,  166;  Parthenon, 
^80,  35B,  445  r,  Michaelis  (1871); 
Theatre  of  Dionysus.  123.  383, 
DorpTetd-Reisch  (1896) ;  Pana- 
ihenaic  vases,  318,  470;  Greek 
School,  3  59,  Archaeolf^cal  Society, 
359;  American  School,  ^6^!;  458, 
463,  466,  468;  British,  413,  447; 
French.  idiSf,  484;  German,  m 

Alhos,  Mount,  154,  359,  379-381 

Attic  Comedy,  Eibbeck  on,  188 ; 
Fragm.  Meineke,  117;  Kock,  156; 
lemsledt,  386  ;  Kail>el,  155 

Atlic  Law,  Bake,  179 ;  Petersen, 
319;  Philippi,  131;  Meier  and 
Schomann,  166;  TiSIfy,  301;  Lip- 
Sius,  Das  Attiscke  Reckt  \%^li) 

Augsbui^  1""" 

AuBn,  1^ 

Aurelius,  ft 

Schultz  (1801,  '10),  Koraes  jl8i6), 
36*;  Diibner,  iJ*;Tr.Engl.  Long, 
430,  Kendall;  Fr.  161 


160;  I'eiper  (1886),  194;  Mostlla, 
Bocking   (1845),    1941    H.    de   la 
Villc  de  Mirmont  (1889);  Hosius 
('894) 
Austria,  160.  ai6,  ^40,  479 
Avellino,  Francesco  Maria,  145 
Avianus,  ed.  Lachmann  (1845),  iiS; 

Frochner  ('6s) ;  R.  Ellis  ('87) 
Azara,  Don  Jos£  Nicolas  de,  147 


Babington,  Churchill,  4 


(iS44),349;  Lachmann and  Meineke 

(1845),    118,    119  f;    Schneidewin 

('S3t;  Lewis,  439;  Eberhard  ('75); 

Gillbauer  ('8i);   Rutherford  ('83); 

Crusius  ('97)1  Bergk  on,   147 
Bacchylides,  MS,  447 ;  ed.pr.  Kenyon 

(r897),  448 ;  Jurenka,  Festa  (1898) ; 

Blass   ('904"),   173;   Jebb  {1905), 

4i3f 
Baden,(i}Jacob,3i6;  314;  (i)Torkil, 

316 
Badham,  Charles,  407 ;  1S3 
Bahr,  Christian  Felix,  66 
Biihrens.  Emil.  191 
Baguet,  Francois,  303 
Baird,  Henry  M.,  4<^ 
Bailer,  Johann  Georg,  rfii ;  196,  jao, 

445 
Bake,  Janus,  178;  167,  39J,  40J 
Ballista  and  catapulta,   134 
Baltimore.   Johns    Hopkins    Univ., 

4ii.  46',  468 
Bamberger,  Ferdinand,   110 
Bancroft,  George,  455,  4G3 
Banduri,  Ansel  mo,  1 
Bang,  Thomas,   jii 
Bardalachos,  Constant ine,  366 
Barker,  Edmund  Henry,  40T ;  sjo 
Barlandus,  Adrien,  304 
Barnes,  Joshua,  71;  ii  357  f 
Bartoli,  341 ;  ii  180 

Basi,  F.  J.,'  101,  115;  ii  397f 

Batrachsmyomathia,  see  Homtr 

Bauer,  Karl  Ludwig,   14 

Baumgarten,  A.  G.,  ti 

Bauinstark,  A.,  10 r 

Baxter,  William,  6,  35 

Bayer,  Theophil  Siegfried,  390 

Beaufort,  Louis  de,  79 

Beck,  (I)  Carl,  456;  (2)  Christian 
Daniel,   14.   '44 

Becker,  Wilhelm  Adolf,  67,  133,  136 

Bekker,  (i)  Immanuel,  85  f;  51,  81, 
ij(»;  (3)  Geo^  Joseph,  30a;  394 

Belgium,  1830-igoo,  193-309;  Chro- 
nological Table,  49;  'History  of 
Philology",    300;   Belgian  univer- 

Bellermann,  Johann  Joachim  (1754- 

i84»),  95 
Benary,  Albert  Agathon,  111 
Benedict,  Rule  of  St,  Traube  on,  195 


us,  3S0;  td.  fir.  Boissonade 


A.oogic 


Benschoten,  J.  C.  van,  4.69 
Bentlej',  on   (he   Homeric  question, 

55;  Kuster.301;  HerderonBentley, 

35!  Reiz.'it),  90;  Wolf,  60;  Her- 
mann,  gi,   93;    Lachmann,    130; 

Meineke,   iiN;    Fleckeisen,    141; 

Brix,    143;    Bemays,    17S    n.    i; 

Cobet,   iH6f,  and   HolUnd,  190; 
Jebb,  413,  415;  ii  401-410 
Benzelhis,  Erik,  347 
Berard,  Victor,  367 
Betgk, Ttieodor,  146-8;  117, 113,  I41 
Berglei,  Slephan,  3 
Berlin;   Academ;,    if,  Si,  S4,  »$(, 

98,117.  130,  136,  I78f;  univ.,  59, 

68,  78f,  »5,  97.  115     . 
Bemaidakeslia),    (1)    Gregorios   N., 

37if;    186;    (1)   Demecrios,    373, 

3JS  n-  7 
Bemays,  Jacob,  I76f 
Bemhardy,  Gottfried,  131  f;  149 
Bftant,  E,  A.,  t7J 
BeuU,  Charles  Ernest,  t66f 
Biilielheca  Classica,  430 
Bieliaev,  D.  T.,  386 
Biese,  Franz,  174 
Blester,  Johann  Erich,  85 
BiographiGratci,  ed.  Westermann,  163 
Bion    and    Moschus,   ed.    Hermann 

('849),   93.    'SS;    Ziegl«  ("868); 

Bucheler,in_/ai*r*.  97,  lo6f,  ^An«. 

Mm.    30,    33  f;     Ahrens    (1854), 

Hiller;   also,   with  Theocritus,  in 

Bucolici  Gr.,   Gaisford,   Meineke, 

Ahrens,  Wilamowilz 
Bin,  Thcodor,  :94 
Blacas,   I'ierre   Louis  Jean   Casimir, 

Due  de,  166 
Blackie,  John  Smart,  437 
Blackweil,  Thomas  (1701-57),  61  n.  1 
Blagoviestschenski,  N.  M.,  385  f 
Blakesle;,  Joseph  William,  405 
Blantes,  Spyridon,  361  n.  4 
Blass,  Friedrich,  I73f;  130,  376,  378 
Blaslos,  Nicolaos,  353  f 
Bloch,  S.  N.  J.,  317 
BlomReld,  (i)  Charles  James,  40of; 

398  1   (i)  Edward  Valentine,  401 ; 

400 
BloomReld,  S.  T.,  401 
Blume,  W.  A.,  164 
Bobbio,  81,  141  f 
Bochart,  Samuel,  340 
Boeckh,  Augnsl,  95-101 ;  55.  Si,  94, 

100,  330,  439;   pupils,   100,   m; 


EX.  491 

Bohnecke,  Karl  Georg,  171 
Boekler,  Johann  Heinrich,  340;  11367 
Boethius,  Phil.   Com.,  ed.  Obbarius 

(1844);  Peiper  (1871),  194;  Usener 

on,  10s;  H.  F.  Slewarton  (1891); 

Gk  tr.,  173;  i  158  n.;  In  Isagogm 

Porplmii   Commmla,   ed.   Brandt 

{1006} 
Bo^thus  of  Chalcedon,  319 
Boeiiicher,  (i)  Wilhelm  (1798-1850), 

300;  (i|  Karl  (1806-89),  ''3 
Boettiger,  Karl  August,  74  f;  7of 
Bohn,  Richard,  133 
Boissier,  Gaston,  483 
Boissonade,  Jean  Franfois,  349r,  58, 

99,   119,  380;  portrait,  148 
Bojesen,  E.   F.  C.,  314 
Boughi,  Ruggero,  343 
Bonitz,  Hermann,  i74f;  463 
Bonn,  81,  iD9f,  141,  147,  170,  177  f, 

184,  481 
Bopp,  Franz,  303;  84,  410;  portrait 

facing  305 
Borch,  Oluf  (OUuR  Borrichius),  313 
Borell,  383 

Borehesi,  Bartolommeo,  344;  335 
Bosio,  Antonio,  147 
Boston,  453,  4SS,  457 
Bothe,  Heinrich,   103 

Brandis,  Christian  August,   173;  81, 

Braun,  August  Erail,  319 
BreiCenbach,  Ludwig,   160 
Bremi.  Johann  Heinrich,  164;  113 
Brinkman,  Karl  GustaT  von,  349 
Biin.  Julius,  143 

BrBndsted,  Peter  Oluf,  318;  3i8,  335 
Broukhusius.  191;  ii  319  f 
Brown  university,  453,  457  f 
Bmcker,  Johann  Jacob,  j 
Brugmann,  Karl,  309  f 
Brunck,  64,  91,  171;  ii  395  f 
Brunn,  Heinrich,  411  f,  337,  480 
Brussels,  Academy,  193  f,  395?,  304, 

306;  univ.  393 
Btuzza,  Luigi,  146 
Bryennios,  378 
Buchanan,  336  ;  ii  343  f 
Bucharest,  school  of,  359,  366  f 
Buchholz,  Edward,   149 
Biicheler,  Franz,  481  f 
Buenan.  Count  von.  ji 


Bocking, 


.  194 


OC5IC 


492  INI 

Buraeus,  3  38 

Suratia,  Carmina,  [94 

Burckhud,  Jaknb,  4 

Burges,  George,  +01 

Burgess,  Thomas,  363;  ii  \^\,  460 

Eunnan,  Pietcr,  II,  3,   14;  ii  455 

Burn,  Robert,  446 

Bume;,  Charley  399;  it  419 

Barnouf.  (i)  Jean  Louis  (1775-1844); 

(1)  Wne('8oi-'8sa),  ^S".  4»o; 

(3)  Emile  (18*1-1907),  l66f 
Bursian,  Coiuad,  115  f 


I.  377; 


30s 


Busleiden,  je 

Butler,  Samuel.  398^ 

Bultmann,  Philipp  Kail,  84  f;  S9, 
78f,  95.  98.  '03.   117.  454 

Byzantine  Astronomy,  184;  His- 
torians, Be,  87,  iiS 

Caesar,  edd.  101;  Cetlarius  |t7o5, 
'55);  Hunter  (Cupri,  1809);  Le- 
maire  (1819-n);  K.  E.  C. 
Schneider  (1840-55),  iit,;  Nip- 
perdey  (1847,  '57'),  ii7;Dubner 
(1867);  Hoffinann  (1856,  '90'); 
Kraner  (1861  etc.);  Dinter 
(1864-76);  Doberenz 
De  3.  G.,  Kraner  (1853  f,  Dit- 
Cenbe^er,  '67  f),  479;  Kiigell 
i86i),3si;  Roersch(i864),3oo; 
Held.  Wiliher,  Long  (1868) 
etc.:  Kochly-RUstow, £>>i/rt/«nf 
(>8s7).  '33!  Ri«  Holmes  (t899. 


nelis! 
Di    BtUo    Afriio,     Wblfflin-Mio- 

donski  (1889) 

JjxUa;    Merguel    (1884};    Preuss 

('84),  Menge- Preuss  ('85) ;  Meusel 

{'84) ;  Holder's  Index.    Riistow's 

Atlas   ('68);    Kampen,   Dfscrip- 

tienes  ('78I ;  Napoleon  III  ('65  f ), 

161:  Stoffel,  Giu:rre  Civili  {■87); 

Tissot  on  Caesar  in  Africa,  161 

Caesar,  Karl  Jalias,   167 

Callierges.  Zacharias,  353  f 

Callimachus,    ed.     Emesti     (L.     B. 

1761),   13;  Blomfield  (181;),  401; 

O.     Schneider    (1870     f),      157; 

Hymni,     MeJneke     (1861),     iia 

Wilamowiti    (1883,    '9;') ;    Nigra 

(1893);  Reiske  on,  17;  Aulin,  350 

Callistratus,     Heyne    on,     41;    ed. 

Jacobs. We Icker  (1835),   64,    317; 


Kayser  (1844  f,  '70);  Westeroiann 
(r849l,  163;  C.  Schenkel.Rdsch 
(1901) 

Calpumius.  ed.  H.  Schenkel  (1885, 
and  in  Poslgate's  Corpus,  190J); 
Haupt  on,  136 

Calvisius  (Kallwiti),  Sethus,  i 

Cambridge,  FitzwiUiam  Museum, 
443;  Museum  of  CI.  Archaeoli^, 
445  ;  Greek  plays,  461 ;  scholars, 
267.  393.  398-4'8,  4".  4*'»-434. 
437.  439  f;    Univ.    Press,  380 

Camerarius,  Rilschl  on,  141 

Campbell,  Lewis,  404 

Canina,  Luigi,  344 

Capella.  Martianus,  Leibnitz,  1 ;  ed. 
U.  F.  Kopp  (1S36);  Eyssenhardt 
(.866),  300 

Capito,  Sinnius,  199 

Carey,  William,  305 

Carroichael,  A.  N.,  437 

Cameades,Gerlachon(i8i5);  Roulez 
(1835),  194;  Gouraud  {1848) 

Carson.  A.  R.,  439 

Cartelier;  Isocr.  Antid.,  361 

Canhae'i  Graux  on,  16a;  Bosworth 
Smith  (1B94) 

Casaubon,  55,  153,  395;  ii  304 

Cassiodorus,  in  Migne,  liixf  (1847  f); 
Mommsen,  Chren.  ('61),  Variat 
(1894),  197  i  Traube,  Frag.  Or. 
('94),   195  i  Hodgkin,  Lillers  ('86) 

Castetlanus  Petrus.  305 

Castor  Rhodius,  Heyne  on.  41 

Catiline.  Merimie  on.  161 

Calo,  De  Agri  Cultura,  ed.  Keil 
(1881),  Comm.  ('04),  Index  ('97), 
103 ;  also  in  Jiei  jfuil.  Scr.,  Emesti 
(1774),  Schneider  (1794);  Cetera, 
quae  exlanl,  Jordan  (18'  ' 


CsS),  H.  Peter  ('71);  Poesii  rtl. 
Fleckeisen,  RitschI  ('54),  141 
Catullus,  Facsimile  of  Codex  Sanger- 
manensis  (1890);  ed.  Doring,  95; 
Sillig.  75;  Lacbinann  (1S39),  isS; 
Haupt  (1853,  '61,  '68),  135  f; 
Rossbach  (1854,  '60),  158  j  Schwabc 
(1866),  483:  Ellis  (1867,  '78'. 
Comm.  1876)1  L.  Muller  (1870, 
'74),  189;  Bahrens  (1876-85),  190; 
Munro  on,  433;  Postgate  (1NI9, 
'94) ;  Fr.  transl.  Rostand,  159;  A.  L. 
Wheeler  on  Hieremias  de  Mon- 
tagnone  and  Catullus  in  A.J.  P. 
xxix  (1908)  186-100 


,1^.00' 


gic 


Catullus,  Andreas,  305 
Cavallari,  Saverio,  1+5;  131 
Cavallin,  Christian,  350 
Cavedoni,  Don  CelestinOi  145 
Caylus,  Comle  de,  lo,  16,  15a 
Cebes,    ed,    Schweighauser    (1806); 

Koraes,  365  ;  Jerram  f  ;8) ;  Praech- 

t"  ('93);  Danish  tr.,  318;  German, 

Krauss  ('90*) ;  Russian,  347 
Celsius,  Olaus,  349 
Celsus,   ed.    Darembei^   (1B59);  (i) 

'JuJius  Celsus',  115 
Censorinus,  Jahn  (1845),  310:  Hultsch 

{1867} 
Ceratinus  de  Horn  (TeLgn),  Jacques, 

304 
Chalcidius,  ed.  Fabricius  (1718),   3; 

Mullach  in  Frag.  FhU.  Gr.  (1868); 

Wrobel  (1876) 
Chandler,   (i)  Henry  William,  411; 

(1)  Richard,  99 
Chardon  de  la  Rochetle,  Simon,  149, 

Charisins,  in  Keil,  Gr.  Lot.  i 
Charitonides,  373 
Chicago,  469 
Chios,  3s6,  359 
Choerilus,Naeke(i8i7),  109;  Kinkel 

b  Pott.  Ep.  {187;) 
Choeroboscus,    ed.   Gaisford   (1841), 

397;  Hilgard  (1889^(4) 
Choricius,    ed.     Boissonade    (1S46), 

Graux  {'77),  a6o;  Forsler  ('83-'94) 
Chorus  in   Greek  Tragedy,  on  the, 

Schiller,  71;  Heeren,  77 
Christ,  {1}  Johann  Friedrich,  10;  14, 

38;  (1)  Wilhelm  von,  IJ3  f 
Chiistensen,  R.,  313 
Christiania,  univ.,  330 
Christina's    patronage    of    learning, 

339-34» 
Ckfintica  Mtnora,  ed.  Mommsen,  107 
Chronoli^y,  Fynes  Clinlon,  439 
Chrysolorr-    "    .'.:..( 
Chrysostoi 


and  Onora.  'full.;  Orelli,  Bailer, 
Halm  {1845-61),  161;  Klotz 
(i8so-S7  etc.),  135;  C.  F.  W. 
Muller;  Bailer  and  Kayser 
(1860-9) 
Efp.  Schlltz  (1809-13),  46;  Tyrrell 
and  Purser  (1879-94);  Wesen- 
bei^  (1880),  314;  ad  All.  Boot 


(.8 


Men 


('893).  '98;  B.  R. 
Abeken,  Cit.  in  s.  Briifea  (1835; 
E.  T.  i8j4) !  Hulleman,  AtUcui 
(1838),  181;  Boissier,  Cic.  et  sts 
Amis  (1870'),  483;  Engl,  tr., 
Shuckburgh,  415;  Fr.  tr.,  170; 
Germ.,  10,  36 

Oralimer,  Klotz  (1835-9);  Clark 
and  Pelersou  (1907);  Sel.  Heu- 
mann,  4;  Madvig  (i8jo).  Halm 
(1868).  Heine  (1870),  Eberhard- 
Hirschfelder  (1874),  Nohl, 
MilMer ;  Conim.  Long,  430; 
Richter-Eberhard,  Koch-Lan- 
graf,  Halm-Laubmann;  pro 
Archia,  Halm,  Roersch,  300, 
Reid,  E.  Thomas;  Baiho, 
Reid;  Caecina,  Jordan;  Caetio, 
Vollgraff;  in  Cat.  Halm,  Wil- 
kins,  434;/f»  Ctuentia,  Rarosay, 
439,  Fausset,  Peterson ;  Deio- 
taro,  Roeisch,  300;  flacco,  de 
lege  agr.  A.  W.  Zumpt,  Du 
Mesnil;  pre  Ugi  Manilia,  Halm, 
Wilkins;  Marcelh,  58;  Marallo, 
Ligario,  Deiotaro,  Faussel ;  JUi- 
lone,  Reid ;  Murma,  Zumpt, 
Halm,  Heilland;  Phil.  King, 
PAH.  «,  Halm,  Mayor,  Pesketl ; 
pre  Plancio,  Wunder,  log; 
Holden,  4lr;  Rabirio,  Heit- 
land  ;  post  redilura.  Wolf,  58; 
^  Rose.  Am.  Landgraf ;  Seslio, 
Holden,  411,  SUpfle-Bockel, 
Herti  on,  199;  Sulla,  Halm, 
Reid  ;  In  Verrem,  C.  G.  Zumpt, 
125;  i',Heilland-Cowie;n',  Hall; 
I'li-ii,  E.  Thomas;  J^ragni.  Mai 
(1814,  '17^),  141;  Heinrich,  no; 
Niebuhr  (i8io),  80;  Peyrou 
(1814).  141;  Baier  (1815) 

Opera  Rhetarica;  Artis  Rket.  HM 
a,  Weidner  (1878);  De  Or., 
Bntlui,  Orator,  De  Opt.  Gen. 
Or.,  Part.  Oral.,  Topica,  A.  S. 
Wilkins  (1901);  iJif  Or.,  Brutus, 
Orator,  Piderit  (1859-65  etc.); 
De  Or.  Henrichsen  (1830),  314; 
Ellendt  (1840) ;  Sorof,  Wilkms, 
434,     Kingrfey,     461 ;     Brutus, 


(1889).  465  ;  Stangi  (1886).  Mar 
tha  (1891);  Orator,  Peter-Wel- 
ler,  J33f  Jahn  ('85'  etc.),  110; 
Heerdegen  (1884),  Stangi  (1885), 


ogic 


Sandys  (1885};  Dt  Opt.  Gen.  Or. 
Tahn;  Fart.  Oral.  Pideril;  Caa- 
seret,  &tudc  {1886),  359 
Optra  Pkihsophica ;  Dt  Leg.,  Rep., 
N.  D. ,  Div.,  Fate,  Creuier  and 
Moser,  66;  Allen,  436;  Acad. 
Reid  (1885');  Dt  Am.,Ladius, 
M.  Seyffert  {\%if>\  143;  Reid 
(1883);  ^if.  Christ  on,  153;  Fin. 
Madvig  (1876^,  310,  Gustafsson 
on.  388,  E.  T.  bj  Reid  (1883); 
Ug.  Bake(i843),a;9,FeldhUgel 
('55),  Vahlen  {'83"),  Du  Mesnil; 
N.  D.  Heindorf,  84,  Schomann, 
166,  Joseph  Mayor  (1885);  Off. 
Heusinger,  4,  Beier  (1810-31), 
Unger,  Gniber,  C.  F.  Miiller, 
Heine,  Lund,  jJS.Holden  (1869'), 
411 ;  Rep.  Mai,  80,  341.  Heinrich, 
1 10,  Fr.  Ir.  170 ;  Sen.,  Calo  Motor, 
Lahmeyei  -  Meissner.  SoinmeT  - 
brodt,  C.  W.  Nauck,  Reid 
(1883);  Tusc.  Diip.  Reiske,  17, 
Wolf,  55,  KUhner  (1874),  no, 
"nschendorf,  Heine,  Meissner; 
i,ii,  Dougan  (190J) 
Lexica;  Emesti,  Clavis  Cit.  \y, 
Meiguet,  Lex.,  Orafin/iei  {iili~ 
84),  Op.  Philos.  (1887-94), 
HandUxikon  (1905) 
Bake  and  Rinkes  on,  179;  Dni- 
mann,  J33,  Madvig,  310  f; 
Saringar,  CU.  de  vita  am,  380; 
Lives  by  Drumann  (in  GescA. 
Rums,  ¥-vi),  Forsyth  (1863, 
'67*),  Boissiei  ('65);  Zielinski, 
Cl.  im  IVandel  der  Jahrhun- 
derte  (1897,  1908=);  Cic.  Fr.  tr., 
161 ;  Deschamps,  Eard  biWogra- 
pAifue  {1863) 
Cicero,  Quintus,  481 
Cincius,  Lucius,  199 
Clarac,  Jean  Baptiste,  < 
Clark,  William  George,  t 
Clarke,  (i)  Edward  Daniel,  357,  378; 

it)  Samuel,   13,  41;  ii  4"3 
Classen,  Johannes,  159 
Classical    authors   recommended   by 
Niebuhi,  So;  cl.  influence  in  Ger- 
man poetry,    133;    system   of   el. 
learning.  Wolfs,  60.  Bernhardy's, 
iti;    Cl.    Association,    448;    cl. 
scholarship,   Donaldson   on,    409: 
Heeren's   history  of  the    study  of 
(he  Classics,  77;  Bursian's,  126 
Claudian,  ed.  Gesner,  6;  Jeep,  Birt, 
'9+ 


Cleanthes,   Hymnus,    Ch.     Petersen 

(181S-9) ;  MulUch's  Fr.  Phil.  Gr. 

