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HARVARD UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY OF THE
Department of Education
COLLECTION OF TEXT-BOOKS
Contributed by the Publishers
TRANSFERRED
_
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VI.
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A HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE
A.D. 1453-1900
IN SIX VOLUMES. VOL. VI
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GEORGE BELL 4 SONS
LONDON : YORK STRBBT| COVSNT GARDEN
CAMBRIDGE: DBIOHTON, BELL >Sf, GO.
NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
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A HISTORY OF
MODERN EUROPE
FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE
BY
THOMAS HENRY DYER, LLD.
THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND CONTINUED TO THE
END OF THE XIXTH CENTURY
By ARTHUR HASSALL, M.A.
STUDENT OF CHRIST CHURCH, OXFORD
VOL. VL i8i 5-1900
WITH A BIBLIOGRAPHY AND INDEX
LONDON
GEORGE BELL AND SONS
1901
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^ ^ — i ^ - S *^ T^ I - MARv^KD COLLEGE LIBRAH1
iRANSFERfiED FRCK THE
r^^O tn >'' LIBRARY Of THE
* t^Rr.K 'TE SCHOOL OF fcL'iJ..,TIUN
-- — Harvard lJnive''sity,
Dept. of Education Library,
Gift of the Publishers.
CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.
TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.
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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS
OF
THE SIXTH VOLUME
CHAPTER LXVIII
The Eeactum in Europe
A.D.
1816.
1818.
1824.
1820.
1828.
1824.
1827.
isie.
1821.
1828.
181£.
1820.
1821.
PAGE
Character of the Epoch . . . 8
Second Peace of Paris ... 4
Neyshot 5
Conffreas of Aix-la-Chapelle . 6
Theboctrinairea 7
Dnc de Beni asaassinated . —
The Holy Allianoe .... 8
Retrospect of Spaniah Hiatory 9
Constitotioii
of 1812
The CamariUa —
Spanish American Colonies . 10
Insorrection of Quiroga and
Riego 11
Parties in Spain 12
Civil War —
The Holy Allianoe interferes . 18
The Fi«nch enter Spain . . 14
Ferdinand returns to Madrid 16
The ApoetoUc Jnnta .... 16
Iniranection of the Aggro-
vUidoi . —
Portngnese HJstory . . . .
AocesmoDof JohnVl. . . .
He aocepte a new Conatitation
Plota oiBom Miguel . . . .
Betroapect of Italian History
Bestoration of Pins Yn. . . —
Of Ferdinand IV. in Naples . —
Mnratahot —
TheCmrlwnari 19
Bevolntion in Naplea and
Sicily —
Snppreaaed by Austria ... 21
Bevolution in Piedmont . . —
Abdication of Victor Ema-
nuel I —
17
18
A.D. PAGE
1821. State of Austria 22
German Patriotism .... 28
1817. Demonstration at the Wart-
burg —
1819. Murder of Kotcebue . ... 24
Aoceasion of Charles XIV. in
Sweden —
1820. Of George IV. in England. . —
1828. Accession of Pope Leo Xn. . 26
1824. Death of Louis ivm. . . . ■-
Accesaion of Charlea X. . . —
1825. Hla Coronation —
1828. Resignation of M. ViU^le . . 26
Retrospect of Turkish EOstory —
Reigns of Mnstapha IV. and
Mahmoud II —
Peace of Bucharest (1812) . . ~
Condition of the Turkish Em-
pire 27
1820. Inaurrection of the Greeka . 20
1826. Death of the Emperor Alex-
ander L 30
Renunciation of Conatantine
and Aooeaaion of Nicholaa L —
1826. Mahmoud CL auppreaaea the
Janiaaariea 31
Treaty of Akerman .... 32
1827. Kinsdom of Greece erected . —
Battle of Navarino .... 38
1828. Nicholaa L declarea War
againat the Sultan .... —
1829. Peace of Adrianople .... 34
1882. Otho of Bavaria accepta the
Greek Crown —
1829. PoUgnac Ministry in France . 36
Insurrectionary aymptoma. . —
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vi CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS
▲.D. PAGE
1880. The Ghambera cUssolved . . 87
OrdinaBces of July . . . . —
Riots in Paris —
Poliimac dismissed .... 39
Mnmcipal Commission . . . —
Louis Philippe, Lieut. -Qeneral 40
A.D. PAGB
1880. Abdication of Charles X. . . 41
Louis Philippe, King of the
French 42
Death of Ctooige IV., and Ac-
cession of Wflliam IV. . . 48
CHAPTER LXIX
Louis Philippe and Europe
1830. The "Citizen King'* . ... 46
Disturbances in Belgium . . —
Independence proclaimed . . 47
Recognized by the Five
Powers 48
Leopold L, King of the Bel-
gians , . 49
1882. Siege of Antwerp 60
1838. ScnMffation of Belgium and
Holland 61
1880. Insurrection in Poland . . . —
1882. Poland a Russian Province . 63
Insurrections in Germany . . 64
Kossuth in Hungary . ... 66
Acoeflsi<m of Pope Pius Vin.
a829) -
Louis Philippe's Reign . . . —
Lafayette msmissed .... 66
The Duchess of Berri in La
Vendto 67
Attempts on Louis Philippe's
Life -
1881. Pope Gregory XVI 68
Disturbances in Italy ... —
Aided by Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte ~
His Attempt at Strassbnrg . eo
Charles Albert in Sardinia . —
Louis Philippe's Avarice . . 61
1888. Overthrow of the Mol^ Minis-
1840. MiSLtry of M. Thiers' ! ! ! 62
The Eastern Question . . . —
Ambition of Mehemet Ali . . —
Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi . . 68
Mehemet Ali opposed by Eng-
land —
Louis Napoleon's Attempt at
Boulogne 64
1840. Body of Napoleon I. trans-
ferred to Paris 64
The Bntente Cordiaie . . . _
1848. Affair of Mr. Pritchard ... 66
1844. The French in Africa. . . . —
Retrospect of Sp anish History —
Ferdinand VIL's Pragmatic
Sanction 66
HisDeatha888) ->
Accession of Isabella II. . . —
The Bitatuto Beat promul-
gateda884) 67
The Car(<«te in Biscay . . . —
Affairs of Portugal ; Death of
John VI., 1826 68
Accession of Donna Maria da
Gloria —
Dom Miguel usurps the Throne
0828) 60
Don Pedro, ex-Emperor of
Brazil, restores his daughter
Donna Biaria (1883) ... 70
1886. Affairs of Spain: Christina
proclaims the Constitution
of 1812 71
1840. Dispersion of the Carlists
1841. Espartero. Regent
1843. Espied by Narvaez . . . .
Isabella n. declared of Age .
Return of Christina ....
1846. Narvaez dismissed ....
Louis Philippe's Intrigues re-
specting the Spanish Mar-
nagee
1847. Discontent in Prance . . .
1848. Riots in Paris
Abdication of Louis Philippe .
Provisional Government . .
Louis Philippeflies to England
72
78
74
78
CHAPTER LXX
T?ie Emdutions o/1848
1848. Second French Republic . . 79
TheAtelieraNationaux, . . —
Reaction aininst Socialism . 81
Louis Na|>oleon President . . 82
Affairs of Germany . . . . ~
1886. Death of Francis I., and Ac-
cession of Ferdinand I. of
Austria
1837. Death of William IV. and Ac
cession of Queen Victoria .
83
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OF THE SIXTH VOLUME
Vll
A.D. PAGE
1887. Th« Crown of Hanover seYored
from that of England ... 83
1840. Death of Fredrick William
m. of Prussia and Acces-
sion of Frederick William
IV —
Affairs of Hunfl»ry .... 84
1846. The Sdileswig-Holstein Qnes-
tion 85
The Baden Besolations . . . —
1848. Blots in Berlin 87
German Vor-pttrlament ... 89
Feeble Ambition of Frederick
William lY —
Death of Charles XIV, of
Sweden and Accession of
Oscar(1844) 90
BetroBpect of Italian History —
MBt^tai and La Oiovineltaiia 91
1846. Accession of Pope Pius IX. . —
1848. Insurrection in Sicily and Na-
ples ~
The Austrians expelled from
Milan 92
Disturbances in Hungary . . 93
And Bohemia •—
A.D. PAGE
1848. Bevolntion at Naples ... 94
Campaign in North Italy . . 95
German National Assembly . 96
The Archduke John elected
Imperial Vicar —
Insurrection at Vienna : Mur-
der of Latour —
Abdication of Ferdinand I.,
and Accession of Francis
Joseph 97
Reaction in Berlin .... 98
1849. Charles Albert renews the War
in Italy 99
Orerthrow and Death . . .
Accession of Victor Emanuel
n. and Peace with Austria . —
War in Hungary 100
Overthrow and Fli^t of Kos-
suth — -
Republic at Rome 101
Rome occupied br the French 102
Venice reduced by the Aus-
trians 103
The German Parliament dis-
War in Schleswig-Hoistein '. —
CHAPTER LXXI
Napoleon III, and Europe
1849. Red Republicans ....
1851. Coup cT^eaf of December 2nd
Bfassacre on the Boulevards
Napoleon elected President for
1>»n Years
1862. Proclaimed Emperor
Marriage
Rivalry of Austria and
Prussia
Convention of Olmlltz .
The Emperor of Austria with
draws the Constitution . .
Hie Prince of Prussia becomes
Regent
Treaw of London respecting
SchleswU-Holstein
Affairs of Spain
Expulsion of the English Am-
Various Fortunes of Christina
1868. Death of Donna Maria of Por-
tugal
105
107
108
109
110
112
118
114
116
116
1864. Rome under Pius IX. : The Im-
maculate Conception . . .116
1863. Nicholas I.'s Designs upon
Turkey 117
Prince Menschikoff*s Message
to the Divan 118
Battles of Oltenitza and Sinope 119
1864. Rupture between Russia and
the Western Powers ... 120
The Crimean War 121
Battle of the Alma . . . . —
Battles of Balaclava and In-
kerman 122
1865. Sardiniajoins France and Eng-
land 123
Death of Nicholas I. and Ac-
cession of Alexander n. . . —
Capture of Sebastopol . . .124
1866. Peace of Paris 126
1867. Treaty of Demarcation ... 126
Tripartite Treaty . ,
Danubian Principalities
1858. View of the Period
State of Italy . .
La Oiovine Italia .
Cavour becomes
osm
VI.
CHAPTER LXXII
The Union of Italy
... 127
Minister
128
, 129
1868. The Infernal Machine ... 180
Programme of Plombi^res . . 131
1869. Napoleon in.'s views on Italy 132
Austrian Ultimatum to Sar-
dinia 133
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Tiii CHRONOLOGICAIi TABLE OF CONTENTS
A.D. PAGE
1869. The Anatriana invade Pied-
mont 184
Campaign of 1869 —
Batde of Solf erlno .... 186
Bevolt of Italian Duchies . . 186
Peace of Villaf lanca .... 188
GaTonr Beaigns 189
GoTenunent of iEmilia ... —
Napoleon's plans for the Pope 140
1800. Cavoar returns to Power . . 141
Garibaldi's Sicilian £xpedi>
tion 142
He enters Naples 148
Victor Emanuel n. at Naples 144
1861. Retirement of Francis n. . . 146
Victor Emanuel King of Italy —
Vnsettted state of Italv. . .146
Question of the Pope s Tem-
poral Power —
1861. Death of Cavoor 148
1862. Negotiations with France . . 149
1864. Ck>nyention of September 16 . —
1866. Recognition of Italy .... 160
A.D. PAGE
BetroqMct of German alliftin. 160
1861. New Austrian Constitution . 161
Dissatisfaction in Hungary . —
Prussia ; the Krtuz party . . 162
Accession of William I. . . . —
1862. Bismarck Prime Minister . . 163
The jra<ianaZ«0r«tn .... 164
The Great German party . . —
Austria excluded from the
ZoUverein 166
Unpopularity of the Prussian
Goyemment —
1868. Treaty between Prussia and
Russia 166
Polish Insurrection . . . . —
Emancipation of Russian serfs
a867) 167
Russian recruiting in Poland. 168
Intervention of Western
Powers 169
Muraviev's Atrocities . . .161
Extinction of Poland . . . —
CHAPTER LXXIII
TAe Franco-German War
1868. Denmark and the Duchies. . 168
Death of Frederick VH. . . 164
Accession of Christian IX. . —
Federal Execution in Holstein 166
Napoleon III.'s secret pro-
posals to Bismarck ... 166
1864. The Germans seise Schleswig 167
Conference of London ... 168
England abandons Denmark . 169
Denmark subdued : Peace of
Vienna 170
1866. Prussian Pretensions ... 171
Convention of Gastein . . .172
Austrian Empire divided . . 178
1866. Treaty between Prussia and
Italy 174
Bismarck adopts Universal
Suffrage 176
Prussia abrogates the fund . 176
Prussian and Austrian forces 177
Campaign of 1866 178
Battle of Sadowa . . . . . 179
Peace of Prague 181
New Northern JDimmI . . . . —
Its Military Constitution . . 188
Dtoypointment of Napoleon
French EsEpeditioii to Mexico 184
Italian and Austrian Cam-
paign 1866 186
1866. Peace of Vienna 186
Garibaldi's attempt on Rome. 187
Rome the Italian Capital
a870) 188
The Pope declared Infallible
byaOoundl —
Retrospect of Spanish aAairs. 189
1868. Insurrection at Cadiz . . . —
1869. Serrano Recent of Spain . . 190
1870. Election of King Amadeo L . —
Retrospect of French affairs . 191
Napoleon IIL quarrels with
Prussia about the Accept-
ance of the Spanish Crown
by Prince HohenzoUem-
Sigmaringen 192
Opting of the Campaign . . 198
Battles of Gravelotte and
Sedan 194
Napoleon made Prisoner . . 196
Investment of Paris . . . . —
Surrender of Mete . . . . —
Siegeof Paris 196
1871. Capitulation of Paris ... 197
Treaty of Ftankfnrt . . . . —
Proclamation of the German
Empire 198
Italian and German Unity . 190
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OP THE SIXTH VOLUME
CHAPTER LXXIV
The Recovery of France a/ndthe Busao-Turhish War
A.D.
1871.
PA6B
200
Europe after the War
France after 1871 —
The Administration of Thiers 201
Death of Napoleon m. . . —
The Fall of ^Diiers .... 202
Marshal MacMahon President —
The Swtennat ......—
The Cissey Ministry .... 203
The Constitution of 1876 . . —
The Buffet Ministry .... 204
Victory of the Bepnblicans . —
1877. The Coup d'etat —
Influence of Gambetta ... 206
Death of Thiers —
Besignation of MacMahon . —
Jules Gr^yy President . . . —
Laws against the Jesuits . . —
The Gambetta Ministry . . 206
Failure of his foreign policy . —
Affairs of Germany . . . . —
The Dreikaiserbund .... 207
Revolt of Herzegovina against
the Turks —
1878.
1874,
1876.
1876.
1879.
1881.
1872.
1875.
▲.D. PA6B
1876. Count Andrassy's Note . . . 207
Murder of the Prussian and
French Consuls at Salonika 208
The Berlin Memorandum . . —
Deposition of Abdul Asiz . . 209
The Bulgarian Atrocities . . —
Policy of England —
Declaration of War by Servia
and Montenegro 210
Treaty of Beichstadt . . . . ->
Defeat of Senria —
Armistice enforced by Russia —
Conference at Constantinople 211
1877. The London Protocol ... 212
Russia declares War . . . . —
The Siege of Plevna . ... 213
1878. The Russians menace Constan-
tinople 215
Treaty of San Stefiuio . . . ^
Opposition of Austria and
JSngland 216
Treaty of Berlin 217
CHAPTER LXXV
The Triple Alliance
1878. Characteristics of the Period,
1878-1891 219
Russia and the Treaty of Ber-
lin 220
Policy of Bismarck . . . . —
1879. Alliance between Germany
and Austria —
1880. Italy and France in Africa . —
1883. The Triple Alliance .... 221
1884. Secret Treaty between Ger-
many and Russia . . . . —
Growth of Nihilism in Russia —
Murder of Alexander n. . . —
Russia in Afghanistan ... 222
Murder of Sir Louis Cavagnaxi —
1878.
1879.
1879. Lord Roberts in Cabul . .
1886. The Penijdeh incident . .
Affairs of Eastern Europe .
1877-1891. Policy of France . .
The Boulanger Agitation .
French Colonial Policy . .
Disaster of Langson (1886) .
France in Egypt ....
1882. Insurrection of Arab! Pasha
Bombardment of Aleacandria
Battle of Tel-el-Kebir . .
1883. Fall of Khartoum . . . .
1891. Franco-Russian Alliance .
Fall of Bismarck ....
Results of his policy . . .
1891-1900. Characteristics
period . 229
The question of Turkey . . . >—
The Armenian Massacres
a8M-6) 280
The Rising in Crete 0896). .231
CHAPTER LXXVI
The New Problems
of the
1891-1900. War between Greece and
Turkey 0897) 281
Prince Geon» of Greece, Oo-
vemor of Crete (1898) . • • t
The Partition of Africa. . .288
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CHEONOIiOGHCAL TABLE OP CONTENTS
▲.D. PAOS!
1891-1900. The Conference of Berlin
(1884-6) 2S2
The Bmssels Conference
0880-90) —
Anglo - Oexman Agreement
0890) 283
The Niger Question . . . . —
TheNileValley —
The Battle of Adowa (1896) . —
Britidi reconquest of the
&kHidana896) >-
The Fashoda Incident 0896) . 284
SncceflB of Engtiah Policy in
TheSoer War (1899) . . . . —
The Goiana- Venezuela boun-
dary question 285
Treaty of Washington 0897) . —
The CTuban Question . . . . —
The Maine Incident 0898) . . 236
A.D. PAGE
War between America and
Spain (1898) 236
1891-1900. The Far Eastern Ques-
tion —
War between China and
Japan 0894-5) 237
G^ermany and Kiao-Chow . . —
Anglo - Busslan Agreement
(1898) . . . -
Attacks on the Pekin Lega-
tlens by the Boxers O900) . —
Peace Congress of the Hague
0890). . .... 7: . 238
PioUems for the new century 239
New position of America . . —
The Biee of Japan dio
Death of Queen Victoria rtOOl) —
Assassination of Preadent
McKinleyOOOl) —
BiBUOGRAPHT
Index
Hap of Europe after 1878
. 241
. 24»
at end
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HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE
CHAPTEE LXVni
THE BEACTION IN BT7B0PB
DUMNG the yeaors which succeeded the downfall of Anew
Napoleon and of the militaiy predominance of France, ^^
the union and independence of cognate races, effected by the
revolutions in Bel^um, Greece, and Italy, present a striking
contrast to their arbitrary separation and subjugation under
foreign rulers, which so often preyailed in former times, and
even at the Congress of Vienna. Another marked feature of
the new q>och is the union of France and England, previously
the bitterest opponents, as the protectors of libend opinions
against the despotism of the Eastern Empires. In the inter-
nal history of nations is to be observed a constant struggle
for more liberal institutions. One of the worst features
of the period is the vast augmentation of standing armies
in the Continental countries, the result of the great military
struggle with the first French Empire, and of national
jealousies springing from the adjustments by which it was
followed. Armies as great during peace as in the previous
century they were in times of war, impoverish the people
by withdrawing their flower from agriculture and manu-
factures, and by the taxes necessary for their maintenance ;
^ Among the principal books for the period from 1814 to 1900, are
Seignobos, Eistaire PoliHaue de r Europe Coniemporaine ; Bebidoor,
Histoire DMomatigue ae V Europe; Stern, Ueschiehte Europcts,
sect. 1815 ; F^ffe, Ristory of Modem Europe ; Gervinos, Qesch, des
xiar JahxhunderU ; Menzel (W. ) Gesth, der letzten 40 Jakre (to 1866) ;
Cantti, Storia di Cento Anni (1760-1860); Lamartine, ffiet. de la
BeHawnUion.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
4 MODEEN EXJEOPE [Chap. LXVni.
while at the same time thej are a constant threat to civil
freedom, and a dangerous incentiye to war bj the ready
means they offer for wa,ging it. England* in a great measure
exempt by her position nrom this disastrous competition,
and aided by the wottdegrltd progress of mechanical inventions,
has experienced a rwt increase of material prosperity and
wealth.
state of One of the first acts of Louis XYIII. on re-entering his
Fnaoe. capital was to appoint Talleyrand his chief minister. The
remnant of Napoleon's army, 45,000 strong, had retired beyond
the Loire under Marshal Dayoust, but yielding to necessity,
hoisted the white flag, and was eyentually disbanded. The
war continued on the north-eastern frontier. The French
commandants of some of the fortresses in tha t quar ter, though
willing to recognize the authority of Louis XVJli., refused to
surrender to foreign troops, and the places had to be besi^^.
Ab it was considered necessary to the security oi the thn>ne
that the Allies should continue to occupy some parts of France,
the English army was stationed in tiie district north of the
Seine, the Duke of Wellington haying his headquarters at
Paris ; the Prussians were cantoned to tiie west of that capital,
between the Seine and Loire ; the Bussians were distributed
about the Oise, the Mouse, and the Moselle, while Prince
Sehwarzenberg's headquarters were at Fontainebleau. The
eastern and southern proyinoes of France* including Proyence,
were also occupied by diyisions of the allied armies, so that
two-thirds of France were in their power. The armies of
occupation at last amoimted to more than a million men.
A new Chamber of Deputies, consisting of 395 members*
was elected according to a method sanctioned only by a Boyal
Ordinance ; but as its constitution was placed on a more liberal
and democratic footing, this fact escaped obsenration and cen-
sure. The elections showed that France was become almost
ultra-royalist. The Chamber of Peers was purged, and the
peerage declared hereditary. In choosing Talleyrand and
Fouch^ for his ministers, Louis was guided by the adyice of
the Duke of Wellington.
The Second In July were begun the negotiations for the Sbconb Pxace
|^<** ov Pabib. The French were compelled to restore to their
lawful owners those works of art which they had carried off
from yarious European. capitals in order to adorn their own.
The definitiye treaties between France and the Allies were
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXVIH.] THE EEAOTION IN EUEOPE 5
signed November 2(Hh, 1815. Trance wa43 now depriTed of
part of the territories which the Peace of 1814 had left to har.
The Duchy of Bouillon, the towns of PhilippeTille» Marien-
bnrg, Saarlouis, Saarbruck and some adjacent districts, were
assigned to the new kingdom of Belgium and to Prussia. The
part of Alsace north of the Lauter was also detached from
France, including Landau, which became a fortress of the Ger-
man Confederation. Part of the county of Otex was assigned
to Qeneva, but Pemey was retained by France. The fortifi-
cations of Huningen were to be demolished. From Qeneva to
the Mediterranean the line of demarcation existing in 1790 was
to be followed, so that the King of Sardinia regained that part
of Savoy which had been left to France by the former peace.
But on the whole France lost only 20 square leagues of terri-
tory, whilst it had gained 40 by the annexation of the Yenais-
sin by the Constituent Assembly. The indemnity to be paid
to the Allies for the expenses of the war was fixed at seven
hundred million francs (.828,000,000 sterling). A number of
fortresses extending along the northern frontier were to be
occupied, at the expense of France, by an allied army not ex-
ceeding 150,000 men for a maximum period of five years.^
This term, however, was eventually much abridged. The army
of occupation was placed under the command of the Duke <k
Wellington. Another treaty between Bussia, Prussia, Austria,
and England, excluded the Bonaparte dynasty for ever from
the French throne, and bound the contracting parties to em-
ploy their whole forces for that purpose.^
Boyal ordinances of July 24th had expelled twenty-nine Marshal
members from the Chamber of Peers, had ordered nineteen ^®^ '^^^'
Oenerals or other officers, who had abandoned the King, to be
arraigned before courts-martial ; and thirty-e^ht persons to
be placed under the ati/rveillcmee of the police tUl they should
be either banished or brought before the tribunals. The most
remarkable among the Oenerals condemned was Marshal Ney,
" the bravest of Uie brave," who was shot on the morning of
December 7th, near the Observatory of the Luxembourg. Ney
^ Cond^, ValencienneB, Boachaiii, Cambrai, Le Qnesno^^, Maubeage,
Landreeies, Avesnes, Bocroi, Givet, Gharlemont, M^zienes, Sedan,
Montm^, Thionville, Lonffwyi Bitche, and the tSte-du-pont of Fort
Louis. For an analysis of uie treaties, see Koch et SchOD, TraiUs de
Paix, t. xi. p. 498 sqq.
^ Martens,, Supplt. li p. 239 sqq;
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
6 MODERN EUEOPE [Chap. LXVm.
was imdoubtedlj guilty of treachery ; but Louis violated by
his execution the broader and more honourable interpretation
of the Capitulation of Paris, which granted an amnesty to all
within its walls. It was contended, however, that this applied
only to civilians, and not to the military. Leivalette, Director
General of the Posts, who had again seized that office on the
flight of the King, and aided the return of Napoleon, was also
condemned to death, but escaped through the heroism of his
wife, who exchanged clothes with him in prison. Sir Robert
Wilson also aided his flight. The day after the execution of
Ney a general amnesty was proclaimed ; but the Chamber in-
sisted on the perpetual banishment of regicides. On the whole
the measures adopted by Louis XVIEE. were marked by
moderation. He disappointed the emigrants and ultra-
Boyalists by declining to support their cause so warmly as
they had hoped. . Li the south of France the fanatical Royal-
ists and priest-party took a ferocious vengeance on the Re-
publicans and Bonapartists. Marshal Brune, one of Napoleon's
Qenerals, was slain by the populace at Avignon in open day,
in the presence of several thousand spectators. At Nimes,
regularly organized bands, led by Trestaillon and Pointou,
slaughtered the Protestaiits as Bonapartists; and similar
scenes too k plac e at Toulouse and other towns.
Conduct of Louis XViil., though far from popular, contrived, like his
bcm**"" prototype Charles II., through good sense, and by accommo-
dating himself to the spirit of the times, to die in possession
of the crown ; while his brother, the Comte d'Artois, like the
Duke of York in England, by his rigid adherence to obsolete
principles, ultimately forfeited his own rights and those of his
family. While Louis courted the middle class, at that time
the predominant one in France, his brother Charles adhered
exclusively to the nobles and clergy ; and the Pavilion Marsan,
that part of the Tuileries whidb he inhabited, became the
rendezvous of the admirers of the ancient regime, and the
focus of reactionary intrigues. With all his bigotry, however,
Charles possessed a certain dignity of character which saved
him from contempt ; and though he was ridiculed as a Don
Quixote and a Jesuit, he was hated rather than despised,
conffress of Li September, Talleyrand was superseded in the Ministry
ci^peiie. hy the Duke de Richelieu, one of the best and most respectable
of the emigrant nobles, who had distinguished himself in the
Russian service, as Governor of Odessa, by his humanity and
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAP.IXVin.] THE REACTION IN EUEOPE 7
ability. At the same time Decazes replaced as head of the
police, Fouch^, Duke of Otranto, the blood-stained missionarj
of Nantes. BicheUeu's influence with the Emperor Alexander
sncoeeded in procuring for Fiance a mitigation of the terms
imposed by the treaties of November 20th, 1815. Already in
February, 1817, the allied Courts had consented to reduce the
army of occupation by 80,000 men, and the Congress of allied
Sovereigns, which assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle at the end of
September, 1818, decreed that the occupation should be en-
tirely terminated in the following November. The sum pay-
able by France was sAao reduce! to 265,000,000 francs, of
which 100,000,000 were to be acquitted by inscriptions on the
great book of the public debt of Fiance. These favourable
terms were chiefly procured through the disinterested influence
of the Duke of Wellington, who thus shortened the duration
of the proud position which he occupied and of the vast
emoluments which accompanied it. Soon afterwards an as-
sassin attempted his life at Paris ; an act afterwards rewarded
by Napoleon with a legacy of 10,000 francs. The Cokgbess
OF Aix-la-ChapeliiB put the finishing hand to the pacifica-
tion of Europe. France as well as England now formally
acceded, by a protocol signed November 15th, to the principles
of the Eurox>ean Pentarchy for the maintenance of Peace,
published in a Declaration of the same date, and to be upheld
by means of conferences and congresses. The Congresses of
Laibach in 1821, and of Verona in 1822, were the result of
this agreement.
In December, 1818, BicheUeu, alarmed at the number of French
Liberal members returned to the Assembly, among whom was Ministries.
Lafayette, resigned the Premiership, in which he was succeeded
by General Dessolles ; but Decazes, who became Minister of
the Interior, was the real chief of the Cabinet. A more lib-
eral policy was now adopted : the freedom of the press was
extended, and an amnesty granted to many banished persons.
Decazes was supported by the party called Docirinadres, which
took its rise about this time. At its head was Eoyer CoUard,
and it counted in its ranks many men distinguished by their
talent, as G-uizot, Yillemain, Barante, Mol^, and others. But
the assassination, by Louvel, of the Due de Berri, second son
of the Oomte d'Artois, when returning from the opera, Feb-
ruary 13th, 1820, occasioned a return to less liberal measures.
Louis, at the instance of his brother and of the Duchess of
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Alliance.
8 MODEBN EUEOPE [Chap. LXVUI.
Augoulfime, now reluctttntly dismissed Decases, and Bididieu
returned once more to power. Seven months aftw her hus-
band's death the Duchesse de Bern gave birth to a Piinoe, the
Due de Bordeaux (September 29th, 1820). Bichelieu intro-
duced into the Minisixy M. VillMe, an ultra-Boyalist, who, in
Deoember, 1822, became Prime Minister. The revolutions
against the Bourbon GoTemments in Spain and Italy in 1820,
produced in France a further reaction which at length com-
pelled Bichelieu to retire.^
The Carbimcm, and other secret societies, had been intro-
duced into France a few years after the restoration, and
included in their members some Frenchmen of distinction,
as Lafayette, Manuel, D'Argenson, Ccmstant, and others.
Lafayette presided over the central committee of the Parisian
Ca/rhonari. This restless spirit wanted, it is said, to make
himself Dictator, Bevolutions were several times attempted
in different parts of France, but without success, though some
of the Carbonari were put to death for them.
The Holy The overthrow of Napoleon placed the supreme power in
4ii« Europe in the hands of the Pentarchy, or five Great Powers,
viz., England, Austria, Prussia, Bussia, and France. The
Emperor Alexander I., whose inclination to mysticism was in-
creased by his connection with a kindred spirit, the Baroness
Krudner, of Biga, whom he visited secretly every day, to pray
with her and hear her counsels, conceived the idea of sanction-
ing the new system by a holy bond, and of regulating in future
the measures of policy by the precepts of religion. With this
view he persuaded the Emperor of Austria and the Elng of
Prussia to join with him in a treaty executed at Paris, Sep-
tember 26th, 1815, and subsequently styled the Holt Alli-
ance .^ All the potentates of Europe were invited to subscribe
to it, with two exceptions : the Turkish Sultan, and the Boman
Pontiff. In the preamble to this Convention the Signatories
solemnly declared that the object of the act was to manifest to
the universe their firm resolution to take for their rule of con-
duct, both in the administration of their respective States, and
in their political relations with foreign Governments, those
holy and Christian precepts of justice, charity, and peace, which
are not applicable to private life alone, but which ought also
directly to influence the counsels of Princes, and to guide all
^ See Daudet, Louis XVIIL et le Due Decazes.
' Martens, SuppU*. IL p. 552 sqq.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXVnL] THE SEACTEON IN EUEOPE 9
their steps, m the only means of consotidating and peifectmg
all human institations. It is needless to say that this Holy
Alliance, like other holy leagues of the same description, be-
came an instrument of deieqpotism and was regarded with
little &TOur in England.
A revolution which broke out in Spain encouraged the outp ^^^
break of revolutions in Portugal and Naples. The members ^|^^.
of the Holy Alliance after their meeting at Laibach on Janu-
ary 2nd, 1821, suppressed the revolution in Naples, and after
their meeting at Verona in October, 1822, took measuresf or th e
suppression of the risingin Spain. The King, Ferdinand VAX.,
had returned from his French captivity foil of projects of
vengeance against his subjects, and with a determination to
abolish the reforms introduced by the liberal Cortes in Church
and State. During the war and the captivity of Ferdinand,
the Cortes had, in March, 1812, established a new Constitution,
the work of a small democratic faction, by whidh the Boyal
authority waa reduced to little more than a name. That As-
sembly was declared altogether independent of the King, and
was to consist only of one Chamber, invested with the legis-
lative power ; the prerogative of the King in that respect being
restricted to proposing, and a temporary veto. The Cortes were
also to determine yearly the amount of the land and sea forces;
to confirm treaties of alliance and commerce ; and to propose
to the King the names of 120 persons, out of whom he was to
select the 40 members of his Council of State. All ecclesi*
astical benefices and judicial offices were to be filled up by
selecting from three persons named by this Council. The King
was not to leave the Kingdom, nor to marry, without the con-
sent of the Cortes, under the penalty of losing his throne.
Ferdinand VIL restored to liberty by Napoleon in 1814 ^g^^*
(«tf2>fu, vol. v., p. 512), immediately after his return applied the'cSm.
himself to restore the ancient regime. On the other hand, the ^'^^'
Cortes in turn had encroached on his prerogatives even in the
most trivial matters. Ferdinand issued decrees in May abolish-
ing the Constitution. All Liberals and Freemasons, and all
ac&erents of the Cortes, and of the officers appointed by them,
were either compelled to fly or subjected to imprisonment, or
at least deposed. All national property was wrested from the
purchasers of it, not only without compensation, but fines were
even imposed upon the holders. Dissolved convents were re-
established. The Inquisition was restored, and Mir Capillo,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Ameriea.
10 MODERN EUROPE [Chap. LXVJLiL
Bishop of Almena, appointed G^rand Inqtiisitor, who acted
with fanatical severity, and is said to hare incarcerated 50,000
persons for their opinions, many of whom were subjected to
torture. But awtoe da fe were abolished. The Jesuits were
restored and made controllers of education. Q-uerilla bands
were dissolyed, their leaders dismissed without reward, and
commands in the regular army bestowed only upon the nobles.
The adherents of Joseph Bonaparte and of the former French
Gh>Ternment were banished. By these measures some of the
brayest and most loyal spirits of the country were driyen into
the ranks of the opposition, and 10,000 persons are computed
to haye fled into France. The Kingdom was goyemed by a
Camarilla, consisting of the Sing's &yourites, selected from
the lowest and most worthless of the courtiers ; while most
of his faithful friends, the companions of his exile, were dis-
missed. This CamariUa administered justice and bestowed
offices accordingly as it was bribed,
spaidah The French invasion of Spain had occasioned a revolution
A 1^ ^ Spanish America. Till the dethronement of the Royal
Family of Spain, the American colonies had remained loyal,
and an insurrection attempted by Qeneral Miranda in the
Caraccas, in 1806, had been speedily suppressed. But, like
the mother country, the colonists revolted at the usurpation of
Napoleon and his brother Joseph ; and thus, properly speaking,
they were no more to be called rebels than the Spaniards of
the Old World. As, however, they declined to submit to the
Juntas erected in Spain, they were declared to be rebels by the
Regency established at Cadiz, August 81st, 1810. The insur-
rection had broken out in Venezuela in April, whence in the
course of the year it spread over Rio de la Plata, New Granada,
Mexico, and Chili. The insurgents demanded to be put on an
equality with the inhabitants of Spain, freedom of manufac-
tures and commerce, the admission of Spanish Americans to
all offices, the restoration of the Jesuits, etc. The insurrection
acquired its greatest strength in Venezuela, where it was first
headed by Miranda, and subsequently, after 1813, by Simon
Bolivar. In some of the other provinces its progress, owing
to the dissensions of the inhabitants, was not so rapid and
successful. After the restoration of Ferdinand, however, the
movement had gone too far to be recalled, even had that
Sovereign and hla commanders displayed more moderation
and good faith than was actually the case. Ferdinand ex-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXVin.] THE BEACTION IN EUBOPE 11
hausted Ms disordered finances in a vain attempt to leooyer
these col<»iies, for which purpose an expedition, under Qeneral
Morillo, was despatched to America in 1815.^ In 1819 the
Floridas were sold to the Americans for one million and a
quarter sterling.
The loss of the American colonies, and a bad system of rural ^^^^J'
economy, by which agriculture was neglected in favour of isso.
sheep breeding, had reduced Spain to great poverty. This
state of things naturally affected the finances ; ^e troops were
left unpaid, and broke out into constant mutinies. A suc-
cessful military insurrection, led by Colonels Quiroga and
Eiego, occurred in 1820. Mina, who had distinguish^ him-
self as a guerilla leader, but having compromised himself in a
previous mutmy, had been compelled to fly into France, now
recrossed the Pyrenees to aid the movement. The Constitution
of 1812 was proclaimed at Saragossa ; and Ferdinand, alarmed
by an insurrection of the popidace and the threats of Gtoneral
Ballesteros, who told him that he must either concede or ab-
dicate, was obliged to swear to it at Madrid. The long-pro-
mised Cortes were convened in July, when Ferdinand opened
the Assembly with a hypocritical speech, remarkable for its ex-
a^eration of Liberal sentiments. The Cortes, at the dictation
of the army, immediately proceeded again to dissolve the con-
vents, and even to seize the tithes of the secular dei^, on the
pretext that the money was required for the necessities of the
State. The Inquisition was once more abolished, the freedom
of the press ordained, the right of meeting and forming dubs
restored ; a large number of persons was dismissed from ofKce,
and replaced by members of the Liberal party. But on the
whole the insurgents used their victory with moderation, and,
^ It Ib impossible for us to describe the straggle between Spain and
her colonies. The chief results were, that Bolivar achieved the inde-
pendence of Venezuela and Granada, which were erected into the Re-
public of Colombia, Dec. 1819. In the previous May, the States of the
Kio de la Hata, or Buenos Ayres, had been constituted into the Ar-
gentine Republic. The independence of Chili and Peru was also
secured by the aid of Bolivar, and the Republic of Bolivia was estab-
lished in Upper Peru in August, 1825. In Mexico, Iturbide, who had
become leader of the insurgents after the death of Hidalgos, Morelos,
and Mina, caused himself to be prodaimed Emperor in 1822, but was
dethroned in the f ollowingyear, when the Republic of Mexico formed
a league with Colombia. The independence of Colombia, Mexico, and
Buenos Ayres, was recognized by Great Britain, Jan. Ist, 1826. In
Paraguay, Francia ruled as despot from 1810 to 1837.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
12 MODBKN EUEOPE [Chap. LX.VJJLI.
with the exoeption of some few yictiins of reyenge, contented
themselTes T?ith depriying their opponents^ the Sermlest of
their places and emoluments.
Parties in The Spanish revolutionists were divided into three parties :
Spain. j-i^Q j)4camMado8, answering to the French Scms-culottee ; the
CommimeroB, who were for a moderate constitutional system ;
and the AniUeros, known b j the symbol of a ring ; who, dread-
ing the interference of the Holy Alliance, endeavoured to
conciliate the people with the crown. There were riots in
Madrid in 1821 $ when the DecamieadoB broke into the prison
where the Canon Yinuesa was confined, who had attempted a
counter-revolution, and murdered him with a hammer. Mar-
tinez de la Bosa was courageous enough to denounce the act
in the Cortes ; but it was approved by the great majority not
only of that Assembly, but also of the nation ; and in com-
memoration of it was instituted the " Order of the Hammer,"
having a small hammer for its badge. In Eastern Spain the
Secret Societies seized several hundred obnoxious persons and
shipped them off to the Balearic Islands and to the Canaries.
The Qovemment was too weak to interfere, and could only
bring back a few in secret. General Morillo, who after his
return from America had been appointed Governor of Madrid,
attempted to re-establish a reactionary Ministry, but was
compelled by popular agitation to dismiss it The revolution,
though originated by ^e soldiery, was adopted by the more
educated class of citizens. On the other hand, the clergy and
the peasantry were bitterly opposed to it. In the summer of
1821 guerilla bands were organized in the provinces in the
cause of Church and King, and obtained the name of " Army
of the Faith." One of the most noted leaders of these bands
was Maranon, a monk of La Trappe. He was the first to
mount to the assault of the fortified town of Seo de XJrgel,
where was established, in July, 1822, what was called a
" Eegency during the captivity of the King," under the pre-
sidency of the Marquis Mata Florida, the Bishop of Tarragona,
an4 Baron d'Eroles. The Boyalists got possession of nearly
all Catalonia, but before the end of the year they were for the
most part reduced by Mina, the Constitutional general. In
these civil disturbances dreadful atrocities were committed on
both sides.
Theravagesof the yellowfever, whichhadbeen imported from
America, and carried off many thousands, had some effect in
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Chap.LXYIIL] the EBACTION in ETIEOPE 13
allaying these distarbanoes. The Prencli QoTemment, with ^*«'*?'-
the xQterior design of interfering in Spanish affairs, seized the hS^ aiu-^
pretext of this disorder to pla^ a cordon of troops on the ^^*
Fprenees ; to which the Spaniards opposed an army of obser-
vation. Ferdinand, relying on the Army of the Faith, and on
his Foreign Minister, Martinez de la Bosa, a Moderado,
thought he might y^iture on a coup dPStai before the appear-
ance of the French ; but his guards were worsted in a street
fight, Jnly 7th, 1822. General Ballesteros and Morillo de-
clared themselres averse to any infringement of the Constitu-
tion ; at the same time Eiego suddenly returned to Madrid,
and was elected President of the Cortes. Ferdinand was now
base enough to applaud and thank the victors, to dismiss the
Moderad^ from the Ministir, and to replace them by EscalU
adoB, or Badicals. The bloodthirsty fury of the dubs and the
populace was gratified by the illegal execution of two Boyalist
commanders,— Colonel Geoiffeux and Oeneral Elio. This state
of things attracted the attention of the Holy Alliance. In The Con-
October, 1822, the three Northern Monarchs assembled in fSo^^
congress at Verona to adopt some resolution respecting Spain. 2^^^»
It appeared to them that every throne in Europe was threat-
ened. The Frendi Ministry, considering that the establish-
ment of a Bepublic on the other side of the Pyrenees woidd
endanger the Bourbon throne, were also inclined to intervene;
while tiie English Cabinet, in which Canning was now Foreign
Secretary, as well as the great mass of the English people, were
averse to any interference, and especially by France. The
policy of Mettemich was now predominant. The Emperor
Alexander had more than ever set his face against revolutions,
had given up all his Eastern projects, and even abandoned the
revolutionary Greeks, however serviceable that movement
might eventually prove to him. It was at first the object of
the three allied Powers to dispense with the co-operation of
France in the affairs of Spain, and to bear down the opposition
of England ; but ultimately they resolved to support France,
and each of the four Powers addressed a note of much the
same tenor to the Madrid Cabinet, insisting on an end being
put to the present state of things. The Duke of Wellington,
who had attended the Congress for England, declined to in-
terfere, and on returmng home through Paris, warned Louis
gainst interference in Spain, to which, indeed, the French
King himself, as well as his Minister, TilKle, was averse.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
14 MODEBN EUBOPE [Chap. LXYHI,
But the Spaniards refused to listen to moderate counsels, and
replied haughtily to all the exposttdations of France ; so that
Chateaubriand himself, who had now become Minister at War,
in the place of Montmorenci, though he had opposed at Verona
the use of force, now adopted the contrary opinion.
In reply to the note of the Powers, San Miguel, the Spanish
Minister for Foreign Affa^ told them that the constitution
was the same which had been recognized by the Emperor
Alexander in 1812, and declined to make any alteration ;
whereupon the ambassadors of the three Powers demanded
and received their passports, Januaiy 11th, 1823. In the
spring, the French army of observation, which had been in-
creased to 100,000 men, was placed under the command of the
Duke of Angouleme. To resist the threatened invasion, the
Spanish Government appointed Mina to the defence of Cata-
lonia, BaUesteros to that of Navarre, Morillo took the command
in Qalicia, Asturia, and Leon, while O'Donnell, Count of
Abisbal, was stationed with the reserve in New Castile, to
support either of those generals, as occasion might require.
But these troops were few and ill-disciplined ; while in Old
Castile stood guerilla bands, under the priest Merino, ready to
aid the French invasion. An attempt on the part of Ferdinand
to dismiss his Liberal Ministry induced the Ministers and the
Cortes to remove him to Seville (March 20th, 1828), whither
the Cortes were to follow.
The^^ch The Duke of Angouleme addressed a proclamation to the
1823. * Spaniards from Bayonne, April 2nd, in which he told them
that he did not enter Spain as an enemy, but to liberate the
captive King, and, in conjunction with the friends of order, to
re-establish the altar and the throne. The French crossed the
Bidasoa, April 7th. The only serious resistance which they
experienced was from Mina. BaUesteros was not strong enough
to oppose them, while the traitor O'Donnell entered into ne-
gotiations with the enemy, and opened to them the road to the
capital. BaUesteros was compelled to retire into Yalenda,
and the French entered Madrid Mav 23rd. The Spaniards re-
ceived the French as deUverers. A Begency, composed of the
Duke del Infantado and four other nobles, was now instituted
tiU the King should be rescued from the hands of the Liberals,
and immecUately commenced an unmeastired reaction. A
French corps was despatched into Catalonia against Mina, who
stiU held out in that province ; and another against Seville,
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Chap. LXVm.] THE BEACTION IN ETJEOPE 16
where the Cortes had reopened their sittings; but on the ad-
vance of the French they retired to Cadiz, Jnne 12th, taJdng
with them the King, whom they declared of unsound mind, and
a proTisional Segency was appointed. Zayas arrested for a
while the march of ike French at TaJavera de la Beyna, but
was compelled to yield to superior numbers. Mina was shut
up in Catelonia ; Ballesteros, driven from Valencia into Gran-
ada, was defeated in the mountains near Campillo de Arenas,
when he capitulated and acknowledged the Eegency at Madrid.
About the same time Morillo surrendered at Corunna. These
events enabled the Duke of Angoul^me to march with the bulk
of his army to Cadiz, where he arrived August 16th. Fort
Tro^adero was captured on the Slst, Fort St. Petri on the 20th
of September, when the bombardment of the city was begun.
Cadiz having capitulated, October 1st, Yaldez conducted the
Kii^ to the French camp in a boat, while the Cortes made
their escape by sea. All further resistance being now hopeless,
Mina also capitulated, and surrendered to the French the for-
tresses which he still held in Ca-talonia, on condition of a free
and unmolested retreat (November 2nd). Biego, who had
endeavoured to annoy the French rear, was captured while
attempting to join Mina. Sir Bobert Wilson and a few other
Englishm^i had aided the Spanish Liberals in this struggle.
The Duke of Angouleme returned to Paris before the end of
the year, but Spain continued to be occupied by an army of
40,000 French.
The first act of Ferdinand after his release waste publish a KinK
proclamation, October Ist, revoking aU that had been done ^^SSSt^
since Mardi 7th, 1820. The Inquisition, indeed, was not re-
stored ; but the vengeance exercised by ^e secular tribunals
was so atrocious that the Duke of Angoul&me issued an order
prohibiting arrests not sanctioned by the French commander :
an act, however, which on the principle of non-interference
was dLaavowed by the French Government. The brave Biego
was condemned to death at Madrid, November 7th, and the
King and Queen of Spain made their public entry into Madrid
on iSie 13th. The whole Spanish army was now disbanded,
and its place supplied by the " Army of the Faith.'* These
men were gradually formed into a militia caJled " Boyal Yolon-
teers,'' who plundered and murdered the Constitutionalists
to their hearts' content ; while the CamariUay now directed
by Victor Saez, the King's confessor, only laughed at the
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
16 MO]>EBN BTJBOPE [Oiup. LXVni.
exhortations to moderation addressed to them bj the French
and ihiglish Ambasoidors. It is computed that 40,000 Con-
stitutionalists, chiefly of the educated chusses, were tluoim into
prison. The French remained in Spain till 1827. It was the
occupation of Spain by the French that induced Canning, then
the English Fnme Minister, to recognize the BepubUcs of
South America, in order that if France held Spain it should
not be Spain with the Indies.
The Zea Berxnudez, tiie new Minister, endeavoured to rule with
juiSk moderation. But he was opposed on all sidea The nobles
and cknrgy attacked him because he attempted to tax them.
His most dangerous enemy, however, was the Af08toi.ic
JinvTA, erected in 1824 for tiie purpose of carrying out to its
full extent, and independentiy of the Ministry, the victory of
bigotry and absolutism. Sa^ was at the head of it, and the
Kmg sometimes attended its sittings. Every day it engrossed
more and more the whole power of the State, and was thus
engaged in continual conflicts with the Ministry. In 1825
2Sea Bennudez, having caused the notorious Bessiires to be
shot for having orgamzed riots in order to force the King to
dismiss his literal Ministry, was compelled to resign. He was
succeeded by the Duke del Infantado, who in turn succumbed
to intrigue. The Junta now procured the appointment of the
weak and incapable Salmon, and in the spring of 1827 excited
in Catalonia an insurrection of the SeroUes. The insurgents
styled themselves Aggramados (aggrieved persons), beoiuse
the Eing did not restore the Inquisition, and because he some-
times listened to his half-Liberal Ministers, or to the French
and English Ambassadors, instead of suffering the Junta to
rule uncontrolled. The history of the revolt is obscure. Saez,
who had been relegated to his bishopric of Tortosa, and pro-
bably also the Northern Powers, were concerned in it, and the
object seems to have been to dethrone Ferdinand in &vour of
his brother Carlos. But the Duke del Infiantado, during his
brief administration, had restored a regular army of 50,000
men, at the head of which EspaSa, accompanied by the "King
in person, proceeded into Catalonia, when the insurgents were
subdued, we province disarmed, and many persons executed.
Portugal was also shaken by revolutions during this period.
The B^afent, who, on the deatb of his mother Maria, March
20tii, 1816, ascended the throne with the title of John YL,
continued, after the down&ll of Napoleon, to reside in Brazil,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAP.LXVm.] THE EEACnON IN ETJEOPE 17
which had been erected in 1815 into the United Eingdom oi BeyoiuUon
PortngaJ, Brazil, and the Algarves. Lord Beresford, as a ^ao?'*^"*^'
member of the Portuguese Begencj, as well as Commander- Jobn vl
in-Chief of the Army, directed the affairs of Portugal. The "^
discontent at this state of things was fanned into a revolt hj
the Spanish Bevolution of 1820. Colonel Sepulveda estal)-
lished in August a Provisional Government in Oporto ; and
General Amarante, who had been despatched from Lisbon to
quell the revolt, was compelled by his own troops to join the
Junta of Oporto. In the middle of September a constitution
even more liberal than that of Spain was proclaimed in Lisbon,
and a Junta appointed to conduct theGovemment in the Swing's
name. Lord Beresford, who had been absent in the Brazils
during these occurrences, on his return to Portugal early in
OctoW, found that his power had departed, and was compelled
to return with his officers to England. The English Govern-
ment f orebore to interfere, and left the settlement of matters
to King John. That Sovereign was himself driven from Brazil
in April, 1821, by an insurrection of the Portuguese soldiery
in favour of the constitution promulgated in the mother coun-
try, and sailed for Portugal, leaving his eldest son, Don Pedro,
Eegent of Brazil. On his arrival in Portugal in July, John VI.
accepted the constitution which had been framed during his
absence ; but his wife, Charlotte, a sister of Ferdinand VIE. of
Spain, refused to take the oath to it.
The interference of the Holy Alliance and of the French in Beacdon in
the affairs of Spain, encouraged the reactionary party in Portu- Po'^oflP^-
gal. Towards the end of February, 1823, Count Amarante,
the Queen's most distinguished adherent, raised the standard
of revolt at Villa Franca, and was immediately joined by
several regiments. Dom Miguel, the Queen's youngest and
favourite son, fled secretly from Lisbon toward the end of May,
and proceeded to the camp of the insurgents ; when Sepulveda,
betraying the freedom which he had himself established, also
joined the reactionary movement. The people of Lisbon fol-
lowed the impulse of the soldiery ; the Cortes, seeing them-
selves abandoned, dispersed; the Ministers resigned; the
King, as usual, submitted, and on the 5th of June the new
constitution was abolished. This reaction was accomplished
without bloodshed. From this time all the Queen's efforts
were directed to dethrone her husband and procure the crown
for Dom Miguel. TOie Marquis Loul^, the King's chamberlain
VI. c
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
18 MODEBN EXJEOPE [Chap. LXVin.
and favourite, who had the reputation of a Liberal, was found
murdered, March Ist^ 1824, and the Minister at War received
letters threatening him with a similar fate. Dom Miguel,
having assembled the garrison of Lisbon, April 30th, exhorted
them to extirpate all Freemasons and Liberals; caused all
generals, ministers, and officers suspected of Liberalism to be
apprehended, and even the King, his father, to be placed under
surveillance. John would no doubt have now been compelled
to resign his crown but for the interference of the French and
English Ambassadors and the diplomatic corps. To avoid the
machinations of his son, John went on board the ** Windsor
Oastle,'' a British man-of-war, in the Tagus, May 9th, whither
he was followed by all the foreign ambassadors. From this
refuge the King issued orders forbidding anybody to obey his
son ; when Dom Miguel, finding himself abandoned by part of
his troops, threw himself at his father's feet and implored his
forgiveness. This he obtained, but he was ordered to leave
the Kingdom, and took up his residence at Vienna. While
these events were passing in the mother country, Don Pedro
constituted himself Emperor of Brazil by the aid of the revo-
lutionary party, October 12th, 1822, and the Empire of Brazil
was declared independent. John YI. was induced through
British mediation to recognize the new empire. May 15th, 1825.
Bev^tioiis The endeavours of the Spaniards to set up a constitutional
^' King, roused a similar desire in other countries. The Italian
peninsula, like the Iberian, was also shaken bv revolutions.
Pius VU. had re-established, so far as was possible, the ancient
state of things, and was favoured by all the European Powers.
Ferdinand IV., restored to his Kmgdom of the Two Sicilies
by Austria, had been put, as it were, under her guardianship
by his treaty of alliance with that Power of AprH 29th, 1815.
By a Concordat with the Pope, Ferdinand restored the Papal
influence in Naples, though he refused to acknowledge his
vassalage to the Holy See by the ancient tribute of a white
Mnrat shot, palfrey. An attempt by Murat to regain the crown proved
fatal to that adventurer. Murat, the son of a vilh^e shop-
keeper, not content with an asylum in the Austrian States,
and a fortune such as he could not have ventured to dream of
at the beginning of his military career, after many hair-breadth
escapes and romantic adventures in flying from France to
Corsica after the restoration, made a descent at Pizzo, in
Calabria, October 8th, 1815, in the hope that the j^eople would
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
CHAP.LXVin.] THE EEAOnON IN EUROPE 19
declare in his favour ; but f aUing into a snare laid for him bj
the podetia of the place, lie was captured and shot as a com-
mon rebel, October 13th.
Yarious secret societies had sprung up in Naples and Sicily, Secret
which, on the departure of the Austrian troops in 1817, began ^^^^ ^
to manifest themselves. The chief of these were the so-called
Carbonari^ or charcoal-men : to oppose whom was instituted
the loyal society of Ccdderarii (tinkers or braziers, who use the
coals). The Carbonari comprised more than half a million
persons, chiefly of the higher and better educated classes, and
of the army. The Galderarii had originated in Sicily, with the
Prince of Canosa, the Minister of PoUce^ at their head. It
was rumoured that a society of Samfedisti had been formed
under the auspices of Count De Maistre, the publicist, in which
were enrolled Princes and Prelates, with the design of uniting
all Italy under the Pope, a project afterwards reyived. The Setroiution
Spanish revolution of 1820 had an electrical effect at Naples ; iSsa^^^^*
and it is remarkable that here also the insurrection was organ-
ized by the soldiery. On the night of June Ist, Lieutenant
Morelli proclaimed the Constitution at Nola, at the head of a
squadron of horse ; and, hastening to Avellino, was immedi-
ately joined both by the civil and military officers there, who
had long been Garhonari, General Pep^, the Commandant of
Naples, put himself at the head of the insurrection, and with
a regiment of cavalry joined the insurgents at Salerno ; while
General Carascosa, whom the King had despatched against
them with 5,000 men, remained undecided and inactive.
Symptoms of revolt having manifested themselves at Naples
itself, the King, without striking a blow, conceded all demands ;
dismissed his Ministers, repla^ them by Liberals, and pro-
claimed the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which the people
hardly knew even by name, instead of the Liberal Sicilian
Constitution of the same date; which, however, had been
abn^ated. The Sicilians also rose ; not, however, to aid the
sister country, but to proclaim their own independence.
Ferdinand lY., under the pretext of illness, abandoned the
government to his son Fiunds, Duke of Calabria; when
Caracosa and Pep^ returned to Naples, and the army, the
people, the Court, and the Crown Prince himself assumed the
Carbanari colours (black, pink, and sky-blue).^
^ For the Neapolitan insurrection, see Colletta, Storia di Napolu
t. ii
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
20 MODERN ETJEOPE [Chap, LXVUI.
BerointioD The Neapolitan revoliition was entirely a military one, and
in NaikiM. ^^^ Qj^Yj fighting that oocorred was between some regiments
which differed in opinion ; that of Sicily was a popnlar insur-
rection. The Viceroy, General Naselli, having diisplayed the
Carb<mart colours, the people of Palermo assumed the yellow
badge of Sicily ; and on the festival of St. Rosalia, July 15th,
the chief one of the Palermitans, they demanded the independ-
ence of the island under a Prince of the Royal House. Gene-
ral Church, an Englishman, who commanded the garrison at
Palermo, having attempted to interfere, was compelled to fly
for his life ; Naselli also fled after having established a Pro-
visional Junta, to which, however, no respect was paid. The
people, having defeated the troops in a battle, obtained entire
possession of Palermo, which during two consecutive days be-
came a scene of robbery and massacre. A new Junta was now
appointed, at the head of which was the Prince of Villa Franca,
and one Vagleia, of Monreale, a monk. But the revolutionary
Government at Naples despatched 5,000 men against Palermo,
and compelled that city to capitulate, October 5th.
The Ckm. The Neapolitan revolution inspired the Austrian Govem-
$!roppaa, ment with alarm for the safety of all Italy, and Mettemich
1820. brought about a Congress at Troppau in October, 1820, which
was attended by the Emperors ^exander and Francis, and
the Crown Prince of Prussia ; by the Ministers, Mettemich,
for Austria ; Hardenberg, for Prussia ; Nesselrode and Capo-
distria, for Russia ; Caraman and Laferronays, for France,
and Sir Charles Stewart, for England. Ferdinand, at the
invitation of the Allies, obtained the reluctant consent of his
people to go to Troppau in the character, as he affirmed, of a
mediator, and after renewing his oath to the constitution. T7p
to this period Alexander had acted in a liberal and beneficent
spirit. He had emancipated the serfs in Courland, Esthonia,
and Livonia, had ameliorated their condition throughout the
Empire, and had promoted education tod favoured religious
toleration. But the military revolutions in Spain and Italy
filled him with alarm, for the soldiery were the main prop of
his own power. In spite of the opposition of England and
France, and even at first, in some degree, of Russia, which
The ck>ii- dreaded too great a preponderance of Austria in Italy, Metter-
£2Sidb, ^^b succeeded in forming a League between Austria, Russia,
1821. and Prussia for the suppression of the Neapolitan rebellion.
The Congress was transferred to Laibach in January, 1821,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXVni.] THE BEAOTION IN EUEOPE 21
when it waa determined to send an Austrian army into the
Neapolitan dominions. Franoe aoquiesoed, and England,
single-handed, could do nothing but protest. Next month,
60,000 Austrians, under Geneiul Frimont, marched into the
South of Italy, with Ferdinand in their train, who plainly
threatened to abolish the new constitution. The Neapolitans
had raised an army equal in number to that of the invaders,
and such was the national enthusiasm, that it was joined by
the friends and kinsfolk of the King, and even by the Prince
of Salerno, his son. But the constitutional troops were for
the most part raw and ill-disciplined, and badly supplied with
arms and provisions; and the Austrians, after overcoming
some slight^istance from Pep^ and Carascosa, entered Naples,
March 24th. Ferdinand now gave vent to the wrath which he
had postponed at his restoration. The people were disarmed,
aU suspected persons were arrested, and confiscations and exe-
cutions became the order of the day. Walmoden was sent with
a body of Austrians into Sicily, to restore the ancient state of
things in that island.
The effects of the Spanish revolution also extended to Pied- Berohition
mont, where Victor Emanuel L, after his restoration, had ^oST*
placed everything as much as possible on the old footing. The
CarhonaH were also active here, and were in communication
with those of Naples, and with the malcontents in France.
They even induced Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano, to
enter into their plots. That Prince, though but a distant kins-
man of the £ing, was presumptive heir to the throne, Victor
Emanuel, having only a daughter, whose succession was barred
by Salic law. The GarlxmaH flattered Charles Albert with the
hope of becoming King of all Italy if the revolution should
succeed ; and after some hesitation he agreed to enter into
their schemes. On the 9th of March, 1821, Colonel Arsaldi
proclaimed at Alessandria the Spanish Constitution, and the
troops at Turin also hoisted the three-coloured flag. Victor
Emanuel, abandoning the Ghovemment to the Prince of Carig-
nano, abdicated the throne March 13th, in favour of his brother,
Charles Felix, then residing at Modena. The insurrection was
put down by a portion of the troops which remained faithful
to the King, helped by an Austrian force under Count Bubna.
Victor Emanuel, however, declined to resume the crown which
he had relinquished. The Prince of Carignano, who had
secretily assured the new King that he, as well as the higher
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
22
MODERN EUEOPE [Chap. LXVin.
Secret
Societies in
Lombardy,
and Silvio
PeUico.
The
Austrian
Govern'
ment.
class in general^ was adverse to the reyolution, was only pun-
ished by two years* relegation from the Court ; and Charles
Felix, who was also childless, maintained the Prince's right to
the crown, in spite of the endeavours of Austria to obtain it
for the Duke of Modena, son of the Archduke Ferdinand and
of Beatrix, the only daughter of Victor Emanuel.
Lombardy also contained many secret societies, and was, in
fact, the chief centre of the Carbonari, and of the society of
*' Italian Federation," which was to be the nucleus of the in-
surgent populations. Lombardy was to have risen when the
Piedmontese army had crossed the Tidno. But this expecta-
tion was frustrated, and such was the vigilance of the police,
that any outbreak was prevented; though the Archduke
Eainer, who resided as Viceroy with his family at Milan, fled
at the first alarm of danger. Towards the end of 1821 the
police discovered and captured some members of a secret
society, among the most noted of whom were Conf alionieri and
Silvio PeUico. The latter, in a well-known work, has related
the particulars of his imprisonment in the fortress of Spielberg
at Brunn, the capital of Moravia. The Emperor himself is
said to have regulated, down to the minutest particulars, the
treatment of the prisoners confined there.
While the Austrian Government, guided by the counsels of
Mettemich, kept so vigilant an eye on the domestic afEairs of
other countries, the home administration was conducted on a
system of laissez-aller, which though popular enough with the
indolent, pleasure-seeking Viennese, was highly detrimental to
the interests of the State. Everything was neglected. In a
time of peace, the Gbvemment got every year deeper into debt.
The Eussians, in conformity with the Peace of Adrianople,
were allowed to settle at the mouth of the Danube, and thus
virtually to command that river. The harbour of Venice was
suffered to fill with sand, and the steam navigation between
that port and Trieste to be monopolized by the English. In
the midst of this frivolity of the Austrians and their Gbvem-
ment,the Bohemian, Hungarian, and Italiannationalities began
to expand and to develop themselves into formidable Powers.
The movement, taking its origin inBohemia and Hungaryin the
study of national antiquities and literature, assumed at length
a political cast, and begot a desire for national independence.^
Wolfgang Menzel, Oesch. der letzten 40 Jahre^ B. i. S. 26.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAP.LXVm.] THE REACTION IN EUROPE 23
With regard to Ohurch matters, the Emperor and his Ministers,
were far from being bigoted. Intellectual culture among the
clergy was discouraged ; the pretensions of Borne were re-
pressed, and the Pope was obliged to confirm the Italian
bishops nominated by the Emperor. The Jesuits were ex-
cluded from the Austrian dominions till 1820, and were then
only admitted in Italy and Gkilicia.
The after-shocks of that great social conrulsion which had Germaii
agitated Europe since 1792, were also felt in Ctermany as well i»*ri«**nn-
as in Italy and the Spanish Peninsula. The Germans in
general were desirous of an extension of their political liberties,
and a confirmation of them by means of constitutions, which
had indeed been promised by the Act of Confederation. This
matter occasioned some serious disputes between the King of
Wurtemberg and his subjects. But the Germans are a people
who seem little capable of initiating revolutionary movements,
and require to be influenced by an impulse from without.
States were assembled in Wurtemberg, Baden and Hanover,
but not in Prussia. Till the second French Revolution in
1830, political demonstrations in Germany were mostly con-
fined to the students of the universities. These, however, were
mere harmless mummeries, such as the adoption of a particular
dress, the displaying of the German colours, and other acts of
the same kind. The most remarkable demonstration occurred
in 1817, on the celebration of the third centenary of the Be-
f ormation ; when on the 18th of October, the anniversary of
the battle of Leipsic, a number of students from various uni-
versities assembled at the Wartburg near Eisenach, the scene
of Luther's concealment. Afterthe festival had been celebrated
with songs, speeches, and a procession by torch-light, most of
the students dispersed; but a few remained behind, and
amused themselves with burning certain insignia of the Ger-
man military service, as well as some histories and other works
of an anti-Liberal tendency. The whole affair was absurd and
harmless enough, and would speedily have sunk into oblivion
had it not been magnified into importance by the notice taken
of it by the Prussian and Austrian Ministers. Hence it
attracted the attention of the Emperor Alexander, who in the
following year took upon himself to interpose in the domestic
affairs of Germany by directing his Minister Stourdza to de-
nounce to the Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle the revolutionaty
movements of the German students. Among the agents of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24
MODERN ETJEOPE [Chaf. LXVni.
Murder of Eussia in Oermanj web Augustus von Eotzebue, the dramatist,
Kote^ue. ^j^^ ^^ suspected of transmitting to St. Petersburg informa-
tion against the students, and in a weekly paper which he
edited, employed himself in turning them and their professors
into ridicule. One Band, a student of Jena, irritated by the
denunciations which he heard against Kotzebue, and inflamed
by a mistaken patriotism, set off for Mannheim, Kotzebue's
residence, and stabbed him to the heart, March 23rd, 1819.
After the murder, Sand made an ineffectual attempt at suicide,
and in conformity with the German law, which requires con-
fession of a crime before execution, was not executed till
fourteen months afterwards. This act of Sand*s confirmed the
German statesmen in their notion of a secret and widespread
conspiracy, or rather, perhaps, afforded them a pretext to act
as if such a thing really existed. At a Congress of German
Ministers, held at Carlsbad in July, 1819, which was attended
by the Princes Mettemich and Hardenberg, Count Bechberg
from Bavaria, and others, were adopted what have been called
the Carlsbad Besolutions, viz., a more rigid superintendence
of the press, the suppression of the independence of the uni-
versities, and the establishment of a central Commission of
Inquiry at Mainz, to discover the existing conspiracy, and to
punish the participators in it. These Besolutions were adopted
by the Federal Diet, September 27tlL But though the Com-
mission sat ten years, filled the prisons with students, and
deprived of their chairs, and even banished, many of the pro-
fessors at the universities, still it did not succeed in discover-
ing any conspiracy, for in fact none existed.
Few other events of European importance occurred during
the reign of Louis XVIII. of France. It will suffice to remind
the reader of the English expedition to Algiers under Admiral
Sir E. Pellew, afterwards Lord Exmouth, in August, 1816 ;
when, with the assistance of a small Dutch squadron, the
fortifications of the place were destroyed, 7,000 Algerines
killed, and that nest of pirates was reduced to submission,
though not without great loss on the part of the British. The
Dey was compelled to abolish Christian slavery for ever, and
to liberate upwards of 8,000 Christian slaves of all nations,
]>eath8 of who were detained at Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoh. George III.
S^™*' died January 29th, 1820, and was succeeded on the throne by
xra^d Q^eorge IV., who had long been Begent. Sweden also had ex-
^ perienced a change of Sovereign by the death of Charles XTTT.
Ezpeditioii
to Algiers.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
CHAP.LXVm.] THE EEACTION IN EUROPE 25
io Febnuuy, 1818, and the aceession of Bemadotte, Crown
Prince by adoption, wi th t he title of Charles XIV. On the
decease of Pope Pius YIL, August 20th, 1823, the Cardinal
della Genga, a bigoted churchman, was elected to the Papal
chair, and assum^ the title of Leo XII.
Louis XYIII. died unregretted, September 16th, 1824 g«^o^
He was not destitute of talent ; he had considerable literary xvni.
culture, and as he had sense enough to accommodate himseU ^J^JJ^-
to the temper of the times, he was a suitable King to succeed France,
the turbulence of the Bepublic and the Empire. His brother, ^®^*'
Charles X., who now ascended the throne, had, during the
last year or two, been virtually ruler of France. Some of his
first measures seemed to promise liberality. He suffered the
Constitntion to remain, and be abolished the censorship of
the press. This last act, howeyer, was soon recalled ; while
the dismissal of 150 generals and superior officers of the time
of Napoleon enlisted against him the feelings of the army.
The favour which he showed to the House of Orleans seemed
a concession made to the Liberal party. Louis Philippe, the
head of the family, had returned to France. He had married
Amelia, daughter of Ferdinand lY. of Naples, by whom he
had many children, and appeared to lead far &om the Court
a quiet ^and secluded life. But under this exterior he con-
ceded ambition, and sought to recommend himself to the
people by the assumption of a citizenlike simplicity. Charles X.
mistook his character. In the hope of conquering him by
generosity, and identifying the interests of the elder and
younger Bourbons, Chajrles conferred upon him, unsolicited,
the title of Boyal Highness, and directed that the vast estates
should be restored to him which, before the Bevolution, had
formed the wpamage of the House of Orleans. But Louis
Philippe did not respond to these generous acts by giving
the King his political support. At the same time, in order
to secure the Crown to the elder branch of the House of
Bourbon, Charles declared his son, the Duke of AngoidSme,
now past middle age, Dauphin, and he caused this act, as
well as the magnificent grant to the Orleans family, to be
confirmed by the Chambers.
Charles X* was crowned with the usual solemnities at Coronation
fiheims, May 29th, 1825. He soon, however, discovered x.,!^;^
from unmistakable symptoms that the ancient re^ms had
inevocably departed. He sought to combat revolutionary
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
26 MODEEN EtIROPE [Chap. LXVUL
ideas by means of religion, and the influence of the parti
pritre. The Jesuits were re-established, and new colleges
founded for them ; the Court assumed an air of ostentatious
doYOtion; magnificent processions of ecclesiastics paraded
the streets ; and great pains were taken to inspire the soldiery
with religious fervour. But it soon became manifest that
such projects were useless. The death of General Foy, one
of the heads of the Liberal party, NoYember 28th, gave occa-
sion for a popular demonstration. His funeral was attended
by 100,000 persons in mourning and bareheaded, though it
rained in torrents, and a subscription for his widow reached
a million francs, the Buke of Orleans contributing 10,000.
The popular feeling was still more directly manifested at a
review of the National Guard, April 29th, 1827. No cries
were heard but Vive la Charte ! not a single cheer was raised
for the King ; and some of the regiments shouted Ahasles
minidres ! a has les Jeswitee ! On tiie next day the National
Guard was dissolved. M. VillJle hoped to overcome the
opposition to the Government by a new Chamber ; but the
elections gave 428 Liberals against 125 Ministerialists, and
Yillile, who was highly unpopular, felt himself compelled to
resign (January Srd, 1828).
Mfuitaac's M. do Martignac, who now became Prime Minister, intro-
Ministry. ^hqq^ some popular measures. Among these were a new law
of the press, relaxing the rules prescribed to journalists ; and
several regulations against the Jesuits. At this period Boyer
Collard was President of the second Chamber ; on the left or
Opposition benches of which sat Benjamin Constant, Lafayette,
Casimir P^rier, Lafitte, and other distinguished men. Mar-
tignac's foreign policy was also Liberal. He acted in con-
junction with England in the affairs of Portugal and Greece ;
the French fleet took part in the battle of Navarino, and
General Maison led a French army into the Morea. But
before we relate these events we must take a brief retrospect
of the Greek Revolution.
TheTarUsh The Turkish Empire had long been in a declining state.
Bmpire. rjr^^ Sultans Were little more than the puppets of the Janis-
saries. The reforms attempted by Selim III. had terminated
in his deposition in 1807, as we have already related. Sis
successor, Mustapha lY., had scarcely enjoyed the throne a
year when he also was dethroned, July 28th, 1808, in an
insurrection headed by Mustapha Bairactar, Pasha of Bust-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
J
Chap. LXVin.] THE EEAOTION IN ETJEOPE 27
chuk. His half-brother, Mahmoud II., was now eleyated to
the throne, which, however, he enjoyed only by sufferance of
the Janissaries.' The war which broke ont again with Bussia
in 1809 inflicted fresh losses on Turkey, and it would probably
have gone hard with hor had not the imminence of a war
with France induced the Emperor Alexander to grant the
Porte moderate conditions. By the Peace of Bucharest,
however. May 28th, 1812, Bussia remained in possession of
Bessarabia and the eastern part of Moldavia as far as the
Pruth. Turkey seemed almost in a state of dissolution. The
army was disorganized ; in Egypt Mehemet All had nearly
rendered himself independent; in the provinces the pashas
were constantly revolting.
That the Turks should have so long maintained their empire Condition
in Europe over peoples so much more numerous than them- xo^h
selves, must perhaps be ascribed to the circumstance that Empire,
these peoples are composed of various races unfitted to com-
bine in any general political object, and that the Turk, as a
soldier, is far superior to those over whom he rules. He has
never mingled, like the conquerors of the North, with the
Christian races he has subdued and regards as his slaves.
His fatalism and his indolence deprive him of all wish to
acquire the arts and manners of a higher civilization ; hence
the line between liim and his European subjects is as strongly
drawn as in the first days of conquest, and will most probably
remain so as long as he holds supreme power. Exclusive of
Armenians and Jews, the European subjects of the Sultan are
composed of four distinct races, speakii^ different languages,
and having different laws and customs, viz. Slav, Boumans,
Albanians, and Greeks. Of these races the Slav, inhabiting
Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia, the Herzegovina, and Montenegro,
amounting to upwards of seven million souls, is by far the
most numerous. But these different Slav races were never
united among themselves. The Montenegrins, in their inac-
cessible mountains, have preserved from the earliest period a
sort of independence, which the Servians also have partly
succeeded in achieving. The Bouman or Wallach population,
inhabiting the trans-Danubian provinces of Moldavia and
Wallachia, and still speaking a bastard Latin dialect, come
next in point of number, counting about four million souls.
The Albanians or Amauts, inhabiting the west coast of
Turkey, the ancient Epirus, amount to about one and a half
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
28 MOBBEN EXJEOPE [Chap. LXVlll.
AUPftshaof million. It was among these mountaiiiears that Ali Pasha
Jaonina. ^£ Jannina, established towards the end of the last centur j a
kind of independent rule. This remarkable baorbarian was
the son of Yeli Bej, Aga of Tebelen, and of Ohamco, a woman
of great beauty and spirit, said to ha^e been a desoendant of
Scanderbeg. Ali's early years were spent in marauding expe-
ditions; his more ambitious schemes were fostered by a
marriage ¥rith Emina, daughter of the Pasha of Delvino, one
of the three Pashalics into which Albania is diyided, the
other two being Paramatia and Jannina. Ali's father-in-law
haying been strangled for aiding Greek sedition, was suc-
ceeded in his Pashidic by Selim, who favoured and befriended
Ali ; but Selim having incurred the suspicion of the Porte,
Ali treacherously murdered him, and sent his head to Con-
stantinople. Por this base and inhuman act he was re-
warded with the Pashalic of Thessaly, where by his extortions
he amassed sufficient treasure to purchase the Pashalic of
Jannina.
The Greeks. The Greeks, the smallest in point of number of all the
European races under Ottoman sway, comprising hardly
more than one million souls, have alone succeeded, by means
of European sympathy, in asseriing their entire independence
of the Turks. They inhabit the Morea, the adjoining province
of Livadia, or ancient Greece proper, the islands of tiie Archi-
pelago, and the Ionian Islands, besides being scattered in
some of the larger cities of the Turkish Empire, as Oonstanti.
nople, Smyrna, etc. The increase of wealth, acquired by
commerce, had inspired them with new tastes and more ex-
tended ideas. Young men of the upper classes were sent to
Paris and other places for education ; in the schools established
at home the Greek classics were read, and, whatever may be
the right of the modem Greeks to trace their descent ^m
the ancient Hellenes, inspired the youth with a love of liberty
and a desire to emulate their assumed ancestors. Among a
people thus disposed, the Spanish revolution of 1820 was not
without its influence. Their aspirations for independence
were encouraged by the dUettaTUe Philhellenism whidi, in
many parts of Europe, had become a sort of fashion. We
have already adverted to the origin of this feeling in the time
of Voltaire and Catharine II. of Bussia; in which latter
country, however, it was solely a political idea, cherished with
the view of weakening Turkey and rendering her an easier prey.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Chap. LXVm.] THE EBACTION IN EXJEOPE 29
The disappointed hope that something wotdd have been Idsiotm^
done for them at the Congress of Vienna, led the Greeks to q^^
form Secret Societies, or Hetaireise, with the Tiew of securing
their independence by roYolt. These societies contained some
distingnished persons, as Count Capodistrias, Secretary of
the Emperor Alexander, nay, it was even supposed the Em-
peror himself. HowoYer this may be, it is certain that the
Greeks relied on Russian aid. A rising of the Greeks, though
often contemplated, was first actually agitated to any purpose
by Alexander Tpsilanti, son of the Fhanariot Hospodar of
Wallachia, before mentioned, and a general in the Russian
service.^ From Kischneff in Bessarabia, whither he had re-
moved from Moscow the central committee of the Hetairia,
he despatched agents in all directions to incite the Greeks to
rise (1820). But the insurrection first broke out in Moldavia
and Wallachia, in 1821, during which the Christians displayed
as much barbarity as their lords, by massacring great numbers
of Turks in Jassy and Gkdatz, and plundering their houses.
This revolt, however, was disclaimed and reproved by Alex-
ander and denounced by the Patriarch, and was easily put
down by the Turks. Soon after insurrectionary symptoms
began to show themselves in Greece, especially among the
Mflonotes, as well as in the north of the Morea, in the Archi-
pelago, and at Athens, where the inhabitants compelled the
Turks to take refuge in the Acropolis. Ali, Pasha of Jannina,
took part in the movement, and was joined by Odysseus, the
leader of some Albanian tribes despatched agamst Ali by the
Sultan. A dvil war now began. It was marked by the most
frightful massacres. The chief events of the first two or
three years were, the promulgation of a new Constitution for
Greece on New Year's Day, 1822 ; the reduction and murder
of Ali Pasha, who, though still a Mahommedan, caused a
diversion in favour of the Greeks (February 6th) ; the taking
of Scio by the Turks in April, when they massacred some
25,000 of the inhabitants, and enslaved about double that
number, so that, including the fugitives, the island was
almost depopulated ; and the capture of Napoli di Romania
by the Greeks, under Kolokotroni, December 21st. At this
period Mavrocordato, a Phanariot of ancient family, was the
principal leader of the revolution. The war continued through
^ See Phillip's History of the Greek Betfoluiwn,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
80 MODEBN EUEOPB [CHAP.LXVin.
1828, and it was not till the following jear that the Western
Powers began to interfere. Sultan Mahmoud had treated
the Greeks with moderation, in order apparently to deprive
Bussia of any pretence for intervention, and the Emperor
Alexander re£rained from interfering, though he proposed to
the principal European Powers early in 1828 that the Qreeks
should be placed in the same relation to the Porte as the
Danubian Principalities, and should be governed by four
Hospodars. The European Governments, however, were not
yet prepared to interfere, though in many countries a strong
Philhellenistic feeling prevailed. The first active aid for the
Greeks came from England. The accession of Oanning to the
Ministry, as Foreign Secretary, was favourable to their cause,
and early in 1824 they obtained in London a loan of JB800,000.
Lord Byron, an ardent Philhellenist, not content with assist-
ing them from his own resources with money and arms, pro-
ceeded to Greece to give them his personal aid. He was
accompanied by Colonel Stanhope. But a nearer acquaint-
ance with the Greeks speedily dissipated all classical illusions.
Byron died at Missolonghi, April 19th, from vexation, disap-
pointment, and the effects of the climate. Stanhope was
cheated and laughed at by the treacherous Odysseus, who
seems to have possessed all the slyness of his classical name-
sake.^ In December, 1824, Canning recognized the Greek
Government by sending them a friendly note.
Death of The death of the Emperor Alexander L, who, at the early
i^AoMMioii ^^ ^^ forty-eight expired after a short illness at Taganrog on
of Nicholas the Sea of Azov, December Ist, 1825, accelerated the crisis of
^ the Greek revolution. The Bussian throne now devolved to
Nicholas I., Alexander's youngest brother, in &ivour of whom
Constantino, the second broker, Gt>vemor of Poland, had
' formally renounced his rights. Nicholas, however, seems not
to have been aware of this ; at all events, when the news of
Alexander's death arrived at St. Petersburg, he caused the
troops to swear obedience to Constantino. ^Hxis drcumstanoe
was near producing a revolt. Constantino persisted in and
publicly notified his renunciation of the crown. But when
the soldiery were again called upon to take the oath to
Nicholas, a large portion of them, incited, it is said, by a
^ That chief, being suspected of intriguing with the Turks, was put
to death at Athens m June, 1825.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAP.LXVm.] THE REACTION IN EUEOPE 81
faction led bj Prince Trubetzkoi, who were for establishii^f
a federative repablic> refused to accept the change, and it
became necessarj to shoot down some of the raiments with
artilleiy. When Nicholas was crowned at Moscow, Oon-
stantine hastened from Warsaw, was the first to do him
homage, and embraced him in public, in order that no doubts
might remain of the good faith of this transaction.
The accession of Nicholas inaugurated a new era in Eussian a new em
poHcj. Alexander, like his predecessors since Peter the Ghreat, ^u^^l!'''^
bad favoured the introduction of foreign culture and manners.
Nicholas was distinguished by his predilection for the ancient
Muscovitism, and a bigoted adherence to the Greek Church.
He Qiade no secret of his pretensions to be the Pope and
Emperor of the Greeks, wheresoever they might dwell, and it
might be anticipated that he would not remain a passive
spectator of the Greek revolution. The Buke of Wellington,
who was sent to congratulate Nicholas on his accession, was
at the same time instructed to come to an understanding with
him on this question. The Tsar at first disputed the right of
other Powers to intermeddle with his policy regarding Turkey,
but at length consented to sign a secret Convention, April 4th,
1826, by which he recognized the new Greek State ; which
was, however, to pay a yearly tribute to the Porte. Turkey
was to be compelled to accept this arrangement, to which the
accession of the remaining members of the Pentarchy was to
be invited.
It was precisely at this juncture that Turkey was still Brtermtoa-
further weakened by a domestic convulsion. Towards the j^issaries.
end of May, 1826, Sultan Mahmoud 11. issued a hoMiecherif
for the reform of the Janissaries, which, however, still left
them considerable privileges. Nevertheless, that licentious
soldiery rose in insurrectioli on the night of June 14th, and
plundered the palaces of three grandees whom they considered
to be the authors of the decree. The riot was continued on
the foUowing day. But the Janissaries had neither plan nor
leaders, and the Sultan, who had previously assured himself
of the support of the Ulema, as well as of the marine, the
artillery, and other troops, putting himself at the head of the
hands that remained faithful to him, and displaying the
tunic of the Prophet, dismissed the crowd which surrounded
it to the slaughter of the Janissaries assembled in the Hippo-
drome. In a single night 4,000 were massacred and cast into
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
82
MODEBN EUEOPE [Chap. LXVm.
the Hellespont ; in the following days 25,000 more. Their
wives and chilcben were also mnrdered, and their very name
abolished.
The Treaty Mahmond had vanquished his domestic enemies, but by
il^^""^' the same act had rendered himself defenoeless against ex-
ternal ones ; and, being hampered by the Greek insurrection,
he found himself compelled to submit to all the dictates of
Russia r^arding the points which had been left undecided
by the Treaty of Bucharest By the Treaty of Akerman,
October 7th, 1826, the Porte consented that the Hospodars of
Moldavia and Wallachia, though appointed by the Sultan for
a period of seven years, should rule independently ; that they
should have a divan chosen from among the Boyars, and
should not be deposed without the sanction of the Tsar. The
Servians, though still tributary to the Porte, were to elect
their own princes; the Porte was to restore the districts
which had been taken from them, and to re£rain from inter-
fering in their affairs. Bussia was to occupy the east coast
of the Black Sea, and her vessels were to have froQ entrance
into all the Turkish waters.
Greece was not mentioned in this treaty; but Canning
perceived the necessity of preventing the Bussians from in-
vading Turkey in its present defenceless state under pre-
tence of the Greek causa The events of the last year or two
had been unfavourable for the Greeks. Mehemet Ali, who
cherished hopes of the whole Turkbh succession, had, early in
1825, despatched into the Morea an army of 17,000 men
under his adopted son, Ibrahim, by whom the Greeks had
been defeated, and Navarino taken in May, as well as the
little island of Sphagia which lies before it. Hence Ibrahim
made incursions into the Morea, but achieved no extensive
or lasting conquests till in April, 1826, having been joined
by the Turkish commander Bedschid Pasha, Missolonghi,
after a protracted and heroic defence, yielded to their united
arms, April 22nd, 1826. The Greeks had now exhausted the
loan, and their affairs began to look desperate. Canning
apprehaaded that Nicholas might come to an understanding
with Mehemet Ali to divide Turkey between them ; and these
fears were shared by the Prench and Austrian Cabinets. All
that part of Greece not occupied by Ibrahim had fallen under
the influence of Kolokotroni, a mere agent of Bussia. Lord
Cochrane and General Church, who arrived early in 1827 to
Erection of
the Greek
Kingdom.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
OHAP.LXVmO THE EEACTION IN EUROPE 83
assist tlie Greeks as Tolimteers, iinadrisedly promoted the
yiews of Biissia, by aiding, on the recommendation of Kolo-
kotroni, the election of Count Capodistnas as President of
Greece. In this state of things was condnded the Treaty of
London of July 6th, 1827, which foonded the Kingdom of
Greece. Prince Mettemich did not approve the erection of
this State, for fear that religious sympathy might pktce it
under Russian influence ; but as the alternative lay between
English and Russian views, he adopted the former. He also
helped to persuade the French €k)vemment to consent to the
erection of the Greek Elngdom, to which Charles X. was per-
sonally averse; and it was stipulated that the new King
should be selected from one of ihe European dynasties. To
this Canning agreed, on condition that the Greeks should be
allowed to choose their own Sovereign. This negotiation was
the most important act of Canning's short administration as
Premier. He had held that office since April, and died in
the following August
The Treaty of London was executed only by the three little of
maritime Powers, England, France, and Russia; and in i^f™^'
Angast the fleets of those countries, under Admirals Cod-
rington, De Rigny, and Heiden, appeared in the Greek waters
to support the treaty. In the harbour of Navabino lay an
Egyptian fleet of flfty-one men-of-war and upwards of forty
other ships, which were now blockaded by the allied fleets.
In consequence of Ibrahim having violated an armistice which
had been agreed upon, as well as to arrest the horrible atro-
cities which he committed in the adjacent district, the allies
entered the harbour and almost totally destroyed the Turco-
Egyptian fleet, October 26th. After the battle, Oodrington
sailed to Egypt and compelled Mehemet Ali to recall Ibrahim.
The battle of Navarino, an act of doubtful policy on the J5J?«<>'
part of the Western Powers, naturally enraged the Sultan. **"^^ ®'
He declared all treaties at an end ; and though he consented
to allow the Greeks an amnesty, he altogether rejected the
idea of recognizing their independence. The Ambassadors of
the three Powers consequently took their departure from
Constantinople December 8th. To Russia the Porte gave
particular cause of offence by refusing to carry out the
stipulations of Akerman, and by an offensive Firnum, issoed
December 20th. Nicholas, in consequence, now released from
the Persian war by an advantageous peace, declared war
VI. D
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
34. MODEEN EUEOPE [Chap. LXVin.
against the Snltan, April 26th, 1828. France and England
remained idle spectators of this war, though a French army,
under Oeneral Maison, was despatched to occupy the Morea.
The Bussians, under Wittgenstein, crossed the Pruth early
in May, captured Brahilo, June 19th, but finding Shumla,
the key of the Balkan, impregnable, masked it with a corps
of 30,000 men, and proceeded to Yama, which surrendered
October 10th. To the west, the Bussians, imder Wittgenstein,
were unsuccessful, and were obliged to recross the Danube.
In the following summer, Oeneral Diebitsch, having taken
Shumla (June 11th), crossed the mountains and appeared
before Adrianople, which immediately surrendered, ^oi^^h
his force consisted of only 15,000 men. A Bussian division
had penetrated to Midiah, within 65 miles of the Bosphorus.
The Bussian army in Asia, under Paskiewitsch, had also
been successful ; Wellington and Mettemich intervened, and
the Porte, seeing the inutility of further resistance, signed
the Peacs of Adbianoplb, September 14ith, 1829. The
stipulations of this treaty were Uttle more than a confirma-
tion of those of Bucharest and Akerman, except that the
Hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia were to be appointed
for life, and no Turks were to reside in those Principalities,
nor any Turkish fortresses to be maintained there. Bussia
restored nearly all her conquests. The passage of the Darda-
nelles was to be free. The most important article was that
by which the Porte acceded to the provisions of the Treaty of
London with regard to the Greeks. But two or three years
were still to elapse before the final settlement of the Greek
Kingdom, during which Oapodistrias governed in the interest
of Bussia. He had, however, to contend with conspiracies
and insurrections. The little Greek fleet was burnt by Miaulis,
July 30th, 1831, to prevent it being used in the Bussian in-
terest, and shortly after Oapodistrias was assassinated (October
9th). He was succeeded in the Government by his younger
brother Augustine. Meanwhile the Ministers of the five
Powers at London were endeavouring to establish the Greek
pi«otho Kingdom. The proffered Orown was declined by Prince
in Greece, j^poi^ of Saie-Coburg ; but at last King Louis of Bavaria,
whose poetical temperament rendered him an enthusiastic
Philhellenist, accepted it for his younger son Otho, May 7th,
^ Martens, Nouv, BeeueH, t viiL p. 143 sqq.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXVIH.] THE EEACTION IN ETJEOPE 35
1832. The distinguished Hellenist and Homeric scholar,
Thiersch, had visited G-reece in the preceding year, and
warped, perhaps, by his favoarite studies, as well as bj his
own amiable temper, had beheld everything in a favourable
light. The National Assembly of the Greeks recognized Otho
for their King, August 8th, and a Provisional Government of
Bavarian Ministers was appointed till he should take pos-
session of the throne. Otho landed at Nauplia, February 5th,
1833 ; but it was not till June 1st, 1835, that he took the
Government into his own hands, when he removed his resi-
dence to Athens. In the interval, the Bavarian Government
had had to contend with many cUfficulties and insurrections,
which continued under the new King.
M. de Martignac, and the Liberal French Ministry which Oiangeof
had assisted the Greek cause, had been dismissed b^ore the bS^' ^^
Peace of Adrianople. M. de Martignac had never enjoyed
the King's confidence. On July 30th, 1829, the Chambers
were dissolved, and a few days after the Ministry received
their dismissal. Nothing could be more impolitic than the
choice of their successors. Prince Jules de Polignac, a most
unpopular person, who had been bred up in the bosom of the
Boyal family, and shared in its exile, was now appointed head
of the Ministry. The selection of his colleagues was still
worse. M. Labourdonnaye, detested for the harshness and
severity of his character, received the portfolio of the Interior,
but soon resigned. The most injudicious appointment of all
was that of General Bourmont, as Minister at War, one of
the leaders in the war of La Vendue, a man of great political
as well as military talent, but hated and contemned by the
nation for his desertion to the allies just before the battle of
Waterloo. The installation of this Ministry was hailed with
a universal shout of disapprobation. The joumaLLsts, among
whom may be named Guizot, Thiers, and Benjamin Constant,
assailed the Government in the most unmeasured terms.
Alarming symptoms appeared in the provinces. A union
to resist all unconstitutional taxes began in Brittany, and soon
spread throughout France. The revolutionary society called
Aide-toi was instituted, and Lafayette began to agitate in
several of the provincial towns, especially Lyons, where he
was received with tumultuous applause.
The Chambers were reopened March 2nd, 1830. The
King, in his opening speech, expressed his determination to
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
86 MOBEEN EUEOPE [Chap. LXVIH.
ypy-iti fatiTi the privileges of the Crown, and to repress all
attempts to overthrow them. In this assembly appeared
M. Ouizot, as leader of the party called, from their somewhat
pedantic constitutional system, the Doetrinaire$, The Chamber
of Peputies complained, in an address to the throne, of the
Government's want of confidence in the people. Symptoms
of opposition were also displayed in the Chamber of Peers,
where Chateaubriand thundered against the Ministry, and
even the Duke of Fitz-James, who, though a favourite of the
X[ing*s, was an enemy of Polignac's. Montbel, one of the
Ministers, advised the King to dissolve the Chambers, and
appeal to the people by a manifesto ; though the majority of
the Ministry counselled moderation. It was thought that
some popularity might be gained by an expedition against
Algiers, which piratical state, under the Dey Hussein Bey,
had infested the commerce of France, plundered her settle-
ments, insulted her Consul, and fired on the ship of an officer
sent to demand redress. But the British Government was
opposed to the expedition ; a large English fleet was des-
patched into the Mediterranean, and it became necessary for
the French to obtain the consent of England to the enterprise.
This circumstance, as well as the appointment of General
Bourmont to the command of the expedition, deprived it of
all merit in the eyes of the nation. The fleet was to sail from
Toulon, May 16th ; on that day the Chambers were dissolved,
and the new ones were to meet early in August. At the same
time a partial change was made in the Ministry. But the
expedition was not so successful as had been hoped. It was
detained by storms, and at the outset two brigs fell into the
hands of the Algerines. This was all the news that arrived
during the elections, in which the society Aide-toi, and the
Comite direct€v>r, under Lafayette, busied themselves against
the Crown. The result was that a Chamber was returned
still more hostile to the Government than the former one.
When the elections were completed, news arrived that Algiers
had capitulated, July 4th ; a victory, however, which, though
announced with great pomp, had no effect whatever on the
nation. A grand Te Deurn was appointed to be performed,
and Bourmont was made a Marshal of France ; but the people
flocked to the Palais Boyal, to pay their homage to the Duke
of Orleans. It became evident that either the Chambers or
the King must fall. Under these circumstances the King and
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXTIH.] THE EEAOTION IN EXJEOPE 87
OoTemment resolved on a coup d^itat. The 14tb Article of
the Charter provided that the King might issue ordinances
necessary for the execution of the laws and the safety of the
State. Availing themselves of this Article, the French Minis- onUnanoes
ters published, July 25th, the celebrated and fatal ordinances <>< ^^y-
of St. Cloud, by which the freedom of the press was suspended,
a number of Liberal journals suppressed, the law of election
altered, by diminishing the number of electors and raising
the qualification; the Ch ubers, which had not yet met,
were again dissolved, and new Chambers appointed to meet,
September 28th. Further ordinances named a considerable
number of councillors of State, selected from the ultra-Boy alist
party. Yet these violent measures had been adopted without
taking the necessary military precautions to insure their success.
The troops in Paris numbered not 12,000 men, and these had
been placed under the command of Marmont, who was un-
popular with the army.
The ordinances appeared in the Moniteu/r, July 26th. The Blots in
tumult and agitation in Paris were extreme. Groups assem- ^*'*'*
bled in the streets; daily labour was suspended; all master
printers or manufacturers, of Liberal politics, closed their
workshops, as if by common accord. In the evening the
windows of Prince Polignac's hotel were broken by the mob.
On the following day a protest against the ordinances appeared
in nearly all the Liberal journals. It was now that M. Thiers
first prominently appeared, who was to rise from the calling
of a journalist to one of the first offices of the State. The
gene d^curmes, who were directed to destroy the presses of the
Liberal newspapers, met with a determined resistance at the
office of tiie Temps, and could with difficulty find a locksmith
to open the doors. Collisions occurred between the mob and
the gens d^a/rmes, and the more timid citizens closed their
shops. It was between five and six o'clock in the evening
before the troops appeared ; but the sight of them only iu-
creased the rage of the people, who began to assail them with
stones, tiles, and other missiles. Meanwhile the Liberal
deputies having assembled at the house of Casimir P^rier,
drew up a protest denying the King's right to dismiss Cham-
bers which had not yet met, and declaring all new elections
imder the ordinances illegal. The night was spent in arming.
It was arranged that the disbanded National Guard should
reappear in itnif orm on the following day, and thus give the
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
38 MODERN EXJEOPE [Chap. LXVlll.
insurrection an appearance of legality. The pupils of the
Polytechnic School mingled with the people, and Lafayette
arrived in Paris from tbe country.
While these things were going on the Ministers had assem-
bled at Prince Polignac's, and had resolved to declare Paris
in a state of siege, to send for troops from the provinces, and
to arrest the Deputies who had signed the protest. But they
were not strong enough to carry out these measures. Mar-
mont had not disposed even the few troops he had so as effect-
ively to hinder the operations of the people. The King, at
this critical juncture, had gone to hunt at Eambouillet !
Saooess of On the 28th the men of the Faubourg St. Antoine, inter-
the Mob. gpersed with a few National Guards, took possession of the
Mdtel de Yille, and hoisted on the roof the three-coloured flag,
which was also displayed in most of the streets. Marmont,
who had expressed his disapprobation of the ordinances, and
had undertaken the command unwillingly, wrote to the King,
advising him to negotiate ; but Charles, instead of either dis-
missing him or following his advice, ordered him to resist.
Marmont now directed two columns against the H6tel de
Ville ; but many of the soldiers began to fraternize with the
mob, and only the Swiss G-uards did their duty. The Liberal
Deputies having assembled at the house of Audry dePuyravauz,
debated whether they should turn the revolt into a revolution.
Puyravaux himself, supported by Laf avette, Lafitte, and others,
was for that course ; while Oasimir Perier, General Sebastiani,
and Guizot advocated constitutional measures and another
protest. At length it was resolved to send a deputation,
headed by Lafitte and Arago, to Marmont, to reqiiire that all
further effusion of blood should be arrested. Marmont now
again advised the King to yield. But Charles would make
no concessions, and Marmont was directed to concentrate his
troops in the neighbourhood of the Tuileries. Eeinforcements
were anxiously expected. But the line of telegraphs had been
intercepted, and the messages despatched to St. Omer and
Lun^ville to bring up troops by forced marches came too late.
On July 29th the people had obtained possession of all Paris,
except the quarter of the Tuileries, where Marmont maintained
his ground, but not without considerable bloodshed. Lafayette
having, at the request of the Deputies, assumed 'the command
of the National Guard, fixed his quarters at the H6tel de Ville,
whence he issued a proclamation calling on the people to
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAp.LXVin.] THE BEACTION IN EUROPE 89
achieTe their liberty or die. On the evening of the 29th the
people succeeded in getting possession of the Toileries, and
were thus entirely masters of the metropolis. They acted for
the most part with moderation and forbearance, though they
plundered the Archbishop's palace. The number of the slain
seems to haye been about 700.
Consternation reigned among the courtiers at St. Cloud. TheOowt
As happens in such conjunctures, advice of the most various
kinds -was tendered to the King. Most were for making con-
cessions. Many gave up the King for lost, and thought only
of saving the dynasty by proclaiming the Duke of !^rdeauz
and a regency. All seemed to have lost their heads, except
G-uemon de Eanville. That Minister had at first advised
moderation ; now he dissuaded from all concession, because it
was too late. The only course, for the King, he contended,
was to fly to some loyal province, to rally round him what
troops remained faithful, as well as a loyal Chamber. He
might then n^otiate with success, which at present, after his
troops had been beaten, was impossible. But this sensible
advice was supported only by the Duke of Angouleme. Charles
yielded to the advocates of concession. Polignac was dis-
missed, and the Duke de Mortemar, who had served in the
army of Napoleon, and had lately represented France at the
Court of St. Petersburg, was appointed in his place. Mortemar,
in conjunction with Vitrolles and D' Argout, proceeded to draw
up some new ordinances, in which a few necessary concessions
were made ; and he appointed Casimir Pdrier to the finances,
and General Gerard, Minister at War. Charles, who, after a
hand at whist, had gone to bed and to sleep, was awakened,
and after some little hesitation signed these concessions, with
which De S^monville, Vitrolles, and D'Argout hastened to
Paris.
On the morning of the 81st what was called a Mtmicipal Municipal
Oammianon was instituted and installed at the H6tel de Yille, S^™^'
to watch over the public safety. Its members were Lafayette,
Casimir P^rier, Lafitte, Gerard, Puyravaux, Lobau, Yon
Schonen, and Mangin. The Commission proceeded to name
some Ministers : (MiUon Barrot as General Secretary, Gerard
as Commander of the Forces, Lafayette as Commandant of the
National Guard. The authority of the new board was uni-
versally recognized. In fact, the revolution seemed to be
accomplished, as nearly aU the troops of the line had joined
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
40 MODERN EUEOPE [Chap. LXVUL
the people, while the guards had retired to St. Cloud. Such
was the state of things at Paris when De SemonTille arrived
to announce the with<L»wal of the unpopular ordinances and
the appointment of a new Ministry. The Municipal Com-
mission refused to listen to him ; Yon Schonen coldly obserred,
« It is too late ; the throne has fallen in blood." De S^monyille,
after the failure of a similar attempt with the Deputies at the
house of Lafitte, returned in despair to St. Cloud to relate his
ill success. Mortemar now proceeded to Paris to try what he
could do with the more moderate party ; but having equally
failed, he vaDished, to reappear a few days after in the ante^
chamber of the Duke of Orleans.
Louis Philippe had apparently taken no part in the move-
ment. He had spent the whole summer at his seat at Neuilly
in the bosom of his numerous family ; but in this retirement
he had been secretly making a party, among whom may be
named Talleyrand, liafitte, and Thiers. These men persuaded
the Deputies that they could not do better than raise Louis
Philippe to the throne. The Parisian populace, who had long
looked upon him as their friend, would offer no opposition ;
Talleyrand, who enjoyed a great reputation in the Courts of
Europe, would reconcile them to the change of dynasty ; the
bourgeoisie of the National Guard, with their leader Lafayette,
would acquiesce. Of the two parties from whom opposition
might be expected, the Royalists had been conquered, while
• the Bonapartists and BepubUcans knew not how to use their
sudden and unexpected victory. A proclamation, drawn up
by Thiers, was posted on the walls of Paris, recommending
the Duke of Orleans, who had foaght at Jemmapes, as the
"Citizen King." The Deputies having met in the Pahiis
Bourbon, signed a paper requesting the Duke of Orleans to
undertake the government of the fingdom, with the title of
Lieutenant- General, and to uphold the three-coloured flag till
the Chambers should have fully assured the realization of the
Charter.
Louis The Duke of Orleans entered Paris on foot, July 30th, like
u^Smair ^ pri^at^ gentleman. His first care was to see Talleyrand.
General. He had no doubts about the Parisians. His only anxiety was
how foreign Governments might regard the revolution ; and
when Talleyrand had satisfied him on this point, he no longer
hesitated. He sent the same night for the Duke of Mortemar,
who undertook to carry to the King a letter in which Louis
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chaf. LXVra.] THE REACTION IN EXJEOPE 41
Philippe still spoke of his fidelity ! Charles was deceived by
it. So little did he imagine that the Buke of Orleans wonld
betray him, that on July 31st he named that Prince by a
formal patent Lieutenant-General of the Eangdom, and re-
quested him in a letter to maintain the rights of the Crown.
The Duke now published a proclamation concluding with the
words : " In future a charter will be a truth." The Deputies
also made a separate proclamation, in which they pledged
themselves to procure the legal establishment of certain rights
which they specified. In order to obtain the support of the
Municipal Commission, the Duke of Orleans proceeded, at the
head of the Deputies, to the Hdtel de Yille. He won Lafayette's
heart by exclaiming : " You see, gentlemen, an old National
Guard, who is come to visit his former general." An agree-
ment was speedily concluded in the brief phrase, " A popular
throne with republican institutions.*' Lafayette then embraced
the Duke, and, conducting him to the balcony, placed him
under a three-coloured flag, as the man of the people.
The new Lieutenant- GPeneral now proceeded to name a The new
Ministry selected from all parties, except the Boyalists. Ministry.
Among them were Dupont de TEure, who inclined to the
Bepublicans ; Ouizot, the representative of the Doetrinairea ;
Lafitte, Louis Philippe's confidant ; Baron Louis, the favourite
of Talleyrand ; Bignon, a Bonapartist ; the Duke de Broglie,
to show the aristocrat^-that they would not be excluded from
the new regime; General Gerard, and Admiral Bigny. Thus
was completed tl'e " Bevolution of July," called also the Grande
Semaine, and frtm the superior importance of the 27th, 28th,
and 29th, the " Three Days."
On July 81st Charles X. quitted St. Cloud .for Trianon. Abdication
During this short march he was deserted by some of his x.f'^!^
guards. At Trianon, De Banville repeated his advice to the
King to fly to Tours, and assemble a Chamber in that city.
But Charles still relied on the Duke of Orleans, and was for
waiting till he should hear from him. The anxiety of the
Duchess of Berri was, however, so great that she induced the
King to proceed on the following day to Eambouillet, where
they were joined by the Duchess of Angouleme. The soldiers
now began to desert in troops. A letter having at length
arrived from the Duke of Orleans, purporting that the King
had become too unpopular to retain the Crown, Charles pub-
lished an ordinance announcing his abdication in favour of his
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
42 MODERN EUROPE [Chap. LXVni.
grandson the Duke of Bordeaux, whom he proclaimed as
Henry Y., and calling on the Lieutenant-General to conduct
the Regencj in the name of the young King (August 2nd).
Charles X. But Louis Philippe had other views. In his speech to the
£^^d! Chambers, though he announced the abdication of the King,
and the Dauphin's renunciation of his rights to the throne, he
f orebore to mention that these things had been done in favour
of the Duke of Bordeaux. He refused to receive any com-
munications from the King, and repulsed all who came to him
on the King's behalf. He saw that he could reckon on the
majority of the Parisians. Advocates for a Republic could
be found only among some of the lowest class. The middle
classes would not hear of it, though at the same time they
saw that the old line of the Bourbons could not remain.
Louis Philippe now began to take measures for driving
Charles and his family from France. Marshal Maison,
Odillon Barrot, and Yon Schonen were sent, as if officially,
and by order of the Lieutenant-General and the Deputies, to
accompany the King over the frontier. On their arrival at
Rambouillet they found the King asleep ; but Marmont told
them that, for such a step, it was necessary to have a written
order from the Duke of Orleans, and the Commissioners
hastened back to Paris to procure one. The Duke displayed
excitement and displeasure at their return, exclaiming, " He
must go ! he must go ! " It was determined to effect the
King's expulsion by means of the Parisian mob. Before break
of day an insurrection was organized ; the word was given *' to
Rambouillet ! " and arms were distributed to the people, who
were to march thither and compel the unfortunate Eang and
his family to fly. Marshal Maison, who with his fellow Com-
missioners had driven back to Rambouillet, told Charles that
the people of Paris were marching against him. When the
truth at last stared the old King in the face he gave vent to
such an ebullition of rage that Maison was glad to hasten from
his presence. But 60,000 men were marching on Rambouillet ;
and Charles, having no means of resistance, at length con-
sented to go into exile. The Commissioners gave him a mLiii-
tary escort to Cherbourg, where he embarked for England.
Nothing could exceed the respect with which the unfortunate
monarch was treated during this journey by all ranks of the
people. In England, the royal fugitives were at first received
at Lulworth castle, in Dorsetshire, and subsequently took up
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Chap. LXVin.] THE REACTION IN EUEOPE 43
their abode, for the second time, at the palace of Holyrood,
at Edinburgh, which had been placed at their disposal by
the English €k)vemment. Great Britain was now ruled by
William IV. ; his brother, Gteorge IV., having expired, after
a long iUness, June 26th, 1830.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAPTER TiXTX
LOUIS PHILIPPE AND BUBOPS
L^ T OUIS PHILIPPE opened the Prenpli Legislature August
KiDg^^the ^ 3rd. The Chamber of Deputies drew up a Declaration
French. in which the throne was announced to be vacant, through the
abdication of the elder branch of the Bourbons, and the prin-
ciples were announced on which the new reign was to be con-
ducted. Many alterations and additions were made in the
existing Charter; of which the following are the most im-
portant : — ^The Boman Catholic Religion was to be no longer
the dominant one, but all confessions were put on an equal
footing: the censorship was abolished, and unconditional
freedom of the press established : the King was to have no
power to suspend a law, nor to appoint Special Commissioners
in order to supersede the usual tribunals : no foreigners were
to be admitted into the French military service : every French-
man of the age of twenty-five to be an elector, and at the age
of thirty capable of being elected a Deputy : the Peers named
by Charles X. were abolished, and the sittings of that Chamber
were to be public : the Chambers, as well as the King, to have
the privil^e of proposing laws : the King to be called " King
of the French :'* and the three-coloured &ig to be substituted
for the white one (August 7ih, 1830).'
The Chamber of Deputies, under the presidency of Lafitte,
chose the Duke of Orleans for King by 219 votes against 33 ;
39 members abstained from voting. When Lafitte and the
Deputies proceeded to the Palais Boyal to announce their de-
cision Louis Philippe affected to complain that it was highly
disagreeable to him to be withdrawn from domestic life, but,
from love to his country, he would make the required sacrifice.
Then, supported by Lafitte and Lafayette, he showed himself
^ See HUlebrand, Qegchichte FrankreiehBy and Ollivier, VEmpire
liberal.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Chap. LXTX.] LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EUROPE 45
in the baloonj of his palace, and was received bj the people
-with cries of Vive U Bai ! In these proceedings the Chamber
of Peers was not consulted. Chateaubriand was the onlj
Peer who had the courage to maintain the rights of the Duke
of Bordeaux ; but he was supported by only nineteen of his
colleagues.
The new Ejng was enthroned, August 9th, at the Palais Thedttsen
Bourbon, where the Deputies held their sittings. Casimir ^^'
P^er having read the Declaration of August 7th, and Baron
Pasquier the accession to it of the Peers, the Duke of Orleans
took an oath to observe it, and ascended the throne as Louis
Philippe, amid the acdamations of the Assembly. The new
'King applied himself to acquire popularity among the Parisians
by displaying himself as a " Citizen King.'' Anybody and
everybody was admitted to his presence in pantaloons and
boots ; he appeared in the streets on foot, in a great coat and
round hat, with the proverbial umbreUa under his arm, and
shook hands familiarly with the people. The church of St.
Genevieve became once more the Pantheon, and Yoltaire and
Rousseau were again adored. Louis Philippe displayed his
prudence by relinquishing to his children, on the day of his
accession, all the estates of the House of Orleans, so that they
became private property, and could not be forfeited with the
Crown. France, as usual, acquiesced in the proceedings of
the capital; though there were some slight msturbances at
Nimes and in La Yend^.
The news of the French Revolution ran through Europe Disturb-
like an electric shock, firing all the elements of discontent in ^l^um.
various countries. Belgium, unwillingly united to Holland
by the policy of the Allies to encircle France with powerful
States, first felt the explosion. Many were the elements of
discord between those two countries. They spoke different
languages, had different customs and manners, and opposite
commercial interests. The Dutch were rigid Galvinists, the
Belgians bigoted Catholics ; and hence the two peoples felt
for each other all the bitterness of religious hate. In this
state of things a desire had sprung up in Belgium for a union
with Prance, where, under the reign of Charles X., the Catholic
Church again flourished. The Belgians also complained that
they were saddled with part of the burden of the enormous
national debt of Holland, that they contributed to the build-
ing of Dutch ships, the maintenance of Dutch dykes, and other
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
46 MODEEN EXJEOPE [Chap. LXIX.
objects, from which they derived no benefit whateTer. Their
discontent was increased by the unpopular Goyemment of
King William I., who treated Belgium like a conquered
country.
Biota at Already before the breaking out of the French Beyolution
®"'*^^* symptoms of insurrection had appeared at Brussels, on occasion
of the prosecution of Be Potter, a political writer, towards
the end of 1828. A serious riot had also occurred at the
Catholic College of Louvain, in February, 1830. After the
disturbances in France William I. thought it prudent to make
some concessions to the Belgians, but they failed to give
satisfaction, On the night of August 25th the revolt broke
out at Brussels. The opera of the Muette de Partid, which
turns on the revolt of Masaniello, was represented that evening,
the incidents of which were vociferously applauded. After
the performance the mob broke into, plundered, and even
burnt the houses of some of the more unpopular Ministers,
thechief of whomwasYanMaanen. Next day the old Brabant
colours, red, orange, and black, were hoisted on the Town
House. The troops were now called out, but having no orders,
did not act with decision, and were driven back into their
barracks. From this period the insurrection ran its natural
course almost without opposition. A burgher-guard was
formed, and succeeded in keeping down the mob, but not
without some bloodshed. On the 28th of August forty of the
principal inhabitants of Brussels assembled, and having chosen
Baron Secus as their President, and the advocate Van de
Weyer as Secretary, despatched a deputation to the Hague, to
request the King to make the concessions which had been so
long desired. But William I. was not disposed to give way.
He employed his eldest son to soothe the people with promises,
whilst his brother, Prince Frederick, assembled at Vilvorde
as many troops as possible. On the 31st the two Princes
required the burgher-guard of Brussels to strike the national
colours, and restore the custody of the city to the King's troops.
This demand increased the prevailing irritation. The example
of the capital had spread into the provinces. At Yerviers
dreadful excesses were committed, and many labourers re-
paired to Brussels, to settle the question in the capital On
the night of September 1st barricades were thrown up in the
streets to prevent the entrance of troops. The Prince of
Orange now came to Brussels alone, stepped into the midst of
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXESL] LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EUEOPE 47
the armed masses, and promised that a Commission should
be immediately appointed, to consult with himself about the
measures to be adopted. But this proceeding gave no satis-
faction, and a proclamation issued by the Commission was
publicly burnt. The Prince now proposed a legislative and
administrative separation of Belgium from Holland ; in short,
merely a union under the same crown. This concession ap«
peared to give universal satisfaction ; it was even supported
by the people of Amsterdam; but the King would decide
nothing till the meeting of the States-General, which were to
assemble at the Hague, September 13th. But when the
States met nothing was done. The King even recalled Yan
Maanen, who had been dismissed, and the Belgians began to
suspect that they had been deceived.
The revolt now assumed a more democratic and violent Open
form. The impulse came from Liege. On September 15th "^**^*
the Li%eois rose, and after dispersing the burgher-guard,
drove out the King's troops. The boldest of these insurgents
then proceeded to Brussels, where they led an attack on the
Dutch troops. On September 20th they headed the people
in disarming the National Guard ; after which all the depots
of arms were seized, the public buildings occupied, the public
boards cashiered, and a Provisional Government was estab-
lished, of which De Potter, who was then at Paris, was ap-
pointed the head. On September 28rd Prince Frederick
attacked Brussels with 6,000 or 7,000 men; but though he
penetrated into the town and occupied the upper part of it, as
the Bue Boyale, the Park, etc., he found that he was not strong
enough to maintain those positions, and on the night of the
26th he was compelled to retire.
In these and the following days the Dutch troops were Belgium
driven from most of the towns of Belgium, while the Belgian SSotm?^
soldiery declared for the national cause. Antwerp, Maestricht, ent, isao.
Mechlm, Dendermonde, and the citadel of Ghent alone re-
mained in the hands of the Dutch. Now, when it was too
late, the States-General at the Hague sanctioned by a large ma-
jority the legislative and administrative separation of HoUand
and Belgium, September 29th. But the victorious Belgians
refused to listen to anv terms. De Potter had arriv^ in
Brussels, and assumed the direction of the Provisional Govern-
ment, which on October 5th proclaimed the independence of
Belgium, appointed a Commission to draw up a Constitution,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
48
MODEEN EUEOPE [Chap. LXIX.
Coi
London.
in
convoked a National Congress at Brussels, and annulled what-
ever the Belgian Deputies had done in the 8tates-Gteneral at
the Hague without the knowledge of the Provisional Govern-
ment. On the 9th the House of Orange-Nassau was declared
to have forfeited, by its late proceedings, all its claims on
Belgium; and the Prince of Orange, who had proclaimed
himself the head of the separated Belgian administration, was
pronounced to have no right to the Begencj, unless he should
be elected by the National Congress. In the elections for that
assembly, however, the moderate party prevailed; even De
Potter himself was not returned ; and the Prince of Orange,
encouraged by this circumstance, issued another proclamation,
October 16th, in which, as if resolved to carry out the revolu-
tion in spite of his father, he recognized the independence of
Belgium, and, as he expressed it, " placed himself at the head
of the movement." But the Provisional Government answered
this appeal by discommending him to interfere no further in
their affairs.
It was the wish of the Belgian liberals to be united to France.
But such a union was displeasing to the European Powers ;
and Louis Philippe, whose own usurpation was hardly yet
consolidated, ventured not to offend them by encouraging the
Belgian revolution. He procured the recognition of some of
the Powers by engaging neither to suffer a republic in Belgium
nor to unite that country with France ; a proposition which
had been made to him by the Belgians tlu*ough COndebien.
But at the same time he bade the Oreat Powers remark that
they must abstain from undertaking anything against Belgian
independence, or that he should not be able to restrain the
public opinion of France. Bussia was at first inclined to
support King William ; but all at length concurred in the
views of Louis PhDippe, and the principle of non-intervention
was for the first time unanimously recognized. A conference
of ministers, with regard to Belgian affairs, was opened at
London, November 4th, composed of Talleyrand, Lord Aber-
deen, Prince Esterhazy, Yon Bulow, and Count Mutussze-
witsch.
„ The London Congress recognized the Indepbndbnce of
Jl^^led* Bbloittm, December 30th. This act, and the recognition of
by tfie Five Louis Philippe, were the first blows struck at the principle of
legitimacy asserted by the Holy Alliance, and maintained at
all preceding conferences since the Congress of Vienna. In
Belgian In-
Powere,
1880.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CnjLt. LXIX.] LOUIS PHHiIPPE AND EUEOPE 49
both these acts Great Britain took the lead. The Belgian
National Congress, which had been opened at Bmssdbs Nov*
ember 10th, determined that it must proceed hand in hand
with the Congress in London. Bnt William I. was not in-
clined to relinquish what he could hold; consequentlj the
war went on, and while the Congresses were sitting several
battles occurred in the neighbourhood of Maestricht and in
the Duchy of Luxembourg. The London Congress assigned to
Holland the limits which it had possessed in 1790, with the
addition of Luxembourg, and it imposed upon Belgium part
of the Dutch debt. With this arrangement King William
declared himself satisfied; but the Brussels Congress pro-
tested against it, February 1st, 1831 ; and William, therefore,
continued to retain possession of Antwerp.
The Belgian Congress voted a new Constitution February Leopold i.
7th, which was to consist of a king and two representative ^^um.
chambers. The choice of a sovereign occasioned some diffi-
culty. Among the candidates named were the Prince of
Orange, the Duke of Nemours, and the Duke of Leucbten-
berg. The London Conference proposed Prince Leopold of
Saxe-Coburg, who was at length accepted by the Brussels
Congress, June 4th, 1831. Leopold made his solemn entry
into Brussels, July 21st, and took the oath to the new Con-
stitution. But he was not to enjoy his new dignity without
dispute. Xing William had silently collected a large army,
with which the Prince of Orange suddenly entered Belgium
while Leopold was absent on a tour in the provinces. The Attack by
Belgian Provisional Oovemment, confident that the great h<>"*"<*-
Powers would not suffer the armistice to be broken, had ne-
glected the army, and the mob who had been victorious in the
towns were no match for disciplined troops in the open field.
The Prince of Orange proclaimed that he came not to conquer
Belgium, but only to obtain more advantageous conditions.
Advancing upon Li^, he defeated the Belgians under General
Niellon at Tumhout, August 3rd, and on the 8th overthrew,
near Hasselt, General Daine and the larger portion of the
Belgian army. A Dutch division proceeded to Antwerp to
reii^oroe General Chass^, repulsed the Belgians imder General
Tiecke, in whose camp Leopold was, and, breaking down the
dykes, laid a large portion of Flanders under water. Duke
Bernhardt of Saxe- Weimar, whom Eing William had ap-
pointed Governor of Luxembourg, now threw himself between
VI, E
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
50 MODEEN EXJEOPE [Chap. LXTX.
Louvain and Brussels, thus cutidng off Leopold from Ids
oapital* while the Prince of Orange was advancing against
him with superior forces. The two rivals met at Tirlemont,
August 11th. A great part of Leopold's army was composed
of men in blouses, who fled at the first onset. A few companies
of the Brussels National Ouard ventured to oppose the Butch,
but were too weak, and the whole army fled in disorder to
Louvain. That place surrendered at the first summons of the
Butch, but Leopold escaped to Mechlin.
Tiie English Meanwhile a French army of 50,000 men, under Marshal
imd French (j^jaird, who was accompanied by Louis Philippe's two eldest
poid. sons, entered Belgium, to which step Talleyrand had obtained
the consent of the English Ministry. An English fleet under
Admiral Codrington also appeared in the Scheldt. B^liard
and Adair, the French and English negodators, proceeded to
the Butch camp, when the Prince of Orange ccmsented to an
armistice, and the forces on all sides retired to their former
positions, August 12th. The Butch, by this demonstration,
and through Bussian influence, succeeded in obtaining more
&kvoxurable conditions. It was decided that Belgium should
cede part of Limburg, as well as Luxembourg, and take upon
itself yearly 8,400,000 guilders of the Butch debt. ISmg
William, however, would not consent to the new articles, in
the hope that, when the Ozar had put down the revolution in
Poland, he should be assisted by Bussia, as well as by the
German Powers. But in this expectation he was disappointed.
sie«e of In May, 1832, King Leopold proceeded to France, and in an
Antwerp, interview with Louis Philippe at Compiigne, obtained the
hand of his eldest daughter, Louisa. The marriage was cele-
brated in the following August, when Leopold assured the
Belgians that his children should be educated in the Catholic
foith. As the King of the Netherlands had not yet consented
to the conditions proposed, an embargo was laid upon Butch
vessels in England, and a French army was set in motion to
drive the Butch from Antwerp. WilHam I. declared tlutt he
would yield only to force, and an English fleet under Admiral
Malcolm began to blockade the Butch coast early in November,
and about the middle of that month the French laid siege to
Antwerp. Ohass^ made a brave defence, and did not surrender
till the citadel was reduced to a heap of rubbish, Becember
23rd. Even then William refused to accept the capitulation,
or to abandon the forts Lillo and Liefkenshoek. At length,
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Chap. LXIX.] LOTUS PHTTiTPPE AND EUEOPE 51
on May 21st, 1833, a preliminary treaty was signed ; but it
was not till January 22nd, 1839, that Holland consented, by
a definitive treaty, to accept tbe London Protocol !
The Bussian autocrat, the main prop of legitimacy in Europe, Bi/dag in
found himself called upon to support his own authority ^^^^^
at home. At the news of the outbreak in France Nicholas
contemplated suppressing it by force, and the Eussian officers
talked familiarly of a promenade to Paris. But the irritation
of the Tsar was somewhat soothed by the elevation of Louis
Philippe to a constitutional throne, and his attention was soon
after Averted from the affairs of France by a revolt among his
Polish subjects. In 1829 Nicholas had received the crown of
Poland at Warsaw. All had then appeared tranquil in that
subject kingdom, but the elements of discontent lay festering
under the surface. Society still consisted only of a proud and
restless nobility and a peasantry of slaves ; nor had the causes
of Poland's former misfortunes been removed by the Consti-
tution given to it by the Emperor Alexander after the model
of the French Charter. The misery of the Poles was increased
by the harshness of the Qrand Buke Constantino's government,
who ruled like a Tartar Prince, though he was suspected of
being destitute of physical as weU as moral courage. The Re-
volution, which, like the rest in Europe about this time, had
its first impulse from the dethronement of Charles X. in France,
began by a conspiracy of some young Polish students and sub-
alterns to seize Constantino at the Belvedere, a residence of
the Prince's in the vicinity of Warsaw ; when it was expected
that the Polish troops in that city, who numbered 10,000 men,
would rise and drive out the Bussian garrison of 7,000. The
execution of this plan was prematurely hastened by a suspicion
that it had been discovered, since the national troops had been
Withdrawn from Galicia and the Grand Duchy of Posen, and
their place supplied by Austrians and Prussians. In the dusk
of evening, on November 29th, 1830, twenty young men pro-
ceeded to the Belvedere, where they killed General G^ndre and
the Vice-president Lubowicski ; but Constantino escaped by
concealing himself in a garret. Meanwhile the citizens of
Warsaw had risen en masse^ armed themselves at the arsenal,
and seized many of the Bussian officers in the theatre : the
Polish soldiers luid joined the people, and murdered General
Stanislaus Potocki, and others of their officers who refused to
renom^ce their allegiance. The defection of the Polish soldiery
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52 MODERN SUBOPE [Chajp.LXIX.
gave great strengUi to the movement, and the insurrection
was now joined by many persons of distinction. After some
deliberation it had been resolved to confine the revolt to the
Bossian provinces of Poland, or Lithuania, Yolhynia and Fo-
dolia, in order to avoid the hostility of Austria and Prussia.
General Chlopicki, who had distinguished himself in the wars
of Napoleon, assumed the chief command, and eventually a
sort of absolute dictatorship. He was supported, among others,
by Prince Lubecki, Professor Lelewel, Count Ostrowski, and
Prince Adam Czartoryski. The last, a descendant of the an-
cient Princes of Lithuania, and related to the Bussian Im-
perial Family, had been a favourite of the Emperor Alexander
and the Poles, in case of success, had marked him out for
their future King. Constantino retired with the troops which
remained faithful to him to a village within a mile or two of
Warsaw. Here he permitted the Polish part of his force to
join, if they wished, their brethren in Warsaw, and with only
6,000 Bussians retreated towards Yolhynia. He had referred
to the Imperial Court a deputation which waited upon him
with a statement of their claims and grievances ; but Nicholas
would hear of nothing but unconditional submission, and early
in 1831, a large Bussian army, commanded by Biebitsch, pre-
pared to reduce the Poles to obedience. At the command of
the Emperor, Chlopicki laid down his dictatorship in January ;
but the Poles headed by Czartoryski, pursued the insurrection
more vigorously than ever. Induce Badzdvill was now ap-
pointed commander-in-chief of theirf orcesin place of ChlopicM.
Diebitsch, having issued a proclamation wMch left the Poles
no choice between slavish submission or destruction, the Diet
declared, January 25th, that Nicholas had forfeited the Polish
crown ; and they prepared to support their resolution by all
the means in their power. The army was raised to between
50,000 and 60,000 men; but a great portion of them was
armed only with scythes. Negotiations were entered into
with foreign Powers ; and in order to conciliate them, it was
resolved, February 3rd, that Poland should be governed by a
constitutional monarchy. But the Poles were disappointed in
their hopes of foreign support. Austria and Prussia assured
the Tsar that they would not countenance the rebellion, and
that they would join their arms with his if it extended to their
own Provinces. Austria, however, from dread of Bussia,
would willingly have seen an independent Polish Kingdom,
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Chap. LXIX.] LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EXJEOPE 68
and offered to sacrifice Galida for that purpose, provided a
Eong should be chosen from the House of Austria, and France
and England shoidd concur. Lord Palmerston, however, de-
clined, and was followed by France. Louis Philippe only used
the Polish insurrection to induce Nicholas to recognize his own
accession and the independence of Belgium, while England
and Austria afforded the Poles no substantial aid.
Diebitsch, who had collected an army of 114,000 men, with Poland a
836 guns, at Bialystok and Grodno, crossed the PoUsh frontier j^rinoe.
February 5th. We cannot enter into the details of the insur-
rectionary war. The campaign was marked by several desper-
ate battles fought with varying success ; but at length the
Poles, though aided by insurrections in Podolia, the Ukraine,
and Lithuania, were compelled to yield, after an heroic defence,
to superior numbers and discipline. The cholera had ravaged
the armies of both sides. Diebitsch died of it June 10th, and
a few weeks afterwards the Grand Duke Constantino, at
Witebsk. Warsaw surrendered September 8th, to Paskiewitsch,
who had succeeded Diebitsch in the command, and on the 28th
of the same month, the Bussian General Biidiger entered
Oraoow. On the approach of the Bussians, the mob at Warsaw,
like that at Paris on the advance of the Duke of Brunswick,
forced their way into the Palace and compelled a change of
government, then broke into the state prisons and committed
an indiscriminate massacre. The PoUsh divisions in the pro-
vinces were speedily dispersed, and before the end of autumn
the insurrection was entirely quelled. Paskiewitsch, who was
made Prince and Governor of Warsaw, re-established the
Bussian regimen. An amnesty was indeed granted Novem-
ber 1st, but with so many exceptions that hardly anybody was
safe. Paskiewitsch directed his efforts to abolish the nation-
ality of Poland, and to reduce it as much as possible to a
Bussian Province. The University of Warsaw was suppressed,
the archives, libraries, scientific collections, etc., were removed
to St. Petersburg, the Polish uniform and colours were abol-
ished, and the Polish soldiery incorporated in Bussian regi-
ments. Prince Badzivill and other leading Poles were relegated
to the interior of the Empire, and it is computed that in 1832,
80,000 Poles were sent into Siberia. Polish children were
snatched from their parents and carried into what are caUed
the military colonies of Bussia; the Boman CathoUc Church
was persecuted agreeably to the Tsar^s GrsBco-Bussian system ;
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tionsin
Oermany.
54 MODERN EUEOPE [Chap. LXTK.
and on February 26th, 1832, Poland was declared a Russian
Province,
nisiixrao- Even the inert mass of the German Confederation was
stirred by tiie French Bevolntion of 1830. The most charac-
teristic trait of Carman history at this period is that the so-
called constitutions moulded on the French Charter, which
had been bestowed on some of the minor States, were estab-
lished by Russian influence. But Russia had set her &ce
against a Prussian Constitution. The establishment of a
ZoUverein, or customs union, between Bavaria and Wurtem-
berg, subsequently adopted by other German States, seemed
a step towards German unity.^ But the partial revolutions
which occurred in Germany in 1830, were more calculated to
confirm the ancient state of things than to lead to such a con-
summation. In Saxony, the old King, Frederick Augustus,
had died in May, 1827, and had been succeeded by his brother
Anthony. No line of Princes was more bigoted to the old order
of things than the House of Wettin ; and the circumstance
that while the royal i^mily professed the Roman Catholic
religion, their subjects were Protestants, augmented the danger
of collision. In June, 1830, a few days before the breaking
out of the French Revolution, the citizens of Dresden and the
University of Leipsic had wished to celebrate the Jubilee of
the Augsburg Confession ; but the demonstration was sup-
pressed in order not to give offence to the Court. This pro-
ceeding occasioned disturbances which had not been quelled
when the news of the French Revolution arrived in Saxony.
Serious riots ensued both in Leipsic and Dresden, in which
latter capital the Council House and police buildings were
burnt. In order to allay the storm King Anthony found him-
self compelled to adopt his son, Frederick Augustus, who was
very popular, as co-regent, to dismiss his Minister, Einsiedel,
and to make some improvements in the Constitution. Insur-
rections also broke out in Brunswick, where the tyrannical
Duke Charles was deposed in favour of his brother William ;
and in electoral Hesse, where William IL abdicated in favour
of his son, Frederick William. Disturbances likewise occurred
in Hesse Darmstadt, Baden, and other minor States, as well
as in Switzerland, where reforms were effected in several can-
tons. Prussia and Austria proper were little affected by the
^ Treitschke, Deutteke Gewhichteim neungeknten JcthrhunderL
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Chap. LXIX.] IiOUIS PHILIPPE AND EXJEOPE 55
French Beyolution of 1830. But it gave axL impnlse to the Kocumth in
awakening nationality of the Hungarians. When in November, ^"*«*^'
1830, the Emperor Francis caused his son Ferdinand to be
crowned King of Hungary, the Diet made much larger de-
mands than it had ever done before : namely, that the Magyar
tongue should in future be the official one instead of Latin ;
that Magyars only should be appointed to commands in Hun-
garian regiments, etc. The two Tables, that is, the upper and
lower Houses of the Diet, or the Magnates and the States, now
introduced the use of the Magyar language in their debates.
In consequence of these proceedings the Diet was not again
assembled till 1832, when Louis Kossuth first appeared as the
ahleg(xt, or proxy of an absent noble.
After the overthrow of Charles X., Mina, Valdez, and Spain,
hundreds of Spanish liberals who had sought refuge in
France, made an irruption into Spain. Louis Philippe at
first supported them. He assured Lafayette, who took a
great interest in their success, of his i^vourable views towards
them, and even gave him money in support of their cause.
But, as in the case of Belgium and Poland, his interest in
their success only extended so far as it might affect his own
political interests, and he treacherously abandoned them to
their fate as soon as Ferdinand YII. acknowledged his djmasty .
The Minister Mol^ had warned the Spanish emigrants of their
danger. They were already on the frontier when Louis Philippe
sent orders to disarm them . They preferred, however, to enter
Spain, but were speedily defeated at every point by superior
forces. It was with the greatest difficulty that Mina, after
wandering several days in the mountains, succeeded in escaping
back to France. Italy was not at this time disturbed, though Italy,
insurrections, which we shall rel ate f urther on, broke out in
the following year. Pope Pius VlL. had, in 1823, been suc-
ceeded by the Cardinal della Genga, an old man of seventy-
four, who, as Leo XTT., ruled severely and kept down the
Carbona/ri, On his death, in 1829, Cardinal Castiglione was
elected to the vacant chair as Pope Pius YIII.
The reign of Louis Philippe, the "Citizen King," was character
without any fixed principles, and only a continued system of p^^'g
trimming, both in foreign and domestic policy. His first reign.
Ministry, chosen from among the party which had triumphed
in the " great week," consisted of Bupont de I'Eure, Laifitte,
Gerard, Mol^, Guizot, Br<^lie, Louis, S^bastiani, Casimir
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56 MODEEN EUROPE [Chap.LXIX.
P&rier, and Dupin. Bignon* Napoleon's celebrated secretaxy,
had also a place in it, but without a portfolio. Four of
Charles X/s Ministers, PoUgnac, Pejronnet, Guemon de
Banville, and Chantelanze, had been arrested, and the popu-
lace clamoured loudlj for their death. They were to be ar-
raigned before the peers at the Luxembourg, December 15th,
and the people threatened to enforce their execution. To
avert disturbances, the King, under pretence of making pre-
parations against foreign Powers, coloured by a fsdae rumour
that Russia and Prussia were to invade France, appointed
Marshal Soult Minister-at-War, and directed him to oi^anize
a large force. The unpopularity, however, of acting against
the people was left in the first instance to the National G-uard
under La&iyette, who appeared on the side of order, defended
the Luxembourg against the attacks of the mob, and captured
Diiminaiof some 400 of their more turbulent leaders. Lafayette having
Lafayette. ^^^ rendered himself unpopular, Louis Philippe found him-
self strong enough, with the support of Soult, to dismiss him
from the command of the National G-uard, and at the same
time to disband the artUlery, who had shown a disposition to
fraternize with the mob. Dupont de FEure, fearing some
similar trick, resigned, and was succeeded as head of the
Ministry by Lafitte. The ex-Ministers of Charles X. were
condemned to perpetual imprisonment, with loss of rank and
civil rights.
]>(mieetic Louis Philippe's domestic policy was necessarily in some
£j3Smi. degree reactionary, because the principles on which he had
ippe. accepted the throne were untenable. Lafitte was dismissed
in March, 1831, and Casimir P^rier then became Prime
Minister, who immediately caused several noted Republicans
to be arrested. Li his foreign policy, Louis Philippe en-
deavoured to acquire a little popularity without risking a
breach with the great Powers. Thus in July, 1831, he des-
patched a naval expedition against Dom Miguel, in order to
influence the elections then pending by the eclat of an easy
victory. But as at the same time Poland was left unaided in
the midst of her troubles, this manoeuvre deceived nobody.
The new Qovemment was at once exposed to the intrigues
and insurrections of the Carlists and of the Republicans.
Serious riots occurred at Lyons, Grenoble, and other places
in the south of France. Republican demonstrations having
been made at Paris on the occasion of General Lamarque's
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Chap. LXTX] LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EXJEOPE 57
funeral, June Ist, 1832, when barricades were erected and
several persons killed, Paris was declared in a state of siege,
by the advice, it is said, of M. Thiers. The Polytechnic School
was now dissolved, and all suspected persons arrested, in-
cluding the leaders of the legitimists, Chateaubriand, Fitz«
James, and Hyde de Neuville ; but these last were speedily
liberated. The Duchess of Bcnrri, after attempting an insur- The
rection in Provence in the spring of the year, passed through BenSf"^
France to La Vendue, and endeavoured to raise the people in
favour of her son the Duke of Bordeaux, or Henry V. Some
conflicts ensued between the insurgents and the roval troops ;
but the contest soon appeared hopeless, and the Duchess re-
tired to Nantes. Here she was betrayed by one Deutz, a
Oerman Jew. A daughter was bom at Blaye, May IQth,
1833, when she affirmed that Count Luchesi Palli was the
husband to whom she had been secretly united. This declara-
tion deprived her of any daugerous influence, and Louis
Philippe liberated her, June 8th, when she proceeded to
Palermo. In the previous September Charles X. and his
family had quitted Holyrood to take up his residence at
Prague. This change was attributed to various motives.
Some said that Charles was pursued by creditors, others that
Mettemich wished to have the Duke of Bordeaux as a pledge
against the French usurper. Another claimant of the Frendi
throne, the Duke de Beichstadt, had been removed by death
July 22nd, 1832.
Fresh insurrections occurred at Lyons in the spring of 1834, Fiescbi's
which were not suppressed without considerable bloodshed, ms^chine.
They were instigated by certain secret political societies,
several of the leaders of which were brought to trial in May,
1835, and condemned to imprisonment or transportation. Chi
the 28th of July this year, on the celebration of the fifth
anniversary of the July revolution, a diabolicalattemptwas.made
on the King's life by a wretch named Fieschi, who from the
window of a small house on the Boulevard du Temple, dis-
charged at Louis Philippe, while passing, what was called an
** infernal machine,*' consisting of about a hundred gun-barrels
fixed on a frame, and fired simultaneously by means of a train
of gunpowder. Fortunately the King escaped unhurt, but
great znany of his suite were either killed or wounded. Fieschi
was arrested and guillotined. This attempt occasioned what
were called the *' Laws of September," to expedite the pro-
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58 MODERN EUROPE [Chap.LXIX.
ceedings of the tribunals in cases of rebellion, and to curb the
liberty of the press. M. Thiers, now Minister of the Interior,
took a principal share in these proceedings, and scrupled not,
in spite of the liberal doctrines which he so loudly professed
when in opposition, to resort when in office to the most abso-
lute and tyrannical measures. M. G-uizot, who was his col-
league in the Soult Ministry, was distinguished from his rival
by a more honourable and consistent conduct. In the follow-
ing February M. Thiers became President of the Council and
Secretary for Foreign Affairs. But in consequence of his
views on the Spanish question his Ministry was dissolved
after an existence of abput half a year ; when Count Mol^
became President, and M. Guizot was appointed Minister of
Public Instruction. In June, 1836, another abortive attempt
was made on the King's life by a workman named Alibaud.
In the same year Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the
future Emperor of the French, undertook his extraordinary
and rash conspiracy at Strassbui^; but before relating his
attempt we will briefly advert to the affairs of Italy, where
this Prince had already made himself conspicuous by his
participation in revolutionary movements.
Distarb- Symptoms of revolt first showed themselves in the Italian
JSS^ *" States after the death of Pope Pius VIIL in 1831, and during
the conclave which elected Cardinal Capillari to the vacant
chair, with the title of Gregory XVI., Francis, Duke of Modena,
detested for his absolutism and intolerance, who is thought to
have entertained the ambitious project of making himself
King of Central Italy, was driven out by his subjects, and a
Provisional Government established (February, 1831). Sin-
gularly enough, this revolt was led by Menotti, the head of
the Modenese police, and a favourite of the Duke. Bologna
next felt the shock, where the Papal Pro-legate was in Hke
manner expelled, and a Provisional Government erected. In
the same month the Archduchess Maria Louisa, widow of
Napoleon, was driven from her Duchy of Parma. Similar
scenes occurred at Ferrara, Ancona, and Perugia. Louis
Napoleon and Charles Louis Napoleon, the sons of Louis
Bonaparte King of Holland, were at this time residing at
Florence, whence they corresponded with Menotti, the leader
of the Modenese revolution. When the insurrection broke
out in the Papal States the two brothers joined the insur-
gents at Spoleto.
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Chap. LXTX.] LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EUEOPE 69
The Advocate Yicini opened at Bologna, February 26th, Italian
what was called an Italian National Congress, with the avowed oo^Sm.
purpose of establishing the unity of Italy; and General
Zucchi, who had served under Napoleon, but who had sub-
sequently entered the Austrian service, endeavoured to organize
a revolutionary army. But the Austrians put down these
attempts with unwonted promptitude. An Austrian army
under General Frimont entered the disturbed districts early
in March, when the insurgents fled in all directions. After
some feeble attempts at resistance, Zucchi was defeated,
captured, and thrown into an Austrian dungeon, and the
Austrians entered Bologna March 21st. Spoleto capitulated
on the 30th, and the insurrection was at an end. "me elder
of the two sons of Louis Bonaparte died at Forli, during the
riots, March 17th. The younger, Charles Louis Napoleon,
escaped disguised as a servant in the retinue of his mother,
Hortense, whose anxiety for the safety of her sons had brought
her to Spoleto.
The Italians relied without any solid grounds on the aid of Louis
France. Louis Philippe had no idea of entering into a war ^d*^y.
with Austria for Italian liberty, though public opinion in
France compelled him to some demonstrations on that side.
Hence he exhorted the Pope to moderation, and on July 5th
Gregory XYL published an edict promising some reforms in
the administration. These, however, did not satisfy the
Italian people. They were encouraged by the opinion that
the Austrians, who, with the exception of the citadel of
Ferrara, had evacuated all the places they had entered, feared
the intervention of the French, and the insurrection was re-
sumed. At a meeting held at Bologna it was determined to
convoke in that town another National Congress on January
5th, 1832. The Pope assembled his troops at Bimini and
Ferrara. The National Guard of Bologna, under General
Patuzzi, marched against them, but were defeated after a
short combat at Cesena, January 20th. The Papal army,
composed in a great part of bandits, had committed such dis-
orders and cruelties, that Cardinal Albani, the Pope's repre-
sentative, was ashamed to lead them against Bologna ; and
the Austrians were therefore called in once more. But so
great was the clamour of the French liberals at this invasion,
that Louis Philippe was compelled to make a demonstration
by taking possession of Ancona. The act, however, was almost
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60 MODEBN EUBOPE [Ohaf. LXIX.
immediatelj disavowed, and on Maj 2nd the Papal troops
were admitted into that place.
Churies Neither Naples nor Sardinia was disturbed by these occur-
san^ia. rences. The old King, Ferdinand lY. of Naples, who after
his restoration had assumed the title of " Ferdinand I., King
of the Two Sicilies/' had died January 4th, 1825, and was
succeeded hj his son, Francis I. The latter Sovereign died in
November, 1830. His son and successor, Ferdinand 11., had
rendered himself popular hj introducing some reforms into
the administration, and hj liberating political prisoners. In
Sardinia, Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano, had succeeded
to the crown on the death of Charles Felix in April, 1831.
The situation of this Prince between Austria, which he feared,
and the liberals, whom he had betrayed, was somewhat critical;
but on the whole he inclined to the liberal side, where his
interests seemed to lie.
Prince After his flight from Italy, Prince Napoleon had for the
si^iwgf most part lived with his mother, Queen Hortense, at her
ch&teau of Arenenberg in the Thurgau. While residing in
Switzerland he employed himself in studying the science of
artillery in the school of Thun, under the tuition of Duf ours.
At this period his character seemed to be earnest and thought-
ful, though he was not averse to the pleasures of youth. He
aspired to a literary reputation, and composed at this time
" Political Dreams," " Bemarks on the PoUtical and Military
Condition of Switzerland," and a ** Handbook of the Science
of Artillery." The unpopularity which Louis Philippe had
incurred suggested to him an attempt on the Crown of France.
Hence his abortive conspiracy of Strassburg in 1836 ; the best
excuse for which is, that he merely wished to attract the notice
of the world, and to exhibit himself as a leader to those who
desired the downfall of Louis Philippe. After some prepara-
tions at Strassburg, through Colonel Yaudray and o^ers, he
caused himself, on the morning of October 30th, to be pro-
claimed Emperor, when he was joined by a small portion of
the troops. The greater part, however, remained faithful to
the King ; and the Prince and his fellow conspirators were
arrested and conducted to Paris. Louis Philippe was sur-
prised and embarrassed by this strange event ; but he im-
mediately dismissed the Prince, thinlang that the ridicule
which attached to so rash and inconsiderate an enterprise
sufficed to render him harmless. Prince Napoleon now pro-
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Chap. LXTX.] LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EUEOPE 61
ceeded to America ; but alarmed at the illness of his mother,
returned to Switzerland the following year by way of
England. His Strassburg accomplices were acquitted at the
assizes in January, 1837, an event which strengthened the
opposition by manifesting the disposition of the people. After
the death of Queen Hortense, October 5th, Louis Philippe
called upon the Swiss to expel the Prince from their terri-
tories, who, however, demurred to comply, as Napoleon
had been made an honorary citizen of the Thurgau. But he
voluntarily relinquished a privilege which might tell against
his claims to the French Crown, declared tha.t he was, and
would remain, a Frenchman, and in the autumn of 1838 he
took up his residence in London.
The discovery of Louis Philippe's insatiable avarice increased Avaitoe
his unpopularity. To his inheritance, the richest in France, he Phmppe.
had added all the possessions of Charles X. and Cond^ ; he had
entered into partnership with the Bothschilds, and not content
with all his wealth, he solicited marriage portions for his
children, and even tried to augment them by false representa-
tions. Thus on the marriage of the Duke of Nemours to the
Princess Victoria of Coburg, early in 1837, Louis Philippe
destined for him a miUion francs besides the domain of
Bambomllet ; but the Chamber demurred, and it turned out
on inquiry that Bambouillet had been valued much too low.
Marriage settlements were also procured for the Duke of
Orleans, who espoused a Mecklenburg Princess, May 30th,
and for the Queen of the Belgians. Towards the end of 1837
the reign of Louis Philippe obtained a little military glory by
the conquest of Constantine, taken by storm by General
Bamremont October 13th. In the winter a naval expedition
was despatched to Hayti, which compelled the negro govern-
ment of that island to pay a compensation of sixty million
francs to the expelled planters.
Towards the end of 1838 the leaders of three of the four Ministi
parties into which the Chamber was divided, namely, Thiers, ^*®'*»
Guizot, and Odillon Barrot, the respe^ive heads of the centre
gauche^ tbe cefntre droit, and the cote gauche, having formed a
coalitioii, the Mol^ Ministry was overthrown early in the
following year by an adverse address moved and carried by
M. Thiers. Louis Philippe now wished Marshal Soult to
conduct the Government; but as M. Thiers, whose services
the Marshal considered indispensable, appeared to set too
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62 MODERN EUROPE [Chap.LXIX.
much value on them, the arrangements went off, and the
Duke of Montebello, son of Marshal Lannes, became Prime
Minister. But his hold of power was short. The Republicans
of the secret society called la eociete des families, led by Blanqui
and Barb^s, succeeded, May 12th, in seizing the Hotel de Yille,
throwing up barricades, etc. They were soon put down ; but
their attempt induced Soult, ever ready to throw his sword
into the scale of danger, to accept the office of Prime Minister.
Early in 1840, however, the €h)vemment was again overthrown
by Thiers on the question of the marriage-settlement of
the Duke of Nemours, and Louis Philippe found himself
compelled to place that intriguer at the head of the Ministry.
M. Q-uizot was now appointed Ambassador at the Court of
St. James's. But the Eastern question, which nearly involved
France and England in a war, soon proved &.tal to the Ministry
of Thiers.^
The East- Mehemet Ali, not content with the Isle of Gandia in
eraqaes- reward of his services to the Sultan in Q-reece, had thrown a
covetous eye on Syria. The Porte seemed in no condition to
defend that Province, and in the autumn of 1881, Mehemet,
under pretence of punishing the Pasha of St. Jean d'Acre for
some sdBEronts, despatched thither his son Ibrahim, with an
army. Acre did not fall till May 27th, 1832. But Ibrahim
had betrayed his real design by occupying a great part of the
country. After the capture of Acre he proceeded to take
Damascus and Tripoli ; and having defeated Hussein Pasha,
July 7th, whom the Sultan had despatched against him with
a large army, he entered Aleppo and Antioch. The G-rand
Vizier, Redschid Pasha, who attempted to oppose his progress,
was defeated and captured at Konieh, December 21st.
The Sultan Mahmoud II., trembling for Oonstantinople
itself, implored the aid of Russia, as well as of England and
France. Nicholas having despatched a fleet to Oonstantinople,
the French also sent one, but only to watch that of Russia.
Ibrahim continuing to advance, and Mehemet Ali having
refused French mediation, the Sultan had no alternative but
to throw himself upon the protection of Russia. In April,
1883, Nicholas sent 5,000 men to Scutari, while another
Russian army of 80,000 crossed the Pruth. But an English
fleet having appeared and joined the French, the Russians
^ Mazade, Monsieur l%iers.
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Chap.LXIX] LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EUEOPE 6S
withdrew, and Mehemet submitted to mediation, by wbich
Syria was assigned to him, to be held as a fief of the Porte.
Mahmoud, indignant at being thus treated by the Western
Powers, threw himself into the arms of Eussia, and by
the Treaty of XJnkiar Skelessi, July 8th, 1833, agreed not
to suffer any but Eussian ships to pass the Dardanelles.
But on the protest of England and France, the treaty
was subsequently modified in favour of those countries in
January, 1834.
The Porte, encouraged by England and Eussia, attempted
in 1839 to recover Syria; but Ibrahim totally defeated the
Turkish army at Nisib on the Euphrates, June 24th. Sultan
Mahmoud, who had experienced little but misfortune during
his reign, died a few days after (June 28th), leaving his
empire to his son, Abdul Medjid, then only seventeen years
of age, yet already enervated by premature enjoyment. The
French now wished the Osmanli sceptre to be transferred to
Mehemet Ali, as better qualified than Abdul for the difficult
task of maintaining the integrity of the Turkish Empire ; but
this proposition was opposed by England as well as Eussia.
So strong was the opinion of the approaching fall of the ^|?*?JS
House of Osman, that the Capudan Pasha, Achmet Fewzi, ** ™k**" •
carried the Turkish fleet to Alexandria, and placed it at the
disposal of Mehemet. The English Ministry now proposed to
France to prevent any further extension of Mehemet's power,
and to aid the Porte, though not in such a manner as to
forward the views of Eussia. The French, however, took up
the cause of Mehemet, and were for establishing him in the
independent possession both of Egypt and Syria. Some warm
diplomatic correspondence ensued ; till at length England per-
suaded Eussia, Austria, and Prussia to join her in the Treaty
of London, July 15th, 1840, by which both Syria and Candia
were to be restored to the Porte. A small English and
Austrian army was landed in Syria, and being joined by some
Turks and Druses, defeated the hitherto victorious army of
Ibrahim at Kaleb Medina, October 10th. Acre, bombarded
by the English fleet under Admiral Stopford and Admiral
Napier, surrendered November 4th, and Mehemet, seeing
the impossibility of successful resistance, agreed to the
provisions of the London Treaty, November 27th, and re-
stored Candia and Syria, as well as the Turkish fleet, to
the Porte. The young Sultan was after this mostly guided
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64 MODEBN EITBOPE [Chap. LXTX.
by the oounsels of England, ablj conducted by Sir Stratford
Canning, afterwards I^rd EedcHffe, her Ambassador at Con-
stantinople.
LonjsNapo- This sijSair created great indignation in France, and rendered
a^npt at *^® Thiers Ministry highly unpopular. A rupture with Eng-
Boulogne, land seemed for some time imminent ; but Louis Philippe, as
usual, only employed the conjuncture to promote his domestic
interests, and under the alarm of a European war, carried the
project for the fortification of Paris by a girdle of forts ; de-
signed rather to keep down the populace within thaji to
repel an enemy from without. Prince Napoleon had also
seized the occasion to make another attempt on the Crown.
Landing at Boulogne, August 4th, with a few followers, of
whom Count Montholon was the most distinguished, he pro-
claimed himself Emperor of the French, and named M. Thiers
as his Minister. Being repulsed by the troops, he was nearly
drowned in his attempt to escape by the upsetting of a boat,
but was saved and captured. M. Berryer undertook his defence
before the Chamber of Peers ; but he was condemned, and
sentenced to imprisonment at Ham ; where he passed six
years, for the most part spent in study and writing.
The body of Another attempt on the King's life by an assassin named
Sira^to'*^' I^r™^^s» October 17th, is said to have occasioned the dismissal
Paris. of M. Thiers on the 29th. That minister had become so un-
popular, and the state of French affairs was so discouraging,
that a change of ministry was absolutely necessary. Marshal
Soult now again became the nominal prime minister, but M.
Guizot, to whom was intrusted the portfolio for foreign af&drs,
exercised supreme influence in the cabinet. The transfer of
the remains of Napoleon I. from St. Helena to Paris by the
consent of England, served to heal the temporary breach of the
entente cordiale between England and France. The body
arrived at Paris December 15th, 1840, and was entombed with
great solemnity at the Invalides. But so vivid a resuscitation
of Napoleon's memory was not perhaps the discreetest act on
the part of Louis Philippe.
The M. Humann, the minister of finance, having in 1841 caused
OordSoe. & new census of the people to be taken, in order to include
persons who had hitherto escaped taxation, disturbances broke
out in several parts of France, and even in Paris ; but the
rioters were reduced to order, and M. Guizot proceeded against
them witib severity. The death of Louis Philippe's eldest son.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXIX.] LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EtTEOPE 66
the I>uke of Orleans, killed hj a fall from Ids carriage, June
13tli, 1842, was a severe blow to the new dynasty. The Duke
indeed left two sons, Louis Philippe, Count of Paris, and
Bobert, Duke of Chartres; but the eldest was only in his
fourth year, and thus the prospect was opened of a long mi-
nority. The main spring of Louis Philippe's policy was the
maintenance of peace, and especially the preservation of the
entente eordiale with England ; a policy, however, which he
sometimes pushed to a length which irritated the national
feelings of the French, and rendered him unpopular. An in-
stance of this sort occurred in the afiEair of Mr. Pritchard, an
English missionary at Tahiti. Mr. Pritchard having been im-
properly arrested in 1843 by the French captain D'Aubigny,
the English Government made peremptory demands for satis-
facti<m, which were granted by the Cabinet of the Tuileries.
In so doing they only obeyed the dictates of justice and good
sense ; but they offended the national vanity of the French
and rendered M. Q-uizot's administration unpopular. In pur-
suance of the same policy, Louis Philippe in the following
year paid a visit to Queen Victoria in England, when he was
invested with the Older of the Gurter. By these means the
reign of Louis Philippe was passed in profound peace with re-
gard to Europe ; though the military ardour of the French
was at the same time gratified by battles and conquests in
Africa. The French succeeded in establishing themselves at
Algiers, where, under the auspices of Qeneial Bugeaud, a
dreadful system of r<i»zias was inaugurated, and every sort of
cruelty perpetrated on both sides. As Abd-el-Kader, the
celebrated leader of the Arabs, supported himself against the
French by the aid of the Maroquins, an expedition was under-
taken f^ainst the Emperor of Morocco, who by the overthrow
of his army at the battle of the Isly, August 14th, 1844, was
compelled to sue for peace. For this exploit Bugeaud was re-
warded with the marshal's baton. About the same time the
Prince de Joinville with the French fleet attacked the town of
Mogador, and compelled it to surrender.
The canning of Louis Philippe sometimes outran his caution, spaniah
In spite of ail his care, the affair of the Spanish marriages in ^"^^*
1846 nearly led to a rupture with Great Britain. But before
we relate that transaction it will be necessary to take a brief
retrospect of Spanish history.
After losing his first Sicilian wife, Ferdinand YII. had mar-
VI. F
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
66
MODEBN EUBOPE [Chap.LXIX.
§h|iaiiidi
I^ragmatie
Sanction.
Deaiihof
Ferdinand
Vn., 1888.
ried in 1816 his niece, Maria Isabel Francesca, second daugh-
ter of the Ejng of Portugal, while his brother Don Carlos
married the Hoard daughter. Maria died in a year or two, and
in 1819 Ferdinand married a niece of the King of Saxony, who
also died in 1829. Bj none of these three wives had he any
issue. At the age of forty-six, and debilitated in constitution,
he married for his fourth wife Maria Christina, daughter of
Ferdinand IV. of Naples, and sister of the Duchess of Berri,
and of Maria Carlotta, married to the Spanish Eang's youngest
brother, Francisco. Three months after this marriage the new
Queen appearing to be pregnant, Ferdinand published a
PragnuUic Scmction abolishing the Salic law, March 29th,
1830. Ferdinand's brothers, Carlos and Francisco, as well as
Charles X. of France and Francis I. of the Two Sicilies, brother
of the Spanish Queen, protested against this act, which threat-
ened their collateral clsulms to the throne of Spam. But Fer-
dinand persisted, and on the 10th of October, 1830, his Queen
was delivered of a daughter, Isabella, who was recognized as
Princess of the Asturias, or heiress apparent of the throne.
Ferdinand having being seized with a severe illness in the
autumn of 1832, Don Carlos either extorted from him a revo-
cation of the Pragmatic Sanction, or caused one to be forged.
But Maria Christina, who had borne another daughter in the
preceding January, declared herself Begent for her daughter'
Isabella during the King's illness, and sought popularity by
some liberal measures. She granted an amnesty to the insur-
gents who had risen after the French Bevolution of July ; she
re-established the universities, which had been dissolved after
the Restoration ; and, by the advice of Martinez de la Bosa,
she announced a speedy reassembly of the Cortes. Ferdinand
unexpectedly recovered, and resumed the reins of government
in January, 1833, when he confirmed all that the Queen had
done; and Don Carlos, after protesting, withdrew to Don
Miguel in Portugal. In pursuance of the more liberal policy
inaugurated by Christina, Ferdinand again appointed Zea
Bermudez to the ministry, and agreeably to the Queen's pro-
mise, reopened the Cortes, July 29th, when that assembly did
homage to his daughter Isabella as their future soveragn.
Ferdinand YII. did not long survive this event. He was again
attacked by his disorder, and expired in dreadful torments,
Sept. 29th, 1833.
Isabella 11. was now proclaimed Queen, and her mother
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXDL] LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EXJEOPE 67
Christina assiuned the Begency. The Pin^matic Sanction Queen
was recognized by Louis P^lippe and by the English Goyem- "*^>«"*-
ment ; bat the Northern Powers, as well as the Pope, refnsed
to acknowledge it. Spain itself was divided in opinion and
torn by &ctions. The Liberals and moderate party supported
the Queen, and were hence called ChrisHnoBj while the Serriles
dechued for Don Oarlos, and obtained the name of OtwligU.
The Ohrutinos^ though not at one among themselyes, prevailed.
In 1884, Zea Bermudez was compelled to resign in favour of
the still more liberal Martinez de la Bosa. On the 10th of
April the new minister proclaimed the EskUido Beat, a
constitution modelled by the advice of Louis Philippe.
But it was not suf^ently liberal to please the extreme
party; warm disputes arose between the Moderados and
Progresietas, and Martinez de la Bosa, to whose embarrass-
ments was added that of civil war, was unable to maintain
himself.
The Ca/rlists had raised an insurrection in Biscay in 1833. xheCariist
Their strength lay chiefly in the Basque provinces, which had »«*»«"*<»•
been injured by the system of centralization adopted by
Ferdinand after the French modeL The insurrection also
spread to other provinces, but not to any great extent. The
priest Merino in Old Castile, and Locho in LaMancha, raised
some guerUla bands. The Basque army, which had gradually
increased to 25,000 men, found an excellent leader in Zum-
alacarragui Generals Sarsf eld, Yaldez, and two or three more
in vain attempted to subdue it. Don Carlos, who had been
driven from Portugal and taken refuge in England, returned
secretly through France, and appearing in Zumalacarragui's
camp, June 9th, 1834, was received with acclamation. But
he was totally unfit for the enterprise he had undertaken. He
surrounded himself with the Stiffest etiquette, and he con-
tinued to maintain the Apostolic Junta, a former member of
which. Father Cirilo, was his most intimate confidant. Spahi,
like other parts of Europe, was this year visited by the cholera^
when a hundred monks, suspected of having poisoned the
fountains, were murdered in Madrid alone, and many others
in various towns. This popular prejudice was manifested in
other countries with the same results.
In 1885 Mina undertook the command of the OJmsUnoe,
but, like his predecessors, was worsted by Zumalacarragui after
a sanguinary campaign of five months. Yaldez, who resumed
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
68
MODEBK EUEOPE [Chap. LXIX.
Death of
John VL of
Portngal,
18».
Iftaria
snoceedfl.
the attempt with 20,000 men, had no better snoeess. These
unfortunate campaigns exhausted the troops and money of the
Spanish Goyemment, and o(nnpelled the Regent to applj to
the Western Powers for aid. Louis Philippe pursued in the
affidrs of Spain his usual double and self-interested policy.
He had formed the design of marrying his sons to Ohristina's
daughters, and he courted the friendship of the Spanish Segent
and pressed upon her his advice, yet without talnng so decided
a part in her affairs as might excite the hostility of the Nor-
thern Powers. In like manner he went hand in hand with
England in opposing Oa/rlism, but so as not to give too much
strength to the Frogresiataa. It was not tiU the summer of
1835, after the unlooked-for resistance of the Basques, that
Louis Philippe prepared to give Christina any active assist-
ance, agreeably to the Quadruple Alliance formed in the pre-
ceding year. But as that allianoe had reference primarily to
the affairs of Portugal, we must here briefly resume the history
of that country.
After the banishment of Dom Miguel, before recorded,
Portugal remained tranquil till the death of the weak but
well-meaning King John VL, March 10th, 1826. As Don
Pedro, his eldest son, now Emperor of Brazil, was precluded
by the constitution of that country from assuming the crown
of Portugal, he transferred it to his youthful daughter, Donna
Maria da Gloria, while Dom Miguel, John's second son, asserted
his claim as the only legitimate male heir. The question of
the succession, therefore, was somewhat analogous to that
which subsequently arose in Spain, turning on the claims of a
direct female and collateral male heir. Both pretenders to
the crown were absent, and public opinion in Portugal was
very much divided The Liberals, led by Count Yillaflor, and
composed for the most part of the educated and commercial
classes and a portion of the army, were for Donna Maria, while
the Serviles, as they were called, with the Marquis de Chaves
at their head, comprising the clergy, the peasantry, and the
remainder of the troops, espoused the cause of Dom Miguel.
The adverse parties had already come to blows, when the
arrival of 6,000 English soldiers in the Tagus in December,
despatched by Canning, decided the question in favour of
Donna Maria. The Serviles now submitted. Queen Maria was
acknowledged, and Donna Isabella, the young Queen's aunt,
was placed at the head of the Begency . The Cortes being as-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXTXQ LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EUEOPE 69
sembled, January 2nd, 1828, accepted the charter of a oonsti-
tation drawn up by Don Pedro on liberal principles.
These proceedings were highly displeasing to the Northern
Powers, who, as the assertors of legitimacy and of the princi-
ples of the Holy Alliance, espoused the cause of Dom Miguel.
Under these circumstances a compromise was adopted. Dom
Miguel, as before suggested by Don Pedro, was betrothed to
his niece, and it was arranged that he should undertake the
Eegency in her name. He accordingly returned to Lisbon,
after paying a visit to England on his way, and took the oath
to the Constitution, February 26th. But on the 13th of March,
immediately after the departure of the English army, he dis-
solved the Chambers and annulled Don P^ro's Constitution ;
and as the clergy and the great mass of the people were in
favour of the ancient absolutism, an attempt at insurrection
in support of the Charter proved abortive.
Encouraged by this success, Miguel proceeded to further DomMintei
violence. On the 17th of June, declaring the succession 5£2m,
established by his brother to be invalid, he seized the throne i828.
for himself, as legitimate King, and his usurpation was sanc-
tioned by acclamation by the assembled Cortes on the 26th.
Miguel now displayed all his real character. The leading
Liberals who had not succeeded in escaping were thrown into
prison; some of them were executed, the rest were treated
with the greatest cruelty. The young tyrant sometimes as-
saulted his sister the Eegent to the danger of her life ; and
he displayed his levity and caprice by making a gi^devtmt
barber, one of his favourites, Duke of Queluz. He succeeded,
however, in maintaining himself upon the throne, and two
conspiracies in 1829 were suppressed and punished by bloody
and illegal executions. Don Pedro despatched a fleet to
Terceira, and made some unsuccessful attempts in favour of
his daughter. Donna Maria had retired to Brazil, where, in
1880, she was betrothed to the young Prince Augustus von
Leuchtenberg, whose sister Don Pedro had married. In 1831,
Don Pedro being compelled by a revolution to relinquish the
throne of Brazil to his youthful son, Don Pedro 11., took
charge of his daughter's affairs in person, and sailed for
Terceira with a well-appointed army and fleet. He landed
at Oporto, July 8th, 1882, and was received with enthusiasm ;
but Miguel kept him shut up a whole year in that town.
Napier, however, the commander of Pedro's fleet, having
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
70 MODERN ETJSOPE [Chap. LXIX.
almost annihilated that of Miguel in a battle off Cape St.
Vincent, July 5th, 1838, it became possible to ship an army
at Oporto for Lisbon. MigueFs forces having been defeated
in a battle, he was compelled to flj, and Pedro entered Lisbon
July 28th. Two months after. Donna Maria arrired from
Qio^ re- I<ondon, and assumed the Crown September 23rd. Marshal
sumeathe Bourmont, driven from France by the Eevolution, having
Crown. obtained the command of the Miguelite forces, made an
attempt upon Lisbon, which was defeated October 10th; but
Miguel still maintained himself in the provinces.
The Qnad- In this state of things the Northern Powers, the patrons of
SanM!^884. legitimacy even in such representatives of the principle as
Carlos and Miguel, having assumed at a Congress at Mun-
chengratz a hostile, or at all events adverse, attitude to the
policy of France and England, the latter Powers concluded
with the Queens of Spain and Portugal the Quadruple Alliance
before mentioned, April 22nd, 1834. Miguel, alarmed by
this step, agreed by the Treaty of Evoramonte to quit the
Peninsula, May 26th, and he subsequently fixed his residence
at Bome. On the 24th of the following September, Don
Pedro died. The marriage of Queen Maria with the Prince
of Leuchtenberg was celebrated in January, 1835 ; but in the
following March the youthful bridegroom was carried off by
a cold, and Queen Maria, on the proposal of England, shortly
after accepted the hand of Prince Ferdinand of Coburg.
SpaniBh The Spanish Queen did not derive much benefit from the
****"• Quadruple Alliance. By a treaty of June 28th, 1836, Louis
Philippe, indeed, allowed the Chrutinos the aid of the so-
called Foreign Legion, composed of all the scum of Paris ;
which had been sent to Algiers, and served as food for powder
in the fights with the Arabs and Kabyles. A Legion of much
the same kind, under General Evans, was also organized in
Finland. But before these troops could arrive the position
of Christina had become very critical. Although the Carlists
had lost their great general Zumakcarragui, kiUed at the siege
of Bilbao, June 25th, yet his place was ably filled by the brave
and youthful Cabrera. The Spanish Government, besides
having to contend with the Carlists, was also menaced by the
factions and discontent of its own supporters. The Begent,
indeed, in her heart detested the Progregidcu, and it was only
with reluctance that she was driven, through the success of
the Carlists, to court their aid. That paity established in
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXIX.] LOUIS PHTTiTPPE AND ETJEOPE 71
1835 a Junta at Barcelona, and demandod that the Gonsti- sp
tuldon of 1812 should be restored ; nor could Mina, whom ^S*o£^^2
the Queen had appointed Governor of that place, succeed in restored,
restoring obedience to the Government. The example spread :
Juntas were erected at Saragossa, Valencia, Seville, Malaga,
Oadiz, and other places ; till at last the revolt broke out in
the capital itself. The Begent was compelled to proclaim
the Constitution of 1812, at her castle at La Granja, August
13th, 1836, and to place Galatrava, a Liberal, at the head of
the Ministiy.
On that very day General Lebeau, at the head of the French
Foreign Legion, had at length entered Spain, and published
a manifesto, proclaiming that he had been sent by the King
of the French to support the Queen. But no sooner did
Louis Philippe hear of the proclamation at La Granja than
ho publicly disavowed his general in the Moniteur. He well
knew that a government founded on the Spanish Constitution
of 1812, instead of following his counsels, would make common
cause with the Bepublican party in France. Agreeably, how-
ever, to the Quadruple Alliance, he suffered his Legion to
remain in Spain, where it continued to %ht in the Christina
cause till it was almost exhausted. Meanwhile Don Carlos
not only prospered in the North, but also gained adherents
in Andalusia and the South. In the spring of 1837 he even
felt himself strong ^aough to make an attempt on Madrid,
and gained a victory at Villa de las Navarras ; but on the
appearance of Espai-tero, who had relinquished the siege of
Bilbao he lost heart and retired, and from this time his cause
declined. Among the fanatical decrees which he issued in
Biscay, was one directing that all Englishmen should be put
to death, because they prevented him from receiving assist-
ance by sea !
The Cortes, on the model of 1812, were opened by Christina PoUcy of
June 18th, 1837, when she took an oath to the Constitution. Ch'****"*-
She nevertheless &,voured a reactionary policy, and was sup-
ported in it by the victorious Espartero, who belonged to the
Moderados, That party was also favoured by Louis Philippe,
who wished to suppress the insurrection in Spain, and to form
a matrimonial connection for his sons with the Spanish family ;
while England opposed this policy by supporting the Proves-
iatas. In the autumn of 1838, Narvaez having failed in an
attempt to overthrow Espartero, was compelled to fly to
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
72
MODEEN ETTEOPE [Chap. LXIX.
Bspartero
Begent.
l!he
JPromineia-
England. Maroto, who soon afterwaxds obtained ihe com-
mand of the Basque army, seeing the incapacity of Don Carlos,
resolved to abandon the cause of legitimacy, and concluded a
treaty with Espartero at Vergara, August 31st, 1839, by
which the Basque Provinces agreed to acknowledge Queen
Isabella 11. on condition of recovering their Futeros, or ancient
customs. Carlos now fled over the Pyrenees; when Louis
Philippe caused him to be apprehended and kept him in
honourable custody at Bourges. General O'Donnel dispersed
the remains of the Carlists in the summer of 1840.
Espartero was rewarded for his success with the title of
** Duke of Victory." Christina tried to persuade him to annul
the Basque Fueros ; but he would not consent, and he was
supported in his policy by an insurrection at Barcelona.
Christina now fled to Valencia, and placed herself imder the
protection of O'Donnel; but in her absence the people of
Madrid rose and proclaimed a Provisional Q-ovemment, an
example which was followed by most of the principal towns
of Spain ; and the Begent found herself compelled to appoint
Espartero Prime Minister. Espartero made a sort of trium-
phal entry into Madrid September 16th, and in the following
October, Christina laid down the Eegency in his favour and
qtdtted Spain. This step was not taken entirely on political
grounds. A secret marriage with Munoz, a private in the
guards, by whom she had several children, as well as an
accusation of embezzling the public money, had rendered her
contemptible. She proceeded to Bome, and thence to France,
where she took up her abode till, as the instrument of Louis
Philippe, she might find an opportunity again to interfere in
the affairs of Spain.
The Begency of Espartero, who was a moderate Progresista,
attracted the envy and opposition of the other generals. Hence
what were called the Pronunciamentos, Wherever the people
were dissatisfied with the proceedings of the Q-ovemment or
the person of the Begent, they pronounced against them and
threatened to throw Spain into eternal confusion. To this,
however, an end was put by the Cortes confirming Espartero
in the Begency, May 8th, 1841 ; though Aj^elles was named
guardian of Isabella. Espartero maintained himself in the
Begency, in spite of much opposition and many insurrections,
tiU July, 1843, when being defeated by Narvaez in Valencia,
he was compelled to fly to England. The policy of Spain at
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXIX.] LOUIS PHILIPPE AND EUROPE 78
this period turned much on the marriage of the jonng Queen,
The Moderados wanted to marry her, or at all events her
sister, to a French Prince ; the moderate FrogresUias approved
the English proposal of a German Prince ; while the uUras of
the latter party wished her to espouse her cousin, the son of
Louisa Charlotte. That Princess had formed a project to
keep her sister Maria Christina for ever out of Spain, and to
seize upon the Government. But her plans were cut short
by a sudden death, January 29th, 1844.
The young Queen Isabella 11. was declared of age by the Betum of
Cortes, November 10th, 1843, when she took the oath to the <^™**"*-
Constitution. Narvaez, who now enjoyed the supreme mili-
tary power, being a Moderado, and consequently favouring
the views of France and Christina, the Queen-mother ven-
tured, after her sister's death, to return to Madrid. She
obtained the guidance of her daughter, but intent only on the
gratification of her base inclinations, suffered Narvaez to rule.
She created Munoz Duke of Bianzarez and a grandee of Spain,
and employed herself in accumulating large sums for her
numerous children by him. Meanwhile Narvaez pursued a
reactionary policy by curtailing the power of the Cortes, re-
storing the prerogatives of the Crown, recalling the exiled
bishops, and otherwise promoting the interests of the Church.
In 1845, in company with Christina and her two daughters,
he made a tour in the provinces ; when they were met at
Pamplona by Louis Philippe's sons, the Dukes of Nemours
and Aumale, with a view to forward the projected marriages.
Narvaez was now created Duke of Valencia. But he was
suddenly dismissed, April 4th, 1846, for having, it is sus-
pected, favoured the suit of Francis, Count of Trapani, son
of the King of Naples, for the hand of Isabella. Isturitz,
who had bd^ore held the reins of power, now became Prime
Minister.
Other suitors to the young Queen were her cousins, Don TheSpanish
Henry, second son of the Infant Francis de Paula; and ">*^*««*-
Charles Louis, Count of Montemolin, son of Don Carlos, who
had made over to his son all his claims to the Spanish throne.
An insurrection was even attempted in favour of Don Henry ;
but its leader. Colonel Solis, was shot, and Don Henry ban-
ished from Spain. A marriage with the Count of Monte-
molin would have united all the claims to the Spanish throne ;
but both France and England opposed it. Louis Philippe,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
74 MODERN EXJEOPE [Ohap.LXIX.
wil^ the acquiesoence of Ohristina, bad selected for Isabella's
husband, Francis de Assis, the eldest son of Francis de Paula*
a young man weak in mind and body ; while be destined bis
own son, the Duke of Montpensier, for Isabella's younger and
healthier sister, Maria Louisa. Louis Philippe had promised
Queen Victoria, when on a visit to him at the Chiteau d'Eu
in Normandy, in 1845, that the marriage of his son with the
Infanta should not take place till Isabella had given birth to
an heir to the throne, llie young Queen had manifested her
aversion for Francis de Assis, and Prince Leopold of Saxe-
Ooburg had proceeded to Madrid in the spring of 1846 to sue
for her hand. But by the machinations of Louis Philippe
and Christina, Isabella's scruples to accept her cousin were
overcome, and the King of the French, sacrificing without
remorse the domestic happiness of the young Queen, gained
a transient and not very honourable triumph by the faii
(lecompli of a simultaneous marriage of Isabella with Francis
de Assis, and of Montpensier with her sister, Maria Louisa,
October 10th, 1846. Louis Philippe's deep-laid plot was,
however, ultimately frustrated by unforeseen circumstances.
The expulsion of the Orleans dynasty from France at once
severed the family connection between the two crowns ; and
even had Louis Philippe remained in possession of the French
throne, the hopes of the Duke of Montpensier would still
have been frustrated by Queen Isabella giving birth to a
daughter in 1851. By Serrano's advice Isabella emancipated
herself from her mother's guidance, and favoured the party
of the Progresistas, while Christina proceeded again to Paris
to seek the advice of Louis Philippe. Isabella banished all
the ancient Spanish etiquette, and the Court became a scene
of scandalous dissipation.
Difltarb- While Louis Plulippe was thus engaged in the a&irs of
i^tSce. Spain, his own faU was preparing in France. The discontent
which extensively prevailed in that kingdom was increased by
the scarcity in the years 1846 and 1847. Disturbances broke
out in several places, and the Liberal party began to agitate
an electoral reform. The Central Electoral Committee at
Paris declared itself en permcmeneef and incited the Provincial
Committees to petition the Q-ovemment. At a grand reform
banquet, held at Ch&teau Eouge near Paris, July 9th, 1847,
at which 1,200 persons were present, the King's health was
omitted, but the toast of " the sovereignty of the people "
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXIX] LOXJIS PHILIPPE AND ETTEOPE 75
was dnmk with aoclamatioii. A similar banquet took place
at Le Mans, August 10th, under the presidency of Ledra
BoUin, and was followed bj many others in Tarions places.
The reactionary policy of Onizot, and his determination
to maintain the English alliance, were highly unpopular;
while the corruption of some members of the Admimstration
and of the Chambers had rendered the Qoyemment in general
eont^nptible. The French Sepublicans were encouraged by
the triumph of the Badicals in Switzerland, and by the pro-
gress of Maszini's doctrines in Italy. The leaders of the first
French Sevolution had been content with claiming liberty,
equality, and eternity; the ideas of the soi'dMcmt philo-
sophical and revolutionary Badicals had now advanced con-
siderably further. Oammuninn, an offshoot of 8t. Simonism,
had spread very extensively among the lower classes of the
French, while Louis Blanc had brought forward a gigantic
scheme of Utopian Socialism by which the State was to form
one large happy family, providing work and maintenance for
all its members. The elements of disturbance and revolution
were insidiously stirred by Thiers, with the design of
supplanting Ouizot, and again seizing the reins of govern-
ment.
The Eing, on opening the Chambers, December 27th, 1847, inBurrec'
indiscreetly alluded in offensive terms to the reform banquet, pariil'iMs.
and intimated his conviction that no reform was needed. In
consequence of this speech very sharp debates took place on
the Address, which lasted till the middle of February. The
Electoral Committee of Paris, in conjunction with a committee
of the Opposition Deputies, and of the officers of the National
Ouard, determined to have a colossal reform banquet in the
Champs Elys^s on the 22nd February, 1848, when it was
expected that 100,000 spectators would be present. But it
was forbidden by Ouizot, who threatened to prevent it, if
necessary, by military force. Odillon Barrot and most of the
Deputies now abandoned any further opposition, though
Lamartine and a few followers continued to declaim against
the arbitrariness of the Qovemment. The f £te did not take
place, as Marshal Bugeaud, who had between 50,000 and
60,0()0 men in Paris ajid its neighbourhood, was prepared to
suppress it, while the guns of the forts were directed upon
Paris. But symptoms of revolt began to manifest themselves
among the Parisian populace; barricades were thrown up,
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
76 MODEEN EUROPE [Chjjp. LXTX.
and some conflicts took place with the Municipal Guard. The
riots were renewed on the 23rd, and the National Guard, which
was called out for the protection of the city, manifested a
hostile disposition towards the Government bj shouts of Vive la
Beforme ! Abas Ghmot ! The King was weak enough to yield
to this demonstration, by dismissing Guizot, and sending for
Count Mol^ to form a new Administration. The tumult con-
tinued in the ensuing night, but without any very marked
character, till a Lyonese named Lagrange, a determined Re-
publican and influential leader amongst the secret societies,
gave matters a decided turn by conducting a large band,
carrying a red flag, to the hotel of Guizot, where a battalion
of infantry had been drawn up for his protection. A shot,
fired, it is said, by Lagrange himself, haying killed their com-
manding ofEicer, the troops answered by a ToUey, which pros-
trated many dead and wounded on the pavements
^^dflion While these scenes were passing out of doors, all was in-
GoTenunent decision in the Palace. Count Mol^ declined to accept the
and King. Ministry, and recourse was then had to Thiers. But matters
had gone rather further than that statesman had contemplated,
and he required that Odillon Barrot should be joined with
him. Thiers now required the King to consent to the reforms
demanded, to summon a new Chamber, elected on the prin-
ciples of them, to forbid the troops to use any further violence
towards the people, and to dismiss Marshal Bugeaud; in short,
to disarm and countermand his enormous military preparations.
Louis Philippe had completely lost his head. He agreed to
all the demands of Thiers, who immediately issued a procla-
mation stating that reform was granted, that all motive for
further opposition was removed, and that the soldiery had
orders not to fire. But the proclamation came too lat« ; and,
as the signature had been omitted, it only excited the sus-
picions of the people, as intended to disarm them. Bugeaud
was dismissed on the morning of February 24jth, having pre-
viously signed an order forbidding the troops to fire. Many
of the soldiers now began to fraternize with the people ; fresh
barricades were erected, and the attack drew hourly nearer and
nearer to the Tuileries. The Palais Boyal was stormed, and
its costly furniture destroyed ; while the troops, agreeably to
their orders, looked quietly on ; the Municipal Guards were
massacred without assistance. The Duke of Nemours, who
had been appointed Regent in case of his father's abdication.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXIX.] LOXJIS PHILIPPE AND EUROPE 77
rejected Bugeaud's pressing instances to resort to force. Louis
Philippe would not listen to his Consort's exhortations to put
himself at the head of the troops. As the storm approached
the Tuileries, indeed, he mounted his horse and rode towards
the troops ; but he uttered not a word. The soldiery also re-
mained dumb ; but some of the National Q-uards cried Vive la
Beforme ! A has les minigtrea ! The King turned back, and
all was lost. It was a repetition of Louis XYI.'s review of
August 10th.
At length Louis Philippe, at the instance of the Duke de Abdicatioii
Montpensier, signed an Act of Abdication in fovour of the phm^.
Count de Paris, his grandson, and then hurried to St. Cloud.
General Lamorici^re took the Act of Abdication, and exhibited
it to the people ; but Lagrange tore the sheet from his hand,
exclaiming, *' It is not enough — the whole Dynasty must go ! **
As Lamoriciire turned to depart, his horse was shot and he
himself wounded. His soldiers lifted him up and fired. This
incident aided the Sepublican cause. The Boyal family were
in consternation, and at a loss how to act. Thiers had vanished
nobody knew whither, and left them to take care of themselves.
The Duke de Nemours, as Begent, conducted the Duchess of
Orleans, with her two young sons, to the Chamber of Deputies ;
but the mob broke in and prevented the proclamation of the
Begency. In the midst of the tumult, Marie, an advocate,
mounted the tribune, and proposed a Provisional Government.
The motion was received with shouts of applause. Dunoyer,
at the head of another band, carrying a flag captured at the
Tuileries, now forced his way into the Chamber, and exclaimed :
" This flsbg proclaims our victory ; outside are 100,000 combat-
ants, who will have neither King nor Regency." It was but
too plain that all was lost, and the Eoyal family made their
escape from Paris.
A Provisional Government was now appointed, consisting ProTisionai
of Dupont de TEure, Lamartine the poet, Arago the astrono- Sent"'
mer, Marie, Gkmier Pagis, Ledru Bollin, and Cr^mieux.
These names were received with acclamation by the members,
and by thearmed mob which filled the precincts of theChamber.
On the motion of Lamartine, the new Government resolved to
fix itself at the H6tel de YiUe, in order to prevent the estab-
lishment there of a Bepublican Socialist Directory. Louis
Blanc, Marrast, Bastide, Mo9on, and other leaders of the £e-
publicans and Socialists, had indeed already taken possession
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
78
MODEBN EVBOFE [Chap. LXIK.
Opposition
to mob
▼lolence.
of that building, and would no doubt have opposed the Pro-
yiflional QoTemment, had not the latter deemed it expedient
to coalesce with them. It is to the firmness of Lamartine that
must be attributed the preserration of any degree of order
among these discordant elements. He allowed the Bepublic
to be proclaimed only on condition of its future approyal by
the people, to whose newlj-elected representatires was to be
intrusted the settlement of the Constitution. Lamartine also
caused a guard of young people to be formed for the protection
of the Ghoremment, and thus eliminated one of the most
dangerous elements of the revolt.
letters, however, still wore a threatening aspect. The mob
had broken into the Tuileries, demolished all the furniture,
and taken up their abode in the palace. Lamartine resisted
with admirable courage all attempts at intimidation, and
calmed the minds of the people by his exhortations. The
middle classes, alarmed at the prospect of a Bed Republic,
assembled, the National Guard appeared on the Place de
Gtriret and the mob with their red flag began gradually to
Louis
Philippe in
Bnglaad.
Louis Philippe, who was not pursued, fled towards the i
coast, and after a concealment of nine days procured a passage
for England in the name of William Smith. He was accom-
panied by the Queen and a few attendants, while the Duke de
Montpensier, with the other ladies, except the Duchess of
Orleans, who proceeded to Qermany, took a different route to
the coast, in order to lessen the risk of detection. Louis
Philippe landed in England March 3rd, and took up his resi-
dence at Claremont, the property of his son-in-law, the King
of the Belgians.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAPTBE LXX
THE BEYOLUTIOFB OF 1848
THE new French Goyemment proceeded to oonsolidateitself . The Sooond
Louis Blanc was appointed " Minister of Progress," as a^bUc.
a pledge for the furtherance of the '' organization of labour."
The Luxembourg, abandoned bj the Peers, received a new
senate in a committee of labourers and mechanics, who there
discussed their interests and demands. At their head was
Albert, a workman in a blouse, who had obtained a place in
the Government next to Louis Blanc. The scheme adopted
was to open large national workshops, where all who applied
might find employment and wages. Thus the State was con-
vei^^d into a manufacturing firm, to whose service, as the paj
was good, and the superintendence not over strict, flocked all
the lazy, skulking mechanics of Paris and its neighbourhood.
They soon numbered 80,000, to be maintained at the public
expense, to the ruin of private tradesmen. Thus the Bevolu-
lution of 1848 was not like that of 1830, merely political, but
sodal also, like the first fievolution, but based on such absurd,
though less inhuman principles, that the speedy fall of the new
system was inevitable.
The Provisional Government was recognized throughout
France. Marshal Bugeaud acknowledged its authority, and
was followed by the whole army. The Due d'Aumale, who
commanded in Algiers, surrendered his post to Gteneral Ohan-
gamier, and proceeded to England with his brother the Due
de Joinville, who had hitherto commanded the French fleet.
The Provisional Government superseded Changamier by
Oavaignac, the brother of an influential republican. The
priests also submitted, for the Church was not threatened with
persecution. After the interval of a fortnight the prefect of
police drove out the crowd which had taken possession of the
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
80
MODBEN EXTBOPE [Chap. LXX.
The
National
ABsembly.
Lonis
Napoleon.
Tuileries, and that palace was converted into an hospital for
old and infirm labourers. The same dangerous elements were,
however, afloat as in the first Sevolution, and if they did not
gain the ascendency it was because the higher and middle
classes, instructed by experience, actively opposed them. The
inscriptions of Liberte, EgalUe, Fratemite, struck the eye on
every side ; the titles of Monsieur and Madame again gave
place to those of OUayen and CUayenne ; the Goddess of Lil^rt j
with her red cap appeared at every public festival, and trees
of liberty were planted in all the public places. Low journals
were published under the names of La Chiillotine, La Car^
magnole, etc., which adopted all the slang of aana-cvlottisme,
and exhorted to plunder and murder in the style of Marat.
The ultra-democrats Oabat, Blanqui, and Easpail formed a
sort of triumvirate, and incited the Communist clubs to proceed
to extremities. They attempted to put down Lamartine and
the more moderate party, and to establish a Bed Bepublic
under Ledru Bollin. But the citizens and National Guards
were on the alert. A mob having been collected, April 16th,
to petition for an alteration in the relations between master
and servant, 100,000 National Guards assembled to preserve
the peace, and shouted, A has Cahat I a has U commvmsme !
From this day the extreme party was defeated.
The National Assembly met at Paris, May 4th. The ma-
jority of it were men of moderate opinions, some even desired
a reaction ; yet when Dupont de I'Eure, in the name of the
Provisional Government, resigned its power into their hands,
a Bepublic was voted by acclamation, and an Executive Com-
mission was appointed to conduct the public business till the
new Constitution should be established. The members of the
Commission were Lamartine, Arago, Gamier Pages, Marie,
and Ledru Bollin ; and Louis Blanc, Albert, and the Socialists
were excluded. A mob of Socialists and Communists broke
into the Assembly, May 15th, and endeavoured to enforce a
government in conformity with their views, but the attempt
ftdled. This party was entirely overawed by the force dis-
played at a grand review held on May 21st ; after which,
Barbis, Albert, and Hubert were indicted and sentenced to
transportation, and Blanqui to seven years' imprisonment.
Louis Blanc was also indicted, but escaped by flight.
When the news of the Bevolution arrived in England, Prince
Napoleon, who had in May, 1846, succeeded in escaping to
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXX.] THE EEVOLUTIONS OP 1848 81
that coimtrj from his prison at Ham, immediately set off for
Paris ; but retumecU in compliance with the wishes of the
ProTisional OoYemmenl On the 8th of June he was elected
a representatiye for Paris, and he was also returned in the de*
partoients of Charente and Tonne. Two of his cousins,
Kapoleon, son of Jerdme, and Peter, son of Lucien, sat in
the Assembly. These moT^ments <^ the Bonaparte family
excited the apprehension of Lamartine, who attempted to
obtain with re^urd to Louis Napoleon the enforcement of the
old decree for the banishment of the Emperor Napoleon's
posterity. Louis Napoleon, thinking that his opportunity was
not yet arrived, thanked the electors who had returned him,
and declared himself ready to discharge any duties which the
people might intrust to him, but for the present he remained
in London.
An attempt of the Government to dismiss part of the work- Reaction
men from the aieUers naUanoMx produced one of the fiercest so^^m.
battlesParis had yet seen. These workmen, who now numbered
near 100,000, and were regularly drilled, threw up barricades
more artificially constructed than any that had yet been made,
and defended them with desperation. The battle began on
the 23rd of June, and lasted four days ; but the insui^nts
were at length subdued by the superior force of the troops of
the line and the National Guards. Many of the latter had
come up from the provincial towns to aid in the suppression
of Socialism. Some thousands of persons f^ in this san-
guinary affray, among them the venerable Monseigneur Affre,
Archbishop of Paris, while exhorting the rioters to peace.
Gteneral Cavaignac, who had been appointed Dictator during
the struggle, now laid down his Qj£ce, but was appointed chief
of the Executive Oommission with the title of President of the
OounciL
The fear which Socialism had inspired had produced among The New
the more educated classes a reaction in favour of monarchy. ^^^^^^'
The national workshops were now suppressed, as well as sdl
clubs and the revolutionary press. Even Lamartine and
Cavaignac lost their popularity, and persons like Thiers b^an
to appear, and to give a different direction to affairs. Cavaig-
nac, however, who now directed the Government of France,
had little personal ambition ; he aimed at preserving peace
both abroad and at home, and avoiding the extremes either of
Socialism or deqK>tism. Besides the Sepublicans and Socialists,
VI. o
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
82 MODEEN EUEOPE {Chap. LXX,
three parties were in the field — the Legitimists, or adherents
of Charles X/s djnastj, the Orleanists, and the Bonapartiats.
Lonis Napoleon had remained quietly in London till he was
again elected a representative for Paris, as well as for fonr
departments — ^the Moselle, Tonne, Lower Charente, and
Corsica. He now returned to France, and after ina,king a
short speech in the Assembly, September 26th, took no further
part in the debates. Meanwhile the new Constitution was
prepared — a Republic, headed by a President elected every
four years, but almost entirely dependent on the NationiJ
Assembly. For the Presidency became candidates Louis
Napoleon, Cavaignac, Lamartine, Ledru BoUin, and Baspail,
Louig the representative of the Socialists. Li his address to the
^gg^||<^ electors, Louis Napoleon promised order at home, peace abroad,
Prerident. a reduction of taxes, and a ministry chosen from the best and
most able men of aU parties. But the educated classes of
Frenchmen entertained at this time a contempt for his abilities,
and his pretensions were ridiculed by the newspapers. The
peasantry and the common soldiers were his chief supporters.
Thiers, however, and other intriguers of Louis Philippe's time,
advocated his claims ; but only in the expectation that he
would display his incapacity, and serve as a stepping-stone to
the restoration of the Orleans dynasty, while others supported
him from envy and jealousy of Cavaignac. The election took
place December 10th, when Napoleon obtained five and a half
million votes, while Cavaignac, who stood next, had only about
one and a half million, and the other candidates but very small
numbers. Napoleon was installed in the office which he had
thus triumphantly won, December 20th, and took up his resid-
ence in the Elysee. He appointed OdiUon Barrot Minister
of Justice, Drouyn de Lhuys to the Foreign (Mce, Malleville
to the Home Office, Qeneral Bulhiire to the War Department,
De Tracy to the Navy, and Passy to the administration of the
finances. To MarshiJ Bugeaud was intrusted the command of
the army, and to Changamier that of the National Guard ;
while Jer6me Bonaparte, ex-king of Westphalia, was made
Qovemor of the InvaUdee,
Oennany. The shock of the French Eevolution of 1848, like that of the
previous one, vibrated through Europe. The Oermans were
among the first to feel its influence.
The Imperial throne of Austria was now occupied by Fer-
dinand L Francis, the last of the Bomano-Oerman and the
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXX.] THE EBVOLUTIONS OP 1848 88
first of the Austrian Emperors, after an eyentfol reign which Deaths of
had commenced almost contemporaneously with the first ^J^SS«m^iV.
French Bepublic, died March 2nd, 1835. His son and sue- gjf^,. .
cesser would have been still less fitted for such eyentf ul times. wSuam m.
Ferdinand was the personification of good nature, but weak
both in body and mind, without any knowledge of business,
and led by his Minister, Prince Mettemich. The death of
the English Eong William IV. in 1837 had also yacated the
crown of Hanoyer, and seyered it from its connection with
Great Britain. Victoria, our late gracious Soyereign, who then
ascended the throne of England on the death of her undo, was
disqualified by her sex, according to the laws of Hanoyer, from
succeeding to that crown, which consequently deyolyed to her
uncle Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberhmd. One of the
first acts of the new King's reign was to abolish the Oonstitu-
tion which had been established in 1833, and to restore that of
1819. But this coup cPetat was attended with no more serious
result than the resignation of seyen G^ttingen professors.
King Frederick William m. of Prussia died June 7th, 1840.
Of this King it may be said, that as few Soyereigns of modem
times haye experienced greater misfortunes and humiliations,
so few or none more richly deseryed them by the yadllation
and timidity of his counsels, his want of all political principle,
and his treachery towards bis neighbours and allies. His son
and successor Fiederick William IV. b^^n his reign with some
liberal measures, which, howeyer, soon appeared to be the
effects of weakness rather than of wisdom and beneyolence.
Prussia had been promised a Bepresentatiye Constitution in
1815, but nothing had yet been done. Frederick William IV.
summoned to Berlin a sort of Diet or Parliament, not, how-
eyer, in l^e spirit of this promise, but merely composed of the
proyincial assemblies united together. The King opened this
mock assembly April 11th with a fine sentimental speech, in
which he obseryed that he would neyer allow a sheet of paper
— that is, a Charter — ^to stand like a second Proyidence between
him and the country ! He complained of the spirit of inno-
yation and infidelity that was abroad, and with that union of
religion with despotism affected by the two most powerful of
the Northern Courts, explained, " I and my house will serye
the Lord." The Chamber, in their address, claimed, but in
yain, the promised Bepresentatiye Constitution.
A trifling insurrection haying occurred in Poland in 1846,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
84
MODEEN EITROPE [Chap. LSX.
Austria
tak«8
Craoow.
Kofisathin
Hungary.
Qnestioii of
tne Danish
Succescdon.
Frusna and Bussia agreed that the Bepublic of Cracow should
be incorporated with Austria ; which accordingly took place
in NoYember, in spite of the opposition of Lord Paknerston,
the English Minister.
In Hungary, after the death of the Archduke Stephen, the
Palatine, his bodl Joseph was elected to that high office. In
1847 the Emperor Ferdinand himself proceeded into Hungary,
to be crowned with the holy crown of St. Stephen as King
Fe»idinand Y. Instead of the usual Latin oration, he spoke
on this occasion in the Hungarian tongue ; a circumstance
which increased the hopes of the Magyars of forcing, with their
own language^ their desires also of independence on the Slav-
onians, Germans, and Wallachians liying in Hungary. Kos-
suth now distinguished himself as the most eloquent speaker
and most influential member of the Opposition. The States
of Bohemia also exerted themselves for the freedom of the
press and the right of self -taxation ; and even in Austria itself
projects of reform were agitated.
It was about 1846 that complications began to arise con-
cerning the Danish boundary. The old King, Frederick YI.,
had died in 1 839. He was succeeded by Hs great nephew.
Christian Vlll., then fifty-four years of age, whose only son,
Frederick, did not promise to leave any posterity. In the
Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, females were excluded from
succeeding to the Sovereignty, though, as we have seen, such
was not the case inDenmark.^ Frederick's aunt, Charlotte,
sister of Christian VUX, was therefore next heir to the throne
of that Kingdom, in the event of Frederick's death. Charlotte
was the mother of Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse, who had
married in 1844 the Grand Duchess Alexandra, daughter of
the Emperor Nicholas ; and hence the Imperial family of
Eussia had obtained a near interest in the Danish succession.
On the other hand, Duke Christian, of Schleswig-Holstein-
Sonderburg-Augustenburg, as the nearest male agnate of the
Danish Boyal &.mily, began to entertain hopes of succeeding
in Schleswig and Holstein, and did everything that lay in his
power to support the German party in those Duchies. But in
1846 King Christian YIII., in the interests of Bussian policy,
issued letters patent extending the Danish law of female suc-
^ The Danish crown was made transmissible en qwnouUle at the
same time thai it was made hereditary (in 1660).
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXX.] THE EEVOLTJTIONS OF 1848 86
cession to the wbole of his dominions, thns annihilating with
the stroke of a pen all the hopes of the German pfi^ in
Schleswig and Holstein.
The Germans now began an agitation on this subject, in mie ScWes-
which they confounded the totally distinct rights of Schleswig ^tSn
and Holstein. The latter Duchy having an entirely German q^eation.
population, and being a member of the German Confederation,
its affairs came properly under the consideration of the Ger-
man Diet. Witn Schleswig the case was entirely different.
That Duchy was ceded to Canute, King of Denmark and Eng-
land, by the Emperor Conrad 11., in 1030, when the boundary
of the Eyder was re-established as the natural one of Denmark ;
while Holstein did not come under the dominion of the Danish
Crown till 1460, in the reign of Christian I., Count of Olden-
burg, who had claims on the female side. The German Btmd
had no right to interfere with the internal affairs of Schleswig.
At most, as an international, not a national question, it had a
right to demand that the claims of the German agnates to the
succession should be respected. About half of the inhabitants
of Schleswig, however, spoke Low German, and this portion
of the popxdation desired that the union of the two Duchies
should be maintained, and that both should, if possible, be
incorporated with the German Bimd, This sufficed to produce
in Germany an agitation in their favour, especially as the
question opened up the prospect of territorial aggrandizement,
and the acquisition of ports on the North Sea. The rights of
the two Duchies were confounded, and the enthusiasm of the
Germans was excited by articles in newspapers, and by the
popular song SeMeswig-Hohtein meer^umeehkmgen. Meetings
were held in Holstein, and the German Diet promised that the
rights of the Bwnd and the succession of tiie legal agnates
should be asserted, A meeting in Holstein, was dispersed by
the Danish military ; but the peace was not further disturbed,
and matters remained in this posture till the death of Chris-
tian VUI., January 20th, 1848. He was succeeded by his
son, Frederick VII., and a few weeks after, the French Revo-
lution broke out.
This event not only inflamed the Schleswig-Holstein ques- gj^^**"
tion, but also, as we have said, set all Germany in combustion, tions.
In the smaller States it displayed itself in a desire for G^rmjan
unity, while in the Austrian dominions it produced an in-
surrection of the Hungarians, Slavs, and Italians. Eevo-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
86 MODERN EIJBOPE [Ohap. LXX.
lutionarj symptoms first appeared on the banks of the Bhine-
At Mannheim the people assembled and demanded a German
Parliament, the freedom of the press, and the arming of the
people. Similar disturbanoes took place at Karlsruhe. A daj
or two after Welker farther demanded, in the Chamber of the
States of Baden, that the Bund should abrogate all its un-
popular resolutions, that the militarj should take an oath to
the Constitution, that persons of all religious denominations
should be placed on a footing of perfect political equality, that
Ministers should be made responsible, that aU feudal burdens
still remaining should be abolished, that taxation should be
more equally distributed, that labour should be protected, and
lastly, that the Ministry should be purified. These resolutions
became the programme of the Bevolutionists throughout Gbr*
many. The peasants from the surrounding country had
flocked in crowds to Karlsruhe, and in the following night
the hotel of the Foreign Minister was burnt down. The
Grand Duke of Baden now promised everything demanded.
Similar movements took place in Darmstadt and Nassau. In
the Electorate of Hesse, a '* Commission of the People " was
established at Hanau, which threatened to depose the Elector
if he did not grant all their demands within three days. On
the 10th of Imurch everything was conceded. Similar conces-
sions were made in Oldenburg, Brunswick, and other of the
smaller States. The Governments of the hurger middle States,
Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, alone opposed any resistance to the
people, till Ausbria and Prussia were likewise observed to be
in confusion. Commotions also arose in Switzerland, where
Badicalism was now triumphant. The seven Catholic Cantons,
Lucerne, Schwytz, XJri, Unterwalden, Zug, Freiburg, and the
Yalais, had in 1846 united against the attacks of the others,
and formed what was called the Sonderbund; but this league
was soon overthrown by the Swiss Badicals under Duf our. In
1848 Free Bands were organized in Switzerland to aid the es-
tablishment of a BepubUc in Germany. Applications were
also made to the French Gbvemment for aid in that project,
which, however, was refused.
The leaders of the Opposition in various German Chambers
held a meeting at Heidelberg, March 8th, and published a
proclamation to the (German people, promiong them a national
representation, and inviting them to attend a grand assembly,
or as they called it, Vor-parlament, in which a representative
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXX.] THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 87
sjstenx was to be prepared. The smaller Oerman Sovereigns
met the movement bj making the leaders of the Constitution-
alists .their Ministers, or bj appointing them to the Diet.
Austria and Prussia concerted together a reform of the Con-
federation, and published a declaration, March 10th, that a
Congress of Princes would assemble at Dresden on the 15th,
to take the proposed reform in hand. But the Congress was
prevented by Austria herself becoming absorbed in the revo-
lutionary vortex.
The whole strength of that vast but ill-compacted Empire Bevoiution
seemed to collapse in a single day. When the news of the ™ Austria.
French Revolution arrived in Hungary, Kossuth carried in
the Diet at Pesth an address to the Emperor, March 3rd, de-
manding " a National Government, purged from all foreign
influence." Addresses for reform were also got up in Vienna
itself, in some of which the dismissal of Mettemich was de-
manded. Kossuth had agents in the Austrian capital, who
read to the Yiennese his address to the Hiingarian Diet. After
a slight attempt to put down the people by force, that method
was abandoned, and the Archduke Louis, the Emperor's uncle,
advised him to yield to their demands. Prince Mettemich now
quitted Vienna for London, and the Emperor granted freedom
of the press, a national guard, and a Liberal Constitution for
the whole Empire. A national guard was immediately formed,
and kept the mob in order. Kossuth made a sort of triumphal
entry into Vienna by torch-light, March I5th, at the head of a
numerous Hungarian deputation, which, accompanied by
several thousand armed men, with banners and music, pro-
ceeded to the Burg to deliver the Hungarian address to the
Emperor.
Biots also occurred in several parts of Prussia, as Breslau, Biote in
Konigsberg, Erfurt. At Berlin, meetings were held in the ^'""•
Thiergarten, at which addresses to the King were prepared.
The Prussian Government at first resorted to military force to
disperse these assemblies, and some blood was shed. But at
the news of what was passing in Vienna, the King announced,
March 17th, freedom of the press, the assembly of a Landstag,
or Diet, for April 2nd, the conversion of the German Staaten-
hund (Confederation of States) into a Bundesstaat (Confeder-
ated State), and the incorporation of East and West Prussia
and Posen in the Bwnd, But the people further required
the formation of a burgher-guard, the withdrawal of
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
88 MODEBK EUBOPE [Chap. LXX.
the military from the town, and the dismissal of the Ministry.
These demands were canied to the palace by a great multitude,
when the King appeared on the balcony and promised that
everything should be conceded. In consequence, however, of
some misunderstanding, an affray with the military suddenly
began, barricades were thrown up, and a riot ensued which
lasted all night, in which upwards of 200 persons lost their
lives. Henry von Amim, who had been Prussian Ambassador
at Paris during the Bevolution, and was now made Foreign
Minister, advised the King to put himself at the head of the
people. William, Prince of Prussia, the King's brother, fled
from Berlin, and the people wrote on his palace, "National
property."
PoUcy of Part of the Prussian Ministry had resolved on an attempt
I^SJl^jy to place Frederick William IV. at the head of the new German
nationality, and that Sovereign lent himself to the project with
the same feeble mixture of covetousness and irresolution which
his father had displayed with regard to the filching of Han-
over. On the 2Ist March the army assumed the German
cockade in addition to the Prussian ; the King rode through
the streets decorated with the three German colours, preceded
by the students carrying a banner of the Empire with the
double eagle. In proclamations addressed " To my people,"
and '* To tibe German nation," it was declared *' that Prussia
rises into Germany," and that "the Princes and States of
Germany shall deliberate in common, as an Assembly of Ger-
man States, as to the regeneration and reconstruction of
Germany." The King rejected, indeed, the titles of '* Emperor "
and of " King of the Germans," which had been given him in
one of these proclamations. But he yielded entirely to the
demands for internal reform. The bodies of those who had
fallen, March I8th, were conducted to the grave in a solemn
procession, which the King beheld from his balcony; and
Dydow, the preacher, pronounced a funeral oration over them,
(hi the same day the King granted all the demands of the
Baden scheme. Biots broke out at the same time in other
parts of Prussia, and especially the Bhenish Provinces; to
pacify which, Oamphausen, of Cologne, was appointed head
of the Ministry,
its^ectfl The proceedings at Berlin on the 21st of March produced
*" '^*" a bad impression in Gkrmany. Frederick William's attempt
at usurpation was received with the unconcealed scorn of all
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
in Ger-
many.
Chap. LXX] THE BEVOLXJTIONS OF 1848 89
parties at Vienna, Munich, and Stuttgart. But hia con-
cessioiis to his people, as well as the revolution at Vienna,
prevented the Saxon, Hanoverian, and Bavarian Gh>venim6nt8
from any longer opposing the demands of their subjects.
The King of Hanover granted the Baden scheme of reform.
The Exng of Saxony, on the news of Mettemich's dismissal,
immediately appointed a Liberal Ministry. In Bavaria, the
old King, lK>uis, abdicated in favour of his son, Maximilian 11.,
March 20th. At Munich, in addition to the other revolutionary
elements which prevailed throughout Germany, the King had
made himself unpopular by an intrigue with an op^ra-dancer.
The Vor-parlament (preliminary Parliament) was opened in The vor-
the Paul's Church at Frankfurt, March 31st. It cousisted, vfuciament,
for the most part, of Opposition members from the Ohambers
of the middling and smaller German States, but many nonde-
script persons were admitted. There were but few Prussian
members, and Austria was represented only by Wiesner, a
Jew writer. Hacker, Struve, and other violent democrats,
aimed at a German Bepublic, or, at all events, the estab-
lishment of a German Parliament, from which Princes were
to be excluded. But as these Princes weie at the head of
lai^e standing armies, it is difficult to see how this project
was to be accomplished. The cowardice, boasting, drunken-
ness, and other vices of the German democrats, made them
contemptible from the beginning ; and, though they succeeded
in creating a great deal of disorder, they never had a chance
of success. JjOL all their skirmishes with the r^ular troops
they were invariably defeated.
The effects of the movement manifested themselves in The aims of
Schleswig and Holstein by a demand for union, with a separ- H^tSnf '
ate Constitution, and the admission of Schleswig into the
German Bund. A Provisional Government for the two
Dudiies was appointed, March 24th, with the Duke of
Aiigustenburg, Count Beventlow, and Beseler at the head.
Frederick William IV. assured the Duke of Augustenburg
by letter that he would protect his title, and that he approved
the union of Schleswig with Holstein. The Prussian army
had been offended by their dismissal from Berlin; a war
with Denmark might obliterate the feeling, as well as restore
the King's popularity. The Diet at Frankfurt adopted the
Prussian view, authorized Prussia to interfere in the Danish
question, and admitted into their Ass^nbly a Deputy from
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
90 MODERN EUEOPE [Chap. LXX.
SoUeswig-Holstein. The Prussian and Hanoverian troops of
the Btmd defeated the Danes in several battles ; and on May
18th, General Wrangel entered Jutland, and enforced a con-
tribution of ihxee million dollars. He contemplated holding
that province as a material guarantee for the compliance of
the Danes with the German demands ; but on Maj 26th he
received an order of recall and the progress of the campaign
was arrested, owing, it is thought, to Bussian influence.
Death of In Sweden, the tranquillity which had prevailed ever since
^^}^i the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of France, was
Sweden, not now disturbed. The Crown Prince, Charles John (Bema-
dotte), had succeeded to the Swedish Throne, with the title
of Charles XIY., on the death of Charles XIII. in 1818 ; and
in conjunction with the Four Estates, had ruled with wisdom
and moderation. Charles XIV. died in 1844, and was suc-
ceeded by his son Oscar. During the Dano-G-erman conflict
Oscar offered his mediation, and on its rejection by the Ger-
mans, promised the Danes his aid. The pretensions of the
Qermans to Schleswig were also condemned by the Norwe-
gians. As Prussia, which suffered from the Danish blockade,
did not seem inclined to follow up her victories, the Ministry
of the Confederation resolved, Jiily 1st, to raise an army and
to carry out the German pretensions without her add. The
contingents of Wurtemberg and Baden began their march
for the North at the beginning of August, but on the 7th of
that month the ArchdiS^e John, who had now been elected
Eeieh8verwe$er, or Yicar of the new German Confederation,
gave the King of Prussia full powers to negotiate an armistice
with the Danes. Prussia had accepted Swedish mediation,
and Conferences were going on, which resulted, August 26th,
in the armistice of Malmo. The King of Denmark consented
that during this armistice, which was to last for seven months,
Schleswig and Holstein should have a common Government ;
half to be appointed by himself, and the other half by the
King of Prussia, on behalf of the JBtend.
The revolution at Vienna naturally set all Italy in a flame,
and led to very important developments.
state of In 1888 the Emperor Ferdinand had caused himself to be
^^^' crowned, at Milan, King of Lombardy and Venice, and in the
same year the French IumI evacuated Ancona. The dominion
of Austria seemed to be sufficiently stable in Northern Italy,
BO long as peace with France was preserved, to assure the
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Gbjlp. LXX.] the BBVOLTJTIONS OF 1848 91
tranquillity, or the servitude, of the other Italiui States. But
under the surface glowed a volcano of faction. Masrini had
founded a secret league called La gumme Italia^ or ** Young
Italj," the object of which was to emancipate Italy frcoa the
yoke of foreigners. In 1840, when the afEairs of the East
threatened a breach between France and the Northern Powers,
the ItalianB began to stir; and partial attempts at insur-
rection were subsequently made in 1848 and 1846. The
death of Pope G-regory XYI. in June, 1846, seemed to open
brighter prospects to the patriots of Italy. The Conclave Piusix.
diose for his successor Cardinal Mastai Ferretti, who assumed
the title of Pius IX. The new Pope began his reign with
some liberal measures, which made him very popular in Italy.
He granted amnesties, deposed all unpopular magistrates,
allowed a greater liberty of the press. It was an opinion
entertained by many, that the unity and independence of
Italy could be achieved only by means of the Pope ; and it
was hoped that Pius IX. might be induced to head the league
of ** Young Italy : " but there was an afterthought that the
tool should be thrown aside when it had answered the pur-
pose. The club called Oireolo Bomano took up this idea, pre-
tended a great affection for the Pope, and cheered him when
he appeared in public. Pio None consented to a sort of Pto-
liament, and to the formation of a guardia civiea, or burgher-
guard. He even entertained the idea of an Italian Zollvereint
or customs-union, as a prelude to political unity. Leopold II.,
Grand Ihike of Tuscany, was also induced by some popular
demonstrations to authorize a bui^her-guard, and certain
political reforms. Austria, however, warned the Pope as to
his proceedings. That Power garrisoned the citadel of Fenara,
agreeably to the Treaties of 1815 ; but she now proceeded to
occupy the whole town ; an act against which Plus was per-
suaded to protest, and even to make preparations for war.^
Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, also announced about numrrec.
this time some liberal measures. In November, 1847, he tiianit^^'
concluded a customs-union with Borne and Tuscany, and in i^^-
February, 1848, he granted a new Constitution to his subjects.
On the North he c^tivated the friendship of the Swiss. The
South of Italy had been disturbed before the French Boto-
^ StUlman, The Union ofIMp ; Manrice, The BevoluHonary Mave-
ment of 1848-48 in Italy, Atuirta cmd Htmgary.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
92 MODERN EUBOPE [Chap. LXX.
lution. An insturection liad broken out at Palermo, January
12ih, 1848, and on the 29th in Naples, when King Ferdinand
n. granted a Constitution. The principles of Mazzini also
pervaded Austrian Italy. The Austrian Gbyemment affected
mildness, but it is difficult to reconcile men to a foreign yoke.
A crusade was got up a^inst tobacco, the sale of which was
an Austrian monopoly, by a renunciation of smoking ; and at
the beginning of 1848 all intercourse with Austrian officers
was broken off. At this time the apathetic Archduke Bainer
was Viceroy in the Austrian dominions in Italy, while Marshal
Badetzki, then eighty-two years of a^, held the military
command. Badetzki, who foresaw the coming storm, in vain
besought his Oovemment for reinforcements, and that Milan,
Verona, and other places should be strengthened. The Arch-
duke left Milan for Vienna, March 17th, and on the evening
of the same day the insurrection in that capital was publicly
known at Milan. Next morning Casati, the Podesta, the
Archbishop of Milan, and Count Borromeo, the chief of the
Lombard nobles, who had long been initiated in the con-
spiracy, displayed the three-coloured fla^, and demanded
from Count O'Donnel, who conducted the Government in
the absence of the Archduke, that he should assent to all
the demands of the Lombard people, as had been done in
Vienna. O'Donnel hesitated, the Podestk apprehended him,
and the people threw up barricades. A street fight ensued,
which lasted four days; during which the troops suffered so
severely that Badetzki withdrew them, except at the gates
and in the citadel. His force consisted of only 20,000 men ;
Charles Albert of Sardinia was approaching with his whole
army ; and Badetzki, feeling that he was not strong enough
to hold the insurgent town, evacuated it on the night of
March 22nd.
Charles Charles Albert had received no injury from Austria ; but
^J^ the opportunity was too tempting to be lost. He declared
MUan. war, took possession of Milan, and pursued the rstreatii^
Badetzki; who, after reducing to ashes the little town of
Melegnano which had obstructed his retreat, and withdrawing
the garrisons from several places, took up a strong position
between the Mincio and the Adige, in the triangle formed by
the fortresses of Mantua, PescUera and Verona; where he
awaited reinforcements from Germany. The Austrian garri-
sons in Brescia, Cremona, Como, Padua, Treviso, Udine, sur-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Chaf. LXX.] the revolutions op 1848 93
rendered. Yenioe was lost through the cowardice of the
commandiBhnt. A capitulation was entered into with the
insurgent people, the Austiians left the city, and the advocate
Manin placed himself at the head of the restored Bepublic.
Obarles Albert, though called the Spcbda d^ItcUia, or sword
of Italy, and though his forces &r outnumbered those of
Badetzld, did not venture on a battle. He hoped that his
conneetion with the revolutionists at Yienna would obtain for
hini the g^ of Italy, which all parties agreed m ust be wrested
from Austria, though they differed as to what was to be done
witli it. Badetzki could expect no aid from Vienna, where
the Government was in a state of dissolution. Count Kolowrat,
the hope of the Liberals, had succeeded to Mettemich's place,
but could not allay the storm. The Archduke Louis resigned
the conduct of affairs to the Archduke Francis Charles, who
ruled with as weak a hand, and Kolowrat was succeeded by
Count Fiequelmont. Kossuth, in order to wrest Hungary KoBsnth's
&om Austria, endeavoured to perpetuate the disturbances at <^®°^''^-
Vienna. The Emperor Ferdinand had promised the Hun-
garians many reforms, and even permitted a national ministry
independent of that at Vienna, of which Count Batthyani was
the head, while Kossuth administered the fbances. Kossuth
demanded for Hungary the Baden scheme of reform, which
would give the aristocracy their last blow. He also required
the incorporation of Transylvania with Hungary, a national
Hungarian bank and the exclusion of Austrian paper money ;
also, that Hungarian troops should not serve the Emperor out
of the Austrian dominions. The Diet at Pesth, overawed by
the aspect of affairs, in its last sitting, April 11th, at which
the Emperor Ferdinand was present, gave all these demands
the force of law.
The Bohemians also demanded a new Constitution and insnrroc-
reforms very similar to those required by the Hungarians. sShe^.
I^f essor Palacky, the historian of Bohemia, ?ras the soul of
the Tschech party, as Kossuth was of the lid^gyar movement
in Hungary. Palacky was invited by the Vor-parlameni to
take his seat among them ; but he declared that he was a
Tschech, and would not meddle with Gterman affairs. The
Bohemians invited Ferdinand to Prague, as the riots still
continued at Vienna; but he took rSuge in preference at
Innsbruck among his faithful Tyrolese. The suppression of
a riot at Prague, by Prince Windischgratz, in June, was the
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
94
iiODESS EITBOPE [Chap. LXX.