'!  3^5,  370 
Clenardus,  304,  336;  ii  158,  339 
Clermont-Tonnerre,  Due  de,  155 
Clinton,  Henry  Fynes,  439;  no 
Cluvius  Rufus,  Mommsen  on,  197 
Cobet,  Carolus  Gabriel,  182-7;  ^7' 

n.  8,   380  n.   I,   389  f,   313,   380, 

40S;  portrait,  174 
Cockereil,  Charles  Robert,  318 
Cohen,  Henry,  169 
Coinage,    Roman,   335;   Greek   and 

Roman,  164;  ai  ^a  Minor,  368; 

see  also  Numismalics 
CoUignon,  M.,  167,  169 
Colonies,  Greek,  R.  Rochette  on,  164 
Columbia  College,  New  York,  451, 

466-8 
Coiambus,  Joban,  343  f 
Colulhos,    ed.    Beliker    (1816),    86; 

Schaefer  (i8i3'  'SSll  Abel,  391 
Comedy  in  MA,  194 
Comenius,  Johann  Amos,  340 
Comparelti,  Domenico,  144 
Congreve,  Richard,  433 
Conington,  John,  431  f.  434  I 
Conjectural  emendation,   Jowelt  on. 


Conslantinus  Porphyrogenitus,    16  f, 
38;;   Excerpta   Histerica,   ed,  De 
Boor  (1903  f) 
Come,  Alexander,  336,  130 
Cope,  Edward  Meredith,  408 
Copenhagen,   univ.,    311-330;    Mss, 

Coppello,  Kappeyne  van  de,  383 

Corfu,  univ.,  368  f 

Corinth,    Megaspelaeon    near,    MSS, 

J79 
Cornelissen,  Johann  Jakob,  388 
Corsini,  Odoardo,  99 
Corssen,  Wilhelm,  143,  iii 
Couat,  A.,  *58 
Cotwny,  Ed.,  373 
Coulanges,  Fusle!  de,  363 ;  367 
Courier,  Paal  Louis,  150 
Cousin,  Victor,  351;  170 
Cowell,  Edward  Byles,  431 
Grain,  Moritz,  r4i 
Cramer,  (l)  Andreas  Wilhelm,  no; 

(1)  John  Antony,  443 
Craneveldl,  Franjois  de,  304 
Creech,  Herder  on,  35 


,i^.ooglc 


495 


Crete, +43.  447;  popular  literatare  of, 
375;  Cretans  in  Italy  etc.,  353  f 

Cteuzer,  Georg  Friedrich,  65  1:  63, 
104,   186,  J18,  15J,  164,  194,  389 

Crimea,  aichaeolt^  of,  313.  164,  390 
Criticism,    textual,     Lachmann    on, 

130  f 
Ciilobulas  of  Imbros,  as4 
Cron,  Christian,  161 
Crosby,  Howard,  467 
Crusius,  Mflrtin,  376 
Curtius  Rufus,  Q.,  edd.,  lol  f ;  Locce- 

nius  Ujti),  3j8;   Miltzell  (1841); 

Zunipt(l846,  ^64'}.   tis;  Hedicke 

(1867);  V™el  {1870-5) 
Curtius,    (i)   Ernst,   11S   f,   98;    (l) 

Georg,  107;  104,  119,  434,  459 
Cyclic  ThibaU,  ed.  Leutsch,  iii 
Cyprian,  bp  of  Carthage,  479 
Cyprian,  Heptateuch  of,  194 
Cyprus,  153,  265.  378 
Cypselus,  Heyne  on  Chest  of,   4] 
Cyrene,  443 

D,  final,  Beigk  01 


Dalzel,  Andrew,  416 

Damm,  Christian  Tobias,  9  ;  11,65 

Darbishire,  H.  D,  (1863—1893),  Rel- 

liquiae     PhiMogiiae    (Cambridge, 

■89s) 
Darembeig,  Charles  Victor,  15J 
Dareste,  Kodolphe  Cleo^,  transl.  of 

Demosthenes,  i6i;  Isaeus  (1S98) 
Daveluy,  Amedfe,  151,  366 
Dawes,  186,  5()3  ;  ii  415  f 
Death   in  ancient  art.  Leasing,   19  ; 

Herder,  35 
Decharme,  Paul,  167 
Dederich,  Andreas,  110 
Deh^que,  161 

DelbrUck,  Bembard,  no,  458 
Detos,  i(&,  413 
Delphi.  1 14,  a66;  Itelphic  hymn,  159; 

tripod,  lis 
Delphin  Classics,  401  ;  ii  191 
Demetraliopulos,  Theodoras,  376 
Demetrius  MagneE,  38  [ 
Demosthenes,    Facsimile    of    MS    2 
,  ed. 


{Pan 


1891); 


Retske  (1770  f),  17,  Dukas(i8ii). 
366,  Bekket  (1811  f).  8;.  G.  S. 
Dobson  ( 1 8)o) ,  Baiter-Sauppe 
(1841).  161,163;  G.H.  Schaefer 
(i8ia,'i4f),ioJi  Dindorf(i8i5, 


'46),  144  ;  Voemel  (1843),  i68f ; 
Bekkei  (1854),  87  ;  Blass  (1886), 
171;  0./^Mi-iw,Voemel(l856f), 

168  f;  WeU  (1873.  ■81'),  158; 
F&U.  01.  Sauppe,  164;  Phil, 
Franke  (1841),  169;  Weslermann- 
Rosenberg  (1891"),  163;  Reh- 
danti-Blass  (1893*),  (69,  17J  ; 
PAH. ,  01.,  DiFaa,  Chirs.,  Sandys 
(1897-1900);  Z>«/'fl«,i4;  Or.iio- 
xtH,  Flagg  (1880) ;  Or.  Ferenses 
PuH.,  Weil  (1877.  '83';  1886), 
358  ;  Vi  Cor.  Dissen  {1837),  114. 
Westeimann,  Holmes,  411,  Sim- 
cox,  414;  Blass  (1^0),  171; 
Goodwin  (1901)  ;  Fall.  Leg. 
Shilleto  (1844,  '74*).  4°*;  i-'P- 
tines.  Wolf  (1789),  54f,  Wester- 
mann  <:898),  Sandys  (1890); 
Meidiai,  Buttmann  (1813),  81, 
Holmes,  411,  Goodwin  (1906); 
Androt.,   01.   Funkhanel  {1831), 

169  ;  Androl.,  Timoer.  Wayte 
(1881),  430  n.3;  Arislocr.yfSet^-z 
(1845).  160  ;  Or.  Frivaiae  Sel. 
Paley-Sandys  (1896'),  409 

Phil.,  De  Cor.  Germ,  transl.  Jacobs, 


A.   Scbaefer  on,  169 ;    Bohnecke, 

171;  Christ,   154;   Cobet,  184; 

Dobree,    400  ;     Spengel,    180  ; 

Index,    Preuss  (1895);   Scholia, 

*6j.  379 
Denmark,  Ifioo-IQOO,  311-330;   49 
Dennis,  George,  44  j 
Derby,  Earl  of,  413 


Desjaidins,  Ernest,  161 ;   169 
Detle^n,  Dettef,  101 
Deuschle,  Julius.  161 
Devirius,  ed.  Klotz,   115 

De-Vit,  Vincenzo,  14J 

Dialects,  Greek,  Ahrens  on,  110,  r57; 

Ionic,  H.  W.Smyth;  Strachan.418 
Dicaearchns,    Fragm.    Fuhr    (1S41), 

C.  Miiller.  F.   H.  G.,  G.   G.   M.  ; 

'  Dicaearchus,' Letronne  (1840),  964 
Dicuil,  164 

Didot,  Ambroisc  Firmin,  173  f;  363 
Didyma,   169,  444 
Didymus,  Ritter  (1845),  M,  Schmidt 

(i854).is3,  3.^4;  Ludwich  (1865-8); 

On.  Dem.  ed.  Diels-Schubart  (1904). 

Foucart,  £tude  (1907) 


A.OO' 


1C5IC 


496 


.M-«. 


Dietsch,  Hcinrich  Rudolf,  loo 
Dielz,  Friedrich  Reinhold,  rS? 
Dillenbui^er,  Wilhelm,  193 
Dimitzana,  350 

Dindorf,   (1)   Karl  Wilhelm, 

397;  (1)  Ludwi8,.i44f 
Diocletian,  Edict  of,  168 
Diodorus,  Reiske  on,  17  ;  Heyne,  41  ; 

L.DL™iorf(i8j8-3i),  1+6;  Bekkei 

(.853  f),86;Vc^el  (1888  f) 
Diogenes  L.aertius,ed.Hubner-Jacobitz 

(l833|,CobeC  (1850-61).  184 
'Dion  Cassius'  (Cassius  Dio  Coccei- 

anus),   ed.   Fabricius  and    Reimat 

(Hamb.  :75o-j},  3;  Reiske  on,  17; 

ed.  BekkerdSfQJ.SlSi  L.  Dindorf 

(1B63-5).  146;  Melber(i89of);Fr. 

tran^.  161 ;  IJoIssevain(Berl.  1895- 

1901) 
Dion  ChrysostoiD,  ed.  Reiske  (1784), 

ij{;  Empenus(iS44),  no;  Bekkei 

(1849).   86;     L.    Dindotf   (1857). 

I46;  voaAmim(i8Q3-6), Leien  uiid 

Ifir&lrSgS) 
Dionyslus  Halicarnassensis.  ed,  Reiske 

(1774),    18;    Arch.  Rom.   Kriiger, 

iig  ;   Kiessling-Jacoby,   1S5,  341; 

Cobeton,  184;  VanderVliet,  189; 

Rketorica,     Usener-Radectnacber, 

184;  ZtetToiw/.K^rf.G.H.Schaefer. 

101;  ZV/mtf.  Usener(l889).  184; 

Gros,  Exam.  Crii.  (i8j6)  ;   Blass 

on,  17s;  Bpp.  ad  Amm.  el  Fimip-, 

Rhys     Roberts     (iQOf)  ;      Fragm. 

Rosslei  (1873) 
Dionysius,  son  of  Calliphon,  1 18 
Dionysius  Periegetcs,  ed.  Betnhatdy 

(1839),  tii ;  C.  Mdlei  in  G.  C.  M. 
Dionysus,  Creuiei  on,  66 
Diopnantus,  ed.  Tannery  (1893),  457 ; 

Germ.  Ir.,  Wertheim  (r89o) 
Dioscorides,  MS,  377;  fecsimile  (1906); 

DipTon 


□ilitary,  161 

-     -. ."SS 

Diltenberger,  Wilhelm,  479 
Dolieienz.  Albert,  101 
Dobree,  Peter  Paul.  399 ;  1J9, 186,  401 
Dodona  ;   Wordsworth  {1831),  405; 

Carapanos  (1875),  383 
Doederlein,  Lndwig,  1:3;  91 
Doring,  Frlediich  Wilhelm,  65 
Dorpteld,  Wilhelm,  214 
Dolce,  Luigi,  36 
Donaldson,  John  William,  4O9  ;  [31, 


Donatus,  Aelius,  Herder  on,  31 ;  Ars 

Gramm.  Keil  in  Gr.  Lat.  (1864) ; 

Comm.  in  Ter.  ed.  Klotz  (1838-40), 

Wessner  (1903-  ) 
Donnegan,  James,  Gk-Engl.  lex. 1816 
Dorians,  Muller  on  the,  114 
Dorpat,  univ.,   387  f;    198,   33+,    481 
Dorpius,  Martin,  304 
Drager,  Anton  August,  io\ 
Dramatic  Art  and   Literature,   A.  v. 

SchWel  on,  71 
Drisler,  Henry,  466 
Droysen,   (i)   Johann   Gustav,  lio  : 

(2)  Hans,  10, 
Drumann,  Wilhelm,  133 
Dublin,  436f 
Dubos,  Abbe,  17 
Duchesne,  Mgr,  367 
Dubner,  Johann  Friedrich,  371 )  14J, 

380 
Dukas,  (i)  Demetrius,  354 ;  (2)  Neo- 

phytos,  363 
Dumont,   Albert,  266  f 
Dunbar,  (1),  George,  436;    418;    (j) 

Henry,  414 
Duncan,  J.  M.,  g  n.  4 
Duncker,  Max,  130 
Dutuy,  Jean  Victor,  j;i 
Dutch  editions,  315;  universities,  191 

Earle,  Mortimer  Lamson,  468 

Eaton,  J.  R.  T.,  41* 

Eckhel,  Joseph,  44 

Edinburgh,  411;  394 

Education,  Herder  on,  33  f;   Heyne, 

41  f;      W.    von    Humboldt,    68; 

Thiersch,  1 1 1 ;  Kochly,  134 ;  Bonitz, 

17s;     Ussing,   316;    Jebb,   413; 

Wilkins,  4341    von   Hartel.  4S0; 

Gtasberger    (1864-1881);     Girard 

(1889);  K.J.  Freeman's  A-:4«?/(  9/ 

«i;%(i907) 
Egger,  Emile,  155 ;  171 
Egilsson,  Sveinbjorn,  318 
Egyptian  writing,  Spohn  on,   106 
Eichstadt,   Heinrich   Karl   Abraham 

{1772-1848),   165 
Eichihal,  Gustave  d',  154  f 
Elberting,  Carl  Wilhelm,  314 
Eleusis,'i65,383;EleusinianMysteries, 

104,  1 86 
Ellis,(.)A.  J.  433;  (J)  Roberf,  443 
Elmsley,  Peter,  394fi  S7>  '44.  i5°> 

186,  449  n 
Empedocles,Sturz(i8o5);  A.  Peyron 

Clo),  )4l ;  Gaisford  in  Poet.  Min. 

Gr.  ('13) ;  Karsten  ('38) ;  Bei^k  b 


X'OO' 


SIC 


Emperias,  Adolph,  no 

England,  iSoo-igoo,  393-449;  Chm- 

iu>lBgicaI  TaUe,  49;  Niebuhr  in,  7S 
Ennius,  H.Meyer  (1B3S);  J.A.  GUes 

('4*)!  E^eet  ('43);  Vahlen  (1903"); 

J.  Woidsworlh  in  Fragm.  {1874), 

L.    Mullet   ('84,   '93),    189.      Ann. 

Spangenbei^   (1815)  ;    A.    Krause 

('33) ;   Ilbere,  Hug  ('51).    Mtdta, 

PUnck(i8o;l;  OsHnn('i6);  Bothe, 

Frag.  frag.  ('34);  Ribbeck  ('71-3) 
Eobanus  Hessus,  Heilz  on,  100 
Eparchos,  Anton ios,  355 
Ephesus,  116,  444;  Hogarib,  British 

Mvieum    ExcavaHnni   at   Ephisut 

(1908) 
Epic  Cycle,  Welcker  on  the,  117 
Epicharmus,KnisemHn(i834);  l>«igk 

('+3  etc-) ;    Mullach  ('60) ;    Lorenz 

(■64);  Welcker  on,  117 
Epictetus,  Heyne(i756etc.).  38^.41; 

Schwe^hauser    (1798  ff) ;     Koraes 

(1816),    361  ;    DUbner,    i;i  ;    H. 

SchenkI  (1894);  Danish  tr.,  318; 

Engl.,  430,  451;   Fr,  157;   Riass. 

34; 
Epicurea,  Usener's,   184 
Epidaunis,  383 
Epigram,  Lessing  on  (he,  19 
Epigraphy,  Jowell  on,  419;  Larfeld's 

Han^ueh     der    Gf.     EMgraphik 

{1898-1908)5  S.  Keinaeh's  rraiV/; 

see  Crtek  and  Laiin  Inscr. 
Epimenides,   Hnnrich   (1801),   no  ; 

C.    Mullet,    F.    H.    C.  1    Kinkei 

(1877);    Diels,    Vnrsalir.  {i^i) 
Epislelegraf/ii,  Greek,   i8j 
Erasmus,   91,   304,   4(3  1    Etasmian 

pronunciation  of  Greek,  91,  376; 

li  ii7f;  Bywaler  (Oxford,  locrfi) 
Etatosthenes,  Beinhardy  (iSti),  iir; 

Frag.  Geogr.  Be^er  (1880) ;  Carm. 

Hiller  (1871),  191;   Maas,  Eralos- 

Ihenica  (in  Phil.  Unl.  vi) ;  Calast. 

Robert   (187B)  ;     Olivieri  (1897); 

Mendelssohn  on  chronology,  19S 
Erfutdt,  Karl  Gottlob  August,  93  ;  108 
Erik,  Jacob,  336 
Emesti,{i)  Johann  August  {1707-81), 

ii-l4i  8,  IS,  ■>■,  n-  39.  4'.  s?; 

portrait,   11  ;   (j)  August  Wilhelm 

(i733-i8o[),i4;{3)JohannChrislian 

Gottlieb  {1756-1801),  13 
Erelici Graiti,Scripliirts,  Mitscherlich 

S.     III. 


EX.  497 

{BipoDti,   17910  ;   Passow  (18)4- 

33);  Hiischieetc.{Par.  1856),  a8o; 

Hetcher{i868f) 
Escuiiat  Mss,  160 
Eton  MSS,   no;  Catal.  M.  R.  Jaraes 

(■89s) 
Etruscan,  143,  331;  Etruscans,  114; 

Elturia,  443 
Etymclogiiittn  Fltrr.  and  El.  parvum, 

154  ;  Et.  Magnum,  397 
Etymoli^y,  J07,  in,  459 
Eocteides,    Peyiard    {Pat.    1S14-8) ; 

August    (Berl.    1816-9)  )    Heiberg 


iiipides,  Jerusalem  palimps.,  373, 
376;  ed.  Musgrave  (1778)  re- 
piin  ted  by  Morus  and  Beck  ( r  788), 
with  Index  by  Beck  (Cantab., 
i8i9>),  14  ;  A.  H.  MaCthiae 
{1813-37),  with  Kimpmann's  In- 
dices ;  Variorum  ed.  with  Index 
{Glasg.  1811),  and  W.  TroUope's 
notes  (i8j8);  L.  Dindorf  (1815). 
144;  Fix  (Paris,  1843)1  Hartung 
{1848-53),  146;  Nauck  (1854, 
'69-71'),  149;  Kitchhoff  (185s, 
'67');  Paley  (1858-60,  ■72-80'), 
409  f;  Prinz-Wecklein  {1878- 
1901).  155 

II  plays,  ed.  Hermann  (iSio-41), 
91,  108;  II  plays,  edd,  Pflugk, 
109,  and  Klotz,   155  (1829-77), 


Bernardakes  (1888-  ) ;  6  plays, 
Elmsley,  394 ;  Ak.,  Hiff.,  Iph. 
A.,  iph.  T.  Monk,  400;  EL, 
Iph.  T.,  Tro.  Seidler,  Jo8 ;  Hil., 
Ion,  Iph.  T.  Badham,  408  ;  AU. 
Hayley  (Boston,  1898),  461 ;  Ale, 
Mid.  Earle,  468  ;  Androm.  Lent- 
ing  (1819);  Batikat,  Elmsley, 
1811  ;  Tyrrell  {1871",  '97*), 
Wecklein  ('79.  ^98"),  Sandys 
(1880,  1904''),  Bruhn  (1891I, 
Georges  Dalmeyda  (Paris,  1908); 
Cyclops,  Hopfner,  1789 ;  El. 
Caniper{L.B.'3i);  Hd.  Hetwer- 
den  (1895);  Heradidae,  Beck; 
/fo-3f&j,Wilainowiti{i889',95'); 
Hipp.  Wilamowiti  (1891);  Ion, 
Hetwerden(i875),Vertall  {1890); 
Iph.  A.  Firrhaber  (1841),  Vater 
(1845).  389.Vitelli  (1878),  Eng- 
land(i89i);  j^A.  Tawr.  Cavallin, 


.l\ 


>ogic 


35°;  Bnihn(t894);  Mid.Vet- 
raU  (1881),  Amim  (1886')  i  Or., 
Phgen.  Schuiz,  46,  Geel,  180, 
Kinkel  (1871);  Sufpt.  Surges 
(1807),  Wilainowitz(i87s)i  'Ire. 
Tyirdl;  Rhts.  Vater  (1837),  389 
Sihelia,  Arsenios,  354 ;  E.  tidiwaitz 
(1887-91);  Pragm.  in  Nauck, 
TV.  Gr.  Fr. ;  with  Index  (1891) 
Bake  on,  178;  Bieliaev,  3S6f; 
Boeckh,98;  Cyiil  VII.3S7;  De- 
channe(i893);  Q<x.i)\t\Pkaitkm), 
69;  Jacofc,  64;  KSchly,  133; 
Munro,  433  ;  Nesile  (1901)  ; 
Kauchenstein,  165 ;  Reiske,  17  ; 
Fr.  Schlegel,  71;  Semitelos,  373  ; 
Thoraps<Mi,  407  ;  Verrall  (1895, 
'905);  Wieland,  36;  Wilamo. 
witz,  Anal.  £Hr.  I1875),  Danish 
tr.,  338;  Engl.,  Way  (1894-8), 
Gilbert  Murray  (1901-  );Gerni, 
Hit.,  Hipp.,  Suppl.  Wilamowilz 
(1899) 
European  scholars  visiled  by  Ticknor, 


75) 
Eustratiadea,  308 
Eutroplus,  Hartei  {1871),  480;  Hans 

Droysen    (1878),    101  i    Wagener 

(1884);  Ruhl  (1S87) 
Evans,  Thomas  Saunders,  410 
Everett,  Edward,  4J4 
Eyssenhardt,  Fraoz,  100 

Faber's  Thesaurus,  6,  51 

Fable,  Lessing  on  the,  16 

Fabreiti,  Ariodante,  145 

Fabri,  Emst  WUheJm,  100 

Fabricius,  (i)  Geoi^  Goldschmied 
(iSi6-;i),38i  (i)Jcihann  Andreas 
(1696-17691,51;  (3)  Johann  Albert 
(1668-1736),  af;  314!  frontispiece 

FaJster,  Christian,  juf;  3 

Fant,  E.  M.,  348;  345 

Fasti  Comulares,  345;  HcUmid  and 
Hemarti,  430 

FaurieL,  Claude,  57 

Fea,  Carlo,  ]ig,  144 

Fellows,  Sir  Charles,  443 

Felton,  Cornelias  Conway,  455 

Featus  and  Verrius  F'laccus,  ed. 
E^r  (1838),  155;  K.  O.  MUUer 
('39,  '80')  i  Thewrewk  de  Ponor 
(Budapest,  1889I  ■■-—--■'--"■--'-- 
FarniiioHus  {ie. 


Feuds  of  4th  cent.  B.C.,  179 

Feuerbach,  Fiiedrich  Aoselm,  iii 

Fick,  August,  110 

Figrelius  (Gtipenhielm),  Edmund,  343 

Figulus,  Nigidlus,  199 

Kilelfo,  C.  Nisard  on,  153 

Fiorelli,  Giuseppe,  146 

Fischer,  Johann  Friedrich,  14 

Flaminio,  Marcanlonio,  450 

Fleckeisen,  Alfred,  I41 

Floderus,  Johannes,  349 

Florence;  Stosch  colleciion  of  gems, 

13;  Piiiati  collection  of  vases,  195 
Flotus,  ed.  Jahn   (1851   etc.),    tio; 

Halm  (1854),  196 
Forbes,  Edward,  443 
Forbiger,  Albert,   117 
Forcellini,  10,  143;  ii  374/ 
Forchhammer,   Petet  Wilhelm,  117; 

381 

Fomelius,  Laurentius,  338 
Foster,  John,  318 
Foucart,  Paul,   16;  ff 
Fouimonl,  Abb^  Michel,  99;  86 
F'rance,  1800-1900,148-273;  Chrmv- 
logical  Taile,  ^g;  Egger  on  Hellen- 

Francken,  Cornelius  Marin  us,  iSi 
Franeket,  univ.,  191 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  451  f 
Ftani,  Johannes  (1804-1851),  98f 
Freeman,    Edward    Augustus,    440 ; 

Freiburg  im  Breisgau,   148 

Freinsheim,  Johannes  Caspar,  340; 
ii  367 

Fieund,  Wilhelm,   rij;  467 

Freylag,  Gustav,  136 

Friederichs,  Karl,  115  f 

Friedliinder,  ed.  Martial,  194 

Frieze,  Heniy  Simmons,  458 

Frigetl,  Anders,  351 

Frit2sche,  (1)  Franz  Volkmar,  185; 
(1)  Adolf  Theodor  Hermann,  157, 
'93 

Frontinus,  Opera  (Biponti,  1788); 
Straltg.  et  De  Aq.  urdis  Romae, 
Dedetich  (Wesel,  1841;  Leipzig, 
185s),  tto;  i>f  <4;.,  facs.  of  Monte 
C^ino  MS,  ed.  Clemens  Herschel 
(Boston,  1899);  ed.  Biicheler  (1858), 
481 

Fronto,  ed.  pr.  Mai  (1815),  14I  ; 
NieUihr(iHi6),  79;  Naber(i86;); 
Mommsen  on  chronoli^,  198 

Frotscher,  Karl  Heinrich,  100 

Funck  (Funccius),  Johann  NicoUns,  4 


.oogic 


Fumeaux,  Heniy,  43s 

Furlwiingler,  Adolf,  48a 
Fuss,  Johann  Daniel,  301  f 
Fynes  Clinlon,  Henry,  439;  no 

Gail,  Jean  Baptisle,  148 

Gaisford,  Thomas,  39jf;  112,  179; 
portrait,  396 

Gaius,  e<l.Niebuhr,8o;  Lachinann,il9 

Galen,  ed.  Kuhn  (1811  f),  187;  Dt 
alinuntitxagualilibus,  Koraes,  367 ; 
Scripta  Minora  in  Bibl.  Teubn.; 
Fr.  transl.,  15; 

Gallen,  St,  81,  317,  461 

Gandino,  Giovanni  Batlista,  143 

Gantrelte,  Joseph,  195  f;  999 

Garasse,  Fr.,  153 

Garatoni,  Gasparo,  310;  ii  378 

Garrucci,  RafTaele,  945 

Gaul,  Roman,  J6i  n.  j,  363;  Geo- 
graphy, i5i,  and  History,  171 

Gaza,  Stark  on,  115 

Geddes,   Sir  William   Duguid,  418; 

Gedike,  Friedrich,  85 

Geel,  Jacob,  j8o;  (83 

Geer,  De,  J76 

Gellius,  ed.  Hertz,  199;  Falster  on, 
3'4f 

Gemistos  Plethon,  35S  ;  ii  60  f 

Gems;  King,  431 ;  Furlwangler,  481 

Gennadios,  (1)  "^^  patriarcb,  358; 
(3)  Georgios,  367  f 

GtegrapM  Gr.  Minorei,  E.  Miller, 
i£4 ;  C.  MilUer,  '271 ;  Bursian, 
lifi;  modem  gei^^phers,  ii6  IT, 
399,  443;  Kiepert,  257,  and  W. 
Christ  on  ancient  Geography,  154 

Georges,  Karl  Ernsl,  i03f;  199 

Geppert,  Karl  Eduard,   14O,  143 

Gerhard,  Eduard,  ii8f 

Gerlach.  F.  D.,  loo 

Germany,  1700-1800,  1-46;  Chrimo- 
ii^i-fl/Tai/i!, facing  p. 1;  1800-igoo, 
47-140 ;  Chnmelogical  Table,  p.  48  ; 
Bursian'a  Hist,  of  CI.  Philolt^y, 
116;  German  scholars  in  Russia, 
388-390;  Halm's  Lives  of,   196 

Getti,  M.  Clarentius,  314 

Gesner,  Johann  Matthias,  5-9;  39f, 
316 

Gevaerl,  Fran9ois  Auguste,  199 

Ghent,  univ.,  leyif,  194 f 

Gibbon  and  Heyne,  43;   ii  437 

GilTord,  Edwin  Hamilton,  412 

Gilbert,  Guslav,  133 

Gildersleeve,  BasU  L.,  468 


Girard,  (i)  Jules,  (j)  Paul,  367 

Gladstone, William  Ewart,4i3;  Va-si 
Transl.  by  Lyttelton  and  Gladstone 
(.860 

Glasgow,  Univ.,  406,  413 

Glossaries;  'Philoxenus' and  'Cyril', 
ed.  H.  Slephanus  (1573),  Vulcanius 
(1600),  Labbaeus  {1679)  and  in 
Appendix  to  London  ed.  of  the  Gk 
Thtiauna  of  n.  Stephanus  (|8'26); 
Loewe,  Prodremta  Cerporii  Gloss. 
Latin.  1886;  Goelz,  Corfm  Glesi. 
Latin.  (1888-1901);  Lalin-Anglo- 
Saxon.  Hessels,  C.  C.  C.  Cambridge 
(1890),  Leyden  (1906),  317 

Gods,    Usener  on  names  of  the,  184 

Gorres,  Joseph,  66 

Goerz,  K.  K.,  385 

Goethe,  69  f;  74;  on  Eur.  Bacch. 
71 ;  Homer,  8,  69  j  Goethe  and 
Herder,  34,  ]>ssing,  17,  19,  69, 
Voss,  69,  Winckelmann,  69  f.  Wolf, 
S4>  57  f>  ^ ;  Gk  transl.  of  Goethe's 
Iph.  by  Kock,  (56 

Gotlingen,  academy,  5:  oniv.,  5,  7f, 
39f,  43.  5»f.   >" 

Gottling,  Karl  Withelm,  ilj  f 

Gotz,  Georg,  140 

Gomperz,  Theodor,  151,  386 

Goodwin,  W.  W.,  456,  469 

Gortyn,  Laws  of,  344,  481 

Gossrau,  Gottfried  Wilhetm,  193 

Gotha,  64  f,  303,  333 

Goths  and  Vandals,  346 

Graefe,  Christian  Fri^iich,  388,  390 

Gram,  Hans,  314 

Grammatical  Studies,  history  of ;  107, 
159,  167,  184;  in  the  MA,  358; 
Grammatical  and  Critical  School 
of  Hermann,  89fi  Comparative 
Grammar,  Bopp,  305;  L.  Meyer, 
307;  G.  Curtius,  3o8i  Schleicher, 
309;  E^er,  ijs  ;  V.  Henry,  373; 
■  Indo-Gennanic  Grammars',  109; 
the  New  Grammarians,  309  f 

Grammaye,  Jean  Baptiste,  305 

Grant,  Sir  Alexander,  411 

Gratius  (or  Gratlius),  ed.  Haupt,  135; 
also  in  Postgale's  Corpus 

GrauK,  Charles,  359  f 

Greece,  Geography,  336-8;  Bursian, 
336;  Le  Bas,  365;  BeaM,  166; 
Leake,  44] ;  maps,  Lauremberg, 
313  ;  S.  Butler,  399;  Kiepert,  338  i 
History;  Thitlwall,  437,  Grote,  438, 
E.  Curtius,  338 ;  Duncker,  330 ; 
Herzbei^,     331;     Holm,     331  f. 


i-?nTt?.OO^IC 


500 


Duraj,  1711  PapuKgopulos,  373; 

Greece  under  the  Romans,  13 1,163  ; 

Civilisation,     Limbouig-  Btouwer, 

1S1;  Law,  Meier  and  Schomann, 

166;  Thoiiissen,  30J;  Public  Anti- 

qmtiis,  i6a,  166,  ijaf;  warfere,  13J 

Greece,   Modem ;    1500-1900,   353- 

394;mi,413;  the  Revolution,  359, 

380;  modern  Greek,  363,  374--Oi 

Grammar,     355 ;     knowledge     of 

ancient    Greek,    357 ;    history    of 

learning,  371;    verse  composition, 

37« 

Greek  Acetnt,   411,  418)   Art,  11  f, 

I  io,ni,ir3-3i6;  163-170;  3i8f; 

314;  4S01  Brunn  on  Gk  arlisis, 

til,  and  on  the  influence  of  art  in 

idyllic  poetry,  tii ;  Benndorf  on 

the  art-epigrams  of  the  Aiiihslogy, 

and  on   Gk  and  Sidlian  vases, 

116;  Bottiger,  71;,  and  Jahn,  110, 

on  Gk  vases;  Aslnmaeiy,   184, 

439;  dint,  443;  Diaiicis,   no; 

Drama,   revival  of,   447 ;    £^- 

erams,     1 54,    117;     Grammar, 

Hiibner's  Outlines,   139 ;   Rost, 

65:  Buttmann.84;  Maithiae,  75; 

Lobeck,    103;    Thiersch,    rir; 

Dissen.  114;  Kriiger,  119,  350; 

Kuhner,  Ahrens,  no ;  G.  Curlius, 

107  f,  119;  Baumlein,  Aken,  114; 

G.Meyer,  109;  Meisterhans,  114; 

J.  L.  Bm-nonf,  150;  Roersch  and 

Thomas,  300 ;  Tregder,  315  ;  Liif- 

stedt,  350  ;  Kumas,  365 ;  Dukas, 

366;  Bardalachos,  366;  Geona- 

dios,  367;  UIrich,37i;  Sophocles, 

456;  Donaldson,   409;    Rathei- 

ford,    415;    Syntax,    Reiz,     19; 

Hermann    on,    91  ;    Bemhardy, 

rii;  Madvig,  3iof;  Asopioa,  369; 

Oeconomides,     370 ;    Goodwin, 

456,  458  j  Gildersleeve ;  Rtaders, 

Jacobs,  64;  Halm,  196;  Valpy's 

Dekclus,ifl\;  John  Mayor  ( 1 868) ; 

Wilamowitz  (1901) 

tnseriflieHs,  Boeckh,  Cotfus  Inscr., 

Stf;  Franz,  99;  Kohler,  iii ; 
.  Hirschfeld,  119 ;  Kaibel,  r54f ; 
Kirchhoff,  478 ;  Dittenberger,von 
Hailel,  479;  Oeconomides,  370; 
Kumanudes,  383 ;  Hermann  on, 
94;  Dobree,  400,  401;  Riemann, 
iSg  ;  364, 168,  308,  370, 44S ;  Pa- 
laeography, Gardihausen  (1879), 
E.  M.  Thompson  (1893);  Graux, 
360;   Watlenbach,   Schrijltaftln 


(1876),  Scriptural  Gr.  Spedmina 
(1878),  W.  and  von  Velsen, 
Exempla  (i8j8);  Synenyms,  H. 
Schmidt,  ijS  n.  3,  Oeconomides, 
370;  Hederich,  4 

Languagi,  W.  von  Humboldt  on, 
68 ;  its  study  essential,  43 ;  Greek 
in  Sweden,  334f;  England,  393- 
41a ;  United  States,  470 

Law,  166,   168,  131  f,  3ojf 

iitj:iViimi/*y,  313;  J.  G.Schneider, 
1 1 ;  Rost,  65 ;  Passow,  lis;  Pape, 
Benseler,  168;  SchenkI,  160; 
Vanicek,  Zehetmayr,  PrellwiK, 
in;  new edd. of  Stephanus,  ijo; 
Aleiaiidre,Gk-Fr.,25i;  Dunbar, 
416;  Liddell  and  Scott,  418,  417, 
466;  Greek-Danish,  318;  ancient 
and  modem  Gk,  373,  cp.  Koraes, 
363 ;  Byiantine,  SoiJiocles,  456 ; 
Gk-German,  Kumas,  365;  Swe- 
dish-Gk,  350;  melri,  iii,  is7f, 
184 ;  rhythm  in  prose,  171 ; 
prenunaatian,  91  f,  171,  180, 
318,  376 ;  as|nrates,  157 

Literatiirt ;  Fabricius,  i ;  Bemhardy, 
riii  Nicolai,  114;  Miiller- 
Donaldson,  115,  +09;  Be^k, 
147  f;  Christ,  154;  Croiset,+84} 
(EpicCycle)Welcker.ii7;Lehrs, 
107;  (Drama)  W.  Schl^, 
Silvern,  73  i  Patin,i5i ;  (Theatre) 
Bijttiger,  14 ;  Wieseler,  113 ; 
Sommerbrodt.  185;  414;  (Critic- 
ism) E^er,  »35;  (Dramatists) 
ed.  Bothe,  103,  and  Dindorf, 
145;  Comic  Fragm.,  Bothe,  103, 
Meineke,  117  f,  Koch,  rj6, 
Kaibel,  155;  Tragic  poets,  Boeckh 
on,  97;  Fragm.,  Nauck,  149?] 
171;  (Epic  poets),  171J  (Lyric 
poets)  Blomfield,  401;  Welcker, 
1:7;  Schneidewin,  110;  Beigk, 
r47  f;  Hiller,  rgi;  H.  W,  Smyth 
(1900) ;  Wilamowiti,  Texige- 
schickte  (r90i);  for  Bucolic  poets 
see  r4eocn/«i ;  Jebb  on  Gk  Poetry, 
4i3;(Orators),i62,i7],4r3;Suse- 
mihl  (Alexandrian),  181 ;  Rohde 
(Novelists),  i85f;  chronology  of, 
186.  Revival  of  Greek  in  Italy, 
181;  Herder  on  the  originality  of 
the  Greeks,  34 ;  the  Germans 
and  the  Greeks,  31  f;  verse  com- 
position, 94,  374,  403.  406,  410 

MSS,  376-9;  Medicine,  i%^,  151, 
1S7;    M%isic,   158  f,    413,    460; 


,1^.00' 


gic 


MylMagy  atid  ReHgien,  41,  184, 

iwf,  i39f;Weslermann'sJjyAff- 

graphi,  163  ;  Natural Sciaut,  itfi 

New   TeilamtHl,    137,    lapff,    171, 

33s.  374>4<"ft4S8;  Deissmann, 

Lichtvon  Oslm{iga»] 

PhUosfpky,    173  f,    477  ;    ReUgivn, 

107,  184,   i86f.  417 

Greenhill,  WJllkm  Alexander,  430 

Greenough,  James  Biadslreet,  4s8f 

Gregorius    Corin thins,    ed.    G.     H. 

Schaefer,   101 
Gi^orovins,  Ferdinand,  139 
Grimm,  Jacob,  S5,  106,  319 
Gremaiici  Vetmt,  I^chmann,  139 
Groningen,  univ.,  391 
Grote,  438,  portrait;  T66r,  40S 
Grotius,  339i  ii  3isf 
Gruppe,  Otlo  (1804-76),  i;; 
Guaitperius,  Otho,  336  n.  7 
Gualtani,  144 
Guigniaul,  Joseph  Daniel,  364;  151, 


Haase,  Friedrich,  137;  108 

tiadle}',  James,  463 

HagBslrom,  F.  W.,  351 

Ha^,  Arthur  Eliam,  414 

Halbertama,  l^alliiig,  187 

HalicamassuE,  444  f 

Hall,  Theophilus  D.,  431 

Halle,  oniv.,  7,  53-9,  83,  85, 

Haller,  318 

Halm,  Karl  I 

Hamaker,  Hendrik 

Hand,  Ferdinand  Gotthelf,   117 

Hannibal's  passage  of  (he  Alps,  443 

Harderwyck,  univ.,  191 

Hare,  Julius  Charles,  83,  401,  437 

Harkness,  Albert,  41;  7 

Harpocration,       ed.       Bekker,       87; 

Dindorf,  144  f 
Harris,  James,  1;  ;  ii  416 
Hartel,  wilhelm  von,  479 ;  i6a,  lot 
Hartung,  Johlnn  Adam,  146 
Harvard  College,  451,  454-463;  469 
Hase,  Karl  Benedict,  171 ;  14s.  154, 


301 

Hatzidakis,  G.  H,,  375  n.  6,  376 
Haapt,  Moritz,  134-7;  "8,  130.  13, 

"93.  '97.  435 
Haussoullier,  Bernard,  167 
Hauvellc,   A.,  483  f;  367 


layley,  I 


I"  447 


Headlam,  Walter  George,  484 
Hecker.  Alfons,  180 
H^elin,  Francois  (AbW  d'Aubignac), 
Conjtitttrts  oiadc'migues   mi  Diss. 


■    Clliiu 


1715. 


Wolf,  cp.  Proh^.  c      . 
Hederich,  Benjamin,  4 
Hedicke,  Edmund,   loj 
Heeren,  Arnold  Hermano  Ludwjg,77 
Heidelberg,  65f,  95,  97,  I3if;  HSS, 

3S<S 


59.  78  f.  e 

Heinecke  (Heineccius),  Johann  Gott- 
lieb, 4 

Heinrich,  Karl  Friedrich,  109 

Heinse,  Wilhelm,  36 

Heinsius,  N.,  193,  388,  391,  339, 
343 ;  ii  313  f 

Heitz,  Emil,  181 

Helbig,  Wolfgang,  111 

Heliodorus,  5.  Koraes  (1804),  361; 
Bekker  (i8s5).  86;  318 

Helladius,  Alexander,  339 

Hellenic  Studies,  Society  fax  the 
Promotion  of,  447;  413 

Hellenism,  Droysen,  333 ;  Thereianos, 
371 ;  Hellenism  in  France,  ^ger, 

Heller,  Ludwig,  93 
Helmstadt  MS,   17 
Helsingfors,  univ.,  388 
Hcmsterhuys,  5,  39,  59,  190,  398;  ii 

447  f 
Heniichsen,  Rudolf,  314;  3i8f 
Henry,   (i)  James  4j6  ;   (i)  Victor, 

Henien,  Wilhelm,  iig;  33s 
Hephaestion,  ed.  Gaisford  (i8to.  '33, 

'SS),  395.  397  !  Westphal,  158;  91 
Heracleides      Ponticus,      Dt     rebas 

puUicis,  ed.  toiler  (1804);  Koraes 

(■80;),   363  ;  Schneidewin  (1847); 

Roulez  on,  104 
Hecacleides     (Ponticus),     Alligoriae 

Homiricar,  ed.  Schow  (1783),  317  ; 

Mehler  (1851) 
Heraclitus,  Bemays,  I77f;  Bywater 
Heraeus,  Karl,   101 
Hercher,  Rudolph,  1S5 
Herculaneum,    33,    344.    394,    449 

Herder,    Johann    Gottfried,    31-35; 

74;  Ilerdei  and  Lessing,  17  f,  31; 

Winckelmann,  31;  Wolf,  60 
Hermann,    (i)    Johann    Gottfried 


,l^.OO' 


SIC 


S02  IND 

Jacob,  88-95  ;  18,  40,  63,  69,  97, 

Philology,  105 ;  Hernuinn  and  G. 
H.  Schaefer,  icn,  Meineke.  117, 
Kitsch],  140.  Hernmnnon  Boeckb, 
09;  Crenzer,  67;  Dissen,  114; 
Gaislbrd,  397 ;  Goltling,  397 ; 
I.obeck,i03  1 ;  Scholefield,  307  (see 
also  Porson,  ii  417  I).  Jahn  on 
Hennann,  iii  n.  3 ;  his  pupils, 
95.  101,  108,  i3if,  134,  136,  144. 
146,  156;  his  portrait,  87 
(i)  KbH  Friedrich,  ifii;  175,  456 

Hennas,  SAephtrd  of,  381 ;  145 

Hirmts,  136 

Hero(n)das,  448;  415,  4S1,  484 

Herodian,  the  historian  ;  F.  A.  Wolf 
('79»),  ss;  Innisch  (tpSg-iSos); 
Dukas  (Vienna,  1S13) ;  Bekker 
(■816, '55),  86;  Mendelssohn,  198; 
Beroler's  Lat.  transl.,  3 

lletodianus  Technicus,  Aelius,  ed. 
Lentz(i867  f),  107  ;  irejji  sxripATiai, 
Villoiaon  (1781),  Dindorf  (1813), 
144,  Wall  ('3s),  Spengel  ('56), 
Tffi  iiiu>.firni>iriMi  \i\eat,  Hermann 
(1801);  if/j  dixpdriar  kt\,  Cratnei 
{1836);  xtpi  itor-fifoM  Xi^flilt,  rtpl 

ed.    Lehrs,    107 ;    Fragnttula,    in 

Lobeck's  Phrynichus  {1810),    lo^ 

Herodotus,  ed.  Gaisford  (1834,  '49*), 


Stein  (1853-6)  etc.);  Blakedej 
(1854),  405  ;  Macan,  iv-v  (1805}, 
vil-ix  (1908);  Bergleron,3;  Reiske 
on,  171  Eng.  transl.  Rawlinson, 
410;  German.  A.  Scholl,  149; 
modern  Ok,  369 ',  Ital.,  370 ; 
Dahlmann's  Life,  159;  Hauvelte, 
Hirodott  (1894),  484 

Heron  Alexandrinus,  Difinilienes  Gto- 
metrical,  ed.  Hasenbalg  ( 1 816) ;  Geo- 
nietricorunt... reliquiae,  ed.  Hullsch 
(1864),  18s;  Lelronne,  JiecAirihes 
(1851),  964 

Heron     Ctesibii,     in     Kochly    and 


Hertz,  Martin,  T98I;  100,  193 

Hertibeig,  Gustav,   331 

Hesiod,  Gaisford  in  Poelat  Min.  Cr. 