Central
Italy.
BeTolution
at Naples.
jBrst reactionary triumph of the Imperial arms. Nor did
diaries Albert, in spite of his numerical superiority, make
much progress in Lombardy. Gkuribaldi, who was bom at
Nice, July 4th, 1807, and after some exploits in South
America returned to Europe in 1848, had raised about 8,000
Yolunteers ; but the King of Sardinia, dreading the triumph
of the Maz2sinists and BepubUcans, did not encourage the
arming of the people. He sent 2,000 men to assist and
secure Yenice, but that city preferred to remain a Eepublic.
As at one time the Austrian Q-oYemment seemed disposed to
surrender, Charles Albert refused to join a league of the Italian
States proposed by the Pope.
After the revolution at Paris the movements already in
progress in Central and Southern Italy broke into a perfect
storm. Pius IX. in some degree aUayed it at Some by
announcing a new Constitution for that city, including a
temporal ministry and a chamber of deputies (March 15th).
But at the news of the revolution at Vienna the Romans were
seized with a sort of fury. All flew to arms ; the Palazzo di
Yenezia was stormed, and the Austrian double ea^le torn
down. The Pope despatched his troops under Durando, with
a considerable body of volunteers under Colonel Ferrari, to
his northern frontier, for the avowed purpose of defence ; but
Burando led them over the Po to join Charles Albert, when
Pius, in alarm, asserted in an allocution, April 29th, that he
had given his troops no such orders. Such, however, was the
spirit inspired by the democratic movement in Austria, that
the Pope's consent was extorted to make common cause with
Charles Albert, but on condition that the latter Sovereign
should join the Italian league, which, as we have said, he
declined. The same spirit prevailed in Tuscany as at Bome,
and hence also a small army of 7,000 men was despatched.
In Modena the Duke was driven from his dominions.
Before the French Bevolution broke out the King of Naples
had already granted a Constitution to his subjects, February
10th, 1848, while in the preceding January Sicily had separated
from that country and declared its independence. Lord Minto,
who had been sent into Italy in a semi-official capacity by the
British Government, endeavoured in vain to reconcile the
Sicilians and the Khig. The Jesuits were now driven from
Naples ; the Austrian arms at the Embassy were torn down ;
and, as the Elng could give him no satis&etion. Prince Felix
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXX.] THE REVOLUTIONS OP 1848 96
Schwarzenberg, the Austrian Ambassador, took his departure.
Ferdinand 11. was at length compelled to sanction a fresh
democratic Constitution, April 3rd, when Troja, the historian,
became his Prime Minister. War was now declared against
Austria, and General Pep^ sent to the North with 18,000 men ;
but from jealousy of Charles Albert they were directed not to
cross the Po. When the Neapolitan Chajnbers met. May 14(ih,
they were not contented with the new Constitution, and a fresh
insurrection broke out which threatened to oyertum the throne.
Barricades were thrown up, and a sanguinary conflict ensued
between the Swiss guards and the populace, whidii ended in
the entire discomfiture of the insui^nts. Ferdinand, after
causing the people to be disarmed, withdrew the concessions
which he had made in April, but retained the Constitution of
February. Prince Cariati was now appointed Minister. Pep^
was receJled, and directed to proceed to Sicily to restore order,
but preferred to go to Venice with such of his troops as were
inclined to foUow him. The Swiss TagscUsmng, or Diet,
ordered the regiments which had fought for the King at
Naples to be disbanded, as having acted contrary to the
honour and interest of Switzerland. But these regiments
refused to quit the King's service.
Meanwhile in the North of Italy, Marshal Badetzki, having North Italy,
been reinforced by Count Nugent with 13,000 men, repulsed
an attack made by Charles Albert at St. Lucia, May 6th. On
the 29th he defeated with great loss Laugier's Tuscan division
at Curtatone ; but was, in turn, defeated the following day by
Charles Albert at Gk>ito. The Emperor Ferdinand, who was
at Innsbruck, now directed Badetzla to conclude an armistice,
but the Marshal ventured to disobey these orders, and wrote
to his master not to despond. Peschiera surrendered to the
Piedmontese, May 30th. On the other hand, Badetzki took
Vicenza, June 11th. The capture of Bivoli by Charles Albert,
which lies on the road from Verona into South Tyrol, was of less
importance than it might seem, as Badetzki's communication
vnth Vienna was secured more to the east. Towards the end
of July the Piedmontese- were defeated in several engage-
ments, and the Austrians, having been largely reinfon^,
began to advance. Charles Albert now soUcited a truce,
wUch was refused. The British Q-overnment had attempted
to mediate in favour of Charles Albert, and Lord Abercrombie,
the English Ambassador at Turin, proceeded to the Austrian
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
96 MODEEN EUEOPE [Ohap. LXX.
camp to negotiate ; but Badetzki would hear of nothing till
hd should have arrived at Milan. The Piedmontese retreated,
or rather fled, to that town, without venturing to defend
Cremona, and were defeated in a battle before the gates of
the Lombard capital, August 5th, which was re-entered bj
Badetzki on the following day. On the 9th he signed an
armistice, bj which he secured Charles Albert!s Rentiers.
That SoTereign, on his side, surrendered Peschiera, and with-
drew his troops from Venice. Bje had been proclaimed King
in that citj, July 4th, but at the news of his misfortunes the
> people turned, and Manin again proclaimed the Bepublic.
Qaribaldi, after delivering a last battle against the Austrians,
fled into Switzerland. Thus all Lombardy was again sub-
dued ; Badetzki proceeded to invest Venice on the knd side,
and began the laborious siege of that city.
Election of Meanwhile the German iN'ational Assembly assembled at
MjjtoperiaJ ivankfurt to establish a " German Constitution " without any
interference on the part of the Princes, chose Henry von
Gagem for their President, May 18th. The majority were
for restoring an Emperor, while only a minority desired a
Bepublic. On the motion of Von Gagem, the Archduke
John, as we have before intimated, was elected Beichsvenveser,
or Imperial Vicar, June 29th, being thus constituted, as it
were, a Pr»-Emperor, as the Vor-ptMiamwU had been a PrsB-
parliament. The Archduke John entered Frankfurt in state,
July 11th ; on the following day the Diet of the Confederation
dosed its session, and handed over its power to the Imperial
Vicar. Of aU the German Sovereigns, the King of Hanover
alone protested against these proceedings.
Biotsand The Constituent Assembly for Prussia was also opened at
gL^SS^ Berlin, May 22nd, but like the Frankfurt Parliament, did
nothing but talk. The expedition against Denmark had been
underi^en to divert the people's attention from their own
affairs. The Frankfurt mob, however, did not acquiesce in
the proceedings of the Parliam^oit. A serious riot took place,
August 18th, which was eventually put down by the military ;
but two members of the Parliament, Prince Lichnowski and
General Auerswald, were killed. Biots and democratic de-
monstrations broke out at this time in many parts of Germany,
but were suppressed without much difficulty. After the failure
of the attempted insurrection at Frankfurt some of the boldest
democratic leaders vanished to other places. Bobert Blum,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CfHAF. LXX.] THE EEVOLITTIONS OF 1848
97
Frobel, and others betook themselves to Yienna, to fan the
embers of sedition in that capital A ** Central Committee
of Democratic Germany" published, October 3rd, a violent
proclamation, repudiating and abusing the Frankfurt Parlia-
ment, protesting against its existence, and summoning a
'* General Democratic Congress," to meet at Berlin on the
26th. The assembly actually met; but in the interval the
coura^ of the talkers had oosed out, and the congress made
but a sorry figure.
The hopes of the German democrats were fixed upon Vienna, state of
where alone the people had obtained the mastery, and were h^"**'^-
supported by Kossuth with the whole strength of Hungary.
The higher and richer class had quitted Vienna in the summer.
A Committee of Safety and the Aula, or university, ruled side
by side with the Ministry and Diet. The Austrian Constituent
National Assembly, which had been opened by the Archduke
John, July 22nd, shortly before he went to Frankfurt, had no
influence at all with the people. The insurgent Viennese were
directed by Kossuth. That leader had carried in the Hun-
garian Diet the levy of 200,000 Honveds, or national troops,
and the issue of forty-two million gulden in paper money. But
the aspect of affairs began gradually to change. The Em-
peror Ferdinand returned to Vienna after Eadetzki's success,
August 12th, and the Ministry began to take some bolder
steps. In order to appease the people work had been pro-
vided for them by the Government ; but the wages were now
reduced, and though the labourers revolted, they were put
down by the municipal guard. The Government dissolved the
Committee of Safety August 24th, which ventured not to
resist. The Servians and Croats had taken up arms against
the Hungarians in Ferdinand's cause ; though Kossutibi pre-
tended to fight against them, as rebels, in the Emperor's
name. At the beginning of September Kossuth sent a depu-
tation of 150 Hungarian gentlemen to Vienna to invite the
Emperor to Pesth, and to request him to order back the Hun-
garian regiments from Italy to defend their country. Fer-
dinand, of course, declined these proposals.
The Archduke Stephen having laid down the office of Hun- Abdication
garian Palatine and returned to Vienna, the Emperor ap- 2nd L/iSis.
pointed Count Lemberg Governor of Hungary. But a party
of Kossuth's scythemen murdered him on the bridge of Pesth,
September 28th. No terms of course could any longer be kept.
VI. H
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
98 MODERN EUROPE [Chap.LXX.
Kossutli relied for support on a revolt which had long been
preparing at Vienna, and wluch broke out October 6th. The
Minister Latour was seized and murdered. The mob broke
into the chamber of the National Assembly and caused an
address to be drawn up to the Emperor, in which he was re-
quired to recall all the measures which had been taken against
Hungary and all the powers which had been given to Radetzki.
The Government arsenal and that in the city were stormed and
plundered. Next day Ferdinand fled from Schonbrunn to
Olmiitz, where he found a defence in the loyalty of the people
and the neighbourhood of Windischgratz and his army. That
general proceeded with 30,000 men &om Bohemia to Vienna
to form the siege of that city ; in which he was assisted by
Jellachich, the Croat leader, with 35,000 men, and Auersperg
with 15,000. These forces completely surrounded Vienna,
which, after a week's siege, was taken by assault, October 31st.
Some of the captured leaders of the insurrection were shot,
among them Robert Blum. A revolution now ensued at Court.
Prince Felix Schwarzenberg became Prime Minister, November
24!th, and on December 2nd, 1848, the Emperor Ferdinand I.
abdicated in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph. The mo-
tive assigned for this step was, that a younger Sovereign was
required to carry out the necessary reforms in the State.^
B«Mtion in The suppression of the insurrection at Vienna produced a
reaction at Berlin. On November 4th the King empowered
Count Brandenburg, an illegitimate son of Frederick William
n., to form a new Ministry. On the 8th the so-called
Constituent Assembly was ordered to transfer itself to the
town of Brandenburg, and on the 10th General Wrangel
entered Berlin with a numerous force, without encountering
any resistance. At the news of these proceedings riots ensued
in various parts of Germany, which were not, however, at-
tended with any important results. The Constituent Assembly
was opened at Brandenburg November 27th ; but in con-
sequence of their tumultuous debates the King dissolved
them, December 5th, and granted a Constitution by his
own grace and favour. The legislature was to consist of two
chambers, and writs were issu^ for elections in the ensuing
February.
In Austria, the first care of the new Emperor was the re-
^ Bach, Die Wiener BevolwUm, 1848.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap.LXX.] the revolutions of 1848
99
Bedtfetioii
ofHnngary,
1849.
daction of Hungary. That commissioii was intrusted to Prince
Windischgratz, who began the campaign in the middle of De-
cember. Kossuth ral^ nearly the whole of Hungaiy, as
President of a Committee of National Defence. The Hun-
garian Diet did not recognize the abdication of Ferdinand,
but still called him King of Hungary, and represented Francis
Joseph to the troops as a usurper. The Hungarian army was
comnianded by Gorgey, while Qeneral Bem led the insurgents
in Transylvania. As the Austrians advanced the Hungarians
retreated, with the view of drawing them into the interior of
the country during the bad season. Kossuth abandoned Pesth
on the approach of Windischgratz, carrying with him the
crown of St. Stephen, and the Austrians entered Buda and
Pesth without opposition, January 5th, 1849. Windischgratz
defeated the Hungarians under Dembinski at Kapolna, Feb-
ruary 28th ; while, on the other hand. General Bem gained
several advantages over the Imperialists in Transylvania.
The state of affairs in Hungary, and the circumstance of OTerthrow
Eadetzki being still engaged in l3ie siege of Venice, encouraged ^ib^Jf^^
the King of ^urdinia to resume the war against Austria at the
termination of the armistice, March 12th, 1849. Thus Austria
would have to deal at once with the revolted Hungarians and
Italians, and it was considered that the disturbances in Oter-
many would lend a moral support to the movement. Charles
Albert's army amounted to between 80,000 and 90,000 men,
while that of Badetzki was not more than 60,000 or 70,000.
But the best Piedmontese generals were adverse to the war,
and the chief commands were, therefore, intrusted to Poles.
Badetzki defeated Chrzanowski at Mortara, March 21st, and
on the 28rd inflicted on him a still more terrible defeat at
Novara. Never was overthrow more speedy or more complete.
On the 24th of March Charles Albert resigned his crown in
despair, and fled to Oporto, where he died a few months after.
His son and successor, Victor Emanuel II., immediately be-
sought Badetzki for a truce, which that general granted on
very moderate terms. On the 28th of March Badetzki again
entered Milan. Brescia, which had revolted, and persisted in
defending itself, was captured by Count Haynau, a natural son
of the Elector of Hesse; who, from the barbarous cruelty which
he exercised on the inhabitants, obtained the name of the
'' Hysena of Brescia." A definitive peace was concluded be-
tween Austria and Sardinia, August 6th, by which everything
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
100 MODERN BUEOPE [Chap. LXX.
waa feplaeed cm tlie anoient footing. The SardiBtans \aA to
pay seventy-fiye million francs for tbe costs of the war.
WftriB The Hungarian insurgents under Gorge j were more sue*
HmigMy. cessful.^ The Austrians were defeated in several battles,
Komom was taken, and Vienna itself was threatened. Austria
now accepted the aid of Bussia. This step on the part of the
iimperor Nicholas was not altogether disinterested. Many
Poles took part in the Hungarian war, and he apprehended
lest the success of the rebels in that country should lead to a
revolution in Poland. It had been decided by the new Aus-
trian Government that Hungary should be deprived of its
former Constitution, its separate Diet, and nationality. Kos-
suth retorted by causing the Diet assembled at Debrecssin to
depose the House of Habsburg-Lorraine from the throne of
Hungary, and to establish a Provisional Bepublic. Windisch-
gratz was superseded in the command of the Austriaii army
by Baron Welden ; who, however, was compelled to retreat,
and Gorgey took 3uda by storm, May 21st. But in the middle
of June Prince Paskiewitsch entered Hungary at several
points, with a Eussian army of 130,000 men and 500 guns.
The Austrian army had also been reinforced, and the command
again transferred to Haynau. The Hungarian army was
estimated at 200,000 men, but was not equal to the combined
armies of Austria and Eussia.
OTerttrow We cannot enter into the details of the Hungarian war,
Kos^. ^ which ended with the complete reduction of the Hungarians
in the autumn of 1849. Thus Austria preserved that King-
dom, but through foreign aid, and consequently with some
sacrifice of independence. The division of the Hungarian
army under Dembinski, with which was Kossuth, having been
annihilated by Haynau, Kossuth, having first resigned his
power into the hands of Gorgey, betook himself to the pro-
tection of that general, August 11th. Goi^ey, who was no
republican, loved him not ; and Kossuth, instead of fulfilling
his promise to give up the Hungarian crown and jewels, fled
with them to General Bem in Transylvai^ia. On the 12th of
August Gorgey surrendered by capitulation with bis whole
army of 28,000 men to the Eussian General Eudiger. Bem,
having only 6,000 men, both he and !^ossuth now fled into
^ L^ger, Histoire de rAtUriche-ffonarie ; Yranyi and Chassen,
Hittoire Politique de la Involution de Mongrie en 1847-1849 ; Martin,
Chterre de Hon^ en 1848 et 1849.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Ohaf. LXX.] the revolutions op 1848 101
Turkej, where ihej found protection, in spite of the Russian
and Austrian demands for their extradition. Kossuth, and
several other fugitiyes, afterwards proceeded to England. The
Hungariali diyisions now surrendered one after another.
€^rgej obtained, through Russian mediation, permission to
reside at Gratz ; but Haynau took a cruel revenge on oth^
leaders of the revolution. He condemned Batthjani to the
gallows, and went half mad with rage on learning that the
unfortunate count had been shot at Buda. He caused
Prince Wroniski and tWo others to be hanged at Pesth, and
the Generals Becsej, Aulich, Leiningen, with several more, at
Atad ; some, by way of fcivour, he only ordered to be shot.
The Em{>eror was obliged to rec»Jl him. This man was after-
wards imprudent enough to come to England ; when the treat-
ment which he received at the hands of some of Messrs.
Barclay and Perkins', the brewers, men, was well deserved.
Austria, after quelling the Lombard and Hungarian insur- The Roman
rections, was at leisure to attend to the affairs of Central ^p"*»^-
Italy. In Rome, since the spring of 1848, the Pope had been
compelled to accept the temp<n*al and liberal ministry of
Mamiani. After the success of the Austrians in Upper Italy
Pio Nono ventured again to assert his pontifical authority.
His principal adviser was Count ttossi, the French Ambas-
sador, though an Italian by birth. Rossi subsequently became
the Pope's Prime Minister, and endeavoured to restore things
to their ancient footing ; but he was assassinated, November
15th, when about to enter the newly-ox>ened National Assembly.
Upon this, the people, aided by the papal troops, as weU as by
the civic guards stormed Pius in the Quirinal, murdered his
private secretary, Cardinal Palma, and extorted the dismissal
of the Swiss guards and the appointment of a popular minis-
try. The Pope, with the aid of Count Spaur, the Bavarian
Ambassador, succeeded in escaping from the Quirinal, dis-
guised as one of the count's livery servants, and betook him-
self to Gaeta, whither he was followed by his ministers. The
Roman Parliament having in vain required him to return, at
length proceeded to establish a Provisional Government, or
Junta of State, consisting of the triumvirate. Counts Corsini,
Camerata, and Galetti (I>ecember 19th). The Pope protested
against all their acts as illegal. At this time, Ganbaldi, who
had taken service under the Roman Republic, entered Rome
at the head of a large body of volunteers. In Tuscany, also.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
102 MODERN EXJBOPE [Ohap. IiXX.
the Q-rand Duke was compelled to accept a democratic minis-
try, whicli aimed at establishing a Eepublic. Insurrections
took place at Leghorn and Genoa in December. On Feb-
ruary 5th, 1849, was opened at Eome a general Italian Con-
stituent Assembly, with the view of establishing Italian unity
under a republican form of government. In this Assembly
Mazzini played the chief part, and after him. Prince Charles
of Canino, a son of Lucien Bonaparte. But at the time of
the Pope's flight Prince Louis Napoleon, afterwards the French
President, had expressed his sympathy for the Church, and
repudiated the proceedings of his cousin ; and General Cavaig-
nac promised Pius that he would assist him. The Constituent
Assembly began by deposing the Pope as a temporal prince,
and proclaiming the Boman Bepublic, February 8th. The
executive power of the new Bepublic was placed in the hands
of the triumvirate, Mazzini, Armellini, and Saffi, who decreed
the confiscation of aU Church property. In Florence also,
the Grand Duke fled, Guerazzi proclaimed a Bepublic, and
was named Dictator.
After the overthrow of Charles Albert, however, a reaction
commenced. The Austrians began to enter Central Italy;
France and Spain also despatched troops to the Pope's aid;
whilst Yictor Emanuel, the new King of Sardinia, sent an
army to reduce the Bepublicans of Genoa. At Florence, a
counter-revolution broke out, and Guerazzi was compelled
to fly.
i^eFrench In June, Parma, Bologna, and Ancona, were successively
* ™®* occupied by the Austrians, who, however, at Bome, were antici-
pated by the French. A division of 6,000 French troops under
General Oudinot landed at Civit^ Yecchia, April 25th, and a
few days later, a few thousand Spaniards landed at Terracina.
The King of Naples also advanced against Bome. That the
new French Bepublic should begin its career with coercing
its fellow Bepublicans at Bome, showed how vast was the
difference between the Bevolution of 1848 and that of 1792.
Oudinot found a reception he had little anticipated. He
experienced a signal defeat before the walls of Bome from
Garibaldi's volunteers, April 30th ; upon which the King of
Naples withdrew his troops. Oudinot now procured a truce
in order to reinforce himself, while Lesseps, the French Am-
bassador, endeavoured to cajole the Bomans. When these
purposes were answered Lesseps was disavowed, and, in spite
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap.LXX.] the EEVOLTJnONS OP 1848 103
of Quribaldi's heroic defence, Oudinot captured Borne, Julj
Srd. Gkkribaldi succeeded in escaping, and embarked near
S. Marinello for Genoa. Mazzini sJso escaped. He had pre-
viously been obliged to lay down his power in favour of a
new triumvirate, consisting of Salicetti, Mariani, and Calan-
dretti ; who concluded the capitulation with the French. The
Spaniards did not venture to approach Borne. General Oudinot,
after his entrance, established a government in the name of
the Pope, and thus de facto put an end to the Boman Bepublic.
Pius himself, however, not relishing the protection of French
bayonets, remained at Gaeta ; nor would he consent to make
such concessions as the French Government desired, in order
to avert the unpopularity of the expedition among the liberal
party in France. The Grand Duke of Tuscany returned to
his capital July 29th. Venice, which had endured a siege
since the summer of 1848, was not reduced by the Austrians
till August 22nd, 1849, partly by bombardment, partly through
the effects of famine. The Austrians were computed to have
lost 20,000 men during the siege, principally by marsh fever.
Manin, and forty of the most compromised of the Yenetian
Bepublicans, were permitted to withdraw.
Although Naples had been reduced, Sicily continued in a sicjiy in-
state of rebellion. In July, 1848, the Sicilians, at the sugges- ^^*^^
tion, it is said, of Lord Minto, chose Duke Ferdinand of
Genoa, brother of Victor Emanuel, for their King ; but that
Prince declined to accept the proffered crown. Prince Filan-
gieri, with a Neapolitan army, landed at Messina, and cap-
tured that town after a sai^uinary struggle, September 7^.
In the spring of 1849 Filangieri reduced Catania and Syra-
cuse, and on April 28rd he entered Palermo, thus putting an
end to the rebellion.
We must now revert to the affairs of Germany, where the Germaiir.
German Parliament had by a small majority elected the Xing
of Prussia hereditary Emperor, March 28th, 1849 ; a dignity,
however, which, after a month's hesitation, Frederick William
IV. declined to accept. His timidity again overcame him.
He was afraid of some of the other German Princes, though
twenty-nine of them approved the offer ; and he also wanted
resolution to wield the supreme power at a period of such
disturbance. Thus vanished the hopes of the German patriots.
After this step on the part of the Parliament Austria with-
drew her representatives. The debates at Frankfurt were
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
104 MODEEN EUBOPE [Chap. liXX.
aoeompaaied with disturbances in manj parts of Gelmanj.
Biots first broke out at Dresden, Maj 3rd, where the Eing of
Saxon J had dismissed the Eadical Chamber and established
a strong ministr j. At first the people had the mastery. The
Bojal Family fled in the night to Eonigstein, and a Proyisional
Qoyemment was constituted under the triumvirate, Tschirner*
Heubner, and Todt. By the aid of Prussian and other troops
the rebellion, howerer, was put down. May 9th. An attempted
insurrection at Leipsic also failed. Berlin was not again dis-
turbed, but riots, attended with loss of life, occurred in many
TheGerman of the smaller towns. On May 14th Frederick William IT.
^^^^ directed all Prussian subjects to quit the Frankfurt Patlia-
ment, and a similar order was issued a few days after by the
Eing of Saxony. That assembly was also reduced, by the
Toluntary desertion of other members, to little more than 100
persons ; who, deeming themselves no longer secure in Frank-
fuist, transferred their sittings to Stuttgart early in June.
Here they d^>osed the Imperial Yicar, and appointed a new
Begeticy, consisting of five members. But, as they began to
call the people to arms, they were dispersed by the Wurtem-
berg Government. The insurgents, under Mierolowski, held
out for some time in the Palatinate and Baden ; but towards
the end of June the Prussians compelled them to disperse and
take refuge in Switzerland. The Swiss Confederate Council^
however, by a decree of July 16th, directed the ringleaders to
quit that country.
^Jn In the spring of 1849 the war had again broken out ill
Hoistdnf Schleswig-Holstein. Denmark was dissatisfied with the ar-
rangement by which, after the armistice of Malmd, the Duchies
had been conjointly administered under the presidency of
Count Beventlow; nor were England and Russia willing
that Schleswig should be taken from the Danish Eing.
Denmark denounced the armistice, April 26th. The cam-
paign commenced with the loss, by the Danes, of two of their
best ships at Eckenf drde ; while on land they were shortly
after defeated at Eolding by General Bonin and the army
of the Bund. Bonin, however, was in turn defeated by the
Danes under General Bye at Fredericia, July 6th. England
and Bussia now interfered, and dictated a fresh armistice of
six months on the basis of the separation of Schleswig and
Hdfftein, July lOtii.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAPTER LXXI
KAPOLBOK III. AND ETTBOPE
WHILE great part of Europe was thus disturbed, the new
French Sepublic was peacefully consolidating itself.
The dubs were suppressed; part of the ga/rde mobile dis-
missed ; Blanquiy Baspail, and other agitators were condemned
by the Court of Assizes at Bonrges. In the spring of 1849
lionis Napoleon conciliated the Church by despatching to
Bome the expedition under General Oudinot a&eadj men-
tioned, with the collateral view of establishing in Italy a
Gonntc^rpoise to Austrian influence, and making the arms of
France respected.
The newly-elected Legislative Assembly met at Paris, May insarroc-
28th. More than half the Chamber were new members, and g„^*^2ef
many who had taken a leading part in the Bevolution were
not returned. Among those excluded were Lamartine and
Marrast. The Bed Eepublicans and Socialists were furious ;
Ledru BoUin violently attacked the President's policy, nay,
even sought to impeach hini. The ill success at first of Oudinot
at Bome favoured an attempt to incite a general insurrection.
The Bepublicans of the Opposition, called the Mountain, con-
sisting of about 120 members, invited the National Guard to
make a procession, though unarmed, to the Assembly, in order
to remind it of its duties (June 13th). But the President
had taken the necessary military precautions, and Changar-
nier, at the head of the troops, dispersed the procession and
destroyed the barricades which had been commenced. The
insurgents were also driven from the Conservatory of Arts,
where they had opened a sort of Convention, and named
Ledru BolUn Dictator. Several of the ringleaders were appre-
hended, while Ledru Bollin only saved himself by flight. The
Paris insurrection was thus suppressed, as well as another
which occurred the same day at Lyons ; the latter, however.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
106 MODERN EXJEOPB [Chap. LXXI.
not without considerable bloodshed. After these events the
republican journals were in part suppressed, and the remain-
der subjected by a new law to more rigid control.
Plans of In the summer of 1849 the President made several tours
^uuNapo- -jj ^Yie provinces. His policy assumed more and more a con-
servative tendency. Early in December he made some partial
changes in the Ministry, and announced his intention to be
firm ; such, he said, had been the wish of France in choosing
him. Many former adherents of the Bourbons now joined
him, as Thiers, Mol^, Broglie, Berryer, Montalembert, and
others ; but only in the hope that a restoration of one of the
Bourbon lines might be effected. Most of the projets de lai
which the President submitted to the Assembly were directed
against liberty ; such as higher securities for the journals, the
leading articles of which were ordered to be signed, the limita-
tion of the elective franchise, a severe law for the transporta-
tion of political offenders, etc. The Chamber tamely submitted,
and voted the President, though exceptionally for a year, a
salary of 2,160,000 francs, instead of 600,000. Out of this
supply he defrayed the expense of the military feasts, in which
he was toasted as the '* Emperor." His plans were promoted
by dread and hatred of Socialism, and his Government even
became popular, because it insured tranquillity, with employ-
ment and prosperity as its consequences. But the basis of
his power was fixed chiefly in the provinces, which now for
the first time possessed more influence than Paris.
The Pretender, Henry V., Duke of Bordeaux, who in his
exile used only the modest title of Comte de Chambord, visited
Wiesbaden in August, 1850, where he was soon surrounded
by the leading Legitimists of France. He was persuaded to
publish a foolish manifesto. In the same month the ex-King,
Louis Philippe, died at Claremont (August 26th). He left his
family not altogether at unity. The Count of Paris, the
claimant of the French throne, resided in Ghermany, at a dis-
tance from his relatives.
The qaes- Another change in the French Administration took place in
w^on of January, 1851, the chief feature of which was the dismissal
the consti- of General Changamier. It had been observed that in the
tation. reviews of the preceding autumn, all the regiments had shouted
'' Vive VEmpereur" except those commanded by Changamier.
The Assembly, however, began to show symptoms of resist-
ance. A vote was carried of non-confidence in the new
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap.LXXI.] napoleon HI. AND ETJEOPE 107
Ministry, which was again changed ; and in Febniarj a pro-
posal for increasing the President's salary was rejected. But
this opposition only stimulated Louis Napoleon in his pur-
pose. Petitions came up from all parts of France demanding
a revision of the Constitution or» in plain words, an Empire
instead of a Bepublic ; but they were rejected by the Chamber.
When the Chamber was reopened in November the President
again demanded a revision of the Constitution, in order, as
he intimated, to regulate legally what the French people
would otherwise know how to obtain in another manner. He
alluded to the support which he might expect from the clergy,
the agricultural and manufacturing interests, and above all
from the troops; and he hinted the influence of his name
among the army, of which, according to the Constitution, he
alone had the disposal. If the Assembly would not vote the
revision of the Constitution, the people would, in 1852, when
the term of his Presidency expired, express its new decision;
that is, in other words, he would be proclaimed Emperor by
universal sufErage.
The struggle between the President and the Chambers con- Coup ^itat
tinned throughout 1851, in which year the Ministry was re- j^r^,"*"
peatedly changed. A Government project to modify the issi-
electoral law of May 31st, 1850, and to restore universal suff-
rage» having been rejected by the Assembly in November, and
a measure having been brought forward for determining the
responsibility of the Ministers and of the head of the State,
Louis Napoleon resolved on a cotfp d*etat The soldiery were
devoted to him, he had surrounded himself with able generals
who favoured his cause, and he relied on the disunion which
reigned among his opponents. M. de Thorigny, who refused
to lend himself to the proposed coup SeiaJty was superseded as
Minister of the Interior by M. de Momy, a speculator of
doubtful repute. One of the chief agents in the plot was
Major Fleury, a spendthrift and gamester of ruined fortunes
and desperate character, to whom were assigned the more
hazardous parts of the enterprise, and who stimulated and
supplemented the sometimes faltering courage of Napoleon.
Maupas, another coadj utor, was made Prefect of Police. M. de
Persigny, an attached friend of Napoleon's, took no very active
share in the plot. To secure the army. General St. Amaud,
whose real name was Jacques Amaud Le Boy, who had no
troublesome scruples, was sent for from Algeria, and made
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
108 MODEBN EU&OPfi [Chap.LXXI.
Minister of War. The services of Gtenetal Ma^an, who com-
manded the troops quartered in Paris, were also secured. On
the night of Deceniber 1st, the President, in order to dirert
attention, gave a grand party, during which the troops weire
distributed in readiness for action, the Government presses
were employed in printing placatds and proclamations, and
arrests were quietly effected of all such generals, deputies^ and
other persons whose opposition might prove troublesome.
Among those arrested were Generals Oavaignac, Changamier,
Lamorici^re, B^deau, and others ; Messrs. Thiers^ Boger du
Nord, Victor Hugo, Eugene Sue, etc. The prisoners were
carried, some to Vincennes, some to Ham, in the cage-like
carriages used for the conveyance of persons sentenced to
transportation. On the morning of December 2nd placards
appeared upon the walls of Paris containing the following de-
crees : " The National Assembly is dissolved, universal suffrage
is re-established, the Elective Colleges are summoned to meet
on the 14th of December, the first military division (Paris and
the Department of the Seine) is placed in a state of siege, the
Council of State is dissolved." These decrees were accompanied
with an Address to the people, proposing a responsible chief,
to be named for ten years, and other changes. If the people
were discontented with the President's acts, they must choose
another person ; but if they confided to him a great Inission,
they must give him the means of fulfilling it. Another pro-
clamation was addressed to the army, in which Louis Napoleon
reminded them of the disdain with which they had been treated
during the reign of Louis Philippe, that they had now an
opportunity to recover their ancient consideration as the SlUe
of the nation, that their history was identified with his own
by a preceding community of glory and misfortunes.
Massacre On the appearance of these proclamations, the Deputies, to
Boui^rards. ^^® number of 252, among whom was Odillon Barrot, finding
the Palais Bourbon, their usual place of meeting, occupied by
troops, assembled at the Mayoralty of the 10th Arrondisse-
ment, and resolved, on the motion of M. Berryer, to depose
the President, and to give General Oudinot the command of
the army. But they were all surrounded and taken into cus-
tody by the Chasseurs de Yincennes. Some resistance was
attempted on the morning of t>ecember 4th, atid a few baHi-
cades were erected on the Boulevards, but not of the requisite
strength ; and the troops, under Qeneral Magnan, easily over-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. liXHO NAPOLEON HI. AND EUEOPE 109
came all opposition. Yet there was a regular massacre, and
hundreds of innocent persons, who were offering no resistance,
were killed, while the troops lost onlj twenty-five men. Per-
sons captured with arms in their hands were shot on the spot.
Within a few weeks after, 26,500 persons, accused of belonging
to secret societies, were transported, and several thousands
more were imprisoned. The fear of anarchy induced the upper
and middling classes to support Napoleon: the National
Guard remained passive.
The Eevolution was favourably received at Vienna, St. Kapoieon
Petersburg, and Berlin. Napoleon surrounded himself with ^S?***
a consultative Commission, into which were admitted all the y^n.
notabilities that were inclined to adhere to him. M. L^on
Faucher alone refused to be nominated. Matters took the
course which had been anticipated. Before the end of Decem-
ber Napoleon was elected President for ten years by nearly
seven and a half million votes, while only 640,737 were re-
corded against him. He now released the adversaries whom
he had imprisoned. General Cavaignac was allowed to return
to Paris : Changamier, Lamoriciere, Victor Hugo, Thiers, and
the rest were b^iished : but M. Thiers was shortly after per-
mitted to return. Sioters taken in arms were transported eti
masse to Cayenne.
It now only remained to prepare the way for the grand final PoHcvof
step — the assumption of Imperial power. Early in 1862 the ^*p*^"-
gilt eagles of the first Napoleon were restored on the standards
of the army ; the National Guard was dissolved and recon-
stituted on a new system ; the trees of liberty and other Re-
publican emblems were removed from the public places ; the
name of Napoleon was substituted for that of the BepubUc in
the prayers of the Church. On the 15th of January the new
Constitution was promulgated, which, though it professed to
confirm the principles of 1789, was a return to the system of
the first Napoleon. The Executive power was vested in the
President, who was to be advised with still decreasing authority
by a State Council, a Senate of nobles, and a completely power-
less Legislative Assembly, whose transactions, at the demand
of five members, might be secret. Napoleon confiscated the
greater part of the possessions of the House of Orleans, and
ordered that the remainder of them should be sold by the
family itself before the expiration of the year. De Morny, with
his colleagues, Boucher, Pould, and Dupin, who did not
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
110
MODEEN BUEOPE [Chap. LXXL
Napoleoin
Napoleon
in.'B
marriage.
approve this measure, resigned ; but their places were soon
supplied by other Ministers devoted to Napoleon, to whom he
gave large salaries. At a grand review, held January 21st,
he distributed among the soldiers medals which entitled the
holders of them to one hundred francs yearly. The Univer-
sities were reformed, the Professors deprived of the inde-
pendence which they had enjoyed, and some of them, as
Michelet and Edgar Quinet, were dismissed. The grateful
Senate voted the President a civil list of twelve million francs,
the titles of " Prince " and " Monseigneur," and the use of the
Boyal Palaces.
In the autumn the President again made a long tour in the
south of France, and was everywhere saluted with cries of
" Vive VEmperevr! " On re-entering Paris in state, October
16th, whither many provincial persons had flocked, the same
cry struck his ear, the emblems of the Empire everywhere met
his eyes. Napoleon now alighted at the palace of the Tuileries,
where he fixed his residence. He directed the Senate to debate
the restoration of the Empire, which had been so significantly
demanded during his tour in the provinces ; but it was to be
sanctioned by the universal suffrage of the nation, by votes to
be taken on November 21st and 22nd. On this occasion the
votes recorded in his favour were 7,824,189, and those against
him only 253,145. On December 2nd he was proclaimed
Emperor, with the title of Napoleon III. Thus did he reck-
lessly violate the solemn oath which he had sworn before Gk)d,
and the plighted word of honour which he had given to the
nation, in 1848, that he would uphold the indivisible Eepublic.
And his inauguration as Emperor was blessed by the priests
in the same cathedral in which he had uttered the oath to be
faithful to the established Constitution.
The Constitution of January, 1852, was confirmed with some
modifications. The royal title was restored to Napoleon's
uncle, Jer6me Bonaparte ; Generals St. Arnaud, Magnan, and
Oastellane were created Marshals of the Empire. Mi foreign
Courts were assured of the French Emperor's wish for peace,
in token of which a reduction of 30,000 men was made in the
army. England and most of the European Powers acknow-
ledged Napoleon's title ; the three Northern Courts did the
same, after a short hesitsttio]^, in January, 1853. On the 29th
of that month Napoleon married Donna Eugenia Montijo,
Countess of TA>a : on which occasion he granted an amnesty
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Chap.LXXI.] napoleon HI. AND EXJEOPE 111
for political offences, and pardoned upwards of 3,000 loyal
persons.^
Meanwhile, in Germany, where the influence of Austria was Biyairy of
restored by the extinction of the revolution, matters were j^SS^*"^
gradually resuming their ancient course. The question of the
German Constitution, however, still remained a cause of dis-
union. Austria, backed by the influence of Russia, succeeded
in re-establishing the Federal Constitution with the Frankfurt
Diet, as arranged in 1815. But Prussia was not willing to
relinquish her pretensions to take a more leading part in the
affairs of Germany. On February 26th, 1860, Frederick
William IV. took the oath to the new Prussian Constitution,
granted by himself, as of divine right, in the preceding month.
The Prussian Government now endeavoured, in opposition to
Austria, to form a new Bund, or Confederation, of which
Prussia was to be the presiding Power, and which was to con-
sist of all the German States except the Austrian. With this
view a German Parliament was convoked at Erfurt, March
20th, which was attended by representatives from such States
as approved the Prussian views. But distrust and apprehen-
sion prevailed, and after a few sittings the New Parliament
was indefinitely adjourned. The King of Wiirtemberg, on
opening the Diet of his Kingdom, March 15th, 1850, expressed
himself so strongly against the projects of the Court of Berlin,
that diplomatic rek^tions were suspended between Wurtemberg
and Prussia. Frederick William lY. made another attempt
to form a separate les^ue by summoning a Congress at Berlin
in May, which was attended by twenty-two German Princes,
besides the representatives of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck.
At the same time, Austria had summoned the Diet of the
Confederation to meet at Frankfurt, which was attended by
representatives from all the States except Prussia and Olden-
burg. Thus two rival congresses were sitting at the same
time ; one at Berlin, to establish a new Confederation under
Prussian influence ; and one at Frankfurt, to maintain the old
one under the supremacy of Austria. The quarrel of the two
leading German Powers was brought to an issue by some
disturbances which occurred in Hesse-CasseL Hassenpflug,
the Elector's Minister, treating the States with contempt, at-
tempted to raise taxes without their consent. This arbitrary
^ See Taxille Delord, Vie de Na^lem III.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
112
MODERN EUBOPE [Ohap. LXXI.
Gonyention
of OlmUte.
Pnissiaii
policy.
and uBoonstitutional act was opposed even hj persona in the
employ of the Government, and the Elector in alarm fled to
Frankfort. Even a deputation from the officers of the army
proceeded to Frankfurt to protest against the illegal proceed-
ings of Hassenpflug ; to whom the Elector replied : " If you
will not obey, take off your coats." Hereupon, between two
and three hundred officers resigned their commissions. The
seat of the Electoral Goyemment was now established at
Wilhelmsbad (September). The Diet at Frankfurt resolved
to support the Elector against his subjects, and Austria, Ba-
varia, and Wurtemberg prepared to interfere in his favour ;
while Prussia took up the opposite side, and moved a large
military force towards the Hessian frontier. A collision ap-
peared inevitable, when hostilities were averted by Bussian
interference and a change of ministry at Berlin. To put an
end to these disputes, conferences were opened at Olmutz, and
on November 27th was signed the Convention of Olmutz, by
which Prussia virtually abandoned her ambitious projects, and
subordinated herself to Austria. The Olmutz Convention was
followed by conferences at Dresden towards the end of Decem-
ber, which lasted till the middle of May, 1851. In these de-
bates, Prussia, under Bussian influence, was induced to ac-
knowledge the Frankfurt Diet, in short, to withdraw all her
novel pretensions ; and thus the ancient state of things, after
four years of revolution and disturbance, was re-established
in the German Confederation. The Emperor of Austria now
withdrewtheConstitution which he had granted to his subjects,
the definitive abolition of which was proclaimed January 1st,
1852.
Frederick William lY. of Prussia was at this time and till
the end of his reign entirely guided by what was called the
Kreust party, or Party of the Cross. The chiefs of it were the
Queen, Manteuffel, General Oerlach, the counsellor Niebuhr,
and at this time also Herr Bismarck Schonhausen. Its organ
was the Kreuz Zeiiung, and its policy to draw closer the bonds
of union between Austria and Prussia; to acquire the con-
fidence of the smaller German Powers by moral influence ; to
look up to Bussia as the protectress of monarchical principles ;
and to oppose a tacit resistance to all impulses from the Western
nations. Austria, on her side, kept herself as much aloof as
possible from all commerce or interchange of ideas with the
rest of Germany by a prohibitive system of customs dues, by
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXI.] NAPOLEON HI. AND EUEOPE 118
passports, a rigid oensorsbip of the Press, and other means of
the like sort. In this policy she was encouraged by Bussia,
and as that Power also predominated at Berlin, it may be said
to have exercised at this period a sort of dictatorslup in
Oermany. But among the more enlightened and enterprising
Prussians a growing desire prevailed for the establishment of
German unity under Prussian supremacy. Although now
submitting to Austrian influence, Prussia was undoubtedly
the more powerful State of the two. But to consolidate
her power, much remained to be done. The straggling
line of her dominions from the Baltic to the Bhine, flaked
on all sides by independent States, was an element of
weakness. Above all, she needed and coveted some good
ports in order to become a naval Power. But the accom-
plishment of these objects awaited the master-hand of a
great statesman.
The reign of Frederick William IV. may be said to have Prince of
virtually ended in 1867. In July of that year he was seized ^^ ^'
with a mahidy at first considered trifling ; but it was soon
followed by congestion of the brain, and ended in mental
weakness. Having no children, he transferred, in October,
to his brother William, Prince of Prussia, the management
of affairs ; who, in October of the f ollowiug year, was declared
Begent by a royal ordinance. Both Manteuffel and Bismarck,
hiti^erto subservient to Austria, now began to oppose that
Power, and the personal sentiments of the Begent himself
were thought to incline that way. A scheme was at this time
formed of two separate unions — one of North Qermany, under
Prussia, and another of the South, under Austria, which it
was thought would do away with the rivalry and bickerings
of those Powers. But the plan was distasteful to the minor
States, as involving their su^ection to one of the leading
Powers. In opposition to it, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony,
Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt would have pre-
ferred a union among themselves, thus forming a Qerman
Triad ; and this scheme was advocated, but without result, by
Yon der Pfordten and Yon Beust, the Bavarian and Saxon
Ministers.
The affairs of Schleswig-Holstein had been again ^ the g'^'^^^*
occasion of anxiety and disturbance. A definitive peace be- ti£i^
tween Denmark and the King of Prussia, in the name of the isgs.
German Confederation, had been signed July 2nd, 1850, by
VI. I
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
114 MODEBN EUEOPE [Ohup. LXXI.
which the Duchies were relinquished to the Danes, but the
rights of the German Bund in Holstein were maintained. The
Duchies, however, renewed the war on their own account, but
were finally reduced to submission to the King of Denmark
bj the intervention of the German Oonfederation. In the
negotiations which ensued Denmark engaged that she would
do nothing towards the incorporation of Schleswig ; but at the
same time it was maintained that the German Diet had no
right to meddle with the affairs of that duchy. Nor was
any such engagement mentioned in the subsequent Treaty of
London, May 8th, 1852; and therefore the treaty was not
conditional upon it, though no doubt it induced Austria and
Prussia to sign. By this treaty, to which were parties Austria,
France, England, Prussia, Bussia, and Sweden, all the do-
minions then united under the sceptre of Denmark were to
fall to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Glucksburg, and his issue in the male line by his marriage
with Louisa, Princess of Hesse. The principle of the integrity
of the Danish monarchy was acknowledged by the contracting
parties; but the rights of the German Confederation with
regard to the Duchies of Holstein and Lauenbui^ were not to
be affected by the treaty. The Duke of Augustenburg re-
linquished, for a pecuniary satisfaction, his claim to Schleswig
and Holstein.
Although Schleswig was a sovereign duchy, whilst Holstein
was subject to the German Confederation, they were neverthe-
less united by having the same Constitution and a common
Assembly. Prussian troops had occupied Holstein while the
negotiations were going on, and to get rid of them the King
of Denmark explained his views regarding a Constitution.
The two great German Powers deemed his plans too liberal,
and Frederick was invited to give separate Constitutions to
the duchies. Thus the Constitutional union between Schles-
wig and Holstein was to be dissolved at the instance of the
Germans themselves. The new Constitution was not published
till October, 1855. The four States constituting the Danish
monarchy had a general Assembly, or Bigsraad, consisting of
deputies from each. It soon, however, became evident that
such a Constitution would not work, and there were constant
bickerings, especially on the part of the Holsteiners. The
consequences of such a state of things will appear in a sub-
sequent chapter.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXI.] NAPOLEON HI. AND EUEOPE 115
In Spain, after the ill-omened marriage of Isabella, the AflUnof
Gk>yemment of the country seemed mainly to depend on her ^^'^
licentious amours. Weariness of Serrano and a new passion
for Colonel Gkmdara led to the overthrow of Salamanca's
Ministry, October 4th, 1846, and the establishment of Narvaez
and the Moderados. Narraez compelled Isabella to obserre
at least external decency, and persuaded her again to admit
King Francisco to the palace. Espartero returned to Spain
early in 1848 and reconciled himself with Narvaez, but retired
to a country life. Narvaez and the Moderados were in power
at the time of Louis Philippe's fall, and were on a good
understanding with the Queen-mother Christina, who had
returned to Spain. The French Eevolution of February 1848
was followed in Spain, as in other countries, by disturbances.
The Frogressistas, or ultra democratic party, attempted an
insurrection, March 23rd, and again. May 6th, but they were
put down by the energy of the ministers. A suspicio^ that
the English Government was concerned in these movements
produced a temporary misunderstanding between Spain and
Great Britain. After the fall of Louis Philippe, Lord
Pahnerston had instructed Sir H. Lytton Bulwer, the English
Ambassador at Madrid, to advise the Spanish Government
to adopt ** a legal and constitutional system." This interfer-
ence was naturally resented by the Spaniards, and after some
correspondence, passports were forwarded to Sir H. L. Bulwer,
May 19th, on the alleged ground that he had been privy to
some plots against the Government. This quarrel was followed
by a suspension of diplomatic correspondence between the two
countries, which was not renewed till August, 1850. A de-
sultory guerilla warfare was also kept up throughout the year
1848 in the north of Spain by General Cabrera, the leader of
the Carlists.
The continued success of Narvaez and the Moderados en- spaoiBh Ib-
couraged Queen Christina to attempt the restoration of abso- »*™<»**<>"*-
lutism. Narvaez was suddenly dismissed, October 18th, 1849,
and General Cleonard appointed in his place ; a person, how-
ever, so wholly insignificant and incompetent, that it soon
became necessary to restore Narvaez. Other more secret
intrigues against that minister were baffled ; but a piratical
attempt by the Americans in 1850 to seize Cuba led to his
downfall, by showing how necessary the friendship of England
was to Spain. Narvaez was dismissed January 11th, 1851, to
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116 MODBBN ETJBOPB [Chap. LXXI.
the great grief of Isabella. Obiistina now ruled for some time
with the new minister Bravo Mnrillo, but kept in the Oon-
stitntional path; till Napoleon's eotep ^^Ud in December,
1852, and Isabella's d^eliverj of a h^thy daughter, which
seemed to secure the succession, encouraged her mother to
adopt some reactionary measures. These, however, served
only to unite the Mod^eradoz and Pragressigtaa ; it became
necessary to recall Narvaes ; but in December, 1853, Christina
dismissed and banished him. The Queen-mother's thoughts
were now bent on nothing but plundering the State for the
benefit of her illegitimate children. Her conduct produced
two or three unsuccessful revolts ; but she was at length over-
thrown, and sent into Portugal (July 20th, 1854). Espartero
and the extreme ProgressietoB having now seized the reins of
government, were in turn overthrown by an insurrection of
the soldiery, conducted by CDonnell, July 16th, 1856. But
O'Donnell's hold of power was but short. He was compelled
to resign in October, when Christina and Narvaez once more
took the helm.
PortDgaL Portugal, under the reign of Donna Maria da Gloria, had
also been agitated by two or three insurrections, which were,
however, suppressed. Queen Maria died, in the prime of life,
November 15th, 1853, and was succeeded by her son, Don
Pedro Y. The new King being a minor, the Begency was
assumed by his father, Ferdinand ; but after spending some
time in travelling, Pedro took the government into his own
hands in 1855.
Meanwhile Bome continued to be occupied by the French,
under the protection of whose bayonets Pius IX. returned to
Bome in April, 1850, and almost seemed to enjoy his former
power. Under French guardianship attention to political
matters was superfluous, and the Pope's thoughts were di-
verted to the more congenial affairs of the Church. He
employed himself in propagating Mariolatry, and in 1854 he
caused a great assembly of bishops to establish the doctrine
of the Immaculate Conception: a doctrine accepted by the
Council of Basle in 1439, but not hitherto confirmed by the
Pope. Pius IX. celebrated its establishment by crowning
the image of the Virgin with a splendid diadem, December
8th, 1854. The smouldering discontent in many other parts
of Italy produced during the next few years no events worth
recording. The oppressions of the Neapolitan Government
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Chap. LXXL] NAPOLEON IIL AND EUEOPE 117
caused the French and English Cabinets in 1856 to break off
diplomatic relations with it. But the tyranny of the rulers of
Italy was only preparing their own punishment.
In France, the Emperor Napoleon III. went on consolidat- '^^^
ing his power. The first great political event of his reign was ^*^'
the war which he waged, in conjunction with England, against
Bussia.^ There was an ancient prophecy that in the year
1853, when four centuries would have elapsed from the taking
of Constantinople, the Turkish Empilre would be overthrown.
The position of affairs appeared to the Bussian Emperor
Nicholas a favourable one for attempting a long-cherished
Muscovite project. The Turkish Empire seemed in a state of
irretrievable prostration, and the Tsar proposed to the British
Gk>vemment early in 1853 a partition of the " sick man's "
spoils, by which Egypt, and, perhaps, Candia, was to fall to
the share of England. The offer was, of course, rejected ; it
was then made to France with the like result, and the two
Western nations united to oppose the designs of Nicholas.
The Tsar explained his views at this period in an interview
with Sir C H. Seymour, the English Ambassador at St.
Petersburg. Nicholas observed: "There are several things
which I never will tolerate. I will not tolerate the permanent
occupation of Constantinople by the Bussians ; and it shall
never be held by the English, French, or any other great
nation. Again, I will never permit any attempt at the re-
construction of the Byzantine Empire, or such an extension of
Greece as would render her a powerful state : still less will I
permit the breaking up of Turkey into little republics, asylums
for the Kossuths and Mazsinis, and other revolutionists of
Europe. Bather than submit to any of these arrangements,
I would go to war, and as long as I have a man or a musket
I would carry it on." * Here the only reason which the Tsar
alleges against a Creek state is, liiat it would be powerful ;
that is, a bar to Muscovite ambition.
Bussia seized the opportunity of a dispute respecting the Memwhi-
use and guardianship of the Holy Places at Jerusalem and ^toi^
in Palestine to pick a quarrel with the Porte. Nicholas, as ^^*n-
protector of the Creek Christians in the Holy City, complained
that the Porte had, contrary to treaty, allowed undue privi-
^ The best authority for this war is Kinglake, The Invasion of the
Crimea,
^ See Alison's Europe since the FaU ofNa^^oieon, ilL 906.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
118 MODEEN EUROPE [Chap. LXXI.
leges to the Latin Cimstians, especially by granting them a
key to the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem ; also one of
the keys of each of tiie two doors of the Sacred Manger ; and
farther permitting the French monks to place in the Sanc-
tuary of the Nativity a silver star adorned with the French
arms ; while France, on the other hand, as protector of the
Latin Christians, maintained that all that had been done was
only in conformity with ancient usage and agreement. Such
were the pretexts sought for a sanguinary war. It was de-
sired by Napoleon, and M. de Lavalette, the French Ambas-
sador to the Porte, is said to have been the first to use threats.
The Emperor Nicholas, after mustering the Bussian fleet with
great ostentation at Sebastopol, as well as an army of 30,000
men, despatched Prince Menschikoff on a special embassy to
Constantinople, to demand the exclusive protection of all
members of the Greek Church in Turkey, and the settlement
of the question respecting the Holy Places, on terms which
would have left the supremacy to the Greeks. Menschikoff
purposely delivered his message with marks of the greatest
contempt, appearing in full Divan in his great coat and boots
(March 2nd, 1853). Lord Stratford de BedclifEe and M. De
la Cour, the EngUsh and French Ambassadors, were unfortu-
nately absent ; but they returned in April, and on their assur-
ance of vigorous support, the Sultan rejected the Bussian
demands. Lord Stratford, however, had succeeded in adjust-
ing the question about the Holy Places, and the breach was
caused by the Porte rejecting the Bussian demand for the
protectorate of the Greek Church in Turkey. Menschikoff,
after handing in an ultimatum which was disregarded, took
his departure. May 21st, with the threat that he had come in
his great coat, but would return in his uniform.
Attitadeof l^e Sultan published in June a Firman, confirming the
SmawT* Christians in his Empire in all their rights, and about the
1868. ' same time the English and French fleets, under Admirals
Dundas and Hamelin, anchored near the entrance of the
Dardanelles. Early in July the Bussian army under Prince
Gortschakov crossed the Pruth, and commenced a war which
the Tsar wished to appear as a war of religion. The Bussians,
divided into two corps of about 4^0,000 men each, commanded
by Generals Dannenberg and Luders, exercised under this
holy pretence all manner of plunder and violence in Moldavia
and Wallachia, the hospodars of which principalities fled into
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Chap. LXXI.] NAPOLEON IH. AND EUEOPE 119
Austria. Meanwhile the Turkish army remained on the right
bank of the Danube, and the Russians during the summer
contented themselves with occupying the left. It was mani-
festly the interest of Austria that Russia should not be allowed
to increase her power south of the Danube ; yet she contented
herself with joining Prussia in friendly representations to the
Court of St. Petersburg, that both Powers would enter into no
further engagements than to co-operate in endeavouring to
maintain peace. France and England, indeed, the latter under
the Government of Lord Aberdeen, with Mr. Gladstone as
Chancellor of the Exchequer, had relieved Austria from the
necessity of drawing the sword on her own behalf. The
Court of Berlin displayed as usual a base servility to the
Russian autocrat. Nicholas had an interview with the Aus-
trian Emperor Francis Joseph, at Olmiitz, September 24th ;
whence he proceeded to Berlin, on a visit to his brother-in-
law, Frederick William lY. He wished to form with these
Sovereigns a triple alliance against the Western Powers, but
succeeded only in obtaining their neutrality ; and he engaged
that his troops should not cross the Danube.
A declaration of war by the Porte, October 4th, in case Action at
the Russi&ns refused to evacuate the principalities,-' afforded nov.^8«8.
Nicholas the wished-for opportunity to proclaim himself the
party attacked. He did not, however, push the war with a
vigour at all proportioned to his boastful threats. The first
trml of strength was in favour of the Turks. Omar Pasha
having sent 3,000 men over the Danube, this small corps
intrenched itself at Olteniza and repulsed the attacks of
7,000 Russians (November 4th, 1863). On the 27th of the
same month France and England concluded a treaty with the
Porte, promising their aid in case Russia would not agree to
moderate conditions of peace. But an event which occurred
a few days after entirely dissipated all such hopes. Admiral
Nachimov, the Russian commander in the Black Sea, taking
advantage of a fog, attacked and destroyed the Turkish fleet
under Osman Pasha, while lying at Sinope, not, however,
without considerable damage to his own vessels (November
30th). As the English and French fleets had passed the
Dardanelles in September, and were now at anchor in the
Bosphorus, the act of Nachimov appeared a wilful defiance
of the Maritime Powers. This event excited feelings of great Aoproaoh
indignation in England ; and, as was natural, still more so at ^ ''^'
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
120 MODERN EUBOPE [Chap. LXXI.
Constaatmople. It was now evident that the attempts of the
Conference, which the four great neutral Powers, Austria,
FrajLce, Great Britain, and Prussia, had assembled in the
summer at Vienna, to maintJviTi peace, would be abortive;
and, indeed, their proposals were rejected both by Russia
and the Porte; by the latter, chiefly because of an article
requiring a renewal of the ancient treaties between Turkey
and Russia. The Emperor of the French addressed an auto-
graph letter to the Emperor Nicholas, January 29th, 1854> to
which, contrary to expectation, Nicholas replied at length,
and though sophisticaUy, with politeness. It can hardly be
doubted, however, that Napoleon desired a war, with a view
to secure his throne by diverting the attention of the French
from domestic affairs, and dazzling them with feats of arms.
A close alliance with England, moreover, would add stability
to his government, and give his usurpation a sort of sanction.
In February, diplomatic relations were broken off between
Russia and the Western Powers; the latter declared war
against the Tsar, and concluded an offensive and defensive
alliance with Turkey, March 12th. Austria contented her-
self with placing a corps of observation on the Servian fron-
tier ; while Prussia, though recognizing the injustice of the
Russian proceedings, declined to oppose them.
BiuNsdan Towards the dose of 1853, the Russians, under General
Anrep, 50,000 strong, had attEbcked Kalafat, which forms a
fortified tete de p<mt to Widdin, in the hope of penetrating
into Servia; but they were repulsed, and suffered severe loss
from the climate at that season. The Russians renewed the
attempt, January 6th, 1854, but were again defeated at Citate ;
after which they withdrew from this quarter, on account of
the Austrian army of observation. The plan to make their
way to Constantinople by an insurrection of the Slavs, Ser-
vians, Bosnians, and Bulgarians, was thus frustrated. Some
of the Greeks rose, but only to commit robbery and murder ;
and the Court of Athens was too fearful of the Western
Powers to venture on any movement
Prince Paskiewitsch was now appointed Commander-in«
Chief of the Russian army, and the attack was transferred
from the right wing to the left. A division crossed the
Danube near Silistru, another lower down, near the Pruth,
and having formed a junction, advanced to attack Omar
Pacha, who retired to Shumla (March, 1854). With a view
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moTements.
Ch^. LXXI.] napoleon in. and EUEOPE 121
to draw him from this position, Paskiewitsch caused Silistria
to be besieged. But Omar was too wary to fall into the trap ;
all the Bussian assaults were repulsed, Paskiewitsch himself
was wounded, and on June 21st he abandoned the si^e, re-
crossed the Danube, and even the Pruth. The last step was
taken in consequence of the attitude assumed by Austria and
Prussia. Those two Powers had entered into an offensive
and defensiye alliance, April 20th, by which they agreed to
declare war against Russia if her troops should pass the
Balkan, or if she should attempt to incorporate the princi-
palities. An Austrian note, backed by Prussia, and ad^essed
in June to the Cabinet of St. Petersburg, had required the
eyacuation of Wallachia and Moldavia; and those princi-
palities, by virtue of a convention with the Porte, were now
occupied by the Austrians.
Meanwhile France and England were beginning to take warintho
part in the war. The allied fleets had attacked Odessa, April ^^^^
22nd, and burnt a number of ships and houses, but abstained
from bombarding the town. The English army under Lord
Bi^lan, under whom served the Duke of Cambridge and
other officers of distinction, had landed at Gallipoli, April 5th,
where they found a portion of the French army already dis-
embarked. Hence the allies proceeded to Yarna, with the
defflgn of penetrating into the Dobrudscha ; but the nature of
the country and the fearful mortality among the troops, from
the climate and cholera, caused the enterprise to be aban-
doned. To penetrate into the heart of Bussia appeared im-
possible, and it was therefore resolved to attempt the capture
of SebastopoL The allied armies, in spite of their losses, still
numbered about 50,000 men ; and embarking with about 6,000
Turks, they landed without opposition near Eupatoria in the
Crimea, September 14th, 1854. Nachimov, the victor of
SiQope, though he had fifty-four Bussian ships at Sebastopol,
ventured not to come out and attack the allied armament.
The forces of Prince Menschikov, who commanded in the Bsttieof
Crimea, were inferior to those of the allies ; but he had taken *** ^™*'
up a position on the river Alma which he deemed impreg-
nable, and in his overweening confidence he had invited a
party of ladies from Sebastopol to come and behold the de-
struction of the enemy. But the position was carried by the
indomitable courage of the British, September 20th; not,
however, without great loss, from having to assault the posi-
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122
MODBEN EUROPE [Chap. LXXI.
BatUflsof
Baladava,
and Inker-
man, 18M.
Napier in
the Baltic.
tion in front ; while the Frenoh, under Marshal St. Arnand,
who were to turn the enemy's IdEt wing» contributed but little
to the success of the day. The allied loss amounted to 3,479
men, of which nearly three-fifths belonged to the British,
although their troops were not nearly so numerous as the
French. The Eussian loss was estimated at about 8,000
men.
A necessary delay to bury the dead and provide for the
sick and wounded deprived the allies of the opportunity to
penetrate along with the enemy into Sebastopol. It was not
judged practicable to take it by assault, though this might
perhaps have been accomplished had it been immediately
undertaken, and a siege in regular form became therefore
necessary. Marshal St. Amaud was compelled by the state
of his health to resign the command to General Canrobert
soon after the battle of the Alma. He died in his passage to
Constantinople. The English army now took up a position
at the Bay of Balaclava, the French at that of E^miesch, and
began to open trenches on the plateau on the south side of
Sebastopol. The allies opened their fire on the town, October
17th. Sebastopol was also bombarded by the fleets, which,
however, suffered so (severely that they were compelled to
desist. The Eussians attacked the English position at Bala-
clava, October 25th, but were repulsed; a battle rendered
memorable by the gallant but rash and fatal charge of the
British cavalry, when, by some mistake in the delivery of
orders, nearly two-thirds of the light brigade were uselessly
sacrificed. This battle was soon followed by that of Inker-
man, November 5th, when the Eussians, with very superior
forces, and in the presence of the Grand Dukes Nicholas and
Michael, again attacked the British position, and were once
more repulsed with dreadful loss. The British were most
gallantly supported by their French allies. During this cam-
paign. Admiral Napier, with the British fleet, accompanied
by a French squadron, proceeded into the Baltic, where, how-
ever, little was effected. Cronstadt was found too strong to
be attacked ; the Eussian fleet kept in port, and the British
admiral was forced to content himself with capturing some
merchant vessels, and burning timber and other stores. Some
English ships also penetrated into the White Sea, blockaded
Archangel, and destroyed the port of Kola. A detachment
of French troops under General Baraguay d'Hilliers captured
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Chap. LXXI.] NAPOLEON HI. AND EUROPE 123
BomarsTind in the Aland Isles, August 16th; after which
exploit the allied fleet quitted the Baltic.
Austria concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with Ausfcria and
the two Western Powers, December 2nd, 1854, but lent them Sardinia.
no assistance. Bussia pretended to enter into negotiations
for a peace at Vienna, only with a view to gain time, and if
possible to separate the allies. A more active allj than
Austria, though without the same interest in the dispute,
was the King of Sardinia ; who, in January, 1855, joined the
Western Powers and sent an army of 15,000 men, under
General La Marmora, into the Crimea. The allied armies
had passed a most dreadful winter in their encampments.
The British soldiers especially died by hundreds of cold,
disease, and privation, while the clothing, stores, and medi-
cines, which might have averted these calamities, were, through
the almost incredible bungling and mismanagement of the
commissariat department, lying unpacked at Balaclava. The
just and violent indignation felt in England at this state of
things produced the fall of the Aberdeen Ministry in February,
1855. Lord Aberdeen was succeeded as Prime Minister by
Lord Palmerston.
The Bussians made an ineffectual attempt on Eupatoria, Death of
February 16th. The sudden and unexpected ' death of the J'^^b^''^'"
Emperor Nicholas, March 2nd, seemed to open a prospect
for peace. His successor, Alexander XL, was more pacifically
disposed than his father, and the conferences at Vienna were
reopened. The recall of Prince Menschikov from the Crimea,
who was succeeded by Prince Gortschakov, seemed also a
concession to public opinion. The reduction of Sebastopol
appeared, however, to the allies, and especially to Napoleon
III., to be a necessary satisfaction for military honour. The
bombardment of Sebastopol was, after a long preparation,
reopened by the allies, April 6th, 1855 ; but the fire of the
place still proved superior. A naval expedition, under Ad-
mirals Lyons and Bruat, proceeded to the Sea of Azov, took
Kertsch, Yenikale, Mariapol, Taganrog, and other places, and
destroyed vast quantities of provisions and stores which served
to supply Sebastopol. A grand assault delivered by the allies
on that city, June 18th, was repulsed with great loss to the
assailants. A change in the command of both the allied
armies took place about this time. By the death of Lord f^ **'
Banian, June 28th, General Simpson succeeded to the com- Bagian.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
124 MODERN ETIEOPB [Chap. LXXI.
mand of the English force, while the French General Can-
robert had resigned a little previously in favour of Pelissier.
Austria this month virtuallj withdrew from an alliance which
she had never materiallj assisted, and by discharging great
part of her troops enabled Eussia to despatch to the Crimea
several regiments which she had been obliged to keep in
Poland.
In the In the Baltic, Admiral Dimdas, who had been substituted
^^^^^' for Napier, found himself unable to effect more than had been
accomplished by his predecessor the year before. His opera-
tions were confined to the burning of a few Eussian harbours
and an ineffectual attempt to bombard Sveaborg. But under
their reverses the allied Powers drew still closer the enbemte
cordiaJe. Napoleon with his consort had visited London
in the spring, and in August his visit was returned by Queen
Victoria. A meeting of both the Sovereigns at the tomb of
Napoleon the First seemed calculated to obUterate for ever
any remains of national animosity.
Capturo of The valour and perseverance of the allies were at length to
sebastopoi. triumph over all difficulties. An attack on the iallied position
by the Eussians from the Tschemaja was repulsed with great
loss, August 16th, and on the following day a terrible bom-
bardment of Sebastopol was begun. By September 8th, the
fortifications had been reduced idmost to a heap of rubbish,
and it was determined to assault the place. The French suc-
ceeded in capturing the Malakov Tower, while the British
penetrated into the Eedan, but were imable to hold it. The
south side of Sebastopol was, however, no longer tenable after
the capture of the Malakov ; and in the night Prince Gort-
schakov evacuated it, passing over the arm of the sea which
separates it from the north side by means of a bridge of boats.
P^viously to their departure the Eussians sunk all their ships
in the harbour with the exception of a steamer. The success
of the allies was not, however, decisive. They made one or
two ineffectual sorties against Qortschakoffs new position;
and even had they succeeded in driving him thence, the Crimea
still remained to be conquered. With the view of effecting
that conquest, the fleets had undertaken a second expedition
to the Sea of Azov, where they destroyed the small fortresses
of Fanagoria and Taman, as well as another against Kinbum,
to the north-west of the Crimea, which was captured after a
short bombardment. But it was found impossible to take
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Chjjp. TiXXL] napoleon HI. AND BUEOPE 12fi
Perekop, and thus, by obtaining command of the Isthmus,
compel GortschakoY to retreat.
Daring this period a war had been also raging between the The
Turks and Eussians in the Trans-Cancasian provinces, which ®' ^*"-
our limits permit us not to describe. This year the remains
of the Turkish army in this quarter were dispersed by the
Russian general Muraviev. The English general Williams
distinguished himself by the defence of Kars, repulsing re-
peated assaults of the Eussians ; but famine at length com-
pelled him to surrender the city, November 7th, 1855.
The capture of Kars seemed a compensation to Eussian The Peace
military honour for the loss of Sebastopol, and facilitated the il^^
opening of negotiations for a peace. Austria now intervened ;
IVince Esterhazy was despatched to St. Petersburg, and on
January 16th, 1856, signed with Count Nesselrode a protocol
containing the bases of negotiation. These were: the abolition
of the Eussian protectorate in the Danubian Principalities,
the freedom of the Danube and its mouths, the neutraliza-
tion of the Black Sea, which was to be open to the commerce of
all nations, but closed to ships of war ; no military or naval
arsenals to be maintained there ; the immunities of the Eayah,
or Christian, subjects of the Porte to be preserved. In order to
deprive Eussia of any pretence for interference with regard to
this last point, the Porte accepted ten days later twenty-one
propositions with regard to it made by the Western Powers
and Austria, which included reforms of the tribunals, police,
mode of taxation, etc. After the arrangement of these matters
Conferences for a peace were opened at Paris, February 26th,
when an armistice was agreed upon to last till March 31st.
The Conference consisted of the representatives of Great
Britain, Austria, France, Eussia, Sardinia, and Turkey.
Prussia, having taken no part in the war, was at first excluded
from the Congress, but by persevering importunity, obtained
admission, March 11th. The definitive Peace of Pabis was
signed on the conditions before mentioned, March 80th.
Eussia engaged to restore Kars to the Porte, and the Allied
Powers to evacuate Sebastopol and all their other conquests
in the Crimea. The integrity of the Turkish Empire was
guaranteed, and the Porte admitted to participate in the ad-
vantages of European public law and concert. A Firman
which the Porte had published in favour of the Christians was
not to give other Powers a right to interfere in the internal
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
126 MODEBN EUBOPE [Chap. LXXI.
administration of Turkey. The Black Sea was neutralized,
the Emperor of Russia and the Sultan agreed not to erect or
maintain any military arsenal on its coasts, and to keep only
such a number of ships of war in that sea» for the mainten-
ance of the necessary police, as might be agreed on between
the two Powers. The Danubian principaUties remained in
the same state as before ; and the Porte engaged that they
should have an independent administration, with liberty of
worship, legislation, etc. The Danube was declared uncon-
ditionally free, and a European Commission was appointed to
superintend its navigation and police.^ The line of the Russian
and Turkish frontier was left to be arranged by delegates of
the contracting Powers, and was finally determined by another
Treaty of Paris, concluded between those Powers June 19th,
1857. The line in Bessarabia was laid down according to a
topographical map prepared for the purpose. The islands
forming the Delta of the Danube, including the Isle of Ser-
pents, were now restored to the sovereignty of the Porte.
Treaties A fortnight after the first Treaty of Paris, a short tripartite
^^^* Treaty in three Articles was executed at Paris (April 15th)
by Austria, France and Great Britain, guaranteeing the inde«
pendence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire ; of which
every infraction was to be considered a casus helli.^
To complete the account of these transactions must be added
the Convention respecting the Danubian Principalities, signed
at Paris by the six Christian Powers and the Porte, August
19th, 1858, of which the following were the chief provisions :
— ^Moldavia and Wallachia, as united principalities, remained
under the suzerainty of the Sultan; Moldavia paying an
annual tribute of 1,500,000 piastres, and Wallachia 2,500,000.
The principalities were to enjoy a free and independent ad-
ministration. Each was to be governed by a Hospodar, elected
for life, and an elective Assembly, acting with the concurrence
of a Central Commission common to both, sitting at Tockshany.
Individual liberty was guaranteed, and Christians of every
denomination were to enjoy equal political rights.'
^ Treaty in Martens, Katw, Eecueil, Cont de Samwer, t. zv.
p. 770 sqq.
^ Martens, loe. cit, ; Monioanlt, La question d'OrierU, It TraiU de
Paris et ses suites (1856-71).
' Convention in Anntuiire des Deux M&ndes, vol. viii. App. p. 927.
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CHAPTEE LXXn
THE UNION OF ITALY
THE period which elapsed between the close of the Crimean The period
war and the establishment of the German Empire at the Jgjf ^^^"
beginning of 1871, may be said to contain events of more im-
portance as regards the European system than even its recon-
struction by the Congress of Yienna. These events are, besides
the new Empire just mentioned, and a few minor occurrences,
the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, the absorption of
the Pope's temporal power, the realization of Prussian su-
premacy, the decline of Austria, and the Franco-Qerman war.
In the same period occurred two events of vast moment in the
history of the world : the Indian revolt and the civil war in
America, which threatened at one time to break up and
divide the great Eepublic of the Western Hemisphere ; but
these have no direct bearing on our peculiar subject, the
European concert. The affairs of Italy first claim our atten-
tion, from their priority in order of time.*
The Austrian occupation of Lombardy and Venetia seemed J^J*
still in the year 1858 to offer an insuperable bar to Italian
unity and freedom. Whilst the possession of these provinces ^
severed Italy, it also enabled the Austrians to introduce their
^ The principal works which may be consulted for the two following
chapters are : Menzel, Geach, der neuesten Zeit, 1856-1860 ; Idem. Dte
immtigsten Wdtbegebenheiten, 1860-1866; Idem. Der detUscke Krieg
im Jahref 1866 ; Becker's Wdtgeschickte ; Arnd. Gesch, der Jahren,
1866-1871 ; Riistow, Der itcUienische Krieg, 1859 ; Idem. Der Krieg
von 1866 in DenUMand ; Idem. Der Krieg rnn die Bheingrenze ;
Mazade, Vie de Cavour; Rendu, ritcUie de 1847 d 1865 ; D*Azeglio,
Scritti Politici ; Vilbort, L^(Euvre de Bismark ; Auerbach, Da^ neue
deutsehe Reich ; Tableau Historique de la Gtterre Franco-AUemande,
Berlin, 1871 ; L'Annuaire des Deux Maudes; The Annual Register;
Seignoboe, Histoire Politique de VEurape Contemporaine (1814-1896) ;
Debidour, Histoire Diplomatique de VEurope, etc., etc.
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vaolttf.
128 MODEEN BUEOPE [Chap. LXXTT.
forces into that country for the purpose of upholding its several
governments ; all of which, with the exception of Sardinia,
were more or less under their influence. The sovereigns of
Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, were connected with the Austrian
Imperial family, and leaned on it for support; whilst the
Austrian Cabinet had also a powerful voice in the Neapolitan
and Papal councils, and may thus be said to have dominated
nearly all Italy. Without tne expulsion of the Austrians, the
views of Italian patriots could not be realized, and without
foreign help they could not be expelled. The attempt had
been made in 1849, and ended in disastrous &ilure.
Other necessary conditions for the freedom and unity of
Italy were, that the Italians themselves should desire them,
and be agreed as to the means for their attainment. Hence a
difficulty almost as great as the presence of the Austrians. For
though dissatisfaction at the existing state of things was a
very prevalent feeling, opinions varied as to the remedy to be
applied. The more ardent patriots desired republican institu-
tions, but of these some would have been content with a con-
federation of independent commonwealths, whilst others aimed
Masiiiii. at an undivided Italian Bepublic. This last party, the most
stirring and influential, was led by Mazzini and his sect, or
society, called La Oiovine ItcUia, or Young Italy; which,
though itsetf a secret society, had now pretty well superseded
others of a like nature, as the Carbancm, The men who ad-
hered to Mazzini were dazzled by ideas, which had the fault
of being utterly impracticable. He was for reconstructing
society from its foundations, something after the fashicm of
Bousseau ; nay, he thought that art, science, philosophy, in
short everything in the world required renovation. Nor were
his views confined to Italy. They embraced all Europe, and
in 1834 he had drawn up a scheme of La Oiovine Suropa,
*' an apostolate of ideas," as he calls it, by which the whole
continent was to be remodelled on the principles of liberty,
equality, and fraternity ; but he allows that he expected no
practical result.^
^ dbS^ A few men of wiser and more statesmanlike views saw that
foUowwB. the only hope for Italy lay in the suppression of such con-
spirators, who were not only abortive disturbers of the public
peace at home, but also disposed European opinion against
^ See Mazzini's Life and Writinffs, vol. liL p. 90 sqq.
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Chap. LXXH.] THE UNION OF ITALY 129
Italian freedom: for these politidans saw that the emancipa-
tion of Italy from a foreign yoke was simply impossible without
help from abroad. This scmool, as was natural, had its origin
in Piedmont, the only constitutional Italian State ; and pro-
bably their plans for Italian unity were not unmixed with
some desire for the aggrandizement of their native country.
At the head of them must be placed Count Massimo d' Azeglio,
and a few of his friends, as Balbo, Qioberti, and others.
D'Azeglio's leading idea was, that no roTolutionary attempts
could succeed but such as were conducted in open day.^ To
the success of his plans the formation of a sound public
opinion was necessary, and with this view he had undertaken
in 1845 a journey through great part of Italy in order to
ascertain the sentiments of the people ; when he discoTered
that all persons of sense and respectability were disgusted with
the absurdities of the followers of Mazzini, and desirous of a
new path. His views were approved by 'King Charles Albert,
who encouraged him to publish them. Such was the origin
of his political writings. After the defeat and abdication of
that sovereign in 1849 (9npra, p. 99), d'Azeglio became the
Prime Minister of his son and successor, Victor Emanuel II.,
a post which he held till 1852, wh^a he was succeeded by
Count Cavour.
Without this change Italian independence and unity would ^^^^^
probably not have l«en achieved. With all his talent and M^^enr.
good sense, d'Azeglio lacked the energy, perhaps also we may
say the unscrupulous boldness, without which great revolu-
tions cannot be effected. Of a generous temper, and devoted
to Hterature and art, he was somewhat inactive and unprac-
tical. Cavour, on the contrary, was evidently a man of action,
and from the time of his taking office, he may be said to have
held the fate of Italy in his hands. A main part of his
policy was to obtain for it the good opinion of Europe. Hence
his commercial treaties with France, England, Belgium, and
Switzerland ; hence also the seemingly inexplicable part which
he took in the Crimean war. It was, in fact, a well conddered
blow at Austria. Sardinia appeared among the European
Powers at the Congress of Paris in 1856, and her envoy sat
side by side with the Austrian Minister* Count Buol ; before
whose face he denounced the dangerous state of Italy through
foreign occupation.
^ Una coepiratione al chiaro sole.—/ miei Eicardi, t. ii. p. 406.
VI. K
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machine.
180 MODERN EUROPE [Chap. LXXH.
His Views. CaTOUT, though enterprising, was cautious, and awaited his
opportunity. He appears to have early contemplated the
establishment of a northern Ttalian kingdom by means of
French intervention, and he prepared for future events by
strengthening Alessandria, Oasale, and Yalenza, and by creat-
ing a great naval arsenal at Spezia. With regard to home
policy, he loudly denounced the revolutionists and republicans.
A national opinion, fostered by the means to whi(^ we have
adverted, was now beginning to prevail over the sects, and the
" National Society," oi^a^anized by La Farina, served to recall
many from Mazzinian affiliations. The last insurrectionary
attempt of Mazzini, at Genoa, proved a miserable failure.
With like views, Cavour conciliated Daniel Manin, the Vene-
tian patriot. Manin repudiated as he did.the plots of con-
spirators and the da^ers of assassins, and pressed Mazzini
to retire from a scene where he was only an obstacle to Italian
progress.
Tbeinfornai Cavour thought that he might securely reckon on the help
«.o«i»,«^ of Napoleon III., the insurgent in Romagna in 1831 for
Italian independence, when a detestable act seemed to shatter
his hopes. As the iSrench Emperor and Empress were pro-
ceeding to the opera on the 14th of Januanr, 1858, one
Orsini, who after the Roman revolution had taken refuge in
England, and hatched there his diabolical plot, discharged at
the Imperial carriages a so-called ** infernal machine," con-
sisting of a number of gun barrels, fired simiQtaneously by a
train of powder. Fortunately neither the Emperor nor
Empress was hit, but several of their suite, as well as by-
standers, were killed or wounded. England was denounced
at Paris as having hatched the conspiracy, and Count Walew-
ski, the French Foreign Minister, addressed a remonstrance,
couched in moderate terms, to the British Cabinet. It was of
course an absurd suspicion that the English nation or govern-
ment should abet assassination, but Uie French had some
grounds for it In the preceding year three Italians had
gone from London to Paris, with the design of taking the
Emperor's life, but were arrested and convicted. M^zini
was proved to have inspired this plot,^ and a member of the
British Cabinet, Mr. Stausfeld, was his professed admirer
^ Annuaire des Deux Mandes, t viiL p. 93. Mr. Stansfeld was in
conseqaence obliged to resign.
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Chap. LXXH.] THE imiON OF ITALY 181
and correspondent. The threats of some French colonels
occasioned in England the establishment of the Tolnnteers,
and the whole affair a change of ministry, Lord Palmerston
giving place to Lord Derby. By moderation on both sides,
however, the ruptnre of the French and English alliance was
averted, and the visit of Qaeen Victoria to the French Em-
peror at Cherbourg, on the reopening of that port in August,
1858, seemed to Asperse the clouds which had gathered on
the political horizon*
Strangely enough an event which threatened to upset all The
Gavour's plans served eventually to forward them. That pJ^aBml.
Minister having loudly denounced in the Sardinian parlia-
ment the crime of political assassination, some confidential
communications from Napoleon followed, and soon after a
letter, inspired by him, containing the embryo scheme of an
alliance between France and fiedmont. Cavour in con-
sequence, ostensibly on a pleasure trip, procured an interview
with Napoleon at Plombi^res, July 20th, 1858, where the
terms of the projected alliance were arranged. They com-
prised the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy by the French
and Italian arms ; the erection of a Northern Italian kingdom
of some eleven million souls in favour of Victor Emanuel,
and in return the cession of Savoy and Nice to France. A
marriage was also agreed ux>on between the Emperor's cousin.
Napoleon, son of Kmg Jer6me, and Clotilda, daughter of the
King of Sardinia.
Napoleon, who had much of the conspirator in his nature, Napoleon's
had formed this plot, for such it must be called, without the ^^^*^
knowledge of his ministers. There was no legitimate cause
of quarrel betwe^i France and Austria. The pretext put
f ortii was Austrian misgovemment in Italy ; Napoleon's real
motive, it can hardly be doubted, was to add strength and
lustre to his dynasty by the aggrandizement of France.
Piedmont also had not for the moment any valid plea for
a war with Austria. But her case was very difiierent from
that of France. The occupation of Lombardy by the Austrians
was a constant threat to her safety and independence, as well
as the chief bar to Italian unity.
Napoleon displayed his intentions on receiving the diplo-
matic circle on January 1st, 1859, when he expressed his
regret to M. Hubner, the Austrian Ambassador, that his
reLfttions with his master, Francis Joseph, were not cordial.
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132 MODEEN ETJBOPE [Chap. LXXn.
Such an aimoimcement so suddenlj and openly made filled all
Enrope with astonishment and alarm. Suspicion had how-
erer prerailed in some quarters of an approaching rupture.
In the preceding year. Piedmont had ostentatiously displayed
her enmity towards Austria, and reports of French military
preparations had been rife in diplomatic circles. Not only
the Sardinian official press, but the Chambers also had
a4;tacked the right of Austria to her Italian possessions,
whilst she, on her side, had redoubled her military precautions,
and renewed her ancient treaties with Italian States. Already
before Napoleon's declaration, the Austrian troops, which had
been largely reinforced, had taken up a threatening position
on the iHcino.
Victor Emanuel's speech on opening the Chambers at
Turin, January 10th, 1859, taken in connection with Napo-
leon's declaration, was calculated to remove any remaining
doubt as to the true nature of the crisis. He exhorted the
Parliament to meet coming events with resolution ; he bade
them remark the credit which the country had acquired in
the councils of Europe, but that such a situation was not
without danger, for if on the one hand treaties were to
be respected, on the other, they could not be insensible
to the cries of anguish directed towards them from every
part of Italy. The marriage of Prince Napoleon and Prin-
cess Clotilda, January SOth, threw further light on the
situation.
Views of Napoleon's views were set forth in a pamphlet published
f^^^ early in February, entitled " Napolfon HI. et I'ltaUe ; " which ,
though written by M. de La Gu^ronniire, was well known to
have been inspired by the Emperor. It insisted on the neces-
sity of reorganizing Italy, freeing it from foreign domination,
and reconstituling it on the base of a federative union.
Treaties were spoken of with levity as no longer answering
the needs of the time, and it was proposed to submit the
whole question to the judgment of Europe — ^Napoleon's
favourite resort in difficult emergencies, or when he wanted
to act the first part with a show of moderation. His i^>eech,
indeed, on opening the French Chambers, February 7th,
seemed to breathe of peace. He affected astonishment at the
uneasiness which had been shown ; reminded the Assembly of
his declaration, L'Empire &esb la paix, and in mentioning
Austria, adverted only to some difficulties about the Danubian
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Chap. LXXII.] THE UNION OP ITALY 133
Principalities, as if they bad been the occasion of his New
Year's declaration. When touching on the abnormal state of
Italy, where order could be maintained only by foreign troops,
he observed that it was not a sufiBident motiye for anticipating
a war. And he concluded by solemnly declaring that lus first
impulses, as well as his last judges, were Qod, his conscience,
and posterity.
But in spite of this declaration all Europe was convinced The
that war was imminent. England especially took the alarm ^^^j^^m,
and made some impotent attempts at mediation, which were i869.
answered only with rebuffs both at Vienna and Turin. In
March, Eussia suddenly proposed a Congress, and some
negotiations on the subject ensued, when a hasty step on
the part of Austria rendered war inevitable. She refused
to admit Sardinia to the Congress, and required, as a con-
dition of her own acceptance of it, that that power should
immediately disarm ; and on the 23rd of April she sent to
Turin an ultimatum to that effect, allowing only three days
for a reply.
Although Cavour ardently desired a war, his position was European
embarrassing. He knew that Napoleon III.'s character was ^S^^.
fickle ; that his policy had encountered great opposition in
France, especially among the Church party; that Count
Waiewski, the French Foreign Mioister, was not only opposed
to a war, but even personally hostile to himself. On the
other hand, the attitude of the rest of Europe was encourag-
ing. Although no active help could be expected from Eng-
land, her sympathy and mor^ support might be relied on.
Bussia was then un&vourably disposed towards Austria, and
on friendly terms with the Frendi Emperor, who had made
advances to her after the Crimean war. The Prussian Begent,
influenced by England and by the attitude of Eussia, perhaps
also by ancient jealousy of Austria, had refused to interfere
in the matter, and denied that it concerned the German Con-
federation. The South German States, however, supported
Austria, and ultimately, when war was no longer doubtful,
the Prussian Minister at the Diet carried a resolution that
the Confederate troops should be held in readiness, and orders
to that effect were given for the Prussian contingent, but solely
as a measure of precaution and defence.
On receipt of the Austrian ultimatum, the Sardinian iBtogiiii^
government demanded from Napoleon III. an immediate ^es^
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134 MODERN EUEOPB [Chap. LXXIL
succour of 50,000 men. A email body already assembled in
the south of Prance was at once embarked for Genoa, while
others took the road to Turin by the Col di Susa. The
Austrians, who had in Italy about 200,000 men, under the
command of Count Giulay, crossed the Ticino, April 29th,
though it had been notified to them that France would r^;ard
such a step as a declaration of war. By so doing they
abrogated the treaties of 1815, and put themselves in the
wrong with the public opinion of Europe. They occupied
Vigevano, Novara, Vercelli, and two or three other towns
wifiiout opposition, and with due diligence it would have
been easy for them to seize Turin, an open town, and to crush
the small, and as yet unsupported Piedmontese army. But
though they had displayed so much precipitation in their
diplomacy, their miHtary operations seemed struck with
sudden paralysis. Giulay showed the greatest indecision,
changed his plans every three days, advanced sometimes on
the right, sometimes on the left, bank of the Po, seemed to
stand on his defence rather than to take the offensive. Thus
time was lost till May 10th, when the allies had assembled in
force,
^e Italian Cavour had made the most active preparations, and he
^' accepted the help of the revolutionary party, except only the
Mazzinians, whom he threatened to fire upon if they stirred.
These irr^ular forces consisted of three regiments called
Caceiaiari degli Alpi, or Eiflemen of the Alps, led by Gari-
baldi. The Sardinian army, amounting to about 80,000 men,
was commanded by the King, having at his side General La
Marmora. Napoleon DI. took the command of the French
army. Before starting to join it he published a proclamation
denouncing the Austrian aggression, and declaring that Italy
must be liberated as far as the Adriatic. He was visited at
G^noa by Victor Emanuel, and next day. May 14th, he estab-
lished his head-quarters at Alexandria. The !EVanco-Sardinian
army now amounted to about 200,000 men.
The Italian We Can give only the main outline of the campaign.^ On
c^paign, ^^^ advance of the iJlies, Giulay retreated to Pavia. In
order to ascertain the position of the enemy, he directed a
reconnaissance in force on Carte^o, May 20th. The Austrians
^ It is fully described by Riistow, Der Italienische Kriefff Zurich,
laea With plans.
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Chap. LXXH.] THE UNION OP ITALY 135
haTing been beaten in an aifoir at Gtoestrello, retired to
Montebello, whence thej were expelled the same day, after
an obstinate and bloody fight. Expecting to be attacked on
the Po, Ginlay had weakened his force in the neighbourhood
of Lago Maggiore ; and Garibaldi took adrante^e of that
circumstance to seize Yarese, the Austrians retiring on Como,
May 23rd. Four days after Como also was entered. The
Piedmontese, under the King, crossed the Sesia, and attacked
the Austrians at Palestro, at first with doubtful success, but, .
being supported by a French Zouave regiment, completely
defeated them.
The attack in this quarter was intended to mask the ad- Battle of
vance of the French. G-iulay continued his retreat to an J^"***
elbow formed by the junction of the Ticino with the Po. On
the 1st of June G-eneral Niel entered Norara, after a slight
engagement ; and on the 3rd the French began to cross the
Ticino. On the 4th they gained the victory of Magenta,
chiefly by a skilful manoeuvre of McMahon, which procured
for him on the field a marshal's bftton, and the title of Duke
of Magenta. In this battle the Austrians are said to have
lost 20,000 men. Their haste in evacuating Milan, without
carrying off or even spiking their guns, revealed to the in-
habitants that their masters had received a disastrous defeat.
The municipality, except the Podestii, who fled, formed them-
selves into a temporary government, and sent a deputation
to Victor Emanuel, to announce their annexation to Sardinia.
On the 8th of June, that Sovereign, accompanied by the
French Emperor, triumphantly entered the Lombard capital.
Hence Nai>oleon addressed a proclamation to the Italiaiis in
general, calling on them to take up arms for the liberation of
their country.
On the same day that the Emperor entered Milan, the Battle of
French defeated the Austrians at Melegnano (anciently Ma- ^f'^^'
rignano), who now crossed the Mincio, deeming their position
impregnable through the so-called Quadrilateral, formed by
the fortresses of Lonato, Peschiera, Mantua, and Yerona.
Here they were joined by the Emperor Francis Joseph ; and,
on the night of the 23rd of June, they recrossed the Mincio,
to give battle to the allies. Both sides were unaware of the
position of their opponents. The Battle of Solvsbino
which ensued was a kind of haphazard affair, gained by sheer
fighting (June 24th). All three Sovereigns were present at
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
186
MODERN EUEOPE [Chap.LXXTT.
Napoleon
negotiates
atYilla-
franca.
Bevolt of
the Italian
Dachiee.
this battle^ and displayed great personal ooun^. Earlj in
the day the Piedmontese on the left wmg had experi^iced
several repulses, but after the taking of Solferino by the
Frenoh, drove the Austrians from positions which were be-
come untenable. The loss on both sides, and especially the
Austrian, was enormous. By the 1st of July the allies had
effected the passage of the Mincio, and the Austrians retired
into Yerona.
And now when the French Emperor seemed to be on the
point of completing his programme, when the hopes of the
Italians were excited to the highest pitch, and when all
Europe was wrapt in expectation, Napoleon suddenly stopped
short in his victorious career. On July 7th he despatehed
Qeneral Meury to the Austrian camp, with proposals for an
armistice, and on the 11th, after an interview with the Aus-
trian Emperor, the prelindnaries of a peace were signed at
YiUafranca.
Napoleon's conduct has been variously accoimted for. His
apologists allege his a^ — a little past fifty, the heat of the
weather, the sight of so much carnage, and the loss of so
many men. He is also said to have received news of the
prol^ble intervention of Prussia ; but, though some Prussian
corps had been marched towards the Bhine, they were not
intended to take the offensive. Austria, apparently from
latent suspicions, had declined Prussia's offer of an armed
mediation, and called upon her for immediate action, for
which Prussia was not inclined. What chiefly weighed with
Napoleon were probably two circumstances, both of which
might have been foreseen. One of these was the strength of
the Quadrilateral, and the necessity for some tedious sieges.
Anotiier was the enthusiasm displayed in the Italian duchies
for annexation to Piedmont. This formed no part of Napo-
leon's plan ; and lest the French should take alarm at some
dictatorships which had been erected in the duchies by Victor
Emanuel, he was careful to inform them in an official note in
the " Moniteur," June 28rd, that they were only provisional
and temporary. But here it will be necessary to cast a glance
at the proceedings in these States.
The news of approaching hostilities had agitated the Italian
duchies. In Tuscany, the government of the Grand Duke,
Le<^ld n., vras not oppressive; but he was bound to the
Austrian court by kinship, as well as by treaties, which, to
Digitized by VjOOQ l€
Chap. EXXn.] THE UNION OF HALT 187
the diaguBt of the Florentines, he was now called upon to fulfil.
Leopold had just made a journey to Borne and Naples, under-
taken, no doubt, with a view to concert measures of common
safetj; and his retium was marked by a more rigorous
Austrian policy. Many young men of the best Florentine
families now set off for Kedmont, to offer their swords to
Victor Emanuel ; and a meeting of the principal citissens ad*
dressed a paper to the Qrand Buke, expressing a wish for the
independence of the different Italian States, and their union
in a Confederation. Finding himself no longer master of his
actions, Leopold Quitted Florence for Vienna. A provisional
government established in the Palasszo Vecchio now besought
Victor Emanuel to appoint a governor of Tuscany, and Signer
Buoncompagni, the Sardinian Minister at the Tuscan court,
was ultimalel^r made Boyal Commissary. He formed a
ministry of which Baron Bicasoli was one of the most dis*
tinguished members — a man of austere and resolute character,
but of moderate political views. In the revolution of 1848 he
had supported the Grand Duke ; but» on his entering Florence,
on his return from Gaeta^ with an Austrian escort, Bicasoli,
in disgust, renounced his connection with the Court, and re-
tired to his domain of Brolio, near Siena, where he watched
with interest the progress of Piedmontese policy. The Tuscans
formed an army of nearly 20,000 men; but before they could
join the allies the Peace of Villafranca had been concluded.
Duke Ferdinand V. of Modena was also connected with the Modena.
Austrian imperial house. His government was despotic and
tyrannical, especially at Carrara, where the Austriiui major,
Widerkhem, enforced martial law* Some of the inhabitflmts
had been put to death, hundreds condemned to imprisonment
or the galleys. The movement in Tuscany excited an insur-
rection in Massa and Carrara. The Duke fled to the fortress
of Brescello, canying off with him a lao^ sum of money, the
crown jewels, ana the most precious articles from the public
museums and libraries. He also brought away eighty political
convicts, and cast them into the dungeons of Meuitua. The
Piedmontese government proclaimed tiiQ annexation of Massa
and Carrara, May 20th ; and after the battle of Magenta Duke
Francis retired into Austrian territory. The tricolor was now
hoisted, Victor Emanuel 11. proclaimed, and the historian,
Farini, appointed Piedmontese Commissary at Modena.
The nuld and indulgent government of Parma, by the
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
138 MODEEN EUEOPE [Chap.LXXU,
Dacliess Louisa Maria of Bourbon, as Begent for her minor
son, Buke Robert I., presents an agpreeable contrast to that of
Modena. She desired to preserve a strict neutrality in the war,
but such a course was impossible in a small State situated
like Ptoma. Notwithstanding the comparatiyely popular
government, the movement in Tuscany caused a corresponding
one in Parma. Towards the end of April a provisional junta
was formed, in the name of the King of ^rdinia, and the
Begent proceeded with her son to Mantua. She was shortly
afterwaKls recalled, but her restoration lasted little more than
a month. Finding herself compelled either to take part in the
war, or to violate her engagements with Austria, she retired
into Switzerland, June 9th. The municipal government, after
the evacuation of Piacenza by the Austrians, proclaimed
annexation with Sardinia, when M. Pallieri was appointed
Governor of the Duchy. The further history of these States,
and of Bomagna, wiU be resumed after describing the Peace
OF YlLLAFBiLNCA.
Peace of By the preliminaries the two Emperors engaged to promote
hancib. c^ Italian Confederation, with the Pope as honorary president.
Austria was to cede her possessions in Lombardy, except
Mantua, Peschiera, and the territory east of the Mincio, to the
Emperor of the French, who would transfer them to the King
of ^surdinia. Yenetia, though still under the Austrian sceptre,
was to form part of the new Confederation. The G-rand Duke
of Tuscany and the Duke of Modena were to re-enter their
dominions on giving a general amnesty. The two Emperors
would demand from the Holy Father some indispensable re-
forms.^ The preliminaries of Yillafranca were completed by
the Treaties of Zurich, signed November 10th. The most
notable difference is in the 19th Article of the Treaty of Peace
between France and Austria, regarding the duchies.^ It is
there stated that, as the boundaries of these States cannot be
altered without the concurrence of the Powers who presided
at their formation, the rights of the G-rand Duke of Tuscany,
of the Duke of Modena, and the Duke of Parma (now men-
tioned for the first time) are ea^essly reserved by the high
contracting parties. This is a variation from the engagement
that they should re-enter their States.
^ Doeument in Annuatre des Deux Mondes, t. ix. App. p. 978.
> Ihid. p. 994.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXII.] THE UNION OP ITALY 189
Zara and Venice threatened by French fleets, disturbances Cavoor
in Hnngaiy, and the defeats and losses which she had suffered ^^^^^
in the war, seem to have been Austria's motives for making a
peace whidi involved so considerable a sacrifice. Nevertheless,
the campaign must be pronounced a failure on the part of
Nax>oleon. He had not carried out his agreement with Oavour,
and could not, therefore, claim the stipulated reward. The
Lombards excepted, who had obtained their freedom, nobody
was satisfied with tihe result. It excited great discontent in
France ; and the address of the Emperor to the L^slature
(July 19th) betrayed an xmeasy consciousness that he had but
half performed the task which he had undertaken in the face
of Europe. Oavour's disappointment was bitter indeed. An
Italian confederation under Papal presidency, with Austria
as a member of it, and retainu^ a footing in Italy, still left
Francis Joseph master of the situation. When informed of
the peace by victor Emanuel, Cavour's rage was ungovernable.
He immedmtely resigned, and was succeeded by General La
Marmora and Katazzi.
The revolted duchies showed no inclination for the return Fanni,
of their former masters. Of all the central provinces, Bomagna, orSmi^.
which had also joined the revolt as soon as the Austrians had
been compelled by defeats to withdraw their troops from
Bologna and Ancona, most dreaded the restoration of its
former government. The Papal administration was, indeed,
about the worst of all those misgoverned States. Hundreds
of persons had been condemned to fine or imprisonment for
what were called erroneous political ideas, a liking for inno-
vation, want of attachment to the government, etc. The dis-
affection was almost universal, and shared by the highest
class, including the Marquis Pepoli, grandson of Murat, and
cousin of Nai>oleon III. An Assembly of an aristocratic
caste, elected by universal suffrage, unanimously voted the
abrogation of the 'rule of the Holy See, and annexation
to Sardinia. But Victor Emanuel hesitated to accept the
proffered dictatorship. Bomagna was in a different situation
from the duchies, and the question of the Pope's temporal
authority might involve many diplomatic complications. But
the King sent d'Azeglio as Commissary Extraordinary, who
organized a government. Soon after, Farini being offered
by the Assembly the direction of a&irs, took the tiUe of
Qovemor-general ; and,r on the 1st of January, I860, he united
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
140 MODERN EUBOPE [Chap.LXXH.
the three govenunente which he held, vis., Bomagna, Modena,
and Parma, to which last he had been appointed after the
peace of Yillafranca, under the ancient title of iBmilia. The
Pope compensated himself for the impotence of his temporal
weapons by resorting to his spiritual ones, and the singular
prerogative whidi he enjoys of consigning his enemies to
everhutting perdition. He fulminated in open consistory a
Bull of Excommunication against all the promoters, abettors,
and adherents of the usurpation (March 30th), which would
include the French Emperor as well as Victor Emanuel ; but
nobody was named. The bull was placarded in Some; but it
was necessary to post gendarmes to protect it.
Toflcany With regard to Tuscany, Ferdinand, Leopold's son — ^who
gj^i^^^ had fought with the Austrians at Solferino, and was now
become sovereign by the abdication extorted from his father
— proclaimed that he would adopt the national colours, uphold
the Constitution, and rec<^^ze the popular rights. But the
Tuscan municipalities voted the deposition of the House of
Lorraine by a large majority. Buoncompagni was recalled in
order that the proceedings of the people might appear entirely
free, and on the 1st of August he handed over his authority
to !l^casoli, President of the Ministry, who firmly repressed
all insurrectionary attempts. A newly elected Assembly con-
firmed the deposition of the dynasty, and unanimously voted
annexation to Sardinia. A nulitary League was formed be-
tween the central Italian States, including an agreement to
prevent x>ontifical restoration in Bomagna. The army of the
League was placed under the Piedmontese general Fanti, and
Gkuibaldi contented himself with the command of the Tuscan
di^sion.
Napoleon The tum events had taken was a source of much anxiety to
p^p^® the Sardinian government, and of very grave embarrassment
to Napoleon HI. He began to see that his idea of an Italian
confederation under the Pope was simply impossible ; that even
the temporal power of the Holy See, which he was pledged to
maintain, was in danger. The provisional governments, also,
established in the dudiies were of course oi^y temporary, and
it became every day more necessary that something decisive
should be done. To relieve himself from this difficulty he
proposed a Congress of the Powers which had been parties to
the Treaties of Vienna: the proposal was accepted, and it was
agreed that theCongress should meet at Paris in January,1860.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Chap. LXXn.] THE XJNION OP ITALY 141
Towards the end of the year Nax>oleon published a pamphlet
entitled Le Fcupe et le Congres, which rendered the assembly
impossible. It contained some verj absurd ideas. Borne was
to be conyerted into a sort of large monastery under the Pope ;
and though the citizens were to be without x>olitical interests
or passions, each of them would be able to say, " Ciyis Bomanus
sum ! " Pio None was urged to acquiesce in the independence
of Bomagna, to make large political reforms in his remaining
States, and to content himself with a nominal soyer^gnty at
Borne. It was maintained yery truly, but hardly in accord-
ance with the keying of French troops at Bome, that the
less territory the Holy Father had to goyem the less would
his spiritual authority be exposed to yicissitudes. This line
of argument raised a storm throughout Europe, and put an
end to the Congress. The French Emperor followed up his
yiews in a letter to the Pope, December 31st, in which he was
adyised to place the legations, which could be recoyered only
by force, under the yicariate of Victor Emanuel, and Europe
would then guarantee him in his other possessions. But such
yiews suited not Pio None nor his adyiser. Cardinal Antonelli.
About the same time, by replacing Walewski as Foreign
Minister by Thouyenel, Napoleon proclaimed the end of all
hostile diplomacy towards Italy. Indeed, between the signing
of the preliminaries of Yillafranca and the execution of the
Treaties of Zurich his yiews had already begun to wayer. In
a letter to Victor Emanuel (October 20th) he had proposed
seyeral yariations from the Villafranca programme, though
the idea of restoring t^ soyereigns was preseryed in the main.
In the same letter he still adhered to his scheme of a federa-
tiye tinion under the Pope; from which also before the end
of the year he began to yary.
The ministry of La Marmora and Batazzi, which had become cayonr
unpopular, seemed unequal to the importance of the crisis, ^^J* ^
and on the 20th of January, 1860, Oayour accepted a recall to iseo.
power. The yacillation of Nax>oleon encouragdd him to at-
tempt annexation of the central proyinces. Kapoleon now
withdrew from the responsibility of the situation which he had
himself created. He recalled the French army of occupation
from Lombardy, and left Cayour to proceed at his own risk ;
only stipulating that in case the annexation of the duchies to
Piedmont should be effected, France was to receiye Sayoy and
Nice as the price. A clear breach of the stipulations of Villa-
Digitized by V3OOQ IC
142 MODERN EUBOPE [Chap. LXXH.
franca. There could be no doubt as to the wishes of the
population of the central provinces, and to please Napoleon
Cavour adopted his favourite method of a pUbiscite, It was
held with a favourable result on the 11th of March, and a week
afterwards Tuscany and ^Slmilia were declared, by a royal de-
cree, annexed to Piedmont. Elections were then held through-
out the newly-constituted State for the first ItalianParliament.
This assembly confiimed the annexations, but not without
violent though ineffectual opposition, led by Batazzi, to the
cession of jNice and Savoy. By the cession of Nice, Gktribaldi's
birth-place, Cavour incurred his implacable hatred. The
English cabinet, with Lord Pahnerston at the head, made some
abortive attempts to prevent the cession of Savoy and Nice to
France. Even Austria refused to interfere, and, apparently
from domestic difficulties, quietly acquiesced in the flagrant
violation of treaties.
Thus the French Emperor obtained his share of the Plom-
bi^s programme by means which he had neither contem-
plated, approved, nor promoted ; whilst Cavour saw indeed
the Piedmontese kingdom enlarged beyond his expectations,
but with the annoying circumstance that Napoleon had not
fairly earned the ceded provinces. For the present, however,
he was prepared to acquiesce in what had been done, and to
leave the completion of his plans to some future opportunity,
when an unexpected enterprise of Gktribaldi's — ^which, but for
its success, would have been deemed one of the rashest and
most foolish ever undertaken— opened out to him the prospect
of a kingdom more extensive than he had ever dreamt of, even
that of ^1 united Italy.
Gkuft^di's The population of Sicily was dissatisfied with the govem-
ezpedition. ment, and ripe for revolt. " On the 17th of Apnl, a Sicilian
deputation had requested Victor Emanuel, then at Florence,
to take possession of the island, which, under present circum-
stances, he declined to do. But QuribEJdi saw before him a
magnificent field of enterprise. With the help of Mazzini he
collected at Oenoa a band of volunteers called the " Thousand,''
and on the night of the 5th of May he embarked them on board
two steamers which he had forcibly seized. He landed at
Marsala without opposition, though two Neapolitan frigates
were cruising in the neighbourhood. As he marched towards
Palermo his little force was increased by insurgents and by
deserters from the Neapolitan army. After some skirmishes
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXH.] THE UNION OP ITALY 143
jBkt Monreale and Oalatafimi, Palermo wa« entered almost with-
out opposition, although there were more than 20,000 regular
troops in the city and neighbourhood. The commandant
signed a capitulation on board an English man-of-war. Gari-
baldi's progress was now easy. The royal troops, though far
outnumbenng his, retured into Messina, after making a last
stand at Melazzo.
Cavour was alarmed as well as surprised at Guribaldi's rapid Garib&idi
success. The hatred which Garibaldi entertained for him, ^^^^^^'
had prevented any concert between them ; but Cayour, though
aware of the enterprise, did nothing to arrest it. He would
have preferred a federal union between North and South Italy
to annexation ; but when he saw that Gkribaldi would pretty
certainly succeed, he directed Admiral Persano to help him
with the Italian fleet. The state of the Neapolitan dominions
promised an easy triumph. Francis 11., who had recently
succeeded to the crown on the death of his father, Ferdinand
n. (May 22nd, 1860), had contrived in two or tluree months
to alienate the affection of his subjects by puerile reactionary
attempts. Garibaldi^ crossing the Straits early in August,
marched upon Naples without striking a blow. Frauds be-
trayed helpless irresolution. Instead of opposing the invader,
he tried conciliation by granting a constitution, offered to join
Victor Emanuel against Austria, appealed to France and
England for help, and on Garibaldi's approach retired to Capua
with 50,000 men ! ^
It now became necessary for Cavour to take some decisive
step. Garibaldi, elated by his wonderful success, seemed to
consider himself Dictator of all Italy, a title which he had
already assumed with regard to Sicily and Najdes. He talked
openly of going to Bome and Venice; steps which would
necessarily produce a collision with either France or Austria,
perhaps with both. He wrote to Victor Emanuel demanding
the dismissal of Cavour and Farini. Cavour knew that Gari-
baldi did not share the views of Mazzini and the republicans,
though he had many of them in his ranks, and that he sin-
cerely desired Itauan unity under, the sceptre of Victor
Emanuel. Cavour let him know that the King and his
government confided in him, but at the same time resolved to
take the movement out of his hands.^ To facilitate matters,
^ See Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi Tempi,
^ Cavour writesat this tinie: '^Ils'agitdeBaiiverl'Italiedes dangers,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
144
MODERN ETJEOPE [Ohaf. LXXTE.