(1840);  D.J.  van  Lennep(i843-S4), 
176;  Paley  (1861),  409;  Schomann 
(•69),  i66 ;  Kochly  Cto).  m  i  Flach 
(■74.  '78)-  Ofira  et  Dies,  ed, 
Thorlac  (1803),  317;  Brunck  in 
Peetae  Giuiinid  ('17) ;  Spohn  ('19), 
T06;  Vo]lbehr('44) ;  Lehrs  on.  107; 
Thiersch,  lit.  Scutum  Herculit, 
Heinrich  (i8oi),  no;  C.  F.  Kanke 
('40)  ;  K.  O.  Muller  on,  115. 
T/u:ogoma,  F.  A.  Wolf  (1783),  54  i 
OrelU  (1836I;  Gerhard  (1856); 
Welcker  (1865),  117;  Schomanu 
(tS68),l66;  Flach(i873) ;  Hennann 
on,  93.  Danish  transl.,  313,  318; 
English,  Mair  (1908);  German,  Voss 
{(806);  Flaxman's  ill.  (i8ij) 

Hesychius,Schow(i79i);  M.Sdiniidt 
(1858-68).  153  ;  Korafis  on,  361 

Heumann,  Chrisloph  August,  4 

Heusde,  Philipp  Willem  van,  176 

Heusinger,  Johann  Michael,  4 

Heuiey,  L,,  267 

Heyne,  Christian  Gotllob,  36-44  ;  6, 
14,  ii,  i8,  34,  39,  J5,  58,  61  f,  65, 
68,  71.77,110,113,317  ;  portrait,  37 

Hierocles  and  PhiUgiios,  Pkilegelos, 
Korags  (1813),  363;  Boissonade 
(1848),  380;  Cobet  in  Grieksth 
Ltesboek  (Leyden,  1856,  '65);  Eber- 
hard  (1869) 

Hildyard,  James,  431 

Hiller,  Eduard,  193 

Hippocrates,  ed  Kiihn  (\%ii-%i), 
187;  Littrf,  with  Fr.  transl. 
(1839-61),  3S3 ;  Ermerius  {Utr. 
1859-^5);  Ilberg  and  KUhleveein, 
Teubner  text ;  Fr.  transl.  Daremberg 
(1843),  357 ;  De  aire,  aquis,  loeis, 
Koraes  (i8i>o),  363  ;  Chr.  Petersen 
(■33),  Ruder  ('49) 

Hippolylus,  Philosolikumena,  381 

Hirschfeid.  Gustav,  339 

Hitschig,  W.  A.,  and  R.  B.,  380 

Hirt.  ^oys,  70 

Historia  Miscella,  and  Historiae 
Auguslae  Scriptures,  ed,  Eyssen- 
hardt,    300 ;    Historians,     77-83 ; 

328-339;  *7';373;+3';  437-44* 

History,  Ancient,  authorities  for, 
Heeren  on,  77 ;  A.  Schaefcr, 
170;  Chronological  Tables.  Fynes 
Clinton.  439;  Zumpt.  I15 ;  Karl 
Peter,  333  ;  A.  Schaefer,  170  ;  In- 
troduction to  the  study  of.  Curt 
Wachsmnth,  339 

Hoeck,  Karl,  333 


l.rlh/COOt^lC 


503 


Hoeufit,  Jacob  Henrik,  178 

Holden,  Hubert  Ashton,  411 

Holder,  Alfred,  191,  194,  loi 

Holdsworlh,  Edward,  451 

Holland,1800'lWM,l75-t9l;  Chreno- 
logical  Tttblt,  49 

Holm,  Adolf,  43:  f 

Holmes,  Arthur,  4ri 

Homer,  Ilias,  facsitniU  of  codex 
Venetus  A  (L.  B.  1001) ;  ill. 
MS,  14I ;  Jlias  el  Odyssea,  ed. 
Emesti  (1759-64),  13;  Humeri 
el  Htmeridaruai  Optra  el  Jfe- 
iiquiat,  Ilias,  ed.  F.  A.  Wolf 
( 1 794),  S4 ;  !!■  el  Od.  mm  sckoliis 
Didymi  (Oxon.  1780,  1816  f); 
/;.  tt  Od.  {i».  1800);  //.  Heyne 
(i8o»-ii),  40-43;  57  J  /;.  el 
Od.  ed.  Wolf  (1804-^7),  54  i 
Dindorf  and  Franke  (i8i4f)  ; 
//,  Od.  etc.  Bothe(i83i-s),  103; 
Homeri  Carmina  el  Cycli  Epid 
reliquiae,  Dindorf  (Par.  1837  f, 
's6)i  n.  el  Od.  Dindorf,  with 
Sengebnsch,  Dissert.  (18550; 
Bekter  ('58),  86;  La  Roche, 
Od.  (1867),  //.  (-73);  II.  tt 
Od.  Nauck  (1874-7),  '5'  !  //. 
Spinner  (1831-6),  105.  Trol- 
lope  ( 1 847'),  Doederlein  ( 1 863-4), 
it3,  Paley  (1867),  4OQ,  Pierron, 
Mistriotes  (1869),  Uaf  (1886-8, 
1900-1');  //.  el  Od.  Leeuwen 
and  Da  Costa  (L.  B.  1897*) ; 
Ludwig,  Od.  [889,  //.  190J  ;  //. 
Rzach  (1886),  Caaer  ;  Od.  Metty 
and  Monro,  413 ;  HaymBn  ("66- 
'Si).  German  school-editions, 
FaM-Francke,  Ameis-Henlze,  La 
Roche,  DUntzer ;  Abel  on  Od. 
391:  scAelia  on  II.  86,  146,  355; 
Od.  8s.  14' 
Fabricius  on  Homer,  »;  Gesner's 
lectures,  8;  Herder,  31,  31,  34f. 
,17;  WolTs. lectures,  53;  Lehrs 
on,  t07;  Cobel  on,  284;  Glad- 
stone,  413 ;  Placers  on  the 
Alexandrian  editors,  1S7 
Homeric  Grammar,  Abel,  391  ; 
Monro,  i88),  '91';  Bieliaev  on 
hiatus  in  Od.  386 ;  Leeuwen  and 
Da  Costa,  Encheiridien  dictiotiis 
eficae  (L.  B.  iSoi) ;  Vogrini, 
Grammalii   ( 1 889) ;   Language, 

' A  84; 


0.  BS'l  Classen,  Beebachiungea 
(i867);Hartel,  5;M/f>n(r87l-4); 
Menrad,  Conlraelio  el  Synizesit 
(:886);  Schullie,  Quaesl.  Ep. 
(1893);  Solmsen,  Zmff-  und  Vers- 
Uhre  (1901);  Lexicons;  Damm, 
6j;  Buttmann,  84;  Ind.  Horn. 
Seber  (Oxon.  t78o),  Gehring 
(Lips.  1891) ;  Lex.  Ebeling  ('85), 
Pantazides,  373 ;  Concordance, 
434;  C.  E.  Schmidt,  Parallel- 
homer  (G6tt.  '%%).  Kealien  ; 
Friedreich  ( 185 1 ),  Buchholtz 
(1871-85),  149,  Helbig  (1887'), 
Reichel,  H'o^b(  (894).  Seymour's 
Homeric  A ^{\aoi),i,<>y,  Homei 
and  Art,  i6f;  Flaxman,  58; 
Archaeolagy',  Overbeck,  Bild- 
werke  (1853),  Wormann,  Oifyi 
landsthaften  (1876),  Engelma 
Bilderallas  (1889);  Mythology, 
387;  Theology,  106,  186;  Trans- 
lations, Danish,  31S;  Engl,  prose. 
Butcher,  Lang,  Leaf  and  Myers 
verse,  Worsley  and  Coningtor 
('6i~8),  413;  II.,  Cowper,  New- 
man; Blackie,  417,  Lord  Derby, 
413,  Merivale,  440;  Fr.  161; 
German  interest  in,  8,  30;  transl. 
Damm,  9;  Voss.  61-63  ;  Goethe, 
'-     modem  Gk,  //.,  355,  375 


6d.\ 


373 


The  Homeric  Question  ;  Wolf,  55  f 
(Volkmann,  184);  Hermann,  93  ; 
Nitzsch,  105;  NageUbach,  Spohn 
106;  Lachmann,  I3o;5chomann, 
167  n.  3;K(ichly,  I3if  ;Nulihoni, 
330  f;  Mistriotes,  Nicolaides, 
371;  Blass,  173;  Grote,  438; 
Paley,  409 ;  Blackie,  Geddes, 
438  ;  Jebb's  Introd.  413  ;  Monro, 
43J  ;  Wilamowitz,  Phil.  Urtl.  % 
Gilbert  Murray;  Fiosler.  Edd. 
Kochly,  Iliadis  Carmina  xvi 
(1861),  Kirchhoff,  Od.  (1879^), 
Christ,  //.  {1884),  154,  Od.  11. 
Fick  (1883-6) 

Batrachomyomackia,  Damm  (1733- 
5),  9f;  Ilgen  (1796),  63;  Ban- 
meislei  (1853) ;  Abel  (1886),  391 ; 
Ludwicb  (1896) ;  Brandt  in  Corp. 
ep.  Cr.  ;  modem  Gk,  355 

Hymni  Homerici;  Ilgen  (1J96), 
63;  A.  Matthiae  (1805),  75; 
Hermann  (1806),  qi ;  Franke 
([818}  \  Baumeister(*6o);  Gemoll 
(:86) ;  Abel('86),  391 ;  A.  Goodwin 


lOO' 


SIC 


('93);  Allen  and  Hikes  (1904I; 
Hyoai  to  Demtler,  Voss  (i8i6J, 
61 ;  BUcheler  ('&»),  Puntoni  ('q6)  : 
388 ;  Engl,  transl.  by  J.  Edgar 
(1801)  and  A.  Lang  (1899)  ; 
Dttian  Apelh,  (ransl.  by  Goethe, 
b^;  Index,  Gehring  (1^5) 

HomoUe,  Th^ophile,  166  If 

Hopf,  Carl,  131 

Horace,  FacsimiU  of  Cod.  Birntnsis 
(L.  B.);  ed.Gesner  {\^i,1,  'ji,  '88 
etc),  6;  DiiriTig  (1803-34  etc.), 
65;  Fea  and  Boihe  (1S11-7)  ; 
Meineke  (1834  elc),  118,  193; 
Orelli  (1837  f,  etc.),  161  ;  Dillen- 
bnrger(i  843  elc.) ;  DUntzer  { r  849, 
'68f);C.W.  NauckandG.T.A. 
Krtlger  (1851-7  etc.);  Macleane 
(1853  etc.),  430  n-  3  ;  Fi-  Ritter 
(1856-7I,  101 ;  L.  Muller,  j "    - 


with  Index  (1669);  King  and 
Munro(i869), 431  ;Haupt  (1871); 
Wickham  ([874-1896);  Piessy- 
Lejay  (1903);  Vollmer  (1907) 

Tale,  Horaliut  ReslUutia  (1833, 
'J7)>  4»9 ;  Odes,  ed.  Peerlkamp, 
177;  Lehrs  on,  108;  Lachmann, 
119;  ed.  Page  (1883);  Carmen 
Sate,  146 ;  Sat.  Heindorf,  65, 
84!  W.  E.  Weber;  A.  J.  H. 
Frilische  (1875HS) ;  Rich,  431; 
Palmer,  437;  Sat.  and  Epp., 
Doederlein,  113  5  F.pp.  F.  E.  T. 
Schmid  {i8j8-30)i  1,  Obbarius, 
ii,  Riedei;  Epp.  and  A.  P., 
Ribbeck,  188;  Wilkins,  434; 
Peerlkamp  on  ^.  P.  a.aASal.,  178 

Transl.  Engl.  Coninglon,  43J : 
spades,  Sal.  and  Epp.,  Howes 
(1845);  Germ.  Sat.  and  Epp., 
Wieland,  36.  Scholia,  Porphyrio 
ed.  W.  Meyer  {i8;4);  Usener, 
184;  W.Christ  on  Horace.  154; 
Jacobs,  64  ;  Kaislen,  i%i  ;  Kiess- 
3lng,  185;  Herder,  3S,  and  Lessing, 
15,30;  M.  Schmidt,  153  ;  Seltar, 
435 

Aiialecta  Horatiana.    Herti,    193, 

^;  Manitius  (1S93) :  Paldanus, 
Imitatione  Hor.  (Greife. 
i85i);Benoist,//.cn  France,  159; 
Stemplinger,  Fortleben  der  Hor. 


1  Horace  and  Vii^il, 


Hosius,  Carl,  194 
Hottinger,  Johann  Jacob,  161,  165 
Hudemann,  E.  E.,  115 
Huebner,  Emil,  338  f;  100,  147 
Huel,  Pierce  Daniel,  340;  i  : 
Hug,  Arnold,  160 
Hulleman,  J.  G.,  37f;  187 
Hultsch,  Friedrich  Olto,  185 
Humanism,  (he  New,  7,  43 
Humann,  Karl,  130 
Humboldt,  W.  von,  81,  ii6 


Huygens,  KonslanCyn,  389 

Hyginus,  Astroitomica,  Bunte  (1875); 
lii.  Hasper  {1861);  Fabutat,  Bante 
(i85j);M.  Schmidt  {1B73),  153 

Hypereides,  F.  G.  Kiessling  on,  171; 
/«  Dem.  (1850),  pro  Lye.,  pro 
Eux.  (1853),  Or.  Fun.  (1858  f), 
ed.  pr,  Babinglon,  4(1  i  171;  Lj/c, 
Eux.  Scbneidewin,  111;  Eux. 
Linder,  350 ;  Eux.  el  Or.  Fun. 
Cobel,  384,  Comparelti,  149;  In 
Phi!ippidem,ed.pr.  Kenyon  (i8qi), 
448  ;  lit  Athenag.,  ed.  pr.  Revillout 
(1889,  '91);  Oral.  Sex,  Blass 
{1894*);  Kenyon 

lambiichus.  Vita  Pythag.  Kiessling 
(1816);  Nauck  ('84),  151;  De 
Mysteriis,  Parthey  ('57) 

Iceland,  318 

Ideler,  (i)  Christian  Ludwig  {i;66 
-1846),  99;  (i)  Julius  Ludwig 
(1809-1843),  187 

lemsledt,  V.  K.,  386 

Ihne,  Wiihelm,  13; 

ligen,  Karl  David,  63  f;  90,  93,  no 

India,  Heeren  on  the  Commerce  of, 
77;  Fr.  von  Schlegel  on  the  Lan- 
guage and  Wisdom  of  the  Indians, 
73 

Inscriptions,  Locrian,  370:  of  Lycia 
and  Cyprus,  153;  see  also  Greek 
and  Latin  Imeripiiims 

Inveiniii,  Filippo  (d,   1831),  86,  144 

loannes  Damascenus,  150 

loannina,  schools  of,  359,  361 

loannu,  Philippos,  374 

/oh,  Schlegel's,  73,  J4 

Ionian  Islands,  3^5  f,  368  f,  375 

Iphicrates,  Chabnas  and  Timotheus, 
Rehdanlz  on,  169 

Isaeus,  in  Reiske's  Or.  Graeti,  and 
in  Bekker's,  and  Bailer  and  Sauppe's 
Or.  Attici;  ed.  Schomann,  105  f; 
Wyse  (1904);  Or.  \\,  De  Meneclu 


|.Mi,1^.00t^lc 


;  Or.  i,  De  hertd.  Cltonymi, 
Mai  (iSij),  141;  Engl.  Ir.,  W. 
/ones  (1779);  Fr..  Dareste  (1898) 

Isidore,  Elym.,  Faaitnilt  of  Cod. 
Tolelattus  (L.  B.  1908) 

Isocrates,  in  Or.  Graeci  and  Atlici; 
ed.  Koraes  (1807),  361  f:  Benseter 
(1852  etc.,  ed.  Blass,  '78),  t68; 
Drenip  (1906  0;  Panig.  Moras, 
14,  Spohn,  106;  Paneg.  etc.,  Bremi, 
164  f,  O.  Schneider,  15;,  Rau- 
chenstein,  t6j,  Sandys;  adDivan. 
G.  F.  Bekker,  301,  Erik,  336; 
AnHdosis  [De  Ptrm.)  ed.  OreHi, 
161,  Mystoiydes,  370,  Fr.  uajisl. 
Cartelier,  161 ;  Fr.  iransl,  of  Opera, 
Ctermont-ToDDetre ;  Kyprianos  on, 
iTi:  Index,  T.  Mitchell  (Ox.  1818), 
Preuss  1 1 9O4) :  scholia,   145 

Italy,  1800-ltOO,  141-7;  Chranolo- 
gical  Table,  49;  Goeihe  in,  Sgf; 
Mommsen's  'Dialects  of  Lower 
Italy',  135;   Biicheler,  481 

Ithaca,  124 

Ivanov,  G.  A.,  385 

Jacob,  Johann  Friedrich,   117 
Tacobi,   Hcinrich,   118 
Jacobilz.  Karl  Gottfried,   185 
Jacobs,  Christian  Friedrich  Wilhelm, 

64  f;   114,  »:7,  4S4 
Jahn,    Otto,    no   f;    141,    148,    166, 

173,   19;,  481 
Jan,  (1)  Ludwig  von  (1807-69),  loi; 

(I)  Karl  von  (b.   1836),   139 
Jannaris,  A.  N.,  3JS  i-  7 
tanssen,  L.  J.  F.,  j8i 
Jebb,    Richard   Claverhouse,    413-3; 

403  f,  484;  portrait,  411 

Jeep,  Ludwig,  194,  loi 
eli;  W.   E.,  4H 
Jersin,  J.  D.,  3.1 
Tenisilem,  MSS,  372,  378 
Johnston,  Arthur,  416;  ii  149 
Jordan,  Henri,  ^oa 
Josephus,     ed.      Dindorf     (1845-9); 
Bekker  (1855-6),  86;  Niese  ('87- 
'95);  Naber  ('88-96) ;  on  primitive 
w'ing,  s5 
Jowetl,  Benjamin,  418  f;  414,  441 
/urh  Romani  Syntagma  ,Heinecke's,4 
Justin,   C.   H.   Frotschet  (1817-30); 

Jeep  (1859  etc.),  101 
Juvenal,  Acbaintre  (1810);    Kuperti 
(l8i9-5o');Heinrich(i839f),  iioi 


430;  Weidner(i873);  Friedlander 
(1895);  Dulf;  Housraan  (190J); 
Falsler  on  Sat,  xiv,  316;  Conielis- 
sen  oD  the  Life  of  Juvenal,  188; 
Scholia,  i6j;  Engl.  tr.  J.  D,  Lewis 
(l88i>) 

Kaibel,  Geor%,  154  f 
Kampmann,  Karl  Ferdinand,  73 
Kant,  Hermann  and,  90 
Karsten,  (1)   Simon,  981  f;  176;  (1) 

H.  T.,  181 
Kastorches,  E.,  371 
Katkov,  383 
Kazan,  386 

Keightley,  Thomas,  419 
Keil,  Heinrich,  iai;  113,  113 
Keller,  Otto,  191 
Kellennann,  oWs,  319;  1:9 
Kelliw,  Martin,  465 
Kennedy,  (i)  Benjamin  Hall,  403  f; 

181,   401,  40s   f,   408;    434;    (t) 

Charles  Rann,  405 
Kerameus,  Daniel,  359 
Key,  Thomas  Hewitt,  419 
Kharkov,  387 

Kidd,  Thomas,  393;   ii  4)9  f 
Kiepert,  Heinrich,  117  f 
Kiessling,     (1)     Johann     Gottlieb 

('777 — '^49)1       ^-       Theocritus 

(1819),    Tacitus    ([819-40);     (i) 

Friedrich     Gustav     (1809-1884). 

164,    171;    (3)   Adolph   Gotllieb 

(1837-1893),  185,   198 
Kiev,  384  f 
King,  C.  W.,  431 
Kingsley,  James  Luce,  461 
Kirchhoff,  Adolf,  478;  98,  150 
Kirchner,  Karl,  193 
Klausen,  Rudolf  Heinrich,   166 
Klenie,  Leo  von,  213 
Klopstock,  57,  61 
Kloti,  (1)  Chrisiiao  Adolf,  18  f;  14, 

33;  (i)  Reinhold,  115  f;  109,  195, 

Knight,  Richard  Payne,  99;  Ii  434 

Knos,  O.  v.,  3Sr 

Kock,  Theodor,  155 

Kodrikas,  Panagiolakes,  364;  363 

Kochly,  Hermann,  r3i-4;  171 

Kohler,  (1)  Heinrich  K.  E.,  390;  (1) 

Ulrich,  211 
Konigsbet^,  103  f,  107  f 


,1^.00' 


gic 


5o6  IND 

Kohlmann,  Philipp,  194 

KoUuthos,  ed.  Abel,  391 ;  see  Cdulhos 

Kolroodin,  Olof,  351 

Komos,  K.  S.,  373,  375  n-  7 ;  184 

Kopp,  Joseph,  113 

Koraes,  (ij  Antonios,  356;  (i)  Ada- 

mantios,  361-4;  186,  359,  365-8, 

370.  373-  375.  454 
Korn,  Otio,  193 

Koitie  jCortiua),  Goitlieb,  4,  loo 
Kranei,  Friedrich,  101,  479 
Kiarup,  Niel3  Byg^m,  318 
Krebs,  Johann  Tobias,  14 
Kreyssig,  Johann  Gottlieb,  lOi 
Kritz,  Justus  Friedtich,  loo,  loi 
Kriukov,  D.  L.,  385 
Kroneberg,  I.  I.,  3S9 
Krilger,  (i)  Geoi^  Theodor  August, 

103;  (-i)  Karl  Wilhelm.  119;  108 
Kudiiavtsev,  385 
Kilhn,  Kail  Goltlob,  187 
KUhnast,  Ladwig,  101 
Kiihner,  Raphael,  110;  171 
Kiisler,  Ludolf,  3;  ii  44s  f 
Kuhn,  Adalbert,  106,  14a 
Kumanudes,  Stephanos,  3831  371  f, 

Kumas,  Konstantinos,  364 

Laborde,  lAin  de,  166 

Lachmann.  Karl,  [17-131;  118,  117 
n.  6,  118,  134,  joo,  380;  portrait, 
116 

Lactantios,  MS  of,  333 

Ladewig,  Theodoi,   191 

Lagerlof,  Petrus,  344 

Lagergren,  ).  P.,  351 

Lagomarsini,  Gltolamo,  80 

Lane,  Geoige  Martin,  456 

Lange,  Ludw^,  110,  136 

Langen,  Peter,  143 

Language,  Science  of,  305-111; 
Borch,  J13  f;  Herder,  33;  W.  von 
Humboldt,  68 

Laocoon,  16-19;  4^i  1°'  date,  319 

Lfdin  Classics  in  MA,  Traube  on, 
195;  transl.  by  C,  Nisard,  353 
GraBimar ;  Grammalici  Lalini, 
ed.  Keil,  103;  DtTimark;  Jer^n, 
Bang,  311,  Ancherson,  Baden, 
316,  Madvig,  310;  England; 
Donaldson,  409;  Key,4i9;  Ken- 
nedy, 403;  Roby;  Franct;  Bur- 
nout, Guerard,  Dellour,  Chas- 
sang;  Germany;  Hubner's  Out- 
lines, 138,  Kiihner.  no,  K.  L. 
Schneider,  134,  Schweizer-Sidler, 


loi,  K.  G.  Zatnpt,  114;  Greict, 
Philetas,  369 ;  Netherlands,  Gan- 
trelle,  196;  United  Statis,  PCAea 
and  Greenough,  458  f,  Harkness, 
457,  l^ne,  457,  Gildersleeve  and 
Lodge  (1894),  Hale  and  Buck 
('903) 

Accidence,  Neue,  114;  Alphabet, 
Ritschl,  141  ;  Orthography, 
Oberdick,  1 54,  Brambach ;  Pani- 
cles, Ribbeck,  188;  Pronuncia- 
tion. 141  f,  433,  457;  Style. 
Nagelsbacb,  106,  Kloli,  115; 
Synonyms,  113;  Syntax,  Drager, 
lot,  Kiihnast,  101,  KJemann,  159 

Inscripism,!^,  135,  *37, 143. ■^^6, 
161,  164,  168,  319,  401 ;  Cerpui 
Itucr.  Lot.,  119.  537  f,  145,  147 

LangUB^,  ages  of  the,  313;  His- 
toria  Critics  Lalinae  LiitgTiae, 
4;  early  Latin,  140  f,  460;  con- 
versational Latin,  7;  cursory 
reading,  S;  Latin  in  England 
etc..  419-437,  France,  isr,  158 f, 
Germany,  117-143,  188-104, 
Greece,  369,  371,  Holland,  188, 
390.  Hungary.  391,  Italy,  143  f, 
United  States,  450.  470 

Lexicography,  103  f,  15T,  313; 
Etymological  Diet.  ,111;  Latin- 
Anglo-Saxon  glossary,  317;  Lat.- 
Danish,  Danish-Lat.  Diet.,  314, 
316;  Lat.-EngL,  Key,  430, 
Neltleship,  436,  Riddle  and 
Arnold,  Andrews,  467,  Lewis 
and  Short.  457,  467,  Smith.  43: ; 
Engl.-Lat.,  Smith,  437;  Lat.- 
Fr.,  Fr.-Lat.  Quicherat,  151, 
Diet,  of  Proper  Names,  Thesau~ 
rus  Pcelicus,  Addenda  Lexicis 
Lalinis,  id.  igl ;  Lat.-Germ., 
Hederich,4;  Gesner,6, 9,  Schel- 
ler,  lof,  Klotz,  115,  Freund,  135, 
Geoi^s,  103;  Lingucu  Latinae 
Thesaurus,  199  f;  Gerni.-Lal., 
Scheller,  10,  Bauer.  14;  Lat.- 
Greek,  Ulrich,  371  ;  Lat.- 
Russian,  387  ;  Lat. -Swedish, 
Swedish-Lat.,  349-51 

Literature,  Hlijiners  outlines,  138; 
Fabricius,  1,  Teuffei,  113,  Bem- 
hardy,  111,  G.  A.  Sitncox,  434; 
Mackail  (ed.  3,  1896):  Scbanz, 
(1800  f);  Latin  Poets,  Patin,  151; 
D.  Nisard,  151;  Setlar,  435;  Dra- 
matists, fragm.  ed.  Ribbeck, 
ig8i  Herder  on  Latin  influence 


A.oogic 


507 


in  modem  German;,  31  (;  Versi- 
fication, 313;  Verse-Composilion, 
in  EnglMid,  408,  410,  434.  440; 
France,     351;     Germany,     94; 
Nettierlands,  177  f,   Fuss,  joi; 
Sweden,  337,  343  f,  349  f,  35. ; 
value  of.   igo,   349.     See    also 
Poetat  Lalini,  iM  Falaeegre^hy 
Lanremberg,  Johan,  311 
Laurium,  mines  of,  98 
Law,   (1)   Ancienl,   440;  (1)' Greek, 
Thonissen  on,  305;  Hiriel,  ThemU, 
Dike,undVenB<mdtes(\<;f:>i)-,  Attic 
Law,   161,  t66,   168,  33*  f,  30s  f. 

?9i ;  Beauchet,  Hist,  du  droit privi 
1S07);  Dareste,  Haussoultier,  Th, 


L.W,  w.  ;,  «j 

Layanl,  Sir  Austen  Flenry.  443 
Leake,   William  Martin,   441 ;    r64, 

Le  Bas,  Philippe,  164;  i63 
Lechevalier,  Jean  Baplisle,  J55 
LeClerc,  Joseph  Victor,  161 
LtgesAnnaUs,  Nipperdeyon  the,  1 17, 

Lehmann,  Johann  Gottlieb,  181; 
Lehrs,  Karl,  107  (;  93,  riS,  193 
Leibnitz  (Leibniz),  Gotift led  Wiihelm, 

Leipzig,  II  (gems);   14,  89  f 
Lempriere,  John,  431  n.  1;  466 
Lennep,  David  Jacobus  van,  176 
Lenormant.   Cliarles    and    Francois, 

165  f,  194 
Lentz,  August,  ro7 
Leontiev,  38J 
Leskien,  August,  909 
Lessing,  Gotlhold   Ephraim,  34-30; 

Lagoon,  j6-i8;  11,  S4i   Lessing 

atHi  Kloti,  14,  38  f;   Reiske,   17; 

Herder  on,  jj  ;  Goethe  on,  37,  39, 


of 


69 


LevSque,  Charles,  a66 

Levkias,  A.  G.,  374 

Lewis,   (r)   Charlton   Thomas,   467 : 

(3)  Sir  George  Cornewall,  439;  5, 

83,  380;  (3)  Tayler,  467 
Lewis  and  Short's  Latin  Dictionary, 

467 


Ltxilogus,  Butlmann's,  84 
Leyden  univ.,  foundation,  39J 
centenary,    185 ;    mss,    118 
344 ;     Museum,     395  ;    visi 
Dobree  and  Gaisford,  397;  F.  D. 
Allen  on,  460 
Leyden,  John,  436  n.  1 
Libanius,    Oratiotus    et    Did.,    ed. 
Reiske     (1791-97),      17 ;     Forster 
(1903   f);   iff.  J.  C.  Wolf,  345. 
347 
Licinianus,  Granius,    184 
Liddell,  Henij  Geot^e,   41S 
Liddell   and   Scott's  Greek   lexicon, 

418,  417,  466 
Lieber,  Francis,  83  n.  3,  456,  463 
Li^ge,  univ.  391  f,  399  f 
Likhudes,  384 

Limbourg-Brouwer,  Pieter  van,  381 
Lincoln,  John  L.,  457 
Lindemann,  Friedrich,  81,  140 
Linder,  Karl  Vilhelm,  350 
Lindfors,  A.  O.,  347 
Linwood,  William,  411 
Lippert's  Dactyliotheia,  31 
Lipsius,  309;  C.  Nisard  on,  153;  ii 

301  f  . 

Littr^,  Maximilien  Paul  Emile,  151 
Livius  Andronicus,  L.  MUller,  190 
Livy,  Verona  palimpsest,  197;  fac- 
simUi  of  Vienna  ms  (L,  B.  1 907) ; 
edd.  301;  Gesner,  g;  Strolh  and 
Diiring,  6; ;  Bekker  and  Raschig, 
87;  Twiss  (Oson.  .840  f);  A|. 
schefski,  101;  Hertz,  199;  Mad- 
vigand  Ussing,  33a  f,  315:  Weis- 
senbom.  101;  Zingerle  (rSSs) 
i,  Sceley  (.871),  436;  iii-i,  xxi. 
xxii,  xxix,  xxx,  Laterbachet 
(1891-4);  V,  Whibley;  vi.  Ste- 
phenson; xxi,  Frigell,  Dimsdale; 
xxi  — xKx,  Filgner,  Wolfflin  j 
ixi-xxv,  Riemann  and  Benoist; 

H.   J.    MUller;   xxvi-xxx,'  Rie- 

mann  and  Homolle ;  xxvii, 
Stevenson 
On  text,  Frigell,  3S1 ;  Havant 
(t88o):  MoDimsen,  197;  Rie- 
roann,  159;  Wesenbe^,  314; 
Livy  studied  by  Guy  Moril- 
lon,  304  i  Taine's  Essai  (1856) ; 
Capes,  InlroducUon  (1889); 
Kiihnast,  Syntax  (1871);  FUg- 
ner,  Ux.  A— B  (1897);  Eng. 
transl.  xxi— xxi v,  Church  and 
Brodtibbj  Swedish,  351 ;  Freins- 


A.OO' 


IC^IC 


508  INE 

heim's  conlinualion,  340;  Peri- 

137  B.C.).  Oiyr.  Pap.  iv 

Ljungberg,  3S';  Ljungboig,  177 

Lobeck,  Christian  August,  loj  f; 
on  Creiuer,  67;  on  Comp.  Philo- 
logy, 105;  his  pupils,  105-8 

Loccenias,  Johannes,  338;  343 

Looted  t,  Einar,  350 

Lowe,  Gustav,  140 

Logan,  James,  4J1 

Logic,  Frantl  on  the  Kislory  of, 
181 

London,  British  Museum,  Greek 
inscriptions,  119,  44J ;  sculpture, 
444f,  ^fi-^S;  MSS.  no,  354,  380, 
448;  Univeraty  College,  419  ff 

Long,  George,  430,  436 

'Lon^niis'  irepl  J^ouc,  ed.  Moms 
(1707)1  '4;  Bodoni  (Parma,  1793); 
B.  Weiske  (Leipz^,  1809);  Kova- 
levski  {Wilna,  i8ij);  Egger  (1837), 
iSS;  Jahn  {i86j,  ed.  Vahlen,  %;, 
to;    Rhys    Roberts,   with 


(iSi^o),  Prickard  (1906) 

LongiDus,  Cassins,  Rhii.,  179 

Longolius,  Paul  Daniel,  j 

Longp^riec,  Adrien  de,  166 

Longus,  ed.  G.  H.  Schaefer  (1803); 
Courier  (1810,  '19),  150;  Hirschig, 
Ser.  Britici;  Pikkolos  (r866),  369 

Lorenz,  August,  143 

Louvain,  univ.,  19a  f,  301-9;  CoUe- 
giian   Trilingtu,  304 ;  ms,  330 

Lucan,  ed.  Ang.  d'EUi  (Vienna. 
i8ir);  C.  F.  Weber  (1811-31), 
Kortte  (1818),  5;  Lemaire  (1830-1); 
Haskins  (T8S7);  Hosius  (1891); 
Scheiia,  Usener,  t84,  194 

Lncania,  F.  Lenormant  on,  165 

Lucanos,  Nicolaos,  355 

Lucat,  Cyril,  354 

Lucian,  edd.,  185;  Dindoif  (1840, 
'58);  Bekker  (1853),  86;  Seltcla, 
V.  A.  Wolf  (1786),  55;  Di  kUloria 
caiucriienda,(lieazet  on,  6$;  Lu- 
tius,  Rohde,  186;  Seiimium,  ed. 
Klotz,  115;  PhUepatrii,  Gesner 
on  (r7i5),  5  ;  Latin  iranst.  Gesner, 
5;  German,  Wieland,  36;  Engl. 
Fowler;  Asi'nus,  transl.  Courier, 
ajo;  Lucian  and  the  Cynics,  Ber- 

Lucilius,  ed.  Gerlach  (1846);  L. 
MUller    (1871),     189;     Lachmann 


(1876),  ,i8i   Munio  on  (1877-9). 

433;  ed.  Man  (1904  f) 
Lucretius,  Herder  on,  31;  FaciimiU 

of  Cod.    Von.    Obi.   (L.  B.);   ed. 

Forbiger  (1818),   117 ;   Lachmann 

(t8sot.  1*8  f;  Bemays  (1851),  177; 

Munro  (1864),  433;  Brieger  (1894); 

Giussani  (1S96) ;  C.  Bailey  (1900!; 

Merril!  (1907);  iii,  Heinze  (1897); 

Dutr  (1903) ;  V,  Benoisl  ( t884),  159; 

Duff(i8to) 
LUbbert,  Ediiard.  151 
Lubker,  Fiiedrich,  iij 
Lilders,  Otto,  111 
Lugebil,  Karl  Joachim,  386 
Lund,  univ.,  341;  331,  349 
Lund,  G.  F.  W.,  31s 


Luynes,  Albert,  Due  d 

Lycia,  133,  443 

Lycophton,   ed.    Bachmann    (1830); 

Lysander  (Liind,  iBsg);  HoUinger 

i'Spi)  l  ^'-  transl.,  Deheque,  lOi ; 
laf.,  Ciaceri  (1903) 
Lycuigus,  in  Oralarei  Allici,  163 ;  ed. 
Schuize  (1789);  Thorlac  (1803), 
3tj;  A.  G.  Becker,  Osann,  Hem- 
rich  ('11),  no;  Piniger  ('14); 
Blume  ('18);  Baiter  and  Sauppe 
('34),  163  f;  Maetzner  Cjfi),  164; 
Rehdanti  ('76),  [69;  Halm  on, 
igfi  I  Index,  Foiman  (1897); 
Fragrn.  G.  Kiessling,    164 


301 ;  Di  Oste 
(1863) 

Lysias,  in  Oratores  Attki,  163;  ed. 
Scheibe  {1851,  "74).  164;  Westet- 
mann  ('54),  163;  Cobet  ('63),  184; 
Dobree  on,  400;  Francken,  tSi; 
Halbertsma,  187 ;  Or.  Stlectae, 
Rauchenstein,  Frohbeiger,  165; 
Jebb  (1880),  Shuckhurgh  (1885') 

Lyitellon,  George  William,  Baron, 
Milton's  Conitis  and  Saimsn  Ago- 
nislts,  in  Gk  verse  (1865-7);  yfr" 
Transl.  by  Lyitellon  and  Gladstone 
(1861) 

Macrobius,  von  Jan  (1848-51);  Eyssen- 

hardt  (1868).  100 
Madrid  and  the  Escurial,  hss,  154, 

i6of;  ancient  art,  138 


OgIC 


Madvig,  JohanNicolu,  jig-i  [4  1  59i 

577,  179.  185,  317;  portrait,  310 
Maelzner,  Eduaid,  164 
Magna  Gtaecia,  265 
Magni,  Johannes  and  Olaus,  333  f 
Magnusson,  Giidmundui,  318 
Minne,   Willem    I^onardus,    175  f  ; 


163 

Maiden,  Heniy,  430 

MalCby,  Kdward,  393 

Manetho,  ed.  Axtius  and  Rigler 
(1831);  Kochly,   .32  f 

Mangey,  Thomas,  347 

Manilius,  ed.  Jacob  (1846)  117; 
Hoasm^n {igo^); NixUs A/.,R.  Ellis 
(1801);  SilvaM.,  Poslgite  (1897) 

Mannhaidt,  J.  W.  E.,  140 

Manulius,  Aldus,  373;   ii  <)8f 

Marathon,  314 

Marcellus,  Comle  de,  361 

MaiinuB,  Vila  Procli,  ed.  Fabricius, 


Maitiat,  ed.  Schneidewin,  111,  194; 
W.  Gilbert   (1896*);    Friedlinder 

Et6},  194;  Lindsay  (1903  etc.); 
sing  on,  35,  30 
Martin,  Thomas  Henci,  356 
Martini,  Olaus,   336 
Martjn,  John,  419 
Majtynov,  384 
Matthaei,  Christian  Friedrich  (1744- 

1811).  388;  1*460 
Matthiae,  (1)  August  Heinrich  (1769- 

'83s)i  75  ;  (i)  Friedrich  Christian 

(.7^3-iMM3)L»"r"'i''M'6"). 

336 
Matthias  Coivinus,  377,  390  fT;  ii  375 
MaCz,  Friedrich,  n6 
Mavrocordalos,  A.  and  N.,  360 
Mavrophrydes,  368 
Mayhoff,  C,  101 
Maximus   Tyrius,    ed.    Reiske,    18; 

Dubner  (1840) 
Meibom,  Marcus,  340 
Meier,  Moriti  Hermann  Eduard,  168  ; 

"3.  166 
Meineke.  August.  117-9;    104,  129, 

147,  149,  177;  portrait,  116 
Meisterhans,  Konrad,  114 
Mela,  Pomponius,  ed.  Parlhey  (1867); 

SchulUon.  no 


EX.  509 

Memnon,  statue  of,  i54 

Manage,  341  ;    ii  390 

Menonder  and  Philemon,  117,  171; 

Menander,   Lefebvre  (1907) ;   Van 

Leeuwen.  Headlam  (1908),  484  n.  4 
Menander,  on  EtKomia,  ed.  Heeren, 

77,   and   in    WaU    and    Spengel, 

Rhet.   Gr. 
Menas  (Minas  or  Mynas),  Minoides, 

380;   119.  1S4 
Mendelssohn,    (i)    Felix,     98;      (3) 

Ludwig.  198;   {3)  Moses,  10,  ij 
Mendoia,  Diego  de,  377,  379 
Merimee,   Prosper,  161 
Merivale,  Charles,  439  fi  436 
Meikel,  Rudolf,  i93f;  157 
Merobaudes,  81 

Merriam,  Augustus  Chapman,  468 
Metapontum,  165 
Metaxas,  Nicodemus,  354 
Meteorology,  Ideler  on,  187 
Mctrka,    de   re,    Latin    writers,   ed. 

Gaisford,   397;    L.    MUller,    189; 

Mtlrik.   Rossbach   and   WestpMl, 

158;  H.  Schmidt,  ijS  :  Christ  on 

metre,  154;   Photiades,  365 
Metrology,   Hultsch  on,  185;   198 
Meyer,  (i)  Gustav,  109  ;  (1)  Heinrich, 

70;  (3)  Leo,  107;  (4)  W.,  194 
Mezger,  Friedrich,  151 
Michaelis,  Adolf,  301,  111 
Michel,  Charles.  308 
Middle  Ages,  Haase  on  the,  139 
Middleton,  (1)  John  Henry,  447 ;  it) 

Thomas  Fanshaw  (1769-1811),  401 
Milan  hss,   no,  i39f,  i4tf,  167 
Miletus,  169 

Miller.  B^nigne  Emmanuel  Clement, 
,154;  377  f.  380 
Millin,  Aubin  Louis,  263 
Milton.  339.  356;   ii  344  f 
Mmervini,  Giiilio,  145 
Minucius   Felix,   ed.   Lindner  (1760 

etc.)  ;    Murallo   (1836)  ;    Holden 

(i8s3);   Halm   {'67)  ;   Comelissen 

('81),   188;    Baehrens  C86),   :9i  : 

Wopkens  Adv.  ('35) 
Mionnet,  Theodore  Ednie.  169 
Mislriotes,  G.,  372  f 
Mitchell,  Thomas,  410 
Mnernasyne,  184 
Modena  MS,  86 
Moerbeke.  William  of,   i8i 
Moeris,   ed.    Koch   (1830);    Bekker 

(183J),  87 
Mollerus  (Hessus),  Henricus,  337 
Mororasen,  (i)  Theodor  (1817-1903), 


,1^.00' 


gic 


510  INI 

'97^.  »3S-8i  67,   I3J,  307;  por- 
trait, *34;  (j)  Tycho  {1810-1900), 
■     'Ji;   (3)  Augast  (b.   18^0,  136 
Moncouit's  tiansl.  of  SallusI,  161 
Monk,  James  Henry,  400;   144 
Monro,  David  Binning,  413  ( 
Montfaucon,  343  ;  ii  3S5  f 
Moods  and   Tenses,   Gk,   Goodwin, 

456,  458;  Gk  and  Lat.,  Reii,  19 
Atvraifa,   Opuscula   Graecenim,   101, 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  309 ;  ii  419 
Morell,  Thomas  (1703-84),  393  n.  3 
Morgenstem,  Karl,  390 
Mocillon,  Guy,  304 
Moms,  Samuel  Friedrich  Nathaniel, 

M,  18 
Moschns,    Bion    and,    ed.     Hermann 

(1849),  93  ;   also,   with  Bion  and 

Theocritus,    ed.   Jacobs,   Gaisford, 

Meineke,  Zi^ler,  Ahiens,  Hartung, 

Fritzsche,  Wilamowitz 
Moschus,  Demetrius,  86 
Moscow,  384  f 
Moser,  Georg  Heinrich,  66 
Milllenhofft  Tac.  Gtrm.,  901 
MtUler,(l)Carl,  171;  (i)  KarlOtfried, 

113-6;  63,  70.  '".  149.  ii5>  401; 

portrait,  111;  {3)  Lucian,  189  f; 

'93.  389;  U)  Fr.  Max,  410;  17;; 

(5)  Otto,  i»(4 
MUller-Striibuig,  Hennann,  156;  303 
Munler,  Friedrich,  317 
Mullach,  F.  W.  A.,  173 
Munich,  Academy,  180;  Univ.,  no, 

III,  48of;  Mss,  :7,  151,  196 
Monro,  H.  A.  J.,  431-4;  ii7f,  131, 

"77.  3»l.  435  i  portrait,  431 
Mure,  William,  439 
Murray,  Alexander,  446 
Musaeus,  ed.  J.  B-  Carpzov  (1775) ; 

Hcinrich(i793),iiOiDilthey(i874); 

Schwabe  on,  483 
Musie  Beige,  308 
Mmici  Griud   Striptora,  von  Jan, 

159;  Greek  Music,  199,  314,  413, 

460 
Mycenae,  114,  117 
Myra,  herom  near,  136 
Myron's  Cow,  Goethe  on,  71 
JUyrrhiaa    vasa,   J,    F.   Christ    on, 

Mystoxydes,  Andreas,  369;  381 
Mylhoii^,   339f;  Creuzer   on,  65; 

Forchhammer,  137  ;  Hederich,  4  ; 

Heyne,  43;   Lehts,  1071';    K.  O. 

Miillei,ii4;  Pieiler,  174;  Voevoski, 


Kaber,  Samuel  Adrianus,  187 
Nagelsbach,  Karl  Friedrich,  106;   113 
Niike,  August  Ferdinand,  109 
Naevius    in    Ribbeck,    Trag.    Rom. 
(1897'),  188;  ed.  L.  Miiller 


(18 


■  'S"„, 


CI.  Rutilius,  ed.  Damm 
{.7&.),  10;  J.  C.  Kapp  (1786); 
A.  G.  Zumpt  (1840) ;  L.  MUIIer 
(18701,189;  Ves5erau(i904);  Keene 
(190;) 
Naples,  MSS,  8t,  449;  Museum,  365 
Napoleon  I,  370;  HI,  161,  170;  133 
Nauck,  August,  149-151 ;    113,389 


Nau 


Naud^,  Gabriel,  340 

Naudet,  Joseph,  350 

Neil,  Robert  Alexander,  416;   417  f 

Nemesianus,  ed.  Haupl,  135  f 

Neo-Platonism,  Creuzer,  65 

Nepos,  Cornelius,  ed.  Bremi  (1796 
elc.l,  ito;  Heinrich  (1801),  no; 
Nipperdey  (18491,1 17,101  ;Roersch 
(1*1, '84),  300;  Halm  (1 8;  1, 's), 
196;  Cobel('8i);  Andresen  ('S+J; 
Weidner  f84)  ;  Ortmann  ('8ffl ; 
Lugehil,  386  ;  illustrated  ed.  Erbe 
(1886,  '91) ;  Herder  on,  31 

Netherlands,    1800-1900,     175-309 ; 


19a ;  the  Netherlands  and 
England,  386;  (3)  Belgium,  191- 
309 ;  N^ve,  304,  and  Roersch,  301, 
on  the  humanists  of  the  S.  Nether- 
lands; Peerlkamp  and  HoeuITt  on 
the  Latin  poets  of  the  Netherlands, 
177  f 

Netlleship, Henry, 435 i  i3i>i43'>-5< 
101,  103  n,  4,  333,  467 

Neue,  Christian  Friedrich,  134 

Nive,  FiWn,  303  f 

Newman,  W.  L.,  411 

Newton,  Sir  Charles  Thomas,  443-5 

New  York.  451,  466-8 

Nicander,  ed.  J.  G.  Schneider,  Alexi- 
pkannaca  (1791).  Thtriaca  (i8i6), 
II  ;  Nicandraiy  ed.  O.  Schneider 
(1856),  157,  103;  Schoiia,  ed. 
Dubner,  173 

"     goras,  344  I 

IS,  30 


O^^IC 


S"i 


Nicolaus  Dnmascenua,  ed.  Kota^,  361 
Nicosios,  Panagiotakes,  360 
Niebuhr,  Barthold  Geoi^,  77-81 ;  98, 

101,  113,  136;  portrait,  76 
Nippetdey,  Karl  Ludwig,  117,  101 
Nisard,  Uteire  and  Charles,  351  f 
Nilzsch,  (i)  Gregor  Withelm,  105  f; 

93,l67;(i)KarTwithelmlhistorian), 

136;  130 
Nizolius,  AiUibarbams,  t;  ii   146 
Nobbe,  Karl  Friedrich  August,  195 
No«hden,  Georg  Heinrich,  1  to 
Nolhac,  Pierre  de,  367 
Nonius,  ed.  Geilach  and  Roth  ( 1841), 

100;    Quicherat  (iS;i),  iji ;    L. 