The batUe
of Castelfl-
dardo.
Victor
Bmamielll.
at Naples.
Proelaimed
King at
Thnn.
lie is said to have tampered with and bribed several of
Francis II/s officers and councillors, and even members of the
Bojal family itself.
Garibaldi's progress could be arrested only by force, for he
was deaf to all considerations of policy. But to use force it
would be necessary to violate international law, by marching
an army through the Papal States. Fortunately, the Pope, or
rather his counsellor, Antonelli, had afforded a pretext for
such a step. Some dreamt of nothing less than reconquering
Bomagna, and with that view had formed a legion of adven-
turers of all nations, of whom the distinguished French general,
Lamoriciire, an enthusiast for the Pope, accepted the com-
mand, l^s force, which amounted to about 10,000 men, was
a menace to Piedmont, threatening to crush the new Italian
kingdom between itself and the Austrians posted on the Po.
Antonelli having refused to dismiss it, Cavour seized the pre-
text to despatch an army through the Marches to arrest
Garibaldi's progress. Kapoleon had been previously consulted,
who, as in the case of the annexations, left Cavour to act on
his own responsibility. A large Piedmontese force, under
Graierals Oiiddini and Fanti, defeated Lamoriciire, September
18th, at Castelfidardo, near Ancona, into which city the
French general retired; but as the Italian fleet, under Persano,
began to bombard it, he was obliged to capitulate.
Fortunately, Francis 11., by <Usputing Garibaldi's passage
of the Yoltumo, October 1st, had arrested his march, and
thus unwittingly aided Oavour's policy by giving the Italian
army time to come up. Victor Emanuel had now joined
Oialdini and accompanied his march. They fell in with
Cktribaldi at Teano, when the King gave him his hand, with
the laconic address, " Orasde " (I thank you). Their united
forces now marched to Naples, which the King and the Dictator
entered in the same carriage. Garibaldi had exchanged his
characteristic red shirt for a uniform, but he declined the offer
of a field^marshal's bliton.
Garibaldi, disappointed and di^usted, retired soon after to
Caprera. Before doing so, in his capacity of Neapolitan
Dictator, he proclaimed Victor Emanuel "Ring of Italy."
But it was deternuned that the Two Sicilies should choose
des manvais Drincipes, et des fous ; '* that is, the Austrians, the Maz-
^niaiiSy and the GaribaldiaBs.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chaf.LXXIL] the union OP ITALY
145
Kingdom,
1861.
their own soTereign bj a plebiscUe ; and, due precautions being
taken, Victor Emanuel was elected at the end of October. He
declined, however, to assume that title till it should be con-
ferred on him by a National Assembly. The first parliament
of the now almost united Italy, assembled at Turin, proclaimed
Victor Emanuel as its SoYereign,March 14th, 1861. Francis XL Fiandsn.
had abready surrendered. He had retired with the remnant of ^^]^
his forces into Gkieta, where he was besieged by the Pied-
montese army united with the Gbribaldians. The siege was
protracted through the equivocal conduct of the French fleet,
which seemed at first disposed to protect the town. This pro-
ceeding, which has been asmbed to various motives on the
part of Napoleon III., was probably caused by irresolution.
It is certain that he disliked the annexation of the Two Sicilies
to Piedmont, but he hesitated to strike a blow to prevent it.
On the withdrawal of the French fleet, and consequent bom-
bardment of the town by that of Persano, it capittdated, Feb-
ruary 13th. It had made an heroic defence, during which the
Neax>olitan Queen, Maria' of Bavaria, displayed remarkable
courage. Fnmcis 11. and his consort then retired to Bome.
Messina, the last place which held out for the Boyal cause,
surrendered March 18th.
Thus Cavour's policy had succeeded beyond his most Cavoiir'a
sanguine expectations. Instead of a kingdom of 11,000,000
souls, he had realized one of double that number. His
success in North Italy was, indeed, of a veiy different kind
from that in the South, but both showed the versatility of
his talent. The kingdom of North Italy was the calculated
result of a long chain of policy ; in the annexation of South
Italy, his merit lies not in any preconcerted plan, but in his
knowing how to use and direct the daring, but thoughtless,
adventimr who had brought it about without his foreknow-
ledge, and even perhaps, at first, against his will. The state
of Europe favoured the operation, which was approved by
some Powers and seriously opi>osed by none. They regarded
the Neapolitan revolution as a fait accompli, the conduct of
which was at all events better in the hands of a constitutional
king than in those of republicans and anarchists. Napoleon,
indeed, when appealed to by the Pope, made some show of
displeasure, and for a time recalled his Ambassador from
Turin ; an example which was followed by Bussia and Prussia.
Austria, whose domestic troubles prevented her from inter*^
VI. L
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
146
MODEEN EUROPE [Chat-LXXH.
IMfltarbed
State of
Italy.
The Pope's
temporal
Power.
f ering, contented herself with protesting. The British Cabinet
was not averse to the aggrandizement of Italy, and was satisfied
witii Caronr's engagement not to attack Austria, and to make
no more cessions to France. Francis Joseph could obtain no
promise of aid either from Prussia or Bussia. The Italian
cause was farourablj viewed in North Germany. On the
accession of the Begent William to the Prussian throne on
the death of his brother, January 2nd, 1861, Cavour sent
General La Marmora to Berlin to represent that the interests
of the two countries were identical — ^the establishment of
national hegemony.^ But Bismarck had not yet appeared as
protagonist on the political scene* and Prussian views on that
point were not clearly defined.
Cavour had achieved much, but a great deal still remained
to be done. Italian unity was not complete while Yenetia
and Bome held out; and their annexation promised to be a
work of much greater difficulty than that of the other provinces.
The Piedmontese rule remained to be consolidated in South
Italy, where it was far from popular. When Victor Emanuel
visited Sicily, his reception was the reverse of flattering.
Great part of the Southern Italians were Garibalians or
Mazzinians. On the Fete of the Nativity at Naples, the
hamlnno^ or Infant Christ, was dressed in Garibaldian
costume. Frequent risings took place in the provinces,
which were encouraged by the ex-£ing Francis IE. at Bome,
and by the priests, who sometimes led them. The French
garrison at Bome also indirectly encouraged, or at all events
countenanced, the half robber, half royalist bands, which dis-
turbed the Neapolitan dominions.
Of the Venetian and the Boman questions, the latter was
by fax the more difficult one. The liberation of Venice con-
cemed only one foreign Power, and had to be left alone for
the time. The annexation of Bome touched the views and
interests of all Catholic States, and involved the formidable
opposition of the Church. The more ardent Ultramontanists
maintained that the independence and sovereignty of the Pope
were necessary to his spiritual security ; that he must be fiee
not only at home from the domination of popular assemblies,
but also abroad from the dictation of foreign Powers ; and
^ On this point Oavonr remarked : " L'alliance de la Prnsse avecle
Piedmont agrandi est ^rite dans le livre f atar de rhistoire. " Masade,
Vie de Cavour, p. 4^. A remarkable prediction.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap.LXXH.] the union OP ITALY 147
that for these ends the possession of sovereign temporal
power was indispensable.^ The first of these postulates would
make the Pope an absolute and irresponsible despot; the
second is impossible. To make it feasible, the Pontiff should
be the greatest of all military potentates, for so long as there
is a greater he may be liable to dictation. And, as a matter
of fact, he had not been able for many years to hold his own
territories without the help of foreign bayonets. TheAustrians
had held Somagna for him since 1848, and as soon as they
evacuated it, the population threw off his yoke. At that
moment he was maintained in his own episcopal city only by
a French garrison. These evils were incurred through his
temporal power ; without which his spiritual authority would
have been greater and more respected. His temporal sov-
ereignty was a political solecism in modem Europe, and
utterly opposed to the princMes of modem society. The
views stiU entertained by the Soman Court are shown in the
Encyclical known as Quemta Cura, drawn up by the Jesuit
Perrone, and with the annexed SylWms, or list of errors,
published in December, 1864. Liberty of conscience and of
worship are treated as hallucinations ; the independence of the
civil power, the liberty of teaching and of the press, together
with many other things which more enlightened nations regard
as their dearest privileges are forbidden.^
Cavour's religious views were liberal, but free from that cavonr's
morbid hatred of the Church which characterized most of the ^^^'^
revolutionists, ffia nuLTitn was Libera Chieaa in libero 8taio
— a free Church in a free State, in accordance with which he
held that the Pope's temporal power must fall. He suppressed
some of the more useless monastic Orders, but he retained
such as did good by teaching or by charitable acts, as the
Sceurs de Cha/rUe and others. He had at first hoped to con-
ciliate the Pope by friendly negotiations, which proved fruit-
less. They were renewed, with the knowledge of the French
Emperor, after the march of the Sardinian army through the
Papal territories. Pio Nono was offered a large patrimony,
absolute property in the Vatican and other pakces, the main-
tenance of his sovereign rights, prerogatives, and inviolability,
with freedom from State interference in the afi&iirs of the
^ See La SowoeraineU Pantificale, par Monseigneur Dnpanlonp,
Ev^ne d'Orl^ans, p. 90 sqq.
3 See Zeller, Pie IX. et Victor JSmmanud,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
His tasks.
Death of
Gavour,
1861.
Garil>aldi's
Schemes.
148 MODEEir EUROPE [Chap. LXXH.
Ohiirch. Antonelli affected for a while to listen, perhaps to
get at the bottom of the Piedmontese plans, then suddenly
broke off the negotiations.^
To effect the legislative and administratiye assimilation of
so many very different provinces ; to reorganize the army of
the new kingdom ; to fuse into a single budget those of six or
seven States, while embarrassed at the outset by a deficit of
500 million francs (20 millions sterling) ; to allay the disturb-
ances caused by Garibaldians, Mazzinians, and Keapolitan
Boyalists — such were the gigantic tasks to be undertidken in
consolidating united Italy. It was necessary to dissolve
Gkuibaldi's army, which was done as gently as possible.
Some of the chidEs were made generals, while many of the
officers accepted commissions in tixe national army. Garibaldi
at Gaprera was furious. He overwhelmed Cavour and the
moderate liberals with abuse as traitors, and demanded a
national arming. Bicasoli in an eloquent speech in the
Chamber denounced Gkiribaldi. Ghbribaldi appeared in the
Chamber, April I8th, in his red shirt and American cloak,
and amidst violent uproar accused Cavour of fomenting
fratricidal war. But he failed to shake the firm and constant
mind of the great Minister, who persisted in his resolution to
dismiss the volunteers. The King brought about an interview
between them at the palace, and tiiere was an apparent recon-
ciliation. Cavour carried his point, and Garibaldi returned
to Caprera.
This contest with the popular, but unreflecting, hero, gave
a fatal shock to Cavour's health, already undermined by the
multiplicity of his cares and labours. On the night of May
29th he was seized with a violent illness, and on the 6th of
June he died. There will be few dissentient voices as to his
merits. He was essentially the founder of the kingdom of
Italy.»
Bicasoli, a declared enemy of the priests, now for a time
became Prime Minister. Napoleon made him promise to
undertake nothing against Bome, and French intrigues used
the democratic Action, animated by Mazzini and led by
Batazzi, to overthrow him. Batazzi then occupied his post.
(Garibaldi, meanwhile ill at ease in his retirement, was plotting
the seizure of Venice and Bome. He held a great democratic
^ Mazade. Le Comte de Cavour,
> See Stillman, The Union of Italy.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIL] THE UNION OP ITALY
149
Oongress at G^noa, in March, 1862, and assembled Tolunteer
corps at Bergamo and Brescia, with intent to inyade Yenetia,
but Eatazzi caused the greater part of them to be disarmed.
In the following June, Garibaldi, relying on the hatred of
the Neapolitans and Sicilians for the Sardinian government,
attempted another insurrection in that quarter, with the view
of marching on Some. He landed in Sicily and passed orer
to Calabria with some 1,200 men. But General Cialdini, who
had been despatched with some troops to arrest his progress,
caught him at Aspromonte. His men were dispersed, he
himself wounded in the foot, and carried to Spezia.
The repression of Garibaldi's attempt showed Victor
Emanuel stro^ enough to maintain order, and on the
strength of it he claimed to be put in possession of Bome,
when he engaged to guarantee the Pope's spiritual headship.
This demand offended Napoleon HI., and occasioned a change
both in the French and Italian Ministry. At Paris, Thouvenel
was replaced by Drouyn de THuys, who was more favourable
to the Pope ; at Turin, Eatazzi was succeeded by Farini. It
was the policy of Napoleon to keep Victor Emanuel weak in
South Iteij, and so dependent on him. With the same view
apparently, the French garrison at Bome continued to oonniye
at secret armings in favour of Francis II., and during two
years there were constant skirmishes in the mountains,
attended not only with much bloodshed, but also with the
most horrible atrocities.
At length, in the autumn of 1864, a suspected new coalition
among the northern Powers induced Napoleon to alter his
views. The evacuation of Bome would, it was thought, con*
ciliate England and sow dissensions among the new allies-^
Protestant Prussia, schismatic Bussia, and Catholic Austria.
There was at that time some misunderstanding between the
French and English Cabinets. England had given a flat
refusal to Napoleon's proposal of a Congress in November,
1863, while the enthusiastic reception of Ghuribaldi in England
in the spring of 1864 had caused the Italian government
much embarrassment. On the 15th of September of that
year a definitive Convention was conduded between France
and Italy on the sul^ect of Bome. Victor Emanuel under-
took not to attack the Pope's dominions, and to protect th^n
from all eoBtemobl assaults, while Napoleon on his side agreed
to the gradual withdrawal of his troops from Bome, to be
French
PoUcy.
Cooventioii
between
Napoleon
and Victor
Emanuel,
September
15,1884.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
150
MODERN EUEOPE [Chap, LXXIl.
Podtioii of
Italy.
Betraspect
of Ctonnan
AiZain.
completed within two years. The formation of a papal army,
recruited from various countries, sufficient to maintain the
Pope's authority without menacing Italy, was allowed. As
the French Emperor demanded some material guarantee, the
removal of the Italian capital from Turin to Florence within
six months was arranged by a protocol appended to the Con-
vention.^ The news of the change of capital caused a riot at
Turin, accompanied with considerable loss of life. To appease
these disturbances the ministry was dismissed, and La
Marmora, of Piedmontese origin, made President of the
Council. The riots, however, were renewed in January, 1865 ;
it is supposed at the instigation of Mazzini. There were cries
of ''Ahasao il re,'* and on the 3rd of February Victor Emanuel
left Turin for Florence.
Italy was now gradually taking her place among the great
European Powers. By the end of 1866 she had been recc^-
nized by most of them. In the autumn of 1864 Austria herself
had proposed to do so on the base of wH poseideiis, on the sole
condition that she should not be attacked for a certain number
of years. Thus, for the sake of her material interests, she
was prepared to abandon not only her allies the Italian
potentates, but even the Holy Father himself. But public
opinion in Italy would not have allowed the formal abandon-
ment of Venice. The internal unity of Italy was confirmed
January 1st, 1866, when the new codes of law came into
operation throughout the annexed provinces. The principal
features of them were civil marriages — a blow at the clergy —
and the equal division of property among children of both
sexes — ^a blow at the aristocracy. In the foreign policy of
the newly-created nation the first most remarkable features
are her treaties with Prussia, first by joining the ZoUoerein
towards the end of 1865, and on the 10th of April of the next
year by that momentous alliance which was attended with
such prodigious effects for both countries. But to explain
these matters we must take a retrospect of German afEairs,
which we have brought down in the preceding chapter to the
establishment of the Prussian Regency in 1858.
The internal troubles of Austria — one of the principal
causes of the loss. of Lombardy — ^became after that event
matter for serious consideration with the imperial Cabinet.
Text of the Convention in Anntiaire, xiii. App. p. 958.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXH.] THE UNION OP ITALY 161
Financial affairs, chiefly introsted to Jews, were badly managed,
and the debt continually increased. The army, administered
by incompetent persons, daily deteriorated. The superior
officers adopted a brutal tone towards their subalterns, called
the *' Bussian manner," and these again used the cane un-
sparingly on the men. An open contempt was displayed for
religion, and pro&*nity became the tone of the Court. To
these sources of weakness and decay were added open dis-
content, and eyen rebellion, in some of the various provinces
constituting the iU-cemented Austrian empire.
These latter evils were the most pressing. To meet them New
reforms were made in the various provincial Lcmdetctge, or coMtita-
parliaments, and a new constitution was framed for the whole ^^^
empire, which was proclaimed Eebruaiy 26ib., 1861. The
Emperor opened the new Beichgtag, or imperial parliament.
May 1st. It consisted of an Upper and Lower House, the
first named for life by the Emperor, while the second was
composed of 343 delegates from the different provincial
Landslage, Toleration was held out for Protestants, which
pleased many of the Hungarians, but the Archbishops, who
commonly obeyed in silence, ventured to express a hope that
the Catholic character of the monarchy would not be destroyed ;
and the Tyrolese, who are papists, refused to carry out the
new r^ulations.
It soon became evident that the new constitution would not Austria and
work. The Hungarians and Croats refused to recognize it, ^'^'"^wt-
and sent no delegates to the BeiehstoLg, Bohemia quietly
enjoyed these quarrels, while the Magyars, under Beak's
leadership, resolved to recover the national rights which they
had lost by their rebellion in 1849 ; but, for fear of Russia,
they offered only a passive resistance. Kossuth, indeed, in
London, and Garibaldi in Italy, agitated for an insurrection
in Yenetia and Dalmatia, to be followed by a rising in Hun-
gary, but without effect. General Benedek, a Hungarian by
bir&, was sent to conciliate his fellow-countrymen^ but neither
his persuasions nor his threats had any result. Addresses
J cured in demanding the constitution of 1848, and Francis
oseph at length consented to the assembling of a Hungarian
Parliament, which was opened April 2nd, 1861.
The programme of the constitutional party was that Hun-
gary was no Austrian province, but a substantive kingdom,
having only a personal union with Austria ; that the abdicated
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
162 MODEEN EUROPE [Chap. LXXH.
Emperor Ferdinand, now residing at Prague, their lawful
king, was not justified in having transferred the crown of St.
Stephen to his nephew without the consent of the Hungarian
nation ; but if he would declare his abdication, and if Francis
Joseph would submit to be crowned after the ancient fashion,
no further resistance would be offered. The Emperor would
not listen to these conditions. He dismissed the Assembly,
sent large bodies of troops into Hungary, and collected the
taxes by force.
Prussia. Whilst Austria thus presented all the symptoms of decay,
Prussia, her younger and more vigorous riyal, was preparing
for the struggle for supremacy. Under the weak reign of
Frederick WiUiam lY., and the administration of what was
called the Kreuz party, she had considerably retrograded.
The accession of the Prince of Prussia to the Begency threw
somewhat more vigour into the counsels of the Berlin Cabinet.
But some years were still to elapse during which Prussia sub-
mitted, for the most part, to follow in the wake of Austria.
The programme of the Begent and of the new Ministry under
Prince Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen, a puisne prince of the
royal house, was to discountenance all liberal revolutions, to
respect Boman Catholic rights, but, at the same time, to
cherish the evangelical union, to patronize learning and
science, and, above all, to bestow especial care upon the army.
Accession The accession of the Begent to the Prussian throne, by the
of William ^^^j^ ^f j^ig brother, January 2nd, 1861, and the deaths in
the same year of General Yon Glerlach and Privy Councillor
Stahl, two of the leaders of the Kreuz pa>rty, did not at first
cause much alteration in the policy of the Berlin Cabinet.
William I. was deeply imbued with feudal notions, and the
idea of sovereignty by the grace of G-od. Although of the
seven preceding kings of his house, the first only, Frederick L,
had been crowned, William celebrated his coronation with
great pomp at Konigsberg, October 18th. Taking the crown
from the iJtar, he placed it on his own head, and then on his
queen's. In his address to the Parliament he observed:
"The rulers of Prussia receive their crown from Gh)d;
therein lies its holiness, which is unassailable." But he failed
not to intimate that he would listen to their advice. This
speech, taken in connection with some measures of the
Cabinet, was regarded by the Liberals as reactionary, and
threatening a return to absolutism. That party had a ma-
Digitized, by VjOOQ IC
CHAF.LXXn.] THE UNION OF ITALY 163
jority in the Parliament wUeh assembled in Janiiaij, 1862,
and offered so violent an opposition that Prince HohenzoUem
retired in farour of Prince Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen. A new
Parliament proved equally refractory. The FortschriM party,
as it was called, or Party of Progn^ess, was, indeed, pleased
with the recognition of Italy, and with the treaty between the
ZoUverein and France, effected in March, 1862 ; but, in other
respects, the parliamentary opposition was just as violent as
before. The new Ministry was in turn compelled to retire,
when the King named Herr Bismarck Schonhausen President
of the Coun<nl, or Prime Minister, who from this moment
may be said to have guided the destinies of Germany as
Cavour had previously done those of Italy.
To compare Bismarck with Cavour implies that their work Bimuuck
was a good deal alike ; and, indeed, the state of Germany at ^SnSter.
this time bore considerable resemblance to that of Italy. It
presents the picture of a struggle for national unity achieved
at last, as in Italy, by its chief military Power, under the
guidance of a remarkable statesman. In both countries these
Powers were ruled by patriotic and energetic sovereigns,
soldiers by profession. But some differences must be observed.
Germany had already a federative union, and was not made
up, like Italy, of a number of wholly independent States.
In Germany, again, the struggle was entirely national. There
was no foreigner to be expelled, no need of foreign aid. But
the most striking point of difference is that G-ermany con-
tained two great military Powers, by whose rivalry, and the
idtimate ascendancy of one of them, unity was effected. Be-
sides these two Powers, there was a number of minor States,
fearful of losing the prerogatives conferred upon them by the
treaties of Vienna, and as they could not stand alone, for the
most part satellites of Austria. But their safety chiefly lay
in keeping both Austria and Prussia from becoming pre-
dominant, and in fomenting the mutual hatred and jealousy
of those Powers. Hence l^ese middle States were the chidE
obstruction to German unity. At one time, as we have said,
under the leadership of Yon Beust, the Saxon Minister, they
entertained the idea of effecting a union among themselves,
and thus forming a German Timd, which woidd have made
confusion worse confounded. During the period under review^
therefore, the interest of German Ljstorv centres in the dis-
putes between Austria and Prussia. These concerned, of
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
164 MODERN EUROPE [Chap. LXXH.
course, questions relating to the Confederation, such as the
fortifying and garrisoning of federal fortresses, like Ulm and
Rastadt, the goyemment of electoral Hesse, and questions of
the like nature.
TheNa- , The war in Italy and peace of Yillafranca had much in-
ftwSded!**" fluence on German affairs. They not only widened the
breach between Austria and Prussia — the former Power com-
plaining that she had been shamefully abandoned — ^but also
caused a great national moTement, by having displayed the
impotence of the Confederation. One of their first effects
was the foundation of the NcUionaherein, or National Asso-
ciation, formed at Eisenach towards the end of July, 1859,
by the radical HanoTerian, Baron Benigsen, and Herr Metz,
of Darmstadt, and patronized by Duke Ernest II. of Saze-
Coburg-Gk)tha. Its programme was to substitute for the
Bimd the German Constitution of 1848 — a German Parlia-
ment constituent and sovereign, and Germany united under
the hegemony of Prussia, with Austria excluded. This asso-
The^onn. ciatiou was soon after opposed by another, called the Befarm-
^^^ ' ff&rein, founded in 1862 by what was called the Great German
Party. The national interests were the watchword of both ;
but the first was for Prussia, the second for Austria. Neither
of them, however, did anything but talk.
Biflmarck The history of the German Bund, as Professor Yon Sybel
^^^ has remarked, is the history of a protracted malady, which
began with its birth in 1815. By means of its Diet, a Con-
gress of Princes, manipulated with consummate skill by Met-
tomich, Austria and the reactionary party had triumphed
for a long series of years, and even at Berlin. Bismarck
himself, though a Prussian JtmA;er, had been, as we have said,
a member of the Kreuz party, and an advocate of Austrian
supremacy. His experience as Prussian envoy at the Diet,
and subsequent ambassadorships to Paris and St. Peters-
burg, altered and extended his views. He saw that Germany,
to be strong, must be reconstructed, that Prussia alone was
equal to the task, but not before she had been strengthened.
Soon after his accession to power, he is said to have remarked
that the questions which agitated the German Fatherland
could not be decided by speeches and votes, but by blood and
iron. With this view, assisted by Yon Roon, the Minister at
War, he reformed and increased the army. Hence the Par-
liamentary opposition to which we have iiUuded. The de-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Chap. LXXn.] THE UNION OF ITAIiT
155
The ZoU-
▼erein.
mocrats hated nothing so much as a strong goyemment, and
Bismarck was assailed with the most yirulent abuse. But he
persisted in his plans, in which he was supported bj King
William I., who declared in the Chamber that the reformation
of the armj was his own work, that he was proud of it, and
would carry it through.
The ZoUverein, or Customs Union, formed by Prussia,
enabled her to speak with authority. Austria was excluded
from the treaty with France already mentioned, and to the
minor. States she intimated that if they would not join it they
must quit the ZoUverein. The demand of Ausisia for ad-
mittance was supported by these States, who threatened to
quit the ZoUverein in case of refusal. But Prussia persisted,
well knowing that the benefits which they derived from it
were greater than anything that Austria could offer to them.
This of course inflamed the quarrel between the two great
Powers. Austria now proposed to seyeral of the States a
separate Parliament for general affairs, to sit side by side
with the Diet. The proposal was supported by the four German
Kings and several Ihinces. Bismarck now adopted a high tone.
He declared that Prussia would not bow to a majority of the
Diet, and was not bound to do so by the Federal Constitution.
Austria was further incensed by a remark ascribed to Bis-
marck, that she should remove her capital to Ofen ; which,
indeed, would have been more central for her dominions.
The unpopularity of the home government of Prussia seemed Unpopuiar-
to offer an opportunity for attack. After some secret n^oti- ^i;Ssian
ations, Austria invited the minor German Sovereigns to a Oo^em-
Fiirgterdag at Frankfurt, August, 1863. William I. was kept ™*"*'
in the dark till the last hour, and refused to attend. In this
Assembly^ Austria proposed a new constitution, which, as it
never came to anything, we need not detail. Its main features
were, a sort of I>irectory of five Princes, with the Austrian
Emperor as President, superior to the Bund ; a confederate
tribunal,and a national parliament, but of a very circumscribed
sort, in which Prussia was sure to be outvoted. This, it was
thought, if carried into effect, woidd tie P^ssia's hands ; if she
rejected it, she might be denounced as the enemy of German
unity. Prussia steadily rejected the importunities of the
minor Sovereigns to attend the meeting, and the project came
to nothing.
Austria^ now changed her front. Count Bechberg, her
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
166 MODEEN EUEOPE [Chap. LX YH.
Mimster, determined on (X)nciliatmg Prussia. Thisnnexpected
xinion of the two Powers staggered the middle States, neutra-
lized the power of the Diet, and paralyzed the patriotic associ-
Troaty ations. But the Nationdiverein had alreadj abandoned the
PraoSaaiid <^^^^ ^^ Prussia on account of the defensiye treaty which she
BnsBia. had made with Russia (February 8th, 1863), on the breaking
out of the Polish insurrection. The German democrats re-
presented this treaty as an offensiye one, and the National'
verein resolved to abandon its former €k>tha programme so
long as Bismarck should be Minister. The Prussian Chamber
displayed the most yiolent animosity towards the Ministry,
and the historian, Yon Sybel, took a leading part in the attacks
upon it. The President of the Assembly sometimes prevented
the Ministers from speaking, who dedared that they would
not again enter the House unless freedom of speech were
guaranteed to them. And, supported by the King, they set
at defiance the contumacious opposition of the Chamber.
Polish The Polish Iksubbbction just adverted to broke out at
^^'^. the beginning of 1863. Grave symptoms of discontent had
manifested themselves in Poland a year or two before on the
occasion of the police having interfered with an anniversary
celebration of the Polish victory over the Russians at Grochow
in 1831. Some lives were lost in the riot which ensued ; this
rankled in the minds of the Poles ; a general mourning was
adopted, even by the women, and other tokens of discontent
were displayed. The insurrection came at a very inopportune
moment for Russia. She was again looking after the " sick
man's" property, and had been stirring up revolt in the
Christian provinces of Turkey, which was to break out in
1863, but did not take effect. Great quantities of arms had
been sent into Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia ; the. Herze-
govina and Montenegro were in open insurrection ; and in
Greece the revolution was preparing which hurled Otho from
the throne.^ In these circumstancesan attempt was made to con-
ciliate the Poles. For this purpose the Emperor Alexander sent
his brother, the Grand Duke Constantino, to Warsaw, in June,
1862. Constantino had been recalled from his travels in the
preceding year on account of some disturbances in Russia, and
particularly at St. Petersburg. He was bold and energetic,
^ Febniary 16th, 1863. He was succeeded by George ol Denmark
in October.
Digitized by CjOOQ IC
Chap. LXXn.] THE TTSION OF ITAIiY 157
aad the partisan of a rigorous autocracy in Bussia ; but at the
same time, by his travels in France and England, he had im-
bibed many of the liberal ideas of the time, and a taste for
progress. He was accompanied to Warsaw by the Marquis
Widopolski, a native Pole, who was made chief of the Polish
Council. Wielopolski entertained the impracticable idea of
reconciling the Poles and Russians, and uniting them in the
Panslavist interest.
In Bussia itself much discontent existed, principally excited Emancipa-
bytheemancipationof the serfs, begun in 1857. Alexander II. rSL^
has received great credit for his humanity in this measure, but ^s*
it appears rather to have been dictated by policy, with a view
to break the power of the nobles. The alliance of despotism
with extreme democracy and the lowest classes of society is a
fact that has been often illustrated in our own time. Alex-
ander's principal design was to withdraw the serfs from the
influence of their masters, the hoyars, and place them under
his own. The measure caused great discontent among the
nobles and educated classes, who now saw no barrier between
the throne and themselves. There were demands for a Con-
stitution and a Parliament, and the discontent was manifested
by incendiarism in most of the great towns, including St.
Petersburg. Nor was the condition of the serf improved.
He was still attached to the soil and to his harden or com-
munity, which spared him less than the landed proprietor had
done. Similar measures, with the like views, were contem-
plated for Poland.
The state of that country under Russian despotism may be Riusian
inferred from the fact that in the first half of the year 1862, £l^d!
nearly 15,000 persons, or about one-fifth of the whole male
population of Warsaw, had been thrown into the dungeons of
that city. Count Andrew Zamoyski, selected to represent the
national sentiments to the Tsar, was seized, carried to St.
Petersburg, and thence into exile. Alexander 11. was for
some time doubtful what course to pursue. There were two
sets of counsellors. The old Russian, or Muscovite party, to
which Prince Ghortschakov belonged, followed the traditional
policy of the Emperor Nicholas, and was for mild and con-
ciliatory measures, with certain reforms. On the other hand,
the German, or " Young Bussia " party, invited by Prussia,
was for using the greatest severity. Their counsels prevailed,
and war to revolutionists became the order of the day.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
158
MODERN EXTBOPE [Chap. LXXII.
Conscrip-
tion in
Poland.
Heroism of
the Poles.
There can be no doubt that the Polish insurrection was
purposely excited by Russia. The method adopted was an
illegal conscription. Lists were made out of young men of the
noble and burgher classes, the most troublesome to Russia,
who were to be pressed into the army, while the peasants were
left untouched. Thus one of two objects would be attained :
either the disaffected woidd be rendered powerless, or, what
was both more probable and more agreeable to Russian policy,
a rebellion woidd ensue.
The measure was executed in the most brutal manner. On
the night of January 15th, 1863, Warsaw seemed to be sud-
denly converted into a town taken by assault. The conscripts
marked out by the police were seized in their beds ; where
they could not be found, their kinsmen, old men and boys,
were dragged in their stead to the citadel. A few days after,
the Russian official journal announced, with a cynical irony,
that the conscription had been peaceably effected ! Insult
added to injury was too much for human nature to bear, and
the insurrection sprung at once into life. Many marked for
conscription had escaped into the country, and were soon
joined by others from different quarters. Before the end of
January the insurrection was regularly oi^nized with a cen-
tral anonymous committee at Warsaw.^
In this disastrous stru^le the Poles displayed the greatest
heroism. The spirit which animated them is illustrated by a
combat at Wengrow. The Polish main body having been de-
feated by a superior Russian force, a body of 200 youths,
mostly nobles, to cover the retreat of their comrades, made a
desperate charge up to the Russian guns, and were killed to a
man. The warfare was of the gueriUa kind. It was at first
endeavoured to give the insurgents a more regular organization,
and with this view, Langiewicz, who had served under Gari-
baldi, was made Dictator. He collected some 12,000 men,
and established his head-quarters at Radom. But he was
interfered with by the Polish Committee in London, and by
their protege Microslawsky, who wanted the chief command,
and thwarted all his plans. Langiewicz was defeated by the
Russians, March Idth, and his army dispensed. He himself
escaped into Gkdicia, and was favourably received by the
Austrian authorities.
^ See Marten, Pohgne et MtMcovie ; Araminski, Histoire de la revo-
lution Pokmaiae.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAP.LXXn.] THE UNION OP ITALY 159
Austria at fibrst ostensibly feiTOured the Poles. The Yienna intenren.
and St. Petersburg Cabinets were at that time far from friendly. w«itm
Austria suspected and feared the Eussian plots to excite re- Powers
hellion in Turkey, which coidd not but be prejudicial to her
interests. Bussia, the foremost advocate of passive and slav-
ish obedience, scruples not, when it suits her plans, to foment
rebellion among her neighbours. Bismarck had endeavoured
to draw Austria on the side of Bussia. The treaty with Bussia
before mentioned made the question a European one. It has
not been published ; but the chief feature of it seems to have
been to allow the Bussians to pursue the Poles into Prussian
territory. When the Western Powers interfered, Bismarck at-
tempted to disavow it ; but practically it was carried into effect.
The French people sympatiiized with the Poles, but the Ger-
mans, who were averse to them, stood like a wall between them
and France. Napoleon III. was at that time well disposed
towards the Tsar, and unwilling to compromise one of the first
of Continental alliances. He observed in his speech on opening
the Chambers in November, that Alexander IL had faithfully
supported him during the war in Italy and the annexation of
Savoy and Nice. France, therefore, did not proceed beyond
diplomatic action, in which she was joined by England and
Austria. Lord John Bussell drew up some pedantic notes in
which he lectured Bussia on the treaties of 1815. Those
treaties had indeed secured for Poland many rights which
might now be sought in vain — religious freedom, liberty of
the press, equality before the law, the sole use of the Polish
tongue in public affairs, the filling of all posts, both civil and
military, by Poles alone, a national representation of two
Chambers, and several more. But of all these they had been
deprived after the extinction of their rebellion in 1831, and
to invoke them now was like calling spirits from the vasty
deep. The Bussians, of course, only laughed in their sleeves,
and more especially, perhaps, at the appeals which the notes
contained to Bussian magnanimity and demency. Gortschakov
made a semi-serious reply. Austria cared little for the Poles.
Her chief anxiety was for her province of Qalicia, though
probably she was not displeased with an opportunity to spite
Bussia. Oortschakov's answer to her note was short and arj ;
to France he replied with protestations of goodwill, inter-
mingled with sarcastic remarks about the dangers of revolu-
tionary principles. In June the three Powers followed up
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
160 MODEEN EUROPE [Chap. LXXH.
thdr notes by a joint one, in which, on the sn^estion of the
English Cabinet, the following six points were laid down as
the basis of a pacification : — 1. A complete and general am-
nesty. 2. National representation. 3. Public offices to be
filled by Poles. 4. Perfect religious liberty. 5. The Polish
language to be the official one. 6. A legal system of recruit-
ing. A suspension of arms was also demanded, and a Con-
gress of the five great Powers to settle the matter. Oorts-
chakoY replied that the Tsar had already made concessions
which were contemned by the Poles ; asserted that the centre
of the insurrection was to be sought in the revolutionary com-
mittees in London and Paris, and refused a suspension of
arms. The suggestion of a conference was contemptuously
met in the reply to Austria by a counter one for a conference
of the three Powers which had diyided Poland ; thus intimat-
ing that the Western Powers had no business to interfere.
Russia came yictorious out of the diplomatic contest. She
knew her own will, while the counsels of the three Powers
were divided and irresolute. The French and English ambas-
sadors at St Petersburg let f aU, indeed, some obscure threats
and on the 3rd of August the three Powers renewed their re-
presentations. But the season was now too far advanced for
naval operations in the Baltic. Early next month GK>rts-
chakov announced that the discussion was dosed.
w»rin Meanwhile the war had proceeded with increased intensity.
^ After the defeat of Langiewicz, the Central Committee gave
up the idea of another Dictatorship, and guerilla wa^are
was resumed, for which the numerous woods afforded great
facilities. It was marked by extreme barbarity on the pfurt of
the Russians. All Polish officers captured were shot or hanged.
Towns and villages were burnt, their inhabitants massacred,
prisoners put to death ; robbery and murder were the order of
the day. Several Russian officers committed suicide rather than
carry out their barbarous instructions, among them Colonel
Korf, who declared that he could not reconcile his orders with
his duties as an officer and man of honour. In the midst of these
horrors, the Central Committee conducted its business with
wonderful secrecy, under the very eyes of the Russian author-
ities. It exercised all the functions of a regular government,
raised taxes, granted passports, and ev^i passed sentences of
death. Its commands were implicitly obeyed, though nobody
knew whence they came. Once a treacherous workman be-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXH.] THE UNION OP ITALY 161
trayed to the Sussians the chamber in which the prodama-
tions and other papers of the Committee were printed. The
house was surrounded, the chamber searched ; only a large
chest was found, and in it the corpse of the traitor I
The insurrection had been propagated in Lithuania and the General
Eusso-PoHsh provinces, but not in those belonging to Austria meSodSr*
and Prussia, for fear of bringing those Powers into the field.
The mission of General Muiaviey into Lithuania with dicta-
torial power, was a sort of answer and defiance to the Western
Powers. His methods were death or Siberia and confi^scation.
Immediately after his arriyal he shot or hanged some of the
chief landed proprietors of the province, as well as several
priests and abb^s. He emancipated the Lithuanian peasants,
incited them against their masters, whose lands he promised
them. He is computed to have driven at least a quarter of a
million Lithuanians into the Steppes of Orenburg. His fury
was particularly directed against women and priests ; women,
indeed, were the soul of the insurrection. The schismatical
Church of Bussia has always displayed the utmost intolerance
and hatred towards the Roman Catholics. The clergy were
subjected to heavy contributions, and decimated by arrests.
Within the year 183 priests were apprehended. Colonel
Holler, Sussian commandant in Wilkomir, said in a circular,
" I attribute all the disturbances in Poland to the inclination
of the Bomish clergy for brigandage and rebellion, which is
common to them with Pio IX. and his Cardinals.''
The Grand Duke Constantino, who had not acted with the Extinction
expected vigour, quitted Warsaw in Aug^ust. General de Berg ^ ^^^^
now assumed dictatorial power, and imitated the example of
Muraviev at Wilna. He discovered some members of the
secret government, hanged five of them, and condemned six-
teen others, including four ladies, to hard labour in the Siberian
mines. Austria gave a death-blow to it, and at the same time
reconciled herseU with Bussia, by proclaiming martial law in
Galicia. One of the last brutalities of the Bussians was the
destruction of Ibiany, in the government of Kowno, in May,
1864, which had distinguished itself in the insurrection. The
principal inhabitants were put to death, the rest were trans- -^
ported into remote provinces, and their lands distributed among
Bcueolnik^, or old orthodox Bussians, the town was razed, its
very name efEaced, and the new colony was called " Nicholas."
iBy a decree of the Tsar, March 2nd, 1864, the lands of the
VI. M
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
162 MODEEN ETJEOPE [Chap. LXXH.
Polish nobles were given to the peasants, with only a nominal
compensation. Polish officials who did not speak Russian
were dismissed, and the Bnssian tongue was introduced into
all schools, l^e children of the poor were forcibly baptized
by Russian popes ; the rich had to pay for the prrrilege of
Catholic baptism. The same policy was pursued in subsequent
years. In July, 1869, the Polish university of Warsaw was
converted into a Russian one, and all lectures were to be in
that tongue. Shopkeepers and innkeepers were forbidden to
answer an address in Polish ; the speaking of that language
aloud in the streets was prohibited ; nay, fathers and mothers
were forbidden to teach it to their children! A German
author has truly remarked, that though some of the tyrants
of antiquity turned whole populations out of their lands and
homes, and sent them into strange lands, there is no instance
of their having deprived them of the use of their mother
tongue.^
1 Arnd, Gest^. der Jahre 1867-1871, B. L S. 352.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAPTEE TjTTXTTT
THB VBANCO-GBBMAK WAB
THE attention of Europe was diyerted from unhappy Poland
by other scenes of injustice, though not of equal atrocity ^c^
— ^the Qerman war against Denmark, and mutilation of that
kingdom. The Danish constitution of 1855 was a source of
constant disputes with Germany, but we shall pass them over
till the year 1868, when they were brought to a crisis. With
the view of getting rid of Gt^rman interference, Holstein, a
member of &e Gmnan Bimd, was declared, by a Danish
ordinance of March 28rd, to be autonomous and only person*
ally united with Denmark. This measure, it was stated in
the preamble, was in accordance with the demands of the
German Bwnd^ but not to be considered definitire. In &ct,
however, the Germans wanted something more. They desired
that Schleswig, as well as Holstein, should be autonomous,
and that the two duchies should be united ; and they asserted
that in thus separating their constitutions, it was the purpose
of Denmark to annex Schleswig. Nor was this charge with-
out some colour. In the preceding January the Danish States,
or Bigsdag, had voted an address to the King that he should
persist in his endeavours to draw Schleswig to Denmark, to
which probably he was not disinclined. And the marriage of
Alexandra, daughter of Christian of Glucksburg, who, by the
Treaty of London, 1852, had been recognized as heir to the
Danish throne, to the Prince of Wales (March 10th, 1863),
may have encouraged the aspirations of the Danish court by
the hopes of a strong alliance.
In the following August Austria and Prussia demanded
that the Danish constitution of 1855 should be abrogated;
that the project of a new constitution should be submitted to
an assemoly of the four Dtaiish States, viz., Denmark proper,
Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg; and that all four as-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
164 MODEEN ETJEOPE [Chjlp. LXXIH.
semblies should be on a footiiig of equalitj. A manifest
injustice ; since Lauenburg, with its popidation of 50»000 souls,
would thus become equal to Denmark. And they further
demanded that the mixed Danish and German populations of
Schleswig shoidd be put on the same footii^ as before 1848.
Negotiations ensued which came to nothing. On the 1st
October the Bund resolved on federal execution in Holstein,
and Denmark was summoned to withdraw the March ordi-
nance within a month. But Denmark was proceeding in a
contrary direction. On the 18th of Norember the JEUgsrctad
passed a law for a new Assembly, to consist of deputies from
Denmark and Schleswig only, to the exclusion of Hblstein and
Lauenburg. This certainly tended to the incorporation of
Schleswig, but was not actually such, as both States were to
preserve their particular constitutions.
Death of The question entered into a new ph ase b y the death of the
^^18^. ^^^ ^i^d incapable Sang Frederick Vii., November 15th,
only two days after the passing of the new law. He was
succeeded by ChristiaB IX., the Protocol King, as he was
called, of the Treaty of London. But the duchies were
claimed by Prince IVederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonder-
burg-Augustenburg, a major in the Prussian army, though,
as we have seen (mypra, p. 114), his father had renounced all
claim to them, both for himself and children. But the I^ince
maintained that he was not bound by this renunciation ; the
Holsteiners recognized him, and the majoriiy of the German
Bund supported him. Austria and Prussia, which had signed
the London Protocol, could not openly join this movement,
so they affected the part of mediators. But the Prussiioi
Parliament addressed the king to disregard the Protocol and
recognize Augustenburg, who was also supported by the
NationcUveremt the Orose DevUcKUmd Beformvereiny and the
FaHicuUmeU, as they were called, or opponents of unity, who
wanted a Triads and would have been glad to see another
State added. The more outspoken Germans confessed that
they were moved by interested views, for the Danish do-
minions contained some fine ports which they coveted.
Christian IX. being summoned by the Btmd to withdraw
the law of November 13th, requested time, as a constitutionAl
sovereign, to assemble and consult the Danish Bigftaad; but
this was unreasonably refused, and it was resolved to proceed
to federal execution. Austria and Prussia, in a joint letter
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXm.] THE PBABTCO-GEEMAN WAR 166
to the Diet, December 6th, stated that thej could not violate
the Treaty of London, " so long as they recognized its validity ; "
iQid as that Treaty protected Schleswig, they recommended
the Diet to confine themselves to execution in Holstein, while
they would take the case of Schleswig into their own con-
sideration. This unexpected agreement of the two great
Powers excited much surprise, and at first sight, indeed,
appears strange enough. But we have already seen that
Austria, at this period governed by Count Bechberg, was bent
on conciliating Prussia. She wanted also to watch over and
control Prussia, and to prevent her from enjoying alone the
fruits of victory. On the other hand, though Prussian interests
coincided with those of Germany, the democrats in the
Prussian PaarUament accused the government of returning to
the -poiiej of Olmutz, and refused a grant for the war.
By order of the Diet, at the instigation of Austria and Fedena
Prussia, 12,000 Saxon and Hanoverian troops, forming the fn^^tein.
army for federal execution, entered Holstein, December 23rd.
This was a clear breach of the Treaty of London by the kings
of Saxony and Hanover ; for those sovereigns, as well as the
King of Wurtemberg, had acceded to the Treaty, though the
G-erman Bumd had not. At the same time Austrian and
Prussian troops were posted on the Danish frontier as a re-
serve. The Danes evacuate d H olstein, by advice of the neutral
Powers; Duke Frederick VllL, of Augustenburg, was pro-
cMmed there, and joined the army of the Bund at Kiel.
Prussia connived at this illegal proceeding, though Austria
protested. Those Powers hwdi now rejected the Treaty of
London, which they had recognized at the beginning of De-
cember. On the 14th of January, 1864, they moved the Diet
that Denmark should be required to suspend the November
constitution within forty-eight hours, and that in case of re-
fusal Schleswig should be occupied as a pledge. England
and Bussia advised the revocation, but Christian IX. again
pleaded that he must await the sanction of his Blgwaad.
Hereupon it was proposed by the neutral Powers that a
Protocol should be made in the names of France, Great Britain,
Bussia, and Sweden, recording the intention of the Danish
Gk)vemment to make the required concession ; but this was
also refused by the German Powers, on the ground that if
they should stop short after preparing to invade Schleswig,
they would be exposed to disturbisknoe and revolution in Qer-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
166
MODEEN EUEOPE [Ch^. LXXHE.
nd
andfthe
Schleswig-
HoUteiii
Affair.
Napoleon's
secret pro-
posals.
rnanj. In short, thej were already resolyed to appropriate
Schleswig. Bismarck, on being asked whether his Govern-
ment stiU adhered to the Treaty of London, gave a yagae and
equiyocating answer. The yiew in Berlin was that if Schleswig
resisted it wonld lead to war, and that war pat an end to
treaties. So that a strong Power may release herself from
her engagements by making an unproyoked and unjustifiable
aggression. For Bismarck himself had declared in the
Prussian Chambers, in April, 1849, that the war then pro-
secuted against Denmark was a highly unjust, friyolous, and
disastrous one, to support an entirely groundless revolution.^
The affairs of Denmark had long engaged the attention
of the British Cabinet. Lord John Bussell, then Foreign
Minister, had protested, in 1860, against the interference of
the G-ermans in Schleswig. Li January, 1862, he had ener-
getically reproved the proceedings of Prussia, but in the
summer of that year he accompanied the Queen to G-otha, the
centre of the Q^rman Schleswig-Holstein agitation, where his
opinions seem to haye imdergone a change. In the autumn
he charged the Danish Gbvemment with neglecting their
engagements as to Schleswig, and proposed to them a new
constitution, which would haye tended to the dissolution of
the monarchy. It is unnecessary to describe it, as Lord
Pahnerston, then Prime Minister, pronounced it impractic-
able. In the autumn of 1863, when matters threatened an
open rupture. Lord Bussell, who seems again to haye changed
his views, addressed notes to the Frankfurt Diet, intimating,
in a haughty tone, that Great Britain could not remain an
indifferent spectator of German pretensions. On the 28th of
December the English Cabinet sent a copy of the Treaty of
London to the Frankfurt Diet, and inyited the European
Powers to a Congress, to discuss the Danish question. France
at once declined. Only a little before England had rejected
Napoleon's proposal for a Congress about Polish affairs. That
refusal was no doubt a wise one, for the French Emperor
proposed to open up the Treaties of 1815, and consequently
the whole state of Europe, which would have caused endless
debate and confusion. But the abrupt style of the reply,
^ << . . . ein h6chst ungerechtes, frivoles nnd verderbliches Unter-
nebmen, zur Unterstutzung einer ganz nnmotivirten Revolution. "—
Bev. des Deux Mondes, Sept. 15, 1868, p. 380. See also Dicey, Tke
SMeswig-Bohtem War; Rnstow, Der JJeutsehe-Daniaehe Krieg.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Ohap, LXXm.] THE PEANCO-GEEMAN WAR 167
which the French characterized as brutal, had giyen as much
offence as the refusal itself. The conduct of Fnuice, however,
throughout this Danish business was very equivocal, and the
kej of it must foe sought in some disclosures made foj Bismarck
in 1870. Napoleon III. had formed the project of playing
the same game with the Prussian Minister as he had done
with Cavour, and of getting an accession of French territory
by helping f^ussia in the same way. With this view a Secret
Treskij between France and Prussia had been drawn up by
Count Benedetti, the French Minister, which Bismarck neither
accepted nor positively rejected.^ In fact, he played the
political jilt, and led on Napoleon with false hopes till such a
course no longer served his purposes. Thus Denmark, a little
State of less than four million souls, was left alone face to
foce with her gigantic adversaries; for Bussia, employed in
stamping out &e embers of the Polish revolt, naturally had
no compunction for her, nay, may have even felt a secret
satisfaction that the acts of the G-ermans afforded some
countenance to her own conduct towards Poland.
Lord Bussell renewed his applications to France in January,
1864s, and proposed material aid, and at the same time he
addressed threatening notes to the minor German Powers.
Drouyn de THuys, the French Minister at War, contented
himself in reply with recommending '* benevolent " counsels
at Vienna and Berlin. Yon Beust, the Saxon Minister, told
Lord Bussell that no foreign Power had a right to interfere
between the Bund and Holstein, one of its States.
The two great Gterman Powers did not scruple to extend The Ger-
their operations beyond Holstein. The Prussian army, under g^Jg^®
General Wrangel, entered Schleswig, February 1st. By the we*.
19th they had seized Kolding. To tbe remonstrances of the
English Cabinet Bismarck replied, that this had been done
without orders, but nevertheless the occupation would be
continued. The Danes had extended and strengthened the
celebrated rampart called the Dcmnevirke, which stretched
forty English miles from the mouth of the Schlei to Fried-
richstadt, having the town of Schleswig for its centre. Behind
this fortification the Danish army, 50,000 or 60,000 strong,
under De Meza, was posted. The Prussians, under Qablenz,
having been repulsed in an assault, it was determined to
^ See Bismarck's own accoont in the Tableau Historique de la Ouerre
Franeo-Allemande, p. 385 sqq.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
168 MODEBN EXJEOPE [Chap. LXXHI.
tarn the position. Their right wing, under Prince Frederick
Charles, took Eckemforde, crossed the Schlei at Amis, and
having thus gotten into De Meza's rear, he was forced to
abandon the Dannefdrke^ with sixty guns, and retire bj
Flensboi^ to Duppel. For this unavoidable act he was
superseded bj General von Qerlach. Duppel, also a strong
place, after a long and brave defence was taken bj assault,
April 18th. Meanwhile the Austrians had occupied the
northern parts of Schleswig, and Duke Fredmck was pro-
claimed there as he had been in Holstein.
Conference In cousequonce of the German victories a Conference of the
li^^^^^' Great Powers had been summoned to meet at London, and
was opened under the presidency of Lord John Bussell, April
25th. Napoleon had insisted that the Btmd should be repre-
sented, though it had been no party to the Treaty of London,
and Yon Beust was appointed to represent it. A month's
truce was obtained, May 12th. Prussia required that the
duchies should be separated from Denmark, leaving open
the question of a personal union. As the Danes woidd not
consent, Prussia joined Austria and Saxony in demanding the
duchies for Duke Frederick of Augustenburg. Lord Bussell
now declared that, in order to satisfy Germany, it would be
necessary to separate Holstein, Lauenbui^, and the southern
part of Schleswig from Denmark, and he proposed a line from
the Dcmnevvrke and the mouth of the Schlei, the rest of
Denmark to be guaranteed by Europe. France assented,
with the proviso that the inhabitants of Schleswig should
choose their own sovereign by a pWyiscUet which was after-
wards modified to a vote of the communities. Denmark
accepted this line, but Austria and Prussia claimed a more
northerly one, from Apenrade to Tondem, and on this point
the Conference failed. Thus England tore up the Treaty of
1852, and agreed to the dismemberment of Denmark.
And now that the question was reduced to a strip of land
containing some 125,000 or 130,000 souls, Lord Russell pro-
posed to France that they should go to war to maintain the
line he had laid down. Drouyn de THuys asked, very sensibly,
whether, after suffering Denmark to be disintegrated, it would
be worth while to go to war now for so trifling an object ; and
he observed that ti^ough only a naval demonstration was pro-
posed, such a course affected France and England very differ-
ently, for the French frontier would be endac^red* v^iile
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIH.] THE PEASrCO-GEEMAN WAR 169
England would run no risk of the sort. Was Lord Bossell
prepared to give France unlimited support ? He seemed to
think that a threat would sufEice, but such a calculation might
fail Before the deplorable result of the Polish business, the
authority of the two Powers had not been lowered, but now
words without blows would be fatal to their dignity.^ It
must be allowed that this of itself was a sufi&cient and states-
manlike answer to the English proposal ; but France, as we
have already mentioned, had also other secret motives for the
policy she adopted.
Denmark had accepted a fortnight's prolongation of the Bngiand
armistice, although she had the best of the naval war, on the ^"^S^.
understanding that England would adhere to the line of de-
marcation which she hi^ laid down. But Lord Bussell, after
he had failed in his application to France, proposed to refer
it to arbitration ! Bishop Monrad, President of the Lower
House of the Danish Eiggrcuxd, said in his place : '* I cannot
explain how this proposal was consistent with Earl Eussell's
promise." ^ It is indeed very difficult of explanation, except
as a means of escaping from an embarrassing position.
The abortive Conference broke up June 25Ui, with a painful
scene. Yon Quaade, the Danish Plenipotentiary, reproached
the Ei^lish Ministers with abandoning Denmark after having
encouraged her to resist. Lord Clarendon replied that England
had promised nothing, which was no doubt literaDy true ; yet
all her conduct had been such as to inspire the Danes with the
expectation that she would help them. It is a sad chapter in
England's history. War is a dreadful thing and to be avoided
if possible ; even the doctrine of peace at any price is intel-
ligible, if accepted with its consequences^^isolation, contempt,
at last probably absorption by some more warlike Power. But
to be determined on peace, and yet to attempt dictation, is as
absurd as it is dangerous. Cobden, the consistent represent-
ative of the Manchester school, applauded the policy of keeping
aloof; but he complained that the want of sagacity of the
Foreign Minister had exposed him to rebuffs and the country
to humiliation. Apolo^sts of the Ministry allege that the
inaction of England was in a large measure due to the fact *
that English statesmen and public writers found, when they
lo<Aed into the matter, that the Danes were substantially in
^ Despatch of Ehrouyn de THuys, Anmuiire, t. xiii. App. ^9.
^ Annual Register^ p. 233.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
170 MODEEN EUROPE [Chap. LXXTn.
the wrong.^ If this be so, it inftkea the matter worse, for the
Ministry must have been treating the subject some years
without haying looked into it; and in this happy state of
ignorance they, at the yery last moment, brought the country
to the brink of a war about it ! Perhaps a better apology for
them may be, that they seem to haye been embarrassed by the
pacific policy of the Peelite section of the Cabinet, led by
Gladstone. England, as a French writer obseryes, in spite of
splendid budgets, was made bankrupt in reputation.* In the
debates whidi ensued on the subject in Parliament, the
Ministry were beaten in the Lords, and escaped in the
Commons only by a majority of eighteen. We now return
to the war.
Peace of The allies oyerran Jutland, but refrained from crossing oyer
i^J^ to Funen. Christian IX. was now compelled to sue for peace,
and preliminaries were signed at Vienna, August 1st. Chris-
tian, as rightful heir, ceded Holstein and Schleswig to Austria
and Prussia, yet at the London Conference they demanded
them for Duke Augustenbui^ ! Bayaria, Saxony, and Hesse-
Darmstadt demanded that Schleswig should be incorporated
with the German Confederation ; but the claims of the Bimd
were contemptuously set aside. Austria and Prussia had used
it as a stalking-horse, and permitted it to appear at the Lon-
don Conference ; but when the booty was to be diyided the
phantom disappeared. Bismarck instructed the Prussian
Ambassador in London to express a hope that the British
Gh>yemment would recognize the moderation and placability
of the two German Powers, which had no wish to (Usmember
the ancient and yenerable Danish monarchy, but merely to
separate from it parts with which further union was impossible.
Lord Bussell despatched a yery just and well-written remon-
strance ; to which Bismarck gaye no heed. On the 1st of
December Austria and Prussia, in a joint note, summoned the
Bund to withdraw from countries which belonged to them by
right of conquest; and the Hanoyerian and Saxon troops
eyacuated Holstein.
Pnuriaji Thus the one-headed and two-headed eagles had seized their
prey, but they were soon to quarrel about the diyision of the
spoil. At first they held joint possession, and in January,
1865, they established in the town of Schleswig a Qoyemment
^ Bryoe, Holy Roman Empire, p. 426, note (ed. 1876).
^ Annuaire, t. xiii. p. 382.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Ghap. LXXin.] THE FEANCO-GEEMAN WAR 171
in common for both dnchies. But such a state of things could
of course only be provisory. Austria, having little or no in-
terest in those distant countries, would willingly have traded
on the situation to get an extension of territory at the expense
of Bavaria, and overtures were made to Bismarck to that effect ;
who, however, did not entertain them. He felt himself to be
master of the situation. Austria feared to break with him.
For, besides her internal troubles, she dreaded the resentment
of Bussia about the Polish business ; the Venetian question
threatened an alliancebetween Prussia and Italy, and thefriend-
ship of France was ill»assured. Prussia now required to be put
in possession of so much territory as would enable her to pro*
tect the coast and harbours. But for this purpose, the military
system of the duchies must be an integral part of that of
Prussia. She must have a military road through Holstein,
and the soldiery must take an oath to Ejng WiUmm I. The
duchies were to be admitted into the ZoUverem, from which
Austria was excluded. Bendsborg was indeed to be a federal
fortress, garrisoned by Austrians and Prussians ; but, on the
other hand, the important port of Kiel was to be exclusively
Prussian. All this was virtually little less than annexation.
Thus little account was taken of the people themselves in
whose interests the conquest had been ostensibly made ; and
not only the Schleswigers but the Holsteiners also, began to
regret their former connection with Denmark. In December,
1864, the inhabitants of Schleswig, in a fareweU address to
Christian IX., expressed their sorrow at being separated from
" the mild rule of the Danish Kings." ^ The Prussians do not
appear to have mitigated the acerbity of their political pre-
tensions by conciliatory manners. When they entered Jutland
they had not only amerced it in a heavy contribution and the
supply of necessaries for the army, but also demanded luxuries
for the officers, as wine, cigars, tobacco, etc. A kind of secret
government under the Duke of Augustenborg was formed at
Kiel, which was protected by Austria and supported by the
German democrat with money as well as noisy demonstrations*
But in the midst of the hubbub, Prussia quietly took posses-
sion of Kiel, March 24th, 1865.
Austria had begun to perceive that she was being made a
^ The old sonff of <* Schleswig-Holstein " was altered as follows :
''Schleswig-Holstein stammyerwandt,
Sehmeisst oie Prenssen ans dem Land. **
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
172 MODEEN ETJROPE [Chap. LXXm.
Conyention cat's paw. The tinpopiilaiity of the Pmssian Gbyemnient
Jl^f**®^* seemed to offer a favourable opportunity for resisting their
pretensions. The Prussian Lower House opposed all Bis-
marck's measures, refused to pay the costs of the Prussian
victories, and assailed him with the coarsest personal abuse.
A new Assemblj followed the same coursa Austria now
supported in the Diet the Duke of Augustenburg ; whQe
PxiiBsia brought forward the claims of the Duke of Oldenbuj^,
and even revived some obsolete ones of her own. Bavaria*
SazonjyiuidHesse-Darmstadt, moved theDiet that thequestion
of a ruler should be decided by a general representative As-
sembly of the duchies freely elected. But, well aware that the
public feeling there was averse to Prussia, Bismarck declared
that he would adhere to the Treaty of Vienna, and that, if the
States were convoked, they must do homage to the Emperor
of Austria and the King of Prussia. He perceived that Aus*
tria must again be hoodwinked. The King of Prussia met
the Emperor of Austria at Bad Gkbstein, and after some ne-
gotiations the CoNVBKTioN OF Oastein was effected, August
14th. It was nothing but a prolonged provisoriunu HoliS^ein
was to be administered by Austria, Schleswig by Prussia,
Lauenburg was made over to Prussia, she paying Austria 2^
millions Danish rix-dollars. But though the Lauenburgers
had consented to the tranef er, it does not appear what right
Austria had to sell them. The other articles were conformable
to the Prussian demands already mentioned, except that Kiel
was to be a federal port. The King of Prussia was invested
with the sovereignty of Lauenburg at Batzeburg, September
27th, on which occasion Bismarck was made a Count.
This Convention has been justly styled the Austrian Olmutz.
It is said to have had secret articles, by which Austria was to
have a slice of Bavaria if she remained true to the Prussian
alliance. The allies let the Diet know that all future negoti-
ations about Schleswig-Holstein would be conducted without
their participation. The Duke of Augustenburg entered into
some mean negotiations witii the Prussian Gbvemment with
the view of retaining his sovereignty. But Bismarck had ob-
tained from the Prussian crown lawyers a decision that his
right, if it had ever existed, was abrogated by the Peace of
Vienna. Thus he had been by turns opposed, upheld, and
deserted by Prussia, as it suited her views. Both the French
and English Foreign Ministers denounced the Gastein Con-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXTTL] THE PEANCO-OEEMAN WAE 173
yention in unmeasured terms, the former caUing it worthy of
tlie darkest epochs of history. The Oonvention was a natural
consequence of French and English policy. The National'
verein also protested, and the Frankfurt Deputies branded the
acts of Austria and Prussia as unworthy of civiliased nations.
It was at Gkuitein, while professing friendship to Austria, that
Bismarck began his negotiations with Italy.
Austria was in a false position. She sought to drcumvent
Prussia by making herseS populalr in the duchies. Qablenz,
her goyemor in Holstein, was much more loyed than Man-
teuffel, the Prussian goyemor of Schleswig. With the same
yiew she encouraged the pretensions of Augustenburg ; though
this was clearly contrary to the Treaty of Vienna and the
Gonyention of Qastein, by which alone she had a footing in
Holstein. And to prepare for the ineyitable struggle— for it
was eyident that the present arrangements could not last — she
began to set her own aSaits in order.
The most material point was to conciliate the Hungarians. DiTioioii
Francis Joseph went to Pesth in July, and as a pledge of his Aiutrian
good intentions made some changes in the ministry. The Empire.
unpopular imperial constitution was suspended by a decree of
September 20th. At the reopening of the Beiehstag in Noyem-
ber, 1864s, which had been intermitted during the Danish war,
the Bohemians absented themselyes, as well as the Hungarians
and Croats. The empire was now diyided into two portions
east and west of the Leitha, Oount Mailath being set oyer the
former, and Count Belcredi oyer the latter. But this plan
gaye eyen less satisfaction than that which it superseded, and
was opposed by all the proyinces except Tyrol. The Hun-
garians addressed the Emperor for the restoration of their
ancient constitution, with only a personal union ; demands
which he would not then concede. To conciliate the Venetians,
a g^ieral amnesty was granted, and exiles were permitted to
return (January Ist, 1866). The Italians looked on these
concessions as a sign of weakness, for war between Austria
and Prussia was banning to appear ineyitable.
It is hardly worth while to inquire which Power was the
actual aggressor. Prussia appears to haye opened the diplo-
matic correspondence which ended in war ; but Austria gaye
the occasion for it. She had allowed a great popular meeting
at Altona in fo.your of Augustenburg, which demanded the
assembling of the Holstein Staies. Prussia regarded this as
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
174 MODEEN ETJEOPE [Chap. LXXHI.
a traitorous act, and Bismarck addressed a note to Yi^ma
(January 26tli), in which he accused Austria of promoting
demagogic anarchy and of being aggressive and revdlutionary !
Austria declared she would not be dictated to as to her govem-
ment of Holstein. Bismarck had observed in the Diet in the
preceding August that whoever had Schleswig must have
Holstein also ; and he carried out his policy of annexation
amidst the most violent opposition from the Lower Chamber,
and in spite of the fears of the Eong and Court. So unpopular
was he become with the democrats that an attempt was made
on his life.
Treaty Both Powers began to arm. In the middle of March Aus-
pj!^||[2a and tna sent large bodies of Hungarians into Bohemia on the
Italy, 1866. pretext of durtiurbances there, and in a circular called on the
minor States to prepare themselves for war. Prussia, on her
side, armed the Silesian fortresses, and sotmded the middle
States whether they would be inclined to side with her. She
found but few adherents among them. They were in fiivour
of piMiiculari8mu8^ and dreaded her absorbing tendencies and
warlike propensities. Bismarck must therefore look abroad
for allies. In the preceding summer he had made a commer-
cial treaty between the ZoUverein and Italv. While still
negotiating with Austria he assured her, April 5th, that
nothing was further from his intentions than an attack on
Italy, aad on the 8th he signed an alliance with Victor Eman-
uel ! General Govone had arrived in Berlin in the middle of
March to arrange it. But it had been concocted long before.
In opening the new Italian legislature, November 18th, 1865,
the King had hinted at an approaching change, which would
permit Italy to complete her destinies. Bismarck now began
to show his hand more openly. On April 9th, only a day affcer
signing the Italian treaty, Prussia demanded in the Frankfurt
Diet a Parliament elected by universal suffrage to discuss
federal reform.
In May, Napoleon HE. renewed his secret negotiations with
Prussia, proposing to help her with 300,000 men against Aus-
tria, and to procure for her additional territories comprising
from six to eight million souls, in return for certain cessions
on the Bhine. But Bismarck, fortified by the Italian alliance,
thought that he might attain his ends without the help of
France. He seems now to have definitely dismissed Napoleon's
suit, and to have told him, like another male jilt of antiquity,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXm] THE PKANCO-OEBMAN WAR 175
" Hand liflec in f csdera veni.*' The bigtorj is somewhat obscure ;
but the French Emperor seems now to have turned his atten-
tions towards Austna, and to have made a secret treaty with
that Power, which, among other things, included the cession
of Venetia to Prance/ Thus baffled by Prussia, Napoleon
resorted to his familiar scheme of proposing a Conference of
all the Oreat Powers ; but Austria would not consent to any
discussion of boundaries, and so the project came to nothing.
More negotiations went on between Austria and Prussia, Binnarek
containingwonderful insults on both sides: "Very instructive," ^^Saai
says Bustow, "for populations that would learn something." Suf^e.
Among these amenities was a circular of Bismarck's accusing
Austria of provoking a war with a view to help her finances
either by Prussian contributions or an honourable bankruptcy !
This circular was occasioned by Austria having pref ened in
the Diet, June 1st, a string of accusations against Prussia ;
declaring at the same time that she was ready to submit the
decision of the Schleswig-Holstein question to that assembly,
and stating that she had directed the Governor of Holstein to
summon the States, that so the wishes of the people might be
known. Bismarck denied the competence of the Diet, as at
present constituted, to decide the question, and denounced
Austria's appeal to it, and the assembling of the Holstein
States, as breaches of the Oastein Convention. In an extra,
ordinary sitting of the Diet, June 11th, Austria, on her side,
denounced Prussia as having violated that Convention, and
demanded that the Federal Army, with the exception of the
Prussian contingent, should be mobilized within a fortnight.
Before the Diet had resolved on a definitive answer, Bismarck
proposed to the different German Gk>vemments a scheme of
federal reform, of which the principal features were that
AustriaandtheNetherlands should be excluded from theBund,
and that the federal troops should be divided into a northern
and a southern army, the first to be commanded by the King
of Prussia, the second by the King of Bavaria. But the coup d&
maUre was that the constitution of the new Bund was to be
^ This does not appear to have been published ; but another, which
Napoleon proposed to Austria in the f ollowinff year, has been revealed.
The main feature of it is, that after Prussia snonld have been defeated
by France and Austria, the former should have Saarbrtick. Saarloois,
and Saarborg ; the latter, the Bonthem part of Silesia.— raitott Hia-
torique, p. 494.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
176 MODBEN ETJROPE [Chap. LXXIH.
settled bjaParliajnent elected by uniyeimL suffrage! The Con-
servative Minister who had lately denounced the milder pro-
ceedings of Austria as democratic and anarchical, assumed the
national cockade, adopted the programme of iJie NoHanaU
verein, substituted for the vote of an Assembly of sovereign
princes that of the populace, and proposed to make feudal
William I., king by the grace of God, head of Germany, by
the will c^ the people! Thus both Powers displayed the
grossest inconsistencies. Bismarck, whilst advocating a de-
mocratic Constitution for Germany, showed at Berlin his
contempt for the Prussian people and for the Parliament,
refused to allow in the duchies any other right but that of
conquest, and forbade the convening of the Holstein States to
settle their own government; whilst Austria, which had
ignored ^e Blind, in the Treaties of Vienna and Gastein, now
appealed to its decisions, and supported the pretensions of the
I>uke of Aug^stenburg, which she had repudiated in those
treaties as well as in tibat of London !
Meanwhilematters were coming to a practical issue, Gablenz,
the Austrian Governor of Holst^, csJled an assembly of the
States for June 11th, whilst ManteufEel, the Prussian Governor
of Schleswig, was directed, if such an assembly were summoned,
to enter Holstein with his troops, supported by the Prussian
fleet. Manteuffel invaded Holstein, June 8th, and the Aus-
trians, being too weak to resist, retired through Hamburg and
Harbnrg into Hanover. Augustenburg fled, and Prussia then
appointed Yon Scheel Plessen Governor of Schleswig-Hol-
st^.
Prussia The definitive answer of the Diet to Austria's demand for
the^d! mobilisation was given June 14ith, when there appeared to be
nine votes for Austria and six for Prusna. Those for Prussia
were the Netherlands, aU the free towns except Frankfurt, and
the rest were minor duchies. Hereupon the Prussian envoy,
after stating his case i^inst Austria, declared the Bwid dis-
solved, and signifying Prussia's readiness to forma new Bund
with States so inclined, left the Assembly. Such was the end
of the Confederation of 1815. Next day the war broke out.
Prussia sent her ultimatum to Saxony, Hanover, and Electoral
Hesse« which had voted against her, giving them twelve hours
to answer ; and as her proposals were not accepted^ war was
declared. There was no formal declaration of war against
Austria.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIH.] THE PEANCO-GEKMAN WAE 177
Austria liad regarded Prussia with contempt ; sucli also The
was the feeling in France, and perhaps throughout Europe. ^^^"^
The Prussian army was looked upon as a mere Lomdwehr, or
militia, totally unfit for ofFensive warfare. But Bismarck had
long been preparing for the conflict. In spite of persistent
parliamentary opposition, Prussia had a fund of thirty million
thalers in specie to begin the war. Every other preparation
had been carefully made. The service of the raUroads and
telegraphs had l^een completely organized. The troops were
armed with a new needle-gun, which enabled them to fire four
or five times for the enemy's once. Accurate maps had been
made of the future theatre of war, which were in possession of
all the officers ; so that a Frenchman who accompanied the
Prussian army describes them as manoeuvring on the enemy's
territory as on a parade ground.^ The Prussian railways were
more numerous and convenient than the Austrian. Add that
the Prussian troops were concentrated, while the Austrians
were scattered ; that thev consisted wholly of Germans ani-
mated with patriotism, whilst the Austrian army was for the
greater part composed of Poles, Hungarians, Italians, Bohe-
mians, Croats, etc., many of whom served unwillingly. For
the sake of security the various regiments had been intermixed,
though none of the privates and few of the officers could
understand one another. Nothing had been done to im-
prove the army, which was on the old and obsolete footing,
though the artillery was the finest in Europe. Austria, too,
as Bismarck was well aware, was ill prepared, and embar-
rassed by finAnnift.] and other difficulties. She had sent
164,000 of her best troops to defend Venetia, and the Italians
had declared war almost simultaneously with Prussia.
A fortnight after mobilization had been ordered, Prussia The
had 326,000 men under arms. Of the extraordinary campaign 5JSJf|*"
which followed, the military reader will, of course, seek the
details in the proper authorities ; ' we can here give only the
general outlmes. Some 60,000 men, under Yon Falkenstein,
were to act in Westphalia and the Bhenish provinces against
the hostile States of the Confederation. The remainder of the
troops, with 900 guns, under the command in chief of the
King, was to be employed in Bohemia. It was in three divi-
^ Vilbort, UCEuvre de Bismarck, p. 146.
^ See especially RUstow, Der Krieg von 1806.
VI. N
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
178 MODEBN ETJEOPE [Chap. LXXin.
fidons : one, under the Prinoe BojaJ, was posted in Silesia ;
the other two, under Prinoe Frederidi: Charles and General
Herwarth, were to enter Bohemia through Saxony, and,
marching eastwards, to form a junction with the Prince £oyaL
The whole campaign was conducted by Yon Moltke. The
Prussian problem was to insure the communication between
their forces in the east and west, to circumscribe the two
theatres of operations, and to prevent the Bavarians from
forming a junction with the Austrians. The Austrian army,
consisting, including the Saxons, of 240,000 men, under Field-
Marshal Benedek, stretched from Cracow to Prague, through
Prerau, Olmutz, and Pardubitz.
Campaign We will first cast a glance at the operations in the west.
of isee. Falkenstein seized Cassel and the Elector himself, who was
carried to Stettin, June 24th, while the electoral army retired
to Fulda. Hanover, with its territory, was next occupied ;
blind King Qeorge, with his army of about 18,000 men, re-
treating by way of Gotha and Eisenach, with a view to join the
Bavarians. Falkenstein, reinforced by Manteuffel and his
Prussians from Holstein^ after some manoeuvring and a bloody
battle at Langensalza, surrounded the Hanoverians at Warza,
June 29th, and obliged them to capitulate. ^Smg George was
allowed to retire wluther he plea^dd except into his own do-
minions ; his troops were disarmed and sent home. Thus the
Prussian communications were established, and the coalition
disorganized.
In the east the Prussians, under Herwarth, entered Saxony,
June 16th, when the Saxon army evacuated that country and
joined the Austrians in Bohemia. By the 20th all Saxony
was in the hands of the Prussians, and Dresden occupied by
a reserve brought from Berlin. Meanwhile Benedek had re-
mained inactive. He expected that the main attack would be
from Silesia, and that only a demonstration would be made
from Saxony, so he fixed his head-quarters at Josefstadt,
where he was within easy march of the Silesian frontier.
This mistake was fatal. To arrest the Prussian march from
Saxony he had posted Clam Gallas, with only about 60,000
men, including the Saxons, at Munchengratz, who, thus
isolated, was exposed to the main Prussian force.
The Prince Boyal, having the difficult task of bearing the
brunt of the Austrian attack on defiling thr6ugh the passes
of Silesia, waited till the other two armies had entered
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Chap. LXXIH.] THE FBANCO-GEEMAN WAR 179
Bohemia. These were to march to the Iser, while the Silesian
army followed the right bank of the Upper Elbe ; then, bj a
converging march on Gitschin and Konigshof, the united
force was to direct itself on Vienna, by Pardubitz and Brunn.
The armies of Prince Frederick Charles and Herwarth entered
Bohemia by Gabel and Beichenberg, both directing themselves
on Munchengratz. After one or two fights, especially at
Podol, where the Austrians were literally mowed down, the
two armies formed a junction. Clam Gallas, threatened by
a superior force, retired from Munchengratz towards G-itschen,
but beii^ defeated in a hard fought battle, retreated to
Koniggratz.
Benedek now saw his mistake, and resolved to recover the
line of the Iser. But this design was arrested by the move-
ments of the Prince Boyal, who, having discovered Benedek's
plan, after a demonstration at Neisse, entered Bohemia in
three oolums; the right by Landshut and Trautenau, the
centre by Wunschelburg and Braunau, the left by Beinerz
and Nachod. Benedek's danger now stared him in the face ;
yet he did nothing effectual to check the Prussian advance,
and contented himself with taking up a strong position at
Koniginhof.
After some fierce battles, especially at Nachod, the Silesian Bat«te
army forced the passes, and, advancing on Koniginhof, drove fgw?^^
the Austrians from it, Jime 29th. 0^ the same day Clam
Gallas was compelled to evacuate Gitschin. In the evening
the armies of the Prince Boyal and of Prince Frederick Charles
formed a junction on the Upper Elbe. Herwarth also came
up, and the three united armies formed a line of battle of
three leagues, facing that part of the Elbe which runs from
Josefstadt to Koniggratz. Benedek had concentrated his
troops before the latter place. A great battle was now in-
evitable. The King of Prussia had arrived, and fixed his
head-quarters at Gitschin. On the 2nd of July was fought
the Battle of Sadowa. The Austrians were completely
defeated, and fled towards the Elbe ; the bridges sufficed not
for their passage ; thousands were drowned, while the Prussian
artillery, playing on them from the heights, destroyed thou*
sands more. King William and Bismarck, as a kmdwehr
cuirassier, personally took part in the battle. The Austrians
lost 4,861 killed, 13,920 wounded, about 20,000 prisoners,
7 colours, and 160 guns. The Prussian loss was not much
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
180 MODEEN ETJEOPB [Chap. LXXHI.
more than half that number. Benedek retreated, first to
Olmutz, then to Ptessbnrg, followed bj the Prinoe Boyal.
Gablenz's corps and the Austrian cavalrj retreated towards
Vienna by Brim, pursued bj the other two Prussian armies.^
The Archduke Albert, the victor of Oustozza, had been
hastily recalled from li^j to take command of all the Austrian
forces, which he stationed on the left bank of the Danube. Bj
the 18th of July the King of Prussia had advanced his head-
quarters to Nikolsburg, within ten miles of Vienna ; so much
had the Prussians achieved in twenty-five days after entering
Bohemia. The French Emperor had offered his mediation,
which was accepted on condition of an armistice, during which
the preliminaries of a peace should be arranged. These were
signed at Nikolsburg, July 26th, on the following bases:
Austria was to leave the German Confederation, to rec(^^ze
Prussia's acquisitions in the North, and the new constitution
which she meant to propose for the Bund ; but she consented
to no cessions, except Venetia, and required that Saxony, the
only State that had given her any material aid, should be
restored in her integrity. Prussia undertook that Italy
should adhere to the peace, after she was put in possession of
Venetia.
ThePnuh Meanwhile in the West, Falkenstein, after defeating the
jI^^^ Bavarians and Hessians in several little battles, entered
Frankfurt, July 16th, which Prince Alexander of Hesse had
abandoned. Falkenstein took possession of this ancient city,
as well as of Nassau and Upper Hesse, in the name of King
William I. The Prussians had long owed the Frankfurters a
grudge ; the rich bankers and merchants of the free city had
been used to speak with contempt of the poverty-stricken
squireens of the North. The Prussian exactions were terrible,
and made in the most arrogant and brutal manner. They
were repeated by Manteuffel, who succeeded Falkenstein at
Frankfurt. The burgomaster is said to have committed
suicide. ManteufEel continued the war, and defeated the
Bavarians on the Tauber, July 25th. On the 27th Marien-
berg was attacked, and the citadel blown up. The Prussians
had also achieved other successes in this quarter, and before
they heard of the armistice, were in possession of Darmstadt,
and had entered Wurtemberg.
* See Hozier, The Seven Weeh^ War; Fontane, Der deutsche Krieg
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIH.] THE FEANCO-GEEMAN WAE 181
The definitiye Pbaob of Pbague, signed August 2drd, Peace of
confirmed the preliminaries of Nikolsborg. Besides the xm^*'
articles mentioned, the Emperor of Austria transferred to
the King of Prussia his claims on Schleswig-Holstein, with
the resenre that the inhabitants of North Schleswig were to
be retransf erred to Denmark if thej expressed such a wish by
a free yote. Prussia confirmed the existence of the Kingdom
of Saxony, but it was to belong to the new Northern Bund,
on conditions to be arranged by special treaty. The clause
respecting the retransfer of the North-Schleswigers, as well
as the imaginary division of Germany into two parts, north
and south of the Main, appear to have been inserted in the
preliminaries through the French mediation. But Bismarck
ultimately evaded the execution of the retransfer, and in the
negotiations with Denmark on the subject, maintained that
he was not bound to her, as she had not signed the Treaty of
Prague, but solely to Austria !
Bismarck had received the plenipotentiaries of the Middle
States with great handewr at Nikolsburg. He would treat
with them only separately. With Von Beust, the Saxon
Minister, who was highly disagreeable to the Prussian Court,
Bismarck would not treat at all, and he was obliged to resign.
The Prussian treaty with Saxony left her little more than a
geographical integrity and a nominal autonomy. Prussia was
to iUrect her military organization ; the Saxon garrisons were
to be of mixed troops, but that of Kdnigstein entirely Prussian.
Saxon diplomacy at foreign courts was also to be placed under
Prussian control. She, as well as Bavaria, Wurtemberg,
Baden, and Hesse, had to pay heavy indemnities. Bavaria
had also to cede districts near Orb in the Spessart and
Kaulsdorf, and an enclave near Ziegenruck. Hesse-Darm-
stadt ceded the landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, with pieces
of territory to complete Prussian communications with
Wetzler. The districts of Hesse-Cassel, north of the Main,
were to form part of the new northern Confederation.
Ad interim treaties of alliance, offensivie and defensive, were New North*
signed between Prussia and the States that were to form the •" *^*'
new Northern Brmd, till its constitution should be definitely
settled. A Congress for that purpose was opened at Berlin,
December 15th, and the new federal P&>ct was signed, February
8th, 1867. The subscribing States were, besides Prussia and
Lauenburg, Saxony, MecMenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg*
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
182 MODERN EUROPE [Chap. LXXHI,
Strelitz, Saxe-Weimar, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Meiningen,
Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Cobui^-Gotha, Anhalt, Schwarzburg-
Eudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Waldeck, the two
Beufis, Schaumburg-Lippe, Lubeck, Bremen, Hamburg, and
Grand Ducal Hesse north of the Main; Luxembourg and
limburg were left out. Saxony, the only State likely to offer
opposition, was militarily occupied by Prussia, and King John
came to see his new ally at Berlin. The States of the Con-
federation retained their domestic autonomy ; but, for federal
purposes, such as military organization and imposts, they were
subject to the decision of the Diet, or Parliament. The legis-
lative power was vested in that body, and a federal Council
composed of representatives from the different States. The
number of votes in the Council was forty-three, of which
Prussia had seventeen, or more than a third. The King of
Prussia, as President of the Council, had the executive power,
and also commanded the army of the Bund, Bismarck was
made its Chancellor.
Prussia also sought to extend her influence over the southern
States, and forced them into treaties with her by representing
the probable demands of Prance, who had, indeed, shown her
teeth. Secret offensive and defensive treaties were signed with
Baden, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg, for the reciprocal gaarantee
of territories, and in case of war, Prussia was to have the
command of their armies. They were also bound to her by
the Zolherein}
TheresnitB The results of the war for Prussia were the undivided hege-
-' ""- '^ mony of North Germany, her supremacy throughout the nation
by the overthrow of Austria and her exclusion from the Con-
federation, the military command of South Germany, and the
ground laid for future economical direction. The material
advantages were the annexation of Schleswig-Holstein, Elect-
oral Hesse, Nassau, Frankfurt, and some minor territories,
increasing her population to 24,000,000, to which must be
added, in a military point of view, 5,000,000 in the northern
Bwnd, and about 9,000,000 in the southern States belonging
to the Zolherein, Her territory was rendered more coherent
and compact ; she had received 60,000,000 thalers in indem-
nities, and she had obtained possession of military ports,
which rendered maritime development possible. King William
^ Malet, The overthrow of the Germanic Constitution by Prussia in
1866.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
of the War
onPraasia.
Chap. LXXm.] THE FEANCO^GEEMAN WAE 183
gained some popularity bj soliciting from the Prussian Par-
liament a Bill of Indemnity for the unconstitutional measures
he had adopted, to insure his success and Prussia's aggrand-
izement.
The first parliament under the new federal constitution was Miutary
opened September 10th» 1867. Seven permanent committees tib?of the
were appointed for the affairs of the Confederation, such as ^SSS^*^"
war, finance, justice, etc. As regards military arrangements, ^^
every citizen from the age of seventeen to forty-two was sub-
ject to serve in the army. This was divided into three bodies —
the standing army, the Landwehr, and the Landsturm, The
army is recruited by conscription, from which there is no ex-
emption. Conscripts, and those voluntarily enlisted serve
seven years in the standing army, viz., three with the colours
and four in the reserve. They then pass into the Lomdwehr
for five years, and afterwards into the Landsturm, till they
attain the age of forty-two. In time of war the Landwehr
may be called out for active service ; the Lwndsturm only in
case of national danger. The total force was computed at
300,000 for the standmg army, 450,000 for the Lcundwehr, and
360,000 for the Lanc^urm. The armies of the southern
States were estimated at 150,000 men in active service, and
42,000 Lomdwehr. As the total force was under the command
of the King of Prussia, and as the southern States were
members of the ZoUverein, all Germany may be said to have
been Frussicmized.
Thus Napoleon III., baffled, if not deluded, saw by the The aSaSx
sudden and unexpected success of Prussia, Germany recon- ^^^ISeo.
structed against his will, as he had seen Italy before. When,
after the rupture between Austria and Prussia, Napoleon III.
changed his secret alliance with Prussia for one with Austria,
his plan ^ was to look on till some decisive victories, which
were expected to be on the side of Austria, should threaten
the European equilibrium, when, at the proper moment, he
would intervene, and recast the German Confederation. His
"ideas" were to take Silesia from Prussia, and give it to
Austria, in return for Venice, ceded to Italy. In compen-
sation for Silesia and the Catholic provinces of the Ehine,
which would, of course, become French, Prussia was to re-
ceive large Protestant territories on the Elbe and Baltic, by
^ As explained in his letter to M. Droaynde THays, June 11th,
1866, cited by Klaezko, Bev. dea Deux Monies, Oct. 1, 1868, p. 528 sq.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
184
MODEEN ETJBOFE [Chap. LXXni.
Nai
failnrein
Mexico.
Hungary
and
Austria.
whicli she woald become compact, aad a bulwark against
Bossia. The combination, sajs Klaczko/ was profound and
yast ; it bad only one fault, but that was a fatal one — it did
not contemplate the possibility of a Prussian victory. It was
to be achieved by moral force, without drawing sword. Had
Napoleon placed 100,000 men on the Bhine, IVussia's scheme
might have been modified, if not overthrown. But the
Prussian victories did not allow time for reflection, and he
had confidently relied on Austria being victorious. Baffled in
his main scheme, Napoleon wanted at least to get something,
however small ; and having, it is said, made some secret de-
mands at Berlin, which were not attended to, he cast his eyes
on Luxembourg. He was ready to buy it from the Eing of
the Netherlands, who, on his side, was willing to sell, and
get quit of the German Confederation. Austria, England,
and Bussia intervened, and a treaty was signed at London,
by which Luxembourg was neutralized. Thus ended an afiEair
which at first threatened to disturb the peace of Europe.
Napoleon had just experienced another mortification in the
failure of his designs upon Mexico. France, England, and
Spain had, in 1862, despatched a joint expedition to Mexico
to obtain satisfaction for insults and injuries committed not
only on their subjects, but even on diplomatic agents, by
Juarez, President of the Mexican Bepublic. England and
Spain soon withdrew after obtaining what they considered
satisfactory amends. But Napoleon had formed the chime-
rical project of establishing in those parts a nation of Latin
race, as rivals of the Anglo-Americans, and continued the war.
In 1864, Mexico, with the title of Emperor, was offered to,
and accepted by the Austrian Archduke Maximilian, and a
French army of 25,000 men was sent to support him, which
took possession of the capital. But quarrels soon arose be-
tween Maximilian and his protectors ; the Americans, quit of
civil war, began to show hostility towards the new State;
public opinion in France pronounced itself against this dis-
tant, expensive, and ill-judged enterprise, and in 1866 Napo-
leon recalled his troops.*
Austria, taught wisdom by misfortune, granted to Hungary,
in 1867, the constitutional independence she had so long de-
1 Eev. des Denx Mondes, Oct. 1, 1868, p. 655.
^ Lef^vre, Histarie de PinterventionfranQaige au Mexique.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIH.] THE PEANCO-aEEMAN WAE 185
manded. The recondliatioii appeared to be complete, and on
the 8th of June Francis Joseph, after swearing to maintain
the ancient Hungarian Constitution, was crowned in the
cathedral of Buda with the crown of St. Stephen. At the
same time a separate ministry was constituted for Hungary
under the presidency of Count Andrassy. These measures,
the work of Yon Beust, the ^devcmt Saxon Minister, who had
succeeded to the place of Belcredi in the Austrian councils,
were accompanied with reforms in the western, or Cis-leithan,
provinces of the Empire, and with changes in the method of
administration to suit the altered circumstances.
In Italy as soon as the Prussian alliance was completed, Italian
preparations were made for immediate war. The King, with Sm!*^^'
La Marmora at his side, took the command in chief ; Quri-
baldi was at the head of the irregular forces, which flocked to
him in great numbers. Napoleon III. called upon the Italians
to disarm, but did not press his objection, and contented him-
self with declaring that Italy must take the consequences of
her act. La Marmora felt secure. The Milanese was in a
manner guaranteed by France, and by the Prussian Treaty
both Powers had engaged not to make a separate peace.
Hence Italy felt bound to decline the secret offer of Austria
before the war broke out to cede Yenetia to her if she would
renounce the Prussian alliance.
Yictor Emanuel passed the Mincio, June 23rd, 1866. Cial-
dini was to cross the Po, and operate in the rear of the
quadrilateral; Garibaldi was to seize the Trentino, while
Persano, with the fleet, threatened Yenice. Before these
diyersions were effected. General Durando, with only five
divisions, ventured a front attack, was easily defeated by the
Archduke Albert at Custozza, June 24th, and compelled to
recross the Mincio. Garibaldi had also been checked at
Monte Suello, in Tyrol. But Austria, as before related, now
recalled her army from Italy, and ceded Yenetia to Napoleon
in. The Italians would willingly have done something to
retrieve their military honour. After the withdrawal of the
Archduke, the Austrians retired into the fortresses of the
quadrilateral, when Cialdini overran Yenetia without meeting
an enemy, and occupied Bovigo and Padua. Persano was
defeated off Lissa by the Austrian admiral, Tegethof , with a
much smaller fleet; for which Persano was deprived of his
rank. The Italians now accepted the armistice arranged at
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
186 MODEEN ETTEOPE [Chap. LXXHI.
Nikolsburg. Oialdini was directed to retire behind the Ta^Ha-
mento, and Garibaldi was obliged to OTacuate the Trentino.
A clamonr was raised against tiie ministry, and La Marmora
found it neoessary to resign.
Peace be- After the Peace of Prague Marshal Lebceuf took possession
triTwid'"" ^^ Venetia in the name of Napoleon III. The Peace op
Italy, 1866. YzENNA between Italy and Austria was signed October 3rd.
Austria restored the ancient iron crown of Lombardy ; Italy,
at the dictation of France, abandoned the Trentino. According
to the &iYOurite practice of the French Emperor, the Venetians
were to decide by a plebiscite for annexation to Italy ; and the
Italians had to endure the humiliation of withdrawing their
troops lest they should influence the rotes. Annexation was
Yoted almost unanimously, October 22nd.
Prance and Eicasoli, who succeeded La Marmora, governed with modera-
itaiy. ^^^^ -g-^ ^j^ ^^^ ^ rabid enemy of the Church, but he was
for utilizing Church property and suppressing conyents. A
law for that purpose excited a revolt in Sicily, chiefly led by
the Benedictines, who possessed many rich convents in that
island. The rising, however, was soon put down. Bicasoli
was overthrown for having attempted to suppress public
meetings, and was succeeded by the more violent Eatazzi.
This minister carried out his predecessor's plans with respect
to the Church. It was decided, July, 1867, that ecclesiastical
property should be sold, and the produce administered by
the State, the clergy receiving a fixed salary. The property
of the Church in Italy was estimated at 2,000 million &ancs
(about og80,000,000 sterling) ; out of the proceeds were to be
compensated some 5,000 monks, distributed in 1,724 convents.
Eatazzi indulged in some underhand attempts to get pos-
session of Borne. Agreeably to the Convention of September
15th, 1864, the French garrison had been withdrawn from
Bome before the end of 1866 ; but their place had in some
degree been supplied by what was called the Antibes Legion,
which had been raised for the Pope's protection. This was
virtually a violation of the Convention ; for the Legion was
mostly composed of Frenchmen, who retained their position
in the French army. They were, however, ill-content with
the service and the climate, and desertion became frequent.
General Dumont, a bigoted Papist, who had formed the Legion,
was sent to Bome to restore order, when, putting on the French
uniform, he made an harangue to the soldiers, interlarded
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXm.] THE PEANCO-GEBMAN WAE 187
with abase of the Italian Qoyemment. Batazzi did not openly
respond to the call of the Chambers to repulse foreign inter-
vention at all risks, but he winked at the assembling of insur-
rectionary committees, and did not sufficiently provide for the
safety of the Pope. G-aribaldi appeared once more on the
scene, organized a rising at Geneva, and had got as far as
Arezzo on his way to Borne when Batazzi caused him to be
arrested. He was sent to Alexandria, where the garrison
gave him an ovation ; while at Florence the streets resounded
with cries of " Death to Batazzi! " who was obliged to shut
himself up in his house. Garibaldi was dismissed to Caprera.
When the French Government remonstrated against his con-
duct, he made many false and evasive replies. A few of
the insurgents, among them Garibaldi's son Menotti, en-
tered the Papal States, but were easily repulsed by the Pope's
troops.
Some more indirect attempts of Batazzi against Bome, by Garibaldi's
permitting Italian troops to cross the frontier in contravention ^1^^ ^
of the understanding with France, led to such serious remon-
strancesfrom Napoleon that Batazzi was dismissed, and General
Menabrea became Minister, with a Cabinet more agreeable
to the Emperor. Meanwhile Garibaldi had again escaped,
and Napoleon, advised of the anxiety of Pio Nono and Car-
dinal Aiitonelli, ordered his fleet to proceed to Civitfk Yecchia.
Garibaldi was favourably received in the places on his line of
march ; the Papal colours were pulled down, and the Italian
ones substituted. He defeated the Pontifical troops at Monte
Botondo (October 25th), which commands Bome on the north;
but before he could enter the city French troops had arrived
from Civitfk Yecchia, who joined the Papal troops in pursuit
of the now retreating Garibaldi, and inflicted on him a severe
defeat at Montana. Garibaldi, on gaining Italian territory,
surrendered himself to General I^cotti; and after a few
weeks' detention, he was again dismissed to Caprera.
The affair at Montana converted the cooling sympathies of
the Italians for France into hatred. The French, indeed,
evacuated Bome, but only retired to Civitk Yecchia, as if to
secure a constant entrance. But the time was fast approaching
when Bome, like a ripe pear, would f aU of itself into Yictor
Emanuel's mouth. Italy was still full of disorder. There
were many conspiracies and risings of Bed Bepublicans and
clerical and Bourbon reactionaries. The state of the finances
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
188 MODEKN EXJEOPE [Chap. LXXm.
necessitated increased taxation ; payment was in some cases
resisted, and had to be enforced by the military.
Bomeiiioor. Italian history presents nothing more of importance till
S^iuay, the breaking out of the war between France and Prussia,
1870. ' and the oyerthrow of Napoleon in 1870. Italy declared her
neutrality, July 24th, and the Government, foreseeing that
the war must have a decisive effect on the Boman question,
concentrated troops on the Papal frontier. The French, having
need of their troops at Civiti Veccbia, withdrew tbem in
August ; and after their fatal defeat at Oravelotte, Victor
Emanuel notified to Pio IX. that his army must enter the
pontifical dominions to preserve order and protect the Pope
himself a^^ainst revolutionists. The advance of the Italians,
under General Gadona, was opposed only in a few skirmishes.
When they arrived at Bome, the garrison was summoned.
As the reply was not prompt, a few breaches were made in
the walls, when the Pope ordered a surrender, and the Italians
entered Bome, September 20th. The people voted annexation
to Italy by a great majority, October 2nd. Pio IX. fulminated
the major excommunication, but without naming the King.
He had in vain applied to Austria and Spain. The latter
country had just accepted a sovereign of his opponent's
family.
The Pope The destruction of the Pope's temporal rule passed almost
^^^ unnoticed, overshadowed by the portentous struggle in Prance.
A new parliament, including deputies from the Papal States,
voted their incorporation with Italy, December 29th, and the
removal of the seat of government to Bome was fixed for the
following June. As if to compensate the Pope for the loss of
his temporal power, a great addition was made about this
time to his spiritual dignity. A General Oouncil, the last
since that of Trent, voted the Pope's infallibility by a large
majority, July 13th, 1870. The idea seems to have been
suggested by some Jesuits. It had often been debated whether
a Pope or a Oouncil were superior. To accept infallibility at
the hands of a Oouncil seemed an acknowledgment of its
superiority ; but to this it was replied, that it was not called
te confer infallibility, but merely te declare it. The decree
was opposed by many foreign bishops, some of them the most
strenuous upholders of the temporal power, as Monseigneur
Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans, and the Austrian Dr. Ddl-
linger.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Cha?. LXXni.] THE PRANCO-GEEMAN WAE 189
The war between France and Fmssia is connected with the ^^ ^^
affairs of Spain. The recent history of that country consists ^^^^
mostly of domestic dissensions, and those of an ignoble kind.
There were, indeed, many parties, as the Pan-liberab, the
Progresistas, the Democrats or Eepublicans, the Moderados,
the Clerical party, etc. ; but all^ with the exception of the
Eepublicans, who were few in number and without influence,
disputed only about the choice of a sovereign or a minister.
There were many sudden reyolutions, led by military men,
but none for any great principle. Centuries of bigotry and
clerical rule, the result of Phi^p II.'s policy and of the Inqui-
sition, had extinguished all public opinion, eyery noble aspira-
tion ; hence their endurance of Isabella 11., a woman who had
failed to gain the respect of her subjects.
But though Isabella was nominally soyereign, she did not
reign; that was the function of her Prime Ministers, and
hence a continual struggle for the post O'Donnell, Duke of
Tetuan, of Irish descent, was the best of these mayors of the
palace. Ostensibly of the Pan-liberal party, he made one of
his own out of the rest. Arrived at power in 1854 through
Espartero, whom he ousted, he was in turn driven out by
Karvaez, but regained his post in 1858, and retained it till
1863. His fall was occasioned by the withdrawal of Spain
from the Mexican expedition, which displeased Napoleon III.
He was succeeded for a short time by Mirafiores, and then by
Narvaez, whose reactionary policy caused O'Donnell's recall
in 1865. Isabella's favourite at this time was Marfori, a
domestic of the palace, and she, like her mother, sent large
sums abroad to support her numerous children.
One of O'Donndl's first acts after returning to power was
to recognize Italy, thus throwing over the queen's kinsmen,
the sovereigns of Naples and Parma, and insulting the Pope.
O'Donnell was not liked at Court, and having made himself
unpopular by many executions after a foolish insurrection at
Madrid, Narvaez again seized the helm in July, 1866. His
policy was retrograde. By a coup d'etat, December 30th, he
dissolved the Cortes, arrested 123 Members, and caused the
President, Bosas, and thirty*five others to be transported.
Narvaez died suddenly in April, 1868, and was succeeded senano
by €K)nzales Bravo, also an Absolidist. O'Donnell had also §JSf°^*
died suddenly at Biarritz, in November, 1867. Bravo trans-
ported sevend military chiefs, including Marshal Serrano;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
190 MODEEN EITEOPE [Chap. LXXHI.
but be, as well as tbe Queen, were soon oyertbrown. In Sep-
tember, 1868, Admiral Tapete bad prepared an insurrection
at Cadiz, wbere be was joined by Prim. Tbeir programme
was tbe sovereignty of tbe people. Serrano and otber banisbed
generals contriyed to return, and proclaimed uniyersal suffrage
as tbe panacea for Spain's ills. Beyolutionary juntas were
establisbed in several towns ; tbat at Seville first demanded
tbe fall of tbe reigning dynasty. Isabella, tben at St. Sebastian,
dismissed Bravo, wbo fled to France, and appointed General
Concba in bis place. But tbe Royalists were defeated by
Serrano at tbe bridge of Alcolea, on tbe Quadalquiver, and a
Provisional Gk>vemment was establisbed at Madrid, witb
Serrano at its bead, and Prim Minister at War. Barcelona,
Saragossa, and otber towns rose against tbe Queen, wbo fled
to fVance. Napoleon III. lent ber tbe cbateau of Pan, but
declared bimself neutral. A new constitution was promulgated
in June, 1869, and Serrano was elected Begent. He expelled
tbe Jesuits, dissolved many religious communities, and pro-
claimed liberty of conscience ; but tbe Pope's Nuncio still
remained at Madrid, witb a Spanisb stipend.
-^Mkdeo I., Tbe problem was, to find a candidate for tbe tbrone ; for
^ ^' Serrano and bis party bad no notion of a Bepublic. Don
Carlos, tbe rigbtful beir, bad been defeated, in 1860, in an
attempt to regain tbe crown, and compelled to renounce it by
an oatb. In 1865 arose wbat was called tbe " Iberian " party,
wbicb wisbed to unite tbe wbole Iberian peninsula under Dom
Luis, King of Portugal ; but tbe Portuguese were averse to
sucb a union, and Luis declined tbe offer. After tbe re-
nunciation of Don Carlos, Don Jobn, bis younger brotber, bad
claimed tbe crown ; and wben Isabella fled, be transferred bis
pretensions to bis son, Don Carlos, Duke of Madrid, wbo was
proclaimed by bis party as Cbarles VJLl. But be found few
adberents. Tbe Duke of Montpensier, Isabella's brotber-in-
law, proposed by some, was not approved of by tbe victorious
generals. Espartero decbned tbe proffeied crown. It was
tben offered to Prince Hobenzollem-Sigmaringen, and bis
acceptance of it, tbougb afterwards witbdrawn, occasioned tbe
fatal war between Fntnce and Prussia, under circumstances
to be presently related. During tbat war Spain declared ber
neutrality, and was one of tbe first Powers to recognize tbe
Prencb Bepublic, by wbicb it was followed. At lengtb, in
November, 1870, tbe Cortes elected tbe Duke of Aosta, second
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXHI.] THE PRANCO-GBEMAN WAR 191
son of Yictor Emanuel, who assumed the crown he had onoe
refused, and with it the title of Amadeo I.
The Franco-German war of 1870 was the result of Napoleon piMontent
IIL's political situation. The erents of the year 1866 had *"***"~-
occasioned great discontent in France. A strong opposition,
led bj Thiers and Jules Favre, made damaging attacks upon
the imperial government. It was charged with dangers in-
curred abroad from the establishment of Italian unity and of
the North German Confederation, which were attributed to
Napoleon's undecided policy, and to the principle of substi-
tuting nationalities for the ancient theory of the balance of
power. Other grounds of complaint were the abortive media-
tions in Poland and Denmark, and between Italy and the
Pope ; the congresses so often proposed in ram ; the failure
of the Mexican business, and of the designs upon Belgium
and Luxembourg ; the meddling with Eastern policy, and the
net of intrigues all over the world. Napoleon had become so
despotic that for some time he had not allowed the debates to
be published. The finances were in the greatest disorder, yet
900 million francs had been spent in reconstructing and
embellishing Paris. Personally the Emperor had lost much
of his former energy, owing probably to his bad state of
health. It was evident that personal rule could not last much
longer, and that even a successful war, though it might check,
could not avert its fall.
The years 1867 and 1868, however, passed over without Napoleon's
any very striking events. Napoleon perceived the necessity P«n»iexitie8.
for some changes. The Ministers who could not before appear
in the Chambers were henceforward authorized to take part
sometimes in the debates (January, 1867). As if prescient of
the approaching struggle, considerable reforms were made in
the army. In Paris and the larger towns the elections of 1869
were adverse to Imperialism. In July a new, bnt short-lived.
Ministry was formed, on the principle of parliamentary re-
sponsibility. The murder of Le Noir by Prince Peter Bona-
parte added to the unpopularity of the Imperial Court. To
disarm increasing opposition, a revised Constitution was
sanctioned by a pUbiseUe, May 8th, and a clause in it enabled
the Emperor to adopt that method to settle any disputed
questions. But it was ominous that 50,000 soldiers had voted
" No." A new Ministry was now appointed, with the exception
of OUivier, who retained office. Count Dam was succeeded
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
192 MODEEN EXTEOPE [Chap.LXXIH.
by the Duke of G-ramont, a pliant courtier, and Miarshal Niel
was replaced by the incapable Marshal Leboeuf .
The Spanish Sensible of the change of public opinion, except among that
Crown. ignorant multitude to whom he loved to appeal. Napoleon ELL
felt the necessity for some brilliant deed to retrieve the droop-
ing prestige of his dynasty ; and the acceptance of the Spamsh
crown by a prince of the House of HohenzoUem ofEerea an
opportunity to fix a quarrel on the Power which had principally
overshadowed his own glory. Prince Leopold was no member
of the Boyal Prussian house, though the offspring of a com-
mon ancestor many centuries ago. He had been selected by
General Prim for the Spanish crown, as possessing the reqxii-
site qualifications of belonging to a princely family, of being a
Boman Catholic, and of age. As a Prussian subject and
distant kinsman, Prince Leopold had requested and obtained
from King William I. permission to accept the proffered
dignity ; but had withdrawn his acceptance when it was found
to be opposed by the French Emperor. Napoleon III.'8
grudge a^inst Prussia had been aggravated by the prompt
and decided refusal of Bismarck in the spring of 1869 to help
him in the acquisition of Luxembourg and Belgium, on hu
allowing Prussia a free hand in G-ermany. It is said, indeed,
that Napoleon himself was not desirous of war, and his prac-
tices to obtain territory without incurring that risk, corroborate
this opinion. But he was surrounded by persons who urged
him on, the chief of whom were the Empress, the Duke of
Oramont, and Marshal LebcBuf . The French Cabinet was ill
informed as to the state of Germany. Their envoys had
reported a general dislike of Prussia in the Southern States,
and the probability of their supporting a French invasion.
The Emperor had also been deceived about the condition of
his own army, which LebcBuf had neglected, though he falsely
represented its efficiency.
France fixes The French Cabinet, not content with the withdrawal of
awweJon Prince Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen, required King William L
to pledge himself that he would never sanction his candidate-
ship for the Spanish crown, if renewed; and the French
Ambassador, Benedetti, rudely accosted the King with this
demand on the public promenade at Ems. It was of course
refused, for there was no alternative but humiliation. France
declared war, July 19th, 1870. The new German Constitution
was now brought to the test. The Northern Bund voted
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIH.] THE FEANCO-OEBMAN WAE X98
120 million thalers (18 millions sterling) towards the expenses ;
the Southern States, instead of the anticipated lukewarmness,
or even hostilit j towards the North, annonnoed with alacritj
their intention to take part in the war. A French aggression
was indeed precisely the thing to inspire Q^rmanj with but
one feeling, and to consolidate its unity. The Gtermans were
divided into three armies. Two, composed of North Oermans,.
consisted of 61,000 men under General Steinmetz, and 206,000
men, including the Saxon corps, under Prince Frederick
Charles. The South Gherman army, under the Prince Boyal,
amounted to 180,000 men, mixed with Prussians; total
447,000 men, with a reserve of 112,000. The whole was under
the command*in*chief of the Sing of Prussia, assisted by
Yon Moltke and Yon Boon. The King arrived at his head*
quarters at Coblenz, August 2nd. All the European Powers
had declared their neutrality. England alone had offered
mediation, which was declined by both parties.