Muller  (i888),  190;  Onions, lib.  i-iii 

(■895),  436 
Nonnus,  DioHysiaca,eA.Gia.efe  (1S19- 

i6),388;K6chly(.8s8),  133;  vin- 

xiii,  Moser  (1809)  ;  ¥t,  tiausl. ,  161 
Norberg,  M.,  349 
NomnaD,  Lars,  344f 
Norway,  330-1 

Navellcu,  ed.  SchoU  and  Kroll,  178 
Nukios,  Nikandros,  35  s 
Numismatics,    Spanheim    on,    341  i 

Fabricius,  1 ;  Heyne,  41 ;  Eckhel, 
;  Rascbe.  45 ;  Mionnet,  Cohen, 


Origen,  Philosophumena,  154,  381 
Orfhica,  Gesner,   s ;   Hermann,  93 ; 
Abel,  391 ;   Miss  J.   E.   Harrison, 
ProUg.  lo...Gk  Religion  (1908^,  c. 
ix-xii  and  Appendix 
Orsini  (Ursinus),  Fulvio,  167 
Ortygia,  Voss  on,  63 
Or\is  and  Orion,  Ritschl  on,  139 
Orvilte,  d',  Chaiilon,  15 
Osann,  Ft.,  ed.  Lycurgus,   164 
Oscan,  Mommsen,  135 ;  Biicheler,  481 
Oslerdyk's  Dutch  transl.  of  Horace's 

Odes  and  Epoda,  111 
Osthoff,  Hermann,  109 
Ostracism,  Lugebil  on,  386 
Overbeck,  Johannes,  IJ5 
Ovid,  edd.    193  f;    N.  Heinsius'  ed. 
1661,  ed.  Ernesti  and  J,  F.  Fischer 
(Leipzig,  1773)1  Burman's  ed.  1717 
(Oxon.  1810,  with  Bentley's  noles) ; 
Merkel   {18S0-1).   ed.    Ebwald,    i 
(t8S8);  Riese(i87[-4);  Sedlmayer, 
Zingerle,   Guthling;   in  Postgate'i 
Corpus  {:894);    Amores,   Gnippe 


(i8 


?)1 


Waddinglon,  168; 

Nutzhorn,  H.  F.  F.,  316 
Nyerup,  Rasmus,  317 

Oberdick,  Johannes,  [54 

Obsequens,  Julius,  ed.  Jahn,  no 

Oceanus,  Voss  on,  63 

Odescalchi,  Don  Liviu,  341 

Oeconomides,  1.  N.,  370 

Olympia,  113,  nSf;   170 

Omont,  Henri,  167 

Oncken,  William,  iSi 

'  Onesander',  ed.  Koraes.  361 

Onions,  j.  H.,  436 

Oppian,  ed.  Schneider  {1776),  it; 
scholia,  171 

Oralaris  Graeci,  Reiske,  17  ;  Atlici, 
W.  S.  Dobson  (1817) ;  Bekker,  87, 
Baiter  and  Ssuppe,  163;  Blass  on, 
171;  Jebb  on,  4J3f;  Benseler  on 
hialus  in,  168 

Oichomenos,  114,  114 

Orelli,  (1)  Johann  Conrad,  i6l  ;  (s) 
Johann  Caspar,  161  ;  131,  177 

Oresme,  Nicolas,  iai 

Oribasius,  Fr,  tran^,,  157 

Ortenlalion  of  Greek  temples,  446 


Mtillei  (1861);  Epp.  ex  Fanto,  O. 
Kom  (1868) ;  Pasli,  Giecig  (i8n), 
Merkel  (1841,  V-'ji),Paley(l8s4. 
'64),  409,  H.  Peter  (C889);  Hali- 
rutita,  Haupt  (1S38} ;  Nereides 
Lennep  ((8ii'),  Terpstra  (L.  B. 
18)9) ;  Loeis  (1819),  Palmer  {1874, 
'98),  437,  Sedlmayer  (iSft6),  Shuck- 
burgh  (1879)  ;  Herder  on,  31, 
Lehrs,  loS;  Lachmann,  ng  ;  Met. 
Gierig  (i8ii-3»).  Bach  (1831-6*, 
Baumgatten-Cnisius  (1834),  Loers 
(1843),  Haupt  (1854  etc.),  136,  Kom 
(i8tH>],  Zingerle  (1S84),  Magnus 
(1891');  Greek  iransl.  by  Planudes, 
1411  Lngl. G.Sandys, 4 so;  German, 
Voss,  61;  Tristia,  Merkel  (1837), 
Loers  (1839),  Ehwald  (1884),  Owen 
(Oxon.  18B9  etc.) ;  Danish  transl., 
316  ;  /dis  (with  Tristia,  Merkel 
(1837);  Ellis  (Oxon.  r88i);  Epi- 
cedion  Druti,  Haupt,  ijs 

Owen,  John,  38 ;  ii  150 

Oxford,  Bodleian  MSS,  iji,  347,  397; 
scholars,  393-7,  4'S-4iS.  434"* 

Paciaudi,  Paolo  Maria,  153 
Packard.  Lewis  Richard,  463 
Palae<^:Taphy  ;  Thompson ;   CI.  Lai. 
ChSielain;     Exx.    SteRens;     see 
Trauie,  Vtlsen,  Wailenbach,  Zange- 


,1^.00' 


gic 


Palaephatus,  ed.  J,  F.  Fischer  (1735 

Paley,  Frederick  Aplhorp,  409 

Palingnusis,  Karslen  on,  iBi 

Palmer,  Arlhur.  436f 

Palmyra,  Heeren  on,  77 

FaHegyrici  Laiim,  ed.  Baehrens,  191 

PanoTkfl,  Theodor,  ii8;  194 

Panlaiides,  I.,  J72 

Papadopulos-Kerameus,  A.,  371 

Papageorgios,  P,  N.,  371 

Paparrigopulos,  Const.,  373 

Papasliotes,  368 

Pape-Benseler,  Gk  proper  names,  168 

Pappus,  ed.  Hullsch,  185 

Papyri,  44S  ;  480 

Paris,  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  171 ; 
483  ;  Mss,  377,  379;  Louvre,  164, 
166,  169;  Univ.,  ij8 

Paris,  Pierre,  36; 

Parke,  John,  451 

Parker,  John  Henry,  447 

Parmenides,  ed.  Fiillebom  (1795); 
Peyron  (iSio),24i ;  Karsten  (1835), 
381;  Mullach  (i860),  173 

ParBeBiiographi  Craeei,   1  jo  f 

Parr's  Dtead,  393 ;  Parr,  398  ;  ii  41 1  f 

Pasor,  Georg,  38 

Passow,  Franz,   114;  65,  141,   16S 

Patin,  Henri  Joseph  Guillaume,  151 

PalmOS,  167,  357,  359,  378  f 

Patlison,  Mark,  410;  177 

Paucker,  Karl  von,  104 

Paul,  Hermann,  109  f 

PauliDi  Silentiarius,  Lessing  on,  19 

Pauly,  August.  113 

Pausanias,  studied  by  Winckelmann, 
13;  ed.  Bekker  (1816),  86;  Schu- 
bart  and  Walz  (1838-9),  183!  L. 
Dindorf  (1845).  146 ;  Schubart 
(1853-4);  HitzigandBlUmner(  1896- 
1908) ;  Detcriplie  areis  AlAinanim, 
ed.  Jahn,  110;  English  transl.  etc. 
Frazer,  i8g8 ;  French,  Clavier 
(1814(1,  'S'!  German,  Schubarl 
(1857-63);  G.  Hirschfeld  on,  319 

Pearson's  Adv.  Htsychuma,  397 

Peerlkamp,  Petnis  Hofman-,  i76f 

Peile,  Thomas  Williamson,  405;  403 

Peiper,  Rudolf,  194 

Peiresc,  Nicolas,  378 

Pelham,  Henry,  44I 

Pellerin,  Josei*,  44 

Peloponnesus,  E.Curtius  on  (iSji-l). 
338;  Beul*  (185s),  166;  Leake 
{1830-46),  441 

Penrose,  Francis  Cranmer.  4451 


Feigamon,     333,     130 ;    Pergamene 
Perizonius,  79;  ii  331 

Perrol,  Georges,  167 

Persius,  ed.  Passow  ([808-9),  "S ; 
Achaintre  (1813);  E.  W.  Weber 
(1816);  Quicherat  (1818);  Jahn 
(1843,  'si.  68),  194,  iiof;  Heinrich 
(1844),  no;  Macleane  (1861),  430 
n.  1;  Pretor  (1868,  1907);  Coning- 
ton  (l%^%,  '74),  434)  Gildersleeve 
(1875);  imitated,  389;  scholia,  161 

Perugia,  331  f 

Peter,  (1)  Hermann,  193;  (3)  Karl, 
'33;  "I,  336 

Petersburg,  St,  385  f 

Petersen,  Frederick  Christian,  318 

Pelersson,  P.  J.,  351 

Petrarch's  Latin  Studies,  1S9  n.  1 ; 
life  of  Caesar,    115  ;  ii  3-11 

Petri,  Olaus  and  I^urenlius  (Olaf  and 
Laus  Petersson),  335 ;  Petri  Gothus, 
Laurenlias,  335,  337 

Petronius,  mss,  456  n.  5  ;  ed.  BU- 
cheler,  18S3*,  4S1 ;  German  transl., 
Heinse,  36;  Ctna  Trimaichionis, 
Friedlander  (1891)  ;  W.  E.  Waters 
(Boston,  1903)1  Lowe,  Kyan  (1905); 
E.  T.  by  H.  T.  Peck,  1898 ;  Lexi- 
con, Lommatzsch,  1898 ;  Matrona 
Ephesia,  386 

Pelrus  Hispanas,   358 

Peyron,  Victor  Amadeo,  80,  341 

Peizi,  Domenico,  341 

Pflugk,  August  Julius  Edmund,   109 

Phaedrus,  Perolti,  tl ;  J.  Baden,  316; 
Orelli  (1831,  '3) ;  Eyssenhardt,  loo; 
L.  Miiller,  189 

Pheidias,  K.  a  MUller  on,  3ij ; 
MUllet-Slrllbing,   156 

Philadelphia,  451  f 

Philaras,  Leonardos,  356 

Philemon  and  Menander,  in  Fragtn. 
Com.  Cr.,   ii8f;  is6 

Fhiletas,  Chrislophoros,  369 

Philippi,  Adolf,  333 

Phillipps  MSS,  381 

Philo,  347 

Philodemus, Sauppe,  164 ;  Ussiiig,335 

Philolaus,  Boeckh  on,  98 

Philology,  Classical,  delinition  of, 
308f!  Wolf  on,  54;  Beck,  14; 
Creiuer,  67;  Niebuhr,  80;  Ritschl, 
141;  HUbner,  139;  Comparative 
PAilolo/y,  33,  aos-iii,  "Hi.  3'9''. 
370.  410,  440,  4S8,  464;  ignored 

h.  i..  ii,l^.OOQIC 


by  Hermann,  91,  Lobeck,  103, 
Krilger,  119;  Pkilologia  saecu/i 
Plol. ,  141  pkiletogiat  studiasus, 
Sifi  PMtoh^s,  iioi;  fhilelogut, 
grammalicut,  eriikus,   107 

Philon  of  ByzantiniD,  36of 

Philoponus,  Dindorf,  144 

Philosophers,    M^^rUn    School    of, 

Philosophy.  Ueberweg's  History  of 
Ancient,  183;  Zelier's  Gk  PhUo- 
sophy,  477 

Philostralus,  T.  Badenon,  3[6;  Vila 
Apollonii,  G.  J.  Beklter  on,  joi ; 
Htrdca  (1806},  Eff.  (r84i),  ed. 
Boiasonade,  149 ;  Gymtt.  ed.  Kayser 
(1S40);  Cobeton,  184;  PhiloslTali. 
Heyne  on,  41;  Goethe,  71;  ed. 
Jacobs,  64,  J17;  Kayser  (1840  etc., 
tS7of);Westennann(i849);  Benn- 
dorf  and  SchenkI,  ifio;  Fiiederichs 
on,  115;  Matz  and  Brunn,  ii6f 

Phlangines,  355 

Phocirin,  Betnays  on,  178 

Phocytidea.  Bemays  on  the,   i;7 

Phorlios,  Alexandres,  355 

Photiades,  Lampros,  365;  36S 

Photius,  BibiiBtkeca,  ed.  Bekker 
(1824  f),  87;  Ltxicea,  Hermann 
(1808).  PotsoD  and  Dobree  (1811), 
399,  Naber  (i864f),  187 

Phrygius,  Sylvester  Johannis,  337 

Phrynichus,  354;  ed.  Lobeck,  loj  ; 
Rutherford,  415 

Phyntiades,   368   ■ 

Pkysici  el  Media  Grarei  Minores,  187 

Ficcolomini,  Aeneas  Sylvius,  333 

Pikkolos,  N.  S.,  369 

Pietron,  Alexis,  -At 

Pillans,  Jame!i,  4 19 

Hndar,  ed.  Heyne,  40,  51;  Thiersch, 
iii;  Boeckh,  97;  Dissen,  114; 
Bergk,i47;  Donaldson, 409;  Tycho 
Mommsen,  151;  Me^er,  151; 
Fenne!!  (1879-83);  Christ,  153; 
Seymour,  Select  Odes,  465;  Gilder- 
sleeve,  01., PylA.  1885;  Bary, JVem., 
Islkm.;  Paeans,  448;  Hermann  on, 

S3;  Welcker,  117J  Lubbert,  iji; 
[.  Schmidt,  153;  Rauchenstein, 
[fi; ;  Nem.  vii,  Holmes,  41 1;  Jebb, 
413;  Lexicon,  Damm,  9,  Rumpel 
(1883)  1  several  odes  transl.  by 
W.  V.  Humboldt,  68,  and  Goeihe, 
69;  Engl,  prose  tr.  E.  Myers; 
SeheKa,  107,  354  f,  379,  39-1 

S.    III. 


Pindaric  odes,  Jebb's,  414 

Pindanis  Thebanus,  in  Wemsdorf, 
Pern.  Lot.  Min.  {1785);  Lachnuum 
on,  119 

Knmer,  G.,  164 

Pittakes,  Kyriakos,  381 

Ptantin,  Olaus,  348 

Planer,  Ernst,  81 

Plato,  Bodleian  MS,  jiS,  397,  Fac- 
simile (i8gS) ;  ed.  Bekker,  with 
ichelia  {t8i6-l3),  87;  Ast  (1819- 
31],  III;  Stallbaum  (1811-5),  161; 
Baiter,  Orellt,  Winckelmann  (t  839- 
41).  161 ;  K.  E.  C.  Schneider  (1830- 
3,  1846-S1),  ii4f;  K.  F.  Hermann 
("8ji-3,'73-4),  i6i;Schanz  (1875 
-87);  ^\XTDeK(igoi);£HaleziSeleeli, 
J.  F.  Fischer,  14;  Heindorf,  83; 
Afel.,  CrilB,Lackes,ed.CToa,  161; 
Aficl.,  Crito,  Elberling,  314  ;  W. 
Wagner,  1876';  Afal.,  Crile,Eu- 
Ihypkro,  AAa.tD,  417;  Afol.  Riddelt, 
419,411;  Cralylus,].  F.  Fischer, 
14;  Deuschle  on,  163;  C.  Lenor- 
mant,  a6s  !  ^/A.  ".  T.  Karsten 
on,  j8i;  Eutkyd.  Winckelmann, 
161  ;  Eutkyd.,  Gotg.  Routh,  393; 
fn/Aj^.  Gilford,  4^1;  Badham,4oS; 
Cron  on,  361;  Eufkyphro,  Adam, 
417;  Gorg.  Korafis,  361;  R.  B. 
Hirschig,  180;  W.  H.  Thompson, 
407;  367;  Cron  on,  161;  E.  T.  by 
Cope;  Ion,  G.  W.  Nitisch  (1811), 
Lackes,  Badham,  40S;  Leges,  Ast, 
T.  Lewis,  467;  C.  Kilter,  Comm. 
on  Laws  (1898);  Minex.  Graves; 
Menu,  E.  S.  Thompson;  Parm. 
Maguire  (1881),  Waddell  (1894); 
Pkaede,  Heindorf;  Geddes,  iSSj*; 
Wagner,  1870;  Archer-Hind. 1894'; 

E.  T.  by  Cope  ;  Pkaedrus.  Badham, 
408,  W.  H.  Thompson,  407 ;  Pki- 
libus,  Poste,  419,  Badham,  408; 
/Vi«af. Wayte, Sauppe,  164;  A.M. 
Adam,  417;  A'i/.Jowett  and  Camp- 
bell, 419,  Adam,  417 ;  Soph., 
Polit.   L.   Campbell,  419;    Symp. 

F.  A.  Wolf,  53,  Jahn,  aio,  Bad- 
ham, Relttg,  Hug,  160^  Tktaet., 
Dissen  on,  114,  Campbell,  419; 
E.  T.  by  Kennedy,  403;  Timaem, 
Martin  on,  156,  Archer.Hind;  Epp. 
Badham,  408;  Ast's  Lexiccm,  \ii% 
Sckoiia,  460;  Fr.  tr.  251;  Germ. 
fSchleietmacher),  8t  f ;  English 
(Jowett),  419;  Gorg., Phaedo,  Cope, 


,33 


.OO^^IC 


4.08 ;  IlaJ.  143 ;  PrmopBgr^hia 
Ptatotaca,  igo;  Grote's  Plate, 
4381  Olympiodacuson.j^o;  Psellus, 
350;  Adam  (on  Nuplial  Number), 
417 ;     Asl,    113;    Bemays,    17S; 


11  Heusde,  176;  W.  Hum- 
boldt, 68;  Susemihl,  iSi;  Teich- 
millltt,  179 ;  Thompson,  407 ; 
Tiendetenbui^,  174;  Ueberweg, 
183;  Usener,  184;  J.  J.  Winckd- 
mann,  33;  ZeUer,  chronolt^  of 
Dialt^cE,  83,  477,  479 

Plato  Comicus,  Fiagm.,  Cobet  on, 
.83 

Flaulus,  T.  Maccius,  341 ;  Ambcosian 
palimpsest,  1 39 f,  14*  f ;  Facsimile  of 
Codex PaiatinHsC{'L.'S.);  PUutus, 
Terence  and  Catullus  in  MA,  194; 


ed.  Rilschl,  7  plays,  139-141 
Fleckeisen,  10  plays,  141 ;  wilt 
Latin  notes,  Ussing  (1875-87),  335  ; 


G.  GoU  and  F.  Scholl  (i^J-6), 
140;  Amph.  Palmer,  437;  Asin. 
Gray;  Aul.,  Men.,  Mil.  CI.,  Trin. 
Vallauri,  341;  ^a/.  Fianclten,  381; 
Aul.,  Caft.  Wagner,  AuL,  Men. 
Hildj-ard,  431 ;  Bacch.,  Tntz. 
Kennann,  94;  Cafil.,  Mil.  GL, 
Trin.  Lindemann;  Capt.,  Men., 
Mil.  Gl.,  Trin.  Brix,  143;  Capt; 
Most.,  Rud.  Sonnenschein  ;  Capi. 
Lindsay;  Oil.,  Rud.  Benoisl,  ijS; 
Epid.  Jacob,  137,  Gray;  Mil.  Gl. 
Ribbeck,  188,  Tyrrell;  Mi/.  Gl., 
Most.,  Pieud.  Loreni,  143;  Mssl. 
Bu^e,  331,  Ramsay,  439;  Rud. 
Keiz,  19;  Vidularia,  fragm.  Mai, 
341;  Be^k  on,  147;  Bugge,  333, 
331;  Kiessling,  tSs;  O.  Seyffert, 
143 ;  Aul.,  Mil.  Gl.  perrormed, 
304;  Lcssing  on  Capl.,  Trin.,  55 
Pliny  the  elder,  Bamberg  us,  303; 
edd.,  103  i  Sillig  (1851-8),  75; 
Dellefsen;  Jan  {1854  f),  Mayhoff 
(i9o6f)  i  Ft.  tr.  by  Grandagne 
(1839-33),  Lillri(i848-5o);  Ckres- 
lumalhia,  J.  M.  Gesner,  j,  Uriichs 
('857),  303;  Ancifnl  Art,  Heyne 
on,  43;  Jabn,  330,  Brunn,  331; 
ed.  Sellers  and  Jex-Blake  (1896) 


£ft^,flrf7Va/-Haidy(i889);  Paneg. 
Scnwarz,  3,  tr.  by  Damm,  10; 
Mommsen  on  Pliny's  life,  197; 
Lagergren  on  his  style,  351 
Plotinus,  Creuzer,  G;;  Volkmann,  184 
Plutarch,  ed.  Reiske,  18;  Diihner 
and  Diibner  (Didot,  1846-55),  371; 
Fr.  Iransl.  Talbot;  Vilae,  Koraes, 
361 ;  Bekker,  86 ;  Sintenisf  18 39-46); 
Vitae  Selnlae,  Blass,  173  ;  Holden, 
411;  Agis,  CUomeat!,  Schomann, 
166 ;  Dent.,  Cic.  Graux,  361 ;  Selon, 
Westeimanji,  163;  Eng.  transl. 
Langhome  (new  ed.  1876) ;  Uryden- 
Clough  (1874);  Stewart  and  Long 
I188.)  ;  SeketLivis,  Long  (1844-6), 

J 30 ;  Fr.  transl.  Pienon,  361  ; 
.icard  and  Dauban  (1861,  '73^ ; 
mod.Gklransl.,373,38j.  Moralta, 
Bemardakes,  373;  Reiske  on,  117; 
HalmDn,i96;  Op.  Moralia Seltcta, 
Winckelmann  (ZUr.  1836) ;  political 
treatises,  Koraes,  363;  Dt  EI  in 
Z>«/s*i>,Bernardakes,37i;  Pythian 
dialogues,  Palon  (1893);  Be  facie 
in  erbe  lunae,  Russ.  Iransl.,  385  ; 
Zli-^uijVa,  Volkmann  (1857),  1S3; 
Westphal  (1865),  i.sS;  Be  Aud. 
Poetis,  Aubert;  De  Educ.  Bailly; 
Moralia,  Eng.  trans.,  Goodwin 
(1871),  King  and  A.  R.  Shillelo 
(1888);  Philemon  Holland's  ^KVton 
Queitiens,  ed.  Jevons  (1891) ; 
Larsen,  Sludia  Critica  (1889); 
Plutarch  on  Poetry  and  Painting, 
»6;  Trench,  Four  Lectures,  1873J 
Volkmann,  183;  O.  Grfaid  (1866) 

Pluygers,  W.  G.,  387 

Postae  Lat.  Minores,  Frag.  Poil. 
Lai.,  ed.  Baehrens,   191 

Foilarum  Latinorum  Corpus,  (1)  W. 
S.  Walker  (1837,  '48) ;  (3)  W.  E.  ' 
Weber  (1833);  (3)  J.  P.  Postgate 
(1893-1905) 

Poets,  ancient,  compared  by  Schiller, 

Poggio,  Hochart  on,  398 

Polemon  Periegetes,  ed.  Preller,  174; 
Egger  on,  355 

Polilian,  Bemays  on,   178  n.   i 

Pollux,  Julius,  OnoBiaslicBH,  ed. 
Lederlin  and  Hemsterhuys  (1706), 
3;  Dindorf  (1814),  144;  Bekker, 
(1846),  87  ;  Rohde,  I>t  PoUucis  in 
apparutu    tcaeiiiio   enarraadg  fan- 


ogic 


Polyoenus,  ed.  Mursinna  (1756); 
KoTaes(iS09),36i;  WolffiiD(i86i>); 
Mystoxydes  on,  370 

Polybius,  ed.  Casaubon  and  Emesti 
(1763^,13;  Schweighauser  (1789- 
Qf),  i-<j-.ed.Oxon.  (iSii);  Dubner 
(1839.  '65').  i7'>;  Bekke.  (.844), 
86;  L.  Dindorf  (1S66-S.  ed.  1, 
Blittner-Wobst),  146;  Hultsch4 1867- 
71,  '88"),  185;  Enel.  tr.  Shuck, 
bu^h,  415 

Polygnotus,  Goethe  on,  70 

Pompeii,  »3,  iij,  )4S*'i  ^64,  483 

Ponor,  Emit  Thewrewk  de,  391;  see 
Fcitus 

Poppo,  Emst  Fiiedrich,  ijg 

Porcher,  E.  A.,  443 

Potfyrius,  Publilius  Optatianus,  ed. 
L.  MUUer  (1877),  189 

PorphyriuE,  Optue.  Sel.,  VUa  Pyth^ 
de  antro  Nymph.,  de  aiitin.,  ad 
Mare.  Nauck  (i886<),  151 ;  ScheHa 
Homeriuf,   Noehden,   no;   C.   F. 


studiii  Homericis  {1853),  Wallen- 
berg, De  Porpk.  slueUt!  philohgicis 
J|8S4),  Schrader,  Parph.  Quaesl. 
Homer.  (iSgo);  i,^opiuiX  rpbi  ra 
ro^A  in  Creuzer's  Plotinus  (1855) ; 
Oil  Ar.  Categ.  Busse  (1887);  De 
philos.  tr  oraculis  Aaurienda,  G. 
Wolff  (1856)  i  Bemays  on  Porph. 
de  ahlia.  (18W}.  177;  Pseudo- 
Porph.  Deerrorilius  Ulixis,  344  n.  1 

Person.  SI,  91,  150,  393,  J98ff;  ii 
401,  414 f 

Portugal,  147 

Portus,   Franciscus,  354 

Poseidonius,  Bake  (1810),  178;  C. 
Muller  in  F.  H.  C.  iii  O860) 

Poit,  August  Fiiedrich,  68,  106 

Potter,  Arch.  Gr.,  437 

Poltier,  Edmond,  167 

PrantI,  C^arl,  iSof;  158 

Praxiteles,  Friederichs  on,  iij 

Preller,  Ludwig,  i39r;   174 

Prellwiii,  W.,  ill 

Prendergast.  Guy  Luahiagton,  414 

Fresle,  Bninet  de,  163 

Princeton,  451 

Prinsterer,  Groen  van,  iSo 

Prinz,  Rndolf,  155 

Priscian,  ed.  Hertz,   199 

Frobus,  M.  Valerius,  CaiMiea,  in 
Keil's  Gram.   lot.  iv;    De  nolis 


sx.  51S 

antiquis,  Mommsen  ( 1 853),  Huschke 

('74) ;  Ih  Virg.  Bueal.  et  Georg. 
Cmirn.  Keil  {'48),  »03 
Proclus,  In  Plat.  Alcib.  i  et  Farm. 
ed.  Cousin  (1810-7),  '5^!  ■/«  ■Z^"'' 
Farm.  Slallbaom  (i83of),  Tim. 
Chr.  Schneider  ('47);  DiehUi9o6); 
In  Flat.  Rep.  Kroll  in  BM.  Teubn. ; 
In  Cratylum,  BoUsonade  ('10) ;  De 


eanscriiKndis  ef p.  Westenaana  {'i6}, 
Hercher  Epp.  Gr. ;  Sphaera,  Lau- 
reinberg(i6ii),3ii;  Marinus,  Vila 


Prtxli,  .1 
Proclus,  Chreslemathia,  in  Gaisfoid's 

Hephaestion,  Westphal's  Scr.  Me- 

triii  Gr.,  and  'Oxford  Homer' 
Procopius.  Dindorf  (Bonn.  1833-8)) 

De  Belle  Gothice,  ed.  Comparetti 

(1895-8),    144;     Haary    in    Bild. 

Teubn. ;  De  Aedificiis,  304,  Engl. 

transl.  A.  Stewart  (1888) 
Prodicus,  Welcker  on,  117 
Prometkeus,  Goethe's,  69 
Propertius,    Lachmann    (1S16,   19*). 

118;  Jacob  (1817),  1171   Heitzberc 

(1843-i);  Keil  {1850,  '67),  loif; 

Haupt    (1853,   '68»),    136;    Paley 

('i3)i  409;   L.  Miiller  ('70),   189; 

Baehrens    ('80),     191  ;     Postgate, 

Selections  (1881')  and  in  C.  P.  L. 

(1893)!  Phillimore  (igoi);  iv  11, 

ed.  Peerlkamp,  178;  Iransl.  Engl. 

Cranstoun,  Gantillon,  E.  R.  Moore; 

Germ.  Voss,  f>% 
Psellus,  Hist.  ed.  Salhas,  383  n.  9 ; 

on  Plato's  Ideas.  350;  Psellus  and 

Pelrus  Hispanus,   158 
Ptolemaeus,    Claudius,    Geogr.,    ms. 

379 ;    ed.    Wilbeig   and    Grashof 

(l838-,5)!  Nobbe  (1845-5) 
Ptolemaeus   (Chennus)  Hephaestion, 

ed.  Roulez  (1834),  195 
Ptolemy    Philadelphus,     cameo    of, 

341 ;  coins  of  the  Ptolemies,  165 
Pyrrhonism,  ifi* 


Quatreroere    de     Quincy,     Antoine 

Chrysostome,  163 ;  iEk> 
Quicherat,  Louis  Marjus,  ijt 
Quintilian,  Imt.  Orat.,  ed.  J.  M. 
Gesner(i738),  s;  Spalding  (1798- 
1834).  8in.ji  Zuropt(i83i),  iisi 
Bonnell  ('54  etc);  Halm  ('68f), 
196;  Meister  ('86  f )  ;  x,  xii,  Frieze, 
45S 1  X,  Peterson,  etc. ;  Geitz  on. 


33 


.,  iiA.OOgIc 


J14;    Its/-    Orat.   and   Dtcl.    ed. 
Lemaire  (1S11-5) 
Quintus  Smjmaeus,  ed.Kochly,  ijif; 
Spiliner  on,   105  ;  Stnive,  389 

Rilamb,  K.  B,,  344 

Radet,  Geo^,  j&6f 

Ramsauer,  Gcaig,  174 

Ramsay,  William,  419 

Ramus,  163 

Rangabes,    (i)    A.  R.,  381;    367?, 

373,  381  i  (1)  K.  R.,  37* 
Rasclie,  Johann  Chnstoph,  45 
Raschig,  Franz  E/luard,  S7 
Rask,  Rasmus  Ktistian,  jigf ;  426  n.  1 
Ratherius,  bp  of  Verona  and  Li^, 

Rauchemlein,  Rudolph,  165 

Rawlinson,  George,  410 

Rayet,  Olivier,  269  f 

Rtalien,  study  of,  founded,   40 

Rehdantz,  Carl,  160 

Reimar,  Hermann  Samuel,  3 

Rdnach,  Salomon,  367  f 

Rei^g,    (Christian)  Carl,   108  f;   91, 

94.  111.  '37.  139.   '41 
Reiske,   (i)   Johann  Jakob,    14-18; 

porlrait,     16 ;     Cobet    on,    ]H6 ; 

jjj   Emesline  Chrisiine    (Muller), 

Reitz,  Johann  FriedrJch,  j 
Reiz,  Friedrich  Wolfgang,   18,  90 
Religion,  History  of,  Usenei  on.  1S4 
Renaissance,  Philosophy  of,  C.  Wad- 

dinglon  on,  161 
Renier,  Lten,  i6i 
Reuvens,    Caspar   Jacob    Christian, 


Reviei 


of 


.89 


Seime  Critiquci-jw  R.dt  Pkilolagie, 

171  n.  8  ;  R.  lU  rinsttiKtion  fiuh- 

lique,  199 
Rheinisehcs  Museum,  81 
Rketores  Graect,  Walz,  183;  Spengel, 

180;  Lalini,  Halm,  196 
Rhetoric,  Greek  and  Roman,  Volk- 

mann,    183;     lexicon,    J.    C.    G. 

Emesli,  13  f 
Rhodes,  Danish  expedition  to,  319; 

Salzman  and  Biliolti,  443 
Rhodokanakes,  Constantinos,  356 
Ribbecit,  Otto,  188  f;  186,  193 
Rich,  Anthony,  431 
Riddle  and  Arnold,  Latin  dictionary, 

Riemann,  Othon,  159;  267 


Riese,  Alexander,  193 

Rieu,  Wiliem  Nicolaas  du,  187 

Rinkes,  Simko  Heerts,  179 

Rilschl,  Friedrich,  139-143;  94,  109, 
171,  ij6,  186,  190,  141,  311,  457, 
461  ;  pupils,  141  f;  portrait,  138 

Ritier,  (i)  Franz,  »oi ;  (1)  Heinrich, 
'74 

Robinson,  Edward,  453 

Roby.  H.  J.,  4?3 

Rochelte,  Desire  Raoul,  164 

Roehl,  Hermann,  98 

Ronsch,  Hermann,  104 

Roersch,  Louis  Chretien,  199 

Rohde,  Erwin,   186 

Rogge,  Conrad,  53* 

Roman  Antiquities,  Becker,  Mar- 
quardlandMommsen,J36;  Madvig, 
311;  Bojesen,  314;  Lange, 
Ramsay,  419;  Reiz,  19;  Fuss. 
Willems,  307 ;  Calendars, 
Chrcnslogy,  Mommsen,i36,Usener, 
i8ji  Coinage,  Mommsen,  135; 
Empire^  141 ;  Postal  organisalioH, 
Naudet,  150,  Hirschfeld,  Hude- 
mann  ;  Reads,  Beigier  (Bnixelles, 
1736);  Senate,  Willems;  Lilera- 
ttire,  Fabricius,  3  ;  Bemhardy,  iii, 
TeuOel,  133;  G.  A.  Simcox,  434; 
Mackail  (1896)1  Schanz  (i89of) ; 
Poetry  and  Tragedy,  Ribbeck,  188 

Remanorum,  De  statuis  illustrium, 
Hi 

Rome,  German  historians  of,  333-9; 
Niebuhr,  78-83;  Schwegler,  Peter, 
Drumann,  Hoeck,  Ihne,  333 ; 
Mommsen,  135;  Gregorovius,  339; 
French,  Duruy,  371  ;  Engliwi, 
Arnold,  {G.  C.  Lewis),  Long,  Men- 
vale,  439;  Pelham,  441;  topo- 
graphy of,  Jordan,  100;  Burn, 
Parker,Middleton,446f;  emporium 
on  the  Tiller,  346:  Forum  and 
Lacus  Curtius,  346 ;  Academy  of 
France  and  French  School  of  Rome, 
366  f ;  German  Archaeolt^cal 
Institute,  3t8  f,  165 ;  American 
School,  169 ;  British  School,  443, 
447;  Lateran  Museum,  316;  Sarco- 
phagi, 13 ;   Vatican  Museum,   33, 

319;    MSS,   80,    151,    341,    360,    356 

Rose    (1)    Hugh   James,    403;     (3) 

Valentin,   183,  303 
Ross,  Ludwig,  337;  305,  371,  381 
Rossbach,  August,   158 
Rossi,  Giovanni  Battista  de,  347 

h.  I  ■.  ii,l^.OOQIC 


Rost,   Valentin   Chrislian   Friedrich, 

Roth'  Kail  Ludwig,  (i)  of  Stutlgart 
and  Tubingen  (1790-1868),  ed. 
Suetonius  1858.  '75  ;  (1)  of  Basel 
(i8ti-i86a),  joint  ed.  of  Nonius 
{18411,   JOO 

Rotscher,  Heinrich  Theodor,  74 

Roulei,  j.  E.  G.,  194 

Routh,  Martin  Joseph,  393 

Rnardi,  Johannes,  177 

Rudbeck.  (l)  Johan,  336;  {1)  Olaus, 

Ruddimon,  114;  ii  411 

Rutinusi     Slilicho     and     Eutropius, 

Thieny  00,  j6j 
Ruhnken,  14,  39,  57,  W.  *76i  »79. 

190,  388,  393  i  ii  456-460 
Runebe^,  388 
Ruuin,  iS^-igo 

Ruslow,  Wilhelm  (1811-1878),  133 
J^usticae,    Scriptures   Rti,   ed.  J.    M. 

Gesner,5;  Schneider,  ii;  Keil,  103 
Rutherford.  William  Gunion,  ^1^t■, 

^83 

Sainte-Croii,  Baron  de,  57 
Saint-Hilaire,  Barth^lemy,  161  f 
Sakkelion,  I.,  379 
Sallust,      edd.,     aoo ;      Kortle,     4 ; 

Merivale  (1881'),  436;   Ft.  Iransl, 

hj  Moncouit,  161 
Salmasius,  339;  ii  185,  309 
Salvianus,  ed.  Halm,  ig6 
Samothrace,  116 

Sandford,  Sir  Daniel  Keyte,  416 
Sandstrom,  C.  E.,  351 
Sandys,  Geoi^e,  450 
Sanskrit,  j)  f,  389,  3031,  319,  331, 

410  f,  464 
Santen,  van,  578 
Sappho,  ed.  Btomlield,  401 ;  in  Bergk's 

Foetat    Lyrid;    H.    T,    Whatlon 

(1887');   Herder  on,  35;   Welcker 


IS  of  the,  166 

Satraps,  coins  of  the,  165 

Satumian  verse,  141,  190 

Saulcy,   L,   F.  J.  Caignart  de,   169 

Sauppe,  Hermann,  103:  441 

Savigfny,  66,  78 

Saxo  Grammaticus,  311 

Scallger,  38;  on  Valerius  Calo,  109; 
Bernays  on,  177,  178  n.  i;  Coliel 
on,  187;  C.  Nisard  on,  353;  ii 
199  f.  305 


Scandinavia,  311-351 
Scapula.  Johann,  51  ;  "  i76>  *S7 
Schaefer,     (1)    Arnold,     169  f;     (i) 
Gottfried  Heinrich,   1 


Schelling,  F.  W.  J.,  113 
Schenkl,  Karl,  i6a ;  194 

Schiller,  (i)  Friedrich,  71  ;   19,   57, 

701  (l)  1^1  Christian,   164 
Schinas.  Demetrios,  370 
Schinkel,  Karl  Friedrich,  113 
Schlegel,  (i)  August  Wilhelm,   and 

(1)  Friedrich,  von,  71  ff;  57 
Schleicher,  August,  109 :  106 
Schleiermacher,       Friedrich       Ernst 

Daniel,  81  f ;  <)5 
Schliemann,  Heinrich,  114 
Schmidt,  (i)  C.  P.  Christensen,  3*8; 

313;  _(i)   Gustay,   .61;    (3)  J.  J. 

Heinnch,   158;  (4)  Moriz,   151 
Schneider,  (1)  Johann  Goltlob,   ii  ; 

iij;   (1)   Kari   Ernest   Christoph, 

114;    (3)   Konrad    Leopold,   114; 

(4)  Otto,  157,  103 
Schnddewm,      Friedrich      Wilhelm, 

iiof;  147,  171,   194.  3'°'  *l^ 
SchoH,  (1)  Adolph,   i48f;  115;  (i) 

Friedrich,  140,  143 ;  (3)  Rudolph, 

,8s,  198 
Schomann,  Geoi^  Friedrich,  165  ;  438 
Schoene,  R.,  236 
Scholars,  Falster  on  lives  of,  311; 
Scholarship,  History  of.  Bursian.  i*6; 

Egger,  155 ;  Heeren,  77 ;  L.  MllUer, 
Faliison,  41a;  Roeisch,  30a; 


•nTei 


37' 

iSo;    Gudeman's   Grundrhs    (ed. 

1907,    iitf);    Gk   Scholiasts   (ii. 

76f);  Rutheribrd,  4141 
Schow,  Niels  Iversen,  317 
Schubart,  Heinrich  Christian,  183 
Sdiuchaidt,  Hugo,  III 
Schtltz,  Christian  Gottfried,  45  f ;  73, 

Schultz,      ([}      Chrisloph      Ludwig 
Friedrich,  no;  (l)  Ferdinand,  169 
Schuke,  J.  H.,  ii 
Schwabe,  Ludwig  von,  481;  113 
Schwarz,  Christian  Gottlieb,  3 
Schwegier,  Albert.  174;  133 
Schweizer-Sidler,  Heinrich,  icM  ;  101, 


,i^.ooglc 


518  INE 

ScoK,  Robert,  418 

Scuphus,  Franciscus,  35+ 

Scjrlax,  164 

Scymnus,  t88,  164 

Seeley,  Sir  John,  436 

Seidler,  Johann  Friedrich  August,  108 

Selinus,  ii6 

Sellar,  William  Young,  435 

Semasiology,    108,    137 ;    Br^al,  Se- 

moHlique  (1897) 
Seniitelos,  371 
Semper,  Goltfried,  113 
Seneca,   (i)   the  elder,   ed.   Barsian, 

ii6;     Kiessling    (i8;i);    {1)    ed. 

Haase,      137 ;      Dialogi     and     Dt 

Bmtficiis,   Gertz;   Danish  transl., 

318;  tragedies,  15,  194  ;  T.  Baden, 

316,  Sandstrom,  gji 
Septuagini,  374 
S«rTadifa1co,  Duca  di,  145 
Sextus,  Empiiicus,  3 
Seyffert,  (1)  Moritz.  {2)  Oskar,   143 
Se;inoiii.ThomasE>ay,46jf;  460,463; 

TO-  Amtr.  jBom.  Arch.  1908,  (l) 
Sbilleto,  Richard,  406 
Short,  Charles  Lancaster,  467 
Shrewsbury  school,  403,  411,  433,  443 
Shuckburgh,  Evelyn  Shirley,  415 
Sicily,    Greeks    in,     163 ;     Holm's 

History,  131  f;  Freeman's,  441 
Sieveis,  Eduard,  109 
Silius   Italicus,   ed.    Bauer   in   Bibl. 

Ttuin. ;    Summers    in    Postgate's 

C.  P.  L.  (1905) ;  H.  Blass  on,  194 
Sillig,  Karl  Julius,  75 
Simcox,  G.  A.  and  W.  H..  414 
Simonides,  ed.  Schneidewin  (1835--9); 

in  Bergk's  Polla£  Lyrici;  Hau?ette 

on,  483;  on  Poetry  and  Painting,  16 
Simonides,  Constantine,  3S1  ;  14J 
Simplicius,  iSi,  183 
Sintenis,   Karl   H.   F.    (1806-1867), 

ed.    Plutarch's  Lives,    1839,    '84; 

Arrian's  Anai.,   1849,  '67 
Sins,  bronzes  of,  318 
Smith,   (i)   R.   Murdoch,    443;    (2) 

Philip,   43';   (3)   William,   430  f  ; 

4*0,  439 
Smyrna,  359,  371,  383 
Social  War,  Mi^rim^e  on  the,  ifil 
Socrates,    Forchhammer,    127;     W. 