The French were earlier in the field. Their army consisted CamMign
of about 300,000 men, and was commanded by the Emperor ^'^^^'
in person, with Marshal Lebceuf as chief of the staff. Eug6ue
was made B^ent during the Emperor's absence. The French
plan is said to have been to assemble 150,000 men at Metz,
100,000 at Strassburg ; and after uniting the two armies* to
cross the Bhine between Bastatt.and Germersheiin, and to in-
vade Baden, while Oanrobert covered the French frontier with
50,000 men. Had this plan been carried out before the Ger-
mans assembled in force, the war might have taken a totally
different turn ; but Napoleon lost a fortnight in unaccountable
inaction. His delay has been variously accounted for. Some
ascribe it to bodily and mental weakness ; others say that his
army was not in a fit state to advance, and thai the commis*
sariat broke down. However this may be, a defensive attitude^
so repulsive to French troops, demoralised the army. Napo>
leon made a show of taking the offensive by a futile attack on
Saarbruck, At^st 3rd, which the Germans did not mean to
defend. Young Prince Napoleon was present with his father
at what was called his *' baptism of fire." It was a mere
piece of stage effect. On the following day the defeat of the
French under McMahon at Weissemburg, by the Prince Boyal,
initiated an almost uninterrupted series of German victories.
McMahcm was 9igsAn completely defeated at Worth, August
6th, where he was wounded. On the same day, the army
VI. o
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
IM MODEBN EUBOFE [Chap. LXXIIL
under Prince iPrederick Charles carried the heights of Spich<>
eren. Both French wings being now compromised, they re.
tired into Frendi territory in the direction of the Moselle.^
By the middle of August the Germans had got into Lorraine.
Lun^rille, Nancy, and other towns surrendered to small de-
tachments of carahy . The command of the French army was
disorganized, Napoleon, still nominal chief, seemed paralyzed*
LebcBuf retiied and was succeeded by Baaaine, who made Metz
his centre of operations. HcMahon, who had retreated to
Ch41ons, and Trochu, who had also a corps at that place, were
to join him there ; but the pLin was frustrated by a manoeuTre
of Yon Moltke. Napoleon and his son had retired first to
Verdun, and then to Chalons ; whence, being coldly received
by the troops there, he went to Courcelles, near Bemis. In a
military view he was now become a cipher. At Paris de-
mands had been made for his abdication, and he was probably
afraid to go there; though it might hare been bett^ for his
dynasty.
Battles of The Battle ot Orayblotts, August 18th, the bloodiest of
Sod sediuD, the war, may be said to haye decided the campaign. The
1870. * Prussians gained the victory chiefly by their artillery, Von
Moltke having united eighty-four guns in one battery. But
there was a loss of about 20,000 men on each side. Bazaine
now thiew himself into Mets, where he was blockaded by the
army of Prince Frederick Charles. Yon Moltke directed the
army of the Crown Prince, with the Saxons, to march upon
Paris. McMahon, who was at Beims with 100,000 men, should
now have marched to I^iris, united all the French forces be-
fore it, and given battle there ; but the Emperor directed him
against his better judgment, to relieve Metz, and accompanied
his march. Being overtaken by the enemy's advanced guard,
several combats ensued, and especially one at Beaumont, near
Sedan, August 80th, in which the French were defeated, and
their passage through the Ardennes cut off. Next day they
were surrounded in a sort of amphitheatre, the heights of
which were occupied by the Clerman artillery. The German
^ For a full aecountof it wei The Fmneo-Gemum War^ 1870-1871.
Translated from the German o£Bicial aocount by Gapt. F. C. Clarke,
R. A. With plans. London, 1874. See also TaJbleau Ristoriaue de
la Ouerre Franco-Allemande, Berlin. 1871 ; Sorel, HisUnre Diplo-
matique de la Gtterre Franco*Allemande. Meding, De Sadawa A
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXHI.] THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR 196
army numbered about 200,000 men ; McMahon's, diminisbed
by the previous figbts, counted only about 112,000. On tbe
first of September was fougbt tbe Battle of Sedan. Tbe
Frencb made a brave resistance ; but a wound, wbich obliged
McMabon to resign tbe command, was fatal to tbeir chances.
Tbe German batteries closed in upon tbem, while their own
bad been demolished. Whole regiments of French were
made prisoners, or fled in confusion into Sedan; among
these last was the Emperor, who bad been present at the
battle. In the evening the Germans began to bombard the
town. In a Council of War, all the French generals declared
that resistance was useless. Napoleon wrote to the King of
Prussia, surrendering himself a prisoner ; and on September
2nd the town capitulated. The French soldiers were dis-
armed and made prisoners, the officers dismissed on parole.
Napoleon, after an interview with William I., was escorted to
the palace of Wilhelmsbohe, near Cassel, assigned to him as
a residence.
The news of this disaster occasioned great uproar at Paris. FaU of the
The Empress fled to England, and, on the 4th of September, ^''^o!"'
the deputies, coerced by the National Guard and a mob, de-
creed the fall of the imperial dynasty, and the establishment
of a Republic. Gambetta, a young advocate, who had signal-
ized himseK by a violent attack on the Emperor, now took the
lead, and became Minister of tbe Interior, with Jules Favre as
Foreign Minister. Tbe deputies of Paris constituted them-
selves a Provisional Government ; and General Trochu, made
governor of Paris by the Empress Regent, turned with fortune,
and retained his post under the RepubUc. Thiers, who had
no post in the Government, undertook a bootless mission to
London, St Petersburg, Vienna, and Florence, to solicit help.
After the fall of Se&n, Prince Frederick Charles blockaded Pftris
Bazaine in Metz, while the rest of the German army resumed ^^^b^^*
the march to Paris. That capital was invested September 19th,
and, on October 5th, King William established his head-quar*
ters at Versailles. Part of the French Government retii«d to
Tours, whither also Gkimbetta proceeded, after escaping from
Paris in a balloon. He organized the defence of France with
indomitable energy and resolution, though, after the fall of
Metz, the case was clearly hopeless. Marshal Bazaine was
compelled to surrender that plaoe through want of provisions,
October 27th, when 145,000 efficient soldiers, besides 30,000
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Paris.
196: MODERN EXTBQPfi [Chap. LXXHI.
men in hospital, became prisoners of war. There were now
prisoners in Germany, after a war of three months, besides
the Emperor, four French marshals, 140 general officers,
10,000 officers of lower rank, and 340,000 solders. Marshals
Lebceof , Canrobert, and Changamier were in Metz.
The Germans had also been successful in other quarters.
Strassburg had surrendered, September 28th, after a damaging
bombardment. Dijon was several times won and lost. Gkkm-
betta, by extraordinary efforts, had oi^;anized what was called
the ** Axmj of the Loire," of some 150,000 men, under the
command of Aurelle de Paladine. But tlds general was at last
completely defeated at Beaune la Bolande, November 28th.
The Tours Qoyemment accepted the services of Gkiiribaldi, who
seems to have been actuated by the spirit of adventure rather
than by any liking for the French. He collected a band of
followers of all nations at Besan^on, but efEected little or
nothing.
DiBtraMiii Meanwhile the state of Paris was growing daily worse. To
^'*' the miseries of the siege was added domestic sedition. The
Oomnmne, headed by Flourens, seized Trochu, Favre, and
Arago, the leading members of the Qovemment, but they
were rescued by the National Guard. Among several fruitless
sallies, one of the most important was that of November 30th,
led by General Ducrot, when the French, issuing out in two
columns, each of 30,0()0 men, overthrew the Wurtembergers
and Saxons, and got possession of several villages on the
Mame ; but the attack was not properly supported, and, on
the 2nd of December, the French were driven back. Want
was now growing into actual famine. By the end of October,
butchers' meat had entirely failed, and resort was then had to
the flesh of horses and asses. At the beginning of 1871 the
famine was become almost unendurable. Sm^ portions of
horseflesh, and of bread made of bran, were distributed. Many
oi the poorer sort died of cold and hunger. The bombiurd-
ment, though not causing much damage, kept the citizens in
continual fear. Yet the Parisians, accustomed to all the lux-
uries of life, bore their privations and dangers with wonderful
fortitude. There was no talk of surrender. Men of the higher
classes served on the ramparts as common soldiers, and en-
couraged the rest by their example.
A last sally with 100,000 men, in the direction of Versailles,
made on the 19th of January, seemed at first to promise
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIH.] THE PRANCO-GEEMAN WAR 197
success, but was ultimately repulsed with great loss. Troohu
now resigned his govemoriship. At this time all the places in
the east of France, except Belf ort, had capitulated ; in the
west the Germans had penetrated to Bouen. The French
GoTemment had retired to Bordeaux ; yet Gambetta persisted
in a hopeless defence. The civilians, for want of militaiy
knowledge, were more obstinate than the generals, and thus
brought on their country many needless calamities. In the
north, General Faidherbe, with an army of 120,000 men, first
collected by General Bourbaki, was defeated by ManteufEel at
Amiens, and again irretrievably by General von Goben at
Beauvoir, January 18th. The Germans had taken Le Mans
on the 12th, in spite of the able resistance of Chanzy, one of
the most capable of the French Commanders,^ and the army
of the Loire was no longer capable of resistance.
Jules Favre went to Versailles, January 23rd, to negotiate a Pans
capitulation, but rejected Bismarck's terms as too hard. The capitulates,
bombardment was now redoubled, and as provisions sufficed
not for a week, it was necessary to come to terms. Prelimi-
. naries were arranged, January 26th, on the f ollowic^ principal
conditions : — an armistice till February 19th ; the garrison of
Paris, except 12,000 men to keep order, to be prisoners of war ;
the Gkrman troops to occupy all the forts ; the blockade of
Paris to continue, but the city to be revictualled when arms
had been delivered up ; Paris to pay 200 million francs within
a fortnight ; a constituent Assembly to meet at Bordeaux to
settle terms of peace ; meanwhile tiie respective armies to re-
main in statu qtto. The armistice applied also to the fleets,
but at sea nothing worth relating had been done.^
Gambetta, despite the capitiiLation, proclaimed resistance Frankfurt
to the last ; but Jules Favre was despatched to Bordeaux to *"**y» i®^^*
put an end to his Dictatorship. The French army of the
East of 80,000 men, being completely cut off and in miser-
Able plight, took refuge in Switzerhmd at the beginning of
•February, and delivered up their arms to the Swiss militia.
The capitulation of Belfort on the 16th was the last act of
the war. It had helroically endured a siege since November
3rd, and the garrison was allowed to march out with military
honours. A National Assembly at Bordeaux elected Thiers,
* Villef ranche, Mistoire du GitUrctl Chanzy,
* See Dacrot, La defense de Paris ; D'Heylli, Journal du Siige de
Paris.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
198
MODERN EIJROPE [Chap-LXXIH.
Russia re-
pudiates
the Treaty
oflS66.
German
Bmpirees-
tabfidied,
1871.
wlio had been returned by twenty electoral circles, President
of the Bepablic. He and Jnles Favre, Foreign Minister,
negotiated at Versailles the preliminaries of a definitive peace,
which were signed February 26th. France was to cede Alsace
(except Belfort), German Lorraine with Metz, Thionyille, and
Longwy ; to pay an indemnity of 5,000 milHon francs (200
millions sterling) ; the (^krman troops to remain in France
till it was paid ; portions of Paris to be occupied by the Ger-
mans till the National Assembly should ratify the prelimin-
aries. Agreeably to this last condition, 40,000 German troops
marched through the Barriire de TEtoile, March 1st, and
bivouacked in the Champs Elys^s, but retired on the 3rd,
the preliminaries having been accepted. The definitive Trbatt
OF Fbanefubt was signed May 10.
Thus was terminated, in less than half a year, one of the
greatest wars on record. It annihilated for a time the mili-
tary power of France and her influence in the affairs of
Europe. Russia eagerly seized on the occasion. Towards
the end of October Prince Gorfcchakov haughtily repudiated
that clause in the Treaty of 1856 which prohibited Russia
from having any fleets or arsenals in the Black Sea. Lord
Granville protested, and Odo Bussell was sent to Versailles
to inquire if Bussia acted with the approval of Prussia. Here-
upon Bismarck proposed a Conference, which was held in
lK>ndon early in 1871 ; but England stood alone, and suffered
a somewhat ignominious defeat.
The success of the German arms under the conduct of
Prussia raised throughout Ckrmany an enthusiasm for that
country, and a desire to revive a Gterman Empire by placing
King William at its head. The King of Bavaria intimated
early in December that he had obtained the consent of the
other German Sovereigns and free towns to his proposal that
the King of Prussia should take the title of German Em-
peror. The Diet of the North German Confederation sanc-
tioned this title, as well as a federal union with Baden, Hesse-
Darmstadt, Wurtemberg, and Bavaria. The new Empire was
solemnly proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles,
January 18th, 1871 ; on which occasion Baron Moltke was
made a Count, and Count Bismarck a Prince. It was no re-
vival of the Holy Roman Empire, which, as Voltaire remarks,
was neither holy nor Boman ; nor was the title of " Bang of
the Germans " to be revived, which would have clashed with
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXHX] THE PEANCO-GEEMAN WAE 199
the rights of the minor German kings. The new Empire was
indeed little more than an adhesion of the States of Southern
Germany to the Northern Confederation as a nucleus.
Thus, in the period of little more than a decade, one large Geiman
Empire rose upon the ruins of another, whilst the equilibrium ^ty!*^^
of the European system was materially altered by the estab-
lishment of two powerful States in its very centre — ^the Italian
Kingdom and the German Empire. If we compare the work
of Cavour and Bismarck in founding these two States, Cavour's
must be pronounced the more complete ; for Italian unity is
perfect under one Sovereign, whilst that of Germany oonsists
only in a confederation of yarious States bound together by
treaties which may not always bear a stress without breaking.
It must, however, be acknowledged that Bismarck's task was
the more difficult one ; for Cavour was helped by the revo*
iutaonaiy spirit of the populations annexed, through hatred
of their governments, whilst no such symptoms showed th^Doi-
selves in Germany, or, at all events, more rarely, and in a
milder form. If we compare the characters of the two great
statesmen we discover in both the same far-sighted views,
equal skill in the choice of means and instruments, the same
unwavering fortitude and perseverance, the like daring com-
bined with prudence.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Ewope
after the
after 1871.
CHAPTEB TiTTXTV
1871-1878
THB BXCOYBftT 09 9BAKCB AKD THB B178SO-T1TBKI8H WAB
THE Franoo-Pmsfld&n war was followed by six years of
peace.^ The Treaty of Frankfurt was signed and ratified
in May, 1871: it was not till April, 1877, that the Busso-
Tarkish war began. But none the less did the war of 1870
constitute an epoch in European History. Congresses no
longer dictated terms to the combatants, and Holy Alliances
were out of date. The growth of the rivalry of peoples, and
of the feeling of nationality, had been forcibly illustrated by
the Qerman seizure of Alsace and Lorraine, and by the Italian
occupation of Bome. It remained to be still further exem-
plified by the continued risings of the peoples of Bosnia,
Herz^ovina and Servia against the Turks.
J^<»^ For the moment, however, the characteristic of European
u^hj^ ifi<n ;g^g^|y '^a.g j}^i Qf calm, taking advantage of which France
set to work to pay off her debt to Germany, and to carry out
necessary reforms. Barely has the vitality of France been
more conspicuously illustrated than during the years imme-
diately succeeding the Franco-Prussian war.^ The instal-
ments of her debt to Germany were paid with ease, her soil
was liberated from the foreigner, and she recovered from the
wounds inflicted by the war no less than by the Communists
in Paris, Lyons, St. Etienne, Limoges and Marseilles. In
^ For the period covered by this chapter the following will be found
usefnl : Seignobos, Histoire politique de V Europe Contemporaine (1814-
1896) ; Fyffe, History of Modem Europe ; Le Faure, HisUnre de la guerre
d'Orient ; Leroy-B€».ulieu, La France, la Bussie, et V Europe ; fiuach,
Ovr Ckaneellor ; Klaczko, The Two Chancellors ; Gambetta, Diseours ;
ffippeau, Histoire Diplomatique de la Troisidme Bepublique ; Forbes,
Wtuiam of Germany ; Holland, The European Concert on the Eastern
Question ; Bodley, France.
* See Chandordy, La France et la suite de la guerre de 187(^71.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAP.LXXIV.] THE EUSaO-TUEKISH WAE 201
May, 1871, the QoYemment of Versailles wa49i obliged to
capture Paris, and to overthrow the dominatioii of such men
as Cluseret, Belescluze, and Paschal Grousset. BAving suc-
cessfully crushed the revolutionists in Paris and other working
centres, the National Assembly was able to turn its attention
to the work of reorganization. A law passed on September 3,
1871, declared that the Assembly was possessed of consti-
tutional powers, and that the President of the Eepublic was
responsible to it. Till May, 1873, Thiers remained at the The admin-
head of affairs, carrying out rapidly and effectively the re- ^^^?'' ^'
quired reforms.^ Before the end of 1872 the finances had
been reconstituted, order had been restored, and, by a law
passed on July 27, 1872, the task of improving the army had
been taken in hand. All classes agreed in the necessity of
military reorganization, which was completed by the law of
March, 1875. During these years Thiers and the Assembly
had by no means worked together harmoniously. Though
tinited on the question of the necessity of paying the German
indemnity as soon as possible, and of freeing France from its
occupation by foreign troops, the President and the Assembly
diff^ed with regard to the future Government of France. A
large majority of the Assembly were reactionary and mon-
ar<Mst, and opposed to the final establishment of a Bepublic.
Though Thiers himself sympathised with constitutional mon-
archy, he was convinced that a Boyalist restoration would
lead to civil war, and that it would be possible to found a
Conservative Bepublic. In his struggle against the reaction-
aries, Thiers was aided by the fa^st that they were divided
into three parties, (1) Legitimists, (2) Bonapartists, (3)
Orleanists, while the greater number of the bye>elections
showed that the country favoured Bepublican views. On
November 13, 1872, Thiers, having arranged for the early
payment of the indemnity, and having established a nationid
army, sent to the Assembly a famous messa^, in which he
declared that the Bepublic existed, as the legal Government
of the country, that every Government should be Conserva-
tive, and that no society could live under a Government of
another kind. In spite of his services Thiers was bitterly The&Uof
attacked by the Monarchists. Napoleon HE. died at Chisel- '"»*•». isrs.
^ See Jules Simon, Le Gouvetnement de M, Thiers; Doniol, M,
Thiers (1871-1873).
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
ao2
MODEBN EUROPE [Chap. LXXIT.
TheOomte
de Cham-
bord.
The
Septennat,
1878.
hurst on January 9, 1878, and the supporters o£ his son. Prince
Napoleon, were encouraged. A coalition of the three monarch-
ical groups ably conducted the campaign against the President,
idio was also attacked by the extreme Left under Ghtmbetta.
The persecution of Ultramontanism in Germany made it
popular in France, and on April 4, 1873, Buffet, a Monarchist
and Clericalist, succeeded Grery as President of the Chamber.
On May 24 Thiers was driven from office, and was suc-
ceeded by Marshal MacMahon, who formed a ministry under
the Due de Broglie. The GoTemment was essentially Bona-
partist and Clerical, public offices were bestowed on supporters
of the late dynasty, the Soman Catholic agitation was en-
couraged, and several hostile journals were suppressed.
Before, however, attempting to solve the constitutional pro-
blem, an attempt was made to reorganize the monarchical
parly by bringing about a fusion between the elder and
younger branch of the Bourbons. The Comte de Chambord,
the heir to Charles X., and the Comte de Paris, grandson of
Louis Philippe, were respectively the legitimist and Qrleanist
candidates. As the former had no children, it was settled
that the Comte de Chambord should come first to the throne.
Already on June 8, 1871, the Assembly had annulled the Act
of 1832 and 1848, excluding the members of the Bourbon and
Orleanist families from the throne. The way was thus cleared,
the Government of MacMahon was practically pledged to a
Bourbonist restoration, and a coup d^etat would probably have
been carried out had the Comte de Chambord been amenable.
But his refusal to adopt the tricolour flag rendered hopeless
the Boyalist cause.
Like the English Stuart Kings the Comte de Chambord
believed in the Bight Divine, and resented all attempts to
extract from him constitutional guarantees.^ These negotia-
tions came to an end in October, and in November the Pro-
visional Government, which on the day after the close of the war
had been proclaimed at Bordeaux, came to an end. The Act
of November 19, 1873, instituted the Septevmat, by which was
assured to the President a period of office extending over seven
years. During 1874 the attacks made by the French Catholic
press on Germany led to rumours of a rupture between the
two countries. The Kulturkampf laws, directed against the
Prussian Catholics* were the cause of this outburst, axid the
^ See Chesnelong, La Comipagne Monarchique cFOctohre, 1873.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIV.] THE BXJSSO-TUBEISH WAR.
Frencli ministry in order to avoid foreign complications was
constrained to check the outspoken criticisms of the journals.^
Most of the jear, however, was occupied in discussions on
the kind of government which should succeed the SeptenncU,
The Broglie ministry fell in May, 1874, before a coalition of
Bepublicans and Legitimists, the latter of whom had been
alienated by the S^temuxt, General de Oissey became The cissey
Premier, and und«* his leadership the Assembly, though un- ^'^^'^'y-
able to restore the Monarchy, refused to agree to any proposals
for a Constitution. A change, however, came over the views
of the Monarchists, owing to the growth of a Bonapartist
agitation in the interest of the young Prince Imperial. In
Paris a central Committee of Propaganda was formed, a
pWnseUe was demanded, and some electoral successes were
obtained. The love of liberty and hatred of the Empire now
proved stronger to many Monarchists than the desire for a
Bourbon Bestoration. The right centre therefore, alarmed at
the revival of the Napoleonic idea, changed its tactics, and at
the end of 1874 was found zealously demanding a Constitu-
tion. On February 25, 1876, was formally established the
EepubHc. Two Acts passed on February 24 and February Constttu-
25, together with one passed on July 16, form the Constitution 1^5.^
of 18/5, which though twice revised still exists. A Senate
and a Chamber of Deputies, both elective, were given to France,
and these bodies had the power of electing a new President
at the end of his seven years' period of office, and of carrying
out such changes as both Chambers had agreed upon. The
President was appointed for a term of seven years and was
re>»eligible. He could appoint and dismiss ministers, and with
the consent of the Senate cotdd dissolve the Chamber. The
Senate was elected for nine years, but one third of its members
were to be renewed every three years, "by the vote of an
electoral body in the chief town of each department, composed
of Deputies, of members of the CounciUQeneral, and District
CoTmcQs (Conseils d'Arrondissement) and Delegates from the
Municipal Councils."^ The Deputies at the Assembly were
elected by universal suffrage, and for four years, and both they
and the Senators were paid 9,000 francs a year. The Parlia-
mentary Bepublic thus set up has lasted till the present day.
^ Hahn, Ge8ehi(^te des Kvltwrkamffes m Premssen,
^ Lebon, Modem France, p. 360.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
204
MODBfiN EUBOPE [Chap.LXXIY.
The Buffet
Ministry.
The
Bepablican
Victory,
1876.
TheCk>np
d'etat, 1877.
It did not, like the Constitution of 1791, represent abstract
principles, for it sprang reluctantly from a National Assembly
which rarely represented the views of the majority of French-
men. It had found itself compelled to accept a Bepublic,
while it distrusted the democracy. It professed to be an
upholder of republican views, but its lioeralism was inter-
mittent and more apparent than real Nevertheless in giving
France a Constitution suitable to the exigencies of the moment
the Assembly, which desired the restoration of the Monarchy,
had deserved well of the nation. In spite, however, of its
services after the war, and its success in founding a Bepublic,
the National Assembly became more and more unpopular.
On the resignation of the Cissey Cabinet, Buffet, a former
Orleanist, on March 10, 1875, formed a Ministry composed
mainly of those who had voted against the Acts by which the
Constitution of February was established. The Acts of this
ministry only increased the general distrust. In July, 1875,
a higher Education Act was brought forward which gave
special privileges to the Catholic Church, and in December a
law on the Press still preserved a state for siege in Paris,
Lyons, and Marseilles. An Assembly which unduly favoured
the Church, and feared the people, was not likely to win the
confidence of the country, and its dissolution on December
31, 1875, was hailed with joy.
The elections of 1876 gave a victory to the left, though the
division of parties was such that for a long time a stable form
of Government was impossible. The new Chamber consisted of
368 Bepublicans of all shades of opinion, ninety Bonapartists,
and eighty Boyalists. On the meeting of the Chamber, Buffet
was succeeded by Duf aure, whose ministry included Wadding-
ton, L^n Say, and Bicard. The republican sympathies of the
new ministry made it specially obnoxious to the Senate, and
out of harmony with the clerical and monarchical views of
MacMahon. The whole of 1876 was spent in party quarrels,
which continued after Jules Simon had succeeded Dvif aure as
Premier in December. At last in May, 1877, ihe President
carried out a coup d^itai, and replaced the Simon ministry by
one under the Due de Broglie, who undertook to "make
France step out," and to restore things to their position
before the fall of Thiers. The new elections in October,
however, brought to a clear issue the rival claims for a
Democratic Bepublic and a clerical Monarchy. The results
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXTV.] THE BUSSO-TirBKISH WAE.
gave no encouragement to the President and liis supporters,
and a large Bepublican majoritj was returned. On the resig*
nation of de Broglie in November, an anxious period was
followed by the formation of a Ministry on December 14 by
Dufaure. But the President and the Senate had lost all hold
upon the country. The numerous press trials, and the pressure
brought to bear upon the electors, had discredited the Admin«
istration, and the Monarchists were regarded with distrust
and resentment. The influence of- Gambetta was paramount,
and in 1878 he made a triumphal tour denouncing the clericals
as dangerous to the Bepublic. Till 1879 matters remained in
this imeasy condition. The death, of Thiers in September,
1877, removed the obvious republican leader, and MacMahon
hoped that witih the approach of the Exhibition of 1878^ the
circumstances attending the crisis of 1876 would be forgotten.
In this hope he was destined to be disappointed. Though the
great Exhibition in Paris was a brilUant success, the truce Resignation
between parties was only temporary. The confidence of the ho^Msro*^
country in the Bepublic and in Gambetta was increasing, and
when the elections to the Senate resulted in a Bepublican
majority MacMahon hastened, at the beginning of 1879, to
resign. He was succeeded by Jules Q-r^vy. Waddington influence of
became Prime Minister, and Gambetta was elected Speaker ®*™^*^-
or President of the Chamber. The Waddington Ministry,
which included Freycinet with others belonging to the Left,
addressed itself specially to four questions, amnesty, the
prosecution of the Broglie Ministry of 1877, the removal of
the Chambers from Versailles to Paris, and the secularization
of education. In spite of much opposition a Bill granting
amnesty for those who had not been condemned for offences
against the common law was passed. A resolution was carried
declaring that the Broglie ministry had betrayed the Bepublic ;
it was decided in June that the Chambers should meet in
Paris, and lastly a war against religion was entered upon. To 4^^^!|L
reduce the power of the Jesuits over education, Jules Perry * *"
brought in a Bill which was opposed by Jules Simon, but was
carried in the Lower Chamber in June, 1879. At the close of
the year Freycinet, one of Gkmbetta's chief supporters, suc-
ceeded Waddington, and the laws against the Jesuits were
carried out* The year 1880 proved an exciting one for France.
The return of such communists as Blanqui and Bochef ort to
political life testified to the strength of Badical feeling in
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
The
Gambetta
MinSstiy,
1881.
Failnreof
hisForeigD
Policy.
France and
Europe.
The League
of tiie three
187!
aperors.
206 MODEEN BXJBOPE [Chai>. LXXIV.
France, while Oambetta wm regarded as the Emperor of the
BepubUc. On August 9, 1880, he declared thai France must
reclaim her lost provinces on the first favourable occasion*
Though Jules Feny might succeed Freycinet in September, it
was evident that for the moment Gambetta spoke for France,
andwas the real dictatorof French policy. At length in October,
1881, he became the head of a new ministry, and himself
took charge of the department of foreign affairs. His attain-
ment of the position of Premier was to a great extent due to
his energy during the Franco^Prussian war, and to his open
determination to regain for France Alsace and Lorraine, and to
his firm Republican views. The death of the Prince Imperial,
the young Loxiis Napoleon, in the Zulu war in South Africa, on
June 1, 1881, had strengthened the Bepublic, and France under
Gambetta seemed likely to regain her position in Europe.
But the adventurous policy pursued in Tonquin, where
France was attempting to found a vast colonial settlement,
and her entanglements in Tunis, which she occupied in 1881,
rendered her unable single-handed to enter upon a war with
Germany. The growth of rebellion in Bussia, the alienation
of England, Italy and Turkey over the Tunisian expedition,
and ine skilful policy of Bismarck, all contributed to keep
France more or less isolated in Europe till the fall of the Ger-
man Chancellor and the formation of the alliance with Bussia.
During these years France, though in some danger of a
renewal of war with Ghormany in 1875, had managed to Hve
at peace with her neighbours. Her raj»d recovery from the
wounds inflicted in the late war, followed by the thorough re-
organization of the army, had surprised Bismarck and alarmed
many Prussians who fovoured an early resumption of hostili-
ties. But for such a groundless war Europe was not prepared,
and Bismarck wisely contented himself with str^igtbening
the alliances of G^many, and consolidating her power.
Already the German Emperor had made advances to the
Court of St. Petersburg, while ihe fall, in 1871, of Count Beust,
the Austrian Minister who advocated a cocJition against
Prussia, implied the acceptance by the Emperor Francis Joseph
of the friendship of the powerful German Empire. Beust
was succeeded by Count Andrassy, an Hungarian Minister,
who favoured the abandonment by Austria of the policy of
interfering in German affairs.^
^ Beust, MhSunr€K
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIV.] THE RXJSSO-TURKISH WAR 207
In the summer of 1872, the three Emperors met at Berlin, The objects
and the Dreikaiserbund was formed. Its specified objects li^e.
were to maintain the gtcUus quo in Europe, to cheek the prepress
of revolutionarj, socialist, and uihilist movements, and to act
in unison with r^ard to the Eastern question. King Humbert
of Italy shortly afterwards paid a visit to Berlin, and as Eng-
land held aloof from Continental Politics, the French Govern-
ment oould find no allies. Bismarck's pdicy had succeeded,
and France was isolated in Europe. Like Mettemich, Bis-
marck stood forth as the Dictator of Europe. His triumphant
position was due to the clearness with which he realized what
were the true interests of Germany, and to the determination
which enabled him to secure the objects of his policy.
For four years the so-called league of the thi^ Emperors The Eastern
continued in existence, and Germany remained safe from all ^«^<»^-
danger of an attack on the part of France.^ This harmony of
the Great European Monarchies was, however, destined to be
interrupted by the revival of complications in the East of
Europe, followed by the outbreak of war waged by Bussia
against Turkey on behalf of the Christian peoples in the
lEklkan Peninsula. In July, 1875, Herzegovina revolted
against the Turks, and received support from Servia and
Montenegro. Conflicts also simultaneously broke out in
Bosnia between the Christians and Mohammedans, and
thousands of refugees fled for safety to the Austrian frontier.
Against the Turkish army of some 30,000, the Herzegovnian
force of from 12,000 to 14,000 could not hold the field, but by
means of a guerella warfare they harassed the Turks and pro-
longed their resistance into the winter of 1875-1876. Such a
state of things seriously embarrassed Austria, where Slav and
Magyar were always ready to seize an opportunity of falling
upon one another. Any danger to the maintenance of the The
vtatuB quo in the countries immediately bordering upon Aus- ^teTSwi.
tria was always a serious matter for the Government of Vienna. ^^* ^^
Count Andrassy therefore drew up, on behalf of the three
Empires, a scheme of reforms, to be enforced upon Turkey for
the benefit of the Insurgent iprovinces, and the " note " re-
ceived the approval of England and France. In it five points
were specially insisted upon : — ^the abolition of the fiEtrming of
^ See H&hn, Fiirst BUmarek; Bosch, Our Ckancelior; Kahl, FiirH
Bumarck*
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODEEN BXJEOPE [Chap. LXXTV,
Failure of
Ens^and
ancT Austria
to pacify
Bastern
Europe.
Murder of
the Ck>]i8ulB
at Salonika
May 6th,
1876.
The
BerUu
Memoran-
dum, May
18th, 1876.
the taxes* the establishment of religious liberty, the i4>plica-
tion of the direct revenue of Bosnia and Herzegoyina for the
benefit of those provinoes, the establishment of a Commission
composed equally of Moslems and Christians to control the
execution of the reforms, the amelioration of the industrial
condition ^of the country population. The Porte accepted these
propositions, published Imperial trades on February 13th and
23rd, and thus for the moment escaped from the interference
of the Great Powers. The Andrassy note ultimately failed
in its object because it contained no provisions for the execu-
tion of tibe proposed reforms under the supervision of the three
Emperors. For years the Sultan had made promises, and it
was impossible for the insurg^ats to believe that the Porte
would, except under compulsion, carry out any of the assur-
ances made in the two trades. They therefore refused to lay
down their arms, and the Andrassy Note was destined to be-
come mere waste paper. Through the spring of 1876, Eng-
land and Austria endeavoured to bring about the pacification
of the revolts, so as to avoid aU interference. Fresh insurrec-
tions, however, broke out in the disaffected provinces in March
and April, and the situation became more and more critical.
Russia became uneasy at the failure of England and Austria,
and Qortchakov, the Bussian Chancellor, arranged to meet
Bismarck and Andrassy early in May, to discuss the position
of affairs.
In the meantime an event occurred at Salonika which in-
creased the activity of the reform party and involved Turkey
in complications with Germany and France. On the 6th of
May, a Tui*kish mob murdered the Prussian and French Con-
suls, while in Constantinople, and other places, there were
threatening movements against the Europeans. 0^ May 18th,
the representatives of Germany, Austria, and Bussia, who were
in conference at Berlin, embodied their views in a Memoran-
dum declaring that the reforms promised by the Porte were
to be carried out, that an armistice of two months would be
imposed on the combatants, and that a mixed Commission
should at once begin its sittings. France and Italy accepted
this Memorandum but England, fearful of extensive territorial
changes, refused its adhesion and sent twelve ironclads to
Besika Bay. This action, supported as it was by the presence
of ships of war belonging to Ghermany, Italy, Bussia, Austria,
and Greece, compelled the Porte to punish the authors of the
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIV.] THE BXJSSO-TUBSISH WAE 209
murder of the Oonsuls. It was found more difficult to satisfy
the German demand of 300,000 francs for the widow of the
murdered Consul. Turkish finance was in a chaotic condition,
officials had received no pay for months, and all the time the
most wasteful extravagance went on unchecked. In Constan-
tinople the opposition to the G-ovemment rapidly increased,
and on May 29th, the Sultan Abdul Aziz was deposed by Deposition
Midhat Pasha and Hussein Avni, and a few days later was ^|^iy
murdered. Murad Y. was raised to the throne, but the real 29th,' i876.
power remained in the hands of Midhat Pasha, for Hussein
Avni was murdered on June I5th. Midhat favoured the in-
troduction of European methods, and opposed the growth of
Bussian influence. The Bevolution was a practical victory of
English over Russian diplomacy, and Sir Henry Elliot replaced
Count Ignatiev as the confidential adviser of the Porte. But
before Abdul Aziz had been deposed an insurrection in Bul-
garia had been suppressed by a number of Bashi-Bazouks,
commanded by Abdul Besim, the commander of the army in
Boumelia and Bulgaria. It was said that notless than twelve
thousand had been massacred, and at Batak the atrocities
committed were of the most revolting character. The news
of the Bulgarian massacres roused all Europe, and enormously
strengthened the hands of the opponents of Turkey.
To England the news of the massacres awoke people to the PoUcy of
real nature of Turkish rule in the East. The tradition of England,
fri^idship with the Sultan inherited from the Crimean War
still existed in England. In November, 1875, England, by
the purchase of shares, had obtained control over the Suez
Canal, thus intimating her intention of securing her position
in the Mediterranean. To force Turkey to carry out reforms,
and to pacify the revolted provinces, had been the object of
EngHsh policy, and on June 9, Disraeli, in the House of
Commons, expressed himseK full of confidence with reference
to the new era which Midhat Pasha had inaugurated in
Turkey. But on June 26 the nation learnt the truth about
the Bulgarian atrocities, and at once declared itseK strongly
opposed to the continuance of Turkish rule over the Slavic
and Christian races. The ministry, however, with Disraeli at
its head, showed no realization of the strength of public
opinion, or of the magnitude of the outrages in Bulgaria;
and it was not till September that Elliot was instructed to
demand from the Tur^sh G-ovemment measures of reparation
VI. p
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
210
MODEBN EUBOPE [Chap. LXXIV.
DedaraUon
of War by
Serriaaad
Monte-
negro.
Treaty of
Beichstadt,
July 8, 1870.
Defeat of
Serria.
Anarmis-
tioe en-
forced by
Bii8sia,0ct.
81.
Alexander's
▼lews.
and punishment, together with the appointment of an efficient
Commissioner in Bulgaria.
Meanwhile events having an important bearing on the future
of Europe were taking place. On June 30, Fnnce Milan of
Servia.) and on July 2, Prince Nicholas of Montenegro, declared
war upon Turkey, and on July 8 the Tsar Alexander and the
Emperor Francis Joseph, with their Chancellors, met at Beich-
stadt in Bohemia. It seems to have been arranged that no
armed intervention should take place for the present, and it
was rumoured that the question of partitioning European
Turkey had been under consideration. By a Treaty which
was then signed Bussia agreed to the Austrian occupation of
Bosnia and Herzegovina in the event of the liberation of
Bulgaria by Muscovite arms. Thus supported by Germany
and Austria, Bussia had secured freedom of action in the
East, if the concert of Europe failed to force the Turks to
carry out reforms.
In tiieir war against Turkey the Servians, though led by
the Bussian General Chemaiev, were defeated, though the
Montenegrins were victorious both in the north and south
Without, however, any assistance from Boumania, Greece or
Bosnia, which was held in check by Turkish troops, it was
evident that Servia had no chance of holding its own. On
September 16, an armistice for ten days was concluded at the
instance of the Great Powers, but on September 28, Cher-
naiev, who had proclaimed Prince Milan King of Servia, took
the offensive, but was driven back by a strong Turkish force.
On October 31 Alezinatz was taken and destroyed by the
Turks, and the overthrow of the Servians seemed assured.
Help, however, was obtained from Bussia. On October 30
Ignatiev, the Bussian Ambassador, presented an ultimatum
to the Porte demanding the effective protection of the Chris-
tians in Turkey, and the grant to Servia of an armistice for
two months. The Sultan was no longer Murad Y., who had
died and had been succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamed H
(August 31), who was content to leave the Qovemment in the
hands of his ministers. They at once accepted the Bussian
ultimatum, and on October 31, a two months' truce with
Servia was signed. In order to dispel the anxiety felt by the
British Government at the attitude of Bussia, the Tsar Alex-
ander explained his views on November 2 to Lord A. Loftus,
the British Ambassador. He disclaimed all desire for terri-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIV.] THE EUSSO-TUEKISH WAE 211
toriaJ aggrandisement. He expressed an earnest wish for a
complete accord between Great Britain and Bussia, but stated
clearly that if the Forte refused to carry out the required
reforms he would act alone. He assured Lord A. Loftus
that he had no intention of occupying Constantinople, but
that he was determined to improve the condition of the
Christian population in Turkey. He ended by requesting
that his assurances might be published in England. Lord Lord Derby
Derby, the English Foreign Secretary, at once replied on SeSc^
November 8, proposing that a Conference of all the leading field.
European Fo's^ers should be held at Constantinople on the
basis of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Lord Beacons*
field, however, represented a more bellicose section of the
Cabinet, and at the Lord Mayor's banquet on November 9,
he declared that " if England enters into conflict in a righteous
cause, her resources are inexhaustible." On the followiii^ day
Alexander replied in a speech at Moscow, in which he repeated
that if he could not obtain the consent of Europe he would
act independently. Warlike preparations were, too, hurried
on. Six army corps were formed, a Crimean army was organ-
ized, and large reinforcements were ordered for the Caucasus.
Military preparations were also made in Turkey, and on
November 18 the English Cabinet declared that if Bussia
occupied Bulgaria, England would occupy Qallipoli and
Constantinople. While matters were in this critical con- TheCk>nfer.
dition, the representatives of the Six Great Fowers assembled l^^^ei
in Constantinople. Li a preliminary conference, lasting from November,*
December 12 to December 21, the Fowers formulated their
demands, the object of which was to preserve the Sovereignty
and int^rity of the Ottoman Empire while securing the
Christian population from Turkish violence. On December
23 the formal Conference was opened under the presidency of
the Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs, Savf et Fasha, who
announced that the roar of cannon which interrupted the
proceedings inaugurated the birth of a new era of prosperity
in the Sultan's dominions.
Pressed on all sides the Turks had determined to checkmate
the G-reat Fowers by producing a liberal Constitution of their
own. It was drawn up by November 21 , and when on December
19 Midhat Fasha became Qrand Vizier, the Sultan's signature
was obtained. On December 23 it was, as we have seen, promul-
gated, but though full of beneficent provisions, the document
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
1877.
212 MODERN ETJEOPB [Chap. LXXIV.
was worthlees. The Qreat Powers persisted in their demand
for a Foreign Commission, and for a European control oyer the
appointment of Goyemors, bnt on these points Sayfet Pasha
The failure refased to yield. Finally, on January 18, a Great Council of
fiSic^"' *^® Turkish Empire, summoned by Midhat, rejected the de-
January, mands of the Conference. Lord Salisbury, the princi{>al
^*^ English representatiye, had solemnly warned the Sultan what
would be the results of his obstinacy, but to no purpose. The
Conference came to an end, the enyoys left Constantinople,
and on February 5, 1S77, Midhat Pasha, the one Turk in
whom Europe had any confidence, was banished, and the
direction of affairs fell into the hands of Edhem Pasha and
Mahmoud Damad Pasha, both opponents of Eussia and re-
The London form. On January 31, 1877, Gortchakoy, the Russian Chan-
^^Su. <^Uor, despatched a circular to the Great Powers asking what
they now intended to do. England suggested a yearns pro-
bation, and on February 28, by her adyice, the Sultan signed
a Treaty of peace with Senria. Early in March Ignatiey
yisited Berlin, Paris, Vienna and London, where, with Schou-
yaloy, the Russian Ambassador, he drew up a document known
as the London Protocol, which the Six Powers signed on
March 31. It called upon the Porte to carry out reforms, to
place its army on a peace footing, and to make peace with
Montenegro. On April 3 the Protocol was presented to Sayfet
Pasha and was rejected by the Turkish Goyemment, which
appealed to the Treaty of Paris, and refused to allow any
outside interference with Montenegro. All hope of preserving
peace between Russia and Turkey had now practically disap-
peared, and on April 13 orders were issued for the mobili-
zation of the whole Russian army; and the Grand Duke
BuBsia de- Nicholas, brother of the Tsar, was giyen the command. On
JSu iJ"* April 24 Russia formally declared war, and an army entered
Roumania, with which State a Conyention had been made on
April 16. At the same time a circular note was sent to the
Powers by the Tsar, acquainting them with the fact that war
had broken out between Russia and Turkey. The English
Government, without allies, was forced to accept the ineyitable,
Enffiand'8 Ai^d to adopt an attitude of neutrality. But Lord Derby, in
attitude. answer to the Tsar^s circular, announced that the English
Goyemment wotild obserye a strict neutralily so long as the
Suez Canal was not interfered with, Constantinople not occu-
pied, and the Dardanelles and Bosphorus 1^ untouched.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIV.] THE EUSSOTXJEKISH WAE 218
It was not till Jane 27 that the Bussian army crossed the
Danube. During the preyious weeks Turkish gunboats had
attempted to prevent the passage of the river, but though the
Turkish fleet in the Black Sea proved of great value, the
Danube flotilla was speedily destroyed by Bussian batteries,
or reduced to inaction. The Bussian plan of campaign was
to move the central part of the army along the river Jantra
to the Balkans, while the right wing took Nicopolis, and the
left wing attacked Bustchuk and engaged the Turkish forces
in the east of Bulgaria. At the same time it was hoped that
another Bussian army under Loris Melikov would occupy
Armenia. The Bussians had, however, underrated the strength
of their adversaries, and Muktar Fa^ia forced his opponents
in Asia to retreat upon their own frontier. In Bulgaria the Bnsdan
Bussians were more successful, and while the Grand Duke *'*<'<^*^*^*-
Nicholas took in charge the reorganization of the civil adminis-
tration of Bulgaria with his headquarters at Timova, General
Gourko seized the Shipka Pass, crossed the Balkans, and, on
July 15, was within two days' march of Adrianople. Simul-
taneously, the Tsarewitch advanced against Bustchuk and a
Turkish army, while General Krudener seized Nicopolis on
July 16.
These unchecked Bussian successes caused consternation in England
Constantinople, and considerable anxiety in London. A change ^'^™'^*
of Turkish ministers and generals was carried out, Mustapha
Pasha being made Minister of War, and Mehemet Ali Pasha
commander of the army of the Danube. At the same time,
in order to safeguard British interests, Admiral Hornby, with
thirteen ironclads, was sent to Besika Bay, and 3,000 men to
Malta. But already a change had come over the position of
affairs owing to the opportune appearance and skUful depo-
sitions of Mehemet AH, of Osman Pasha, and of Suleiman
Pasha. While Mehemet Ali occupied the Bussian left wing,
Osman Pasha, the commander of Widdin, with 40,000 men,
seized Plevna, an unfortified village standing at the junction
of the roads between Sofia and Sistova, and Nicopolis and
Lovatz. In a few days he had fortified it strongly, and was
in a position to checkmate the Bussian plans. On July 20 The siege of
General Kmdener attacked Plevna, but was repulsed, and on ^^.'^
July 80 a second attack failed and cost the Bussians 8,000
men. Osman Pasha's forces now amounted to some 50,000
men, and the intrenchments round Plevna had been made
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
214 MODEEN EUROPE [Chap. LXXIV.
welliiigli impregnable. Fortunately for the Bussians Osman
did not adopt the offensive, or the Bnssian position in Bul-
garia would have been in serious danger, for the advance of
Suleiman Pasha against General Gk>urko had forced the Bus-
sians to retreat from the country south of the Balkans, and
to defend the Shipka Pass. Suleiman had been recalled from
Montenegro, and sailing from Antivari on July 16, he landed
at Dedeagh, and arrived at the scene of operations on July 31.
After some preliminary successes Suleiman, neglecting to
attack the Bussian rear, spent four weeks, from August 19 to
September 17, in hurling his troops in a series of useless
attacks against the southern entrance of the pass. Septem-
ber 23 saw the last desperate attempt on the part of the
Turks to dislodge the Bussians, after which Suleiman suc-
ceeded Mehemet Ali as commander of the army of the Danube.
His operations, like those of his predecessor, showed a want
of generalship, and lacked energy and decision, due probably
to the fact that he was bought by the Bussians. Too much
time was wasted in fortifying positions, when the situation
required active offensive movements. The result was that
the Bussian left wing was not broken through, and time was
given for Bussian reinforcements to arrive.
Meanwhile the Tsar had obtained fresh troops from Bou-
mania, and the army before Plevna was placed under the
Boumanian Prince Charlea On September 11 the third battle
of Plevna took place under the eyes of the Tsar. In spite of
conspicuous bravery on the part of the Bussians and Bou-
manians, and of the heroic efforts of Skobelov, the Turks re-
mained victorious, the Bussian losses amounting to 12,000.
Todleben, the defender of Sebastopol, was then called upon
The fau of to Organize a regular siege of Plevna. For some three months
^7w, Osman held out. Gradually the whole country, ferom the
1877. ' Balkans to the Danube, fell into the hands of the Bussians,
and it became impossible for supplies to enter the belea^ered
village. In the second week of December, his food being ex-
hausted, Osman made a desperate effort to break out, and
having failed, he surrendered on December 10. The results
of the Bussian success were at once seen. Three corps ad-
vanced across the Balkans, Shipka was taken, and in the last
encounter of the war on January 17, 1878, Gourko routed the
army of Suleiman Pasha. Three days later the Bussians
entered Adrianople, and detachments reached Bodosto on the
Digitized by N^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXIV.] THE ETTSSO-TUEKISH WAE 215
Sea of Marmora, and Oharln on the road to Constantinople.
The Eussians had been equally successful in Armenia, and
had retrieyed their early failures. In October, 1877, the
Eussian armies, being strongly reinforced, drove back Mukh-'
tar Pasha, who, in November, was obliged to take refuge in
Erzeroum. On November 17 Qeneral Melikov took Ears by
assault, and the victory of the Eussians was assured. In the
west the Montenegrins had taken advantage of the absence of
the Turkish troops to reduce Niksich, Antivari, and Dulcigno,
and the revolt in Bosnia and Herzegovina still continued.
Crete had risen demanding ujuon with Greece ; Thessaly and
Epirus were in rebellion, and the Servians had again taken
up arms.
The only hope for the Ottoman Empire lay in peace. As
early as December 12th, 1877, the Sultan had attempted to
secure the mediation of the Great Powers, but had met with
no success. At the end of the month he appealed to the
Queen of England, who obtained from the Tsar an assurance
that if the Sultan applied directly to him he was willing to
treat of peace. On January 19th, 1878, Turkish plenipoten-
tiaries arrived at Kasanlik, the head-quarters of the Grand
Duke Nicholas, to ask for an armistice, but it was not till
January 31st that their request was ^granted at Adrianople,
and the preliminaries of peace signed.
Meanwhile the attitude of England had become a serious
factor in the situation, and it seemed that war with Eussia was
by no means an improbable event. At the opening of Parlia-
ment, on January 17th, the Queen's Speech contained the de-
claration that "some expected occurrence may render it
incumbent on me to adopt measures of precaution." It was
clearly understood in St. Petersburg that a Eussian occupation
of Constantinople would be the signal for the outbreak of
hostilities with England. Admiral Hornby received orders at
the end of January to sail through the Dsirdanelles to Con-
stantinople, but upon Gortchakov's vigorous protest the order
was withdrawn, and on February 13th, the Admiral with his
ships anchored at the Prince's Islands about ten miles below
the Turkish capital. The danger of war for some weeks was
great, but gradually passed away, as negotiations continued
between the Porte and Eussia. On March 3rd, 1878, the
Treaty of San Stefano was signed by IgnatievandNelidov on
behalf of Eussia, and by Server Pasha and SaduUah Bey on
Hie Bos-
aoeCon-
stantinoplA,
1878.
Action of
England.
TheTroaty
of San
Stefftno,
1878.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
216 MODEBN EUBOFE [Chap. LXXIV.
beliaJf of Turkey. Serria, Montenegro, and Bomnaiua became
independent; tibe two former States received considerable
cessions of territory, while Eoumania gave Bessarabia to
Bussia and was compensated by obtaining the lower Dobrudsba
from Turkey Bulgaria, extending sou^wards to the iBgean
Sea at the mouth of the Karassu, and with the Black Drina
as its western boundary, was formed into an autonomous,
tributary Principality, with a Prince chosen by the people and
accepted by the Porte with the assent of the Great Powers.
The Beforms laid before the Porte by the Constantinople
Conference in 1876 were to be carried out in Bosnia and
Herz^ovina, Crete was to receive the organization promised
in 1868 by the organic law, and an analogous law was to be
introduced into the r^naining Christian provinces, such as
Epirus and Thessaly. In Armenia the Porte promised to de-
fend the inhabitants from the Kurds and to carry out neces-
sary local reforms. The war ind^nnity was fixed at fourteen
hundred million roubles, but owing to Turkey's financial con-
dition Ardahan, Kars, Batoum, Bayazid, and the territory be-
tween the Bussian frontier and the Soghanly mountains was
accepted in place of eleven hundred million roubles. The
Bosphorus and the Dardanelles were to be open to the mer-
chant ships of all nations in times of peace as well as of war.
Opposition To the Treaty of San Stef ano both Austria and England
Md aw* off^r©^ ^ firna opposition, and it was resolved that a Congress
land toliie should meet at Berlin. But to the demand of Lord Derby
Treaty. ^^^ every article of the Treaty should be laid before the Con-
gress, Gortchakov offered a strenuous resistance. War again
appeared to be imminent. While Austria prepared to occupy
Danger of Bosnia and Andrassy obtained a vote of 60,000,000 gulden,
^^' Lord Beaconsfield called out the Beserves, and summoned
troops from India. Lord Derby, who opposed these drastic
measures, did indeed resign, but his successor. Lord Salisbury,
was in full accord with the views of the Premier. In a cir-
cular of April Ist, 1878, the new Foreign Secretary had no
difficulty in showing that the Treaty of San Stef ano was fatal
to the interests of Europe no less than to those of Austria and
England. Count Schouvalov was ordered to find out exactly
what the English Government desired, and at the same time
Austria explained her reasons for opposing the Treaty. Bis-
marck was as anxious as Gortchakov for the preservation of
peace, and on hearing Schouvalov's report of the wishes of the
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Chap. LXXIV.] THE ETTSSO-TTJEKISH WAE 217
Engliflh Cabinet, the Tsar decided to accept the British and ^^^
Austrian demands. On May 30th, a secret agreement was ""^^
made between Eussia and England, and on Jane 4th, Lord
Beaconsfield signed a Conyention with the Sultan, engaging,
if the Porte carried out necessary reforms, to aid in opposing
all future aggression on the part of Bussia. Cyprus was handed
over to Great Britain to be administered and occupied by her
until Bussia should have restored her Armenian conquests.
On June 13th, 1878, the Congress met at Berlin under the
Presidency of Bismarck, Turkey and the six Great Powers
sending their Prime Ministers or Foreign Ministers, and Eng-
land being represented by Lord Beaconsfield and Lord
Salisbury.
Owing in great measure to the skill of Bismarck all difiicul- The Treaty
ties were at length remoyed, and on July 13th, 1878, the ji^Jisri
famous Treaty of Berlin was signed. Bulgaria was diyided
into two proyinces, separated by the Balkans. The southern
Proyince was called Eastern Boumelia, and though it re-
mained Turkish it was ruled by a Christian Gk>yemor nomi-
nated by the Porte with the assent of the Powers. North
of the Balkans Bulgaria was an autonomous Principality
bereft of the Dobrudscha and the northern part of Macedonia.
Bosnia and Herzegoyina were handed oyer to Austria, and by
occupying the Noyi-Bazar district that power placed herseK
between Seryia and Monten^pro. Montenegro, Seryia, and
Boimiania, were confirmed in their independence, though the
cessions of territory arranged at San Stefano were sHghtly
altered. Monten^ro obtained the sea-ports of Antiyari and
Dulcigno, Seryia secured the district of old Seryia in the upper
yalley of the Moraya, and Boumania, while forced to yield to
Bussia the country between the Pruth and the northern mouth
of the Danube, receiyed the Dobrudscha and the sea-port of
Bustendje.
In Asia the Tsar restored Bayazid,an important town through
which passed European trade from Trebizond to Persia, and
while retaining Kars and Batoum, promised that the latter
should be erected into a free commercial port. Lastly, at
the suggestion of France, the Sultan, who undertook to apply
scrupidously in Crete the organic law of 1868, was recom-
mended to cede the southern part of Thessaly and Epirus to
Greece.
By the Treaty of Berlin Bussia had acquired Bessarabia and
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
218 MODERN EUBOPE [Chap. LXXIV.
What the a portion of Armenia, England had secured Ojprus, Austria
^n^^»d. Bosnia and Herzegoyina, and France a lien on Tonis. An
important step had been taken towards the emancipation of
the Christian peoples inhabiting the Balkan Peninsula from
Turkish misrule. Europe now entered upon a period of armed
peace, during which the Great Powers gradually turned their
attention to commercial enterprise and colonial expansion.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAPTEE LXXV
1878-1891
THE TBIFLE ALLIANCE
DUEINQ- the twelve years succeeding the Treaty of Berlin charactei-
Bismarck was the most powerful statesman and Berlin {^^**from
the centre of politics in Europe.* England remained to a i878toi89i.
great extent occupied with domestic legislation and with the
Irish question, while Mr. Gladstone, whose influence was
immense, cared little for foreign politics, and though com-
pelled to intervene in Egypt, showed no sympathy for
colonial expansion. During these years a reaction against
the forward policy of Lord Beaconsfield was in progress, and
though England was forced into wars in Afghanistan, Zulu-
land, the Transvaal and Egypt, no anxiety was shown by the
various Cabinets to extend the British dominion. Till 1891,
when Europe first realized the possibility of a Franco-Bussian
alliance, Fmnce remained isolated. The friendship with Eng-
land, which had been a conspicuous tradition of English
foreign policy since the days of Palmerston and Louis Phil-
ippe, practically ended with the suppression of Arabi's insur-
rection in Egypt in 1882. After that event the rivalry of
England and France on the sea has become more and more
pronounced. Similarly, Russia, during this period, gradually
found herself isolated, and her alliance with France was forced
upon her partly by financial reasons, partly in order to form
a Dual in opposition to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Aus-
tria, and Italy, by means of which Bismarck had preserved
the peace of Europe.
^ For the events narrated or alluded to in this chapter, consnlt :
Seignobos, Histoire politique de r Europe contemporatne (1814-96);
Milner, Enaland in Mgypt^ Leroy-Beanneu, La France^ la Et$8sie, et
r Europe; Philippson, FrtedrichllL izlsKrorwrinzund Kaiser; Keltic,
The Partition of Africa; Bosch, Our Chancellor; Headlam, Bisfnarck.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODBBN EUBOPE [Chap. LXXV.
BnMdaaad
theTreat^y
of Berlin.
Policy of
Bifflnarck.
Alliance be-
tween Ger-
many and
Austria,
1879.
Italy and
France in
Africa.
The Treaty of Berlin caused great indignation in Btussia.
It had been expected in St. Petersburg that Germany would
aid the Tsar to obtain ample compensation for the efforts
which he had made to conquer the Turks. Instead of re-
ceiying support from Qermanj, Eussia found that Austria,
which had not fought at all, had secured a position equal to
her own in the Balkan Peninsular. The Emperor Alexander
n., furious at the impartiality shown by Bismarck during
the Berlin Congress, declared that he had forgotten his en-
gagements in 1870, while Gk>rtchakoy pronounced tiie Con-
gress of Berlin to be the darkest page in his life. Russia had
certainly aided Germany in 1870 by her neutral attitude, but
Bismarck thought that his support of Russia's destruction of
the Treaty of Paris of 1856 was an ample recognition of the
services of the Tsar. Moreoyer it was of immense importance
to Germany that Austria should be induced to forget Sadowa
and turn her attention eastwards. In the face of the rivalry
of Russia and Austria in the Balkan Peninsula, it was im*
possible for the alliance of the three Emperors, concluded in
1872, to continue, and though Bismarck hoped, by means of
the personal friendship of the Emperor William with his
nephew the Tsar Alexander to avert a war between Germany
and Russia, he decided that an alliance with Austria was a
necessary precaution. In August, 1879, he met Andrassy at
Ghtstein, and on October 15 the Emperor William signed a
Treaty with Austria which, for a time, was kept secret. The
shadow of a war with Russia, possibly in alliance with France,
hung over the Cabinets of Berlin and Vienna, and compelled
them to seek for another ally. This they found in Italy.
During the Congress of Berlin Lord Salisbury had apparently
expressed his acquiescence in the establishment of French in-
fluence in Tunis. Italy, however, had gained nothing at the
Congress, and moreover was accustomed to look upon Tunis
as offering an opportunity for Italian expansion in Africa.
France being already dominant in Algeria, the supremacy of
Italy in Tunis could not be entertained, and in 1880, taking
advantage of a native rising, French troops entered Tunis,
and the Bey signed the Treaty of Bardo (May 12), giving
France the protectorate over the country. This Treaty roused
the deepest indignation in Italy. Riots took place between
French and Italian workmen, the Italian Ministry of Cairoli
fell, and was succeeded by that of Depretis, with Mancini as
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXV.] THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE 221
Foreign Minister. The friendship of France and Italy, so
marked in the reign of Napoleon III., came to an end, and
after yisits of King Humbert to Vienna (1881), and to Berlin
(1882), Italy join^ the Alliance of Qermany and Austria in The Triple
1883. Renewed in 1887, in 1891, and in 1896, the Triple ^^^*
Alliance still remains a saf ^uard of the peace of Europe. At
the time, however, of its establishment, the Triple Alliance was
not brought into undue prominence, for Bismarck was anxious
to keep on friendly terms with Russia. Skilful though this
policy might be, the murder of Alexander 11. in 1881, and the
accession of Alexander m., whose anti-Gkrman and strong
Slav tendencies were well known, threatened its overthrow.
Bismarck did indeed bring about a meeting of the three Em-
perors at Skiemevice in September, 1884, where he made,
with Alexander, a secret Treaty, in which Germany and Russia
promised to preserve a benevolent neutrality if either should
be attacked. It was only in 1896 that the existence of this
Treaty was revealed to Europe.
The danger to Germany from Russia in the years 1879-80- Oiowth of
81, had been averted partly by the Alliance with Austria, SJSS™^
partly by Russian activity in Central Asia, partly by the
development, to an alarming extent, of Nihilism. During
the latter years of Alexander IL's life, Nihilism developed at
an extraordinary rate, and after the close of the war with
Turkey, Russia was bankrupt, disaffected and disorganized.
Alexander had carried out great reforms, and the ideas of
Western Europe had been introduced before the Russian
nation was suf&ciently educated to receive them. The Govern-
ment, which was an absolute autocracy as well as a compli-
cated bureaucracy, was corrupt to the core, and reform was
urgently needed. But the social revolutionary party aimed
not at reform but at revolution. An extreme party was formed
of Terrorists, who believed in adopting desperate measures to
attain their ends, and in 1879 the secret organization known
as Nihilism was fully prepared. During 1879 and 1880,
attemps were made upon the life of Alexander, who, on March
18, 1881, was cruelly murdered. His successor for a time Murder of
attempted to check the introduction of Western ideas and n^^af'
civilisation, lived in distant palaces surrounded by an army,
and allowed Ignatiev to carry out a policy of severity.
Though checked by England at the Treaty of Berlin, the
Russian Government, under Alexander III., took advuitage
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODEEN EXJBOPE [Chap. LXXV.
BuBsian in- of the gradual oessation of Nihilist plots, and turned its atten-
^^[^jf tion to questions of foreign policy. Already Russian advance
Stan, 1878-9. in Central Asia had caused uneasiness in England, but in
May, 1876, Disraeli had stated in the House of Commons
that Russia had a great mission in the East, and that Russian
conquests in Asia furthered the cause of dvilization. In
September, 1878, Russian intrigues in Cabul almost led to
war with England. As it was, Shore Ali, the Ameer, appealed
in December, 1878, to Russia for assistance. He failed in
his object, and died in February, 1879, leaving his son Yakoob
E[han as his successor. Yakoob acceded to the demands of
the English, and receiyed Sir Louis Cavagnari as resident in
The murder Cabul. In September Cavagnari and his escort were mur-
^i^n^' dered, and Lord Roberts, with a large force, entered Cabul in
Cabul, 1879. October, and set up another Ameer. But in April, 1880, a
Liberal GoYomment came into office, and it was decided to
abandon all idea of making a scientific frontier, and to with-
draw all British forces from Afghanistan. The &mous march
from Cabul to Candahar, followed by a victory over Ayoub
Khan, who had defeated General Burrows, restored the pres-
tige of the English arms, but had no effect in checking the
The TeoS- Russian advance in Central Asia. In 1885 the Fenjdeh incid-
ent ?m ^^*' occasioned by English difficulties in Egypt, again brought
England and Russia to the the verge of war. Fortunately
peace was preserved, and Russia, since 1885, has contented
herself with advancing steadily across Asia towards the Pacific.
The effects The success of the policy of Russia in Central Asia stands
Ti^^yof o^t in startling contradistinction to the failure of the hopes
B^^n that were formed in St. Petersburg at the opening of the
Enro^ Russo-Turkish war for material gains in Eastern Europe.
The Treaty of Berlin not only put an end to a sanguinary
war and effected a territorial revolution in the Balkan Pen-
insula, but it also created a new political situation fraught
with unexpected consequences of vast import to Europe.
England and Austria had apparently triumphed at Berlin.
The latter secured the post of guardian of the Balkan Pen-
insula, and England had checked the advance of Russia in the
direction of Constantinople, and had set up Bulgaria as a
buffer state between Turkey and Russia. Further, on July
9th was published the secret conventions made by the British
Qovemment with Turkey in accordance with which England
acquired the right of occupying Cyprus as long as Russia
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXV.] THE TEIPLE ALLIANCE
retained possession of Ears and Batoum. It was quite evid-
ent that further developments would take place among the
Balkan States, and that Bussia, though checked in Eiu'ope,
would look for compensation elsewhere.
The execution of the terms of the Treaty of Berlin was Boumania
accompanied by various modifications. In February, 1880, ^"^^'f^^
England, France and Germany recognized the Independence
of Boumania, and in 1881 she declared herself a kingdom
imder King Charles I. of the Qerman House of Hohenzollem
Sigmaringen. In 1882 Servia imitated the example of Bou-
mania and found a king in Milan I. of the Servian family of
Obrenovitch. Even greater changes took place in Bulgaria,
whose first ruler, elected in 1879, was Prince Alexander of
Battenberg, who, till 1881, presided over a democratic consti-
tution which proved unworkable, while Aleko Pasha was
appointed by the Sultan to govern Eastern Boumelia. The
tendency towards the union of the two portions of Bulgaria Union of
soon became irresistible, and on September 17th, 1885, a revo- siu^ilrias,
lution broke out at PhilippopoUs, and the Union of Bulgaria 1886.
with Eastern Boumelia tmder Alexander of Battenberg was
proclaimed, and after some demur accepted by the Powers
which signed the Treaty of Berlin. A wanton attack by
Servia under King Milan was defeated at the battles of
Slivnitza and Perot, and peace made at Bucharest on March
8th, 1886. But the troubles of the new kingdom were by no
means over. The Bussian Q-ovemment had always viewed
with dislike the pr<^ess of the Bulgarian State, and her
agents suddenly kidnapped Prince Alexander and carried him
away in August, 1886. Shortly after his return he abdicated,
and through the influence of tiie able minister Stamboulov
was succeeded, on July 8th, 1887, by Prince Ferdinand of
Saxe-Coburg, a grandson of Louis PhiUppe. Under Stambou-
lov the struggle against Bussian influence continued till the
murder of the Bulgarian minister in 1895 removed the chief
opponent to Muscovite domination. Stoilov, the new head of Becondiia-
the ministry, was friendly to the government of the Tsar, and ^Sai»^"
Prince FercUnand decided to reconcile himself with Bussia. Bwuia.
The Tsar consented to act as godfather of the infant Boris, ^^^'
and Ferdinand allowed his son to be brought up in the faith
of the Orthodox Church. Since that event the European
Powers have practically recognized the government of Prince
Ferdinand.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
224 MODEBK ETJBOFE [CHiLP. LXXY.
MoBtoiiesro Difficulties had also arisen in other portions of Eastern
andoreaoe. jjurope before the terms of the Treaty of Berlin could be
carried out, and it was not till 1881 that Austria was in firm
possession of Bosnia and that Montenegro had receiyed Dul-
cigno, and Greece ThessaJy and part of Epiros. The war
between Greece and Turkey in 1897 revealed to a surprised
world the fact that the Porte is still a Power to be reckoned
with. The overthrow of the Greek troops in a series of battles.
The and the overwhelming superiority of the Turks has made it
^m^ ^' evident that the Sultan is able to defend Constantin<^Ie irom
the attacks of any enemy, while the establishment of a number
of autonomous states has interposed an effective barrier to
Bussian aggression. It was quite evident that in her Eastern
policy Bussia could not hope to receive support from England,
Germany, or Austria. The only possible ally was iVance.
PoUcy of During the Eastern war of 1877 France had remained scrupu-
^^2. lously neutral She had united with the other Great Powers in
the Berlin Congress, where she had gained the acquiescence of
Lord Salisbury and Prince Bismarck in her plans for occupy-
ing Tunis.^ In 1877 Jules Gr^vy had succeeded MacMahon
as President of the Bepublic, and Gambetta became President
of the Chamber. Between 1879 and 1887, the period of
Gravy's Presidency, there were no less than twelve ministries,
the most famous of the Premiers being Freycinet (1879, 1882,
1886) , Ferry (1880, 1883), and Gambetta (1881). During
these years, when the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria,
and Italy had drawn an iron circle round France, an agitation
was begun in favour of a Dictator who would be strong
enough to place the country in an independent position.
This irritation, so natural to a sensitive people like the French,
The led to the ephemeral Boulangist agitation, to a policy of
A^itlSaJ^! Colonial expansion^ and to an alliance with Bussia. General
Boulanger did, indeed, succeed for about three years in taking
advantage of the general discontent, and in exciting uneasiness
in foreign countries by his ambiguous attitude. The Bou-
langist movement revealed ** that Csdsarism was ever latent
in the French nature."' A military adventurer, supported
by the Beactionaries and the Socialists, Boulanger, who had
been a member of the Goblet ministry which fell May 80th,
1886, nearly succeeded in establishing a dictatorship. But
^ Busch, Our Chancellor^ ii, 193.
3 Bodley, France, ii. 364.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXV.] THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE 226
when threatened with the prospect of the overthrow of the
Bepnblic the Gbvemment showed unexpected vigour. Bou-
langer^ accused of conspiring against the safety of the State,
fled, and all danger to the ]^public was over.
Though unable to take an active part in European politics, French
France, after the Treaty of Berlin, entered upon a course of ^^^
colonial adventures which occupied the attention, and for a
time satisfied the aspirations of Frenchmen. It has been
said that Bismarck foresaw "that France in Tunis woiQd
mean a lasting quarrel with Italy, and probably an appetite
for colonial expansion which would render friction with Eng-
land inevitable." ^ At any rate, Jules Ferry had no difficulty
in embarking France upon a career of colonial expansion which
led to the banning of unfriendly relations with England.
Between the years 1880 and 1885 expeditions were sent to
Tunis, Tonquin, and Madagascar, while in 1884 the French
Congo was founded and a l^ge extent of territory in Senegal
was occupied. But this sudden development was for a time
checked by the French reverse in 1885 at Langson in Indo- The dis-
China. Jules Ferry was driven from office (April, 1886), u^l^^
M. de Braza, the feutnous French explorer, fell into disgrace, isss-
and the momentary failure of the forward policy added to the
many causes of discontent which rendered Boulangism possible,
hostility to England popular, and a Bussian Alliance in-
evitable.
But before the disaster of Langson the French Government France in
had blundered heavily in Egypt. The opening of the Suez **^*-
Canal, built to a large extent with French capit^ in 1869, gave
Great Britain a vit^ interest in Egypt, and in 1875 Lord
Beaconsfield's purchase of a large number of shares in the
Canal secured her influence in its management. A number
of English and French had settled in Egypt, and the two
governments had agreed to support Tewfik the Viceroy as
long as he followed their advice. The interference of Europ^m
Powers was, however, very unpopular to the Egyptian official
class who regarded with jealousy the British and French
officers employed by the Khedive. Accordingly, in 1882,
Arabi Paaha, an Egyptian soldier, headed a national movement, mtorreo-
threatened to depose Tewfik, and seized the fortifications which ^^^| ^^^
commanded the harbour of Alexandria. England, thereupon,
^ ForMghlly Beviewt November, 1897, p. 788.
VI. q
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODBBN EUEOPB [Chap. LXXV.
Fimiioe and inTited France and Italy to join her in oocupjing the ooimtry
toS^JS* ^^ order to pnt down the revolntionary movements: France,
En i2^ still hampered in Tonquin, refused, and Italy, " owing to a
^ threat by France that her participation would be regarded as
a Casus BeUi,** ^ also declined to assist. England was then
left alone, and, probably to the surprise of Fiunce, undertook
the heavy task of restoring order. A British fleet bombarded
Alexandria, which was set on fire by the Egyptians, and much
destruction of life and property took place. In September,
Batae <rf 1882, a British army under Sir Garnet Wolseley proceeded to
^i£~ 1882. Egypt, defeated Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir, and restored Tewfik.
J^^ The results of the events of 1882 have heea considerable.
The English occupation of Egypt has been prolonged and a
protectorate practically established. The country has been
admirably administered, completely reorganized, and saved
from a relapse into semi -barbarism, while the Soudan has
Treaty be- gradually been reconquered. France and Italy, profoundly
f^^^ Mid annoyed at having lost so admirable a chance of directing
Italy, 1886. European policy, made an i^eement in 1885, the object of
which was to create a condominium of three in the Valley of
the Nile, and to hamper the progress of the English conquest.
Theooeapa- In consequence of this agreement an Italian colony was estab-
Mttuowiah. liflhed at Massowrah. Disaster has, however, attended the
attempt to carry through a rash and ill-considered scheme, and
beyond embroiling the Italians with the Abyssinians, the
treaty of March, 1886, between France and Italy, which was
directed against the EngHsh occupation of Egypt, has had no
harmful effects.
BnffUah Disasters also attended the early efforts of the British to
g^g^f* settle the affairs of Egypt. The appearance of the Mahdi, a
Themhdi. rcHgious fanatic, in the Upper Valley of the Nile, was followed
by the destruction of the Egyptian garrisons and the fall of
Xhartoum. The English Cabinet determined to abandon the
Soudan to its fate, and in January, 1888, Oeneral G-ordon,
without any troops, was sent to bring away the i^yptian gar-
risons and officials, while General Baker, with an insufficient
Death of army, was despatched to Suakim. Gordon found himself com-
gjf^"* pelled to defend Khartoum against the Mahdi, and when the
Khartoum, English Cabinet very reluctantly decided to send an expedition
^^^' to his rescue the decision was made too late. After several
^ StiUman, Union ofltalp, 1815-1896.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXV.] THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE 227
battles an advanced column arrired at the Waters of the Upper
Nile in Jannarj, 1885, only to find that Khartoum had fallen, and
that Gk>rdon had been killed. The Soudan was then abandoned,
and it was decided that the British should hold Wadi Haifa
and Suakim. From Cairo the work of reorganization went Befomsin
steadily on, and reforms were carried out in the army, the ^«ypt.
finances, and the administration of justice. Never has Egypt
been so well governed, or her material resources so carefully
developed as during the period from the revolt of Arabi to the
present day.
In deseiting England at Alexandria France made a grievous The effect
error, and the Freycinet Ministry was dismissed (August, French
1882) for its shortsighted policy, in not knowing how to pre- JJ^^®'*
serve French influence in the Valley of the Nile. England
was left to watch over the destinies of Egypt, and France em-
barked upon a policy of Colonial rivalry with her in all parts
of the world.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the isolation of France, Franco-
her hostility to England, and her internal troubles, should have SiaSce,
inclined her to enter upon friendly relations with Russia. The i8»i-
French love personal rule, and viewed with approbation the
long period of intimate relations between France and Russia,
during which President Camot, who succeeded Gr^vy on De-
cember 8rd, 1887, treated with an autocratic sovereign like
Alexander III. Prance adopted and supported the views of
Russia on the Bulgarian Question, and in 1889 and 1891 the
French public subscribed willingly when Russia was anxious to
raise loans. In 1891 the visit of the French fleet to Cronstadt,
followed by the visit of a Russian fleet to France in 1893, pro-
claimed to the world that a Franco-Russian Alliance confronted
the Triple League of Germany, Austria, and Italy. In 1895
M. Hanotaux in th^ Chamber alluded to the alliance of France
and Russia ; in 1896 Nicholas 11. and the Tsarina visited
Paris, and in 1897 President Felix Faure paid a return visit
to St. Petersburg. Though France has so far gained little
ostensible advanta^ the close connection of the two countries
has been amply demonstrated in the history of the Far East
during the last few years.
Before, however, the Cronstadt festivities had taken place FaU of
Bismarck had fallen. ST*"*'
For some thirty years Bismarck's influence had been pre-
dominant in Prussia ; after the Franco-German war his as-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
228 MODEBN EUEOPE [Chap. LXXV.
cendencj in Europe' had graduallj become firmly established.
The alliance of the Three Emperors kept France isolated in
Europe, and in 1878 and the following years he had faTOured
a French occupation of Tunis. His policy was justified by
success. The Tunisian expedition inyolyed France in compli-
cations with Italy and Turkey, while England's practical
annexation of Egypt has never been forgiven by the French
Government. His ability and foresight were equally well
attested in the stormy period following the Treaty of Berlin.
Russia was naturally furious at the treatment which she had
received, and endeavoured to secure a formal alliance with
France.^ But Bismarck rightly felt that in alliance with
Austria he was strong enough to stand against the combined
forces of France and Bussia. And on this occasion fortune
favoured him. France became involved in difficulties in
Tunis and Tonquin, while Bussia was paralyzed by internal
HiB peace disturbances due to the spread of Nihilism. Once the Triple
^^^* Alliance was made he did all in his power to conciliate Russia,
and the continuance of peace among the Great Powers was
largely due to his influence. In 1888 the Emperor William I.
died, and after a reign of three months Frederick m., so well
known in the Franco-Prussian war as the Crown Prince, also
died. He was succeeded by the able and masterful William n.,
whose vigorous policy has proved most beneficial to Germany.
It was wellnigh impossible for two such strong characters as
the Emperor and his Chancellor to continue to work together,
and the faU of the latter was by no means a surprise. Bis-
marck had taken a leading part in forming modem Germany;
his legacy to Europe was an '' armed peace " which has lasted
from the Congress of Berlin to the present day.
^ Mtiller : Political History in JRecmt Times (Trans.).
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
CHAPTEE LXXVI
1891-1900
THE NBW PROBLEMS
THE year of BismarcFs fall saw the Franco-Russian character.
Alliance inaugurated, and the isolation of France, to ^5d!'**
effect which he hs^ devoted so much labour, finally ended, isai-iwo.
But the fears of Bismarck have now no reason for their exist-
ence.* The Dual, no less than the Triple Alliance, makes for
peace. France has for the time acquiesced in the loss of
Alsace and Lorraine, and is straining eyery nerve to secure
colonial possessions ; while Russia has recognized the futility
of attempting to drive the Turks out of Constantinople, and
is busy in extending her empire to the shores of the Pacific.
The Great Powers no longer aim at acquisitions in Europe ;
the object of each is to develop, as &»r as possible, a colonial
Empire. The failure, however, of Turkey to carry out its
promised reforms, and its war with Greece, checked for a time
the general tendency towards world empires, and forced the
Powers of Europe into temporary union in order to establish
peace in the East of Europe.
The years 1891-1900 have indeed witnessed a general up- Theqaes.
heaval in Eastern Europe, where the Christian populations xurkey.
resented the continual refusal of the Porte to grant reforms,
and were deeply moved by the massacres in Armenia. Taking
advantage of the widespread dissatisfaction at the conduct of
the Porte, Greece plunged into a war which had the result of
^ For an account of the contemporary events in this chapter see
MUner, England in Egypt ; Whates, TAe Thvrd ScUiabtin/ Atiminis-
tration; Daudet, Histotre cUplomatique de V Alliance Franco-Buase
(1873-1893); Curzon, Problems of the Far East; The Times History of
the War in South Africa ; The Statesman! s Year-Book ; Stevens, The
Fall of Khartoum ; Bryce, Impressions in South Africa.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
230
MODERN EUBOPE [Osuf . LXXYI.
Colonial ex-
nmsionof
the Great
Powers.
The
Armenian
massacres,
1894-6.
Massacres
of Arme-
nians in the
Provinces
and in Con-
stantinople,
1896.
freeing Crete from Turkish misrule. Simultaneouslj with
the existence of an unsatisfactory state of things in the East of
Europe, which has now become chronic, the commercial and
colonial expansion of Bussia, Germany, England and France
went on apace ; while America, in consequence of her war with
Spain over Cuba, suddenly appeared as one of the great Powers
of the world. This almost unanimous desire on the part of
so many nations to share in the unoccupied portions of the
fflobe has naturally led to considerable friction, and often
brought the Powers to the verge of war. But so far peace has
been preserved among the leading States, and, by a continu-
ance of mutual forbearance, it is to be hoped tha,t no great
war will break out.
During the years succeeding the foil of Bismark the peace of
Europe has only been broken in the East. Terrible massacres
of Armenians took place in 1894 and 1895, and a wave of
horror passed over the whole civilized world. Both Lord
Bosebery and Lord Salisbury, on his accession to office in
1895, were resolved to force Abdul Hamid the Sultan to accept
the advice of the European Powers and to carry out the long
promised reforms. Lord Eimberley had brought about the
Concert of the Six Powers, the immediate object of which
was to compel the Porte to execute Article XLI. of the Treaty
of BerHn, viz., " to carry into effect, without delay, the im-
provements and reforms required by local wants in the pro-
vinces inhabited by the Armenians.'' The difficulties before
the Ambassadors of the Powers were immense. They had to
obtain from the Porte guarantees for the execution of the
reforms, and they had to remain united. Unfortunately
cordial union was impossible. England alone was anxious for
drastic measures, Germany and Austria were lukewarm, Bussia
and France were opposed to bringing force to bear on Abdul
Hamid. With infinite difficulty Lord Salisbury obtained from
the Porte an Imperial Irad^, ordering the execution of a list
of reforms which had the approval of the Powers. But
though no one expected a loyal execution of his promises, few
anticipated that further massacres would take place in 1896.
Thousands of Armenians were slaughtered in the provinces,
and in August a general massacre of Armenians in Constan-
tinople illustrated the real weakness of the Concert.
What, however, the great Powers feared to do was done by
Crete. In that island the Christians held their own a^fainst
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Ohap. lxxvi.] the new pboblems
231
the Turks, though the latter succeeded in 1895 in suppressing
temporarily the rising. It was, however, obvious that Turkey,
if allowed, could stamp out the resistance of the Christians
by force of numbers. Lord Salisbury, though hampered in
Armenia, saw an opportunity of chedang the Turks in Crete,
and through his endeavours the Forte agreed to a Convention
in 1896. But disorders immediately followed, and a new
situation was created when Colonel Yassos, aide-de-camp to
the King of Greece, and with the aid of Prince G-eorge, landed
in Crete with 1,500 men and some artillery, in February, 1897.
The Cretans had already demanded union with Greece, and it
was clear that the Greek Government was anxious to brinff
this about. War between Greece and Turkey at once followed,
while the Concert of the Powers declared for the autonomy of
Crete under Turkish suzerainty, and an international fleet
was sent to watch the island. In the war the Turks, under
Edhem Pasha, were almost consistently victorious, and after
the first battle, on April 17, the main Turkish army advanced
into the Plain of Thessaly. After a succession of disasters,
the Crown Prince, on May 20, obtained a fifteen days' truce.
The Ministry of Delyannis fell, Balli, the head of the new
Government, agreed to withdraw all Greek troops from Crete,
and after some delay promised to accept autonomy for the
island. The Concert of Powers thereupon took charge of Greek
interests, and mediated a peace with Turkey. No increase of
territoiy was allowed to the Porte, which had to content itself
with a large money indemnity. On November 23, 1897, peace
was signed at Constantinople, and Great Britain, Bussia, and
France, took upon themselves to arrange for the payment of
the indemnity. The question of Crete sml remained. The pro-
posal of Bussia that Prince George of Greece should be ap-
pointed Gt>vemor of the island, was followed first by a deadlock,
and, early in 1898, by the withdrawal of Germany and Austria
from the Concert. In September an attack of the Turks
upon British troops led to energetic measures by Admiral
Noel, who was supported by the English Government^ and
Lord Salisbury dedared that England was prepared, if neces-
sary, to act alone. All Turkish troops were to be at once re-
moved from Crete. France, Bussia, and Italy agreed, and the
respective admirals of the four Powers insisted on the deporta-
tion of the Turks, while the candidature of Prince George was
revived. On December 31, 1898, he landed in Crete as Gh>v-
Theristog
in Crete,
1896.
The
outbreak of
war be-
tween
Greece and
Turkey,
1897.
Victories of
the TarkB.
Peace
between
Greece and
Torkey,
Not. 1807.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
282
MODERN EUROPE [Chap. LXXVL
Prince
George Got-
emorof
Crete, Dec.
1896.
Friendship
of Germany
and Turkey.
Buasian
projects
against Tor-
l5y.
The Parti-
tion of
Africa.
The Ck>nfer-
enceof
Berlin, 1886.
England
ana: Ger-
many in
Africa.
emor, and took over the administration. The firmness of
Lord Salisbury had Restored England's prestige, which the
Armenian " afi^r " had dimmed, and the possibility of good
emanating from a Concert of Powers was vindicated. The
Grseco-Turkish war, moreover, had illustrated the growing
friendship of Germany with the Porte. German officers had,
by their advice, done much to ensure the reorganisation of
the Turkish army after the Treaty of Berlin, and the results
of their advice were patent in the whole conduct of the war.
In any future uprising against the Porte, the interest taken
by Germany in its welfare will be a powerful factor in the
development of events. The episodes of the years 1894-1898
showed, too, that Russia is determined not to allow Armenia
to become a second Bulgaria. Throughout those years Russia
manifested an anxiety with regard to the future of Asia
Minor, which portends a Muscovite expansion in that direc-
tion. Batoum is no longer a free port, the Black Sea is a
Russian lake, and the steady advance of the Tsar's influence
in Asia Minor seems assured.
While these events were proceeding in the East of Europe,
Germany, Prance, England and Italy, were endeavoxiring to
strengthen their hold upon parts of Africa. In Uganda, on
the Gold Coast, in Nigeria, in South West and South Africa,
great activity has prevailed, and the contending interests of
the Great Powers have often brought them to the verge of
conflict. In 1884 Germany had occupied Angra Pequena, on
the South- West coast of Africa; and from that time German
colonization advanced. In the same year a Conference of all the
leading Powers, including America, met at Berlin (November
16, 1884— February 26, 1885). The Conference decided that
occupation of territory must be effective. It required the
suppression of the slave trade and slavery ; it established a
free-trade zone, and it placed the Congo Free State under the
sovereignty of Leopold IE. of Belgium. From that time rapid
progress has been made towards a partition of Africa, and
the Brussels Conference (November 18, 1889— July 2, 1890)
took further steps to regulate the sale of intoxicating liquors
and firearms to the natives, and to suppress the slave trade.
With Germany England had no serious causes of complaint.
Bismarck had found that encouragement of colonial expan-
sion occupied the attention of England and France, and was
popular with a certain section of politicians in Berlin. Before
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXTE.] THE NEW PROBLEMS
his fall Germany had made considerable progress in East
Africa. In 1889 an Imperial Commissioner was placed over
the Q-erman territory, which extended from the river Wami
to Cape Delgado. In 1890 (July 1) an Anglo-German agree-
ment was made, by which England gave up her possession of
Heligoland, and received the Protectorate over Zanzibar and
Pemba. The spheres of influence of England and Germany
in East and South- West Africa were also settled, and though
France refused to recognize the agreement so far as it defined
the British sphere of influence in the country from the lakes
to Wady Ha&a, the arrangement has not been disturbed.
The task of delimitation in a country like Africa must The Niger
necessarily be difficult, and it was especially so in West Africa, ^«»**®n-
where the French asserted claims to the hinterland at variance
with treaties, and of a character likely to interfere with the
policy of the English Government of allowing ''trade to
pursue its unchecked and unhindered courses upon the Niger,
the Nile, and the Zambesi." In 1897 the invasion by the
French of British territory rendered it necessary to come to
some clear understanding, and an Anglo-French Convention
signed in June, 1898, but not ratified till 1899, settled the
boundaries of the British possessions.
The task of making a satisfactory arrangement with regard The NUe
to the Upper Nile and Central Soudan proved a less easy task, ^•^^y-
and there seems little doubt that the French proposed to
establish a line of forts across the Nile Valley, so as to bar
the advance of the English southwards. In view of some
such action on the part of France, the British Government in
1895 had clearly defined its policy. " The British sphere of
influence," said Sir Edward Grey, the Tinder Secretarv of
State for Foreign Affairs, on March 28th, 1895, " covered the
whole of the Nile Waterway." In 1896 the reconquest of
the Soudan was begun, simultaneously with a great disaster
to the Italians at the battle of Adowa. Italy had in 1888 The Italians
founded the Protectorate of Erythrea on the coast of the Bed IdSw^ **
Sea, and during 1895 had attempted to extend the area of the !«».
settlement. Jxl attacking Menelik, King of Abyssinia, at
Adowa, the Italians suffered a severe defeat, and !l^assala was
threatened by the Dervishes. The advance of the British and The Britiah
Egyptian forces under Sir Herbert Kitchener saved Kassala JJ^*™***
and was accompanied by the defeat of the Dervishes at Ferkeh ^***^
and the occupation of Dongola. In 1898 a general advance
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
384
MODEBN EUBOPE [Cbap. LXXYI.
The
FaBhoda
Incident,
1898.
Snooeasof
Enjdand's
Policy in
Bgypt.
The War
of Bnidand
with&e
Transvaal
and Orange
Free State,
1899-1900.
was made ; yictories were won at Atbaia and Omdurman, and
Eltartoam reooyered. Witli tlie death of the Khalifa in an
engagement at Kordofan, the reconquest of the Soudan was
accomplished. But before that event England and France
had been brought to the verge of war..
The battle of Omdurman and the recovery of Khartoum
had been preceded by the arrival of a French force under
Major Marchand at Fashoda on the White Nile. The English
Declaration of 1895 and the colonial policy of France were
thus brought into diametrical opposition. Lord Salisbury
was resolved not to recognize " a title to possession on behalf
of France or Abyssinia to any portion of the Nile Valley."
M. Delcass^, the French Foreign Minister, and Sir E. Monson
negotiated in Paris, and the French Ambassador, Baron de
Courcel, had interviews with Lord Salisbury in London. The
situation became serious, though the French claims were
absolutely untenable. On November 4th the French Govern-
ment decided to withdraw Major Marchand's expedition, and
the danger of war passed away.
The Eastern Soudan and a large portion of Central Africa
have now been opened to civilisation, the Dervish power has
been destroyed, and the excellence of the British administra-
tion has been fully vindicated. A great step, too, has been
taken in uniting by means of the telegraph and the railway
Cape Town and Cairo. The consummation of this aim has,
however, been somewhat retarded by the war between England
and the Transvaal and the Orange Free State Bepublics.
Ever since the Convention of Pretoria in 1881, following the
British defeat of Majuba HiU, the Boers have aimed at com-
plete independence. By that convention, supplemented by
the London convention of 1884, the Transvaal was given
autonomy for internal purposes, but was never given inde-
pendence. A firm determination on the part of the Transvaal
Government to shake off British suzerainty led to continual
quarrels with England, while the Jameson raid and its failure
in 1895-6, intensified the feeling of opposition to outside con-
trol. In the confident expectation of direct or indirect assist-
ance from one or more European countries, the Transvaal and
Orange Free State Bepublics united, sent England an ulti-
matum, and war began in October, 1899. The corrupt Hol-
lander Government of Pretoria fell before the advance of
Lord Boberts, the Boer armies have been broken up, and in
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXVL] THE NEW PROBLEMS 235
spite of the continuance of ^erilla warfare the British sover-
eignty over both the Sepublics is assured, and the union of
South Africa will shortly be an accomplished fact.
The close of the year 1895 had not only witnessed the TheOniana
Jameson Baid, it also found England engaged in a dispute with ^^^^^^
America over a question of the Guiana-Venezuela boundary, laes.
On December 18th, England awoke to find that America had
threatened her with war. The question was a complicated
one, but no action on the part of the English Gbvemment
warranted such messages to Congress and such despatches as
were drawn up by President Cleyeland, and Bichard Olney,
the State Secretary. For a time a deadlock ensued, and it was
not till a panic had taken place in WaU Street that reason
asserted itself with the American public, which hitherto had
not understood the facts of the case, nor appreciated the posi-
tion into which their country had been placed. After much
discussion a solution of the boundary question was reached.
By the Treaty of Washington, in February, 1897, a Tribunal
was appointed which met at Paris, and made its award in
October, 1899, thus satisfactorily settling the rival claims of
Great Britain and Venezuela. During the dispute Mr. Olney
had tried to base his case upon a misinterpretation of the Mon-
roe doctrine. That doctrine, adopted by President Monroe in
1828 from George Canning, simply amounted to a declaration
that any extension of the possessions of the European Powers
on the American Continent would be dangerous to the safety
of the United States. It was in no way applicable to the
Guiana- Venezuela boundary question, for no European Power
was endeavouring to extend its possessions on the American
Continent.
The American Government, however, was fully justified in The Cuban
protesting againt the Spanish misrule in Cuba. Ever since ^sf^^^'^'
the century opened the Cuban people have had a deep interest
for the Americans. The fertility of the island has excited their
envy, its misgovemment their pity, while its situation com-
manding the Caribbean Sea rendered its eventual control bv
the United States Government a necessity. In 1867 a rebel-
lion broke out in Cuba, and in 1877, President Grant's inter-
vention led to Spanish concessions. In 1894, a fresh rebellion
led to cruelties on the part of the Spaniards, and roused
public opinion in America.
On February 15th, 1898, however, an event occurred which
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
236
MODERN EUROPE [Ohap. LXXVI.
The Maine
inddent,
1896.
American
conquest of
Mamlaand
Cuba.
The import-
ance of the
War in
America.
The War
between
China and
Japan, 18M-
1805.
forced the Americans to take action. On that day, the battle-
slup Maine, which lay in Havana harbour to safeguard
American interests, was blown up and sunk with 253 of her
crew. The American nation was deeply stirred, and on April
19th, Congress resolved that it was the duty of the United
States to demand the retirement of Spain from Ouba, and
that the President was authorised to compel Spain's with-
drawal. It further declared that the United States would
leave the government and control of the island to its people.
In the war which followed one American fleet, under Admiral
Dewey, attacked Manila, in the Philippines, while Admirals
Sampson and Schley fir£^ blockaded and then destroyed the
Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera, off Santiago harbour
(July 3rd). Meanwhile, 16,000 men, under General Shafter,
landed in Cuba, and after hard fighting took Santiago (July
17th). On August 17th, Manila was taken, and shortly after-
wards peace was signed. Spain lost Cuba and all her other
West Indian Islan<£i, as well as the Philippines. It is not un-
likely that, just as after her losses in the Spanish Succession
Wars, Spain's position may be improved. Ouba was a con-
stant source of expense, and a continual source of drain in
men and money.
However this may be, the war marks an important epoch in
the history of America. Hitherto she had steadily held aloof
from European politics, and had taken no share in disputes
between the Great Powers. Having no foreign policy she had
no necessity for a fleet, and her army was only kept up for
employment against the Indians. With the close of her war
with Spain, America found herself in a new position. Her
possession of the Philippines has brought her into close
relations political and commercial with the European Powers,
which have been so steadily dividing the unclaimed portions
of the earth's surface. It has become necessary for America
to build a fleet powerful enough to defend her interests, it will
become no less necessary to set on foot a large and serviceable
army. Like England, Germany, France, and Bussia, America
is now interested in the balance of power in the Pacific, and,
in the year 1900, when the European legations in Pekin were
attacked by the Boxers, President McEinley fully recognized
her responsibilities.
Ever since the victory of Japan in her war with China in
the winter of 1894-1896, the Far Eastern Question had rapidly
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Ohap. lxxvi.] the new pboblems
237
assumed great importance. By the Treaty of Shimonoseki,
April 1st, 1895, Japan secured the Liao-tong Peninsula, the
idand of Formosa, and the Pescadores Archipelago, besides a
large sum of money.
Bussia, however, was strongly opposed to the expansion of
Japan on the mainland, and with G^ermany and France, com-
pelled her to evacuate Port Arthur and the laao-tung Penin-
sula. From the close of the war events have marched rapidly.
Bussia has occupied Port Arthur and Germany has seized
Eiao Chow Bay, and in order to safeguard British interests,
Lord Salisbury has leased Wei-hai-Wei, for so long as Port
Arthur shall remain in Bussian hands. Germany, satisfied
that England's main object was to maintain the balance of
power in the Gulf of Pechili and not to menace German rights
in the Province of Shantung, has, together with America, sup-
ported the policy of the " open door." During 1897 and 1898
there was danger of a war breaking out between Bussia on the
one hand, and England and Japan on the other. But, thanks
to the firmness and sagacity of Sir Claude Macdonald, our
Envoy in Pekin, and to Lord Salisbury's determination to
preserve British interests, an agreement was signed with
Bussia, on April 28th, 1899, which practically recognized the
policy of Free Trade. In the struggle England had the ap-
proval, though not the active support of America, which is
vitally interested in the maintenance of the policy of the
" open door." At the suggestion of Mr. Hay, the State Secre-
tary, all the great Powers pledged themselves to maintain free-
dom of trade. But this unanimity between the Powerscoincided
with a revival of anti-foreign feeling in China, roused by the
gradual partition of the coast, and stirred up by the Dowager-
Empress, who carried out a cottp ^Stai in 1898, and became
paramount in Pekin.
In 1900 this hostility to Europeans produced a widespread
rising in China against foreigners, and the Legations in Pekin
were besieged by the Boxer Societies, aided by Imperial
troops. AIL the nations interested at once united, Pekm was
occupied, the legations were rescued, and the Dowager-Empress
with the Emperor fled. After many difficulties order was
restored in China, the foreign armies were withdrawn, and
the Chinese Government was reinstated under stringent con-
ditions.
Whatever may be the future of the Chinese Dynasty, the
Russian
oppositioii
to Japan.
Germany
and
Kiao Chow.
Angio-
Bussian
Agreoment,
1^.
The
DowBger-
Bmpress.
Attacks on
the Lega-
tion by the
Boxen,
1900.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODBEN EUBOPE [Chap. LXXVI.
Thefntore
of China.
America
and Free
Trade.
The Treaty
of Berlin,
1878,
anew
epoch.
Peace Con-
grees of the
Bacae,
events in Ohina since 1895 have shown that freedom of com-
merce will be maintained in the far East. Each nation is now
supremely anxious for commercial concessions and trade ad-
vantages. But the majority of them are none the less pre-
pared with regard to deeding with such a country of such a vast
extent as Ohina to sink their individual ambitions and unite
in preserving the " open door."
In this work the new position taken up by America will be
of incalculable importance. Her commerce with the far East
is extensive, her interests in that region are immense. The
possession of the Philippines gives her an admirable station
for watching over her commerce, and it is quite dear that any
Power wishing to disturb the present arrangements for en-
suring freedom of trade in Ohina will have to count upon the
opposition of America.
From what has been already said it will be apparent that
with the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 the European world entered
upon a new period. Though on the surface it might appear
that the antagonism of G-ermany and France still continued to
be centred round Alsace and Lorraine, and though the Triple
Alliance of 1883 was answered by the Dual Alliance of 1891,
as a matter of fact a revolution was quietly taking place in all
the chancelleries of Europe. Bismarck occupies a transitional
position. The main portion of his career was devoted to the
reconstitution of Germany, but during his later years he re-
cognized the growing strength of the colonial and commercial
movements. Before he fell Germany had stepped out to
compete with other nations for a full share of the trade of the
world.
In view then of general consensus among the Great Powers
that the expansion of their commerce and the development
of their . colonies need not be accompanied by intemedine
struggles, it is not surprising that, on the initiation of the
Tsar Nicholas IE., the successor of Alexander HE. (1894), a
Oongress met at the Hague on May 18, 1899, to consider
the best means of reducing existing armaments and substi-
tuting arbitration for war. England had already, in the case
of the Alabama Olaims, consented to have the claims of the
United States decided by arbitration. Though the experiment
was not satisfactory, England had persevered in its belief in
the advanta^s of arbitration, and had used that method for
settling the Guiana-Yenezuelan boundary dispute.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
Chap. LXXTI.] THE NEW PROBLEMS 239
Still, it was somewhat a surprise that the Tsar should take Nicholas
the lead in inyiting representatives of the leading States to ^'
meet at the Hague to consider the best means of bringing
wars to an end. America, China, Japan, Siam, Persia, and
Mexico, together with the great European Powers sent repre-
sentatiyes, and the Conference has undoubtedly done a great
work in bringing home to nations the advantages of arbitration
over war. The fact that Great Britain was compelled to go
to war with the Ihitch Bepublics in South Africa, and that
hostilities broke out in Chma, in 1900, need not be regarded
as in anj way invalidating the usefulness of the Congress of
the Hague. Bebellious dependencies and backward nations
are sure, from time to time, to compel a resort to forcible
measures, which seems one of the only means to advance civi-
lization. But the chief European States which have been
built up by steady efforts lasting over centuries, and who have
advanced &om childhood to manhood will, it is hoped, hesitate
in the future before embarking on a great war.
A new century, therefore, opens with hopes of peace, which Problems
may justify the expectations of those who were present at the xxth^Jen-
Conference of the Hague. It also opens with many new pro- t^^-
blems for future generations. Europe remains divided between
those nations which form the Triple Alliance and those which
form the Dual Alliance; Germany, Austria, and Italy are
united, and opposed to them stand Bussia and France. But
the desire for world empire has caused the main attention of
the nations to be concentrated outside Europe. The Gt?bco-
Turkish war has brought prominently forward the importance
of Asia Minor and Palestine ; the re-conquest of the Soudan
has revealed the possibilities to England of a wide dominion
in the region of the Nile, the opening up of West Africa is of
immense importance to England, France and Germany. The
effects of the war in South Africa have yet to be seen, but
one result has been to unite England and her colonies in a
union the strength of which will be enormous, and the im-
portance of which cannot be overrated.
The effects of the Cuban war upon America cannot as yet Nw
be fully estimated. All that is certain is that America fias S^ertoL^
entered upon a new period of her career, and that her entry
into the politics of the world may profoundly affect the future
development and relations of the Teutonic and Slavic races.
But apparently the key of the relations of the European nations
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
240 MODEEN EUEOPE [Ohap.LXXVI.
to each other and also to America is to be found in the Pacific
Rise of Ocean and in China. In the East a new nation has appeared,
JftpAn. ^^^ Japan has already shown a determination to have a voice
in any settlement of the Balance of Power in the Gulf of
Pechili. During the eighteenth century the rise of Prussia
and Bussia startled Western Europe; during the last ten
years of the nineteenth century America and Japan have taken
their position alongside the older Powers.
The prind- On the importance of preserving the peace of the world all
pal Bnien. ^Yiq principal States are agreed. Francis Joseph, the Emperor
of Austria, has the most^JQ&cult task. He rules over Germans,
Czechs, Magyars, Slavs, and many other nationalities ; it is
only his influence and the fears of foreign invasion that
keeps the Austro-Hungarian kingdom united. The Emperor
William II. of Germany has an influence second to that of no
other ruler in Europe. To reconcile his subjects to an enorm-
ous expenditure on the army has always been his most difficult
task. He has encouraged commerce and colonization, and
has acted firmly and wisely during the progress of the Chinese
difficulty. Like Francis Joseph and Nicholas U. of Bussia,
with whom he is on terms of friendship, he remains devoted
to the preservation of peace. Under President Loubet, France
has continued the peace policy adopted in 1871 ; she has indeed
occupied Tunis and Madagascar by force of arms, but though
a conflict with England over the Fashoda question seemed at
one time possible, she wisely decided not to enter upon a great
war in a bad cause. Lord Salisbury remains the most ex-
perienced foreign politician in the world, and it is felt that
his influence wiU always be used to preserve harmony among
the Great Powers.
Deaths In January, 1901, Queen Victoria died after a reign un-
vic%ri2^d ®^^™pl6d in importance in English History, and in September,
Ptesideiit 1901, President McKinley was assassinated. Their successors,
BgKiniey, King Edward VII. and President Boosevelt, however, have
continued to follow carefully the lines of policy already indi-
cated in the later years of the nineteenth century.
EKD.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
NOTE.
Since Dr. Dyer revised his history an enormous amount of
historical literature has appeared. I have therefore made a
short list of useful histories and biographies, and have in-
cluded the most important of the latest contributions to
our knowledge of the European States and of America.
A. H.
1901.
GENEEAL.
Gibbon : The DecHne and Fall of the Eoman Empire (latest
edition, by Professor Bury). 1896-1900.
Lavisse et Bakbattd : Histoire G^n^rale de IV^ Si^cle k nos
jours. 1893-1900.
Hbeben, TJkebt, Gibsebbeoht, and Lavpbbcht : Geschichte
des Europaischen Staaten. 1829-1901.
Wbbeb: AUgemeine Weltgeschichte. 1882-1900.
Periods of European History, edited by A. Hassall. 1893-
1901.
Sbignobos: EEistoire Politique de TEurope Oontemporaine.
1897.
DiBiDOTTB: Histoire Diplomatique de TEurope Oontem-
poraine. 1891.
GERMANY.
Bbyce : The Holy Boman Empire. 1873.
Dboysen : Preussische Politik. 1855-1886.
Gaslylb : History of Frederick the Great. 1859.
Janssen : Deutsches Yolk. 1900.
Ulmann : Kaiser Maximilian I. 1884-1891.
Banke : Deutsche Gteschichte im Zeitalter der Beformation
(translated). 184.5-1847.
Abmstbong: The Emperor Charles Y. 1902.
VI. B
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
242 MODERN EIJBOPE
Th. Jttstb : Charles Quint et Marguerite d'Autriche. 1861.
Baumoabtbn: KarlV. 1889.
KOstlin: Luther. 1882.
Bitter: Qegenreformation. 1889.
Ward : The History of the Counter Beformation. 1888.
Ebdmanksd5bvbs : Deutsche Geschichte, 1648-1740. 1888-
1893.
Tuttlb: History of Prussia under Frederick the Great.
1888.
Philippson: Qeschichte des Preussischen Staats-Wesens.
1867.
Latissb : La Jeunesse du Grand FrM^rio. 1891.
Bbo€^lib : Frederic U. et Maria Theresa, 1883 ; and Frederic
II. et Louis XV. 1886.
Bakkb : (Esterreich und Preussen, 1748-1763, 1876; and Die
Deutschen Machte und der Furstenbund. 1871-1872.
Sbblbt : Life of Stein. 1878.
Heigbl: Deutsche Gteschichte seit 1786, 1899; and K5nig
Ludwig n. yon Bayem. 1872.
Tbbitschkb: Deutsche Geschichte im 19^ Jahrhundert.
1879.
Stbel : Die Begrundung des Deutschen Beichs. 1889.
BxTLLE : Geschichte der neuesten Zeit. 1876.
Jansbn und Saitweb : Schleswig-Holstein Befreiung. 1897,
Hbadlam: Bismarck. 1899.
Mth:.LBB: Kaiser Wilhelm. 1877.
Philippsoit : Friedrich m. als Kronprinz und Kaiser. 1898.
LowB : William 11. 1895.
BuscH : Our Chancellor. 1884.
ATJSTEIA.
Coxb: Historjr of the House of Austria. 1807.
Li£oBB : Autnche-Hongrie (translated). 1879.
DiBBAUBB: Gteschichte der Schweizerischen Eidgenossen-
schaft. 1887.
Palaokt: Geschichte Ton Bohmen. 1836-1867.
HxTBTBB : Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinand 11. 1850-1862.
Ft^BSTBB : Wallenstein als Feldherr und Landesforst. 1834.
GivDBLY : Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges. 1885.
Walbwski : Leopold I. 1857-1861.
Kbonbs : (Esterreichische Geschichte. 1891.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
BIBLIOaEAPHT 243
Abneth : Prinz Eugen Ton SaYojen, 1869 ; aoid QeBchichte
Maria Theresias. 1863-1879.
Bboolie : Marie Th^rfese Imperatrice. 1888.
Bright : Maria Theresa, and Joseph U. 1897.
Paganbl : Histoire de Joseph II. 1843.
Abnbth : Joseph 11. and Leopold lY. von Toscana. 1872^.
Bebb : Joseph n., Leopold II., und Kaunitz. 1873.
ScHOLL : Congr^s de Yienne. 1816-1818.
Baxis db Flassan : Histoire du Oongr^s de Yienne. 1829.
Mazade: Mettemich. 1889.
AssELiNE : Histoire de TAutriche depuis Maria-Th^rise. 1879.
AuEBBACH : Les Baces et NationaUt^s en Autriche-Hongrie.
1898
Stiles : Austria in 1848, 1849. 1852.
Beust: Memoirs. 1887.
BoTTBLiEB : La Boheme Contemporaine. 1897.
Matlekoyits: Konigreich Ungarns. 1900.
FEANCE.
Mabtin: Histoire de France. 1878.
KiBK : HistoiT of Charles the Bold. 1863-1868.
Gasqttet : Precis des Institutions Politiques et Sociales de
TAncienne France. 1885.
Banks : Franzosische G^schichte (translated). 1854.
Chebbibb: Charles YIII. 1868.
TiLLET : The French Eenaissance. 1885.
Dyeb: Life of Calvin. 1850.
Abkstbong : French Wars of Beligion. 1892.
WiLLEBT : Henry of Navarre. 1893.
Dayila : Histoire des Guerres Civiles en France. 1644.
BEanotaitz : Histoire du Cardinal de Bichelieu. 1893.
D' Ayenel : Bichelieu et la Monarchic Absolue. 1884.
Lodge : Bichelieu. 1898.
Fagniez : Le pJre Joseph et Bichelieu. 1894.
VoiiTAIbe : Sifecle de Louis XIY. 1847.
D'AuMALE : Histoire des Princes de Cond^ pendant le XYI™*
et XYH"^* Sifecles. 1863-1896.
Chebttel : Histoire de France pendant la Minorite de
Louis XIY., 1879-1880; and Histoire de France sous le
Minist^re de Mazarin. 1882.
Hassall : Louis XIY. 1895 ; and The French People. 1902.
St. Cybes : F&elon. 1901.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
244 MODEEN EUROPE
BoirssET : Histoire de LouYois. 1862-1863.