V.    Humboldt,  68 ;   Riitscher,    74  ; 

Limboui^-Brouwer,  181 ;  Zeller,  74 
Solinus,  ed.  Mommsen,  197 
Sommerbrodt,  Julius  Wilhelm,  185 
Sophianos,  Nicolaos,  355,  379 


Sophisu,  Geel  on  the,  180;  Grole, 
43S  :  Cope,  408 ;  the  later  Sophists, 
Rohde,  186 

Sophocles,  Laur.  Ms  collated  by 
Elmsley,  394fi  Prinz  on,  155; 
Facsiniilt  (London,  1885) ;  Mus- 
grave's  notes,  ed.  Gaisford  (i8ao), 
397;  Bothe  (1806);  Erfurdt  (1801- 
35) ;  Hermann  (1809-25),  91 ; 
Wunder  (i8is).  109;  Dindorf 
(1831-49,  etc.),  144  f ;  Schneidewin 
(1849-54,  etc.).  hi;  Be^  (1858, 
■68).  147;  Nauck  (1867),  150  j 
Toumier  (1S69),  258  ;  Campbell,  i 
(1871,  1881*).  ii  (1879);  Linwood 
(1878),  411;  Jebb  0883^6).  413. 
Ajax,  ed.  Lobeck,  103,  Swedish 
trans.  350 ;  Ant.  Boeckh,  98, 
Donaldson,  409,  SemJtelos,  371 ; 
Ei.  Jahn,  210,  Kaihel,  rss  \  O.  T. 
Kennedy,  40  J,  Earle,  468,  at 
Harvard,  461,  imitated  by  Schiller, 
71,  transl.  by  M.  Schmidt,  153; 
O.  C.  Boeckh,  98,  Reisig,  109, 
Doderlein,  113,  Elmsley,  394, 
Siivera  on,  73;  FMlocl.  Gedicke 
and  Buttmann.  85.  Cavallin,  350; 
Fragm.  Bergk,  147,  Nauck.  151  f; 
LixkoH,  Ellendt  (1834-5),  Dindorf 
(1870-1),  EUendt-Genthe  (1870-2), 
14s  ;  German  trans],  A.  Schiill,  149. 
Engl.  Plumptre,  G.  Voung,  Lewis 
Campbell,  Whilelaw ;  Bonitz  on, 
176;  Lessing,  26,  30;  Reiske,  17; 
M.  Schmitz  on  choral  metres,  153; 
Karsten  on  trilc^es,  281;  schoHa, 

■  355.  371 

Sophocles,  E.  A.,  456 

SfKiin,  inscriptions,  138,  147  ;  sculp- 
tures, 147,  341  %  revival  of  learning 


Spanheim,  341;  ii  3^7 
Sparwenfeldt,  Johan  Gabriel,  346 
Spence,  Fulyiiietis,  »6;  ii  411 
Spengel,  Leonhaid,  180;  112 
Spitzner,  Franz  Ernst  Heinrich, 


'39    , 


05; 

-Spohn,  Friedrich  August  Wilhelm,  (06 
Spongberg,  J.,   3J0 
Spralt.  T.  A.  E,.  443;  117 
Sprengel,  Kurt,  187 
Stackelberg,  Otto  Magnus  von,  218, 
3"  8,  390 


OgIC 


Stalenns,  Johannes,  336 

Slallbaum,  Gottfried,  161 

Stark,  Karl  Bernard,  115 

Stalius.  edd.  194;  Baehrens,  igi  ; 
Wilkins  and  Davies  in  Postgale's 
C.   P.   L.  (1905);  Sandslrom  on, 

Steinthal,  H.,  loSf;  68 
Stephani,  Ludotf,  113,  390 
Stepbanus  Bysonlinus;  Meineke,  i  iS ; 

Dindorf,  144;  115 
Stephanus  (Eslienne),  (t)   Robertus, 
Latin  Thesaurusai,  6 ;  (j)  Henricus, 
lis;  Greek  Thesaurus,  11; ^Mtiuia, 
345;    London    ed.,    334;    Didot's 
Paris  ed.,    145,  )7if;  ii   173-5 
Stichometry,  i6o 
Sliernhielin,  338,  343  f 
Sti^venart,  transl.  of  Dem.,  i6i 
Slobaeus,   Edogat,  ed.  Heeren,  77; 
Florilfgium,   ed.    Gaisford    (1812), 
30;;  Meineke  (1855-7),  "8;  An- 
tkotogium,    i,     ii     {Ecli^ai^,     ed. 
Wachsmuth,  1884  ;  lii,  iv,  Heinse, 
1894;   Jacobs    on,    64;    LtcHena 
Slobema,  Halm,  196 
Strabo,  ed.  Falconer  (Oxon.    1807) ; 
Koraes     (1815-0),     361;     Kramer 
(1S44-51) ;  C.  Miiller  and  DUbner 
(18S3-7},   57»;  Meineke  (1852-3). 
I  [8;     German     (ransl.,     Groskurd 
(1831-4),  Karcher  (1819-36),  For- 
bigcr  (i8j6-6i)-,  Fr.  transl.  (1805- 
'9),  303;  Tardieu  (1866-73) 
Strachan,  John,  41S 
Strack,  Johann  Heinrich,  M3 
Strassburg,  school  of  Roman  history, 

340 ;  ii  367  f 
Slruve,    Carl     Ludwig,    and     Jacob 

Theodor,  389 
Studemund,  Wilhelm,  141 ;  140 
Subjunctive  and  Optative,  458 
Subsirifilients,    Jahn     (1851),    110 ; 

Haase  (i860},  139 

Suetonius,  studied  by  Guy  Morillon, 

304;  ed.  Emesti  (1748,   '75),   13; 

Bremi   (1800),    165;   Wolf  (1801), 

59 ;    Baun^arten-Crusius    (:  8: 6-8 

etc.):   Haase  (1818);   Roth   (1858 

etc.);^»{wi/uj',ed.Shuckbu[^h,4i5 

Siisern,  Johann  Wilhelm,  73 

SuVdas,    ed.    Gaisford   (. "     ' 

Bemhardy  (1834-53), 

(■854).  87 

Snipicia,  Bahrens  on,  191  ;  ed.  Jahn, 


iSo 

Susemihl.  Franz,   181 
Sweden,   331-35*;  Gk  mss  in,  161 

n.  i;  344-6 
Sydney,  408 

Symmachus,  ed.  Mai,  I41 
Synesius,  Volkmann  on,  184 
Syracuse,  topt^raphy  of,  131,  145 

Tacitus,  Facsimile  of  Codex  Midictus, 
I,  II  (L.  B.)  ;  FacsimUe  of  Codix 
Leittensis  of  Gtrm.,  Dial.  (L.  E.) ; 
edd.  loii;  Emesti  (1751),  13; 
Bekker  (18*5.  ■31),  87;  OrelU 
(1846-59,  '59-'84),  i6t  ;  Halm 
(1851,  '74).  i9«i  Haase  (1855  etc.). 
Agr.  Germ.  Ann.  Allen,  450  ;  Agr. 
Gertn.  Hisl.  Ganlrelle,  296;  Agr. 
Cornelissen,    t88,    Kriukov,      " 


Peter,  133,  Peerlkamp,  177,  Wex 
(1851),  Kril^  f74').  Drager  (■84.), 
Gudeman  ('99),  Uriichs  on  ('68)  \ 


Ann.  and  Germ.  Doederlein, 
113;  Ann.  Nipperdey,  ir7,  mji  ; 
Fumeaui,  435 ;  Ann.  i,  Wagener, 
198 ;  Diatogus,  Naples  MS,  81, 
mehrens,  191,  Heumann,  4, 
Wagener,  398,  Peter  ('77),  Peter- 
^1  ('93)-  Gudeman  ('94,  '98) ; 
Germania,  Haupt,  1 35  f,  Passow, 
1 15,  Ktitz-Hirachfelder  ('78*);  Nisi. 
van  der  Vliet,  189;  Lex.,  301; 
Silvern  on  Tacitus,  73;  Delamarre, 
TacHi  et  la  LittiratHre  Franfobe 
(1907);  French  transl.,  iso,  Swedish, 
351;  Boissier  on,  483 

Tactics,  Greek  writers  on,  134,137,341 

Tanagra  figurines,   169 

Tannery,  Paul,  357 

Tate,  James,  419 

Taylor,  John,  17;  ii  414 

Tegner,  Esaias,  349 

TeichmilUer,  Guslav,  i79f 


Perence,  MS,  14I ;  Facsimile  of  Codtx 
Amliroiianus {l.-'R.);  ed.  Barlandus 
(<530)'    304!    Magnusson    (1780), 

S8;  Klotz,  115;  Fleckeisen,  142; 
mpfenhttch,  [91  f ;  cp.  M.  Warren, 
461;  W.  Wagner,  143;  Andria, 
Benoist,  158  ;  Metres,  419  ;  Danish 
transl  ,  313,  318;  Gennan,  ijj; 
Lives,  ed.  Abe],  391 


OgIC 


S20 


Teubnet  teuls,  origin  of,   115 
Teuflel,  Wilhelm  Sigismund,  ii3f 
Tcxier,  Charles  Filix  Marie  {1801- 

1S60),  165 
Thacher,  Thomas  A.,  461 
Thiyer,  Joseph  Henry,  458 
Theatre.  Greek  and  Roman,  Wieseler, 
113;   Gr.   Thau.   Dorpfeid-Reisch 
(i8<^);  409.  *H 
Theocritus,     Bion,     Mosehus,     em. 
Jacobs,   64;   ed,    Meinefce    (1S16, 
%i.   •ill,    "«i   ZiiglM    (Ttaocr. 
1S44,    '67,    '7g ;    Bion,    Mosehus, 
1868),  157;  Ahrens  {1855-9),  15?; 
Wilamowitz  {1907),   TexlgesthUite 
{1006);    Theocriius,    Reiske,    i;, 
WUstemann,  6j,  Doederiein,   irj. 
Geel,  180,  A.  T.  H.  Fritzsche,  157; 
Spohn  on,  106  ;  Scholia,  v}t,  354 
Theodosianm,  Codtx,  137 
Theodosins  of  Alexandria,  141 
Theognis,   ed.   Bekker    (i8t5,   '17). 
86:  Welcker  (1816),  117;  ZiegUr 
(1868,    '80),    157;   Sitelet  (1880); 
Engl.  tr.  in  Frere's  CoU.    Works; 
E.  Harrison  on   Theognis  (1903); 
T.  H.  Williams  in  /.  H.  S.  xxiii 
('903)  '  f 
Theon  of  Smyrna,  156 
Theophrastus,   ed.  J.   G.   Schneider 
(l8i8-ii),  11;  Wtmmer  (Leipzig, 
1854-61,  Par.   1866)5   Characters, 
ed.  Benzeliiis  (1708) ;  J.  F.  Fischer 
(■763),   347;   Gram,   1.4;  Reiske 
n  {'7S7)>  '7?  Kotaes  {1799).  .3°* 


n  (1830-50),  168;  Dubner  (1S40), 
173;  J.  G.  Sheppard  (Lond.  1852)5 
Hartung  (185;)  ;  Foss  (1858) ;  E. 
Petersen  (1859);  Ussing  {1868), 
325;  Jebb  (1870,  ipoS").  413; 
(Philolagische  Gtsethchafi,  Leipiig, 
1 897) ;  Edmonds  and  Auslen  ( 1 904) . 
Mtlaph.  ed.  Brandis  (1813),  173; 
De  Pielalc,  Bemays  on,  177  f; 
AnaUcla,  Usener  (1858),  184 

Thereianos,  Dionysios,  371 

Thierry,  Amidie,  a6i 

Thiersch,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,   iiof; 

Thirl  wall,  Connop,  437 

Thomas  Aquinas,  358 

Thomas  Magisler,   139,  344,  354 

Thompson,  William  Hepworth,  407  f ; 


Thomsen,  Victor,  106  n.  j,  314 

Thonbsen,  Jean  Joseph,  305 

Thorbecke,  J.  R.,  180 

Thorlacius,  Birgerus  (Biirge),  317 

Thott,  Birgitte,  3)8 

Thucydides,  ed.  Goltlebet,  Bauer 
and  Beck  (1790-1804],  14;  Bekker 
vA\\i  scholia  (1811  etc.),  86;  Poppo 
([831-38,  '43-76t.  159-  4°'  ;  Golfer 
(18)6  etc.);  Haase  (1841),  r37 ; 
S-  T.  Bloorofield  (1841),  401  ; 
Arnold  (1848-57),  439;  Donaldson 
(1859),  409;  Classen  (1861-78  etc.), 
159;  Hude  (1898-1901)  ;  i,  ii,  ed. 
Shilleto,  406;  vii,  Holden,  411; 
Reiske  on,  17;  Bonitz  on,  176; 
Miiller-Strtlbing  on,  156  ;  Oecono- 
mides  on,  370;  Transl.  Engl., 
Jowetl,  419;  Germ.,  17;  Fr.,  161, 
173;  Kiiiger  on  Ihe  Life  of,  no; 
scholia,   379 

Thurot,  Charles,  15;  ;  Francois,  15; 
n.  6 

Tibullus, Hcyne, 38f,4o;  ii4io;  Dis- 
sen,  ir4;  Lachmann,  118;  Haupt, 
i36;Rossbach,  158;  L.  Miiller,i89; 
Hillcr,  191;  iransl.  by  Voss,  6if; 
iv  2,  Ir.  Holmes,4ii  n.  4;  Swedish 
Iransl.  351;  Spohn  on,  106;  ¥asX- 
gate,  Stltc/ions  {1^3),  Tijrf  (1906); 

?p,  Cartault,  A  fropos  du  Corpus 
ibullianum  (1906),  pp.  73-551 
Ticknor,  George,  453 
Timkovski,  R.  T.,  385 
Tischbein,  43,  75 
Tissot,  Charles,  itii 
Tomeroa,  Adolf,  351 
Torstrik,  Adolf,  181 
Toumier,  Edouard,  158 
Tragic  An,  Schiller  on  Ihe,  71 
Traner,  J.  V.,  351  n.  1;  349  n.  1 
Translations  from  theClassics,  Danish, 

328;    English,    410,    413.     415  f. 

410,  413.  417.  433'';  French,  161; 

German,  9,  61  f,  64,  69,  83,  r66; 

modem  Greek,  373 
Traube,  Ludwig,  195 
Trebiiond,  school  of,  359 
Tr^er,  P.  H.,  314 
Trendelenburg.  Adolf,  174.  179 
Tripolilza,  school  of,  358 
Trojan  Cycle,  316 
TroUe,  Gustav,  334 
Troy,  106,  1141  iij,  15s 
Tryphiodorus,  ed.  Kochly,  133 
Tursellinus,   117;  ii  369 


,i^.ooglc 


Ueberweg,  FriaWch,  183 
Ukert,  Friedrich  August,  63 
Ulrich,  Heinrich  Nicolaus,  117,371 
Umbrica,  481 
Umpfenbach,  Franz,  iqi 
Unger,  Georg  Friedrich,  ij6 
Upmark  (Rosen^lei),  Johan,  344 


Urlichs,  Karl  Ludwig  von,  loi ;  101 
ITsener,  Henninn,   184  f ;  194 
Ussing,  Johan  Louis,  355  f ;  141,  313 

Uvarov,  CounI,  389  f 


109 
Valerius   Flaeeua,   ed.  Thilo  (1863), 

194;    Schenki    (1871),    160.     194; 

Baehrens  (1875),  191,  194;  Langen 

(1B96  Oi    '94!  B"ry  '1  Poslgate's 

C.  P.  L.  (1905),  343 
Valerius  Maximus,  Halm,  196 
Valla,  UeoTgius,  Bemays  on,  i;8n.  1 
Vallauri,  Toniinaso,  141 


Varro,  De  L.  £.,  Spenge]  (1816,  '85^, 
180,  K.  O.  Muller  (1833I,  EWer 
('837).  ny<^'  ^-  ^-  Keil  J1884- 
91),  1031  Niebuhr,  78,  and  Ritschl, 
141,  on  Varro;  Fragmenls,  143; 
Francken's   Varrfniana,  iSi 

Vases,  Greek,  Berlin,  119,  481 ;  Qiris- 
rube,  67;  Sit  W.  Hamilton's,  75; 
Munich,  110 

Vater,  Friedrich,  389 

Veilch,  William,  4*7 

Velleius  Faterculus,  Haase,  137; 
Halm,  196;  R.  Ellis  (1898} ;  Coine- 

Velsea,  Adolf  von  (1832-1900),  rjs; 

Watlenbach  and  Velsen,  Exenipla 

codd.   Gr.   Hiteris  minuscidis  scrif- 

tarum  (Heidelb.  1878) 
Venice,   Mss,   86,    185,   3^6;  Greek 

press,  3J3  f,  357 
Vercelli,  inscriptions  of,  246 
Verelius,  Olof,  343 
'Verify  your  references',  393 


■EX.  521 

Verner,  Carl,  319  f;  331 
Verona,   palimpsest  of  Gaius,  80 
Verrius  Flaccus,  436 
Ver^    Coraposilion,    Hermann,    94; 
Arundinis    Cami,     406 ;    Betwan 
Whiles,  403;  Folia  Sihiulat,  41  r; 
Sabrinae   Corolla,  403,   406  ;    Lyl- 
leltonand  Gladstone  (1861);  Dublin 
Translations  (1881] ;  T.  S.  Evans, 
4I0;  Jebb,4i4;  Munn>,434;  Head' 
lam,  484f;  in  Netherlands,  177/ 
Vico,  Giovanni  Battista,  55 
Victor  Vitensia,  ed.  Halm,  196 
Vienna,  19,  44,  160,  116,  479 
Viger,  Hermann  on,  91,  loi 
Villemain,  Fran9ois,  170  f;  157 
Villoison,  41,  56  f,  j8,  378;  ii  397  f 
VindobBtunse,  Lextcim,   147,   151 
Virgil,    in    MA,    144 ;    ed.     Heyne 
(1767-7S),  40;    P-  Wagner  {1830- 
4O,   igi;   Forbiger  (1836-9  etc.), 
117;   Ladewig  ('850),    191;   Rib- 
beck    (i8s9-i868),    r88,     Benolst 
{1876),  359;  Conington  ([863-71)' 
434;      Kennedy     (1876-B),      403. 
Bucolics    and     Georgics,     Martyn 
(1741-9,  i84if),  459;  Voss,  6t  (cp. 
Kloti.iit);  Page;  .^enrii/, Heinrich 
and    Nbliden,      1 10 ;     Peerlkamp 
(1843),  178;  Gossrau  {1846,  1875), 
191;  Henry  on,  436;  Viwil  transl. 
1^  Voss,  62;   Georg.  and  ^i«.  in 
Greek,  361 ;  Engl.  Conington,  435 ; 
Sellar  on,  435 ;  imitated  in  Sweden, 
337t;  Pseudo-Virgiliaaa,  136,  Ellis 
Vitruvius,  ed.    Schneider,   11;  Rose 
and    Muller- Strtlbing,    T56,    103 ; 
Schulli  on,  no;  Ussing  on,  316 
Vittorino  da  Feltre,  161  j  ii  53-sS 
Vliet,  J.  van  der,  188  f 
Voemel,  Johann  Theodor,  168 
Voevodski,  L.  F.,  387 
Vc^l,  Theodor,  101 
Volkoiann,   Richard,  183  f 
Volscian,  Coissen  on.  143 
Vossi  Johann  Heinrich,  6\-6y,  8,  57, 

6.3,  67,  78,  97  n-  » 
Vossius.    (1)  G.   J.,    H4i  11   307   f; 

(1)  Isaac,  317,  339;  ii  3« 
Vries,  E.  S.  G.  de,  187 

Wachsmath,  (1)  Curt,  119;  (i)  Wil- 

Waddtnglon,    (1)   Charles,   iGi;   (1) 

William  Henry,   167  f;  165 
Wagener,  Auguste,  597  f;  199 


OgIC 


522 


Wagner,  (i)  Philipp,  igj;   (i)  WU- 

helm,  ,43 
Waiu,  Theodor,  174 
Walbeig,  K.  A.,  350 
Walch,  Johann  Geoi^,  4 
Walckenaer,      Charles       Athanase, 

Baron,  iSt 
Wallon,  Henri  Alexandre,  171 
Waller  of  ChiliUon,  194 
Wallharius,    104 
Waltz,  Adolphe,  159 
Wall,  Ernst  Christian,  181 
Warr,  G.  C.  W.,  416;  133 
Warren,  Minton,  461 


wilh  Zangemeister  (Heidelb.  1876- 
9),  Dn,  Gr.  lilieris  luinusculis, 
a  Velsen  (ib.   1878) 


Wayte,  W.  W.,  430 
Weber,   (i)  Carl   Fi 

Ernst  Christian  Wilhelm,  1 


nedrich, 


Winterfeld,  P.,   194 

Winterton,  Ralph  (1600-1636),  397 

Wille,  Jean,  Baron  de,  193;  160 


Wilhelm  Ernst  (1730-1850)  fCor- 

/ttf  Poetarum  Lattaorum  (Frankf. 
'833-6J 
Weil,  Henri,  258 

Weise,  Karl  Hermann,  ed.  Plaulus,  1 40 
Weissenbom,  Wilhelm,  loi ;  377 
Welcket,    Friedrich    Goltheb,    116: 

64,  "o.  41T 
Wellauer,  August,  115 
Weller,  (i)  Jacob.   G&  Gr.,  14,  38; 

(1)  Christian  Gottlob,  133 
Werler,  Veil,   141 
Wescher,  Charles,  ■t6^ 
Wesenbeig,  Albert  Sadolin,  314 
Westermann,    Anton,  163,  t;i,  443 
Westphal,  Rudolf,   157  f;  153 
Wex.  F.  K.,  30I 
White,  Horace.  467 
Whitney,  W.  D.,  464 
Whitte,  H.  K.,  328;  31^ 
Wieland.  Christian  Martin,  36;  J7 
Wieseler,  Fiiedrich,  323 
Wilkins,   (i)   Sir  Charles,   205,-    (2) 

Augustas  Samuel,  434;  (3)  Henry 

Musgrave,  41 4 
Willems,  Pierre,  306-9;  joi 
Wilmanns,  G.  H.  C,  237 
Wilster.  C.   F.  K,  328 
Winckelmann,  (i)  August  Wilhelm, 

t6i;  (2)  Johann  Joachim,   21-14; 

10,  20,  26  f,  38  f,  42,  219,  220  f, 

147.  3t8 


Wittenberg,  univ.,   334 

Wolf,  (i|  Friedrich  August,  51-60; 
8,  19.  41  f,  52,  63,78  f,  83,  Sjf, 
93>  95.  97.  100.  '05.  108,  114, 
III   ff,   130,   165,   184,   501.   327; 

11)   Hieronymus,    115;    li   168  f ; 
3)  Johann  Christian,  345,  347;   ii 

Wood,  Robert,   4c,    55   f,  61  n.  j  ; 

■i  43» 
Woolsey,  Theodore  Dwight,  463 ;  455 
Wordsworth,    (1)   William,   449   n., 

(2)    Christopher,    405 ;    (3)  John, 

Writing,   on  ancient,  Josephus,  55  ; 

Lessing,  29 ;  Wolf,  56 
Wiistemann.  Ernst  Friedrich,  65;  104 
Wunder,  Eduard,  109 
Wyttenbach,  SJ,  6;,  275  f.  290,  302, 

363;  ii  461-s 

Xenocrates,  362 

Xenophanes,  181 

Xenophon,  ed.  W,  and  L.  Dindorf, 
144 ;  Anab.  and  Libri  Sucraiici, 
Schenkl,  160;  Anai.,  Cyrop.,  Hil- 
len.  Morus,  {4;  Ages.,  Anab., 
Cyrop.,  Hellen.,  Hieron,  Mart. 
Breitenbach,  i6a;  Anab.  Krtiger, 
119,  Rehdantz,  169,  Hug,  160, 
Cobet,  284;  Cyrep.,  Hitron,  Oec. 
Holden,  411 ;  Cyrop.  Danish  transL, 
316;  Hellen.  Riemann,  259,  167; 
Cobet,  384;  Kyprianos,  371;  Hip- 
parckkus,  De  Re  Eatiestri,  transl. 
by  Courier,  250;  ed.  M.  H.  Morgan 
(Boston,  1893) ;  Mtm.  Emesti,  13, 
Koraes,  362;  Dissen  on,  114;  Oee. 
Graux,  261 ;  Resp.  Ath.,  156;  Reip. 
La£.  Haase,  137;  Symp.  C.  Orel- 
li,  161.  Cieuzet  on,  66;  Mure, 
439;  Wieland,  36.  Prosapggraphia 
Xenophontea,  Cobet,  182 ;  Ltxilo- 
gus,  Gustav  Sauppe 

Xenophon  Ephesius,  Peerlkamp,  177 

Yale  College,  4J1,  460  f,  462-6 

Zangemeister,  Karl  (1837-1902),  £.1;- 
empla  codd.  Lai.  litteris  maiusailis 
scriplorum,  with  Wattenbach.  Hei- 
delb., 1876-9 

Zehetmayr,  Sebastian,  til 


i."ih,Cooglc 


Zell.  Karl.  ,74 

Zampt,  (1)  Karl  Gottlob,   114I  318; 

Zeller,  Eduard,  477  ;  173,  179 

(1)  August  Wilhelm,  137 

Zend,  ISO  n.  3,  319 

Zygomalas,  358 

Zenos,  Demetrios,  355 

Z^vorl.  transl.  of  Thucydides,  261 
Ziegler,  Christoph,   156 

7^».E  in  SuVdas,   186 

iin^\li>r9uir,    1(71 

Zoega,  Johann  Geot^,  318;  41 

,deapa„,   .J7 

Zoilus,  D.  Nisaid  on,  jji 

aif  and  m<to,  Tycho  Mommsen  on. 

Zosimus,  198 

151 

Zurich,  161,  163 

(.To^oXrf,  93  n.  3 

iM,Googlc 


QTamlirnigf : 

T  JOHN    ClAY, 

AT   THE   t 


iM,GOOglC 


iM,Googlc 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHKSAN 


iM,Googlc 


3  9015  00179  2194 


I 


DO  NOT  REMOVE 

OR 
MUTILATE  CARD 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN 


«w  ^^ 


u  Hi  il 


APR  2 

APR 


^.^^^' 


n,g,t,7rJM,GOOglC 


DO  NOT  REMOVE 

OR 
MUTILATE  CARD 


iM,Googlc