MiONET : N^gociationB relatives k la succession d'Espagne
sous Louis XIV. 1842.
LBFisYSE-PoNTALis : Jean de Witt, Grand Pensionaire de
HoUande (translated). 1885.
CLiMBKT: Histoire de la Yie et de rAdministration de
Colbert. 1846.
Battdbillast : Philippe V. et la cour de France. 1890-1901.
WiBSBNEB : Le Begent, Tabb^ Dubois et les Anglais. 1893.
JoBBZ : France sous Louis XY. 1873.
Eooqttain: L'esprit revolutionnaire avant la revolution. 1878.
Bboglib : Fr^d^ric 11. et Louis XY., 1885 ; and Maurice de
Saze et d'Argenson. 1891.
Waddington: Louis XY. et le renversement des Alliances
(1754-1756), 1896 ; and La guerre de Sept Ans, Les DebMs.
Taine: L'Ancien E^gime. 1876.
De Bboo : La France sous Tancien regime. 1887-1889.
Ghebest : La Chute de Tancien regime. 1884-1886.
MoBSE Stephens : The French Bevolution. 1886.
SoBBL : L'Europe et la Bevolution fran9aise. 1885-1894.
Obos : Le Comite de Salut Public. 1893.
BocHETEBiE : Marie Antoinette. 1890.
MoBLET: Essays on Yoltaire, Diderot, Eousseau, Turgot,
Condorcet, Eobespierre. 1872-1895.
FouBNiEB : Napoleon I. 1892.
Lanfbey : Histoire de Napoleon I. 1867-1875.
Yandal : Napoleon et Alexandre. 1891-1896.
Sloanb : Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 1897.
YiEL Castel : Histoire de la Bestauration. 1860-1877.
Hillebband : Gteschichte Frankreichs. 1877-1879.
Datjdet : Louis XYIII. et le Due Decazes. 1899.
Blanchabd Jebbold : Life of Napoleon III. 1874-1882.
Ollivibb : L*Empire liberal. 1895.
Dickinson : Bevolution and reaction in Modem France. 1892.
SPAIN.
Lafttente : Historia Gteneral de Espana. 1850-1862.
Pbesoott : Ferdinand and Isabella. 1838.
Abmstbong : History of Charles Y. 1902.
Hume : Spain, 1898 ; and Philip II. 1897 ; and The Spanish
People. 1901.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
BIBLIOGEAPHT 245
FoBNBBON : Philip II. 1882.
Philippson : Heinrich IV. and Philip IH. 1870-1876.
Legbelle : Louis XIY. et TEspagne. 1892.
Pasnell : The Spanish War of Succession. 1888.
Baudbillabt : Philippe V. et la Cour de France. 1889.
Abkstbong : Elizabeth Famese. 1892.
OoxE : The Bourbons in Spain. 1816.
Addison : Charles III. of Spain. 1900.
Baumoabten : Gteschichte Spaniens seit 1789. 1861.
Napieb : History of the Peninsular War. 1878.
ITALY.
SiSMONDi: Histoire des B^publiques italiennes du Moyen
Age. 1826.1833.
Gbegobovitjs : History of the City of Eome. 1896-1902.
Bbown : Venice, an Historical Sketch. 1893.
EwABT : Cosimo de' Medici. 1899.
Abmstbono : Lorenzo de' Medici. 1896.
Symonds : The Eenaissanee in Italy. 1880-1882.
Pebbbns : Histoire de Florence. 1888-1890.
Cbeighton : History of the Papacy. 1882-1894.
Pastob : History of the Popes during the Eef ormation. 1891.
Eanke : History of the Popes. 1842.
Philippson : Contre-R^volution Eeligieuse. 1884.
Wabd: The Counter Eeformation. 1888.
Mallbson : Studies from Genoese history. 1875.
VoN Ebumont : Naples under Spanish dominion. 1854.
Dabu : Histoire de la E^publique de Venise. 1864.
MicHAUD : Louis XIV. et Innocent XI. 1882-1883.
Sobel : L'Europe et la E^volution fran9aise. 1885.
Fbanchetti : StoriA d'ltalia dal 1789 al 1799. 1881.
De Castbo : Storia d'ltalia dal 1799 al 1814. 1881.
Stillman : The Union of Italy. 1898.
Bolton King : History of Italian Unity. 1899.
EUSSIA.
Eambattd : Histoire de la Eussie (translated). 1900.
MoBFiLL: Eussia. 1890.
VoLTAiBB: Histoire de I'Empire de Eussie sous Pierre le
Grand. 1769.
Waliszbwski : Peter the Great. 1897.
NisBET Bain : The Pupils of Peter the Great. 1897.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
246 MODERN EXJBOPE
Vandal : Napoleon et Alexandre. 1891-1896.
Si^auB : L'Histoire de I'Exp^dition en Bussie. 1852.
Bebkhabdy : Gesciiiclite Busslands, 1815-1830.
KiNOLAKB : The History of the Crimean War. 1863-1887.
Lowe : Alexander III. 1895.
Beattlieu : The Empire of the Tsars. 1893.
HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.
Blok : History of the People of the Netherlands. 1898.
Juste : Histoire de Belgique. 1895.
MoTLET : The Bise of the Dutch Bepublic 1866 ; and The
United Netherlands, 1869 ; and Bameveldt. 1874.
FB]6DisiCQ : De Nederlanden onder Keizer Karel Y. 1885, etc.
Jttste : Histoire de la B^volution des Pays-Bas sous Philippe
II. 1860-1863.
Putnam: William the Silent. 1895.
Habeison : William the Silent. 1897.
Lefbybe-Pontalis : John de Witt. 1885.
De Witt: Une Invasion Prussienne en Hollande en 1787.
1886.
Geblache : Histoire da royaome des Pays-Bas, depuis 1814»
jusqu'en 1880. 1842.
Juste : La Bevolution Beige de 1830. 1872.
White : The Belgic Bevolution. 1835.
POBTUGAL.
Mabtebts : Historia de Portugal. 1880.
MoBSE Stephens : Portugal 1891.
Whitewat : Portuguese Power in India. 1899.
Smith : Memoirs of the Marquis of Pombal, 1871 ; and Me-
moirs of the Duke of Saldanha. 1880.
B0L1.AEBT : The Wars of Succession in Spain and Portugal.
1870.
TUBKET.
Hammeb : Histoire de TEmpire Ottoman. 1835-1843.
FiNiiAY : History of the Byzantine Empire. 1854
ZiNKEisEN : Osmanisches Beich. 1840-1863.
Poole : Turkey. 1888.
Cbeasy : History of the Ottoman Turks. 1854.
Bakes : History of Servia. 1847.
FoBOABE : Histoire des causes de la guerre d'Orient. 1854.
Hamley : The War in the Crimea. 1891.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
BIBLIOaEAPHY 247
Bambbbc^ : G^Bchichte der Orientalische Fmge. 1892.
Stilliian : The Cretan Insurrection of 1866-7-8. 1874.
La^tblbtb: The Balkan Peninsula. 1887.
BosBN : Oeschichte der Turkei. 1858.
DENMAEK, NORWAY, SWEDEN.
AliiBN : Histoire de Danemark. 1878.
Boybsbn: Norway. 1900.
Gablson and Gbijbb: Oeschichte Schwedens (translated).
1882-1887.
!Flbtchbb: Oustavus Adolphus. 1890.
Bain : Queen Christina. 1890.
Nisbbt Bain: Charles XII., 1895; and Gustavus IIL and
his Contemporaries. 1894.
Gbffboy : Oustave lH., et la Cour de France. 1867.
POLAND.
MoBFiLL: Poland. 1893.
Bakbaud: BistoiredelaBussie. 1900.
Salyandy : Histoire de Pologne aYant et sous le Boi Jean
Sobieski. 1829.
Waliszbwsei: Marjsienka. 1898.
Smitt : Suworoff und Polens TJntergang. 1858.
Day : The Russian GoYernment in Poland. With a narratiYC
of the Polish Insurrection of 1863. 1867.
GREECE.
PiNLAY : History of Greece. 1856.
OiCAN : The Byzantine Empire. 1892.
Mbndblssohn: GeschichteGriechenlandsseit]458. 1870-1874.
FiNLAY : History of the Greek Revolution. 1861.
Alison Phillips : The War of Greek Independence. 1897.
SWITZERLAND.
DiEBATTBB: Geschichto der Schweizerischen Eidgenossen-
schaft. 1887.
Dandlccbb : History of Switzerland. 1899.
RooBT : Gen^YC au temps de Calvin. 1867.
Article, Switzerland, in Encydopflsdia Britannica. 1887.
AMERICA.
WiNsoB: History of America ; and Columbus. 1885-1889.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
248 MODERN EUROPE
FisKE : Virginia and the Critical Period of Amerioui
History. 1888.
Colt Ttleb : The Literary History of the American Revolu-
tion. 1897.
EoBBTON : A Short History of British Colonial Policy. 1897.
Gbbbn : William Pitt. 1901.
Pabkkan : Pioneers of Prance in the New World ; and Mont-
calm and Wolfe. 1865-1885.
Stbphbns : War between the States. 1868.
Shebman: Recollections. 1895.
Rhodes : History of the United States from the Compromise
of 1850. 1850-1899.
Andrews : History of the United States. 1895.
EGYPT.
Prokesch-Osten : Mehmed Ali. 1877.
Milker : England in Egypt. 1892.
CHRONOLOGIES AND HISTORICAL SUMMARIES.
Bond : Handy-Book for verifying Dates. 1875.
Hassall: Handbook of European History chronologicallj
arranged, 476-1871. 1897.
GoooH : Annals of Politics and Culture. 1901.
Morse Stephens : Modem European History. 1899.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Langlois: Manuel de Bibliographie Historique. 1901.
Adams : Manual of Historical Literature. 1888.
GENEALOGIES.
George: Chronological Tables. 1886.
Grote: Stammtafeln. 1877.
Almanach de Gotha. Annuaire.
TREATIES AND DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE.
SoRBL : Recueil des instructions donnas aux Ambassadeurs
et Ministres de France, depuis les trait^s de Westphalie
jusqu' k la Revolution fran9aise. 1884-1901.
KooH AND Soh5ll : Histoire des Tndt^s entre les Puissances
deTEurope. 1817-1818.
Martens : Recueil de Trait^s, etc. 1817-1842.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
ABASSID, House of, transfer
of Caliphate to Race of 0th-
man, i. 6.
Abd-el-Kader, Arab leader, vi. 65.
Abdallahel-Zagal, i. 201.
Abdul Aziz, Sultan of Turkey:
Deposition and murder, vi. 209.
Abdul Earned I., Sultan of Tur-
key, iv. 386, 415.
Abdul Earned II., Sultan of Tur-
key, vi, 210.
Abdul Medjid, Sultan of Turkey,
vi. 63.
Abdul Resim: Bulgarian massa-
cres, vi. 209.
Abercrombie, General Sir Ralph,
V. 300, 326.
Abercrombie, Lord, English Am-
bassador, vi. 95.
Aberdeen, Lord : Envoy to Chft-
tillon Peace Confess, v. 514 ;
Prime Minister, vi. 119 ; retire-
ment, 123.
Absberg, Eans Thomas von, ii.
54.
Abu Abdallah, Moorish king, i.
201.
Aociajuoli, Franco, i. 84.
Acdajuoli, Souse of: Rulers in
Athens, i. 83.
Achmet I., Sultan of Turkey, iiL
95,209.
Achmet III., Sultan of Turkey,
iv. 152, 240.
Achmet Aga, Turkish General,
V. 475.
Achmet Mahomet, Grand Vizier
of Turkey, iv. 4.
Achmet Pasha,Govemor of Egypt,
ii. 71.
Acton, Sir Joseph, Neapolitan
Minister, v. 182, 284.
Adair, English Envoy to Solland,
vi. 50.
Addington, Senry, Prime Minis-
ter of England, v. 327, 343, 356.
Adlercreuz, General : Conspiracy
against Gustavus IV., v. 422.
Adolphus Frederick, King of
Sweden: Accession, iv. 320;
peace with Prussia, 349 ; death,
407.
Adomo, Antonietto, Doge of
Genoa, i. 442 ; ii. 40.
Adomo, Bamabo, ii. 247.
Adomo, Jerome, i. 441.
Adomo, Prosper, Doge of Grenoa,
i. 117.
Adrets, Baron des, ii. 340.
Adrian VI., Pope: Election to
Pontificate, i. 440; unpopularity,
446 ; death, 460 {see cUso Boyens,
Adrian).
iEmilia, annexation to Piedmont,
vi. 142.
Aerschot, Duke of, iii. 5; Stad-
holder of Flanders, 10.
Ai&e, Monseigneur, Archbishop
of Paris, vi. 81.
Afghanistan : Russian intrigues,
English prestige, etc., vi. 222.
Africa : Spanish conquests, i. 305,
306; Portuguese explorations,
324, 325 ; ^ench Protectorate
in Tunis, vi. 220; French
Colonial enterprise, 225 ; parti-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
250
MODERN EUROPE
tion, 232; English colonization,
232, 233; Fashoda incident, 234.
Aga Hassan, Commandant of
Algiers, ii. 150.
Aga of the Janissaries : Appoint-
ment, L 10; memher of the
Divan, la
Aggraviados, Spanish insurgents,
vi. 16.
Aide-tot, French Revolutionary
Society, vi. 35.
Aiguillon, Due d*, iv. i28, 439,
440.
Ailhr, Peter d*, Cardinal-Bishop
of Cambray, i. 391.
Aix-la-Chapelle : Peace Congress
(1748), iv. 303 ; oongressof allied
sovereigns (1818), vi. 7.
Akindahi, unjpaid cavalry of Turk-
ish army, i. 8.
Alaeddin, C^rand Vizier of Turkey,
i. 5, 11.
Alava, Spanish ambassador, U.
379.
Albany, Duke of, L 364, 442, 467.
Alberoni,Cardinal, Spanish minis-
ter, iv. 160, 202, 209, 212, 214,
240.
Alb^, Archduke of Austria :
Crovemor of the Netherlands,
iiL 78, 79; marriage with In-
fanta Isabella, 139; Austrian
Family Compact, 153.
Albert, Archduke of Austria :
Austrian command-in-chief, vi
180; Austrian command in Italy,
185.
Albert, Cardinal, CrOvemor of
Portugal, ii. 472.
Albert III., Duke of Bavaria, ii.
254; iii. 103.
Albert, Duke of Saxe-Teschen,
Grovemor of Austrian Nether-
lands, iv. 401, 424.
Albert, Duke of (Albertine) Sax-
ony, i. 154, 177, 178, 208.
Albcurt II. — Emperor, King of Bo-
hemia and Hungary, i. 17, 32,
36 ; union of Bavaria, 26.
Albert Edward, Prince of Wales :
Marriage with Alexandra of
Denmark, vL 163.
Albert the Prodigal : Austrian in-
surrection, death, i. 96, 97.
Albion, Don Juan de, i. 222.
Albizzi, House of, Florentine
rulers, i 50.
Albret, Charlotte d': Marriage
with CsBsar Borgia, L 245.
Albret, Jeanne d' : Marriage with
Antony of Bourbon, ii. 161, 231;
Huguenot leader in France, 316 ;
return to B^am, 333; Roman
Catholic worship prohibited by,
345; La RocheUe, 359; death,
380.
Albret, John d' : Marriage with
Catharine of Navarre, i. 318;
death, 369.
Albret, Sire d', i. 176, 177, 178,
257.
Albuquerque, Alfonso, founder of
Portuguese power in India, L
336.
Albuquerque, Matthias, iiL 342.
A loAniarafi^Bsa&Yi military order,
i. 66.
Aldobrandini, Cardinal Ippolito:
Election to Pontificate, iii. 64
{»ee also Clement VIII.).
Aleander, Papal Legate, i. 414»
419.
Aleandro, Cardinal, iL 145.
Alen^n, Duke of, i. 469 ; u. 4.
Alen9on, Duke of, ii. 456, 460,
461 {see Anjou, Francois, Duke
of).
Aleneon, John II., Duke of, L
130.
Alessandrino, Cardinal, ii. 393.
Alexander I., Tsar of Russia:
Accession, v. 323; interview
with Frederick William III. at
Memel, 335; at Berlin, 374;
Bartenstein Convention, 403;
ioterview with Napoleon L at
Tilsit, 404 ; renewal of Frendi
Alliance,447 ; ^evances against
Napoleon I. , 473, 474 ; command
of Russian army, 501 ; arrival
in Paris, 515; Holy Alliance,
vi. 8; death, 30.
Alexander II., Tsar of Russia:
Accession, vi. 123 ; emaneipati<m
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
251
of serfs, 157 ; Dreikaiserbund,
207 ; murder, 221.
Alexander III., Tsar of Russia,
vi. 221.
Alexander VI., P^ : Election to
Pontificate, i. 187 ; disr^ard of
French claims on Naples, 215 ;
negotiations with Turkey, 220 ;
treaty with Charles VIII., 221 ;
treaty with Venice, Milan, Grer-
many and Spain, 225; Savon-
arola, 234 ; crimes, repentance,
etc., 235; alliance with Lonis
XII., 244 ; extension of indulg-
ences to the dead, 253; grant
of Columbus's discoveries to
Spain and Portugal, 333 ; death,
Alexander VIII., Pope: Election
to Pontificate, iv. 56; death, 62.
Alexander, Tsarewitch : Russian
command, vi. 213.
Alexander Leopold, Palatine of
Hungary, iv. 424.
Alexander of Bulgaria^ kid-
napping by Russia, abdication,
Alexandra, Grand-duchessof Rus-
sia : Marriage with Frederick,
Landcrave of Hesse, vL 84.
Alexanaraof Denmark : Marriage
with Albert Edward, Prince of
Wales, vi 163.
Alexiowitsch, Ivan, Tsar of Mus-
covy, iv. 12.
Alexis Romanoff, Tsar of Russia :
Accession, policy, etc., iii, 395 ;
war with Poland, 397; war
with Sweden, 406 ; death, iv. 122.
Alexis, son of Peter the Great, iv.
235 ; death, 236.
Alfonso II., King of Naples, i.
214 ; abdication and death, 223.
Alfonso v.. King of Aragon (and
I. of Naples), L 57, 64, 105,
106.
Alfonso v., King of Portugal, L
189 ; marriage with his niece,
196; death, 197.
Alfonso VI., King of Portugal:
Accession, iii. 422 ; abdication
and death, 425.
Alfonso X., Kins of Castile : Es-
tablishment of Papal power in
Spain, i. 394.
Alfonso, Prinoe of Portugal, L 197.
Algiers: French bombardment,
iv. 35; English expedition
against, vi. 24; capitulation to
French, 36 ; French occupation,
system of BasueiaSy 65.
Ali, Pasha of Jannina, vi 28.
Ali. Sandjak of Buda, ii 271.
Alioaud: Attempt on Louis
Philippe's life, vi 58.
Alidosio, Francesco, Cardinal of
Pavia, i. 303.
Allemonde, Dutch commander,
iv. 130.
Allen, Dr. William, u. 474 ; Car-
dinal, iii. 32, 106.
Alop^us, M. , Russian ambassador,
V. 366, 420.
Alquier, M., French ambassador,
V. 430, 478.
Alsace : Acquisition by Charles the
Bold, i 140; French Campaign,
ii 266 ; annexation by France,
iii. 298, 453 ; evacuation by Im-
perialists, 456; Chafiibres de
lUuniony adjudication, iv. 31.
Alsace-Lorraine, cession to Ger-
many, vi. 198.
Altringer, Gren., Imperialist com-
mand, iii. 287.
Alva, Duke of, Spanish General,
i 319, 320.
Alva, Fernando, Alvarez, Duke
of: Vicar-General of Itiftly, ii
284; invasion of Papal terri-
tories, 294; civil ana military
command in Netherlands, 423 ;
Regent and Governor-General,
426; recall, 439; Portuguese
expedition, 471.
Alvarez : Defence of Grerona, v. 468.
Alviano, Venetian commander,
i 281, 287, 288, 348, 359.
Alvinzi, General : Austrian com-
mand, V. 193, 196.
Am Ende, General, v. 461.
Amadeo I. , King of Spain : Elec-
tion by Cortes, vi. 190.
Amadens VIII., Duke of Savoy :
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
252
MODERN EUROPE
Election to Pontificate, i. 392
{see also Felix V., Pope).
Amarante, General, vi. 17.
Ambassadors : Derivation of
term, i. 337 note; Florentine
Ambassadors, 338; Legates and
Nuncios, 339 ; presents to, 339
and note,
Amboise: Conspiracy of, ii.
317.
Amboise, Bussy d', i. 469.
Amboise, Cardmal d', i 249, 256,
258, 259, 283 ; death, 294.
Amboise, Charles d', i 249.
Amboise, Chaumont d', Grovemor
of Champagne, i. 161, 165, 287 ;
Viceroy of Milan, 296; death,
301.
Amboise, Greorge d'. Archbishop
of Rouen, i. 242.
Amboise, Jacques d'. Rector of
University of Paris, iii. 71.
America : Discovery, i. 203, 334 ;
origin of name, 334 note; dis-
covery of South America, i.
336; Dutch colonization and
progress, iv. 185 ; English
colonization and progress, 186 ;
French colonization, 189 ; Eng-
lish successes, 193 ; Anglo-
French hostilities, 302, 307,
342 ; Revolt of English Colonies
and Declaration of Independ-
ence, 441, 442, 443 ; revolution
in Spanish America, vi. 10;
appearance as a Great Power,
VI. 230 ; Trade and Commerce,
231 ; importance of America in
the politics of the world, 240
{see also United States).
Amiens Peace Congress, v. 328.
Amsdorf, Nicholaus von, i. 416.
Amurath I., Sidtan of Turkey, i.
16.
Amurath II., Sultan of Turkey :
Turkish progress, i. 17 ; Hun-
garian wars, 18 ; conclusion of
peace, 20 ; death, 22.
Amuratii III., Sultan of Turkey :
Truce with Maximilian Ii.,
ii. 448 ; assistance ofifered to
Henry IV., iii. 57 ; accession,
89 ; war against Empire, 92 ;
death, 94.
Amurath IV., Sidtan of Turkey :
Accession, iii 212; death,
333.
Amyot, Jacques, ii. 259.
Anabaptists: Origin of Sect, ii
51, 124.
Anastro, iii. 19.
Andelot, d'. Huguenot leader, ii.
298, 301, 302, 316, 342, 344.
Andrades, Spanish Captain, L
256.
Andrassy, Count: President of
Hungarian Ministry, vi. 185;
"Note" to Turkey, 207;
Austro-German Alliance, 220.
Andr^ossi, Gen., French am-
bassador, V. 345.
Angoul6me, Count Francis of :
Marriage with Claude of
France, i. 351 {see also Francis
I., King of Frakce).
Angoul^me, Due d*, v. 617 ; vi
14,25.
Angoul6me, Duchesse d', v. 518,
627 ; vi. 7.
Angremont, d', Master of Lan-
guages to Marie Antoinette, v.
89.
Anhalt, Prince of, i. 296.
Anhalt, Prince Christian of:
Protestant Union, iii. 157 ;
Thirty Years' War, 302.
Anilleros, Spanish Revolutionary
Party, vi. 12.
Anjou : Union with France, i,
166.
Anjou, Francois de Valois, Duke
of : Assumption of title, ii.
462 ; Netherlands Protectorate
offered to, iii 8, 9, 15, 18 ; Duke
of Brabant, 19 ; retirement
from Netherlands, 21 ; death,
22.
Anjou, Henry, Duke of {see
Henry III., Kins of France).
Anjou, House of: Claims to
Isaples, i. 57.
Anjou, Ren^ d' : Literary tastes,
etc., i. 60.
AnkarstrOm : Assassination of
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
258
GustavOB III. of Sweden, v.
178.
Anna Ivanowna, Tsarina of
Rnssia: Election, iv. 238;
death, 250, 262.
Anna Petrowna of Russia : Mar-
riage with Dnke of Holstein,
iv. 237.
Anna, Princess of Mecklenbnrg :
Regency of Russia, iv. 263.
Annalea Hcclesiastici of Baron-
ins, i. 340.
Anne, Queen of England : Acces-
sion and policy, iv. 83 ; death,
116.
Anne of Austria, Queen of
France: Marriage with Louis
XIII., iii. 169, 173; conspiracy
against Richelieu, 245; Re-
gency, 327 ; concessions to
Parliament, 357 ; death, 432.
Anne of Bohemia : Marriage with
Richard II. of England, i. 390.
Annebaut, Admiral d^ ii 155,
167, 160, 175, 266.
Annese, Grennaro, iii. 346.
Anrep, General : Russian com-
mand, vi. 120.
Anselme, General : French com-
mand, V. 99.
Anson, Commodore, iv. 248, 302,
332.
Antonelli, Cardinal, vi 141, 144,
148, 187.
Antonio, Dom, King of Portugal :
Election, iL 471 ; death, 475.
Antony, King of Saxony : Acces-
sion, vi. 64.
Antony of Bourbon, Duke of
Venddme and King of Navarre,
L 469; ii. 4, 156, 157, 231, 314,
324, 325, 326 ; marriage with
Jeanne d'Albret, 161 ; Lieu-
tenant - Grcneral of France,
326; recantation, 333; death,
341.
Aosta, Due d': Sardinian com-
mand in Italy, v. 216.
Apafy, Michael, Voyvode of Tran-
sylvania, iv. 4.
Apraxin, Marshal, iv. 326, 327.
Aquileia, Patriarch of, L 184.
Arabi Pasha : Egyptian insurrec-
tion, vL 225.
Aragon: Territorial acquisitions
and Creation of Kingdom, L
63; constitution and govern-
ment, 65; privilege of union,
66; union with Castile, 197;
inquisition, 198; constitution
destroyed, iii. 40.
Aramon, Baron d*, ii 258.
Aranda, Comte d', Spanish min-
ister, iv. 459; v. 74, 110, 184.
Aranjo, Portuguese ambassador,
V. 272.
Arbuthnot, Sir C, English am-
bassador, V. 418.
Arcimboldi, Milanese Doctor of
Laws, i 403.
Areizaga, Spanish commander,
Aremberg:, Count of, Spanish
leader, ii 429.
Arenberg, Duke of, iv. 417.
Argenson, Marquis d', iv. 296;
V. 7, 13.
Argenteau, d', v. 216.
Argentine Republic, constitution,
V. 11 note,
Argaelles, ^ardian of Isabella
n. of Spam, vi 72.
Ariosto, Italian poet, i 309,
31L
Armagnac, Count of: Ligiie du
Bien Public, i 130.
Armed NeutraUty (1780), iv. 448,
450; (1800), V. 317.
Armenia: Massacres of Chris-
tians, vi. 229, 230.
Armfeldt, Swedish commander,
iv. 161.
Annies : Institution of standing
armies, i 343; augmentation
in European countries, vi. 3.
Anmnicms, iii. 182, 183.
Arminius, iii 181.
Amaud, Antony, iv. 198.
Amim, Greneral, command of
Saxon Army, iii 288.
Amim, Henry von, Prussian
Foreign Minister, vi. 88.
Amonconrt, General d* : Austrian
oonunand, v. 172.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
254
MODEEN EUROPE
Arqnes, Duke of Joyeuae, ete., ii.
m, 476.
AtrabiaU, Florentine Party, L
228.
Arran, Regent, ii 250, 251.
ArrH cTUnion, iii. 355.
Arsaldi, Ck>lonel, vi. 21.
Arthur, Prince of Wales : Karri-
aj^ with Catharine of Aragon,
L234.
Artillery, use of, L 342.
Artois, Comte d* : Interview with
Leopold II. at Mantni^ ▼. 61 ;
expedition of English and Emi-
grants, 204 ; Lieutenant-General
of France, 518.
Asfeld, Marshal d', iv. 231.
Asiento, monopoly of SlayeTrade,
iv. 106, 112, 191, 245, 247, 304.
Asia : Russian advance in Central
Asia, vi 222, 232.
Asaignats, French Paper Cur-
rency, V. 64, 208.
Assis, Francois de : Marriage
with Isabella II. of Spain, vi
74.
Asturias, Prince of, title of heir
apparent of Castile, i 234 note.
Athens, rulers of, i 83.
Atmeidan^ Turkish place of As-
sembly, i 14.
Aubigny, Robert Stuart, Lord of,
i 226, 247, 253, 256, 274, 358.
Auckland, Lord, English Minister
at the Hague, v. 108.
Auersburg, Gerinan Minister, iii
442.
Auersperg, Prince, v. 374.
Auerswald, General, vi. 06.
Augereau, Greneral : French com-
mand in Italy, v. 215 ; Envoy
to Bonaparte, 249; command
of Rhine and Meuse armies,
253 ; command of Army in the
South, 348; Marshal <rf the
Empire, 352.
Augsburg: Diets of (1500), i 277 ;
(1510), 295 ; (1518), 407 ; (1530),
ii. 93, 97; (1547), 238; (1560),
253,256; (1555), 286; religious
peace of Augsburg, 287 ; league
of, iv. 46. I
Au^pstenburg, Duke of : Schles-
wig-Holstem claim, etc, vi 89,
114, 164.
Augustus, Elector of Saxony, ii
Augustus XL, King of Poland:
Coronation, iv. 15; government
of Livonia, 121 ; deposition,
138; treaties, 127, 138, 141, 150,
156 ; re-establishment, 158 ;
death, 224.
Augustus III., King of Poland:
recognition by Third Treaty of
Vienna, iv. 233 ; equivocal
policy, 260; Austrian succession
claims, 263 ; death, 364.
Aulic Council, powers of, iii 157
noU,
Aumale, Charles, Duke of, ii.
248; iii 49.
Aumale, Henry, Duke of, vi
79.
Aumont, Marshal d', conunander
in Chanipagne, iii 55.
Austria : House of Habeburg, i
31 ; hereditary transmission of
Romano-Germanic crown, 32;
Hoker's insurrection, 96; re-
union of Austrian lands, 97;
invasion by Matthias Corvinus,
207; re-conquest, 210; here-
ditary possession, 386, 387;
Franco- Austrian rivi^, 434;
Reformation— opposition to
Lutheranism, ii 54; struggle
for supremacy between France
and Austria, 179 ; Catholic re-
section, iii. 86 ; act of confedera-
tion, 153; oo-operation with
Russia against Turkey, iv. 242;
partition proposed, 259; in-
vasion by French, Bavarians
and Poles, 263; peace with
Prussia, 269; effects of Austrian
Succession War, 305; treaties
with France, 314 ; secret treatv
with Turke^r, 380; Russo-
Austrian family alliance, 402 ;
third partition of Poland, v.
174 ; campai^ against French,
190; defensive alliance with
Great Britain, 201 ; negotiatioiis
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
255
with French Republic, 202;
French campaign, 239 ; annexa-
tions, 245; negotiations with
Napoleon, 247, 252 ; oondnsion
of war with France, 256 ; con-
vention with Grison LcMigne,
291 ; treaty of subsidies with
Great Britain, 312; Russo-
Austrian Alliance, 358; French
invasion, occupation of Vienna,
373 ; territorial losses, 380, 459 ;
continental system, 416, 458;
military preparations, Land-
wehr^ 451 ; declaration of war
against France, 452 ; policy of
ter^versation, 498; peace of
Paris, 519; Italian acquisitions,
523, 524; neglect oi domestic
adndnistration, vi. 22; exclu-
sion of Jesuits, 23 ; incorpora-
tion of Cracow, 84 ; peace with
Sardinia, 99 ; Prussian rivalry
in Crermany, 111 ; abolition A
New Constitution, 112; (mer-
man policy, 112; neutrality in
Turkish war, 119; alliance
with Prussia, 121 ; cession of
Italian possessions, 138; in-
ternal troubles, reforms, 150;
demand for admission to ZoU-
verein, 155; Fiirstentag at
Franldurt, 155 ; martial law in
Galicia, 161 ; joint possession
with Prussia of Schleswig-Hol-
stein, 170, 175; army, unpre-
paredness for war, 177 ; recall
of troops from Italy, 185;
" Andrassy Note," 207 ; oppo-
sition to Treaty of San Stef ano,
216; alliance with Germany,
220; acquisition of Bosnia,
224 {see cUso Reformation).
Austria, new house of, iv. 295.
Autos da j^4, L 198 ; abolition in
Spain, vi. 10.
Avalos, Ferdinand de, Spanish
leader, i. 423, 437.
Avaux, Count of, French Minis-
ter, ilL 335, 336; iv. 51, 52.
Avignon : Papal Court removed
to, i. 389 ; union with France,
Ayala, Balthazar, Spanish writer,
IV. 180.
Azab, Turkish Infantry Militia,
i. 8.
Azara, Chevalier, iv. 394 ; v. 223,
328.
Azeglio, Count Massimo d\ Prime
Muiister of Sardinia, vi. 128,
129, 139.
Azevedo, Don Antonio Aranjo
de, V. 258.
Azof : Acquisition by Russia, iv.
16, 17, 244.
Azores: Discovery of, i. 324; sub-
jection by Spain, ii 475.
Baboeuf, Francois Noel, v. 234.
Bacciocchi, Eliza: Principality of
Piombino bestowed upon, v.
363; Grand Duchess of Tus-
cany, 463.
Bacciocchi, Felix, v. 315.
Bacher, Monsieur, French Charge
d' Affaires at Ratisbon, v. 389.
Bacon, Roger, i. 327, d&Tnote.
Badebeben, founder of Tugend-
bund, V. 460.
Baden, Elector of: Assumption of
title of Grand Duke, v. 380.
Baden, Margrave Leopold Will-
iam: Imperial command in
Hungary, iv. 5.
Baden, Pnnce Louis of : Imperial
command, iv. 86.
Badoero, Venetian Ambassador in
France, i. 452.
BagUone, Gian Paolo, of Perugia,
i. 282, 296, 310, 430.
Baglione, Malatesta, Florentiiie
commander, ii. 83.
Bagration, Prince : Russian com-
mand, V. 372, 475, 485 ; death,
489.
Bahama Islands, discovery of, L
331.
Bailly, Leader of Tiers-Etat, v.
33 ; President of National As-
sembly and Mayor of Paris, 39;
resignation of Mayoralty of
Pam, 71.
Baird, General Sir David : Com-
mand of English reinforcements
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
256
MODERN EUROPE
in Eg^t, y. 326 ; English com-
mand in Spain, 460.
Bajazet I., Saltan of Turkey : Es-
tablishment of Turkish colony
at Constantinople, i 4; title of
Saltan first assumed by, 11.
Bajazet III., Saltan of Turkey:
Negotiations with Papal See, i.
220, 221 ; peace maintained
with the Venetians, 263; re-
daction of Caramania, 374,
375; death, 375.
Baker, General: English expe-
dition to Suakim, yi. 226.
Balagny, (xovemor of Cambray,
iii. 78.
Balance of Power in Europe:
Growth of international policy
and law, i. 3 ; Henry VlIL—
change of policy, ii. 5 ; origin
and progress, iv. 175, 176 ; rival-
ry of France and Austria, 176 ;
rivalry of France and En^and,
178 ; political results of Seven
Years' War, 356, 357 ; German
and Italian unity, vi. 199 ; effect
of Triple Alliance on France
and Russia, 219.
BalbuB, Hieronymus, Hungarian
ambassador to Diet of Worms,
i. 449.
Ballasteros, General, Spanish
command, v. 472; vi. 11.
Baltadschi, Mohammed, Grand
Vizier of Turkey, iv. 153.
Baltic Sea: Neutrality for pur-
poses of commerce, iv. 336.
BsQue, Cardinal, i. 140.
Bambridge, Christopher, Car-
dinal-Archbishop of York, i.
307, 352.
Bandini, Bernardo : Assassination
of Julian de Medici, i. 115.
Baner, Swedish General, Thirty
Years* War, iii 277, 295, 301,
305, 307, 308, 311, 320, 321.
Barbarians : Invasion of Europe,
downfall of Roman Empire,
i. 1.
Barbaroux, v. 97.
Barberini, Cardinal, Papal Legate
to Paris, iii. 242, 243.
Barberini, Cardinal Maffeo: Elec-
tion to Pontificate, iii. 236 («ee
alw Urban VIII.).
Barb^sieux, Admiral, iL 41.
Barbo, Pietro : Election to Pon-
tificate, i. 102 (see dUo
Paul II.).
Barcelona: Trade progress, etc.,
ii. 194.
Barcelona, House of, i. 63.
Bar6re de Vieuzac, v. 103, 122;
resignation, 186; trial and
transportation, 187, 188.
Bamabites, clerical order, ii.
185.
Bamave, Antoine, member of
National Assembly, v. 63.
Bameveldt, Jan van Olden, advo-
cate of Holland, uL 140, 143,
144 ; quarrel with Prince Maur-
ice, 182; illegal arrest, 183;
execution, 184.
Barras, Paul : Marseilles atroci-
ties, V. 139 ; attack on Hotel
de Ville, 156 ; General of the
National Convention troops,
206 ; director, 207, 219.
Barri, Comtesse du, iv. 427, 439,
440.
Barri, Godefroi de, Sieur de la
Renaudie, ii. 317.
Barrot, Odillon, vi. 39, 76 ; French
minister of Justice, 82.
Bartenstein, minister to Maria
Theresa, iv. 260.
Barth^emy, Monsieur, French
ambassador in Switzerland, v.
212 ; election as Director, 247.
Basle : French attack on, L
35, 392 ; peace conferences, v.
197.
Bassano, Duke of, French Foreign
Minister, v. 482.
BassevUle, French Secretary of
Legation at Rome, v. 104.
Bassompierre, Marshal, iii 231,
243,247.
Batavia : Colonization by Dutch,
trade, etc., iv. 184.
BatavvnRepublic: Establishment
in Holland, v. 196 ; Dependence
upon France, 256; ''One and
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
257
Indivisible Batavian Republic, "
289.
Bathory, Cardinal Andrew, iii
96.
Bathorv, Sigismund : Abdication
and death, iiL 96.
Bathory, Stephen, Voyvode of
Transylvania, i. 105.
Bathory, Stephen, Vojrvode of
Transylvania, election, ii. 448;
election to Crown of Poland,
448, 460 ; marriage with Anne
Jagellon, 460; death, iii. 88.
Bathyani, General : Austrian
command, iv. 291.
Batthyani, Count, Hungarian
Prime Minister, vi. 93, 101.
Battles : Aasund, iiL 215 ; Abens-
berg, V. 453; Aboukir (1798),
V. 277 ; (1801), 326 ; Adowa, vi
233 ; Agnadello, I 287 ; Albeck,
V. 371 ; Albuera, 471 ; Alcan-
tara, iL 472; Alcolea, vi. 190;
Aljubarrota, L 67 ; Alma, vL
121 ; Almanza, iv. 98 ; Almon-
acid, V. 468; Altenhoven, v.
114 ; Amberg, 228 ; Amiens, vi
197; Antwerp, ii 420; Arcis-
Bur-Aube, v. 515 ; Arcole, 231 ;
Arlon, 191 ; Arques, iii. 56 ;
Atbara, vi 234; AuerstHdt,
V. 397 and note; Austerlitz,
377 ; Balaclava, vi 122 ; Bally-
namuch, v. 278 ; Bamet, i 146;
Bassano, V. 231 ; Bassignano, iv.
296 ; Batyne, v. 475 ; Bautzen,
502; Baylen, 445; Bea/nhf
Head, iv. 54 ; Beaumont, vl
194 ; Beaune la Rolande, 196 ;
Beauvoir, 197; Bega, iv. 14;
Belchite, v. 468 ; Belling, 414 ;
Beresina, 492 ; Bergen (1759),
iv. 335; (1795), v. 210; (1799),
300; Biberach (1796), 229;
(1800), 311 ; Bitonto, iv. 231 ;
Bitschin, iii 88 ; BUneau, iii
364; Blenheim, iv. 90; Bo-
chetta, i 117; Borghetto, v.
221: Borodino, 488, 489;
Bosworth, i 172; Boyne, iv.
54; Brandywine, 444; Briln-
kirka, iii 215; Bresku, iv.
VI.
328 ; Brienne, v. 514 ; Brotfeld,
i 105; Brunkebjerg, iii. 213;
Brunswick, ii. 276; Budweis,
iii. 191 ; Bunker's Hill, iv. 442;
Burkersdorf, iv. 350; Caldiero,
V. 373; Camperdown, 259;
Campillo de Arenas, vi. 15;
Campo Santo, iv. 285; Cann-
stadt, V. 225; Canopus, 326;
Cape Finisterre, 363 ; Cape St.
Vincent, 259; Caravaggio, i
55 ; Carpi, iv. 82 ; Carthagena,
332; Cassano (1705), iv. 94;
(1799), V. 294; Castelfidardo,
vi 144; Castiglione, v. 230;
Cateau Cambr^is, 191 ; Cerig-
nola, i. 256 ; Cerisole, ii 164 ;
Cesena, vi 59; Champaubert,
V. 514; Chatillon-sur-S^vres,
136 ; Chemnitz, iii. 311 ; Chiari,
iv. 82 ; Chios, 378 ; ChoUet, v.
136; Choczim (1673), iv. 8;
(1739), 243; Citate, vi 120;
Clissow, 136; Calcinato, iv.97;
Copenhagen, v. 322 ; Corbach,
iv. 336 ; Corunna, v. 450 ; Cos-
sova, i 21; Coutras, iii. 43;
Crefeld, iv. 331 ; Cremona, vi.
96; Curtatone, 95; Custozza,
185 ; Czaslau, iii. 191 ; (1742),
iv. 269; Damietta, v. 324; De-
nain, iv. 110; Dennewitz, v.
506; Dettingen, iv. 282; Do-
minica, 456 ; Dormans, ii. 461 ;
Dresden, v. 506; Dreux, ii. 341,
842 ; Dunes, iii. 378 ; Diirren-
stein, v. 372 ; Ebelsberg, 453 ;
Eckmuhl, 453; Eilenburg, iii.
306 ; Elo^, V. 514 ; Emmen-
dingen, ^; Engen, 311 : Ent-
holm, iv. 25; Enzheim, iii 456
Erraster, iv. 144 ; Espinosa, vi
449; Esquiios, i 428; Esslin
gen, V. 226 ; Estrenoz, iii 424
Eylau, V. 402; Famars, 126
Fehrbellin, iv. 23; Ferkeh, vi,
233; Finisterre, iv. 302 ; Fleur
us (1622), iii 207; (1690), iv. 58
(1794), V. 192 ; Flodden, i. 348
Fokchany, iv. 415 ; Fontenoy,
295; Fomovo, i 229; Fossano,
▼. 309; Foulques de ViUaret,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
258
MODERN EUROPE
i. 84; Fraaenbnmnen, v. 268;
Franenstadt, iv, 142; Frederieia,
Ti.l04; Frederick8hamm,iy.414;
Freiburg, 350; Friedberg, 361;
(1796), V. 228 ; Friedland, 404 ;
Friedlingen, iv. 86; Fnentes
d'Onoro, v. 470; Fanen, iii
222; Gamonal, t. 449; Gavi-
nana, ii 84 ; Geisberg, v. 144 ;
Gemauerthof, iv. 145; Grem-
blours, iii. 7 ; Genestrello, vi.
135 ; Genola, t. 309 ; Goito, vL
95; Golnmbo, iii 403; Goiy-
min, V. 402; Gran, iv. 10;
Granson, i. 158, 159; Granville,
V. 136; Gravelotte, vi. 188;
(1870), 194; Groda, v. 418;
Gross Beeren, v. 505; Gross
Gorschen, 502; Gross-Jft^rs-
dorf, iv. 326; Grozka, 243;
Grunbere , 347 ; Guenez, v. 449 ;
Gnildford, iv. 455; Guin^gate
(1478), i. 166 ; (1513), i. 349 ;
Guntersdorf, v. 374;|Giinzbnrg,
371 ; Halmstadt, iv. 25 ; Hanan,
V. 508; Handschnheim, 210;
Hasselt, vi. 49; Hafitenbeck,
iv. 324 ; Heliopolis, v. 325 ;
Helsingborgj iii. 222; He^li-
gerlee, ii. 429; Hochkirch, iv.
333; Hochst, iii 207; H6ch-
stadt, iv. 88 ; (1800), v. 311 ;
Hohenfriedberg, iv. 293; Ho-
henlinden, v. 313 ; Holktbriinn
(1805), 374 ; (1809), 457 ; Hond-
schoote, 141 ; Hoogstraden, ii.
155 ; Hnmmelshof, iv. 144 ;
Inkerman, vi 122 ; Innsbruck,
V. 453 ; Isly, vi. 65 ; Ismail,
iv. 415 ; Ivrea, iii. 326 ; Ivry,
iii. 57 ; Jankowitz, 332 ; Jamac,
ii 360; Jassy, iii. 209; Je-
mappes, v. 99; Jemsum, ii.
432 ; Jena, v. 397 ; Kaiafat, vi.
120 ; Kaleb Medina, 63 ; Ka-
lisch, iv. 43 ; Kapolna, vi 99 ;
Kappel, i. 422 ; ii 101 ; Kas-
trikum, V. 300; Katzbach, 506;
Kempen, iii. 323 ; Keresztes,
95 ; Eesseldorf , iv. 294 ; Kehl,
V. 241 5 Ki5ge, iv. 26 ; Kirch-
heim, v. 225 ; Klausenburg, iv.
3; Kloster Canip, 337; Kold-
ing, vi. 104; Kolin, iv. 326;
Konieh, vi 62 ; KtSniginbol, vi
179 ; Konigshofen, ii 63 ; Kor-
nach, V. 228; KrasnoY, 487;
Kulm, 506 ; Kunersdorf , iv. 335 ;
La Corona, v. 232; La F^re
Champenoise, 515 ; La Hogue,
iv. 69 ; La MolineUa, i 111
La Pietra, v. 231 ; La Trem
blaye, 136; Landrecies, 191;
Landshut, 453 ; Langensalza,
vi. 178; Lanscrona, iv. 26
Laon, V. 515 ; Lauffen, ii 126
Lawfeld, iv. 302 ; Le Mans, v.
136; Leipsic (1631), iii 276
(1641), 323; (1813), v. 607
LemnoB, 419 ; Lens, iii 349
Lepanto, ii. 373; Leuthen, iv.
328; Lexington, 442; Lia-
khovo, V. 491; Lie^tz, iii 296
Liesna, iv. 147 ; Ligny, v. 630
Lipan, i 36; Lissa, vi. 186
Llorens, iii 341 ; Loano, v. 211
Lobositz, iv. 319 ; Lonato, v.
230 ; Lowestoft, iii. 429; Ludg
nano, ii. 283 ; Lunden, iv. 26 :
Lutter, iii. 258; Luttemberg,
iv. 332 ; Liitzen (1632), iii 283 1
(1813), V. 602; Maciejowice,
173 ; Madonna dell* Olmo, iv,
285; Magenta, vi. 135; M
nano, v. 293; Maida, 3
Mainz, 711 ; Malo-Jaroslavetz,
490 ; MsJplaquet, iv. 102
Mal^, V. 225; Marcfafeld, 466
Marengo, 310; Maria Zell, 372
Marignano, i 360; Marsaglia,
iv. 61 ; Martinesti, 415 ; Mat-
chin, 425; Medellin, v. 467;
Medina del Rio Seco, 446 ; Me-
legnano, vi 136 ; Memminffen,
V. 311 ; Mentana, vi. 187; Mil-
lesimo, v. 217 ; Minden, iv. 336 ;
Mingokheim, iii. 206 ; Mdckem,
V. 601, 507 ; Mohkcs (1626), ii
74, 76 ; (1686), iv. 11 ; Mohelev,
V. 487 ; Mollwitz, iv. 257 ; Mon-
oontour, ii 361 ; Mondovi, v.
217; Mons, iii. 462; Montage
Noire, v. 199 ; Monte Botondo,
vi 187; MontebeUo (1800), v.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
259
310; (1859), vi. 135; Monte-
notte, V. 216 ; Montereaa, 514 ;
Montlh^ry, L 132 ; Montmiral,
v. 514 ; Mook Heath, ii. 441 ;
Morat, L 159 ; Morgarten, 33 ;
Mdrgel, ▼. 454; Mortara, vi.
99 ; Moskirch, v. 311 ; Moucron,
191; Muhlberg, ii 218; Na-
chod, vL 179; N&fels, i 34;
Nanci, 160; Narva, iv. 132;
Navarino, vi 26, 33 ; Navas de
Tolosa, L 200 ; Neerwinden
(1603), iv. 60 ; (1793), v. 115 ;
Nepi, V. 288 ; Neresheim, 227 ;
Neuburg, 311 ; Neueneck, 268;
Nenmarkt (1796), 228 ; (1797),
240 ; NUe, 277 ; Nidb, vi 63 ;
NoUendorf , V. 506; Nordlingen,
iiL 296 ; North Foreland, 430 ;
Noir, V. 296 ; Ocaiia, 468 ; Olte-
niza, vi. 119 ; Omdurman, 234 ;
Orthez, v. 517 ; Ostrach, 292;
Ostrowno, 487 ; Ondenarde, iv.
100; Palermo, iii 458; Palestro,
vi 135 ; ParkBuiy, iv. 5 ; Pavia,
i 467 ; Perot, vi. 223 ; Peter-
wardein, iv. 211 ; Petronell, 8 ;
Petten, v. 300; Pf affendorf , iv.
337 ; Pfullendorf, v. 311 ; Pia-
oenza, iv. 297 ; Piave, v. 455 ;
Pinkie, ii. 251 ; Pirmasens, v.
143; Plevna, vi 213, 214; Pa-
dol, 179; Polotsk, v. 488, 492;
Pont-a-chin, 192 ; Prague (1620),
iii. 202; (1757), iv. 325; Pnf.
tava, iv. 148; Pultusk (1703),
137 ; (1806) v. 402 ; Pyramids,
277 ; Quatre Bras, 530; Quebec,
iv. 342; Raab, v. 455; Ramil-
lies, iv. 97; Baslawice, v. 170;
Bathenow, iv. 23 ; Ratisbon, v.
453; Raucoux, iv. 299; Ra-
venna, i 311 ; Reichenb^g, iv.
325 ; Rheinfelden, iii. 309 ; Ri-
voli (1796), V. 231 ; (1797), 232 ;
Rocroi, iii 328 ; Rome, vi 102;
Rossbach, iv. 328 ; Rostock, 26;
Rothenthurm, v. 269; Rover-
edo, v. 230; Rnmersheim, iv.
103; Rnstchuk, v. 475 ; Rymen-
ants, iii 8; Saalfeld, v. 396;
Sacile, 455 ; Sadowa, vi 179 ;
St. Anion du Cormier, i 175 ;
StDizier.v. 515; St.Gotthardt,
iv. 6 ; St. Luda, vi. 95 ; St.
Qnentin, ii. 297, 298 ; St. Valeri,
429; Salahieh, v. 277; Sala-
manca, 472; Salankemen, iv.
14 ; San Fabriano, i 108 ; San
Giorgio, v. 231 ; San Giuliano,
295; Sangershausen, iv. 332;
Santa Cruz, ii. 475; Samo, i
107; Savenay, v. 137; Savig-
liano, 309 ; Schardiag, iv. 87 ;
ScheUenbei^, 90; Schindelazi,
V. 269 ; ScMeitz, 396 ; Schlien-
gen, 229 ; Schweidnitz, iii 323 ;
Sedan, vi 195; Segovia, i 423;
Seminara, 256 ; Sempctch, 34 ;
Senef , iii 457 ; Sievershausen,
ii 275 ; Simbach, iv. 280 ; Si-
nope, vi. 119; Sinzheim, iii
456; Sissek, 92; Sittard, ii
158; Slivnitza, vi 223 ; Sobota,
iii. 399; Sochaczen, v. 174;
Sohr, iv. 293 ; Solebay , iii. 452 ;
Solferino, vi 135 ; Somo-Sierra,
T. 449 ; Spirebach, iv. 88 ; Battle
of Spurs, i 349; Stadth)hn,
iii. 254; Staffiurda, iv. 58;
Stantz, V. 269 ; Stockach, 292 ;
Szezekodny, 172 ; Talavera,
467; Tartaritza, 475; Tarvis,
239; Tauber, vi 180; Teinin-
gen, V. 228; Tel-el-Kebir, vi
226; Tewkesbury, i 146; Tilsit,
iv. 27; Tirlemont, v.ll5; (1830),
vi. 60; Tokay, ii. 77; Tolen-
tino, V. 528 ; Torgau, iv. 337 ;
Toro, i 196 ; Tourcoi^n, v. 192;
Trafalgar, 380 ; Trebbia, 295 ;
Trecaae^ i 347; Troia, 108;
Tudela, v. 449 ; Tnrckheim, iii
456 ; Turin, iv. 97 ; Turnhout
(1597), iii 81; (1831), vi 49;
Uckerath, v. 225 ; Upsala, iii
215 ; Valleggio, v. 520; Valmy,
94 ; Valvassonne, 239 ; Varna,
i 21 ; Vamitza, iv. 155 ; Vasaff,
i 19 ; Vesoul, 165 ; Villa de la
Navarras, vi 71 ; Villa Viciosa,
(1665), iii. 425; (1710), iv. 105;
Villalar, i. 425; Vimeira, v.
446; Vittoria (1813), 504;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
260
MODERN EUROPE
(1814), 511; Wa^ram, 456^
Warka, iii. 403 j Waterloo, v,
590; Wattignies, 142; Wavre
590; Weissemburg, vi 193
WeUinghausen, iv. 347; Wen
grow, vi. 158 ; Werdt, v. 144
Wirtingen, 371 ; Wertzlar, 225
Widsjd, iii 228 ; Wimpfen,
206; Wittstock, 306; Wolf en
bilttel, 322; Worth, vi 103
Yenikale, iv. 425 ; Zehdenick,
V. 398 ; Zenta, iv. 15 ; Znaym,
V. 457 ; Zorndorf, iv. 333 ; ZtQ
lichau, 335; Zurich, v. 297
ZoBmarshansen, iii 348.
Bauer, Creneral von, iv. 356.
Bavaria: Partition of, i. 26; war
of Bavarian succession, 265,
278; reaction in favour of
Roman Catholic Church, iii.
86 ; dissolution, iv. 93 ; alliance
with France and Spain, 261;
expulsion of Austrians and
Hungarians, 270 ; War of Suc-
cession, 389, 390 ; com{>en8ation
cessions, v. 337 ; Austrian inva-
sions, 368, 453; accession to
Fifth Coalition, 506.
Bavaria, Philip of, ii 80, 86.
Bayanne, Cardinal, Papal pleni-
potentiary, V. 430.
Bayard, Chevalier, i 255, 291,
300, 301, 310, 358, 360, 429,
463.
Bazaine, General: French com-
mand, vi. 194, 195.
Beaconsfield, Lord : Turkish
question, vi 209, 211 ; conven-
tion with Sultan, 217 ; Enciish
representative at Berlin Con-
gress, 217; reaction in England
against Forward Policy, 219.
B^am: Union of B^am and Lower
Navarre to France, vi. 199.
Beatoun, Cardinal David, Scot-
tish Primate, ii 250.
Beatrix of Naples: Marriage
with Matthias Corvinus, i
207.
Beatrix of Portugal, Donna, i
197.
Beauhamab, Alexander : French
command on the Moselle, v.
127.
Beauhamais, Prince Eugene,
Viceroy of Italy, v. 383 ; com-
mand in chief of French armies,
452, 455, 456 ; French command
against Russia, 486 ; command
of remnant of Grand Amty,
retreat from Posen to Leipsic,
500; French command in Italy,
510; Italian affairs, 520; evacua-
tion of Italy, 521.
Beauhamais, Josephine: Marriage
with Napoleon Bonaparte, v.
215; dissolution of marriage,
464.
BeauhamaiB, M. de, French
ambassador at Madrid, v. 433.
Beaujeu, Anne de, i 168, 173 ;
resignation of Regency, 179;
treaty with Germany, 177.
Beaujeu, Peter de Bourbon, Lord
of, i 170, 179.
Beaulieu, General : Austrian
command, v. 141, 215, 218, 219,
221; recall, 224.
Beaumarchais, Baron de, iv. 443.
Beaumont, Christophe de, Arch-
bishop of Paris, ^1.
Beauram, M. de, i 457 ; Imperial
Envoy, 464.
Beaurepaire, Commandant of
Verdun, v. 94.
Beauvilliers, Duke of, iv. 75.
Bedford, Duke of. Regency of
France, i 69 ; death, 73.
Belgium : French campaigns, iii
303; French invasion and re-
verses, V. 76 ; French successes,
99, 194; Declaration of Inde-
pendence (1789), iv. 417; (1820),
vi47; government by Congress,
iv. 418 ; submission to Leopold
II. , iv. 423 ; union with Holland,
V. 520, 525 ; effect of French
Revolution of 1830, vi. 45,
46; riots, vi. 46; European
recognition of independence,
48.
Belgrade: Siege, i 18; surrender
to Turks, massacre of Hun-
garians, 449.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
261
Bollard, French Envoyto Holland,
vi. 60.
Bellarmine, iii. 17.
Bellasis, Sir H., English com-
mander, iv. 87.
Bellav, Cardinal du, ii 163,
247.
BeUay, Martin de, ii. 29, 30.
Belle^arde, Count, conmiand of
coiJition army in Tyrol, v. 291 ;
Anstrian command, 452, 520,
521.
Belle-Isle, Count, iv. 230, 258,
270,299.
Belliard, General, French com-
mandant of Cairo, v. 326.
Belvedere, Comte de, v. 449.
Bern, General, Transylvanian
command, vi. 99, 100.
Bembo, Pietro, secretary to Leo
X., i. 345, 354.
Bendek, Field-Marshal, Austrian
commander-in-chief, vi 178,
179.
Bender, Field-Marshal, Austrian
command, iv. 423; v. 210.
Benedetti, Count, French minis-
ter, vi. 167, 192.
Benedict XIII., Pope: European
war averted by mediation, iv.
220.
Benedictines, i. 397.
Beni^in, Baron, vi. 154.
Bennigsen, General, Russian
Commander-in-Chief in Ger-
many, V. 402.
Bentinck, Lord William : Sicilian
Revolution, v. 463, 464; Murat
and Italian affairs, 520, 521.
Bentivoglio, John, i. 282.
Benzene, Concino, i. 288.
Beresford, Lord, Field-Marshal
of Portuguese troo])s, v. 467 ;
English command in France,
517 ; Portugal — member of
Recency and Commander-in-
Chief of army, vi. 17.
Berg, Greneral de, dictatorial
power at Warsaw, vi. 161.
Bergh, Count van den, ii 437.
Berghe, Count van den, Nether-
lands command, iii 298.
Berkel, Van, Pensionary of Am-
sterdam, iv. 397.
Berkeley, Admiral, v. 469.
Berliohingen, Gdtz von, ii. 62, 63,
67.
Berlin : Napoleon's entry, v. 398;
constituent assembly for Prus-
sia, vi 96 ; general Democratic
Congress, 97; reaction after
disturbances, 98; Congress,
111 ; new northern Bundt 181 ;
Dreikaiserbundf 207 ; confer-
ence, 208; Congress of the
Powers, 217; centre of Euro-
pean politics, vi 219; African
colonization conference, 232.
Berlin Decree, v. 409.
Bermudez, Zea, Spanish minister,
vi 16, 66.
Bern: Extraordinaiy Assembly of
Notables, central government
proclaimed, v. 339.
B^madotte: v. 239; French am-
bassador to Vienna, 274 ; com-
mand of army of observation on
the Rhine, 290; Minister of War,
dismissal, 305; Marshal of the
Empire, 352; command of army
of Hanover, 365; principality
of Ponte Corso, 386; French
occupation of Nuremberg, 393 ;
command of Spaniards and
Danes in Sweden, 420; com-
mand of Saxon army in Ger-
many, 452; election as Crown
Prince of Sweden, 477 ; conduct
of Swedish affairs, 479; scheme
to overthrow Na{>oleon, 499;
command of allies in Branden-
burg, 505; accession to Swedish
throne, vi. 25 {see cUso Charles
XIV. of Sweden),
Bemaldez, ii. 192.
Bemis, Abb^, iv. 314.
Bemis, Cardinal, French am-
bassador at Rome, iv. 438.
Bemstorff, Count Andreas, Dan-
ish minister, iv. 320, 410, 413,
425.
Bemstorff, Count Christian, Dan-
ish Foreign Minister, v. 177,
318, 319, §21.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODEEN EUBOPE
Berri, Doehesse de, vi 57.
Berri, Charles Duke of : Ligue du
Bim Public^ i 131, 192 ; Peaee
of Ancenis, 138; Champaftiie
and Brie bestowed on, 189;
Dnke of Gnienne, 141 ; death,
148.
Bern, Charles Ferdinand d' Artois,
Dnke of, assassination, vi. 7.
Benrer, M.,yi 64.
Berthier, Marshal : Command of
army in Italy, v. 260; expedi-
tion to Rome, 263; chief of
staff, 308 ; Marshal of the Em-
pire, 352; PrincipaUty of Neuf-
chfttel, 386 ; execution of Palm,
391.
Bertram, General, French Envoy,
y. 403.
Bertrandi, Bishop of Comminges,
iL265.
B^mlle, Siexir de, iii. 247.
Berwick, Dnke of, iv. 60 note, 91,
93, 95, 111, 214, 230, 231.
Beseler, vi. 89.
Besme, assassin of Admiral
Coli^i, ii. 390.
Bessarabia, cession to Russia, vi.
216, 217.
Bessarion, Cardinal, papal legate,
L 96, 100.
Beesi^res, General: Marshal of
the Empire, v. 352; French
command in Spain, 445, 449,
466.
Bestnscheff, Russian Chancellor,
iv. 327, 359.
Bethlem, Gabor, Voyvode of
Transylvania, iii. 196, 208, 209,
212.
B^thune, M. de, French Envoy,
iii. 231, 237.
B^thune, Maximilien de {see
Sully, Due de).
Beuningen, Van, Dutch minister,
iii 414, 438.
BeumonviUe, M., French War
Minister, v. 115.
Beust, Friedrich von, v. 113, 168,
181, 206.
Beutels, William, ii. 197.
Bevemingk, Van, iii 373»
B^ierheffs: Foreign ambassadois,
L 13 ; governors of EjcUets, 14.
Beza, Huguenot reformer, ii
330, 335, 338, 378; iii 43, 136.
Bianca of Milan : Marriage with
Francis Sf orza, i 53.
Bianchi, upholders of p^ralar
form of government, L 228.
Bianchi, (%neral : Austrian com-
mand in Italy, v. 528.
Bibbiena, Cardinal i. 345, 367.
Bidoulx, Pr^ean de, i. 348.
Bibliotli^eca Laurentiana, i. 109.
'^igi, partisans of the Medici, L
Birago, ii 360, 378; iii. 117.
Biron, Armand de Gontaut, Due
de, iii. 53, 56.
Biron, Armand Louis de Grontaut,
Due de, V. 130.
Biron, Charles de Gontaut, Due
de : Conspiracy against Henry
IV., iii 135 ; execution, 137.
Biron, Duke of Courland, iv. 243,
263,359,364; v. 175.
Bischofswerder, General, v. 257.
Bis^lia,Dukeof : Marriage with
Lucretia Borgia, i 250; murder
of, 250, 251.
Bisegnano, Princes of, i 186.
Bismarck,Prince:Chief of Prussian
Kreuz party, vi. 112; Prime
Minister, 153; comparison with
Cavour, 153,199; Prussian occu-
pation of Schleswig, 167; Count-
ship, 172; annexation of Hol-
stem, 174 ; allianoe with Victor
Emanuel, 174; Universal Suf-
frage, 175 ; peace negotiations,
181; Northern Bund, 192; title
of Prince, 198 ; policy of con-
solidation by alliance, 206;
"Dictator of Europe," 207;
president of Berlin Congress,
217 ; statesmanship and power
in Europe, 219 ; Austro-German
alliance, 220; fall, 228.
Blainville, French ambassador-
extraordinary, iii. 240.
Blake, Admiral, iii. 372.
Blake, €reneral : Spanish com-
mand, V. 448, 449, 46&
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
268
Blakeney, General, iv. 315.
Blanc, Louis: SociaUam scheme, vL
75; ''Minister of Progress,"
79.
Blanea, Florida, Spanish minister,
iv. 446, 447, 451; y. 184,
448.
Blanche of Navarre, i. 193.
BianeS'Batius, ii 479.
Bleiswyck, Van, Grand Pension-
ary of Holland, iv. 397.
Blois: Triple Alliance, L 265;
EtatS'GStUraux, iii. 47.
Bllicher, Greneral : Surrender to
the French, v. 399; withdrawal
from Swedish army, 415 ; Pros-
sian command, 502, 514; Qnatre
Bras, Ligny and Waterloo, 530.
Blom, Robert, vi. 98.
Boabdil : capture, i. 201.
Boccaccio, ambassador, i. 338.
Bocskai, Stephen, Voyvode of
Transylvania, iii 96.
Bodenstein, Professor, Leipsic
Disputation, i 411.
Bodiskov, Admiral, v. 421.
Boetie, Etienne de la, ii 248.
Bohemia: Catholic and Hussite
parties, i 36 ; Re^ncy during
minority of Ladislaus Post-
humus, 40; lapsed fief, claim of
Emperor Frederick III., 95;
invasion, 204 ; '' Perpetual
Peace" with Hungary, 207;
propagation of Widil's doc-
trines, 390; Hussite doctrines
and Standard of Faith, 390, 391 ;
Calixtines and Utntquists,
tenets adopted by Prague Uni-
versity, 391 ; state of , under Louis
II., ii. 70, 71 ; Smalkaldic war,
816, 225 ; conversion into here-
ditary monarchy, 346; Reforma-
tion m, i. 391 ; ii. 446 ; iiL 155,
204; Royal Charter of Rodolph,
ii. 155, 184; revolution, 189;
religious dispute, 190; Thirty
Years' War, 201 ; emigration of
Protestants, 204; electoral pre-
rogatives of kings, iv. 17 note.
Boisot, Louis, ii. 440, 443.
Boissy, Arthur Gouffier de, i. 354.
Boleyn^ Anne: career, ii 21 noie;
marriage and coronation. 111.
Bolinsbroke, Lord : French Club
of the Entre-8oli v. 16.
Bolivar, Simon, vi 10, 11 and note.
Bolivia, Republic of, establish-
ment, vi. II note.
Bologna: capture by TrivuMo,
i 303 ; coronation of Charles V. ,
ii. 86 ; council, 236, 252.
Bombs, first use of, at Wachter-
donck, iii. 36.
Bompart, Admiral, v. 278.
Bonaparte Family: Empire of
France heredituy in, v. 352;
exclusion from tmrone, vi. 5.
Bonaparte, Caroline : Marriage
with Murat, v. 386.
Bonaparte, Charlotte, v. 434.
Bonaparte, Jerdme, Prince, v.
400, 405; King of Westphalia,
423 ; French command against
Russia, 486 ; abandonment of
kingdom, 509; governor of the
InwUides, vi. 82; royal title
restored, 110.
Bonaparte, Joseph, Prince: Pleni-
potentiary, v. 314; Envoy at
Amiens, 328 ; ConeordcUoi 1802,
332 note; Grand Elector, 352;
French command in Italy, 384 ;
King of Two Sicilies, 384 ; King
of Spain, 442, 445, 467 ; retire-
ment into France, £11 ; com-
mand of National Guard, 513;
ambassador to Rome, 26SL
Bonaparte, Louis, Prince: Con-
stable of France, V. 352; King
of Holland, 386; Spanish crown
offered to, 437 ; abdication, 465.
Bonaparte, Lucien, Prince : Presi-
dent of Council of Five Hun-
dred, V. 306 ; Envoy to Madrid,
316 ; Porti^ offered to, 433.
Bonaparte, Napoleon {see Napo-
leon L, II., IIL).
Bonaparte, Napoleon Jerdme :
Member of National Assembly,
vi. 81 ; marriage with Clothilde
of Sardinia, 131, 132.
Bonaparte, Napoleon Louis Je-
rdme, vi. 59.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODERN EFEOPE
Bonanarte, Pauline : Marriage
wim Prince Borghese, v.
386.
Bonaparte, Peter, Member of
National Assembly, vi. 81.
Boniface VIII., Pope : height of
Papal power, i. 388.
Bonin, General, vi. 104.
Bonner, Bishop, English am-
bassador at Rome, ii. 112.
Bonneval, Connt,Pashaof Bosnia,
It. 241.
Bonnier, French plenipotentiary,
V. 258, 270, 280; murder,
293.
Bonnivet, Admiral, i. 434, 457,
460, 462, 468.
Bonrepauz, ambassador to Eng-
land, iv. 52.
Bora, Catharine of, marriage with
Martin Luther, ii. 65.
Bordeaux: Parliament, i. 126;
Gabelle riots, u. 247 ; National
Assembly, vi. 197.
Bordeaux, Duke of: Proclama-
tion as Henry V., vi. 42; mani-
festo, 106.
Borffhese, Cardinal Camillo :
Election to Pontificate iii. 148
{seecUso Paul V.).
Borghese, Priince : Marriage with
Pauline Bonaparte, v. ^.
Borgia, Alfonso: Election to
Pontificate as Calixtus III., i.
106; founder of greatness of
the Borgia Family, 106 (see
also Calixtus III.).
Borgia, Csesar : Hostage, escape,
i. 222; unfrocking, 235 ; mar-
riage with Charlotte d'Albret,
245 ; Duke of Valentiuois, 245;
conquests, 250; murder of
Duke of Biseglia, 250 ; French
expedition to Naples, 253;
treachery and successes, 257;
imprisonment, 261.
Borgia, Francis, Duke of Gandia,
L 235 ; iii. 106.
Borgia, Lucretia: Marriages, i.
189, 250, 251.
Borgia, Rodriso, Cardinal: Elec-
tion to Pontificate, i. 106, 187,
188 {see also Alexander VI.,
Pope).
Borromeo, Cardinal Charles, ii
323,350.
Boscawen, Admiral, iv. 309.
Bosnia: Conquest by Mahomet
II., i. 97; conflicts between
Christians and Mohammedans,
vi. 207 ; acquisition by Austria,
224.
Bossu, Count, iL 440.
Botero, Giovanni, iii. 124.
Botta, Count, Austrian ambassa-
dor, iv. 263.
Boufflers, Marshal, iv. 66, 86, 87,
100,299.
Bouill^, Marquis de, iv. 455.
Bouillon, Duke of, iii. 148.
Boulanger, General, commandant
of National Guard, v. 120 ; at-
tempt to establish Dictatorship,
vi 224.
Bourbaki, General, vi. 197.
Bourbon Family: Venddme and
Montpensier branches, ii. 231 ;
descent, iiL 52 note,
Bourbon, Charles, Cardinal of.
Proclamation as Charles X.,
iii. 54 ; death, 58.
Bourbon, Charles, Comte de
Montpensier and Constable of
France, i 355 ; governor of the
Milanese, 363, 367 ; marriage
with Suzanne de Bourbon, 453,
454; alienation from Francis I.,
454 ; negotiations with Charles
V. and Henry VIII., 456; confis-
cation of lands, 460; Lieutenant-
€reneral of the Emperor in Italy,
462; invasion of France, 464;
visit to Spain, ii. 11 ; Imperial
command in Italy, 23 ; death,
30.
Bourbon, Charlotte of : Marria^je
with William of Orange, iL
444.
Bourbon, Duke of, Prime Minister
of France, iv. 216.
Bourbon, Gilbert of, Comte de
Montpensier, L 226, 231.
Bourbon, Louis de, Duke of
Parma, v. 220, 314, 315.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
265
Bourbon, Louis de Venddme,
Cardinal, governor of Paris, ii.
335, 478, 480.
Bourbon, Louisa Maria, Duchess
of Bourbon, vi. 138.
Bourbon, Suzanne de: Marriage
with Charles of Bourbon, L 4^,
454 ; death, 455.
Bourges: Establishment of Uni-
versity, i. 126 ; National Coun-
cil, Pragmatic Sanction, 393.
Bourienne, Secretary to Napo-
leon, V. 304.
Bourmont, General, French War
Minister, vi. 35; Marshal of
France, 36 ; command of Mig-
uelite forces, 70.
Boumonville, Duke of, Imperial
commander, iv. 22.
Boumonville, General, French
commander, v. 98.
Bousquet, General : Swedish com-
mand, iv. 276.
Bouti^res, General, ii 164.
Bovadilla, Don Francisco de, i.
335.
Bo^ens, Adrian, i. 368, 369, 372 ;
Regency of Castile, 384, 423,
425; election to Pontificate,
440 {see also Adrian VI.,
Pope).
Boyl, Father, i. 333, 334.
Boznak, Aga, v. 475.
Brandenburg, Albert, Arch-
bishop-Elector of Mainz, i. 381,
403, 405; ii 65, 66, 67, 68,
165, 275.
Brandenburg, Albert Achilles,
Elector, i. 154.
Brandenburg, Casimir of, L 382.
Brandenburg, Count, vi. 98.
Brandenburg Electorate, i. 25;
Nuremberg agreement with
Saxony, 26; Constituent As-
sembly, vi. 98.
Brandenburg, George of, ii. 75.
Brandenburg, Joachim, Elector,
1419; 1168,97,104,152.
Brandenburg, John Sigismund,
Elector, iu. 187.
Brandenburg-Anspach, Joachim
Ernest, A&grave, iii 157.
Brandon, Charles, Duke of Suf-
folk, i. 355, 457, 458.
Brandt, Sebastian, i. 398.
Braschi, Cardinal: Election to
Pontificate, v. 183 (see also
Pius VI., Pope).
Bravo, Gonzales, Prime Minister
of Spain, vi 139.
Braza, M. de, French explorer,
vi. 226.
Brazil : Portuguese dominion, ii
190 ; united Kingdom of Portu-
gal, Brazil and the Algarves,
vi. 16, 17 ; constitution as Em-
pire, 18 ; revolution, 69.
Breda : Congresa, ii. 443 ; capture
by Prince Maurice, iii 37;
peace conference, iv. 300.
Brederode, Count Henry, ii. 415.
Brederode, Francis von, i 178.
Breteuil, Baron, French am-
bassador, iv. 381.
Breuil, Peter du, Calvinist preach-
er, ii. 170.
Braves, Savary de, French dip-
lomatist, iii. 133.
Brez6, Louis de. Grand Seneschal
of Normandy, i 460.
Bri^onnet, Bishop and Cardinal,
i 214, 221, 227, 232.
Bridport, Admiral, v. 203.
Brienne, Governor of Picardy,
ii 4.
Brienne, Archbishop of Toulouse,
iv. 463, 466.
Brion, Chabot de, French Ad-
miral, ii. 121.
Brissac, Duke of, v. 92.
Brisaac, Marshal de. Governor of
Piedmont, ii 257, 284; com-
mandant at Rouen, 342.
Brissot, V. 65, 97.
Bristol, Bishop of, English plem-
potentiary, iv. 107.
Bristol, Lord, English ambassa-
dor at Madrid, iv. 345.
Brittany: Succession, oath of
Breton States, i. 173 ; treaties,
176 ; French invasion, 179 ; an-
nexation by France, 351.
Brittany, Anne of : Flight to Re-
don, i 176; mamage with
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODEBN EUBOPE
Maximilian, 177 ; annnlment —
marriage with Charles VIIL,
180 ; marriage with Louis XII.,
245; Triple Alliance of Blois,
265; death, 351.
Brittany, Duke of : Feudal ser-
▼ioe, Droits rigcUims^ etc., L
126, 127.
Britto, Don Gregorio, iii. 347.
Brody, Baron, Austrian com-
mandant of Gattaro, t. 390.
Broglie, Due de : Prime Minister
of France, vi. 202, 204.
Broglie, Marshal, iv. 231, 332,
3&, 347.
Brown, Marshal, iv. 326.
Brueys, Admiral, v. 274, 277.
BrtLU, Count, iv. 260, 294, 318.
Bmn, Antoine, iii. 34^.
Brune, Marshal: French com-
mands, V. 267, 300, 313, 352,
415 ; vi 6.
Brunswick, Charles, Duke of, vi
54.
Brunswick, Charles William,
Duke of, Commander-in-Chief
of AUies, V. 80, 83, 94, 95,
144, 190, 395 ; death, 397.
Brunswick, Christian, Duke of,
iii. 207, 254, 255 ; death, 258.
Brunswick, Eric, Duke of, ii.
65.
Brunswick, Ferdinand, Duke of,
iv. 317, 329, 330, 331, 335, 347,
350.
Brunswick, Francis of, iv. 333.
Brunswick, Frederick, Duke of,
death, v. 530.
Brunswick, Henry, Duke of, ii
68,276.
Brunswick, Henry, the younger,
of, ii. 254.
Brunswick, Louis Ernest of,
Field-Marshal of Holland, iv.
396.
Brunswick-Bevem, Prince of, iv.
325.
Brussels: Riots, vi. 46; National
Congress, 48 : Africa Coloniza-
tion Conference, 232.
Brussels, Union of, iii 4 ; dissolu-
tion, 10.
Brzotowski, Marshal, iv. 371.
Buhenherg, Hadrian of, i 159.
Bubna, Count, vi 21.
Buccaneers, iv. 190.
Bucharest Congress, v. 475.
Bucholtz, Count, Prussian minis-
ter, V. 161.
Buckhurst, Lord, iii 29.
Buddngham, Duke of, iii. 240^
241, 249 ; assassination, 251.
Bucquoi, Count, Walloon General,
iii 191.
Buda: University founded by
Matthias Corvinus, i 209 ; cap-
ture by Sol^man, ii 152.
Buffet, President of French
Chamber, vi 202; premier of
France, 204.
Bugeaud, General : French occu-
pation of Algiers, vi 65 ; dis-
nussal, 76 ; acknowledgment ai
Provisional Government, 79;
command of French Army,
82.
Bulgaria: Insurrection against
Turkey, vi 209 ; reorganiza-
tion of Civil Administration,
213 ; autonomous tributary
principality, 216, 217 ; recon-
ciliation with Russia, 223;
union under Alexander of
Battenberg, 223.
BUlow, Greneral: Prussian com-
mand, V. 505.
Bnlwer, Sir H. Lytton, English
ambassador at Madrid, 115.
BuncUchuhf Peasant Rising, ii.
61.
Buoncompagni, Cardinal: Elec-
tion to Pontificate, ii 383 {see
also Gregorjr XIII., Pope).
Buoncompagni, Si&iMM-, Royal
Commissary of Tuscany, vi
137.
Buren, Count, Imperial Greneral,
i 443, 458; ii 130, 212; iii 5.
Burgoyne, General, iv. 353^ 442,
444.
Buigundy : Civil War in France,
i 68; powers and extent, 70;
Treaty of Arras, 71 ; prosperity
of Belgian Provinces, 71, 72;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
discontent under Charles the
Bold, 136 ; military foreee, 148,
157, 158, 340; French troops
in, 149; union with France,
161 ; invasion, 350 ; reconstitu-
tion of Burgondian Circle; ii.
400.
Borrard, Sir Harry, v. 446.
Bnrton, Edward, English am-
bassador, iii. 91.
Bute, Lord, iv. 343, 347, 353.
Buxhovden, General : Bussian
command in Germany, v. 367 ;
in Finland, 420.
Buzot : Project of Departmental
Guard, v. 97.
Byng, Admiral, iv. 100, 213, 315.
^ron. Admiral, iv. 446, 448.
Byron, Lord : Greek insurrection,
vi. 30.
Byzantine Empire {see Turkey).
Caballero, Spanish Minister of
Justice, V. 434.
Cabot, Sebastian, discovery of
Labrador and Hudson's Bay, i.
337.
Cabral, Alvarez, Portuguese dis-
coverer, i 336.
Cabrera, Gen., Carlist Leader, vi.
70, 115,
Cabul: En^ish Resident in —
murder of Sir L. Cavagnari, vL
222.
Cadi, judicial officer, i. 15.
CadicLskers: military judges in
Roumelia and Anatolia, i. 13,
15.
Cadiz : Capture hy the English,
iii. 80 ; insurrection, vi. 190.
Cadore, Duke of, secretary of the
Regency, v. 495.
Cadoudal, George : Conspiracy
against Napoleon I., v. 349.
Caillard, M., French minister at
Berlin, v. 226.
Cairo': Conspiracy against the
French— massacre, etc., v. 302;
French Capitulation, 326; rail-
way and telegraph to Cape
Town, vi. 234.
Cairoli, Prime Bifinister of ItflJy,
vi220.
Cajetan, Cardinal, L 408.
Calabria, Duke of, i. 117 ; 184.
Calatagirona, Fra Buonaventura,
iii 82.
Calatrawi, Military Order of
Spain, i. 66.
Calatrava, Spanish Prime Minis-
ter, vi 71.
Calder, Sir Robert, v. 363.
Calderaarii: Sicilian secret so-
ciety, vi 19.
Calenberg, Eric, Duke of, ii.
68.
Calixtines, Bohemian moderate
Reformers — tenets adopted by
Univend^ of Prague, i. 391.
Calixtus III. : Alfonso Borgia, L
106 ; death of, i. 107.
Cahnar Union, iii 212, 213, 214,
218.
Calonne, French minister, iv. 462.
Calvin, John, ii. 128, 182, 354.
Calvinism, European character of,
ii. 182 ; growtn of, iii 100.
Camarilla — ^Spanish Government
Party, vi. 10.
Cambait^r^ : Revolutionary Tri-
bunal, V. 113; Second Consul,
308 ; Arch-Chancellor, 352 ;
First Counsellor of the Re-
gency, 495; Minister of Jus-
tice, 528.
Cambon, v. 131.
Cambrai Congress, iv. 217.
CamimrdSi insurrection, iv. 93.
Campanelia, Thomas, Friar, iii
116.
Campbell, CoL, English com-
mander, iv. 446.
Campbell, Commodore, v. 529.
Campeggio, Cardinal, Papal Le-
gate, u. 43, 58, 60, 93, 145.
Camphausen, Prussian Prime
Mmister, vi 88.
Campobasso, Count, i 158, 160.
Campochiaro, Duke of, v. 285.
Canada : Discovery and coloniza-
tion by the French, ii 190, 191 ;
occupation by the Englisii, iv.
342.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODEEN EUEOPE
Canaiy Islands: Disooveiy by
Spain, L 323.
Candia: Restoration to Turkey,
vi. 63.
Canisios, Peter, ii 347 ; iii 103.
Canning, Geoige, Foreign Secre^
tary— Bartenstein Convention,
y. 403; reply to French pro-
posals lor peace, 448 ; English
Prime Minister, vL 16, 30.
Canning, Sir Stratford, English
ambassador at Constantinople,
vi. 64.
Canosa, Prince of, Sicilian Minis-
ter of Police, vi 19.
Canrobert, Gen. : French com-
mand in Crimea, vi. 122 ; resig-
nation, 124; French frontier
command, 193.
Cantemir, Demetrius, Hospodar
of Moldavia, iv. 153.
Cape of Grood Hope, i. 325 ; re-
storation to Holland, v. 344;
redaction by English, v. 386
note.
Cape Town : Railway and tele-
graph to Cairo, vi 234.
Cape Verde : Discovery of, i 324.
Capestrano, Giovanni de, career
of, i 90, 93.
Canillari, Cardinal: Election to
Pontificate, vi 58 {see cUso
Gre^ryXVL).
Capodistrias, Count, Russian
Secretary, member of Heteraifie,
vi. 29; Russian Envoy to
Troppau, 20; election as Pre-
sident of Greece, 33.
Capponi, Pietro, i. 219.
Cammccini, religious order, ii
Capudan P€uka, Hi^h Admiral,
member of Divan, i. 13.
Caracciole, Marquis, v. 299.
Caracciole, Papal Legate, i. 414.
Carafia, Cardinal, ii 203, 321, 322,
323.
Caraffift, Gianpietro, ii. 185 ; elec-
tion to Pontificate, 285 {see
also F&xdlY.).
Caraman, IVench envoy to Trop-
pau, vi 20.
Caraaoosa, Gen., vi. 19.
Carbonari, secret society, vi 8,
19, 21.
Cardona, Don Raymond de, i
307, 309, 315, 346, 347, 348, 356,
359, 361.
Carew, Sir Peter, ii 279.
Cariati, Prince, Prime Minister
of Naples, vi. 95.
Carletti, Count, Tuscan Envoy to
Paris, V. 199.
Carlists, Spanish Par^, parti-
sans of Don Carlos, vi 67.
Carlos, Don, History of, i. 191,
192, 193.
Carlos, Don (son of Philip II. of
Spain) : birth, ii 278 ; story oi,
Carlos, Don (son of Philip V.),
King of the Two Sicilies, iv.
230,231.
Carlos, Don, Duke of Madrid:
Struggle for Spanish Crown, vi
70. 71 ; flight, 72.
Carlsbad Reiolutions, vi. 24.
Carnot, President: New system
of warfare, v. 140 note ; director,
207 ; proscription — escape, 251 ;
opposition to re-estabhshment
of monarchical principles, 351 ;
Minister of Interior, 528 ;
President, vi 227.
Caroline, Queen of Naples and
Sicilies, v. 383, 384, 385.
Caroline Matilda, of England :
Marriage with Christian XII.
of Denmark, iv. 410.
Caroline Ordinance, ii. 104.
Carpi, Cardinal di, ii. 161.
Carrier : Revolutionary Tribunal,
V. 113 ; Nantes Noyades, 140 ;
execution, 187.
Carteret, Lord, iv. 280, 293.
Cartier, Jacques, French ex-
plorer, ii 190.
Carvajal, Don Joseph de, iv. 338.
Casimir (son of Casimir lY. of
Poland), chums to Hungary,
invasion, eto., i. 206.
Casimir IV . of Poland, i 25, 204 ;
death, 211.
Cassono, Duke of, v. 299.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX
Oastagna, Cardinal : Election to
Pontificate, iii 60 {see also
Urban VII.).
Castanos, Cren. : Spanish com-
mand in Peninsular War, v.
445,449.
Castel Rodrigo, Marquis of, Go-
vernor of Spanish Netherlands,
iii 434.
Castellane, Gen., Marshal of the
Empire, vi. 110.
Casti^one, Cardinal : Election
to Pontificate, vi 55 {see also
Pius VIII.).
Castile : Constitution and Govern-
ment, L 64; Portuguese in-
vasion, 196; union with
Araj^n, 197.
Castilfon, French ambassador, ii.
137.
Castlereagh, Lord, Secretary at
War, V. 414, 482, 513, 623.
Catalonia: Union with Aragon,
i. 63; Constitution and inde-
pendent government, 65; re-
volt, iii. 314; union with
France, 319; reunion to
Spanish Crown, 368.
Catharine I., Tsarina of Russia,
iv. 220, 237.
Catharine II., Tsarina: Acces-
sion, iv. 350; character, 359;
proclamation, as sole Emj^ress^
360; government, administra-
tive reforms, etc., 362 ; Turk
ish and Polish Questions, 379
visit to Cherson, 404 ; acquisi
tions in Poland, v. 168 ; policy,
176; death, 235.
Catharine of Ara^n : Marriage
with Arthur, Prmce of Wales,
i. 234, 270; marriage with
Henry VIII., 270; divorce, ii.
39, 41, 112.
Catharine of Braganca : Marriage
with Charles II., iii 424.
Cathcart, Lord : English com-
mand in Crermany, v. 375;
Commander-in-Chief in Den-
mark, 412 ; ambassador at St.
Petersburg, 503 ; Envoy to
Ch&tillon Peace Congress, 514.
Cathelineau : La Vendue insur-
rection, V. 113.
Catholic League : Formal or^ni-
zation, ii. 463; real ori^,
463 note; revival, 477; meeting
of leaders at Joinville, 479;
publication of manifesto, 481;
counsels at Nanci, iii. 44 ; edict
of union, 46 ; army annihilated
at Ivry, 58; reaction aeainst,
67; submission of Sorbonne,
70 ; end of, at Treaty of Folem-
bray, 73.
Catholic League of Germany,
organization, iii. 158; schism
and dissensions in, 187, 188;
treaty with Protestant Union,
200.
Catholic League of €rermany
(second), iii. 379.
Catinat, Gen., iv. 57, 61, 82, 86.
Caumont, Duke of Epemon, etc.,
ii. 460.
Cava^nari, Sir L., first EngUsh
resident in Cabul, murder, vi.
222.
Cavaignac, Gen., v. 463; vi. 79,
81.
Cavalry, importance of cavalry in
sixteenth century, i. 340.
Cavour, Count, Irime Minister
of Sardinia, vi. 129; policy,
129; interview with Napoleon
III. at Plombi^res, 131; war
with Austria, 134; resigna-
tion, 139; return to power, 141;
success of Italian policy, 145;
Prussia and Italy, identity of
interests, 146 and note; con-
solidation of united Italy, diffi-
culties, 148; death, 148; com-
parison of workwithBismarck's,
199.
Cazalis, v. 42.
Cellamare, Spanish ambassador
in Paris, iv. 214.
Cerdagtae: Cession to Spain, i
181, 193, 195; revolt of inhabi-
tants 194.
Ceri, Renzo da, i. 464, 467 ; ii 30,
31.
Cervantes, ii. 373.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
270
MODEBN ETTBOPE
Cervera, Admiral, vL 2M.
Cervini, Cardinal Maroello: Elec-
tion to Pontificate as Maroellos
n., death, iL 286.
Cesarini, Julian, L 20, 21.
Centa: Conqnest and colonization
by Portugal, L 67.
CevaUos, Don Pedro, Spanish
Foreign Minister, v. 438.
Ceylon: Portngaese Bettlement,
i. 337 ; cession to Great Britain,
T. 328.
Chabot, Philip, L 464.
Chair Bey, Governor of Egypt, i.
448.
Chalcooondyles : Institntion of
Janissaries, i. 6 noU,
Chalil Patrona, Albanian Janis-
sary, iv. 239, 240.
Chambord, Comte de, vi 202.
Champagny, French Foreign
Minister, ▼. 448.
Championnet : French command
in Italy, v. 287, 288.
Chancellor, Richard, iii 127.
Changamier, €ren. : French com-
mand in Algiers, vi 79 ; com-
mand of National Guard, 82;
dismissal, 106.
Chantonay, Perrenot de, Spanish
minister in France, ii. 333.
Chanzy, Gen. : French command,
vi. 197.
Charette, Anastase, v. 113, 203,
204.
Charlemagne, Roman Emperor,
title, i. 23.
Charles, Archdoke (brother of
Leopold II. ), command-in-chief
of Austrian armv, v. 211 $ com-
mand-in-chief of the lurmies on
the Rhine, Sambre and Mouse,
225, 228 ; generalissimo of Aus-
trian forces, 239 ; command of
coalition armyin Germany, 291,
297 ; removalfrom command in
Germany, 311; Austrian com-
mand in Italy, 367 ; Austrian
military preparations, establish-
ment of LandwehTj 451 ; cam-
paign in Germany, 452, 453,
455.
Charles, Duke of Buigundy and
Count of Charolais : Character,
etc, i. 22; accession, 136 ; mar-
riage with Marwet of York,
137; reception of French embassy
at St. Omar, 144; recognition of
Henry IV. of Lancaster as Kins
of England, 145; invasion of
France, 146; charge of High
Treason, 146 ; truce with France,
147, 148, 149 ; preparations for
war, 148; << Charles theTmi-
ble,'' 149 ; purchase of G«lder-
land and Zutphen, 151 ; change
of fNolicy, 151 ; revival of Lothar-
ingian kingdom, 152 ; si^e of
Nenss, 153; peace with Ger-
many, 154; league with Edward
IV., 155; war with Lorraine,
156 : expedition against Swiss
confederates, 157 ; death, 160.
Charles V., Emperor: Gover-
nor of the Netherlands, i
356; election, 382; coronation
at Aix-la-Chapelle, 385; visit
to England, 442; administra-
tion in Spain, popularly, 444,
445 ; negotiations with Frands
I. , ii 10 ; marriage with Isabella
of Portugal, 20; capture of
Clement VIL, conduct and
policjr of Charles, 33, 34; Diet
of Spires prohibited by, 58, 59;
visit to Italy to receive imperial
crown, 82; pacification, 85;
coronation at Bologna, 86;
meeting with Clement VIL,
109; African expeditions, 118,
154; invasion of France, 122;
retreat from Marseilles, 123;
J'oumey through France, 142 ;
jutheran alliances, 148; con-
clusion of peace with Zapolya,
151 ; war with Francis 1., re-
sources, supplies voted by
Cortes, etc, 157 ; alliance with
Henry VIIL, 158; visit to Italy,
159; treaties and alliances m
preparation for extirpation of
Lutheranism, 206 ; Imperial
Ban issued against Elector of
Saxony and Luidgraveof Hesse,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
271
211 ; enmitv to Paal IIL, pub-
lication of the Interim, 240, 241;
government reforms, reconstitu-
tion of Borgondian Circle, etc.,
243; support of Council of
Trent, 259; flight from Inns-
bruck, 264 ; interview with Sir
Ricluurd Moryson, 273 note; ab-
dication, 288 ; retirement at
Juste, death, 304, 305; character
and policy, 306 ; court held by,
307.
Charles YI.^ Emperor : Spanish
succession claim, iv. 70; pro-
clamation as King of Spain
by Allies, 89, 95; landing in
Portugal, 91; coronation at
Frankfurt, 106; treaties of
Rastadt and Baden, 114;
Spanish Netherlands ceded to,
115; treaty of alliance with
Venice, 211 ; Pra^atic Sanc-
tion, 218 ; occupation of Milan-
ese, 222 ; death, 248.
Charles YIL, Emperor: Aus-
trian succession claim, iv. 249 ;
election, 267 ; return to Munich,
290; death, 291.
Charles I., King of England: Mar-
riage with Henrietta Maria of
France, iii 234, 238 ; execution,
367.
Charles II., K^og of England:
Restoration, iiL 423 ; marriage
with Catharine of Bragan^a,
424 ; war with H<^and, 428 ;
alliance with Holland, 460;
secret treaty with Louis XIV.,
461.
Charles VII., King of France:
Coronation at Poitiers, L 69 ;
progress of military and mercan-
tOe affairs, 76 ; quarrel with
Dauphin, 121 ; Dauphin^ united
to France, 123; ill policy in
regard to sovereignty of Genoa,
123; loss of Genoa, 124 ; death,
124.
Charles VIII., King of France :
Regency of Anne of Beaujeu, i.
169; marriage with Anne of Brit-
tany, 180; treaty with Ger-
many, 177; governmentassumed
by, 179 ; Ludovico Sforza's in-
vitation to claim Naples, 189;
Eling of Jerusalem, Greek Em-
peror, etc, visionary schemes,
214; conquest of Naples, 214;
treaty with Alexander, 221;
death, 242.
Charles IX., King of France:
Accession, Queen-mother's Re-
gency, ii 325, 326; personal
reign, 344; tour of France,
354; marriage with Elizabeth
of Germany, 379, 380 ; vacillat-
ing policy, 382; Massacre ol
St. Bartholomew, acknowledg-
ment of responsibility, 450;
character and court, 379, 457 ;
death, 457.
Charles X., King of France:
Accession, vL 25; Ordinances
of St. Cloud, 37 ; abdication,
41; retirement to England, 42;
residence at Priu^e, 57.
Charles I., King of Spain: Acees*
sion, i. 368 ; entry into Spain,
unpopularity, etc., 373, 374;
Santa Junta remonstrances,
424.
Charles II., of Spain: Attain-
ment of majority, iv. 68 ; mar-
riage with Muia Louisa of
Orleans, 68 ; marriage with
Mary Anne of Neubur^, 69;
description by Louis XIV., 71
note; will in favour of Philip,
Duke of Anjou, 74; deai^^
76.
Charles III. of Spain : Accession,
iv. 340; changeof policy in Spun,
342.
Charles IV. ci Spain : Accession,
V. 110; Russian declaration of
war against Spain, 298 ; declara-
tion of war against Portugal,
316; attempt^ flight, abdica-
tion, V. 436 ; resumption of the
Crown, 439 ; Treaty of Bayonne,
440; death, vi 24.
Charles IX., King of Sweden:
"Ruling Hereditary Prince,"
iii 225 ; assumption of title of
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
272
MODERN EXJROPE
king, etc. , 226 ; coronation, 227 $
death, 227.
Charles X. , Bongof Sweden: Acces-
sion, iii. 391 ; warlike schemes,
392; Polish successes, 398;
tmoe with Russia, 417 ; death,
419.
Charles XL, King of Sweden:
Minority, revolution, etc., iv.
21 ; marriage with Ulrica £leo-
nora of Denmark, 25 ; absolute
monarchy, establishment, 29;
administoitive reforms, 30 ;
death, 120, 122.
Charles XII., Bang of Sweden:
Accession, iv. 1»); majority,
128 ; alliance with Dutch and
English, 130 ; war against Rus-
sia and Poland, 134, 135 ; in-
vaflion of Russia, 146 ; imprison-
ment in Turkey, 155 ; return to
Grermany, 156 ; war with Prus-
sia, 156 ; death, 160 ; projected
conquest of Norway, 161.
Charles XIII., King of Sweden :
Accession, v. 422 ; accession to
continental system, 423; de-
claration of war a^inst Great
Britain, 477; Swedish Pomer-
ania and RUgen, ceded to Den-
mark, V. 510.
Charles XIV., King of Sweden:
Accession, vi 25 ; death, 90.
Charles, Albert, Elector of Ba-
varia (see Charles YII., Em-
peror of Grermany).
Charles, Albert, King of Sardinia,
Prince of Carignano, vi. 21 ;
accession to throne of Sardinia,
60; policy. Liberal measures,
etc., 91 ; seizure of MUan, war
with Austria, 92, 93 ; campaign
in North Italy, 95 ; resignation
of crown, flignt, 99.
Charles Emmanuel I., Duke of
Savoy, iii 135, 136, 137; death,
27L
Charles Enmianuel III., King of
Sardinia, iv. 228.
Charles Emmanuel IV., King of
Sardinia: Accession, v. 218;
French treatment of, 270 ; act
of abdication, 287 ; Napoleon's
neglect to indemnify, abdica-
tion, 341.
Charles Felix, King of Sardinia:
Accession, vi 21 ; death, 60.
Charles Frederick, Duke of Hol-
stein-Grottorp, iv. 161.
Charles Peter Uhic, Duke of Hol-
stein-Grottorp, heir-presumptive
of Russian throne, iv. 277.
Charles Theodore, Elector Pala-
tine : Bavarian succession ques-
tion, iv. 390, 391, 392 ; suppres-
sion of Order of JlliMminati, v.
179.
Charlotte, Queen of Portugal, vi
17.
Chartres, Due de {see Orleans,
Duke of).
Chass^, General : Dutchcommand,
vi. 49.
Chasseneuz, President of Parlia-
ment of Provence, ii 173.
Chasteler, Marquis von, v. 453.
Chftteaubriand, French Minister
of War, vi 14, 36.
ChAtel, Jean, iii 71.
Chatham, Earl of: Command of
English expedition to Wid-
cheren, v. 4o2.
CMtillon : Peace Congress, v.
513. *^
Chauvelin, Marquis de, French
ambassador in London, ▼. 104,
108, 232.
Chaves, Marquis de, Portuguese
Leader of ServUeSy vi. 68.
Chemises Boitges, v. 152.
Chemaie V, Greneral : Servian com-
mand, vi. 210.
Cheyney, Sir Thomas, ambassador
to Paris, ii. 20.
Chiaramonte, Cardinal : Election
to Pontificate, v. 315 {see also
PiusVIL).
Chiaus Bcuhi, Turkish Imperial
Marshal, i 12; Turkish Home
Minister, 14.
Chieregato, Papal Legate, ii
57.
Chi^vres, Marquis de, i 368, 372.
Chigi, Fabio, Papal Nuncio, me-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
278
diator to Catholic Powers at
Mlinster, iii. 336.
Chili, subjugation, ii. 190.
Chimai, Prince of, i. 178.
China: War with Japan, vi. 236 ;
anti - forei^ rising — Chinese
coup'd'4tcJ, vi. 237.
Chlewinski, General, v. 173.
Chlopicki, Genera], vi. 62.
Chmelnicki, Cossack leader, iii.
396 397.
Choiseul, Duke of, iv. 334, 336,
342, 346, 373, 377, 427.
ChotianSf Breton adventurers, v.
203.
Christian II., Elector of Saxony,
Cleves-Jlilich-Berg succession,
iii. 160.
Christian I., King of Denmark,
Norway and Sweden, iii. 213 ;
death, 214.
Christian II., King of Denmark :
Accession, iii. 214; European
alliances, 214; conquest and
subjection of Sweden, 216, 216;
unpopularity, 218 ; expulsion
from Denmark, 218, 219; King
of Norway, proclamation—per-
petual imprisonment in Den-
mark, 220; death, 220.
Christian III., King of Denmark:
Treaty with Francis I., iL 156;
alliance with Francis I. re-
nounced, 163 ; election to throne
of Denmark as Christian III.,
iii. 221 ; death, 222.
Christian IV., King of Denmark:
Accession, iii. 224; minority-
circumscribed powers, etc., ^ ;
declaration of war against Swe-
den, 227; Military Chief of
Circle of Lower Saxony, 264 ;
Thirty Years' War— interven-
tion in Germany, 264, 266, 267,
258,269,261,262.
Christian v.. King of Denmark :
Accession, iv. 24 ; alliance with
Frederick William of Branden-
burg, 24, 26, 26 ; death, 30 ; dis-
pute with Frederick, Duke of
Holstein-Gottorp, 121 ; death,
122.
VI.
Christian VII., King of Denmark:
Accession, iv.410;marriagewith
Caroline Matilda of England,
410; accession to Armed Neu-
trality, V. 321 ; death, 177, 476.
Christian y III., Kins of Denmark:
Accession, vi. 84 ; law of female
succession extended to whole
Dominions, 84; death, 86.
Christian IX.. King of Denmark,
accession, vi. 164.
Christina, Archduchess of Austria,
government of Austrian Nether-
lands, iv. 401, 424.
Christina, Queen-Regent of Spain:
Carlist rebellion, vi 67 ; reac-
tionary policy, 71 ; retirement
to Italy, 72; return to Spain,
73; conduct of, 116, 116; return
to power, 116.
Christina, Queen of Sweden : Min-
ority, iii. 329; accession, 332;
character, 389; abdication, 391;
conversion to Roman Catholic-
ism, 391 note,
Christina of Denmark, marriage
■with Francesco Maria Sf orza of
Milan, ii. 86.
Christina of France, marriage
with Prince of Piedmont, iii.
179.
Christinas, Spanish Party, vi. 67.
Christopher, King of Denmark,
election, iii. 213.
Chrzanowski, General, command
in Piedmont, vi. 99.
Church, General: Commandant
at Palermo, vi. 20; affairs in
Greece, 32.
Cialdini, General, Italian com-
mand, vi 144, 149, 186.
Cibb, Cardinal Gian Battista,
succession to the Pontificate, L
184 {see also Innocent VIII.).
Cib6, Franceschetto, i. 186.
Cib5, Giulio, Marquis of Massa
Carrara, ii. 247.
Cibb, Innocenzo, i 346.
Cilly, Barbara of, i. 36, 37.
Cilly, Count, revolt against Em-
peror Frederick III., i. 88, 89,
9o.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
274
MODERN EUROPE
Cin<} Mars, conspiracy against
Richdien, arrest and execution,
iii. 323, 324.
Cinque Ports, iL 199.
Circle of the Empire, ii. 400.
Cisalpine Republic lEstablishment
union of Mantua
with, 254; compulsory treaty
with France, 271 ; Napoleon s
proclamation at Milan, 909;
name changed to ** Italian Re-
public," m,
Cissey, Creneral de, Premier of
France, vi. 203, 204.
Ciudad Rodrigo: Capture by
French, v. 470 ; capture by Eng-
lish, 471.
Clairfait, Count: Austrian com-
mand, iv. 415; V. 126, 191, 192,
193, 210.
Clarence, Duke of, i. 143, 144,
165.
Clarke, General, v. 236.
Claude of France : Marriage with
Count Francis of Angoul6me,
i. 351; death, 465.
Claude of Orange, marriage with
Henry of Nassau, 371.
Claude, Duke of Guise, Comte
d'Aumale, etc., ii. 4, 156 ;
founder of the greatness of the
Guises, ii. 230.
Clavi^re, French Minister of Fi-
nance, V. 74, 77, 87.
Cl^menges, Nicholas of. Rector of
Paris University, i. 391.
Clement, Archbishop of Cologne,
iv. 51.
CUment, Jacques, Dominican
Friar, iii. 52.
Clement VII., Pope : Election to
Pontificate, i. 461 ; vacillating
policy, ii. 15; attack on, by
feudatories — truce, 23; cap-
ture by Imperial army, 32, 33,
34; annulling Henry VIII. *s
marriage with Catharine of
Aragon, 41 ; pacification of
Italy, 85; death, 115; cha-
racter, 115.
Clement VIII. , Pope: Election
to Pontificate, iii. 64 ; career
previous to election, 64; Henry
IV. reconciled to, 72; death,
148.
Clement XI. : Election to Pon-
tificate, iv. 82; recognition of
Charles III. as "Kins of Spain,
103; UnigenittisBvixipnhmhed,
199.
Clement XII., Maria Theresa's
Austrian claim, 262.
Clement XIIL, death, 437.
Clement XIV. : Election to Pon-
tificate, iv. 437 ; death, 438 ; v.
183.
Clementine League {see Holy
League).
Cleonurd, General, vi 115.
Clermont, Count, French com-
mand, iv. 330.
Cleveland, President: Guiana-
Venezuela Boundary question,
vi.235.
Cleves, Philip of, i. 178, 247.
Cleves • Jlilich - Berg succession
question, iii. 158, 159, 160.
Clichy, Club of, v. 248.
Clinton, Sir H., iv., 444, 448.
Clootz, Baron, v. 147.
Clugni, M. de, iv. 441.
Coach, Matthias Corvinus, in-
ventor of, i. 209, note.
Cobenzl, Count Louis, Austrian
envoy to Napoleon, v. 254, 261,
270 ; Russian alliance, 281 ;
Austrian plenipotentiary, 314,
335.
Cobenzl, Count Philip, Austrian
ambassador in Paris, v. 355.
Coburg, Prince: Imperial com-
mand, iv. 406, 415 ; v. 125, 140,
191, 192.
Coburg, Prince Ferdinand of,
marriage with Maria, Queen of
Portu|^> vi 70.
Cochin, discovery of, i 336.
CocqueviUe, Huguenot Captain,
ii. 428.
Cochrane, Lord, vi. 32.
Code Napoleon, v. 362.
Codrin{;ton, Admiral, vi 33;
English fleet in the Scheldt,
50.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
275
Coeiir, Jacques, ii. 198.
Coenvres, Marquis of, iii 237.
Cognac, League of {see Holy
Ceague.)
Cohom, Dutch engineer, iv. 59.
Coi^j, Marshal, iv. 232, 286.
Ooitnier, Jacques, L 168.
Colbert, iv. 38, 170.
Coleone, Bartholomew, L 110.
Coligni, Admiral Gaspard de, ii.
291 ; Governor of Picardy, 297 ;
Huguenot leader, 316, 336, 342;
marriage with Jacqueline d'En-
tremont and return to court,
381 ; death, 389.
Collard, Royer, vi 7, 26.
Colli, General : Command of Papal
Army, v. 237, 270.
Colloredo, Count, iv. 291.
CoUoredo, Count Franz, v. 335.
Cologne : Diet, i. 277 note ; Con-
gresses (1579), iiL 11 ; (1673),
453,455.
Colofipe, Prince Ernest, Arch-
bishop of, iii. 87.
Colonization, Progress of, iv. 182,
183; rivalry of England and
France, 307 ; colonial expan-
sion of European Powers, vi.
229.
Colonna, Cardinal Otho di, elec-
tion by Council of Constance, i.
392 {see also Martin V.).
Colonna, Cardinal Pompeo, L 461 ;
attack on Clement YII., iL
23.
Colonna, Fabrizzio, L 312, 313.
Colonna, Marcantonio, i. 225, 297,
367.
Colonna, Prosper, i 357, 437, 439,
441, 460, 462.
Columbia, Republic of, Venezuela
and Granada, erection as, vi.
11 rwte,
Columbus,Christopher : Discovery
of America, reception at Span-
ish court, i. 203 ; maritime ex-
plorations, 328, 329 ; last voy-
sj^e, 335; death, 336; inscrip-
tion on tomb, 336 note,
Colver, Count, Dutch Resident at
Constantinople, iv. 211.
Comines, Philip de. Chronicler of
France, i. 1^, 149, 170.
Comiti de SHreU GSnircUe, v.
117.
CkmiU du Salut Public, v. 117 ;
organization on re-election, 128 ;
supremacy of, 132.
Commendone, Chamberlain to
Julius IIL, ii 277.
Commune, v. 85.
Communeros, Spanish Revolu-
tionary Party, vi. 12.
Communism, spread in France,
vL 75.
Comp(ictata of Prague, Religious
privileges secured to Hussites,
L 36, 37, 204.
Compagnacci, Libertines, i. 237.
Company of Distant Countries,
Dutch commercial association,
iii. 129.
Compass, invention of, L 322.
Complement of the Peace of
Westphalia, iii. 379.
'< Compromise, The," ii. 415.
Concini, Marshal d*Ancre, iii. 166,
172, 175, 176, 177.
Concordats : France and Leo X.,
L 362, 363 ; Roman Concordat,
394 ; Concordat of Vienna, 394 ;
Spain and Sixtus IV., 394.
Concordten-Formel, iii. 159.
Cond^, Princes of :
Henry I. of Bourbon : Conver-
sion to Roman Catholicism,
ii. 451 ; escape into Ger-
many, 456; lieutenant of the
Due d'Alenfon, 460 ; com-
mand of German troops, 461 ;
Peace of Monsieur, 462;
death, iii. 50.
Henry II. of Bourbon, iii. 161,
169; plots and arrest, 174,
175.
Louis I. of Bourbon, ii 315,
316 ; discovery of plots against
Guise family, 319 ; Guise
plots, 324, 325 ; preparations
for Civil War, 335; treaty
with En^and, 338, 339 ; pri-
soner at I)reux, 3^;
nation, 360.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
276
MODERN EUEOPE
Cond^, Princes of {continued);
Louis II., Due d'Enghien, iii.
328, 339, 340, 341 ; Viceroy of
Catialonia, 347; blockade of
Paris, 358 ; arrest, 359 ; re-
storation to dignities and
charges, 361 ; alienation from
Court, 362 ; jzeneralissimo,
365; Franco - Sijanish War,
369, 378 ; reconciliation with
France, 387 ; command in
Holland, 447 ; command in
Alsace, 457.
Louis Joseph, command of
emigrants, vi. 81.
Condoroet, iv. 465 ; v. 65.
Confalionieri, vi. 22.
Confederation of the Rhine, v.
387 ; alliance with Napoleon
L, 388; accession of Saxony,
402 ; suppression of Teutonic
Order, 458 ; dissolution procla-
mation, 497; treaties of Princes
with Allies, 509 ; dissolution,
Declaration by Prussian Envoy,
vi. 176.
Confessio Tetrapolitana, ii. 95, 100.
Confession, auricular, i. 388.
Confession of Augsburg, ii. 94,
98.
CongreacUio de Propaganda Fide,
Estaolishment by Gregory XV . ,
iii. 110.
Consalvi, Cardinal, v. 332 note.
Consistory, Koman, Assembly of
Cardinals, i. 43.
Constance : Councils (1415), L 32,
74, 389 ; Diet (1507), 278 ; op-
position to Interim— Imperial
^n, ii 244 ; cai)ture of, 245.
Constant, Benjamin, journalist,
vi. 35.
Constantine, French conquest,
vi. 61.
Constantine, Grand Duke of Rus-
sia : Russian command v. 485 ;
Governor of Poland, vi. 30, 31 ;
emissary to Warsaw, 156 ;
death, 63.
Constantine PalaBologus, Em-
peror at Constantinople, i. 4.
Constantinople : Capture by the
Turks, i. 4; trade in Italian
hands, 16; establishment as
Capital of Turkey, 81 ; siege of
— use of artillery, 342^ growth
of English influence, hi. 90, 91,
92; revolution, iv. 12; v. 418;
European Conference, vi. 211 ;
massacre of Armenians, 230.
" Constitution of the Year VIII. ,"
V. 307.
Consubstantiation, doctrine of,
i. 422.
Contades, French command, iv.
331.
Contarini, Cardinal, Papal Nun-
cio, ii. 89, 147.
Contarini, Venetian Senator, me-
diator to Catholic Powers at
Miinster, iii. 337.
Conti, Prince of: Generalissimo
of Paris, iii. 358 ; arrest, 359 ;
liberation and restoration to
dimities and charges, 361.
Continental System, v. 408 ; Na-
poleon's Decrees against En^
lish commerce, 409, 410; Fi-
nancial Report, 411 7wte\ ac
cession of Austria, 416 ; Sweden,
423 ; Pius VIII. 's accession to,
428 ; French conc^uest of Por-
tugal, 428 ; Russian modifica-
tions, 474 ; English War with
United States of America,
498.
Convention of the Pardo, iv.
246.
Conmntv^ of Leipsic, iii 273.
Coote, (general, v. 279.
Corday, Charlotte, murder of
Murat, V. 126.
Cordeliers, French Republican
Club, 66.
Cordova, Alfonso de, ii. 188.
Cordova, Gonsalvo de, i. 202, 231,
232, 252, 254, 266, 261, 262,
264, 271, 273, 274, 275, 313,
365.
Cordova, Gonzales de, Spanish
command, iii. 306.
Comaro, Greorge, i. 287.
Comwallis, Lord : English com-
mand, iv. 448; Vork Town
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX
277
capitulation, 456 ; Viceroy of
Ireland, v. 278 ; English Envoy
at Amiens, 328, 357.
Corsica : Annexation by France,
iv* 428; insurrection, v. 127}
200; General Assembler— an-
nexation to Great Britain, v.
200; French re-conquest of,
234.
Cortes, National Assembly of Cas-
tile, i. 64 ; National Assembly
of Ara^on, 65.
Cortes, Herman, ii. 189.
Corvee, compulsory task work of
French peasants, v. 7.
Corvinus, John, L 208.
Corvinus, Ladislaus: Count
Cilly's plots against, i. 93 ; exe-
cution by order of Ladislaus
Postumus, 94.
Corvinus, Matthias, King of Hun-
gary: Count Cilly's plots a-
gainst, i. 93 ; King of HTungary,
coronation, 95; war against
Turks, 95 ; marriage with Cuni-
gund Podiebrad, 96 ; marriage
with Beatrice of Naples, 103,207 ;
war a^inst George Podiebrad,
104; Bohemia, coronation by
Pai>al Legate, 205; successes
against Wladislaus and Freder-
ick III. of Grermany, 206;
war against Frederick III.,
207, 208 ; Hungarian Palatine-
power and dignity settled by
Diet, 208; death, 209; en-
couragement of literature and
art, 95, 209.
Cossacks, iii. 200 Tiote ; organiza-
tion, 395, 396 ; Saporogue Cos-
sacks, iv. 148.
Coss^, Marshal de, €U)vemor of
Picardy, ii. 429; arrest, 456;
dismissal from custody, 461 ;
Commandant of Paris, [iii.
69.
Coste, Cardinal, Archbishop of
Turin, v. 217.
Cotton, Admiral Sir Charles, v.
446.
Cotton, P^re, iii. 148.
Coulaincourt, Duke of Vioenza,
French Foreign Minister, v.
508, 528.
Council of Tumults or Council of
Blood, organization, ii. 425.
Counter-Reformation, iii. 101.
Cour, Monsieur de la, French am«
bassador to Porte, vi. 118.
Courcel, Baron de, French am-
bassador in London, Fashoda
incident, vi. 234.
Courland, Dukes of, as colonizers,
iv. 190.
Coulton, V. 131.
Cracow, Republic of: Recognition
of Independence, v. 526; in-
corporation with Austria, vi.
84.
Cranach, Louis, i. 412.
Cranmer, Thomas, Archbishop of
Canterbury, ii. 110, 111.
Craon, Lieutenant in Franche-
Comt^, i. 165.
Crawford, General, v. 471.
Cr^qui, Marshal, French com-
mander, iii 458 ; iv. 36.
Crete, Turkish attack on, iii.
334; French faction, v. 188;
rising against Turks — alliance
with Greece, vi. 231.
Crfevecoeur, French general, i.
173.
Crillon, Due de, iv. 455, 466.
Crimea : Russian subjection and
annexation, iv. 24, 386, 403.
Crimean War, vi. 117.
Croissi, Colbert de, French am-
bassador, iii. 440 ; iv. 29.
Cromwell, Oliver, Lord Protector,
iii. 368 ; alliance with Mazarin,
369 ; foreign policy, 373 ; com-
mercial treaties, ^4; treaty
with Sweden, 398.
Cromwell, Thomas, ii. 138, 139.
Cronstadt, visit of French fleet,
vi. 227.
Croy, Duke Charles Eugene of,
iv. 131.
Croy, William de. Archbishop of
Toledo, i. 374,
Crusades, i. 2, 19, 20» 86.
Crosadee against the Turks, diffi-
culties in equipping, L 91, 98.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
278
MODEEN EUROPE
Gnba,di8C0very of , i. 332; conquest
by Velasquez, 336; American
attempted seizure, vi. 115;
isn-American War, 235, 23o.
Cueillettef tax on citizens of
Ghent — forced repeal, i. 137.
Cuesta, General, Spanish com-
mand, V. 467.
Culmbach, Albert, Margrave of,
ii. 216.
Cumberland, Buke of, iv. 295,
323, 324, 329.
Cusa, Nicholas of. Scholastic
Theologian, i. 392, 398.
Custine, General: French com-
mand, y. 96; Commander-in-
Chief, 126; arrest and guillo-
tine, 130.
Ciistrin, Margrave John of, ii.
207,242.
Cyprus, conquest by Turks, ii.
371 ; British occupation, vi.
217.
Cyzlaas, Pensionary of Dordrecht,
iv. 397.
Czamecki, Stephen, iii. 399, 403,
413, 417.
Czartoriskis, uncles of King
Stanislaus Augustus, adminis-
tration of Poised, iv. 370.
Czartoryski, Prince George
Adam, v. 600 ; vi. 52.
Czemischeff, General, iv. 350.
Daendels, General, Dutch com-
mand, V. 300.
Daine, Greneral, Belgian com-
mand, vi. 49.
Dalberg, Duke of, French en-
voy to Congress of Vienna, v.
Dalrymple, Sir Hew, v. 446.
Damad Ali Pasha, Grand Vizier
of Turkey, iv. 210.
Damas, Count Roger de, Nea-
politan command, v. 287, 315,
Damiens, assassin, iv. 322.
Dammartin, Constable, i. 146.
Dampierre, General, French com-
mand, V. 116, 125, 126.
Damremont, General, vi. 61.
Damville, Marshal, ii. 456 ; Gover-
nor of Languedoc, 458 ; Peace
of Monsieur, 462; Huguenot
successes, 465; reunion with
Huguenots, iii. 41 {see also
Montmorenci).
Dannenberg, General, Russian
command in Moldavia, vi. 118.
Danton: Montagne insurrection,
V. 82 ; Minister of Justice, 87 ;
September massacres, 93; re-
volutionaiy tribunal, 113; at-
tempt at reconciliation with
Gironde, 119 ; arrest, trial and
execution, 147, 148.
Dantonists, arrest, trial and
execution, v. 147.
Dantzic, iv. 421; v. 168, 403;
independence restored, 406 ; an-
nexation by Napoleon, 485.
Darien, Isthmus of, discovery,
i. 336.
Darm^s, attempt on Louis
Philippe's life, vi 64.
Darmstadt, Prince of, iv. 94.
Daru, Count, vi. 191.
Das Minas, General, Portuguese
conunand, iv. 96, 98.
Dashkoff, Princess, iv. 360.
Daubenton, Jesuit, iv. 203.
Daun, General, Imperial com-
mand, iv. 103, 325, 335, 337.
Dauphin^: Government by the
Dauphin, i. 78, 121 ; final union
with France, 123; exemption
from Game Laws, 127.
Davesnes, General, v. 142.
Davila, Admiral, iii. 144.
Davila, Sancho, ii. 440.
Davoust, Marshal: Marshal of
the Empire, v. 352; French
command in Germany, 397,
452; rule in North Germany,
478 ; French conmiand acnainst
Russia, 487 ; defence of Ham-
burg, 509; disbandmentof army,
vi. 4.
Day of Barricades, iii. 45.
Deane, Silas, iv. 443.
Debry, Jean, French plenipoten-
tiary, vi 280, 293.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
279
Decamiaachs, Spanish Revolu-
tionaary Party, vi. 12.
Decazes, French Chief of Police
and Minister of Interior, vi. 7.
Declaration of American Indepen-
dence, iv. 442.
Declaration of Richmond, iii. 26.
Defenders, Irish Revolutionary
Party, v. 278.
Defterdars, Treasurers in the
Divan, i. 13.
Dehmas, v. 239.
Delacroix, French Foreign Min-
ister, V. 234.
Delaporte, Intendant of Civil
List, V. 89.
Delcass^, M., French Foreign
Minister, Fashoda incident, vi.
234.
Demhinski, General, Hungarian
command, vi. 99, 100.
Demhrowski, General, Polish
command, v. 173, 174.
Denisoff, General : Russian com-
mand, V. 172.
Denmark : Reformation in, iii.
219, 222 ; interregnum, 221 ;
Swedish invasion, 331 ; state
of, 392, 408 ; Treaties with Hol-
land, 430 ; Constitutional Revo-
lution, iv. 18, 19, 20; Crown
rendered hereditary, 19; Kotige-
LoVt 20, 21 ; war with Sweden,
24 ; consolidation and pros-
perity, 271 ; Baltic Sea neutral-
ity, 336 ; Schleswig-Holstein
united to, 410 ; reforms and
innovations, 411 ; revolution,
412; armistice, 413; Armed
Neutrality, 452, 321 ; pros-
perity under Prince Royal
Frederick, v. 177 ; defensive
alliance with Sweden, 319;
war with England, 321 ; St.
Petershur^ Convention, 324 ;
impossihihty of neutral policy,
411 and note ; rejection of Eng-
lish offer of help, 412; fleet
captured hy English, 412 ;
English Declaration of War,
413 ; Colonial losses, 413 ; war
with Sweden, 420; armistice,
509; Schleswig-Holstein Ques-
tion, vi. 90, 163 ; isolation, 167 ;
dismemherment, 168.
Depretis, Italian Prime Minister,
A 220.
Derby, Lord, English Prime Min-
ister, vi. 131 ; "[nirkish Question,
211; English neutrality, 212;
resignation, 216.
Derfetden, General, Russian
command, v. 174.
Desaix, General, v. 260, 304, 310,
325.
Des^ze: Counsel for Defence of
Louis XVI., V. 101.
Desmond, Earl of, ii. 473.
Desmoulins, Camille, revolution-
ist, V. 36, 146.
Dessau, Prince Leopold of, Prus-
sian infantry training, iv. 252.
Dessolles, General, Chief Minis-
ter of Louis XVIIL, vi. 7.
Dewey, Admiral, vi. 236.
Deza, Don Pedro de, ii. 366.
Diane de Poitiers, i. 460 ; ii. 229,
231.
Diaz, Bartolomeo, Portuguese
explorer, i. 325.
Dichterbund, G5ttingeu Band of
Poets, V. 179.
Didelot, M., French Minister at
Copenhagen, v. 411 note,
Diderot, "Encyclopedic" pro-
jected by, V. 20.
Diebitsch, General : Russian com-
mand in Turkey, vi 34; in
Poland, 52 ; death, 53.
Diesbach, John von, Swiss com-
mander, i. 469.
Diez, Prussian minister at Con-
stantinople, iv. 416.
Dinant, destruction andmassacre,
i. 135.
Dinteville, Fran9ois de, Bishop
of Auxerre, ii. 105.
Diplomacy, Growth of Forms
and Usages, iv. 177.
Dirkzoon, Admiral, ii. 440.
Disraeli, English policy in
Turkey, vi. 209,
Divan, Ottoman Council, Con-
stitution, etc., i. 13, 14.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
280
MODERN EXJEOPE
Djezzar Pasha, v. 903.
Dobradsha, Turkish cession to
Roomania, vi. 216, 217.
Doctrinaires, French Party, vL 7>
36.
Does, John van der. Lord of Nord-
wyck, ii. 441, 442.
Dohna, Count, command of
Grermon troops, iiL 43.
Dohna, M., Swedish Envoy, iii.
436.
Dolet, Stephen, ii 174.
Dolgorouki, Prince, Russian En-
voy to Napoleon, v. 377.
Dollmger, Dr., vi 188.
Domimcan Inquisition, L 197 note.
Dominicans, Order of Friar
Preachers, i. 388.
Dombrowski, General, Polish
patriot, V. 401.
DonauwOrth, religious disturb-
ances. Ban of the Empire, iii.
156.
Doria, A ndrea, L 464 ; iL 24, 40,
41, 45, 108, 130, 153, 162, 235,
257, 275, 367, 423.
Doria, Filippino, ii. 40.
Dorothea of Denmark, marriage
with Albert of Brandenburg, li.
66.
Dorset, Marquis of, English
commander, i. 319, 320.
Dosa, leader of Peasant War in
Hun^u^, L 376.
Dotzy, Urwui, Bishop of Erlau, i.
210.
Douai, establishment of English
Catholic College, ii. 474.
Dou^, Merlin de, Director, v.
Draaonncides, iv. 41, 42.
DraKe, Mr., English minister at
Venice, v. 242.
Drake, Sir Francis, iii. 34, 35.
Dreikaiserbund, vi. 207.
Dresden: Congress of European
Princes and Sovereigns, v. 484 ;
French evacuation, 507 ; capitu-
lation, 609 ; riots, vi. 104.
Drouet, French postmaster, con-
against Directory, v.
Drummond, Mr., English am-
bassador, V. 321.
Dubois, Abb^, iv. 206 ; Cellamare
Conspiracy, 214 ; death, 216.
Duckworth, Admiral, v. 279, 322,
349, 381, 418.
Duces, Roger, Consul, v. 306;
dismissal, 30S.
Ducrot, General, vi. 196.
Dudley, Lord Guildford, execu-
tion, ii. 279.
Duelling in France, iiL 122.
Dufaure, Premier of France, vi
204.
Dufour, Swiss Radical leader, vi.
86.
Dueommier, General, v. 138, 198.
Duhesme, General, v. 429.
Dumont, General, vi. 186,
Dumouriez, General, iv. 374 ; v.
74, 90, 94, 95, 99, 108, 114, 116.
Duncan, Admiral, v. 201, 259.
Duncan, General, v. 196.
Dundas, Admiral, vi 118, 124.
Dunewald, General, iv. 11.
Dunkirk : Investment by English,
iii. 378 ; re-purchase by Louis
XIV., 428.
Dunois, Count, i 172, 173, 177.
Dupanloup, Monseigneur, Bishop
of Orleans, vi. 188.
Duphot, General, French am-
bassador to Rome, v. 263.
Dupleix, General, iv. 192.
Dupont, General, v. 445.
Duport, iv. 465.
Duprat, Antony : First President
of Parliament of Paris, i. 355 ;
Chancellorship, 355 ; Papal
policy, 361, 3o2 ; Conference of
Calais, 432 ; discontent caused
by administration, ii 4 ; treat-
ment of Andrea Doria, 41 ;
treatment of Allies of France,
48.
Duquesne, General, French com-
mander, iii 458.
Durafido, General: Papal com-
mand, vi. 94; Italian com-
mand, 185.
Duranton, French Minister of
Justice, v. 74, 77.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
281
Doras, General, iv. 67.
Durer, Albert, i. 412.
Duroc, Grand Marshal, French
Envoy to Berlin, v. 3d6.
Dusturt Ekrem^ title of Turkish
Grand Vizier, i 12.
Dutch Colonies : English aggres-
sions in, uL 429.
Dutch East India Company, esta-
blishment, iii. 130.
Dutch Republic {see Netherlands
and Holland).
DuvaJ, Henri, Count of Dam-
pierre, iiL 191.
East India Company, iii. 128 ; iv.
184.
Eastern Question, iv. 387 ; vi
236.
Eberhard, first Duke of Wurtem-
berg, L 385.
Eck, Dr. John, i. 406, 411, 413 ;
ii. 54, 95, 147.
Eden, Sir Morton, English Am-
bassador at Vienna, v. 235.
Edhem Pasha, vi 212, 231.
Edicts : Worms, i. 419 ; ii. 58, 69,
87, 97 ; Edict of January, 332 ;
Amboise, 344 ; Longjumeau,
359 ; union, iii. 46 ; Nantes, 74 ;
restitution, 264.
Edward IV., King of England:
Imprisonment, i. 143; dethrone-
ment — asylum in Burgundy,
145; recovery of Crown, 146:
league with Charles the Bold,
155 ; invasion of France, 155.
Edward VI., King of Enghmd:
death, ii. 277.
Effingham, Lord Howard of, iii.
35, 80.
Eglantine, Fabre d', v. 147.
Egmont, Count of, ii. 298, 302,
408, 409, 412 ; arrest, 425 ; in-
dictment and execution, 430,
431.
Egmont, Jan van, i 178.
Egremont, Earl of, iv. 347.
Egypt: Mamaluke Dynasties, L
375 note\ Napoleon^s Plan of
Conquest, v. 262, 273, 274;
French invasion and occupa-
tion, 276» 302, 324, 325; Eng-
lish evacuation, 344 ; insurrec-
tion of Arabi Pasha, vi. 225 ;
English occupation : reforms
and reorganization, 226, 227 ;
success of English jK>licy, 234.
Einsiedel, Saxon minister, vi 54.
Eisenach : Establishment of Na-
tianalverein, vi. 154.
Eisenberff, General, v. 144.
Eisenstecken, Tyrolese leader, v.
453.
JEjaletj union of Sandjaks, L 14.
Elba, union with France, v.
341.
Eleanor of Germany, marriage
with Francis I., ii 49.
Electoral Union of the Rhine,
formation, i, 383.
Electors, Grerman electors, L 27.
Elio, General, Spanish Royal
command, vi 13.
Elizabeth^ Queen of England:
Treaty' with French Huffue-
note, ii. 338, 339, 360; plots
against, 374, 375, 376 ; refusal
of Dutch sovereignty, 444 ; aid
to Netherlanders, iii 6, 7 ; de-
claration of Richmond, 26 ;
Guise plot aeainst, 33; al-
liance with Henry IV., 79 ;
death, 142.
Elizabeth, Queen of Hunf;ary,
flight to Vienna, death, i. 19,
39.
Elizabeth, Queen of Spain, death,
ii 363.
Elizabeth Famese, Queen of
Spain, marriage, iv. 203.
Elizabeth Petrowna, Tsarina of
Russia, iv. 263 ; accession, 276 ;
treaty with Maria Theresa,
321 ; death, 348.
Elizabeth of France: Marriage
with Philip II. of Spain, ii. 304,
310, 313 ; Isabel de la Paz, 321
and note,
Elizabeth of France, marriage
with the Prince of the Asturias,
iii 170, 173.
Elizabeth, Princess of France,
execution, v. 149.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
282
MODEEN ETJEOPE
£li2abeth of Gennany, marriage
with Charles IX., ii. 379, 380.
Elliot, General, iv. 456.
EUiot, Sir Gilbert, v. 139.
Elliott, Sir Henry, confidential
adviser of the Porte, vi. 209.
Elphinstone, Admiral, v. 236.
Elwas Mahommed, Grand Vizier,
iv. 16.
Emanuel, King of Portugal:
Marriage with Isabellaof Spain,
i. 234 ; discovery of East Indies,
325.
Embassies, origin in Italian
wars, L 337.
Emir Pasha, Grand Vizier, iv.
376.
Emperor, Roman: Title and
powers, i. 23 ; conditions of
election, 24.
Empeer, Jacob, i. 311.
En^en :
Count of, ii 162, 164 ; murder
of, 226,227.
Louis IL, Due d' {see Cond^).
Louis Antoine de Bourbon,
Due d*, plot in favour of,
V. 349 ; murder, 350.
England : Union of Houses of York
and Lancaster, L 79; Roman
Catholic Church, 389 note;
failure of negotiations with
Charles V., ii. 6, 7; Papal
jurisdiction abrogated by Par-
liament, 113, 114; Act of Suc-
cession, 114; Oxford Union,
184 ; trade and commerce, 198,
199 ; Reformation, 250 ; re-
ligious persecutions, 280 ; re-
establishment of Roman Catho-
lic Church, 280; immigration
of Netherlanders, 422 ; pro-
scription of worship and educa-
tion, 474; Spanish Armada,
iii. 34 ; grant of Turkish
commercial privileges, 91, 92 ;
persecution of Jesuits, 106;
repeal of statutes prohibiting
exportation of coin and bullion,
125 ; treaty with France. 126 ;
Russia Company established,
127 ; Persian trade, 127 ; East
India Company, 128 ; Common-
wealth, 368 ; Navigation Act,
371 ; war with Spain, 375 ;
treaties with France, 376, 377 ;
war with Holland, 372, 37 \
428, 431, 447 ; peace, 455 ; rise
of colonial interests, iv. 67 ;
Methuen Treaty, 89; Union
with Scotland, 100; treaties
with Holland, 103, 400, 460;
negotiations with Louis XIV.,
105; treaty with Spain, 112;
dismissal of Tory Ministry,
116; establishment of Royal
Society, 169 ; East Iiviia Com-
pany, 184; increase of trade,
191 ; constitutional monarchy,
result of Reformation, 195;
commercial treaty with Spain,
204; Triple Alliance, 208;
Quadruple Alliance, 213 ; trea-
ties with France and Spain,
222 ; war with Spain, 247 ;
alliances with Russia renewed,
277 ; effects of Austrian Suc-
cession War, 305 ; treaties with
Prussia, 319, 329 ; French pro-
ject of invasion, 336 ; negotia-
tions with France, 343; treaties
with Holland and Prussia, 400;
French and Spanish declaration
of war, 445, 446 ; rupture with
Holland, 453 ; Rocldn^ham
Administration, 455 ; Coaution
Ministry, 460 ; neutrality to-
wards France, v. 104; revolu-
tionary clubs, 106 ; preparations
for war with France, 107 ;
treaties with foreign powers,
109, 201 ; campai^ against
French, 190; negotiations, 212,
257 ; ContinentcJ System, 260 ;
Secret Commercial Treaty with
United States, 271 ; Treaty of
Constantinople, 284; treaties
with Bavaria, etc., 311 ; Armed
Neutrality against, 317 ; Con-
vention with Russia: New
Maritime Code, 323, 324 ; pro-
hibition of English trade in
Holland, Spain and Italy, 342;
war ¥dth France, 344, 345 ;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
288
Frenchproject of invasion, 348;
colonial successes, 349 ; war
with Spain, 357 ; treaty with
Sweden, 359 ; alliance with Rus-
sia, 360 ; war with Prussia, 382;
sovereignty of the sea gained
at Trafalgar, 381 ; Bartenstein
Convention, 403; blockade of
French ports, 408 ; Berlin
Decree, 409 ; seizure of Danish
fleet, 412 ; war with Denmark,
413 ; new ministry, 414 ;
Treaty of Subsidies with Swe-
den, 414 ; European coalition
against, 416 ; treaty with Tur-
key, 419 ; Recognition of Fer-
dinand VII. of Spain, 451;
alliance with Sweden, 480;
Russian ports opened to Eng-
lish commerce, 480; restora-
tion of Danish colonies, Peace
of Paris, 519; maritime acquisi-
tions, 526 ; increase of wealth
vi. 4 ; accession to principles of
European Pentarchy, 7 ; sup-
port of Progresistas in Spain,
71 ; Crimean War, 118, 121
treaty with Turkey, 119
abandonment of Denmark, 169 ,
refusal to adhere to Berlin
memorandum, 208 ; Turkish
policy ; effect of Bulgarian
massacres, 209 ; neutrality,
conditions, 212; opposition to
Treaty of San Stefano, 216;
secret agreement with Russia,
217 ; Penjdeh incident, 222 ;
Anglo-French convention, 233 ;
Guiana- Venezuela Boundary
Question, 235 ; Anglo-Russian
commercial agreement, 237 ;
South African War, 234; effect
on Union of England with her
Colonies, 239.
Enguera, Juan de, i. 268.
Ennemoser, Tyrolese leader, v.
453.
EnqtiStes, suppression of, iv. 322.
Enragis, French Ultra-Demo-
crats, V. 145.
Ensenada, Marquis de la, iv. 338.
Entragues, Mademoiselle d*,
Marquise de Vemeuil, iii
134.
Entraigues, French Commandant
at P&a, i. 233.
Entraigues, Comte d*, Royalist
conspiracy, v. 251.
Epemon, Duke of, iii. 74.
Epr^mesnil, D', iv. 465.
Erasmus, i. 398, 399, 411, 415,
421 ; ii. 188.
Erfurt : Interview of Napoleon I.
and Alexander I. , v. 447 ; Ger-
man Parliament convoked at,
vi. 111.
Eric of Pomerania, accession in
Scandinavia, iii. 213.
Eric XIV., King of Sweden : Ac-
cession, iii. y23 ; imprisonment
and murder, 224.
Ernest, Archduke of Austria:
Governor of Netherlands, iii.
39 ; administration in Austria,
85 ; death, 78.
Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cum-
berland, accession in Hanover,
vi. 83.
Ernest Augustus, Duke of Han-
over, erection of Hanover into
Electorate, iv. 17.
Ernest II. of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
Nationcdverein, vi. 154.
Eroles, Baron d', vi. 12.
Esco'iquiz, Don Juan, v. 432, 438,
439.
Escorial, erection, ii. 298, 299.
Escovedo, Secretary to John of
Austria, iii. 39.
Espana, General, vi. 16.
Espartero, General: Spanish com-
mand, vi. 71; Prime Minister
and Regent of Spain, 72 ; flight
to England, 72 ; return to Spain,
115, 116.
Espenan, Governor of Leucate,
ui. 315.
Esp^s, Spanish ambassador, ii.375.
Essen, General, Swedish com-
mand, V. 414.
Essex, Earl of, English com-
mander, iii. 80.
Estaing, D', French commander,
iv. 445, 446, 448.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
284
MODBEN EUEOPE
Este:
Alfonso I., d', Duke of Ferrara,
i. 251, 288, 294, 295, 296, 297,
900, 304, 311, 313, 314, 315,
345, 430, 437, 440, 447 ; ii. 85.
Caesar d', iiL 134.
Ercole I. d', Duke of Ferrara,
i 183.
Ercole II. d', Duke of Ferrara :
Marriage with Ren^e of
Frauce, L 353 ; ii. 39.
Ferdinand d*, Archduke, v.
452.
Fran9ois d*. Archduke : Acqui-
sition of Modena, v. 524.
Ippolito d*, Cardinal of Ferrara,
u. 330, 333.
Esterhazy, Prince,^ustriaii com-
mand, v. 81.
Esterhazy, Prince, Austrian En-
voy to St. Petersburg, vi. 125.
Estrades, Marshal d', iii. 368, 458.
Estr^s, Gabrielle d', iii. 66;
death, 134.
Estr^es, Marshal d', iv. 323, 324.
Etampes, Duchesse d' (Anne de
Pisseleu), ii. 19, 230.
Etats GSrUraux : Plessis - lez -
Tours, L 274; Tours (1468),
137; (1484), 170; Orleans, IL
326, 327 ; Pontoise, 329 ; Blois
(1576), 464; (1588), iiL 47;
Paris, 170 ; Versailles (1789), v.
27 ; constitution of Tiers-Etat
80 National Assembly, v. 32. '
Etruria, French invasion, v. 428.
Eugene, Prince, of Soissons-
Savoy : Imperial command, iv.
15, 58, 61, 82, 85, 88, 90, 97,
100, 106, 109, 114, 211, 231.
Eugenie, Empress of France :
Beeency, vi. 193 ; flight to Eng-
land, 195.
Eugenius IV., Pope : Turkish
war, i. 19 ; grant of Portuguese
discoveries, 324 ; suspension
and deposition, 392.
Eupen, V an, Secretary of Belgian
Con^ss, iv. 418.
Eure, Dupont de F, resignation,
vi. 56.
Europe : United Europe, result of
Christendom^ i. 2 ; parallel be-
tween Modem European and
Early Grecian History, 3; es-
tablishment of Ottoman Power,
4, 5 and note^ 16 ; political
state in 1598, iii. 99 ; compari-
son of capitals, 124; intellectual
activity, iv. 166; pacification,
vi. 7.
European System : Want of com-
bined pohtical action, ii. 472;
Theocratic Monarchy plan
versus Christian Rej^ublic
scheme, iii. 137, 138; nse of
Denmark and Scandinavia,
212 ; effacement of England as
a factor in, 337; new era in
policy and public law, 353;
Kussia as a European Power,
421 ; England, counterpoise of
France after downiall of
Stuarts, iv. 67; results of Spanish
Succession War, 115; enect of
Pultava on positions of Sweden
and Russia, 149; balance of
power : state of England
at accession of William III.,
175 ; growth of importance of
Northern Powers, 177 ; Russia
as a European Power, 226;
effect of MoUwitz, 258; parti-
tion of Poland, 382, 383; ex-
tinction of hereditarv rivalry
between Austria ana France,
309 ; political results of Seven
Years* War, 366; change in
political aspect, v. 160 ; effects
of revolution, 256; territorial
reaxrangement at Congress of
Vienna, 523 ; union and inde-
rmdence of cognate races, vi
; Pentarchy, supreme power
on overthrow of Napoleon, 8;
temporal sovereignty of Pope :
political solecism, 147; recog-
nition of Italy as European
Power, 150 ; military power of
France, 198 ; German and
Italian Unity, 199 ; effects of
Treaty of Berlin, 222.
ExaZtaaos, Spanish Radical
Party, vi. 13.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
285
Eyzinger, Hungarian revolt, i.
Faber, Peter, ii. 186.
Fachinetti, Cardinal : Election to
Pontificate, iii. 64 {see alao In-
nocent IX. Pope).
Fagel, M., Greffier of States-
General, V. 193.
Faidherbe, General, vi^l97.
Falkenskiold, Danisn Com-
mander-in-Chief, iv. 410.
Falkenstein, Von, Prussian com-
mand, vi. 177, 178, 180.
Family Convention, iv. 223.
Fanti, General, vi. 140, 144.
Far Eastern Question, iv. 387 ; vi.
236.
Far^, Count du, French am-
bassador, iiL 243.
Farinelli, Spanish favourite, iv.
338 ; dismissal, 342.
Farini, Commissary at Modena,
vL 137; Governor-General of
Emilia, 139 ; Prime Minister of
Italy, 149.
Famese:
Alessandro, ii. 211 ; election to
Pontificate, 115 {see also Paul
III.).
Alexander, Buke of Parma, ii.
373, 414, 480 ; iii. 7 ; Governor
of the Netherlands, 9 ; siege
of Antwerp, 24; Duke of
Parma, 27 ; fleet blockaded
by Dutch, 35; campaign in
ifetherlands, 37 ; relief of
Paris, 37, 69, 63 ; death, 39.
Antonio, Duke of Parma :
death, iv. 222.
Elizabeth, Queen of Spain, iv.
203.
Julia, 236.
Orado, Duke of Castro, ii. 277.
Ottavio, Duke of Parma, ii 177,
240, 262, 257.
Pier Luigi, Duke of Parma, ii.
177 ; assassination, 239.
Faure, President, visit to Russia,
vi. 227.
Faust-rechtf i. 277.
Favras, Marquis de, v. 66.
Favrat, De, Prussian commander,
T. 174.
Favre, Jules : Opposition to
policy of Napoleon III., vi.
191 ; French Foreign Minister,
vi. 196, 197.
Faypoult, French Minister at
Genoa, v. 246.
Felix v.. Pope : Election by
Council of Basle, i. 392; re-
nunciation of tiara, 393.
F^nelon, Archbishop of Cambrai,
iv. 200.
F^nelon, La Mothe, French am-
bassador, ii 377 ; 385, 399.
Feodor III., Tsar of Russia,
death, iv. 122.
Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria,
Imperial command, iii. 295.
Ferdinand, Cardinal, Infant, Go-
vernor of the Netherlands, iii
301 ; death, 319.
Ferdinand V., Duke of Modena :
Austrian policy, vi. 137 ; re-
turn, amnesty, 138.
Ferdinand I. , Emperor of Austria :
Accession, vi. 83; coronation
as King of Lombardy and
Venice, 90 ; abdication, 98.
Ferdinand I., Emperor: Governor
of Austria, i. 386 ; Diet of Spires,
ii. 69 ; marriage with Anne of
Bohemia, 70 ; King of Bohemia,
76 ; King of Hungary, 78 ;
King of the Romans, 81, 100 ;
admmistration in Germany, 100;
peace with Solyman, 109 ; Tur-
Irish expedition, 150; conclu-
sion of peace with John Za-
polya, 151, 163; treaty with
Maurice of Saxony, 213, 264 ;
Smalkaldic War, 225 ; treaty
with Philip, 255; accession, 289,
290; Roman Emperor Elect.
291 ; death, advantages of po-
licy, etc., 351.
Ferdinand II., Emperor, iii. 153 ;
bifi^try and intolerance, 156;
King of Bohemia, 189 ; claims
on Austria and the Empire. 189;
accession, 192, 193, 194 ; Th'
Years' War, 201, 253, 264, !
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODEEN EUROPE
207, 301 ; Bohemia: renewal of
allegiance^ 203; Wallenstein's
murder, 204; death, 306.
Ferdinand III., Emperor: Elec-
tion, iii. 306 ; isolation, 342 ;
death, 380.
Ferdinand III., Grand Duke of
Tuscanjr : Becognition of French
Republic, V. 183 ; declaration
for the Allies, 183 ; treaty with
France, 199 ; compensation ces-
sions to, 337 ; acquisition of
Tuscany, 524.
Ferdinand I., King of Aragon,
accession, L 63, 64.
Ferdinandl. , King of Cafitile, i. 61.
Ferdinand V. of Castile and II.
of Aragon : Marriage with Isa-
bella of Castile, i. 191, 194;
joint sovereignty, 196 ; acces-
sion in Aragon, 197; partition
treaty with Louis XII. , 252 ; ad-
ministrative reforms in Naples,
263; administrator of Castile,
267, 304 ; interview with Louis
XIL, 274; League of Cambray,
282 ; investiture of Naples, 294 ;
Holy League, 306 ; Navarrese
succession, 318; alliance with
Henry VIII. and Maximilian,
364 ; death, 364; character and
pMolicy, 365 ; Voltaire's descrip-
tion of, 365 note.
Ferdinand I., King of Naples :
Election, i. 106 ; recognition by
Pius 11. , 107; excommunication,
185; death, 214; encourage-
ment of art and literature,
215.
Ferdinand II., King of Naples :
Accession, L 223; entry into
Naples, 231 ; marriage and
death, 232.
Ferdinand VI., King of Spain :
Accession, iv. 298 ; death, 338 ;
character and policy, 338, 340.
Ferdinand VII., King of Spain :
Application to Napoleon for
support, V. 433 ; arrest, 434 ;
accession, 436 ; arrival at Ba-
yonne : French treachery, 438 ;
abdication, 440 ; return to Ma-
drid, 512 ; Peace of Paris, 520 ;
attempt to restore anden re-
gime, vi. 9; Constitution of
1812, 11 ; failure of caup-cP^taty
13 ; confinement in Cadiz and
Seville, 14, 15 ; marria^, 66 ;
publication of Pragmatic Sanc-
tion, death, 66.
Ferdinand I., King of Two Sici-
lies : Minority, iv. 341 ; acces-
sion, V. 181 ; neutrality, 222 ;
367; Second Coalition against
France, 284 ; acquisition of
Duchy of Benevento, 285 ; treaty
with Austria, 285; alUances,
286 ; Third Coalition, 383 ; re-
tirement to Sicily, 384 ; return
to Naples, 529 ; restoration of
Papal influence, vL 18; Trop-
pau Confess, 20 ; death, 60.
Ferdinand II., King of Two Sici-
lies : Accession, vl 60 ; Consti-
tution granted by, 92 ; 95 ;
death, 143.
Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Ba-
varia, iii. 382.
Feria, Duke of, Spanish ambas-
sador to Paris, iii. 65.
Fermo, Ludovico Freducci of, i
430.
Fermor, Creneral, Russian com-
mand, iv. 332.
Ferrant, General, Commandant
of Maubeuge, v. 142.
Ferrante, Don, arrest, i. 254.
Ferrara, Council of, i. 392.
Ferrara, Duchy of, seizure by
Clement VIII., iii. 134.
Ferrari, Col., vL 94.
Ferrari, Zaccaria, iL 185.
Ferretti, Cardinal, election to
Pontificate, vi. 91 (see also
Pius IX.).
Ferrucci, Francesco, Florentine
commander, ii. 83.
Ferry, Jules, vi. 205; Premier,
206,224.
Fersen, General, v. 173, 174.
Fesch, Cardinal, v. 388.
Fetwa, influence of Muft€s de-
cision, i 15.
Feudalism, German barons, repre-
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
INDEX
287
aentatives of, 28 ; absence of,
in Poland, i 38.
Feuqui^res, Marquis of, French
ambassador-extraordinary, iii.
288.
Ficquelmont, Count, Austrian
Prime Minister, vi. 93.
Fieschi, attempt on Louis Phi-
lippe's life, VI. 67.
Fiesco, Gian Luigi, Count of La-
vagna, ii. 234, 235, 247.
Fifth Coalition, v. 503.
Fiffueroa, Suarez de, Governor of
Milan, ii. 284.
Filangieri, Prince, vi. 103.
Finck, General, Prussian com-
mand, iv. 336.
Finnland : Loss of, by Sweden,
iv. 278; Russian invasion, v.
420; Russian successes, 432;
cession to Russia, 423, 526.
Fire-ships, use of, at siege of
Antwerp, iii. 25.
Firearms, introduction of, L 341.
Firmans^ commands of the Sul-
tan, i. 11.
Fisheries: Herring fishing in-
dustry, i. 433; li. 197; dis-
covery of Spitzbergen whale
fishery, iii. \^,
Fitzgerald, James, iL 473.
Fitz-James, Duke of, vi 36.
Flagellants, Order of Fanatics,
iL458.
Flanders :
" Grand Privilege," i. 162 ; de-
putation to ]x>uis XL, 163 ;
campaigns in, 164, 177; ill
302, 303, 341, 377 ; iv. 64.
Regency of Maximilian, L 166,
173, 174, 178 ; insurrections,
178 ; trade and commerce, ii.
197.
Fleming, Saxon Minister at Vi-
enna, iv. 316.
Fleuriot, Lc»cot, Mayor of Paris,
V. 147.
Fleury, Cardinal, French Minis-
ter, iv. 220, 264, death, 279.
Fleury, Major, vi. 107, 136.
Florence, Capital of United
Italy, vi. 160.
Florentine Republic: Constitu-
tion : Medici leaders, L 49, 50 ;
Guelf party in power, 50; re-
volution, 51 ; progress in art
and culture under Cosmo de'
Medici, 109 ; league with Ven-
ice and Milan, 114 ; enmity of
Medici and Pazzi, 114, 115 ;
league against, 117 ; support of
the Duke of Ferrara, 183 ; na-
tional bankruptcy, 186 ; expul-
sion of the Medici, 217 ; ii. 33 ;
entry of Charles VIIL, 218;
new form of government, 226 ;
parties and partisans, 228 ;
Dominicans and Franciscans,
238 ; war with Pisa, 249 ; ad-
ministration of Pietro Soderini,
315 ; despoticgovemmentunder
Lorenzo de' Medici, 317 ; limits
of Papal power, 394, 396 ; capit-
ulation, ii. 83, 84 ; Biepublic pro-
claimed, vi. 102.
Florida: Exploration, 1.336; sale
to America by Spain, vi. 11.
Florida, Marquis Mata, vi. 12.
Flourens, Paris Communey vi
196.
Foix: Andrew of, Lord of
Lesparre, i. 428.
Foix, Anne de, marriage with
Wladislaus of Hungary, i. 366.
Foix, Gaston de, i. 193, 302, 309,
310; death, 313.
Foix,Grermainede: Marriage with
Ferdinand the Catholic, i. 269 ;
claims to succession in Navarre,
318.
Foix, Thomas of, Marshal of
Lescun, L 432.
Fokchany Congress, iv. 382.
Fontaine oleau : Assembly of
Notables (1560), ii 318 ; (1626),
iii. 242.
Fontenelle, French writer, v. 16.
Fonseca, Antonio de, i 222, 223,
423.
Ford, Admiral, v. 200.
Fo^acz, Count, Commandant of
Neuhftusel, iv. 6.
Foscarini, ProvetUtare of Verona,
V. 22L
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
288
MODEBN EUBOPE
Fonch^: Lyons atrocities, v. 139;
Chief of Police in Paris, 305,
308,528.
Fonlon, Minister, execution, v.
40.
Fonqn^, General, Prussian com-
mand, iv. 337.
Fouquier, Tinville, v. 132.
Foumier, leader of September
Massacres, v. 92.
Fourqnenx, Ck>ntroller, iv. 463.
Fox, English ambassador at
Orvieto, ii 42.
Fox, Charles James, iv. 466; v.
381 ; death, 381.
Foy, General, vi. 26.
France: Armagnacs and Bur^n-
dians, i 68 ; expulsion of Eng-
lish, 68, 73; regency of the
Duke of Bedford, 69 ; state of
France after civil wars, 74;
mercantile and military i>ro-
gress, 75 ; contest between king
and feudal nobility, 76, 77;
army, organization, etc., 76,
309, 310, 356, 358, note; Pra-
auerie: want of centralization,
78 ; consolidation of the mon-
archy, 79; establishment of
posts, 131 ; civil war under
Louis XI., 131; constitution,
134; aggrandisement, 169; Eng-
lish invasions, 180, 181, 348,443,
457; annexation of Brittany,
351 ; alliance with England,
352; influence of women in
politics, 355, 436 ; Concordat of
1516, 362, 363; Pragmatic Sanc-
tion of Bourg|es, .^ ; Austrian
and French rivalry, 434 ; refor-
mation, ii. 4, 5, 315 ; trade and
commerce, 43, 198; termination
of Italian wars, 48 ; army, 116;
invasion by Charles V., 122;
English invasion, 165; religious
persecutions, 128, 135, 171,227,
252, 334 ; anarchy and malad-
ministration, 174, 458 ; Austro-
French struggle for supremacy,
179 ; state of prairties, 231, 316,
480 ; Calvinistic tendencies of
reformation, 311 ; attempted es-
tablishment of Inquisition, 312,
318 ; Guise designs — Protestant
petition, 319; Poise^ Confer-
ence, 330, 331 ; Edict of January ,
332 ; wars of religion, 337, 357,
450, 456, 458; war against
England, 344; organization of
marine, 381 ; vacillating policy,
382 ; colonization schemes, 381,
382; St. Bartholomew Mas-
sacres, 388, 390, 391 ; dtizen
class support of Reformation,
451 ; royal edict, 455 ; scheme
of Republic for Guienne, and
Langnedoc, 456 ; Prise cTarmes
du nutrdi ffras, 457 ; royal suc-
cession. Catholic League, etc.
462, 463 ; decrease of Protes
tantism, 478; Edict of Nemours,
481 ; wars of religion, iii. 42,
232, 358, 363 ; Council of Union,
60; pretenders to the crown,
65 ; Edict of Nantes, 74 ; Span
ish invasion, 78 ; reforms amon^
religious oiders, 101 ; opposi-
tion to Jesuits, 104; GaiBcan
Church, statistics, 105; internal
communication, etc., 119; want
of centralization, 120, 121;
nobmty, 121, 122, 174, 199;
DttchS-pairie created, 121 ; trade
and commerce, 118, 126 ; colon-
ization, 130; Marquisate of
Saluzzo, dispute, 134; recap-
ture of Valtellina, 237 ; Riche-
lieu's reforms, 246 ; English in-
vasion, 248 ; fall of La Rochelle,
251 ; extinction of Huguenots as
a political party, 270 ; Mantuan
Succession Question, 270; an-
nexation of Alsace and Lor-
raine, 297, 441 ; Spanish Nether-
lands partition project, 299;
war against Spain, 301, 368,
434 ; Imperialist invasion, 304;
treaty with Catalonia, 315,
conspiracy of Cinq-Mars, 323;
alliance with Sweden, 335:
Thirty Years' War, 339; German
cessions, 350 ; leading European
Power, 353; anarchy and revolt,
359, ^2; persecution of the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX
Vaudois; treaties with England,
376, 377 ; Rhenish League, 383 ;
war agamst England, 430 ; war
against Holland, 447 ; coalition
against, 453 ; Chambres Boyales
de Biunion, iv. 31 ; revocation
of Edict of Nantes, 41 ; English
declaration of war, 54; condi-
tion of, after wars of Louis
XIV., 61 ; declaration of war
against Grand Alliance, 84;
distress in, 101 ; deaths of Dau-
phin and Duke of Burgundy,
108 ; -treaties with foreign pow-
ers, 111, 159, 222, 261, 314, 345;
a^e of Louis XIV., 166 ; estab-
lishment of academies, 169;
nationality and strength, 174 ;
French East India Co., 185;
regency of Duke of Orleans,
204; financial condition, 205;
foreign policy, 206 ; Triple Alli-
ance, 208; Quadruple Alliance,
213 ; war against Spain, 214 ;
attacks on reli^ous freedom,
216; guarantee of German Prag-
matic Sanction, 233; invasion
of Austria, 265 ; anarchy, 279 ;
campaign in Flanders, 295, 299;
effects of Austrian Succession
War, 306 ; Parliaments of Paris
and provinces, 322, 429, 440,
464; decline of pjolitical influ-
ence, 427 ; annexation of Corsica,
428; Triumvirate Government,
439 ; financial reforms, 441 ; war
with England, 445; Compte
Benduy 461 ; revolution, 465,
467; Etais Gin^aux, assump*
tion of title of National Assem-
bly, 467 ; nature and causes of
French Revolution, v. 3, 27;
misery in agricultural districts,
etc. , 6, 7, 9 ; army, 6 note, 6, 35,
495, 512 ; trade and commerce,
8 ; Bourgeoisie, taxation, eccle-
siastical system, etc., 8, 9, 11 ;
royal prerogative, 9; govern-
ment centralization, omce of
IMmdants, 12 ; Physiocmcy or
Government of Nature, 13;
economists, 14 ; the new philo-
VI.
sophy, 15 ; growth of Atheism,
16, 19 ; literary censorship, 24 ;
prophecies of Kevolution, 25, 26
note ; degradation of monarchy,
26; effect of American revolt,
27 ; National Assembly of 1789,
28, 33, and note, 34, 35, 45, 46,
64, 68 ; sovereignty of the mob,
etc. , 28, 37 ; national representa-
tives, 29; comparison with
English revolution, 29; effects
of the revolution, 30 ; National
Guard, creation, 37, 188; cap-
ture of the Bastille, 38 ; emigra-
tion of nobles, 40; provincial
massacres, 41 ; Constituent As-
sembly, 42, 70 ; Jacobin Club,
50, 187 ; club of 1789, 62 ; finan-
cial scheme, 63; abolition of
tithes, 54 ; abolition of Parlia-
ments, 56 ; civil constitution of
clergy, 58 ; foreign intervention,
59 ; act of the constitution, 68;
Republican party, 65 ; Cluhdes
FeuillantSy 65, 66 ; massacre of
the Champ de Mars, 66; atti-
tude of European courts, 66;
acquisition of Avignon and
Venaissin, 69 ; self-denyfai^ or-
dinance, 70 ; National Legisla-
tive Assembly, 71, 76, 82, 84,
87, 88 ; decree against emigra-
tion, 72; Girondist ministry,
74; war against Austria, 75;
Feuillants and CHrondists, 76 ;
insurrection of 20 June, 1792,
77; Federal Volunteer camp at
Soissons, 80 ; Montcbgns insur-
rection, 82; attack on Tnileries,
86; National Convention, 88-
96, 97, 99, 104, 108, 110, 116,
117, 119, 123, 149, 188, 208;
Commune, 88, 119, 147, 186;
Prussian invasion, 90 ; perma-
nent guillotine, 89 ; Septcnnber
massacres, 91 ; Prussian retreat,
95; imprisonment of royal
family, 100; murder of Louis
XVI, : European opinion, 104 ;
La Vendue insurrections, 112,
136,203; revolutionary tribunal,
113, 130, 132, 160, 189; Comite
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODERN EUROPE
du ScUut Public and ComiU de
SHreU G6MraU, 117, 128, 146,
147, 148, 150 ; Girondist major-
ity in the provinces, 120 ; Cen-
tral Club, 121; downfall of
Gironde, 123; Constitution of
1793 (An I.), 125; Spanish in-
vasion, 127 ; Reign of Terror,
131, 158 ; Loides Suspects, 132 ;
execution of CrirondistSy 133;
Republican calendar, 134; wor-
ship of reason, 135 ; atrocities
and massacres, 139; Spanish
successes, 144, 198; Bepiiblican
factions, 145, 146 ; Farti Ther-
michrient 186; counter-revolu-
tion, 187, 189; rising of 21st
Prairial, 188 ; campaign aeainst
Allies, 190; invasion of Holland,
195 ; peace with Prussia, 197,
226 ; Piedmont campaign, 199;
disorganization in government,
200; attempts toisoiate Austria,
201 ; peace with Spain, 202, 233;
rising in Brittany, 203 ; new
constitution, 205 ; foreign affairs,
209 ; colonial losses, 210 ; mili-
tary tendency of Directory, 212,
214; Directory, 234, 250, 255,
256, 289, 290, 295, 305; reac-
tionary movements, 248 ; Press
censorship, 261 ; results of first
Continental war, 255 ; war with
Austria, 256; acquisition of
Austrian Netherlands, 256 ; dis-
pute with United States, 271 ;
with Austria, 274; failure of
English attacks, 279; second
European coalition, 284, 290,
309 ; annexation of Piedmont,
287 ; changes in ministry, 295 ;
establishment of Consular Gov-
ernment, 306; *< Constitution of
the year VIIL,'' 307 ; Napoleon
as first Consul, 308 ; armed neu-
trality, 317 ; treaty with Russia,
324; peace with Turkey, 326;
revolution of 16 Therm%(Ur, 331 ;
establishment of Court of Cas-
sation, 331: institution of
L^on of Honour, 331 ; oon-
scnption, 332; restoration of
church, 332; return of emi-
grants, 333; educational re-
forms, 333; defensive alliance
with Switzerland, 340; war
with England, 344 ; ditemis of
Verdun, 345; Enipire declared,
351 ; Marshals of^the Empire,
352 ; Russian ultimatum, 354 ;
abolition of Tribunate, 385;
Peace of Tilsit, 405; secret
articles, 407; Continental sys-
tem, 408 ; absolute supremacv
of Napoleon, 4S^ ; relations witn
Spain, 423, 426 ; Austrian mani-
festo, 451 ; war with Russia,
485 ; invasion of Allies, 513, 517 ;
resignation of crown by Napo-
leon, 516; evacuation by Alhes,
518; new constitution under
Louis XVIII., 518 ; Napoleon's
return, 527; Champ de Mai,
528 ; Provisional Executive
Commission, 531 ; Chamber of
Deputies, election, vi. 4 ; allied
armies in France, 4; adoption
of principles of European Fent-
archy, 7; re-establishment of
Jesuits, 2Q; dissolution of Na-
tional Guard, 26; Press Law
Reforms, 26; <^dinanoes of
July, 37 ; Press censorship, 37,
106; Orleans ministry^ 41;
declaration of Louis Philippe,
44; Republican demonstrations,
56; laws of September, 57;
census riots, 64 ; policy of En-
tente Cardiale, 65; disturbances,
74 ; revolution of 1848 : escape
of royal family, 77; Second
Republic, 79; National Assem-
bly , 80 ; revision of constitution,
106 ; coup cPetat, 108 ; Empire
re-established under Ni^[M>leon
IIL, 110; Crimean War, 118,
121 ; treaty with Turkey, 119 ;
annexation of Nice and Savoy,
142; secret treaty with Brufisia,
167; growth of anti-imperial-
ist feeling, 191; armyrdorms,
191, 201 ; war against Pnusia,
192 ; fall of Second Emmre, es-
tablishment of Republfe, 196;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
291
reforms and reorganizatdon, 200;
monarchical party, 202; Sep-
UnmU institnted, 202; Parlia-
mentary Republic, 203; un-
popularity of National Assem-
bly, 204; isolation in Europe,
206; Tunis protectorate, 220;
Boulanger agitation, 224 ; colon-
ial expansion policy, 225; treaty
with Italy, 226; Franco-Russian
alliance, 227; Anglo-French
(colonial) Ck>nyention, 233.
Franche-Comt^ : Ravages by
French troops, i. 149 ; union
with France, 162 ; French ex-
pedition, 165 ; iii. 433 ; restora-
tion to Spain, 437; final ac-
quisition by France, 456; Be-
Sanson Chambre de lUunion
Adjudication, iv. 32.
Francia, Dictator of Paraguay,
vi. 11 note,
Francis, Dauphin, death^ iL 122.
Francis XL, Duke of Bnttany, i.
127, 128; Liaue du Bien Fullie,
130 ; quarrel with Duke of Nor-
mandy, 135; truce with Louis
XL, 149; death, 175.
FrandsV. , Duke of Modena, vi. 58.
Francis L, Emperor: Duke of
Lorraine, iv. 230; Austrian
command, 242; marriage with
Maria Theresa, 248; election to
imperial throne, 295; death and
character, 388.
Francis II., Emperor: Acces-
fflon, iv. 424; Austrian succes-
sion, V. 74; coronation, 79;
meeting with King of Prussia,
81 ; secret military convention,
261 ; indemnification of German
Princes, 334, 337; hereditary
Emperor of Austria, 355 ; Third
Coalition, 363; bivouac of Saro-
schutz, 378; resienatioB of im-
perial crown ana government,
390; Ck>ntinental System, 458;
alliancewith Napoleon I., 481 ;
death, vi 83.
Francis I.. King of France:
Count 01 Angcraldme, i. 268;
marriagewith Claude of France,
274; accession, 354; Italian
campaigns, 355, 356, 357, 465;
ii 40, 41 ; treaties and allianoes
with foreign powers, i 356;
361, 363, 379 ; li. 72, 102, 106,
109, 110, 130, 161, 226 ; order
of knighthood, i. 360 ; Camp of
the Cloth of Gold, 385 ; rivaby
with Charles V., 426; excom-
munication, 434; defeat and
captivity, 469, 470; ii. 8, 9 ;
return to France, 13 ; treaty of
Madrid, 14, 15, 18, 19; challenge
and refusal to fight, 46; re-
nimciation of Italian claims, 47 ;
marriage with Eleanor of Aus-
tria, 49; marriageof Henry of Or-
leans and Catharine de' Medid,
111 ; negotiations with German
Princes, 1 16 ; invasion of Savoy,
120; admission to League of
Smalkald, 127; persecution of
Protestants, 128, 135; change
of policy, 135 ; murder of am-
bassadors in Italy, 154; war
with Charles V., 155; persecu-
tion of Vaudois, 172; mvasion
of England, 175; death and
character, 228.
Francis II. , Kin^ of France:
Marriage with Mary Stuart,
Queen of Scots, ii 301; acces-
sion, 314; death, 325.
Frands I., King of Naples:
Grovemment, vi. 19 ; death, 60.
Francis II. , Kingof Naples: Acces-
sion, vi. 143:; loss of kingdom,
145.
Francis Joseph I. Emperor of
Austria: Accession, vL 98;
Convention of Gastein, 172;
coronation at Buda, 184 ; Drei-
kaiserhund, 207 ; alliance with
Germany, 220; difficulties of
governing Austro-Hungarian
Kingdom, 240.
Frandscans, Friars Minor, i. 388.
Franco-German War, vi. 192.
'* Franco-GaUia," ii. 456.
Fransepani, Gregory, iL 152.
Franxenbei^) Carainal, Areh-
Inshop of Mechlin, iv. 417, 418.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
292
MODERN ETJROPE
fVankfurt : Diet, iii 88 ; erection
into Grand Duchy, v. 466;
Declaration of Frankfurt, 508 ;
riots, vi. 96.
Franklin, Dr., American Envoy
to France, iv. 444.
Frategchi, political followers of
Savonarola, i. 228.
Frederick VIII., Duke of Aueus-
tenburjj^ : Proclamation in Hoi-
stein VI. 165; proclamation in
Schleswig, 168.
Frederick III., Elector of Bran-
denburg {gee Frederick I., King
of Prussia).
Frederick II., Elector Palatine,
ii. 206.
Frederick III., Elector Palatine,
German Calvinist leader, ii.
348 446.
Frederick IV., Elector Palatine:
Protestant Union leader, iii.
157 ; death, 168.
Frederick V., Elector Palatine:
Marriage with Elizabeth of
England, iii. 187 ; crown of
BohemU, 195, 196; "Winter
King," 198; unpopularity^, 199;
Ban of the Empire issued
affainst, 203 ; death, 287.
Frederick III. , Elector of Saxony,
i 296, 382 ; protection of Luther,
405, 407, 412; Golden Rose,
Papal gift, 409 ; death, ii. 64.
Frederick III., £mi»eror : Corona-
tion and reign, i. 32; revolt,
88; Kingof Hungary. 96 ; Treves
interview with Cnarles the
Bold, 152; war against Bur-
gundy, 154; alliances, 157, 206 ;
expeoition against Flanders,
177 ; Podiebrad's expedition
against, 204; pilgrimage to
Rome, 205; death, 211 ; Motto,
212 note,
Frederick III., German Em-
peror, accession and death, vi.
228.
Frederick, King of Bohemia {see
Frederick V.,^lector Palatine).
Frederick I., King of Denmark,
death, iii. 221.
Frederick II., King of Denmark,
death, iii. 224.
Frederick III., Kingof Denmark:
War a^inst Sweden, iii 408,
410 ; privileges tocitizenclasses,
iv. 19; deatii, 24.
Frederick IV., King of Denmark:
Accession, iv. 30, 122 ; alliance
with Augustus II. of Poland,
150 ; invasion of Sweden, 151 ;
treaty with Sweden, 162.
Frederick V., King of Denmark,
death, iv. 410.
Frederick VI., King of Denmark,
candidate for Swedish throne,
V. 476; cession of Norway to
Sweden, 509; death, vi 84.
Frederick VII. , King of Denmark:
Accession, vi. 85 ; death, 164.
Frederick II., King of Naples:
Accession, i 232 ; expulsion of
the French, 232; negotiations
with Louis XII. , 251 ; surrender,
253 ; exile and death, 253, 254.
Frederick I., Kin^ of Prussia:
Grand Alliance, iv. 56, 57; title
of King of Prussia, 81 ; defensive
treaties, 151 ; death. 111 ; 152.
Frederick IL, King of Prussia:
Accession, iv. 250; invasion and
conquest of Silesia, 254; Con-
vention of Klein-Schnellendorf,
266 ; breach of faith to Maria
Theresa, 266, 267 ; invasion and
evacuation of Moravia, 268;
defensive alliance with England
and Holland, 270; Second Sile-
sian War, 288; poliey during
Austrian Succession War, 305,
306 ; treaty of neutrality, 313 ;
league against, 317, 319 ; truce
with Russia, 349 ; Seven Years'
War, 356; interviews with
Joseph II., 378 ; Bavarian Suc-
cession Question, 389; death,
397; conquests and administra-
tive achievements, 398.
Frederick I., Kin^ of Sweden
(Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel)
Swedish command, iv. 161
crown transferred to, 163
death, 320.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
298
Frederick, Prince Royal of Prus-
sia, vi 178, 179, 193.
Frederick Augustus I., Elector of
Saxony, King of Poland : Polish
claims, iv. 224, 227.
Frederick Augustus II., Elector
and first King of Saxony : Neu-
trality, V. 398 ; sovereignty,
402 ; death, vL 54.
Frederick Charles, Prince: Prus-
sian command, vi. 178 ; Saxon
command, 193, 194, 195.
Frederick William, Elector of
Brandenburg : Accession, iii.
322; character and policy,
400; treaties and alliances,
401, 402, 444, 452 ; iv. 24^ 25, 26,
Sovereign-Duke of Prussia,
iii. 410; S^ircdish invasion of
Brandenburg, iv. 22 ; privileges
to French Huguenot emigrants,
43 ; death, 56.
Frederick William I., King of
Prussia (Elector of Braimen-
burg) : Accession, iv. Ill, 152 ;
alliance with England and
France, 219 ; death, 250 ; char-
acter and government, 250, 251.
Frederick William II., King of
Prussia : Accession, iv. §di9 ;
declaration of Pilnitz, v. 68 ;
meeting with Francis II., 81 ;
abandonment of allies, 143 ;
acquisition of South Prussia,
168; treachery to allies, 194
and note ; peace with France,
197 ; mediation, 201 ; secret
treaty with France, 226;
death, 257.
Frederick WUliam III., King of
Prussia: Accession, v. 257 ;
neutrality, 281, 366; Memel
interview, 335 ; Thurd Coalition,
361, 374, 375; vacillating
policy, 381 ; treaty witn
France, 382; flight, 400; Bar-
tenstein Convention, 403; Tilsit
interview, 405 ; alliance with
Napoleon, 481 ; alliance with
Russia, 497 ; arrival in Paris,
515 ; death, vi. 83.
Frederick William IV., King of
Prussia : Accession, vL 83 ;
policy of yield, 88 ; constitu-
tion granted by, 98; title of
" Hereditary Emperor " de-
clined by, 103; Prussian policy,
112; transfer of government
to Prince William, 113.
Freethinkers, English school of,
iv. 201.
Fregoso, French ambassador,
ii. 154.
Fregoso, Battista, i. 117, 247.
Fregoso, Caesar, ii. 40.
Fregoso, Gian, Doge of Genoa,
i. 317, 347.
Fregoso, Octavian, Doge of
Genoa, i. 357, 432, 442.
Fregoso, Pietro, Doge of Genoa,
i. 123.
Freiherm, German Barons, i 28.
Freitag, Marshal, v. 141.
French East India Company,
iv. 185.
Frere, Mr., English minister at
Madrid, v. 356, 450.
Freron: Marseilles atrocities,
V. 139, 156.
Freycinet, Prime Minister of
fiance, vi. 205, 224.
Friant, General, v. 478.
Friesland, East, annexation by
Prussia, iv. 295.
Frimont, General, vi. 21, 59.
Fritsch, Baron von, iv. 354.
Froben, printer of Basle, iii. 107.
Frobisher, Martin, iii. 34.
Fronde: Domestic sedition in
France, iii. 354 ; oiigin of
name, 354 note ; New Fronde^
360 ; Union of Old and New
Fronde, 361, 366.
Frunsberg, George, i. 302, 386,
417, 429, 441, 467 ; u. 15, 25,
28, 62.
Fuerosy ancient Spanish customs,
vi 72.
Fuggers, German bankers and mer-
chants, ii. 73, 100 note ; 403, 404.
Fiirstenberg, Cardinal William
von, iii. &5 ; iv. 48.
Fiirstenberg, Count, i. 457, 459 ;
iL 152.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
294
MODEEN EXJEOPE
Filrstenberg, Prince, iv. 291.
FiirstmbufM, League of German
Princee, iv. 991.
Oabelle, salt tax, ii. 174, 247;
V. 11.
Gablenz, General : Prussian com-
mand in Schleswig, vi. 167;
Austrian governor of Holstein,
173, 176.
Gaeta, Thomas of, i 395.
Gaetano, Papal Legate to France,
iii 64.
Gage, General, iv. 442.
G&gem, Henry von. President of
German Isational Assembly,
vi. 96.
Gaees, Spanish General, iv. 296.
Galata (or Pera) Genoese suburb
of Constantino]^le, i. 16.
Galiotto, James, i. 158.
Galitzin, Prince, iv. 143, 376.
Gallas, Clam, Austrian command,
vi. 178, 179.
Gallas, Greneral : Imperial com-
mander, iii. 295 ; generalissimo,
323,331.
Galloway, Lord, v. 412 note,
Galway, Lord, English comman-
der, IV. 96, 98.
Gama, Vasco da, discovery of
East Indies, i. 325.
Gambetta, French Minister of
Interior, vi. 195; organization
of army of the Loire, 196 ; Pre-
sident of Chamber, 205, 224 ;
head of ministry and foreign
affairs, 206, 224.
Gambier, Admiral, commander
of English fleet, v. 412.
Gandia, John, Duke of, 1. 188.
Ganganelli, Cardinal, election to
Pontificate, iv. 437 {see also
Clement XIV.).
Gantheaume, General, v. 326.
Garat, M. French Envoy to
Naples, V. 285.
Gardie, General La, iii. 228.
Gardie, Count Magnus de la,
iv. 29.
Grardiner, English ambassador
at Orvieto, iL 42.
Garibaldi : Enrolment of Volun-
teers in Italy, vL 94; flight
into Switzerland, 96 ; escape
to Genoa, 103; command of
irregular forces, riflemen of the
Al^ 134; command of Tuscan
divisionof Military League, 140 ;
cession of Nice to France, 142 ;
conquest of Sicily, 142; disso-
lution of army : Congreee at
€renoa, 148 ; enthusiastic re-
ception in England, 149 ; com-
mand of irregular Italian forces,
185; attempt on Rome—arrest,
187; French volunteer com-
mand, 196.
Gates, American General, iv. 444,
448.
Gatinara, ii. 83 ; representative
of Charles V. at Conference of
Calais, L 432; Chancellor, ii 92;
306.
Gaudin, Emile, v. 306 ; French
Minister of Finance, 308.
Gauthier, General, French com-
mand in Tuscany, v. 293.
€relderland : Purchase by Charles
the Bold, i. 151 ; acquisition
by Archduke Philip, 265.
Gelderland, Duke of, L 164, 179,
356,370; ii. 47, 138.
Gendre, General, vi. 51.
Geneva, union with France,
V. 269.
Genga, Cardinal della, election to
Pontificate, vi 25 {see also
LeoXIL).
Genlis, capture and execution of,
ii. 435, 436.
Genoa: Factories at Constanti-
nople, i 16 ; decline of policy
and commerce in fifteenth cen-
tury, 48, 49 ; peace with Tur-
key, 87 ; annihilation of
commerce during Turkish
hostilities, 105 ; submission to
Charles VII. of France, 106;
Duke of Milan, governor of,
109 ; insurrections, 274; v. 246;
expulsion of French, i. 317,
124 ; ii. 45 ; capture by Im-
perialists, L 442 ; blockade.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
295
ii. 24, 40 ; iv. 37 ; trade-
banking, etc., iL 194 ; Friesoo
Conspiracy, 235, 236; capture
and loss by Anstrians, iv. 298 ;
conversion into Ligarian Re-
public, V. 246 ; incorporation
with France, 362; re-establish-
ment of Constitution of 1797,
Lord Bentinck's proclamation,
521 ; democratic congiess held
by Garibaldi, vL 149.
Gentili, Alberico, iv. 180.
G^oiffeux, Colonel, Spanish Royal
commander, vi. 13.
George, Duke of Saxony, i. 411;
ii. 53, 63, 68, 146.
Greorge I., King of England (and
Elector of Hanover) : Imperial
command, iv. 100; accession,
116 ; sJliances with Holland and
Germany, 207 ; alliances with
France and Prussia, 219 ; death,
221.
George II., King of England (and
Elector of Hanover): Acces-
sion, iv. 221 ; treaty of neutral-
ity, 264; defensive alliance with
Prussia and Holland, 270 ;
Anglo-German campaign, 281 ;
death, 338.
George III., Kine of England,
(and Elector of Hanover) : Ac-
cession, iv. 343; speech with
regard to hostile measures
against France, v. 107; Osna-
briick, ceded to, 338; death,
vi. 24.
George IV. , King of England (and
Elector of Hanover) : Acces-
sion, vi. 24 ; death, 43.
George, Prince of Greece, Grov-
emor of Crete, vi. 232.
George Ragotski II., Voyvode of
Transylvania, iv. 3.
George William, Elector of Brand-
enburg, death, iii. 322.
Gerard, Balthazar, accession of
William of Oranee, iii. 23.
Gerard, Marshal: Municipal Com-
mission appointment, vi. 39;
French War Minister, 39 ; com-
mand in Belgium, 50.
Gerlach, General: Kretus party
chief, vi. 112 ; death, 152.
Gerlach, General von, Danish
command, vi. 168.
Germany : Title of Roman Em-
peror, i 22 ; temporal princes,
25, 26; spiritual principalities)
qnialifications ana privileges of
electors, 27; Hanseatic League,
29; States Diets, power and
privileges, 30 ; House of Habs-
burg, 31 ; administrative re-
forms, 276, 277, 278; system
of taxation, 279 ; Lcmzknechte,
341 ; Council of Regency, 386 ;
Imperial Chamber reform, 386 ;
stateof Roman Catholic Church,
281, 392, 393, 416; Leipsic dis-
putation and other controver-
sies, 411, 412 ; Reformation, 416 ;
Diet of Spires, ii. 19 ; Reforma-
tion, Lutheranism, "Protest-
ants," etc., 19, 34, 50, 63, 67, 58,
59, 64, 65, 67, 79, 89, 94, 98, 100,
102, 126, 147, 164, 179, 206, 244,
287,348,446,479; High German
dialect established by Luther as
literary language, 53 ; Lea^e of
Landau, 54, 55 ; termination of
feudal violence, 56, 57 ; Peasant
War, 61 ; restoration of Roman
Catholicism in Hish Germany,
66 ; abolition of Catholic wor-
ship by princes and Imperial
cities, o7 ; confession at Augs-
burg, 94, 98; Confessio Tetra-
politaruiy 95, 100; League of
Bmalkald, 99,~127; Religious
Peace of Nuremberg, 102, 103 ;
Caroline ordinance — modifica-
tion of ci-iminal law, 104, 105 ;
jurisdiction in ecclesiastical mat-
ters taken from Imperial Cham-
ber, 127 ; trade and commerce
in North Germany — monopolies,
etc. , 196 ; French invasion under
Henry II. , 265 ; effects of reign
of Charles v., 291; Imperial m-
dependence of the Apostolic See
finally established, 345 ; right
of primogeniture, iii. 85 ; innu-
ence of Jesuits, 103; Protestant
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
296
MODEEN BUBOPE
Union and Catholic Lea^e, 187 ;
Edict of Bestitution, 264; effects
of the Thirty Years* War, 307,
308; defeats and losses, 338;
Peace of Westphalia— General
Amnesty, 349; constitution of
Empire, 350 ; renewal of Religi-
ous Peace, 350 ; state of, after
Peace of Westphalia, 379;
French influence, 379, 380; in-
terregnum, 382; Palatinate rav-
aged by French troops, 456;
Spanish Succession War, iv. 86,
87, 90, 91, 93, 102, 104, 106, 115;
interregnum, 106; Swedish re-
verses, 151 ; effects of Thirty
Years' War, 171 ; decline of Im-
perial authority, 172; Diets — ^loss
of importance, 173; non-encour-
agement of German literature,
173; Quadruple Alliance, 213;
Imperial election, 267 ; Armed
Neutrality, 453; literature—
classical modes discarded, spirit
of liberty, v. 178; Order of i^t«-
minati established, 179 ; cam-
paigns in, 225, 311, 452, 500,
501 ; princes of the Empire, sus-
pension of arms, 226; treachery
of Prussia, 227 ; indemnification
of princes, secularization of ec-
clesiastical property, 280, 335,
336, 337, 338 ; trade and com-
merce — blockade of Elbe and
Weser by English, 347; Con-
federation of the Rhine, 387,
388,389; "mediatized" princes,
389 ; radical changes in federa-
tive constitution, 524 ; students'
demonstration at Wartburg, vi.
23; Carlsbad resolutions, 24;
effect of French Revolution
(1830), 54; (1848), 84, 85, 86;
Vor^parlemente, 86, 89; effect
of Prussian policy, 88, 89 ; par-
liament dismissed, 104 ; federal
constitution of 1815 restored,
111 ; establishment of National-
vereiny 153 ; Heformverein, 154 ;
Schleswig-Holstein Question,
163; establishment of German
Empire under William L, 198;
Franco-German War, 192-198;
persecution of Ultramontaiiism,
KtUturkamp/\AW»y202 ; iM>Iicy
of consolidation, 206 ; amance
with Austria, 220 ; secret treaty
with Russia, 221 ; peace policy
of Bisuiarck, 228 ; colonization
in Africa, 232; occupation oi
Kiao-Chow, 237.
Grermi^y, French ambaseador to
the Forte, iiL 91.
Gerson, John, French ecclesiastic,
i. 391.
Gertruydenburg Conference* iv.
104.
Ghesali Bey, Governor of Syria* L
448.
Ghent : CueilUtte, forced re]>eal,
i. 137; insurrection against
Maximilian, 174; revolt and
downfall, ii 141, 143; pad-
fication— Netherlajids Greneral
Congress, 445 ; insurrection, iiL
10; government reformed and
re-established by William of
Orange, 13.
Ghenucci, Girolamo, Bishop of
Ascoli, i. 407.
Gherai, (Dhabaz, Khan of Tartary,
iv. 405.
Gherai, Krim, Khan of Tartary,
iv. 376.
Gherai, Sahim, Khan of Tartary,
iv. 403.
Ghevara, Don Giovanni di. Count
of Potenza, i. 254.
Ghislieri, Michele, Cardinal of
Alessandria : Election to Ponti-
ficate, ii 355 {see also Pius V.).
Giambelli, Mantuan engineer, iiL
25.
Giberto, Papal Envoy, i466.
Gibraltar, capture oy English,
iv. 92.
Gid, Marshal de, i. 257.
Ginetti, Cardinal, Papal Legate,
iii. 335.
Ginkell, General, Irish com-
mand, iv. 54.
Gioja, Flavio, L 322.
Giovio, Paolo, historian, iL 31.
Giron, Don Pedro de, L 425.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
297
GirondiBts or Brissotins, v. 05.
Giudioe, Cardinal del, Spanish
Minister for Foreign Affairs, iv.
204.
Giulay, Count : Austrian Envoy
to Napoleon I., v. 372, 377;
command in Italy, vi. 134.
Giustiniani, Antonio, i. 289.
Giustiniani, Paolo, ii. 185.
Gladstone, Mr., Chancellor of
Exchequer, vi. 119.
Glimes, Admiral, ii. 440.
Goa, Portuguese settlement, i.
336.
G5ben, General von, Prussian
command in France, vi. 197.
Godoy, Don Emanuel, v. 110;
Duke of Alcudia— supreme di-
rection of affairs in Spain, 184 ;
" Prince of Peace,**^ 203 and
note ; dismissal, 272 ; plots
against Ferdinand, Prince of
ABturias, 433 ; arrest of Ferdi-
nand, 434 ; French invasion of
Spain, 435 ; arrival at Bayonne,
Groethe, Johann Wolfgang, Ger-
man poet, views on French
revolution, v. 179.
Goignies, De, Netherlands com-
mander, iii. 7.
Goislard, iv. 465.
Golden Bull: Electors, claims
and quaMcations, i. 28 ; fun-
damental law of Holy Roman
Empire, L 340.
GomarisU, iii. 182.
Gomarus— Dutch divine, iii. 182.
Gondi, Cardinal, French Envoy,
iii. 65.
Grondomar, Spanish ambassador,
iii. 205.
Gonsalvi, Cardinal, Papal Envoy
to Congress of Vienna, v. 523.
Gonzaga, Don Ferrante, iL 122,
177, 239 ; Governor of MiLanese,
247, 252, 257.
Gonzaga, Ferdinand, ii. 84.
CU>nzaga, Frederick, Marquis of
Mantua, i. 437.
CU>nzaga, Maria, Mantuan suc-
oessiony iii. 269.
Gonzaga, Vincenzo, Duke of
Mantua and Marquis of Mont*
ferrat, death, iii 269.
Gordon, General, death of, and
fall of Khartoum, vL 226.
G5rgey, General, Hungarian
command, vi. 99, 100.
Gortschakov, Prince : Command-
in-Chief of Russian army
in Turkey, vi. 118 ; Crimean
command, 123 ; Russian mea-
sures in Poland, 169 ; Treaty of
1856, Russian repudiation of
Black Sea Clause, 198 ; accept-
ance of British demands, 216.
Gdrtz, Baron, Prussian minister
at the Hague, iv. 158, 159, 161,
397, 399.
Gorzke, General, iv. 26.
Gottingen, Dickterhund, v. 179.
Gourko, General, Russian com-
mand in Bulgaria, vL 213.
Govone, General, Italian ambas-
sador to Berlin, vi. 174.
Grower, Lord, English ambassador
to Paris, V. 104.
Graham, General: Defence of
Cadiz, V. 469 ; siege of St. Se-
bastian, 512.
Gramont, Duke of, iv. 281 ; vi.
192.
Gramont, Marshal, French diplo-
matist, iii. 380.
Granada, war against Moors in
Granada, i. 199, 200, 201, 202.
Granada, New, ii. 190.
Grand Alliance, iv. 56 ; renewal,
64; triumvirate of the coali-
tion, 81 ; dissolution, 113.
" Grand Privilege," charter
mnted to Hollanders and
ZeaJanders, L 162.
Grand Vizier, titles, i 12.
Granvelle, Antony de. Bishop of
Arras, ii 256, 301 ; iii. 13.
Granvelle, Perrenot de, Imperial
Chancellor, ii. 83, 147, 306.
Granville, Lord, protest against
action of Russia, vi. 198.
Grasse, Comte de, iv. 455.
Gratiani, Caspar, Voyvode of
Moldavia, 111.209,210.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
298
MODERN ETIROPE
Gratien, General, y. 493.
Gravaminat complaints against
Apostolic See, i. 295.
Gravel, French Envoy, iiL 456.
Graves, De, French War Minister,
V. 74.
Gravina, Admiral, Spanish com-
mand, V. 363.
Great Mollas, jadges, i. 15.
Greece : ParaJlel between Modem
Enropean and Early Grecian
History, i. 3 ; war with Turkey,
vi. 224, 231 ; independence of
Turkey, 28 ; insurrections — ^new
constitution, 29 ; recognition of
indei^endence by Russia, 31 ;
erection as kingdom, 33.
Green, General, American com-
mand, iv. 455 ; v. 357.
Gr^goire, Abb^, v. 97.
Gregorian Calendar, iii. 30.
Gregory XI., Pope, return to
Rome, i. 389.
Gregory XIII., Pope : Election to
Pontificate, iL 383 ; plots against
Elizabeth of England, 473;
Catholic League, 480 ; death, iii.
30.
Gregory XIV., Pope : Election to
Pontificate, iii. 60; assistance
to leaguers, 61 ; death, 64.
Gregory XV., Pope: Election to
Pontificate, iii. 231 ; death, 236.
Gregory XVI., Pope : Election to
Pontificate, vi. 58 ; death, 91.
Greiffenklau, Richaid von. Arch-
bishop and Elector of Treves,
ii. 55.
Gremonville, French ambassador,
iii. 442.
Grenville, Mr. Thomas, English
Envoy to Vienna, v. 193.
Grenville, Lord : Alien BiU, v.
107 ; negotiations with France,
234, 284 ; Prime Minister, 381 ;
retirement, 414 ; Foreign Secre-
tary, 425.
Gr^vy, Jules : President of French
Chamber, vi. 202 ; President of
the Republic, 205, 224.
Grey, Lady Jane, execution, ii.
Grey, Sir Edward, Under Secre-
tly for Foreign Affiiirs, v.
233.
Grijalva, Juan de, ii 189.
Grimaldi, Spanish minister, iv.
354,427.
Grisons League, iii. 230, 231, 236.
Gritti, Aloysio, ii. 72, 150, 151.
Gritti, Andrea, i. 287, 290; ii
72.
Grodno, massacre of Russians, v.
171.
Groenevelt, Arnold de. Command-
ant of Sluys, iiL 29.
Groot, Van, Dutch ambassador,
iii 446.
Groote, Pier de, i. 370.
Grosswardein, Bishop of, i 209.
Grotius, Hugo, iii. 182, 183, 184,
309; iv. 180.
Groudowitsch, General, Russian
command, v. 419.
Guadeloupe, cession to Sweden,
V. 499. ^
Guastalla, Caesar, Duke of, iiL
269.
Guasto, Marquis del, L 470 ; il
22, 23, 40, 122, 154, 162, 164.
Gudowitsch, General, iv. 425.
Gu^briant, Marshal, iiL 320, 321,
322, 323, 328, 329.
Guelfs and Ghibelins, i. 52, 53.
Guerazzi, Dictator in Florence,
vi. 102.
Gu^ronni^re, M. de la, vi. 132.
Crtterre des Amoureux, ii. 467.
Guerre duBien Public, L 131, 132,
133, 134.
Guerrero, Don Pedro, Archbishop
of Granada, iL 365.
Gueux de la Mer, iL 433, 440.
Gueitx Sauvagesy ii. 427.
Guicdardini, Commissary-Gene-
ral of Papal troops, L 432,
437.
Guienne : Expulsion of English,
L 73, 74 ; investment of Duke
of Bern, 141 ; annexation, 148 ;
occupation, 175.
Guinea, discovery of, L 324.
Guiot of Provins, i. 323.
Guise family, iL 230, 475.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
Cruise:
Antony, Dnke of Lorraine,
ii. 4.
Charles, Cardinal and Arch-
t biahop of Rheims, ii. 290.
Charles, Duke of, iiL 62.
Count of Guise, L 434, 459.
Francis, Duke of, and Count of
i Aumale, ii. 230, 273 ; desi^
on Naples, 292; Italian in-
r vasion, 295 ; Lieutenant-
General of France, 299, 317,
341 ; capture of Calais, 300 ;
Flanders campaign, 302 ;
, command of French army,
314 ; triumvirate, 328 ; mur-
der, 342.
Henry I., Duke of: Marriage
with Catharine of Cleves, li.
379; Catholic League, 459,
463, 477 ; French command,
461 ; iu. 42 ; supreme power
in Paris, 45, 46; assassina-
tion, 48.
Henry II., Duke of, preten-
sions to Naples, iii., 344, 345.
Ren6 of, Marquis d'ElbcBuf, ii.
230.
Guizot, M., journalist, vi. 35;
leader of Doctrinaires^ 36 ; Min-
ister of Public Instruction, 58 ;
French ambassador to London,
62; Foreign Minister, 64; re-
actionary policy, 75 ; dismissal,
76.
Guldberjg, Danish Cabinet Secre-
tary, w. 412, 413.
Gunpowder : Invention, L 2 ;
Moorish use of, 200 ; use of, in
mining, 342.
Guns, first mention of, i. 341.
Gurk, Cardinal of, i. 348.
Gusman, Dona Louisa de : Re-
gency, iii. 422.
Gustavus I., King of Sweden
League with Francis I., ii. 155
SwMish insurrection, iii. 216
Regency, 218; election, 218
consoliaation of power, 219,
war against LUbeckers, 221,
222 ; death. 222.
Gustavus Adolphus IL, King of
Sweden : Accession, iii 227 ;
character, 227, 228; Danish
war, 228 ; Russian war, 228 ;
marriage with Mary Eleanor
of Brandenburg, 229; Polish
War, 229 : Thirty Years* War,
265, 266, 267, 269, 273 ; death,
285 ; character, 286.
Gustavus Adolphus III. , King of
Sweden : Accession : Act of
Security, iv. 407 ; overthrow of
constitution, 407, 408 ; alliance
with Russia, v. 177 ; assassi-
nation, 74, 178.
Gustavus Adolphus IV., King of
Sweden : Accession and minor-
ity, V. 178 ; Armed Neutrality,
320 ; remonstrance against
French violation of German
territory, 354; alliance with
Alexander I., 359; recall of
troops, 375 ; war against Prus-
sia, 383 ; Bartenstein Conven-
tion, 414; arrest of Russian am-
bassador, 420 ; abdication, 422.
Guyon, Madame, iv. 200.
Guzman, Don Caspar de. Count
of Olivarez, iii. 231.
Guzman, Don Martin, ii. 290.
Gyllenborg, Swedish ambassador,
IV. 159,272.
Habardanacz, ii. 102.
Habsbur^, House of : Hereditary
possession of Imperial crown,
1. 31 ; growth of power and in-
fluence, iv. 176; Hungarian
succession— -TreatyofPresburg,
i 211 ; death of last male heir,
iv. 248.
Habsburg, Rudolf of, conquests,
Germanic crown, i. 31.
Habsburg, Lorraine, House of j
iv. 295.
Haddock, Admiral, iv. 270.
Hagenbach, Peter von, i. 167.
Haffue : First Convention of the
Hague, iii. 418; Peace Con-
gress, vi. 238.
Hailes, Mr., EngUsh minister at
Copenhagen, v. 318.
Hakluyt, Richard, iv. 186.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
800
MODERN EUROPE
Haller, French commiBsioiier.
V. 264.
Hamburg : Admission of Rus-
sians — expulsion of French
garrison, 601 ; recovery of, by
French and Danes, 503.
Hamelin, Admiral, French fleet
at entrance of Dardanelles,
vi. 118.
Hamilton, Regent of Scotland,
iL 174.
Hamilton, Lady, v. 286.
Hamilton, Sir W., English min-
ister at Naples, v. 182, 286.
Hammerlein, i 398.
Hammond, Mr. , English Envoy to
Berlin, v. 227.
Hancock. John, President of
American Congress, iv. 442.
Hanover, Alliance of, iv. 219.
Hanover: Electorate, erection as,
iv. 17; * * Correspondent Princes"
League, 18 ; Prussian occupa-
tion, V. 381, 382; vi. 178;
French occupation, v. 346 ;
Suklingen Convention, 346 ; re-
storation to England by Napo-
leon : Prussian declaration of
war, 393, 395 ; annexation by
Westphalia, 466; title of
Elector changed to King, 525 ;
succession of El-nest Augustus,
Duke of Cumberland, vi. 83.
Hansa League, North German
Commercial League, ii. 196.
Hanseatic League : Alliance of
Imperial cities, i. 29 ; trea-
ties with Louis XI. 150; de-
cline of, iii. 128 ; ravages on
Danish coast, 218 ; French
demandforloan, V. 271 ; union
with France, 466.
Harbum, William, English am-
bassador to Porte, iii. 90.
Harcourt, Comted', French Envoy
to Spain, iv. 71, 106.
Hardenberg, Count, Prussian
minister, v. 180, 201, 357, 365,
481 ; vi 20.
Hardy, Admiral, iv. 447.
Hardy, General, v. 278.
Haro, Count of, i. 425.
Harrach, Count, Grerman Envoy
to Spain, iv. 71, 80.
Harrington, Earl of, iv. 293.
Harsch, Greneral, iv. 337.
Haspin^er, Capuchin monk,
Tyrolese leader, v. 453.
Hassan, Turkish Grovernor of
Bosnia, iii. 92.
Hasselaer, Kenau, ii. 438.
Hassenpflug, Hesse Cassel min-
ister, vi 111.
Hattisherifs, Sultan's Imperial
Rescrijpts, i 1.
Hatzfeld, Imperial command,
ui 321, 332.
Hatzfeldt, Prince, Prussian Envoy
to Paris, V. 496.
Haugwitz, Count, V. 171, 180, 194;
negotiations with France, 197 ;
Prussian treachery to Grermany,
227; Prussian policy of neu-
trality, 281 ; Prussian Envoy
to Napoleon, 375, 381, 382.
Hauranne, Jean Duvergier de,
iv. 197.
Hawke, Admiial Sir E., 302, 309,
332.
Hawkesbury, Lord, Foreign Secre^
tary, v. 327, 34a.
Haynau, Count, "Hy«na of
Brescia," vi 99 ; Austrian
command in Hungary, 100.
Hayraddin Barbarossa, piracies,
ii. 116, 117, 118, 130, 131, 150,
161, 162, 165.
Hayti : Discovery of, i 332;
French expedition, vi. 61.
Hubert, Jacques, v. 120, 121, 133,
147.
H^bertistes, French Ultra-demo-
crats, V. 129, 145; extenooina-
tion, of, 146, 147.
Heemskerk, Admiral, iii. 144.
Heideck, Hans von, command
of Wurtemberg forces, ii 209.
Heiden, Admiral, vi. 33.
Heilbron, union of, iii. 287.
Heinsius, Daniel, Grand Pension-
ary of Holland, iv. 84.
Held, Imperial Chancellor, ii.
145.
H^lian, French Envoy, i 295.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX
301
Heligoland, cession to Gennany,
vi. 233.
Hell, Rudolf, i. 430.
Helvetic Republic, Switzerland
proclaimed as, v. 288.
Henri, Jacques, Mayor of La
Roehelle, ii. 452.
Henrietta Maria of France, mar-
riage inth Charles, Prince of
Wales, in. 234, 238.
Henriot Francis, Revolutionist,
V. 121, 123, 147, 166.
Henriquez, Pedro, Count of
Fuentes, iii. 77, 78, 79.
Henry, Cardinal, King of Portu-
gal, ii. 471.
Henry IV., King of Castile : Suc-
cession, i 68 ; deposition, 190 ;
Joanna, daughter, affianoed to
Duke of Guienne, 194 ; death,
195.
Henry IV., King of England
heresy made capital offence, i
390.
Henry V., King of England
French crown acquisition, i. 68
death of, 69.
Henry VI., King of England
Coronation at Paris, i. 70 ; re
storation to the throne, 145
death, 146.
Henry VII., King of England .
Accession, i. 171, 172 ; Arcnduke
Philip, detention in England,
270 ; maritime discoveries dur
ing reign, 337 ; English army
sent to assistance ox Brittany,
176; Expedition against France,
180, 181.
Henry VIIl., King of England
Marriage with Catharine of
Aragpn, L 270 ; accession, 293 ;
treaties and alliances with
foreign powers, 293, 352, 353,
364, 379 ; ii. 109, 110, 168, 226 ;
Holv L^ue, i 306 ; title of
** Most Qiristian " conferred
on, by Julius II., 321 ; war
with France, 348, 349, 442.
443; Camp of the Cloth of
Gold, 386 ; <' Defender of the
Faith, 434; Mediation between
Francis I. and Charles V.,
429; change of policy: balance
of power in Europe, ii. 5 ;
negotiations with France, 7 ;
renewals of French claims, 6 ;
renunciation of French claims,
37, 38; divorce from Catha-
rine of Aragon, 110, 112, 114,
116; marriage with Anne
Boleyn, ii. Ill ; matrimonisd
projects after execution of
Anne Boleyn, 136 ; marriage
with Anne of Cleves, 138, 139 ;
defence of England against ex-
pected attack b^ Francis I., 138 ;
change of policy in regard to
Scotland, 158; invasion of
France, 165 ; death, 226.
Henry II., King of France:
Marriage with Catharine de'
Medici, ii. Ill ; accession,
228 ; council, 229 ; coronation,
232 ; conspiracies in Italy
against Charles V., 247; war
with England, 261 ; .Ajiglo-
French alliance against Charles
v., 256;, opposition to Julius
III. and iDouncil of Trent, 269 ;
negotiations with Lutheran
Princes, 259 ; treaty with
Maurice of Saxony, 260 ; Italian
campaign, 267; invasion of
Naples, 274, 275 ; Netherlands
invasion, 281 ; treaty with
Paul IV., 293; religious per-
secutions, 311 ; death, 314.
Henry III., King of France:
lieutenant-General, 359 ; elecr
tion to Polish crown, 464 ; ac-
cession, 467, 458; character, 457,
468; coronation at Rheims,
458 ; marriage with Louise of
Lorraine, 458 ; deposition by
thePoles, 460 ; Catholic League,
464; court and extravagance,
466 ; conspiracies against,
iii. 44 ; truce with Huguenots :
excommunication, 61 ; assas-
sination, 52.
Hennr IV., King of France:
i. ^ ; marriage with Mar-
garet of Valois, Duchess of
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
S02
MODEEN ETJEOPE
Alenpon, ii 21 ; Hngaenot
chief, 361 ; King of Navarre,
380; marriage with Margaiet
of Valois, 380, 385 ; conversion
to Roman Catholicism, 451 ;
escape from French Court, 461 ;
Peace of Monsieur, 462 ; Hu-
guenot successes, 465 ; help
n-om England and German
Princes : Declarations, iii, 41 ;
Protector of the Evangelical
Churdi, 60 ; accession, 53 ;
character, 55; Elizabeth of
England, money and men sent
in aid of, 56 ; re-conversion to
Roman Catholicism : abjura-
tion at St. Denis, 68 ; corona-
tion at Chartres, 69; attempted
assassination of, 71 ; recon-
ciliation with the Pope, 72;
alliance with Elizabeth, 79;
Governors of Provinces : want
of centralization in France,
120, 121 ; foreign policy, 133,
147 ; divorce from Margaj^t of
Valois, 134; marriage with
Mary de' Medici, 134, 137 ; con-
spiracy against, 136 ; Savoy
campaign : conditions of peace,
136 ; Cmstian Republic scneme,
137, 138 ; Italy, scheme for de-
struction of Spanish domina-
tion, 149 ; Gennan Protestant
Princes appeal for help, 160;
treaty witn Protestant Union,
161 ; Thirty Years* War, 163 ;
assassination, 164; character,
164.
Henry "the Navigator," mari-
time discoveries, i. 323, 324.
Henry the Pious, Duke of Alber-
tine Saxony, iL 146, 147.
Herbert, Lord, L 348.
Herbois, Collot d', v. 131 ; Lyons
atrocities, 139 ; attempted as-
sassination, 152; resignation,
186; trial and transportation,
187, 188.
Hermandad : Organization of, in
Valencia, L 384 ; Valencia in-
surrections, 426.
Herring fisheries: French and
Netherlands vessels engaged in,
433 ; Amsterdam, ii 197.
Herwarth, General, Prussian
command, vi. 178, 179.
Herzegovina, revolt against
Turks, vi 207.
Hesse : Frederick, Landgrave of
Hesse : Marriage with Grand
Duchess Alexander of Russia,
84 ; Hermann, Landgrave of
Hesse, i 153 ; Philip, Landgrave
of Hesse, 419 ; ii 67, 68, ^, 87,
90, 91, 96, 100, 104, 126, 127,
149, 159, 207, 209, 210, 221, 222,
223, 224, 254, 261, 262, 272.
Hesse, Philippsthal, Ftince of,
V. 384.
JETe^eratoe, Greek secret societies,
vi. 29.
Hidalgos, nobles of Spain, iii
112.
Hildburghausen, Imperial com-
mand, iv. 327.
Hill, General, si^ge of Pamp-
lona, V. 512.
Hiller, General, Aufitrian com-
mand, V. 453, 510.
HUliers, General Baraguay d',
V. 240; French conunand in
Baltic, vi 122.
Hobart, Lord, War. Minister,
V.327.
Hoche, General, v. 144, 204,236;
support of the triumvirs, 248.
Hodfipson, General, iv. 344.
Hocks, Flemish ariJstocratie party,
i 167 and note.
Hofer, Andreas, Tyrolese leader,
V. 453 ; execution, 459.
Hohenlohe, Count, Lientenant-
General to Maurice of Nassau,
iii 24 ; Thirty Years' War, 20^
Hohenlohe, Prince : Austrian
command, v. 81 ; invasion of
Saxony, 395; Prussian com-
mand, 397 ; surrender to Mv-
rat at Prrazlau, 399.
Hohenlohe • higelfingen. Prince,
Prussian Prime Minister* vi 153.
Hohenzollem, House of, L 25.
Hohenzollern • Sigmarinffen,
Prince, Prussian Prime Min-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
ister, vi. 152, 163 ; Spanish
crown offered to— withdrawal
of acceptance, 190, 192.
Holbach, German Baron, £n-
cvdopsedistB, v. 20.
Holbein, Hans, L 398.
HoldemesB, Earl of, iv. 343.
Hoik, Baron, Danish minister,
iv. 410.
Holland ; Union of Utrecht, iii. II ;
rennndation of allegiance to
Philip II. of Spain, 15 ; Act of
Abjuration, 16; Holland and
Zealand : Sovereignty offered
to William of Oranee, 17 ; ac-
cepted, 22; groww of trade
and commerce, 128, 129;
colonization, 129, 130; pro-
sperity — ^navy, etc,, 140 ; close
of War of Independence, 147;
Sowers and constitution of
tates-General, 182, 183 ; (?om-
arists and ArminianSt 182, 183 ;
treaties and alliances, 299, 342,
346, 430, 445 ; iv. 103, 112, 113,
207, 222, 270, 396, 400, 460;
V. 196; recognition of United
Provinces as nree and sovereign
States by Spain, iii. 346 ; hos-
tility to English Commonwealth
government, 370; revolution:
tadholdership left vacant, 371;
war with England, 372, 373;
war with Portugal, 423 ; con-
dition of army and navy, 446 ;
war with England, 428 ; war
against England and France,
447 ; demands of France and
England, 448, 451 ; revolution
in, 450 ; evacuation by French,
454; Peace with England, 455 ;
Dutch East India trade, iv. 188;
Triple Alliance, 208 ; Quad-
ruple Alliance, 213 ; state of,
300 ; decline in trade and com-
merce, 301 ; Scheldt navuA-
tion^isputes with Joseph II.,
395 ^ puty dissensions, 396;
revolution : influence of
France, 397 ; Prussian invasion :
Restoration of Stadholder,
William, v. 399 ; Armed Neu-
trality, 453; rupture with
England, 453 ; campaign
against France, v. 190, 195;
I&volution, 196 ; abolition of
Stadholderate: establishment of
Batavian Republic, 196; Eng-
lish descent in, 299; ^ure,
300 ; new constitution in imi-
tation of French consulate, 341 ;
arrest of English subjects by
order of Napoleon, 345 ; recon-
stitution as kingdom under
Louis Bonaparte, 386; distress
in, 464 ; French occupation,
465; union with France by
Senatus-eansulte, 466 ; rising
against French; Proclamation
of King William I., 509; an-
nexation of Belmum, 520,525,
Holmes, Admirm Sir Robert,
iii. 447.
Holstein: Erection into Duchy,
213; federal execution: breach
of Treaty of London, vL 165.
Holstein, Frederick, Duke of.
King of Denmark, iii 218.
Holstem-Gottorp :
Adolphus Frederick of, election
to Swedish throne, iv. 278.
Christian Albert, Dukeof , iv. 24.
Frederick, Duke of, iv. 121.
Charles Frederick, '?Duke of, iv.
161.
Charles Peter Ulric, Duke of,
iv. 277.
Holy League (1511), L 306; (1526),
ii. 18.
Holy League and Holy War
against Turks, iv. 10, 16, 17.
Holy League of Nuremberg,
ii. 146.
Holy Roman Empire, dissolution,
V. 387, 390.
Holzer, Wol^;ang, Austrianinsur-
rection, seizure of Vienna, i. 96.
Hompesch, Baron, Grand Master
of Slights of Malta, v. 276.
Honorius IIL, Pope, L 388.
Hont, De, Bmsseu merchant, iv.
401.
Howoeds^ Hungarian National
troops, vi. 97.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
804
MODERN EXJEOPE
Hood, Admiral, v. 137, 138, 139,
367.
Hoogstraaten, Dominican, i 406.
Hoogstraten, Count, il 428.
Horn, Admiral, iv. 26, 27.
Horn, Count, ii. 408, 410 ; arrest,
426 ; indictment and execution,
480, 431.
Horn, Count Arred, iv. 272.
Horn, Field Marshal, Grovemor
of Livonia, iv. 26.
Hornby, Admiral, vi. 213, 216.
Hotse, Austrian General, v. 291,
297.
Houehard, Greneral: French com-
mand on the Rhine, v. 127 ;
command of French army in
the north, 141.
Houtman, Cornelius, iii. 129.
Howe, Admiral Lord, iv. 332,
446, 466 ; V. 200.
Howe, General, iv. 442, 444.
Howardj Lord Thomas, iii. 81.
Howard, Sir Edward, English
admiral, i. 348.
Howick, Lord, Foreign Minister,
V. 394.
Hiibner, Monsieur, Austrian am-
bassador to Paris, vi 131.
Hudson's Bay, discovery of,
i. 337.
Huescar, Due de, iv. 339.
Huguenots, derivation of name,
ii. 316 ; position at the time of
Edict of Nantes, iii. 106 j revo-
cation of Edict of Nantes, iv. 41;
emigration, 43.
Hugonet, Chancellor to Mary of
Burgundy, i. 162, 163.
Humann, Monsieur, French
Finance Minister, vi. 64.
Humbercourt, Sir d', i. 368, 162,
163.
Humbert, General, French expe-
dition to Ireland, v. 278.
Humi^res, Baron d'. Governor of
Pironne, ii. 462.
Humi^s, Marshal d'. iv. 36;
. ' French commandin theNetiker-
lands, 67.
Huneary: Albert IL recognized
as King, i. 36 ; office of Pala-
tine, 37 ; weakness of consti-
tution under Albert, iL 37, 38 ;
regency of John ol Honyad,
40 ; claimants to the throne on
the death of Ladislans Post-
umus, 94, 96; coronation (A
Matthias Corvinus, 95 ; ** Per-
petual Peace'* with Bohemia
and Poland, 207 ; Hungarian
Palatine, power sjid dignity
settled by law, 208 ; Hahsbuig
succession : Treaty of Presburg,
211 ; cavalry employed in war-
fare, numbers, 342; poverty
and barbarism of country, 376;
state of, under Louis II., ii. 70,
71, 72 ; Turkish invasions, i. 89,
100, 448, 449 ; ii. 70, 73, 74, 75,
79, 106, 107, 161, 162, 153, 270,
271, 369; war in, ii 346;
Turkish-Hungarian War, iii. 89,
92; Act .of Confederation, 153;
treaty between Rodolph II.
and Archduke Matthias, 154;
Tekeli*s revolt, iv. 7 ; recovery
hy Austria, 11 ; ancient con-
stitution abolished, 12 : insur-
rection, 88, 92; unpopularity
of Joseph XL's admmistrative
measures, 394 ; effect of French
Revolution, vi. 66 ; Magyar
language: Kossuth's influence,
etc. , 84 ; effect of French Revo-
lution, 87 ; reduction by Aus-
tria, 99 ; demands of constitu-
tional party, 161, 162 ; suspen-
sion of Imperial constitution,
173 ; constitutional indepen-
dence granted to, 184.
Hunyad, Count of, John Cor-
vinus, i. 208,
Hunyad, House of, i. 18.
Hunyad, John of: Founder of
House of Hunyad, i. 18 ; cam-
paigns against the Turks, Vasay
victory, 18, 19; crusade, 20;
Captam-general of Hungary,
21 ; appomtment to Regency,
21, 40; successes against
Turks, 89 ; siege of Belgrade,
rout of Turkish army, 92 ; death
at 8emlin, 92.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
305
Hiu»» John, Bohemian reformer,
L 36 ; Reformation : scriptures,
standard of faith, 390, 391;
death by burning, 391.
Hussars, origin of name, i. 97 note.
Hussein Avni, vL 209.
Hussein Bey, Dey, vL 36.
Hussein Pasha, vi. 62.
Hutchinson, GeneraJ, English
command in Egypt, v. 326.
Hutten, Ubich von, L 378, 399,
412,414,418; ii. 67.
Huxdiles, Marshal d', French
plenipotentiary, iv. 107.
Hyder Ally of Mysore, iv. 446.
Hyndford, Lord, English ambas-
sador at Vienna, iv. 260.
Ibrahim, Grand Vizier of Turkey,
vi. 32, 62, 63.
Ibrahim Bey, Mamaluke leader,
V. 277.
Ibrahim, Pasha of Buda, iv. 8.
Ibrahim Pasha, Grand Vizier of
Turkey, ii 71, 80, 103, 130, 150,
151 ; iu. 94, 95.
Ibrahim, Sultan of Turkey : Ac-
cession, ill 333, 334; deposition
and death, 334.
Igelstrdm, General, Russian am-
bassador, V. 169, 170, 171.
Ignatiev, Count, Russian ambass-
ador, vL 209, 210, 212, 215.
Imbize, noble of Ghent, iii. 10.
Imola, Count of, i. 183, 184.
India : Portuguese settlement at
Goa, i. 336 ; restoration of Pon-
dicherry to French East India
Company, iv. 66; English acqui-
dtionsand growth of power, 185;
French conquests, 19^; English
conquests, 193; Anglo-French
hostilities, 302, 446 ; v. 145.
Infantado, Duke of, v. 432, 438 ;
vi. 14, 16.
Innocent VIII. , Pope : Character
and policy, 184, 185; death, 187.
Innocent IX., Pope, election and
death, iii 64.
Innocent X., Pope: Election, iii
341 ; Bull an .filing treaties of
Westphalia, 352.
VI. 3
Innocent XI., Pope: Gallican
Church dispute, iv. 43; Cologne
Electorate Question, 48, 49;
quarrel with Louis XIV., 50;
excommunication of Parliament
of Paris, 51 ; death, 56.
Innocent XII., Pope, election to
Pontificate, iv. 62.
Inquisition : Establishment at
Rome, ii 187 ; Neanolitan re-
volt against, 236 ; Portuguese
Inquisition, 469; extermination
of TiUtheranism in Spain, iii.
108.
Interim, ii. 240, 241, 242, 245, 246.
International Policy and Law:
Growth of system, i 3 ; effect
of Italian wars, 337 ; Francis I.
and the Turkish Alliance, ii.
163 ; maritime law, 200, 201 ;
growth and progress, iv. 178;
murder of Frendi plenipoten-
tiaries, V. 293 ; D6temis ae Ver-
dun, 345; French invasion of
Empire, 346; murder of Due
d'Enghien, 350; Sweden: ar-
rest of ambassador, 420.
Invincible Armada, iii. 35.
Ionian Isles Republic, v. 328.
Ireland: Papal plots against
Elizabeth, u. 473; support of
James II., iv. 54 ; pacincation
of Limerick, 54 ; Fi*ench expedi-
tion, V. 236.
Isabella, Clara Eugenia, Infanta
of Si>ain : Netherlands oath of
allegiance, iii. 84; marriage
with Archduke Albert, 139;
death, 299.
Isabella, Donna, Regency of Por-
tugal, vi 68.
Isabella of Aragon, marriage
with the Duke of Milan, i 188.
Isabella of Portugal: Marriage
with Charles V., ii. 20 ; death,
20.
Isabella of Spain, marriage with
Emanuel of Portugal, i 234.
Isabella I., Queen of Spain, i 190;
marriage with Ferdinand of Ara-
gon, 191,494; succession, 195,
196; death, 265; character, 266.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
806
MODERN SUBOPE
IiabeUAlI.,Qiie6nolSpaiii: Oftth
to the Constitiitioii, vL 73;
regency of Queen Christina, 66,
67.
Iikander Pasha, Governor of Silis-
tria,m. 209.
Ismail Pasha, iv. 13.
Ismail Shah, i. 448.
Ismailhoff, iv. 361.
Isnard, Prendent of National As-
sembly, V. 120.
IstnritK, Francisco Xavier de,
Prime Minister of Spain, vi 73.
Italian Republics, i. 45.
Italian ware, international law a
result of, L 337.
ItalT: French invasion; openuiff
of modem history, i. 4 ; Turkish
invasions, 103, 119; leagues of
North and South Italy, 114;
French and German campaigns
in Northern Italy, i 295, 357,
366, 367 ; unpopularity of French
rule, i 435 ; Reformation, ii. 39 ;
iii 107 note ; French invasions,
ii 40, 282, 283, 295 ; pacification,
85 ; decline, 202 ; conspiracies
affainst Charles v., 247; Inqui-
sition, iL 187, 236, 322 ; Henry
IV.'s designs against Spain, iii.
149; Mantuan Succession Ques-
tion, 269, 270, 271 ; French cam-
paign, 303; Spanish Succession
War,iv. 85,86,91,94,97,99,114;
French and Spanish campaign
against Imperials, 230, 231 ;
Austrian campaign, 290 ; Mar-
ouis d'Argenson's scheme, 296 ;
orainage of Pontine Marshes,
V. 183 ; French campaigns, 211,
216, 222, 455, 528, 529; dis-
turbances in Papal dominions,
263, 287; crown offered to Napo-
leon, 362; union of Papal States
to French Empire, 462; Con-
vention of Mantua, 521 ; secret
societies, vi. 19; Austrian in-
terference and domination, 21,
127, 185; disturbances, 58; Na-
tional Congress at Bologna, 69 ;
discontent caused * by Papal
misgovemment, 139; military
league of Central Italian States,
140 ; union of Italy, European
views, 145, 146; consdidation
of United ItflJy, 148; removal of
capital from Turin to Florence,
150; new codes of law, 150;
treaties with Prussia, 160 ; de-
claration of neutrality, 188;
Spanish recognition of United
Italy, 189; French domination
in Tunis, 220; Triple Alliance,
221 ; treaty with Franoe, 226 ;
establishment of colony at Mas-
sowrah, 226.
Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, vL
II note.
Ivan y I. , Tsar of Russia, murder,
iv. 363.
Ivanovitch, Basil, Grand Duke of
Muscovy, L 366.
Jackson, Sir F., English Envoy to
Copenhagen, v. 412.
Jacobin Club : Origin of, v. 50;
maintenance of monarchy ad-
vocated 1^, 65.
Jagellon, Efouse of, i. 38.
Jamaica, discovery of, L 334.
James I., King of England:
Policy, iii. 142 ; marriage with
Anne of Denmark, 2(3 noie;
death, 238.
James II. , King of England:
Flight, iv. 53; defeat at Boyne,
54; death, 80.
James IV., King of Scotland:
Assistance to Franoe, L 348;
death, 348.
James V., King of Scotlaiid:
Marriage with Madeleine of
France, ii 129 ; death, 158.
James HL, Pretender, iv. lOOl
Jameson Raid, vL 234, 285.
Janissaries : Turkishinf antiy, i 6,
8; Aga, 10, 13; decline and ex-
tinction, 10, 11 ; revolt, iiL 210;
iv. 239; extermination, vi. 31.
Jansenists, religious sect, iv. 116,
117, 197, 321.
Janssen, Cornelius, iv. 197.
Japan: WarwithChina, vi. 236;
rise, 240.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
307
Jaaberton, Mme. de, wife of
Luden Bonapaji^, v. 43i.
Jaur^^, iii. 19.
Jeannin, French ambassador, iii.
14d.
Jellalich, General, v. 292.
Jenkinson, Anthony, iii. 127.
Jenungham, Sir Richard, English
ambassador, i. 456.
Jerome of Prague: Propagation
of Wyclif's doctrines, L 390;
death, 391.
Jervis, Admiral Sir John {see St
Vincent, Lord).
Jesuits: Institution of order, ii
147, 186, 186, 187 ; establish-
ment in France, 357 ; mission-
aries in Portugal, 468 ; in Eng-
land, 474; doctrine of sever-
eigntv of the peo^e, iii. 17 ;
banishment from France and
recall, 72, 148; banishment
from Transylvania, 89 ; pro-
gress, influence, and powers,
102, 109; banishment from Con-
stantinople, 109 ; missionaiy
labours, 109 ; banishment from
Venice, 149; treatment in Swe-
den,225 ; expulsion from France,
iv. 431 ; from Portugal, 432,
433 ; European proceedings
against, 434 ; Bull issu^
against, 438; reappearance in
France as "P^res de la Foi/*
V. 351 ; re-establishment in
Spain, vi 10 ; in France, 26 ;
exclusion from Austria, 23 ; ex-
Sulsion from Naples, 94 ; from
pain 190; French laws against,
Jeunesse claries v. 186.
Jews: Spanish Inquisition, i.
197, 198 ; expulsion from Por-
tugal, 234; Koman toleration,
396 ; position in Turkey, iii. 132.
Joan of Arc, i. 70.
Joanna of Portugal, i. 189.
Joanna of Spain, marriage with
Archduke Philip, L 234.
John of Austria, Don, ii. 366, 367,
373, 376 ; Netherlands Govern-
ment, iii 3, 6 ; death, 8.
John of Austria, Dtm, Governor
of Netherlands, iii 377; ban-
ishment and recall, iv. 68;
death, 69.
J6bxk, Archduke : Austrian com-
mands, V. 313, 367, 452 ; Beiehs-
venoeser of G^man Confedera-
tion, vi. 90, 96.
John, Don, Prince of Braril, re-
gency in Portugal, v. 185, 425,
John II. » Duke of Bourbon, Liffue
du Bien PubHeA. 130.
John, Duke of Calabria, L 106,
107, 108, 123, 130.
John III., Duke of Cleves, ii.
138.
John, Elector of Saxony, ii. 64,
67, 68, 69, 79, 87, 97, 100,
104.
John II., King of Aragon, i. 64,
191, 192, 193, 197.
John II., King of Castile : Acces-
sion and reign, L 61 ; death,
63.
John, King of Denmark, Sweden,
and Norway, iii. 214.
John I., King of Poland, i. 211.
John I., ICing of Portugal, suc-
cession, L 67.
John II., King of Portugal, ma*
ritime exploration, i ^.
John III., King of Portugal,
commercial prosperity, ii. 4^.
John IV., King of Portugal:
Accession, iii. 317; allianoee,
318 ; establishment, 342 ; death,
422.
John v.. King of Portugal : Ac-
cession, iv. 110 noie\ death,
851.
John VI., King of Portugal : Ac-
cession, vi. 16; return from
Brazil, 17 ; death. 68.
John III., King of Sweden : Elec-
tion, iii. 224 ; death, 225.
John XXIII., Pope, deposition,
i. 392.
John, Prince of Astnrias, mar-
riage with Margaret of Austria,
i. 234.
John of Leyden, Anabaptist fa-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
308
MODERN ETJEOPE
natdeuun at Miinster, iL 124,
125, 126.
John Casimir, Count Palatine, ii
400,461, 462; iii. 8, 12,88.
John Gasimir, King of Poland:
jhrotest against accession of
Charles X. of Sweden, iiL 303 ;
lareaty with Denmark, 408.
John Frederick II., Duke of
Saze-Gotha, ii 447.
John Frederick, Elector of Sax-
ony, ii. 112, 127, 169, 163, 207,
209, 210, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218,
224, 242, 243, 272, 276.
John George, Elector of Saxony,
iii. 160.
John Pakeologos II., i. 17.
John Sigismnnd, King-elect of
Hungary, ii. 448.
John Sobieski, King of Poland :
Election, iv. 8; alliance with
Germany, 8, 9 ; relief of Vienna,
9 ; death, 14.
John WiUi&m, Duke of Cleves,
iii. 15a
Johnstone, Commodore, iv. 454.
Joinville, Prince de: French
command in Africa, vi. 65 ; re-
tirement to England, 79.
Jonas, Justice, i. 416.
Jonian, Camille, v. 248.
Joseph, Archduke, election to
he Palatine of Hungary, v.
238.
Joseph I., Emperor : King of
Hungary, iv. 12 ; King of the
Romans, 70; Imperial com-
mand, 86; accession, 92 ; death,
105.
Josejph II., Emperor: Marria^^
with Prmcess of Parma, iv.
341 ; interview with Frederick,
ii. 378; accession, 388; char-
acter, 388; Bavarian Succes-
sion Question, 389; succession
in Austrian dominions, 392;
church reforms, 392; visit to
Rome, 394; visit to Holland
and Austrian Netherlands, 394;
Scheldt navigation disputes,
395 ; insurrection in Austrian
Netherlands, 401 ; visit to St.
Petersburg, 402 ; visit to Cher-
son, 404 ; war against Turkey,
406; death, 416; character and
views, 418.
Joseph I., King of Portu^:
mmority, iv. 361 ; plot against,
352.
Joseph Clement, Prince of Ba-
varia, Archbii^op of Cologne,
iv.48.
Joseph Ferdinand, Electoral
Pnnce of Bavaria : Spanish suc-
cession claim, iv. 69; death, 73.
Joubert, General, v. 240, 296, 296.
Jourdan, Marshal : French com-
mands, V. 141, 142, 192, 195,
210, 211, 214, 226, 290, 292,
467, 468, 611 ; Marshal of the
Empire, 362.
Joyeuse Ewtrie, iv. 401, 417, 423.
Juarez, Benito, President of Mexi-
can Republic, vi 184.
Jnel, Admiral, iv. 26, 26.
Juliana, Dowager-Queen of Den-
mark, iv. 411.
JUlich : Si^ge and Capitulation,
iii. 168 ; government, 186.
Julius II. , Pope : Election to Pon-
tificate, i. 259; extension of
temporal dominion, 261 ; hos-
tilily to Venetians, 264, 316;
League of Cambray, 282, 283 ;
expulsion of forei^ers,292, 293 ;
alfiance with Swiss, 294; war
against Duke of Ferrara, 297 ;
loss of Bologna, 303; council,
304, 314; Holy Leafi^ue, 306;
death, 320; establishment of
Papal power, 320, 321.
Julius III., Pope : Election to
Pontificate, ii. 263 ; death, 284.
Junisbey, interpreter to the Porte,
u. 150, 151.
Junot, General, v. 427, 428, 446.
Junta, union of Castilian cities,
i. 374.
Jurissich, Nicholas, ii. 106.
Jus Devolutionis^ iii. 427*
Justices SeianeuricUes, Feudal
Courts of Justice, v. 7.
Kabbeljauweny Flemish De-
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
INDEX
309
moi^atic Party, i. 167 and
note,
Kaden, Michael, ii 89.
Kaisenberg, Geiler von, L 398.
Kaiser, origin of title, L 24.
KaiserlicheS'Gerichtf i. 277.
Kamenskoi, Field-Marshal: Rus-
sian Commander-in-Chief in
Germany, v. 402 ; in Finnland,
422.
Kamenskoi II., v. 475.
Kammerriehterf President of Ger-
man Supreme Tribunal, L
277.
Kantakuzenus, Michael, iii. 132.
KanunamS, book of laws, L 11.
Kau£fnngen, Kunz of, i. 25.
Kaunitz, Prince : Character and
career, iv. 310; Austrian am-
bassaaor in Paris, 310; parti-
tion of Prussia, 313 ; partition
of Poland, iv. 380; n^otiations
with Turkey, 386; ecclesias-
tical reforms, 393; destruction
of Barrier fortresses, 395 ;
French poli^, v. 75.
Kayserlingk, Count, Russian am-
bassador, iv. 364, 369.
Keats, Commodore, v. 412, 445.
Keene, Sir Benjamin, British
minister at Madrid, iv. 247,
339.
Keith, Admiral, v. 310, 319, 325,
357.
Keith, Marshal, iv. 232, 318, 333.
Kellermann, Marshal, v. 90, 352.
Kemeni, Peter, Voyvodeof Tran-
sylvania, iv. 4.
Keppel, Commodore, iv. 344.
Kersaint, v. 97.
Khevenhiller, Count, German
ambassador, iii. 202.
Khevenhiller, General, iv. 267.
Kiaja Bey, deputy of Grand Vi-
zier, i 14.
Kiao-Chow, seizure by Germany,
vi237.
Kiel, Prussian occupation, vL
171.
Kilmaine, General, French Com-
mander-in-Chief, V. 127.
Kimberley, Lord, concert of Six
Powers, Turkish reforms, vi.
230.
Kinis, Paul, Count of Temesvar,
i. 105, 206, 207.
Kitchener, Sir Herbert, recon-
quest of Soudan, vL 233.
EJausenburg, Diet at, iii. 93.
Kl^ber, General, v. 195, 225;
French command in Syria, 303;
in Egypt, 304, 324; resump-
tion of hostilities, 325; assassina-
tion, 325.
Klenaa, v. 210.
Klesel, Cardinal, iii. 186, 188, 189.
Klingspor, General : Command
of Swedes and Finns, v. 421 ;
conspiracy, 422.
Klopstock, Friedrich, German
epic poet, v. 179.
Kloster Zevem, alliance of
Francis I. with Protestant
Princes, ii. 102.
Klupfell, M. de, Russian media-
tor, V. 337.
Knights Templars, i. 66.
Knights of St. John, L 17, 66,
451 ; ii. 87.
Knipperdolling, Bemhard, ii. 124,
1^, 126.
Knobelsdorf, General, Prussian
Envoy, v. 395.
Knutson, Charles, election to
Crown of Norway and Sweden,
iii. 213.
Kollontay, Polish patriot, v. 160.
Konge-Lov, royal law of Den-
mark, iv. 21.
Kdnigsberg, French occupation,
K5nigseck, Field-Marshal, iv.
270, 295, 325.
Kdnigsmark, General, iii 348,
349 ; iv. 10.
K5prili, Mahomet, Grand Vizier
or Turkey, iv. 3, 4.
KSprili, Mustapha, Grand Vizier
or Turkey, iv. 14.
Koran, Ottoman polity, text-
book of religion and justice, i.
15.
Korsakov, General, Russian com-
mand, V. 296.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
810
MODERN EUROPE
Koacinsko, General, Polish patriot,
V. 160, 170, 171, 172, mnote,
401.
Kolokotroni, General, vi. 29,
32.
Kolowrat, Count : Austrian com-
mand, v. 452 ; Prime Minister
of Austria, vi. 93.
Korf, Colonel, vi. 180.
Kossuth, Hungarian statesman,
vi. 84 ; revolutionary measures,
87 ; Finance Minister, 93 ; levy
of troops, etc., 97 ; President of
National Defence Committee,
99; flight, 100, 101.
Kotzebue, Augustus von, murder,
vi. 24.
Kfasinsky, Count, iv. 373.
Kray, Marshal, v. 293, 311.
Kreckwitz, Imperial ambassador
to Porte, iii. 92.
Krell, Chancellor of Saxony, iii.
160.
Krudener, General, vi. 213.
Krudner, Baroness, vi. 8.
Krumpe, Otte, iii. 216.
Krusemark, General, Prussian
ambassador, v. 496.
Kurakin, Prince, Russian minis-
ter, iv. 168; V. 482.
Kutusov, General, iv. 426; v.
367, 476; command-in -chief of
Russian armv, 488; dissolution
of Rhenish Confederation, 497 ;
death, 601.
Laborde, General, v. 446.
Labourdonnais, General, iv. 192.
Labourdonnaye, M., French Min-
ister of Interior, vL 36.
Labrador, discovery of, i. 337.
Labrador, Don, Spanish Envoy
to Congress of Vienna, v.
623.
La Bruy^re^ agricultural popula-
tion of France, v. 7.
La Ch^tardie,Frenchambassador,
iv. 276.
Lacoste, French Minister of Ma-
rine, V. 74, 77.
Laoour, Commandant of Strass-
burg, V. 143.
, Count, iv. 232, 241 ; v.
Ladislaus, Posthumus: Claim to
throne of Hunf;ary, i 18;
guardianship durmg minority,
21, 39; majority, 40; corona-
tion at Prague, 89 ; flight, 91 ;
death, 94.
La Farina, organization of
Italian " National Society,"
vi. 130.
La Fayette, French commander,
i.464.
Lafayette, Marquis de, iv. 444,
466, 463, 465 ; v. 76 ; command
of National Guard, v. 39; vL
38, 39 ; retirement, v. 71 ; letter
to Legislative Assembly, 77, 78;
scheme to unite provinces
against Paris, 89; oismissal,
VI. 66; President of Parisian
CarboTuxriy 8 ; revolutionary
propaganda, 35, 36.
Laferronaye, French Envoy to
Troppau, vi. 20
La Feuillade, General, iv. 97.
Lafitte, President of Chamber of
Deputies, vi. 44, 66.
La For^t, French Envoy, ii. 130,
139.
Laforest, M., French minister,
V. 337, 365, 392no««.
La Galigai', Mar^hale d'Ancre,
iii. 178.
La Garde, Baron de, ii 276.
Laharpe, Colonel, v. 266.
Laibach,*congress, vi. 7, 9, 20.
Lainezj James, General of the
Jesuits, ii. 330.
Lake, Admiral, iv. 94.
Lala Mohammed, Grand Vizier,
iii. 96.
Lalaing, Greorge de, Count of
Renneberg, iii. 13.
Lallemand, French ambassador,
V.243.
La Marck, leader of the €rt$eux de
la Mer, il 433.
La Marmora, General, vi. 123,
134 ; PrimeMinister of Sardinia,
139, 141 i President of Council,
160; Envoy to Prussia, 146;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
811
Italian command, 185; Prime
Minister of Italy, 186.
Lamar(]^iie, General, yi 56.
Lamartme, provisional goyem>
jnent, vi. 77, 78.
Lambaile, Princesse de, v. 92.
La Meill^raye, Greneral, iii. 339,
341.
Lamoi^non, retirement, iv. 466.
Lamonci^re, General, vi. 77> 144.
Lampugnano, assassin, L 113.
Landais, Pierre, i. 170, 171, 172.
Laridfnede, i. 212, 277.
Landi, Count Agostino, ii. 239.
Landwehr^ Austrian militia, v.
451.
Lang, Matthew, Bishop of Gurk,
1.298,301,302,308,316.
Langara, Admiral, iv. 448.
Langermann, Danish minister,
iiL337.
Langeron, General, iv. 356.
Langey, M. de, ii. 116.
Langey, M. Du Bellay, Governor
^rfTurin, ii. 154, 157, 164, 173.
Ltmghals, Peter de. Mayor of
Bruges, i. 174.
Langiewicz, vi. 158.
Lannes, Marshal: French com-
mand in Italy, v. 310 ; Marshal
of the Empire, 352; entr^ of
F^nch into Vienna, 373 ; siege
of Saragossa, 466 ; death, 456.
La Noue, Huguenot leader, ii.
435, 452, 456 ; iii. 10.
Lannoy, Viceroy of Naples, i.
447, 452, 462 464, 465, 467,
469 ; il 9, 17, 18, 25, 27, 29, 32,
40.
Lanusca, Don Juan de, Viceroy
of Aragon, i. 426.
LamknedUe, German infantry, i.
341.
LaPalisse, Marshal de Chabannes,
i. 287, 291, 313, 314, 320, 358,
444, 469.
La iUveill^re-Lepaux, director,
V. 207; chief of the Theophilan-
thropists, 264.
Larochejaquelin, Henri de, v.
137.
La Rochelle: Commercial privi-
vi.
of
161,
350,
359,
l^ges, L 150 ;^ headquarters of
Huguenots, ii. 378 ; Huguenot
revolt, iii. 232, 238; si^ge and
surrender, 250.
La Sague, treachery to Cond^,
ii. 319.
Lascsry, Hieronjmus, Hungarian
ambassador, u. 105, 151, 152.
Lateran Greneral Council : dissolu-
tion, i. 363 ; definition of doc-
trine of transubstantiation,
388 ; definition of soul, 396.
Latour, Austrian minister,
98.
Latour, Greneral, v. 225.
Latour-Maubourg, member
National Assembly, v. 63.
Launay, Governor de, v. 38.
La Tremoille, Louis de, L
175, 243, 262, 346, 347,
458, 469.
Lautrec, Marshal, i. 358,
366, 428, 431, 432, 435,
441,459; ii. 4, 40, 4L
Lavalette, aide-de-camp to Na-
poleon, V. 249; Envoy to Ali
Pasha, 283; Director-General
of the Posts, vi. 6; ambassador
to the Porte, 118.
Lavardin, Marquis of, French
ambassiador, iv. 50.
Lavater, murder, v. 297.
La Vend^ Insurrection, v. 112.
La Vieuville, iii 233.
Law, John, Mississippi Company
scheme, etc., iv. 205.
League of Cambray, i 265, 276,
284.
League of Poor Conrad, peasant
rising, ii. 61.
League of Home, i. 453.
Lebeau, General, vi 71.
Leboeuf, Marshal, vi 186, 192,
193.
Le Brun, French Foreign Minister,
V. 87 ; Third ConsiU, 308.
LecarUer, French conmiissioner,
V. 268.
Lechelle, command in La Ven*
d^, V. 136.
Leclerc, General, v. 316, 334.
Lecourbe, General, v. 311.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
812
MODERN BUKOPE
Leczin8ld,Mana,QaeeiiofFlraiioey
iv. 217, 427.
Lecdnski, Stanislaus, King of Po-
land {see Stanislaus Leezmski).
Lee, Dr., American Envoy to
France, iv. 444.
Lee, General, iv. 353, 44a
Leeds.Dokeof , Foreign Secretary,
iv. 425.
Lefebvre, General: — Marshal of
the Empire, v. 352; Duke of
Dantzig, 403; French command
in Spain, 449, 469 ; in Germany,
452.
Lehrbach, Count, v. 240
Lehwald, CreneraJ, iv. 327.
Leicester, Earl of, €k>vemor and
Captain-General of Netherluids
United Provinces, iii. 27; un-
ilarity, 28; departure, 28,
Leipsic : University, i. 391 ; dis-
putation, 411 ; Interim, ii. 245 ;
capture oy Allies, v. 608 ; at-
tempted insurrection, vL 104.
Le Jay, Jesuit theologian, ilL
103.
Lemaistre, Antony, iv. 198.
Lemanic Republic :— Pays de
Vaud, independence, v. 267.
Lemberg, Count, Governor of
Hungary, vi. 97.
Le Noir, murder, vi. 191.
Lentulus, General, iv. 257.
Leo X. : Election to Pontificate,
i. 344 ; character, 344, 345, 438,
439 ; policy, 351, 352, 354, 430,
438, 439; treaty with Swiss
Confederate States, 354; alli-
ance with Francis I., 361 ; plot
against, 362; support of Sforza,
364; crusade against infidels,
377, 378 ; extravagant expend-
iture, 403; indulgences, 409;
Exurge Damine Bull against
Luther, 413, 415; partition
of Milan, 430, 431 ; secret
treaty with Charles V. , 431 ; ex>
communication of Francis I.,
434; death, 438.
Leo XI. f Pope, election to Pon-
tificate, iii 148.
Leo XIL, Pope: Election to Pon-
tificate, vi. 25 ; death, 56.
Leon, Ponce de, i 336.
Leopold L, Emperor: Election
and Imperial capitulation, iii
382 ; Polish war, 408 ; scheme
for partition of Spain, 441,
442; alliance with Frederick
William of Brandenburg, 452;
Turkish invasion of Hungary,
iv. 6; denunciation of Louis
XIV., 56; Spanish SucoessioD
Question, 69, 92; death, 92.
Leopold II., Emperor: Marriage
with Infanta of Spain, iv. 388;
accession to sovereignty of
Austria, Hunsary and Bohemia,
419 ; politicfQ situation, 420 ;
coronation, 424 ; interview with
Comte d'Artois, v. 61 ; De-
claration of Pilnitz, 68 ; Treaty
of Berlin, 73 ; death, iv. 424; v.
73.
Leopold II., Grand Duke of Tus-
cany : Popular reforms, vi. 91 ;
Austrian policy, 136; abdica-
. tion, 140.
Leopold I. , King of Belgium : Ac-
eeptance by Belgian Congress,
vi 49 ; marriage with Louisa of
France, 50.
Leopold of Styria, Archduke, iiL
153, 161, 185.
Leopold Iffuatius, Kin^ of Hun-
gary and Bohemia, iii. 380.
Leopold William, Archduke : Im-
command, iii. 321, 3^
Lerma, Duke of, iii. 139, 180.
Lescun, Sire de, i. 138, 149, 469.
Lesdigui^res, Duke of, French
Protestant commander, iiL 64,
74, 179, 232, 238, 246.
Lessart, De, French Foreign
Minister, v. 72, 74, 92.
Lesseps, French ambassador at
Rome, vi. 102.
Lesser Molkts, judges, i. 15.
L'Estocq, iv. 359.
Le Tellier, Chancellor, iv. 41, 116,
199,200.
Letoumeur, director, v. 207.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
313
Lettres de Cachet, v. 9.
Lenchtenberg, Prince Augustus
von : Betrothal with Maria da
Gloria of Portugal, vi 69 ; mar-
riage, 70.
Leunclavius, Institution of Jan-
issaries, L 6 note.
Leyden University, ii. 443.
Leyva, Antonio ae, L 312, 466 ;
ii. 17, 18, 22, 23, 46, 86, 119,
122,123.
L'Hdpital, Michel de. Chancellor
of France, ii. 317, 325, 327, 332,
336, 344, 353, 357, 359.
L*Huillier, Procureur-GhUrdl
Syndic, v. 122.
Lhuys, Drouyn de, French
Foreign Minister, vi. 82, 149.
Lichnowski, Prince, vi. 96.
Lichtenstein, Prince, iv. 297, 406.
Li^ge: Power of Duke of Bur-
gundy, i. 135, 139; revolt, vi 47.
Liege, Bishop of, i 179.
Ligni, Count of, L 247.
Ligue du Bien Public, L 130, 148.
Ligurian Republic : Or^n, v.
246 ; incorporation with France,
362.
Limi^res, confessor of Louis XV.,
iv. 216.
Lincoln, General, iv. 448.
Linois, Admiral, v. 357.
Lionne, Marquis de, French am-
bassador, iii. 380.
Lippe-Schaumburg, Count of, iv.
Lipsius, Danish minister, iii 337.
Liptau, Duke of, i. 208.
Lisbon, earthquake, iv. 351.
Listen, Mr., British minister at
the Hague, v. 345.
Livin^ton, Mr., American minis-
ter m Paris, v. 347.
Livry, Hermit of, ii. 6.
Loaysa, Garcia de, Cardinal-
Bishop of Osma, ii 92, 102.
Lobkowitz, German minister, iii
442; iv. 296.
Lodron, General, i 465.
Lofoe, Peace Congress, iv. 160.
Loftus, Lord A., English ambas-
sador to Russia, vi. 210.
Loi des SvLspecU, v. 132.
Loignac, Captain of Gascon Guard
iS47.
Lollards, rise of, in England, i.
389.
London : Conference, vi. 48 ;
European Conference, 168; Con-
ference of 1871, 198.
London Protocol, vi 212.
Longjumeau, Edict of, ii. 359.
Longueville, Duke of, i 287, 320,
352.
LonguevOle, Duke of, commander
in Picardy, iii. 55, 361.
Loredano, Leonardo, i 290.
Loredano, Luigi, i 99, 101, 104.
L*OmUe, Bordeaux revival of
Fronde, iii 367.
Lorraiae : Incorporation with
Bu^undy, i 155, 156 ; recovery
of Duchy by Ren4 II., 160;
French annexation, iii 297, 298,
441 ; iv. 234.
Lorraine:
Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine,
negotiations with Paul IV.,
ii. 292 ; administration of In-
terior and Finances, 299,314 ;
conference at Marcoing, 301 ;
Edict of July, 328, 329 ; death,
458.
Charles IV., Duke of, iii. 278.
Charles V., Duke of, iii. 462;
iv. 9, 10, 11, 67, 58, 67 note.
Francis of Guise, ii. 281.
Leopold, Duke of, iv. 66,
Louis, Cardinal of, ii. 230.
Prince Charles of, iv. 286, 325,
328.
Ren6 II., i 156, 160, 179.
Loubet, President, French Peace
Policy, vi. 240.
Loudon, General, iv. 337 and
note*, 347, 406, 415.
Louis, Archduke, v. 453.
Louis, Dauphin of France, Span-
ish succession daim, iv. 69.
Louis v.. Elector Palatine, i
419.
Louis I. , King of Bavaria, abdi-
cation, vi &.
Louis XL, King of France : Ac-
Digitized by V3OOQ IC
814
MODERN EUROPE
cession, i 108, 124 ; character,
122 ; treatment of nobility, 125,
126 ; measures against Duke of
Brittany, 128; treaties and
alliances, 128, 138, 147, 148,
149, 155, 157, 165, 166, 193;
Ligue du Bien FubliCy 130, 131,
132, 133, 134; marriage with
Charlotte of Savoy, 134 note;
support of Warwick, 144; ''Rot
Couard,'* 147; annexation of
Gnienne, 148 ; personal leader-
ship of troops, 149 ; encourage-
ment of commerce, 149, 150,
169 ; military forces, 157 ; ac-
quisition of Burgundy and
Franche-Comt4, 162 ; review of
troops, 166 ; death, 168 ; founder
of monarchical absolutism, 168 ;
unpopularity, 169.
Louis XIL, King of France:
Dauphin, i. 170, 171, 175, 177,
179, 224, 228, 229, 230; acces-
sion, 242 ; domestic government,
243 ; divorce, 243, 244 ; alliances
and treaties, 244, 252, 319, 346,
352; marriage with Anne of
Brittany, 245 ; designs on Italy,
245 ; " Father of his People,"
274 ; interview with Ferdinand
the Catholic, 274 ; Lord Para-
mount of West Flanders, 276 ;
League of Cambrav, 282, 283 ;
recovery and loss of Milan, 346,
347 ; reconciliation with Leo X. ,
350; marriage with Mary of
England, 353; death, 353;
foreign jjolicy, 353.
Louis JlIII., King of France : Re-
gency of Mary de' Medici, iii,
166 ; marriage with Anne of
Austria, 169, 173; majority,
172 ; reconciliation with Mary
de' Medici, 180 ; Mantuan Suc-
cession Question, 270, 271 ; war
with Spain, 301 ; death, 327 ;
character, 327.
Louis XIV., King of France:
Majority, iii. SS2; marriage
with Maria Theresa, 386, 387 ;
character and ambitions, 425 ;
foreign policy, 427 ; treaties
and alliances, 428 ; iv. 34, 112 ;
manifesto to European Powers,
iii. 432 ; plan for destruction of
Dutch Republic, 438 ; French
oocu|^tion of' Lorrune, 441 ;
relations with Germanv, 441,
442, 443 ; campaigns in Holland,
447, 448, 449; evacuation of
Holland, 454; interrention in
German afiiBiirs, iv. 18 ; ambi-
tious schemes, 33; marriage
with Madame de Maintenon,
39; revocation of Edict of
Nantes, 41 ; dispute with Leo
XI. , 43 ; hostility of Protestant
powers, 44 ; war with the Em-
fdre, 47, 48 ; quarrel with In-
nocent XI. , 50 ; European oppo-
sition, 55 ; war against Holland,
55 ; European coaliMon, 56, 82,
84 ; war with Grand Alliance,
56, 84 ; support of James II. , 59,
80, 83 ; peace negotiations, 62,
98, 101, 105; political dis-
honesty, 117 ; retrospect of
reign, 118 ; death, 118 ; art and
literature, 168 ; ministers, 169 ;
power of France, 178.
Louis XV., King of France : be-
trothal^ to Inianta, iv. 216;
majority, 216 ; marriage with
Mary Leczinski, 217 ; war with
Germany, 229; with England
and Maria Theresa, 286 ; Da-
miens* attempted assassination,
322; domestic maladministra-
tion, 439 ; death, 440.
Louis XVI., King of France:
Marriage with Marie Antoi-
nette, IV. 388; accession, 440;
dispute with Parliament, 464,
465 ; despotism, v. 3 ; causes
of downfall, 27 ; comparison
with Charles I. of England,
30 ; concessions to National As-
sembly, 33; military prepara-
tions, 36 ; reconciliation with
Assembly and people, 40 ; march
to Paris, 46, 50 ; foreign inter-
vention, 59 ; flight to Varennes,
62; return to Paris, 63; at-
titude of European courts, 66 ;
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX
815
Act of the Constitntion, 68;
war against Austria, 75; dis-
missal of Girondist ministers,
76; negotiations with Coalition,
79 ; imprisonment in the temple,
88 ; trial before National Con-
vention, V. 99, 101, 103 ; execu-
tion, 104.
Louis XVII., King of France,
death, v. 202.
Louis XVIIL, King of France:
Title assumed by Count of
Provence, v. 214 ; support of
Paul I., Tsar of Russia ; banish-
ment from Russia, 317 ; retire-
ment to Grodno, 355 ; restora-
tion, 518 ; charter, 522 ; flight,
527 ; return, 531 ; domestic
policy, vi. 5, 6 ; death, character,
Louis II. , King of Hungary, i. 376,
377; ii. 70; death, 74.
Louis Napoleon, Prince Imperial,
death, vi. 206.
Louis Philippe, King of France :
Character and political aims,
vi. 25; Lieutenant-General of
France, 40 ; election as " King
of the French," 44, 45 ; policy,
45, 55, 56, 65 ; European recog-
nition, 48 ; attempted assassina-
tion, 67; visit to Queen Victoria,
65; support of Moderados in
Spain, 71 ; abdication, 77 ;
fliffht, 78 ; death, 106.
Louise of Savov, Duchess of
Angouldme and Anjou, i. 355 ;
regency, 357, 428 ; suit against
C&ELrles of Bourbon, 455 ; second
regency, 465 ; ii. 4 ; death,
48.
Louisbourg, capture by English,
iv.342.
Louisiana, sale to United States
by Spain, v. 347.
Loul^, Marquis, Portuguese
Chamberlain, vi. 17.
Loustalot, revolutionist, v. 36.
Louvain University, Confession
of Faith, ii 169, 170.
Louvet, accusation of Robes-
pierre, V. 97.
Louvois, French Minister of War,
iii. 447 ; iv. 40, 51, 58.
Low Countries {see Netherlands,
Holland, Bel^um).
Lowe, Sir Hudson, v. 463.
Lowendahl, Count, iv. 300.
Lawenhaupt, General, iv. 145,
276.
L5wenstein, Count, Governor of
Bavaria, iv. 91.
Lowenwolde, Russian Minister,
iv. 224.
Loyola, Ignatius : Institution of
Society of Jesuits, i. 428 ; ii.
147, 186, 186, 187.
Ltibeck : Design against Den-
mark, iii. 221 ; capture by the
French, v. 399, 503.
Lublin, Diet, iv. 137, 146.
Lubomirski, General, iv. 141.
Lubowicski, Vice-President of
Poland, vi. 51.
Lucchesini, Marquis, Prussian
minister, iv. 422; v. 161, 257,
400.
Luckner, General, v. 75.
Luders, General, vi. 118.
Ludovico il Moro, i. 184 ; 215, 216,
228,229.
Ludovisio, Cai'dinal, election to
Pontificate, iii. 231 {see also
Gregory XV.).
Luis, Prince of Asturias, iv. 216.
Luis, King of Portu^, refusal
of Spantth erown, vi. 190.
Luno, Alvaro de, Constable of
Castile, i. 62.
Luther, Martin: Education and
progress, i. 400 ; visit to Rome,
401 ; denunciation of indul-
gences, 404 ; WittenbergTheses,
405 ; Leo X and Martin Luther,
405, 410 ; flight from Augsburg,
408; Bull against, 413, 415;
marriage of priests and sacra-
ments of the Church, 414 ; Diet
of Worms, Imperial judgment,
387, 416, 417, 418, 419 ; denun-
ciation of Zwingli, 422 ; doctrine
of consubstantiation, 422; re-
treat at Wartburg, ii. 50 ; New
Testament translation, 50, 52 ;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
816
MODERN EUBOFE
return to Wittenbexg, 02 ; sepa-
ration from Rome, 69 : mamace,
85; conference with|Zwin^,
91 ; articles of Smalkald, 127 ;
death, 178 ; character, etc., 180,
181.
Lutheranism, growth of, iii 99,
100.
Ltltssen, Conrad von. Imperial am-
bassador, iii 336.
Luxembourg : the county of, iv.
36 ; neutralization of, vi 184.
Luxembourg, Duke of, French
commander, iiL 458; iv. 58,
63.
Luynes, Albert Charles, Sieur de,
iu. 176, 178, 179, 199, 232.
Lynar, Count, iv. 263, 324.
Ljrons : Terreur Blanche, v. 189 ;
insurrection, vL 105.
Maanen, Von, Belgian minister,
vi. 46.
Macchiavelli : Ambassador, i 338;
ii 202, 203.
Machiavellianism, growth of in
Italy, ii 202.
Macdonald, General: French com-
mand in Italy, v. 288, 294;
against Russia, 485, 505.
Macdonald, Sir Ch&ude, English
Envoy in Pekin, vi 237.
Mach, General, v. 191, 285, 287,
288, 367, 371.
MacKinley, President, assassina-
tion, vi. 240.
McMahon, Marshal: Duke of
Magenta and Marshal of Em-
pire, vi. 135 ; French command,
193, 194, 202 ; coup-d 'Hat, 204;
resignation, 205.
Madagascar, French expedition,
Madalinski, Polish genersd, v.
170, 174.
Maddeine de la Tour, marriage
with LoremEO de Medici, i.
379.
Madeira, discovery of, L 324.
Madras, capture of, by the French,
iv. 302.
Madrid: Seat of government, L
369 ; permanent establiflliment
as Spanish cafatal, iL 321 ;
entry of Allies, iv. 96 ; revolu-
tion, V. 434, 435, 436, 437 ; in-
surrection to prevent departure
of Princes, 440; Napoleon's
entry, 449; French surrender,
472; Wellington's entry, 472;
riots, vi 12 ; entry of French, 14.
Madrucci, Cardinal of Trent, ii
240.
Magallon, French consul at Cairo,
V. 273.
Magdeburg: Admission to League
of Torgau, ii 69 ; opposition to
Interim, 244; war against, 255;
surrender to French, v. 399.
Magellan, Fernando, Portuguese
explorer, ii 189.
Magnan, General, command of
Paris troops, vi. 108, 110.
Magnus, Albertus, i 397 note,
Mahdi, English difficulties in
Egypt, vi 226.
Mahjnoud I., Sult.^ of Turkey,
iv. 240; prcMgress of Turkey
under, 374 ; £ath, 374.
Mahmoud II., Sultan of Turkey,
vi 27 ; Hattischerif for reform
of Janissaries—extermination,
vi. 31 ; Mehemet All's designs
on Syria, 62 ; death, 63.
Mahmoud Daxnad Pasha, vi 212.
Mahomet IL, Ai Fatth: Politi-
cal administration, i 11 ; sys-
tem of government, 84, 85 ; ac-
cession, 22 ; capture of Con-
stantinople, establishment as
capital, 81 ; territorial acquisi-
tions in Europe, 81, 89, 97, 98,
99 ; creation of navy, 84 ; con-
quest of Morea, 101 ; expedi-
tion against Ferdinand of Na-
ples, 118 ; death, 119.
Mahomet III., Sultan of Turkey:
accession, iii. 94; Hungarian
war, 94; death, 95.
Mahomet IV., Sultan of Turkey :
accession, iii 335; iv. 3; depo-
sition and imprisonment^ 13.
Mahommed All Pasha, Turkish
command, v. 418.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
817
Maillebois, Marshal, iv. 264, 270,
296,331.
Maine, onion with France, i.
166.
Maine, Charles of ,death, i. 166.
"Maine," American battleship,
blowing npin Havana Harbour,
▼L236.
Maintenon, Mme. de, maniage
with Lonis XIY., iv, 39.
Mainz, Diet of, i. 394 ; capitula-
tion, V. 261.
Mainz, Archbishop Albert of, L
413.
Maison, General, French com-
mand in Morea, vi. 26, 34
BiaJstre, Count de, vi 19.
Maitland, Captain, Napoleon's
surrender to, v. 532.
Malacca, Portuguese settlement,
L337.
Malachowski, Polish patriot, v.
160.
Malaga: Surrender of, L 201;
siege of— use of gunpowder for
mining, i 342.
Malai^da, Gabriel, iv. 432.
Mfidoolm, Admiral, English fleet
on Dutch coast, vi. 50.
Maldonato, Jesuit, ii 451.
Malesherbes, Lamoignon de,
counsel for defence of Louis
XVI., V. 101.
Malet, General, v. 493.
Malleville, French Home Office
minister, vi 82.
Mallo, De, v. 273.
Malmesbury, Lord, v, 194; En-
glish plenipotentiary to France,
234, 257, 268.
Malta : Knights of St. John, set-
tlement, i 452; Charles Y.'s
gift to Knights of St. John, ii.
. 87 ; siege by the Turks, 367;
French conquest, v. 276 ; sur-
render to English, 312 ; restor-
ation to Knights of St. John,
V. ^S ; occupation bv Russia,
— ^English Cabinet objections,
V. 345 no^6.
Mamalukes, origin of name, i
375 note.
Manche, Letoumeur de la, v.
247,257.
Mancini, Mary, iii 385.
Mandni, M., Italian Foreign
Minister, vi 22a
Mandat, murder of, v. 85.
Mandelot, governor of Lyons, ii
386.
Manfredi, Astorre, Lord of Fa-
enza, i 261.
Maniani, Roman Prime Minister,
vi 101.
Manila, conquest by America,
vi236.
Manin, Daniel, Venetian patriot,
vi. 130.
Mannheim, capture by Ney, v.
292.
Mansfeld, Albert of, ii. 68.
Mansfeld, Charles of, ii. 415.
Mansfeld, Count Peter Ernest
of: Command of troops in
Netherlands, iii. 27; admin-
istration, 39 ; Netherlands
government, 77 ; command of
Imperial troops in Hun-
, 94 ; Thirty Years' War,
Mansfeld, Gebhard of, ii 68.
Manstein, Colonel, v. 171, 194.
Manteuffel, General : Kreuz party
chief, vi 112; Prussian gover-
nor of Schleswig, 173, 176;
command, 178, Iw.
Mantua: Council of (1459), i
98; Congress of — railure to
effect peace, 301 ; (1512), 316 ;
union with Cisalpine Republic,
V.254.
Mantua, Marquis of, i 262, 274,
288,460.
Manuel, Don Juan, i 271.
Manuel, Frocwreur de la Com-
mune, V. 71.
Mapes, Walter, i. 398.
Marais, French pjuty, v. 96.
Maranon, Trappist monk, gue-
rilla leader, vi. 12.
Marat : Writhigs and journalism,
V. 53; September massacres,
93; trial, 118; murder by
Charlotte Corday, 125.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
318
MODEBN EUROPE
Maraviglia, Fieneh ambaasador,
ii. 119.
Marboifl, Fiench agent at Phil«
addphia, iv. 457.
MarboiB, Barb^, President of the
Ancients, v. 248.
Marburg, conference between
Lnther and Zwingli, ii 91.
Maroellns II., Pope, election to
Pontificate, death, ii 285.
Mait^md, Major, Fashoda in*
cident, vi. 234.
Marche, OUvierde la, i. 132.
Marck, Eberhard de la, i. 179.
Marck, Bobert de la, Duke of
Bonillon, i. 179,347. 428, 429.
Mardeifeld, General, Swedish
commander, iv. 143.
Marfori, yi 189^
Margaret, Qoeen Dowager of
Scotland, i. 364.
Margaret, Qneen of Navarre,
death, ii. 252.
Margaret of Anjon, Queen of
England : Wars of the Roses,
i 124; reconciliati<m with
Warwick, 144 ; defeat at Tew-
kesbury, 146 ; release— Peace of
Pequigny, 166, 161.
Margaret of Austria, L 168 ; mar-
riage, 181, 234; Crovemess of
the Netibierlands, 276 ; Charles,
Archduke, instructed by, 368 ;
League of Cambray , 288 ; death,
iL 100.
Margaret of Austria, marriage
with miilip III. of Spain, iu.
139.
Margaret of Parma : Governess of
ti&e Netherlands, iL 405; change
of policy, 419 ; resignation, 426.
Margaret of France, marriage
with Duke of Savoy, iL 304,
310, 313.
Margaret of ValoiB, Duchess of
Alen^on. ii. 10 ; marriage with
Henry of Navarre, 21, 380, 385;
divorce from Henry IV., iii.
134.
Maria of PortueeJ, Dofia, iL 414.
Maria, Queen of Portugal : Mar-
riages, vL 70 ; death, 116.
Maria da Gloria, Queen of Por-
tugal, vi. 68; retirement to
Branl—betrothal, 69.
Maria of Bavaria, Queen of Na-
ples, vi. 146.
Maria Louisa, Archduchess of
Austaia : Marriage with Napo-
leon, V. 464; regent, 495; re-
tirement from Paris with her
son, 515 ; return to Austria,
518 ; acquisition of Parma, Pia-
cenza, and Guastalla, 524 ; ex-
pulsion from Parma, vL 58.
Maria Louisa, Infanta of Spain,
marriage with Le<^ld, Grand
Duke of Tuscany, iv. 388.
Maria Louisa, Queen Dowaser of
Etruria, resignation of re-
gency, V. 428.
Maria Louisa of Orleans, mar-
rii^ with Charles II. of Spain
— death, iv. 68.
Maria Theresa of Austria : Mar-
riage with Francis of Lorraine,
Grand Duke of Tuscany, iv.
248; assumption of imperial
government, 248 ; opposition to,
249, 250 ; coalition against, 261,
262 ; alliance with England and
Holland, 262 ; forlorn oonditieii
of, 264; appeal to Hungarian
Diet, 265 ; fortunes of Italian
campaigns, 270; English sym-
pathy, 270, 280 ; coronation at
Prague, 281 ; secret treaty with
Elizabeth of Russia, 321 ; Ba-
varian Succession Question,389 ;
character, 392 ; death, 392.
Maria Theresa of Spain : Mar-
riage with Louis XiV., iiL 386;
387 ; death, iv. 39.
Maria Theresa Order, founded, iv.
326.
Mariana, Spanish Jesuit, iiL 17.
Marie Antoinette of Austria:
Marriage with the Daophin
of France, iv. 388; diamond
necklace a^ir, 460; trial and
execution, v. 132, 133.
Marienburg: Conventions-League
of Cities, L 25; Diet, iv.
137.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
319
Marillac, Charles de. Archbishop
of Vienne, ii. 293.
Maritime disooveries, i. 322 ; dr-
cuiunavigation of the globe, ii.
189 ; review of, iv. 182.
Maritime law, ii. 200, 201; iv.
448.
Markoff, Russian ambassador, v.
354.
Markov, General, Russian com-
mander, V. 475.
Marlborough, John Churchill,
Duke of, iii. 456; iv. 83, 86, 87,
90, 93, 98, 100, 106 ; dismissal
from command, 107 ; Captain
General and Master of Ordin
ances, 116.
Marmont, General, French com
mands, v. 365, 455 ; vi 38.
Marmontel, revolution — influ
ence of towns, v. 28.
Mamix, Philip de. Lord of Ste,
Aldegonde, u. 415, 434, 440; iii
11, 16, 24.
Marone, Papal Nuncio, ii. 147.
Maroto, Carlist commander, vL
72.
Marsegli, Count, institution of
Janissaries, i 6 note.
MarseUlaiset v. 80.
Marsin, Marshal, iv. 88.
Marti^ac, Vioomte de, Prime
Mimster of France, vi, 26; dis-
missal, 35.
Martin V., Pope, election by
Council of Constance, i 392.
Martinuzri, Bishop of Grosswar-
dein, ii 152, 270.
Mary, Princess of England, mar*
riage with William III. of
Grange, iii 459.
Mary, L Queen of England : Ac-
cession, ii 277 ; marriage with
Philip, Prince of Spain, 278,
279, 280; declaration of war
against France, 297.
Mary, Queen of Hunffary: Gover-
ness of the Netherlanas, ii 100,
101 ; abdication of regency, 288.
Mary Anne of Neubur^, mar-
riage with Charles II. of Spain,
iv. 69.
Mary Eleanor, Queen Dowager of
Sweden, iii. 330.
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots:
Marrii^e with Francis, Dam*
phin of France, ii 301 ; execu-
tion, iii 32.
Mary of Burgundy, i 161 ; mar-
riage with Maximilian of Ger-
many, 164; truce with Louis
XI., 165; death, 166.
Mary of Guise, regency of Scot-
land, ii 250, 251.
Masaniello, iii. 343.
Massacre of St. Bartholomew, ii
388; question of premeditation,
391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397,
398 and note,
Mass^na, General, v. 145, 211, 215,
239, 290, 297, 309, 352, 373, 384,
452, 457, 470.
Maasillon, Bishop of Clermont*
Ferrand, v, 7.
Matrikel, i 279.
Matthias, Emperor : Nomination
as Governor of NetherUuids
by Catholic aristocrats, iii
6; resignation of Netherlands
(governorship, 15; administra-
tion in Hungary, 89 ; command
of Imperial troops in Hungary,
93; Austrian Family Compact,
153 ; invasion of Moravia, 153,
154; election to crown of Bo-
hemia, 186; marriage with Anne
of Tyrol, 186 ; election as Em-
peror, 186 ; death, 192.
Matthias of Janow, Canon of
Pra^e Cathedral, forerunner
of Huss, i 390.
Matthieu, P^re, *' Courier of the
League," ii 480.
Matthys (or Mathiasen), Jan, ii.
124, 125.
Maupas, M., Prefect of Police, vi.
Maupeou, Chancellor of France,
iv. 428, 439, 440.
Maurepas Count de, iv. 246, 440,
445.
Maurevert, assassin, ii. 456.
Maurice, Duke, and Elector of
Saxony, ii. 165, 170, 206, 207,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
MODERN EUROPE
21S, 2U, 216, 221, 222, 233, 241,
245, 249, 254, 259, 260, 262, 271,
272, 275, 276.
Maiinoe, Prince of Nassau: Stad-
holder of Holland, Zealand, and
Utrecht,^ iii 24; supreme au-
thority in Netherlands during
aheenoe of Leicester, 29 ; Com-
mander-in-Chief of tiie Nether-
lands, 30; Netherlands milituy
successes, 37, 38, 39, 81 ; gover-
nor of Grelderland and Overyssel,
38; Flanders expedition, 140;
Jnarrel with Olden Bameveldt,
82; synod at Dort, 183; death,
252.
Maury, Abb^, v. 42.
MavTOoordato, Greek phanariot
and revolutionary leader, vi
29.
Maximilian, Archduke of Aus-
tria: Invasion of, and imprison-
ment in Poland, iii. 88, 89; Aus-
trian Family Compact, 153.
Maximilian, Archduke of Austria,
■ Emperor of Mexico, vi. 184.
Maximilian I., Duke and Elector
of Bavaria: Bigotry and in-
tolerance, iii. 156; Donauw5rth,
conversion into Catholic provin-
cial town, 156; Catholic League
of Germany, 158, 188 ; Thirty
Years* War, 201 ; Upper Palati-
nate and Electoral dignity trans-
ferred to, 208, 261; imperial
command, 279; neutrality, 342;
disre^rd of treaty of Ulm, 348.
MaximBian I., Emperor: Mar-
riage with Mary <yt Burgundy,
L 164; re^ncy, 166, 167;
violation or Treaty of Arras,
173; coronation at Aix-la-
Chapelle,173; Flemish disturb-
ances, repressive measures, 173 ;
imprisonment at Bruges, 174;
marriage with Anne of Brit-
tany, 177 ; annulment of mar-
ria^, 180 ; recc^ition as r^;ent
in Flanders, 178 ; accession to
imperial throne, 189, 213 ; mar-
riage with Bianca of Milan, 189,
213; league against France, 225;
regency of the Netherlands, 276;
Italian expedition, 281 ; * 'Roman
Emperor ^lect," 281; League of
Cambray, 283 ; siege of Padua,
290, 291; Holy L^eue, 306;
alliance with Henry vIII. and
Ferdinand the Catholic, 364;
Hungarian succession, 366 ;
generalissimo of crusade against
infidels, 378 ; death, 379 ; char-
acter and poli^, 380, 381.
Maximilian II. ,Em]^eror: Govern-
ment of Spain durm^ absence of
Philip, ii. 249; election as £ang
of the Romans, 345; Bohemia-
coronation as heir and successor
to Ferdinand, 346; accession,
351 ; truce with Turkey, 371 ;
mecUation on behalf of the
Netherlands, 427, 443, 444;
treaty with John Sigismund,
448; death, 446, 448; iii 85.
Maximilian I., Kms of Bavaria,
accession to FifUi Coalition,
V. 506.
Maximilian II., King of Bavaria,
accession, vi. 89.
Maximilian Emmanuel, Elector of
Bavaria: Imperial command, iv.
57, 58; aUy of France, 85 ; Ban
of Empire issued against, 93.
Maximilian Joseph, Elector and
King of Bavaria : Accession to
Bavarian Electorate, iv. 291;
vacillating policy, v. 368 ; treaty
with Napoleon, 370; assump-
tion of sovereignty, 379; deatn,
iv. 389.
Mayenne, Duke of, ii. 461 ; com-
mand of French army, iiL 42,
50 ; truce with Henry IV., 72.
Mazarin, Cardinal, iii. 271 ; suc-
cessor to Richelieu in the minis-
try, 327 ; Italian policy, 341 ;
domestic policy, 354; financial
measures, taxation, etc., 354,
355; character— discontent of
nobles, 356 ; retirement, 361 ;
invitation to return, 363; re-
tirement, 365; return to power,
influence over Louis XI v., etc. ,
367 ; alliance with Cromwell,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
321
369 ; Grerman policy-— intrigues
for the Empire, 380; supremacy
of France secured by, 388;
death, 388.
Mazarin, Cardinal Michael, Gov-
ernor of Catalonia, iii. 347.
Mazeppa, Ivan, Hetman of Cos-
sacks, iv. 147.
Mazzini, Giuseppe: Progress of
doctrines in Italy, vi. 75 ; Gio-
vane Italia— Beeret league, 91,
102; escape from Rome, 103;
undivided Italian Republic
scheme, 128, 142.
Mecklenburg, Henry, Duke of,
ii. 68.
Medici, House of : i. 49.
Alessandro de*. Governor of
Florence, i. 462; ii. 43, 84,
118, 133.
Alexander, Cardinal, Papal
Legate in France, iii. 82 ; elec-
tion to Pontificate, 148 {see
also Leo XL).
Catharine de'. Queen of France :
Coronation, ii. 252 ; regency,
265, 325, 457 ; Guise f amUy,
usurpation of power, 314 ;
n^otiations with Huguenots,
343; policy, 353, 383; royal
tour, 354 ; death, iii. 49.
Cosmo de*, Grand Duke of
Tuscany : Revolution in Flor-
ence, L 51 ; encouragement of
literature and art, 109 ; war
in Italy, 282, 283 ; union of
Siena and Florence, 296 and
note ; death, 109.
Francesco de', Grand Duke of
Tuscany, ii. 448.
Giovanni, Cardinal de', i. 188,
430, 439 ; u. 24, 26.
Giulio, Cardinal de', ruler of
Florence, i. 379 ; election to
Pontificate, 461 {see cdso
Clement VIL).
Ippolito, Cardinal de', i. 462;
u. 43, 118.
John, Cardinal de', L 185, 309,
312, 314, 317, 396 ; election to
Pontificate, 344 {see oho Leo
X).
VI.
John Gaston de', Grand Duke
of Tuscany, iv. 223.
Julian de', i. 115.
Julian de', i. 316, 317 ; marriage,
357 ; cc»nmand of army, 358.
Julius de'. Archbishop of Flor-
ence, i. 345.
Lorenzo I., the Magnificent :
Character and statesmanship,
i 111 ; '< Conspiracy of the
Pazzi," 115; attempted assas-
sination, 116; lee^e with
Naples, 118 ; government and
policy, 185, 186 ; progress of
art and literature, 187 ; death,
187; alleged confession, 218
and note.
Lorenzo II. : Florentine Go-
vernment, i. 317 ; marriage,
379; death, 379.
Maddalena de', i. 185.
Mary de'. Queen of France :
Coronation, iii. 163 ; regency,
163, 165 ; Spanish policy, 168 ;
banishment, 178 ; escape from
Blois, 179; reconciliation with
Louis XIII., 180 ; death, 313.
Peter L,i. 110, 111.
Peter II., i. 187, 215, 216, 217,
262.
Medicino, Gian Angelo, election
to Pontificate, ii. 322, 323 {see
a/wPiusIV.).
Medidno, John James, Marquis of
Marignano, IL 282, 283,284, 323.
Medina Cell, Duke of, ii 436.
Medina-Sidonia, Duke of, i. 201 ;
iii. 80.
Meerfeld, Creneral, French Envoy
to Emperor Francis I., v. 507.
Meersch, Van der, *< General of
the Patriots," iv. 417.
Mehemet Ali, vi. 32, 62, f
Turki<(h command, 213.
Melanchthon, Philip, German re
former, i 409, 412; ii 51, 94,
147, 245.
Melas, General, command of Aus
trian army in Italy, v. 291
310.
Melikov, Loris, Russian com
mand, vi 213«
Digitiz-ed by V^OOQIC
322
MODERN EUROPE
Mello, Don Francisco de, iiL
320.
Manager, French Envoy to
London, iv. 106, 107.
Mendicant orders, establishment
of, i. 388.
Mendoza, Don Bernardino de, ii.
478.
Mendoza, Don Diego de, ii 274.
Mendoza, Don Pedro Gonzales
de, i. 266.
Mendoza, Grand Cardinal, i. 202.
Mendoza, Marquis of Goadalete,
iii. 140.
Menebraca, General, Prime Min-
ister of Italy, vi. 187.
Menot, Michel, i. 398.
Menotti, Chief of Modenese
Police, vi. 58.
Menou, French command-in-chief
in Egypt, v. 325.
Menschikoflf, Prince, Russian
general, iv. 142, 143, 144, 148,
152, 237, 238 ; banishment and
death, 238.
Menschikoff, Prince, Special Am-
bassador to Porte, vi 118 ;
Crimean command, 121 ; recall,
123.
Merci, General, Imperial com-
mand, iii 339.
Mercoenr, Duke of, Governor of
Brittany, iii. 61, 74.
Merino, guerilla leader, vi. 14.
Mesnund, French command in
Pays de Vaud, v. 266.
Messeria, Envoy to Paris from
England, v. 327.
Meszoroz, General, v. 229.
Meteren, Flemish historian, iii
125.
Methuen, Paul, English minister
at Lisbon, iv. 89.
Jdettemich, Count, Imperial En-
voy at Rastadt, v. 293, 504;
Holy Alliance, vi. 13, 20 ; con-
gress at Carlsbad, 24.
Metz, Herr, vi. 154.
Mexico: Conauest by Spain, ii
189 ; Republic— league with
Columbia, vi. 11 note; French
intervention, 184.
Meza, De, Danish command, vi.
167.
M^zi^res, De, i 350.
Miaules, Admiral, burning of
Greek fleet, vi. 34.
Michel Angelo Buonarroti, i. 303,
321 ; ii. 83, 84.
Michael Romanoff: Election as
Tsar of Russia, iii. 228 ; death,
395.
Michael, King of Poland, iv. 8.
Michaud, French General, v. 195.
Micheli, Venetian ambassador, iii
100.
Michelson, General, Russian com-
mand in Moldavia, v. 417.
Micheroux, Greneral, Neapolitan
command, v. 287.
Microslawsky, vi. 158.
Midhat Pasha, vi. 209; Grand
Vizier, 211.
Mierolowski, Greneral, vi 104.
Mi^el, Dom, vi. 17, 18 ; usurpa-
tion of Portuguese throne, 69 ;
residence in Rome, 70.
Milan : Establishment of Visconti
as Dukes of Milan, i 52 ; suc-
cession claims, 54 ; establish-
ment of republic, 55 ; league
with Florence and Venice, 114 ;
revolutions, 117, 248; conquest
by Louis XII., 247 ; recovery
and loss, 346, 347 ; capitulation,
351 ; claims of Francis I., 355,
356; recovery by the French,
360 ; Austrian mvasion, 367 ;
designs and negotiations of Leo
X., 431 ; loss of, by the French,
438, 441 ; evacuation by Duke
of Milan, ii 23 ; occupation by
Germany, iv. 2S^ ; surrender to
the French, v. 219; Cisalpine
Republic, 309 ; Austrian evacua-
tion, vi. 92, 135.
Milan, Capitulate of, i 117.
Milan Decree, v. 410.
Milan, Dukes of {see Sforza and
Visconti).
Military orders of Spain, i 66.
Militz, 1.390.
Miltitz, Carl von, Papal Envoy to
Wittenbeig, i 409; Lichten-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
323
berg interview with Lather,
414.
Mina, gaerilla leader: Spanish
insurrection, vi. 11, 12 ; defence
of Catalonia, 14 ; command of
Ckristinos, 67 ; Governor of
Barcelona, 71.
MinaA, Las, iv. 299.
Minorca : Union with Aragon, L
63 ; English capture, v. ^9.
Minto, Lonl, vi. 94.
Minucci, General, iv. 268.
Miollis, General, French com-
mand — occupation of Rome, v.
430.
Mir CapOlo, Bishop of Almeria,
Grand Inquisitor of Spain, vi. 9,
10.
Mirabeau, Comte de, member of
Tiers-Etaty iv. 464; career, v.
43 ; connection and schemes
with the court, 56 ; death, 59.
Mirabeau, Marquis of, economist,
advocate of free trade, etc.,
v. 14.
Mirabel, Marquis of, Spanish am-
bassador in Paris, iii. 243.
Miraflores, Prime Minister of
Spain, vi. 189.
Miranda, General, v. 114, vi. 10.
Mirandola,Pico della, i. 399 ; iL 88.
Mirowitseh, iv. 363.
Mischani, Mahomet, i. 220.
Mississippi Company, Law's
scheme, iv. 205.
Mitchell, Admiral, English com-
mand on the Vlie, v. 300.
Modena : Revolutionary move-
ment, vi 94; revolt against
Austrian government, 137.
Modena, Duke of: Purchase of
Armistice from French, v. 220 ;
Breisgau and Ortenau: com-
pensation cession, 337.
Moderados^ Spanish constitu-
tional party, vi. 13, 67.
Mol^, Count, President of the
Council, vL 55, 58.
Moleville, Bertrand de, French
Minister of Marine, v. 74.
Molitemo, Prinoe, v. 299.
Molitor, General, v. 390.
MollaSf judges, L 15.
Mollendorf, Marshal, v. 171, 190,
191, 194, 195 ; death, 397, 398.
Moller, Colonel, Russian com-
mandant in Wilkomir, vi. 161.
Moltke, Count von : Conduct of
Prussian campaign, vi. 178 ;
title of Count conferred on,
198.
Molucca Islands, Portuguese
settlement, i. 337.
Moncada, Hugo de, L 464 ; ii. 24 ;
death, 40.
Moncey, Marshal, v. 199, 203;
French command in Italy, 310 ;
Marshal of the Empire, 352;
French command m Spain,
444,449.
Mondejar, Marc^uis of. Viceroy
of Gr&nada, ii. 366.
Mondoucet, French Envoy to
Netherlands, ii. 436.
Monge, French Minister of
Marine, v. 87, 106.
Monrad, Bishop, President of
Lower House of Danish Rigs-
raad, vi. 169.
Monroe doctrine, vi. 235.
** Monsieur," title given to
French King's eldest brother,
iL 462 note.
Monson, Sir Edward, English
ambassador in Paris, Fasnoda
incident, vL 234.
MontcLgney French Ultra-Demo-
crats, V. 82, 96.
Montague, Sir Wortley, English
Envoy at Constantinople, iv.
211.
Montauban, Chancellor of Brit-
tany, i. 177.
Montbel, vL 36.
Montcalm, Marquis de, iv. 342.
Monte Corona, religious order,
ii. 185.
Monte, Cardinal Del: Election
to Pontificate, ii. 253 {see also
Julius IIL).
Monte, Cardinal Del, ii. 321,
322.
Montebelloj Duke of, French
Prime Minister, vi. 62.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
824
MODEEN EUROPE
Montecuculi, General, ii. 123;
iu. 417, 453, 457 ; iv. d.
Montefeltro, Count Frederick of,
i. 110 ; league with Sixtus IV.,
and Ferdinand of Naples, 114.
Montemar, Duke of, iv. 230.
Montenegro : Declaration of war
against Turkey, vi. 210 ; inde-
pendence, 216, 217 ; acquisi-
tions under Treaty of Berlin,
224.
Montesquieu, Charles de, influ-
ence of writings, v. 17.
Montesquiou, General, French
command, v. 75, 98.
Montholon, Count, vi. 64.
Montigny, Baron, execution, ii.
431.
Montijo, Donna £ugenia, Count-
ess of T^ba, marriage with
Napoleon III., vi. 110.
Montluc, Blaise de, General, ii.
164. 283, 302, 340.
Montluc, Jean de. Bishop of
Valence, ii. 162, 327, 454.
Montmorenci, Charlotte of, iii.
161.
Montmorenci, Constable of
France, ii. 128, 134, 135, 142,
144, 229, 248, 298, 303, 310, 314,
327,328,342; death, 358.
Montmorenci, Marshal Anne de,
i. 47a; ii. 3, 456, 461.
Montmorin, iv. 399, 462 ; v. 92.
Montpensier, Due de, marriage
witn Maria Louisa, Princess of
Bpain, vi. 74.
Montpensier, Mdlle. de : Marri-
age with Gaston, Duke of
Anjou, iii. 244, 245; *<La
Grande Mademoiselle," 364.
Montpezat, Governor of Lan-
guedoc, ii. 156.
Moore, Captain, v. 356.
Moore, Sir John : English com-
mand in Sweden, v. 21 ; Portu-
guese Koyal family, assistance
for flight, etc., 4S7 ; English
command in Portugal, 446.
Moors of Granada, i. 199, 200,
201, 202 ; insurrection, forcible
conversion to Christianity, 267 ;
use of artillery in war with
Spain, 342; persecution of,
under Charles I., 445.
Moravian Brethren, reUgionssect,
iv. 196.
Morbihan, Company of, iii. 246.
Mordaunt, Charles, Earl of Peter-
borough, iv. 94, 96, 98.
Morea: Conquest by Mahomet II.,
L 101 ; conquest by the Vene-
tians, iv. 16 ; conquest by the
Turks, 210.
Moreau, General, French com-
mander, V. 194, 195, 214, 224,
251, 293, 294, 295, 296, 309,
313, 349, 353, 500 ; death, 500,
506.
Morelli, Lieutenant, Neapolitan
insurrection, vi. 19.
Morelly, Physiocrat writer, v. 14.
Morgenstem, Swiss duba with
points of iron, i 341.
Morigia, Giacomo Antonio, il
185.
Morillo, General, vL 11, 12, 14, 15.
Moriscoes, Moors converted to
Christianity, i. 267.
Mornv, M. de, French Minister
of Interior, vi. 107.
Morocco, anarchy and disturb-
ances in, ii. 469, 470.
Morone, Jerome, L 431, 438 ; ii.
16, 18, 25.
Morone, Papal Legate, L 349.
Morosini, Italian commander,
iv. 10.
Morpeth, Lord, English ambas-
sador to Berlin, v. 394.
Mortemar, Due de. Prime Minis-
ter of France, vi. 39.
Mortier, General, v. 346, 352,
400, 414.
Morton, Dr. Nicholas, ii. 375.
MortoUj Regent of Seotland, iL
474.
Morvilliers, Jean de, Bishop of
Orleans, ii. 360.
Morvilliers, Pierre de, i. 129, 130,
141.
Moscow, destruction of, v. 489.
Moslem Dominion in Spain, end
of, L 202.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
325
Motte, Pardieu de la, iiL 8, 10.
Monlart, Matthew, Bishop of
Arras, iiL 8, 9.
Moulins, Assembly of Notables,
ii.3d«.
Moanier, Jean Joseph, Tennis
Court Oath, v. 33.
Moydel, Swedish general, iv. 145.
Muffetishf jndidal officers, i. 15.
Mufti, head of spiritnaJ and
temporal law, i. 15.
Mtihlhansen, tinion to France, v.
266.
Miiktar Pasha, Turkish com-
mand, vi. 213.
Muley Aben Hassan, Moorish
King, i. 200, 201.
Muley Mahommed, Sultan of
Morocco, ii. 469.
Mulgrave, Lord, Foreign Secre-
tary, V. 359.
Mtlller, General, French com-
mand, V. 297.
MiinchengrHtz, Congress of Nor-
thern Powers, vi. 70.
Munich, Duke Albert II. of,
i. 212.
Munn, Mr. Thomas, iii. 125.
Mlinnich, Field-Marshal, Russian
command, iv. 241, 243, 244, 263,
276, 369, 361.
Mufioz, Duke of Rianzarez, vi.
72, 73.
Munroe, Mr., American Minister
in Paris, v. 347.
Miinster : Spiritual Republic,
ii. 124, 125 ; Peace Congress,
iii. 336.
Munzer, Thomas, ii. 51, 53, 63, 64.
Murad Bey, Mamaluke leader,
V. 277 ; Pnnce of Said or Upper
Egypt ; submission to French,
304.
Murad V., Sultan of Turkey,
accession, vi. 209.
Murat, Marshal : v. 306 ; French
command in Italy, 315; Mar-
shal of the Empire, 352 ; Vienna,
entry of French, 373; Grand
Duke of Berg— marriage with
Caroline Bonaparte, 386 ; suc-
cesses, 398 ; Commander-in-
Chief of French in Spain, 435 ;
revolution at Madrid, 436, 437,
440 ; Lieutenant-General of
Spain, 441 ; King of Naples by
Constitutional Statute, 442 ;
preparations for conquest of
Sicily, 463; retreat of the
French to Posen — desertion,
500 ; command of French
cavalry, 504 ; negotiations with
Austria and England, 504;
declaration of war with Na|>o-
leon, 511 ; treaty with Austria,
511 ; Naples retained by, 524 ;
renewal of warfare in Italy —
failure and flight, 528, 529;
execution, vi 19.
Muraviev» (xeneral : Russian com-
mand in Trans-Caucasian pro-
vinces, vi. 125; mission into
Lithuania, 161.
Murray, Geneml, iv. 455.
Murray, Sir John, v. 611.
Murillo, Bravo, Spanish Prime
Minister, vi. 116.
Muskets, pistols or muskets first
made at Nuremberg, i. 342.
Mustapha I., Sultan of Turkey :
Accession and re-imprisonment,
iii. 209 ; second Sultanship and
deposition, 211.
Mustapha II., Sultan of Turkey,
iv. 14.
Mustapha III. , Sultan and Caliph
of Turkey : Accession, iv. 374 ;
war against Russia, 375;
death, 386.
Mustapha IV., Sultan of Turkey,
V. 419; insurrection against:
dethronement, vi. 26.
Mustapha, son of Solyman,
death, ii. 371.
Mustapha Bairactar, Ptusha of
Rustchuk, vi. 26.
Mustapha, Kara, Grand Vizier of
Turkey, iv. 7.
Mustapha Moldawanschi All
Pasha, Grand Vizier, iv. 376.
Mustapha Pasha, Turkish War
Minister, vi. 213.
Mustapha, Reis-Eflendi, secre*
tary at Vienna, iv. 492.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
326
MODERN EUROPE
Muteferrika, Sultan's Body-guax d,
i 8.
Nachimov, Admiral, Russian
command in Black Sea, vL 119.
Najara, DukQ^of, i. 267, 425,
Nantes, Edict of, iii. 74 ; revoca-
tion, iv. 41.
Napier, Admiral, vi. 63, 122.
Naples : Claims of Houses of
Anjou and Aragon, i. 57 ; revo-
lutions, 58; French invasions,
d89, 214, 224, 225, 275 ; iv. 231 ;
v. 348, 384 ; France and Spain,
Partition Treaty disputes, i.
254, 255; French evacuation,
256; conquest completed by
Gonsalvo de Cordova, i. 263;
revolt against Inquisition, ii.
236; insurrections and revolu-
tions, iii. 343 ; v. 299, 385 ; vi.
19, 20, 94; Spanish restoration,
iii. 345 ; conquest by Allies, iv.
231 ; administrative reforms, v.
181 ; Parthenopean Republic,
288, 289 ; reconquest by Nea-
politans, 299; restoration to
Allies, 529; Spanish Constitu-
tion of 1812, vi. 19 ; Garibaldi's
invasion, 143.
Napoleon I. : Captain of artillery
at Toulon, v. 138; second in
command of National Conven-
tion troops, V. 206, 207 and
note ; chief of Bureau Topo-
grapkique, 207 ; second in
command of Army of Interior,
207; command in Italy, 214,
215, 216, 217, 224, 230, 236, 247 ;
meurriage with Josephine Beau-
hamais, 215; peace proposals,
240, 252 ; secret offer of help to
Triumvirs, 249; invasion of
England scheme, 259, 260, 262 ;
plenipotentiary at Rastadt, 260 ;
Egyptian expedition,. 274, 277,
301, 302 ; Syrian campaign, 303 ;
First Consul, 306 : powers and
salary, 307 ; dismissal of Siey^s
and Ducos, 308; command in
Italy, 309 ; attempted assassina-
tion, 313; Concordat with Pius,
VII., 316; PresidentofCisalpine
Republic, 328 ; re-election for
life, 330 ; measures for consoli-
dating power, 331 ; domestic
legislation and reforms, 333;
forei^ policy, 334; Act of
Mediation in Switzerland, 340 ;
annexation of Parma and Pied-
mont, 341 ; projected invasion
of England, 348; Emperor:
Election, 351 ; coronation-
hereditary nature of Imperial
dignity, 353; King of Italy,
362; convention with Marquis
de San Gallo, 367; personal
command of French army in
Germany, 369 ; abolition of
Tribunate, 385; mediator of
Helvetic Republic, 387 ; pro-
tector of Confederation of the
Rhine, 388, 389; position in
Europe in 1806, 391 ; entry into
Berlin, 398 ; Polish Insurrec-
tion, 401 ; Tilsit interview with
Alexander I., 404 ; Continental
System, 407 ; domination at
Peace of Tilsit, 408; Berlin
Decree, 409 ; Milan Decree, 410 ;
supremacy in France, 423;
schemes against Spain and
Portugal, 424, 425; relations
with Pius VII., 429; annexation
of Papal States, 431 ; French
invasion of Spain, 436 ; Treaty
of Bayonne, 440 ; alliance with
Russia, 447 ; personal command
in Spain, 449; dissolution of
marriage, 464; marriage with
Archduchess Maria Louisa of
Austria^ 464; troops, 469;
height of power, 472 ; schemes
agamst Russia, 473, 474 ; alli-
ances with Prussia and Austria,
481 ; command in Russia, 483,
484, 486; arrival at Moscow,
489; retreat, 490; return to
Paris, 493; re^ncy, 495;
resumption of milituy com-
mand, 501 ; treaty with Den-
mark, 504; deposition, 515;
abdication, 516 ; retirement to
Elba, 517 ; escape and return to
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
327
Paris, 526, 527; defeat at
Waterloo, 530 ; second abdica-
tion, 531 ; banishment and
death, 532 ; transfer of remains
to Paris, vi. 64.
Napoleon II. (Ducde Reichstadt),
VI. 57.
Napoleon III. : Strassburg con-
spiracy, vi. 58, 60 ; attempt to
g:ain French crown, 64; elec-
tion as Deputy for Paris, 81 ;
return to Paris, 82 ; President
of Second French Republic, 82 ;
conservative policy, 106 ; elec-
tion for ten years, 109; Emperor,
110 ; recognition by European
powers, 110 ; marriage, 110 ;
Crimean War, 118, 121, 126;
visit to England, 124; at-
tempted assassination, 130 ;
intOTview with Cavour, 131 ;
command of French armv in
Italy, 134; failure to keep
agreement with Cavour, 139;
"Le Pape et le Congrfes"
pamphlet, 141 ; recall of army
trom Lombardy, 141 ; Italian
policy, 149 ; Schleswig-Holstein
Question, 166,167; negotiations
with Prussia and Austria, 174,
175 ; French intervention in
Mexico, 184; designs on Lux-
embourg, 184; anti-Imperialist
feeling caused by undecided
policy, 191 ; candidature for
Spanish crown, 192; command-
in-chief, 193 ; surrender to
King of Prussia, 195 ; death at
ChiBlehurst, 201, 202.
Narbonne, Comte de, French
Minister of War, v. 74, 484.
Narvaez, Carlist commander, vi.
71, 72; Duke of Valencia,
73; Prime Minister of Spain,
115; recall, 116; Coup cTitat,
189.
Naselli, Greneral, Viceroy of
Sicily, vi. 20.
Nassau, Count of, Imperial com-
mander, i. 178, 180, 429.
Nassau, Count of, Grerman pleni-
potentiary, iii. 338.
Nassau :
Frederick Henry, Prince of, iii.
143, 253.
Henry, Prince of Nassau,
marriage, L 371.
Louis, Count of, ii. 415, 428,
432, 441.
Maurice, Prince, command of
Dutch troops, iv. 282.
Ren^, Prince of Orange, ii. 155.
Natiomdverein, German National
Association, vi 153, 173, 176.
Navailles, Duke of, French com-
mander, iv. 7.
Navarre : Succession Question, i.
191, 192, 193, 197, 318 ; incor-
poration with Castile, 320;
French invasion, 426, 427, 428.
Navarro, Pedro, i. 256, 305, 306,
309, 312, 313, 342, 356, 358 ; ii.
24, 41.
Navigation: Progress, effect on
commerce, L 322; maritime
law, 200, 201.
Navigation Act, iii. 371.
Necker, Director of French Royal
Treasury, iv. 441 ; financial re-
forms, 461 ; resignation, 462 ;
recall, 466; royal address to
National Assembly, v. 32 ; dis-
missal, 36 ; recall, 40 ; financial
schemes, 53 ; retirement, 58.
Necker, Oliver, i. 170.
Negropont, Tiurkish mastery in,
Neipperg, Count, Imperial mili-
tanr command, iv. 243, 256, 257.
Nelidov, vi. 215.
Nelson, Lord : Siege of Calvi, v.
200; English supremacy in
Mediterranean, 277; capitula-
tion of Naples, 299 ; command
of fleet for Denmark, 321 ;
blockade of Toulon and Genoa,
357 ; Trafalgar victory, 380.
Nemours, Duke of, i. 255, 256.
Nemours, Duke of: Marriage
with Princess Victoria of
Coburg, vi. 61 ; regent, 76,
77.
Nepomuk, John, Bohemian Na-
tional Hero, iii. 205.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
328
MODEEN EUROPE
Nesselrode, Count, Russian En-
voy, vL 20, 126.
Netherlands : French incursions,
i. 149 ; Council of Regency, 276 ;
government of Mary, Queen
of Hungary, 100, 101 ; French
campaigns, ii 190, 155, 281,
297, 296, 299; taxation ques-
tion, 141 ; trade and commerce,
196, 197, 402 ; iii. 129 ; inc^uisi-
tion and religious persecutions,
ii. 253, 402, 403 ; abdication of
Charles V., 288 ; state of Pro-
vinces, 400 ; States-General,
401 ; supreme tribunal, 401 ;
prosperity in the sixteenth
century, 401 ; Reformation :
Lutherans, Anabaptists, Cal-
vinists, etc., 193, 402, 411, 412,
422; protest against Spanish
troops, 404, 405 ; erection of
new oishoprics, 406 ; League of
Nobles, 407 ; rise of Gaeux, 416 ;
progress of missionaries, 417 ;
anti-Catholic movement, 419;
civil war, 420-446 ; emigration
of Protestants, 422; re-estab-
lishment of Spanish authority,
422 ; reign of terror under Alva,
427 ; finance system, 432 ; re-
volt of northern towns and
provinces, 434 ; William of
Orange, Stadtholder, 434 ;
patriotic successes, 434, 435;
supplication of William and
the Dutch States, 439 ; State
Council measures, 444 ; ** Span-
ish Fury," 445 ; government of
Don John of Austria, iii. 3;
Union of Utrecht, 11 ; separa-
tion of Walloon Provinces, 12 ;
division, 12; Duke of Anjou's
action, 20 ; Spanish successes
under Famese, 21; campaign
of 1589, 37 ; election of Prince
Maurice as Governor of Gelder-
land and Overyssel, 38 ; admin-
istration of Count Mansfeld,
77 ; Seven United Provinces,
establishment, 77; war, 81, 144;
abdication of Philip IL, 83;
peace negotiations, 144 ; French
and Dutch designs on Spanish
Netherlands, 299, 427 ; French
invasion, 431, 433; iv. 35;
Spanish Succession War, 87, 93,
97, 100, 102, 104, 106, 110, 115;
cession of Spanish Neth^landB
to Charles VI. , 1 15 ; destruetion
of barrier fortresses, 395 ; insoi*
rections in Austrian Nether-
lands, 401, 417 ; Act of Union of
the Belgian United Provinces,
418 ; submission of Austrian
Netherlands to Leopold II.,
423; allies, campaign against
France, v. 190 {see aZao Hol-
land and Belgium).
Neufchftteau, Francois de, di-
rector, V. 252.
Neuhaus, Adam von, ii 75.
Neustedt : Erection of bidiopric,
i. 205 ; ca|>itulation, 208.
Nevers, Louis Gonzaga, Due de,
iii. 69, 269.
Ney, Marshal, v. 292; French
command in Switzerland, 340;
Marshal of the Empire, 362;
command in Spain, 449, 467;
hero of Moscow retreat, 494;
French command, 506 ; battle
of Quatre Bras, 530 ; execuldon,
vi. 6.
Neyen, John, iii. 144.
Nice, cession to France, vi. 142.
Nicholas, Grand Duke of Russia,
Commander-in-Chief, vL 212.
Nicholas V., Pope, i. 86.
Nicholas I., Tsar of Russia: Ac-
cession, vi. 30 ; policy, 31 ; war
againsb Turkey, 34, 118 ; crown
oi Poland, 51 ; interference in
Hungary, 100 ; death, 123.
Nicholas XL, Tsar of Russia:
Visit to Paris, vi. 227 ; Hague
Peace Congress, 238.
Niebuhr, Prussian Kreuz party
chief, vL 112.
Niel, Marshal, vi. 135, 192.
Niellon, General, vi. 49.
Niethard, iii. 445.
Nimeguen Congress, iii 458.
Nishandshi B<Mhi, secretary, L
12, 13.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
329
Noailles, Cardinal de, Archbishop
of Paris, iv. 199, 200.
Noailles, French ambassador, ii.
-281.
Noailles, Marshal, iv. 58, 61, 63,
281, 286, 444 ; v. 75.
Noel, Admiral, vi. 231.
Noot, Van der, "Agent of the
Brabanters," iv. 417 ; Prime
Minister of Belgium, 418.
Norfolk, Duke ot, English am-
bassador, ii. 113, 158, 165.
Normandy: Evacuation by the
English, i. 73; re-annexation
by Louis XL, 135; invasion,
149 ; levy of troop, ii. 3.
Norris, Sir John, iii. 7.
North German Confederation, vi.
198.
North, Lord, iv. 466.
Northern Bund of 1867, v. 181,
182, 183.
Northumberland, Earl of, ii. 375.
Norway: Danish invasion, v.
421 ; cession to Sweden, 509.
Notables, Assembly of : Fontaine-
bleau (1660), ii. 318; (1625),
iii. 242 ; St. Germain, ii. 332 ;
Moulins, 356 ; Versailles, iv.
462.
Novosiltzof, M., Russian ambas-
sador, V. 359.
Nugent, Count, vi. 95.
Nuremberg: Saxony and Bran-
denburg Agreement, i. 26 ; Diet
(1522), li. 57; (1523 and 1524),
68; conversion into fortified
Cfiunp, iii. 280.
Nuza,Don Juan de la, iii. 40.
Obreskoff, Russian resident in
Turkey, iv. 376.
Ochs, Peter, Oherzunftmeiater oi
Basle, V. 266.
Odard, Piedmontese lUtirateitr,
iv. 360.
ODonnell, Count of Abisbal,
vL 14.
0*Donnell, Greneral, Duke of
Tetuan : Spanish command
against Carusts, vi. 72 ; Vice-
roy of Austrian Italy, 92 ; re- |
signation, 116 ; Prime Minister
of Spain, 189.
Odysseus, Greek leader, vi. 30.
O'Hara, General, v. 137, 139.
Old League of High Germany,
1. o4, 1«7*
Olgiato, Girolamo, assassin, L
113.
Olivarez, Spanish Minister, iii
328.
Oliver, President, French Minis-
ter and Envoy, ii. 163.
Olivier, Chancellor, ii. 317.
Olmiitz : Conference, vi. 112 ;
interview between Nicholas I.
and Francis Joseph, 119.
Olney, Richard, United Statfes
secretary vi. 236.
Omar Pasha, Turkish command,
vi. 119.
Ompteda, Baron d*, Hanoverian
ambassador, v. 382.
Oflate, Count of, iii. 345.
Opitz, Joshua, iii. 86.
Opp^de, Baron Meinier d', ii.
173.
Orange Free State, joint de-
claration of war against Eng-
land with Transvaal, vi. 234.
Omage, House of, Netherlands
Stadtholdership, iv. 400.
Orange, Princes of :
Jomi, Governor of Burgundy,
i. 161, 165, 176.
Philibert, Commander-in-Chief
of Imperial army, ii. 32, 41,
83
William V., Hereditary Stadt-
holder, v. 196.
Orators, ambassadors, i. 338.
Orchan, organization of Otto-
man Empire, i. 6.
" Order of the Hammer," Spanish
order, vi. 12.
Orijlamme, last appearance in
battle, i. 131.
Orleans : Etats-G^n^raux, IL 326,
327 ; Edict of Orleans, 327.
Orleans, Dukes of :
Charles, ii. 166, 176.
Ferdinand Philippe LouIbi
death, vi. 66.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
830
MODERN EUROPE
Orleans, Dukes of :
Gaston, Lieutenant-General of
France, marrii^, iii. 244;
Duke of Orleans, 245 ; second
marriage, 298; lieutenant-
general, 305.
Louis {see Louis XII., King of
France).
Louis PhUippe Joseph, iv. 445 ;
revolutionist, v. 35, 36 ; loss
of popularity, 60 ; Deputy in
National Convention, 96 ;
"Philippe Egalit^," 103;
execution, 123.
Philippe I. : Marriage, iii. 424 ;
regency, 204 ; death, 216.
Orloff, Alexis, iv. 361, 377.
Orlotr, Gregory, iv. 360, 361, 402.
Ormond, Duke of, iv. 86, 107, 109.
Omano, Marshal d', iii. 244.
Orsini, assassin, vi 130.
Orsini, Cardinal, v. 183.
Orsini, Papal Le^te, ii. 451.
Orsini, Princess, iv. 79, 200.
Orval, M. de, i. 469.
Osbom, Admiral, iv. 332.
Oscar I. King of Sweden, vi. 90.
Osman I. {or Othman), founder
of Ottoman Empire, i 5.
Osman II. Sultan of Turkey :
Accession, iii. 209 ; invasion of
Poland, 209, 210; deposition
and death, 211.
Osman III., Sultan of Turkey:
Accession, iv. 374 ; death, 374.
Osman Pasha, Turkish command,
vi. 213.
Osnabrtick, Peace Congress, iii
336.
Ossat, D', French ambassador, iii.
73.
Ossat, Cardinal d', ii. 394.
Ossuna, Marquis d*, Spanish am-
bassador, iv. 346.
Ostermann, Baron, Russian Vice-
chancellor, iv. 238, 276.
Ostermann, General, Knssian
command, v. 606.
Osuna, Duke of, Viceroy of
Naples, iii 180.
Otho of Bavaria, King of Greece,
▼1.36.
Ott, General, Austrian com-
mand, V. 310.
Otte, M., charge d'affaires at
Berlin, v. 327, 368.
Ottoboni, Cardinal, election to
Pontificate, iv. 56 {see also
Alexander VIIL).
Ottoman Empire {see Turkey).
Oubril D', Russian minister in
Paris, V. 354, 390.
Oudinot, General, French com-
mands, V. 462, 505 ; vi. 102.
Ouschakoff, Admiral, iv. 425.
Oxenstiem, Axel, Chancellor of
Sweden, iii. 228, 275, 277, 286,
300, 329, 330.
Oxenstiem, Benedict, Chancellor
of Sweden, iv. 29.
Oxford, Earl of, English pleni-
potentiary, iL 168.
Pace, English Envo^, i. 464.
Pache, French Minister at War,
V. 106 ; Mayor of Paris, 118.
Pacheco, Don Juan, Marquis of
ViUena, i. 189, 190.
Pacheco, Dofia Maria de, i. 425,
428.
Facte de Famine, SociSU Malimt,
iv. 440 ; V. 12, 26.
Padilla, Don Juan de, i. 423, 424,
426.
Fadishah, chief temporal title of
Sultan, i. 11.
Paget, Sir Arthur, English am-
l^sador at Constantinople, t.
419.
Pagliano, Duke of, ii. 323.
Pahlen, Count, Russian Foreign
Minister, v. 323.
Paine, Thomas, iv. 442.
Palacky, Bohemian historian, vi.
93.
Paladine, General Aurelle de, vl
196.
Palseologus, Andrew, L 83.
Palseologpns, Constantine, Em-
peror, i 81.
PaUeologus, Demetrius, L 83.
Palseologns, Manuel, L 83.
Pabeologns, Michael, L 16.
PaUeologos, Thomas, L 83.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
331
Palafox, General: Defence of
Saragossa, v. 445 ; command of
army in Ara^on, 449.
Palatinate : Wittelsbach rulers in
Rhenish Palatinate, i 26; Spi-
nola's ravages, iiL 202; transfer
of Upper Palatinate to Maxi-
milian of Bavaria, 208 ; Peace
of Westphalia, 349 ; devastation
by mandate of Louis XIV., iv.
55.
Palermo : Insurrections, iii. 343 ;
vi. 20, 92 ; capitulation, vi. 20.
Palfy, Nicholas, Imperial com-
mand, iiL 95.
Pallieri, M., Governor of Parma,
vi. 138.
Palm, bookseller of Nuremberg,
V. 391.
Palma, Cardinal, vi. 101.
Palmella, Count, Portuguese
Envoy, v. 523.
Palmerston, Lord, Foreign Sec-
retary: Polish affairs, vi. 53;
Spanish affairs, 115; Prime
Minister, 123 ; retirement, 131.
Pamphili, Cardinal, election to
Pontificate, iii. 341 {see cUso
Innocent X.).
Panin, Count, Russian minister,
iv. 360, 365, 403, 451, 452.
Paoli Pascal, Generalissimo of
Corsica, v. 127, 200.
Papacy : Organization and rise
of, i. 2; decline of temporal
power, ii. 188; Interim, 246;
delay in election of Pope after
death of Pius VI., v. 315.
Pappenheim, Count, Hereditary
Imperial Marshal, i 417.
Pappenheim, General, iii. 267.
Pans : Surrender by English, i.
73 ; measures of defence, ii. 3 ;
Day of Barricades, iii. 45 ; mur-
der of Henry of Guise, 49 ; sieges
(1589), 51, 52; (1590), 58; (1870),
vL 195, 196, 197 ; Spanish garri-
son, iii. 61 ; surrender to Henry
IV., 70; enlargement and im-
provement, 124 ; Etats-G&iU-
rauxy 170 ; excommunication of
Parliament of Paris, iv. 51 ;
Colonial Boundaries Confer-
ence, 308 ; Family Compact of
France and Spain, 345; state
of revolutionary Paris, v. 36;,
creation of National Guard, 37,
39; municipal reforms, 55; flight
of royal family to Assembly, 85,
86; Moderantisme, etc., 112 j
Revolutionary Council General,
121 ; arrest of Girondists, 123 ;
insurrection of 13 VencUmiaire,
204, 206; condition of, 209;
advance of Allies : capitulation,
515, 531 ; July Ordinances,
riots, vi. 37, 38; National
Guard, 38, 109 ; institution of
Municipal Commission, 39; for-
tification, 64; riots, 75, 76;
massacre of Municipal Guards,
76 ; National Assembly, 80 ;
Ateliers NationatiXf 81 ; insur
rection, 105; Legislative As-
sembly, 105 ; coup (Pitat, 108 ;
Peace Conference, 125; Con-
gress of Powers on Italian Ques-
tions, 140; growth of anti-Im-
perialism, 191 ; Commune, 196 ;
work of reorganization, 201 ;;
Exhibition, 205.
*« Paris Matins," ii. 389.
Parker, Admiral Sir Hyde, iv^
454 ; V. 321, 322, 323.
Parlement Maupeou, iv. 430.
Parma, Duchy of: Origin, ii.
177 ; French annexation, v. 341 ;.
union with Sardinia, vi. 138.
Parque, Duke del, v. 468.
Parthenopean Republic, v. 289.
Pascal, Blaise, iv. 198.
Pashalic, Union of Ejalets, i. 15.
Paskiewitsch, General, Russian
commands, vi. 34, 53, 100, 120.
Pasquier, Baron, vi. 45.
Passano, John Joachim, French
Envoy, ii. 7.
Passerini, Cardinal, i. 462.
Passy, French Finance Minister,
vi. 82.
Patifio, iv. 229.
Patkul, John Rheinhold, iv. 30,
120, 141, 143.
Patriarchate, L 81.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
332
MODEEN EUEOPE
Patuzzi, General, vi. 69,
Paul II., Pope : Election, i. 102 ;
terms ofpeace, 111; death, 112.
Paul III. , rope : Election, iL 1 15 ;
Council of Trent, 160; reforms,
187 ; Interim, 240 ; death, 252.
Paul IV. , Pope : Election, ii. 286 ;
ambition, etc., 285 note; alli-
ance with France, 286 ; Spanish
invasion, 294, 296; banbnment
of Del Monte and Caraffa : re-
forms, 322 ; death, 322.
Paul V. , Pope : Election, iiL 148
character and policy, 148, 149
Interdict against Venice, 149
death, 231.
Paul I., Tsar of Russia: Acces-
sion, v. 176 ; liberation of Polish
j^isoners, 176; French policy,
279 ; Grand Master of St. John,
282 ; war aeainst Spain, 298 ;
withdrawal from Second Coali-
tion, 300; Armed Neutrality,
317 ; embargo laid on British
ships, 320; death, 322; char-
acter and policy, 32S,
Paulin, French Envoy, ii. 161,
162, 173.
Pavanes, Jacques, ii. 6.
Payne, Peter, Wiclifite refugee,
i. 390.
Pays (T Election, v. 10.
Pays cTEtats, v. 10.
Pazzi, Francesco, i. 114, 116, 116.
Pecheros, agricultural and trad-
ing class in Spain, iii 112.
Pedro, Don, Regent of Brazil, vi.
17; Emperor, 18; departure,
69; return to Spain, 70; death,
70.
Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil,
accession, vi. 69.
Pedro II. , King of Portugal:
Regency, iii 425; Spanish Suc-
cession Claim, iv. 75; accession
to Grand Alliance, 89.
Pedro v.. King of Portugal,
minority, vi. 116.
Pelissier, General, vi. 124.
Pellev^, Cardinal de, ii. 464.
Pellew, Admiral, v. 521 ; vi 24.
Pellico, Silvioy vL 22.
Peloponnesus : Division into
Greek sovereignties, i. 16 ; re-
volt, 82 ; conquest, 82, 83.
Peninsular War, v. 444.
Pep^, General, Commandant of
Naples, vi. 19, 95.
Pera (or Galata), Genoese suburb
of Constantinople, i. 16.
Perceval, Mr., Chancellor of Ex-
chequer, V. 414.
Peregrini, Pietro, L 323.
Pereira, Nuno Alvares, Constable
of Portugal, i. 67.
Pereny, Peter, ii. 152.
Peretti, Felix: Career, iiL 30;
election to Pontificate, 31 {see
also Sixtus v.).
Perez, Don Antonio, iiL 13, 39, 40.
P^rier, Casimir, vL 37 ; Frendi
Finance Minister, 39, 45 ; Prime
Minister, 56.
P^rignon, Marshal, v. 362.
Perpetual Edict, iii. 4.
Perron Du, French ambassador,
iii. 73.
Persano, Admiral, vi. 143, 185.
Persia : English trade with, iiL
127 ; Russian invasion, iv. 235,
239 ; V. 176.
Persigny, M. de, vi. 107.
Peru, conquest of, ii. 190.
Pescara, Marquis of, L 312, 437,
441, 460, 462, 464, 467 ; iL 9,
16, 18.
Pescia, Fra Domenico da, L 236,
237, 238, 239, 240.
Peter I., Tsar of Russia: As-
sumption of government, iv. 16
note ; conspiracy against, 123 ;
marriage, 123; personal reign,
124;* treaties with Augustus
IL of Poland, 127, 141, 150;
war with Sweden, 131, 144,
146 ; marriage with Catharine,
163; conquest of Livonia and
Carelia, 152; policy towards
Allies, 158 ; " Emperor of all the
Russias," 164; Peace of Ny-
stadt, 163; Persian expeditions,
235 ; death, character, 235.
Peter II. , Tsar of Russia : Minor-
ity, iv. 237 ; death, 238.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
33B
Peter III., Tsar of Bussia: Ac-
cession iv. 349 ; deposition and
murder, 350, 360; character,
administration, etc., 358.
Potion, member of National As-
sembly, V. 63 ; Mayor of Paris,
71 ; demand for aodication of
Louis XVI., 84.
Petrarca, Francesco, ambassador,
1.338.
Petrasch, General, v. 297.
Petri, Lawrence and Olaos, Swed-
ish reformers, iii. 219.
Petrucci, Cardinal Alfonso, i. 362.
Peymann, General, Commandant
of Conenhagen, v. 412.
Pezzo, Michael, Fra Diavolo, v.
385.
Pfahlbiirger, Burgesses of the
Pale, i. 30.
Pfeiffer, monk of Beiffenstein, iL
63,64.
Pfordten, Von der. Bavarian
minister, vi. 113.
Phanariots, Greek nobles, i. 81.
Philip the Bold, Duke of Bur-
gundy : First Duke of the House
of Valois, i. 70.
Philip (the Good), Duke of Bur-
gundy: Marriage with Isabel
of Portugal, i. 72; offer to
mediate between Charles VII.
and the Dauphin, 121 ; Ligue
du Bien Pubiic, 130; death, 136.
Philip I. , King of Spain : Marriage
with Joanna of Spain, i. 234 ;
administration of Neapolitan
provinces, 255 ; Gelderlajid and
Zutphen, 265 ; ii. 138 ; regency
of Castile, i. 267 ; death, 272.
Philip II. , King of Spain : Investi-
ture of Milan, ii. 144 ; betrothal
to Mary of Portugal, 157 ; visit
to Netherlands, 248, 249 ; mar-
riage with Mary of England,
278, 279, 280 ; English policy,
280; accession, 288 ; character,
289; war between France and
England, 297; marrii^e with
MsSemoiselle Elizabeth, 304,
310, 313, 321; policy, 316;
French civil wars, 360; ex-
pedition against pirates, 367;;
plots against Elizabeth of Eng-
land, 376, 377 ; unpopularity in
Netherlands, 403; edicts and
inquisition, 413 ; marriage with
Anne of Germany, 447 ; con-
quest of Portugal, 468, 472;.
Salc^de Conspiracy, 475 ; in-
trigues with Huguenots, 476;.
Catholic League revival, 478,
479, 480 ; campaign in Nether-
lands, iii. 27 ; preparations for
conc^uest of Eneland, 32, 34 'r
Invincible Armada, 35 ; designs
on France, 57; abdication of
Netherlands sovereignty, 83^
bankruptcy and commercial dis-
asters, 84 ; death, 84.
Philip III., King of Spain : Ac-
cession, iii. 139 ; marriage with
Margaret of Austria, 139;
death, 231.
Philip IV., King of Spain: Ac-
cession, iii. 231 ; Portuguese
and Italian difficulties, 342,
343.
Philip v.. King of Spain : Acces-
sion, iv. 76, 77 ; marriage with
Louisa Gabrielle of Savoy, 79 ?
Cortes acknowledgment of
Prince of Asturias, 102 ; claim
to French crown renounced,
109; marriage with Elizabeth
Famese, 203 ; abdication, 216 ;
bigotry and intolerance, 216;
resumption of crown, 216 ; pro-
gress of literature and art, 297;
death, 297.
Philip William, Duke of Neabnrg,
Count Palatine, iv. 46.
PhUipists or Crypio-CaMnists,
iii. 159.
Philippi, Field-Marshal, iv. 243.
Philippines, acquisition by United
States, vi. 236.
Piacenza, Duke of, Lieutenant'
General of Holland, v. 465.
Piagnimi, namegiventoi^n»^e«eAtV
i. 228, 237.
Piccolomini, iEneas Sylvius, min-
ister, i. 86, 89, 392, 398 {see also
Pius IL).
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
334
MODERN EUROPE
Picoolomini, Francesco, election
to Pontificate, i. 259 {see also
Pius III.).
Piccolomini, General, Imperial
command, iii. 321, 323, 329 ; iv.
318.
Pichegm, Greneral, v. 194, 195,
210, 248, 250, 349.
Pico, Gian Francesco, i. 299,
300.
Piedmont: French invasion, iL
120, 121, 123; annexation b^
France, v. 341 ; revolution, vi.
21.
Pietists^ reliji^ious sect, iv. 195.
Pignatelli, Cardinal, election to
Pontificate, iv. 62 {see also In-
nocent XII.^.
Pignatelli, Pnnce, Vicar-General
of Naples, v. 288.
Pieot, Admiral, iv. 456.
Pilnitz, Declaration of, v. 68.
Pinneberg Mediation Conference,
iv. 122.
Pinzon, Francisco, i. 331.
Pinzon, Martin, i. 331.
Pinzon, Vicente, i. 326, 331.
Piper, Count, Counsellor to
Charles XII. of Sweden, iv.
129, 143.
Pisa : Independence, i. 233 ; war
Against Florence, 249, 285, 286 ;
General Council, 304, 307, 345,
346, 350, 351, 389.
Pitigliano, Count of, i 287, 290,
296.
Pitt, William, iv. 328, 332, 346,
347.
Pitt, William : National Conven-
tion, declaration against, V. 129;
subcadies to Austria, 212 ; ne-
gotiations with France, 234;
resignation, 327 ; Moniteur ar-
ticle on, 342 note; return to
power, 356; Third Coalition
\ organization, 359 ; death, 381.
Piua II., Pope: Election to Pon-
tificate, i. 98 ; crusade against
Turks, 100 ; death, 101, 109.
Pins III., Pope, election and
death, i. 259.
Pius IV., Pope : Election to Pon-
tificate, iL 322, 323 ; recognition
of Ferdinand as Emperor, 345 ;
death, 355.
Pius v.. Pope: Election to Pon-
tificate, ii. 355 ; character, 355,
356; French civil wars, 360;
Holy League against Turks,
372 ; plots against Elizabeth of
England, 374, 375, 376, 377;
death, 383.
Pius VI., Pope : Election to Pon-
tificate, iv. 393 ; v. 183 ; vifdt
to Vienna, iv. 393 ; Bull against
civil constitution of French
clergy, v. 59 ; negotiations with
Napoleon, 223; French inva-
sion, 236; recognition of Cis-
alpine Republic, 263; deposi-
tion, 264.
Pius VII., Pope : Election to Pon-
tificate, V. 315 ; concordat with
Napoleon, 316, 332 ; coronation
of Napoleon, 353 ; Continental
System, 428 ; claim of investi-
ture on Neapolitan crown, 429 ;
excommunication brief against
Napoleon, 431; Bull Quum
Memoranda^ 463; restoration
of States of the Church, 512,
524 ; vi. 18 ; triumphal entry to
Rome, V. 521 ; death, vL 25,
55.
Pius VIII., Pope: Election to
Pontificate, vi 55 ; death, 68.
Pius IX., Pope : Election to Pon-
tificate, vi. 91; popular reforms,
91 ; new constitution, 94 ; de-
position as temporal prince,
102 ; return to Rome, 116 ; pro-
pagation of Mariolatry: doc-
trine of Immaculate Conception,
116; Bull of Excommunication,
140; infallibility, declaration
by General Council, 188 ; loss
of temTOral power, 188.
Pizarro, Francisco, ii. 190.
Platoff, General, Cossack com-
mander, iv. 415.
Pl^lo, Count, French ambassa-
dor, iv. 228.
Plessis, origin of name, i. 167
note.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
INDEX
335
Plessis, Armand Jean da {see
Richelieu).
Plessis, Besan^on du, French
Envoy, iii. 315.
Plessis, Mornay du, ii, 477.
Plessis - lez - Tours, Etats • G4n6-
raiAXy i. 274.
Podiebrad, George: Defeat of
Albert II., i. 37; regency in
Bohemia, 40; death of Ladis-
laus, 94 ; Kin^of Bohemia, 95,
204 ; Bull of Deposition, 204 ;
death, 206.
Poissy Religious Conference, ii.
330.
Poland: Piast and Jagellon Dyn-
asties, i. 38 ; elective succession,
38 ; " Perpetual Peace " with
Hungary, 207 ; cavalry in war-
fare, 342; secularization of
Teutonic Order territory, ii 65 ;
Reformation, 453 ; interreg-
num, 454 ; iv. 138 ; foreign in-
vasions, iii. 209, 210, 212, 398,
406; V. 166,171, 172, 173; vi.
53; constitution and eovem-
ment, iii. 393 ; projected parti-
tions, 403, 404 ; iv. 378, 382 ;
V. 168, 174 ; persecution of Pro-
testants, iii. 409 ; claimants to
crown, iv. 14, 15, 138, 226;
treaties and alliances, 133; v.
162; Polish Succession War,
iv. 224 ; double election, 227 ;
Anarchy, 364, 367; religious
dissensions, 369 ; confedera-
tions, 371 ; insurrection, 373 ;
new constitution, 384, 385;
Russian power in, v. 160;
council of war, 161 ; constitu-
tion of 1791, 163 ; Russiai^ d%
signs, 164 ; revision of cone^u-
tion, 169; insurrections, 170,
401; vi. 51, 156; National Coun-
cil, V. 171 ; re-establishment as
kin^om, 486 ; religious perse-
cutions, vi 53 ; Russian despot-
ism, 157.
Pole, Cardinal Reginald, ii 137,
278 280 281.
Pole, Richard de la, Duke of Suf-
folk, i 469.
Polignac, Abb^ de, French Pleni-
potentiary, iv. 107.
Poli^ac, Prince Jules de, French
Pnme Minister, vi. 35; dis-
missal, 39.
Politian, i 187.
Political economy, origin of:
Campanella and Serra, iii. 115,
116.
PolUiques, French party, ii. 382;
459.
Poltrot, assassin, ii. 342, 343.
Polverel, French Commissioner,
V. 145.
Pombal, Marquis of, iv. 351, 431.
Pompadour, Madame de, iv. 310,
311, 314, 427.
Pomperant, Sieur de, i 458,
469.
Poniatowski, Count {see Stanis-
laus Poniatowski).
Poniatowski, Joseph, Polish Com-
mander-in-Chief, V. 166, 174,
452.
Pontoise, Etats-G^rUrauXy ii. 329.
Popes {see their names),
Popham, Sir Home, v. 279.
Port Arthur, Russian occupation,
vi 237.
Port Royal, iv. 197, 199.
Porte, origin of term, i 12.
Portland, Duke of, iv. 460; v.
414.
Portland, Earl of, iv. 66, 72.
Portocarrero, Cardinal, Arch-
bishop of Toledo, iv. 72, 74,
75.
Portugal: Establishment as king-
dom, i 67 ; maritime discoveries
and conquests, 323; ii. 189,
190 ; trade and commerce, 191,
194 ; iv. 89 ; affairs of, ii 468 ;
conquest by Hiilip II. of Spain,
468, 472; claimants to crown,
471 ; English campaign, iii. 36 ;
influence of Jesuits, 107 ; re-
volution, 316; regency, 422;
colonial wars, 422, 423 ; treaties
and alliances, 423; iv. 113; v.
184, 258, 259; 298 ; recognition
of independence, iii. 436 ; Span-
ish BuoceBsion, iv. 89, HI, 113;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
S86
MODEEN ETJEOPE
expulsion of Jesuits, 432, 433 ;
reforms of Marquis of Pombal,
351, 352; Armed Neutrality,
453 ; French and Spanish wars,
353 ; V. 316, 425, 427, 467 ; pro-
jected partition of Portugal,
426; conquest hy the French,
428 ; flight of royal family, 428 ;
risinjg against the French, 446 ;
abolition of new constitution,
vi 17 ; revolution, 17 ; succes-
sion question, 68.
Posorovski, General, v. 475.
Potemkin, Prince Gregory, iv.
402, 403, 404, 426.
Potocki, Felix, V. 167.
Potocki, Ignatius, Polish patriot,
V. 160.
Potocki, Stanislaus, Polish pat-
riot, V. 160 ; vi. 51.
Potocki, Theodore, Primate of
Poland, iv. 227.
Potter, De, Belgian political
writer, vi. 46, 47.
Ponssielgue, French secretary, v.
274, 325.
Poyet, President of Parliament of
Paris, ii. 120.
Praczeck of Lippa, regency in
Bohemia, i. 40.
Pradt, de. Bishop of Mechlin, v.
486.
Prague: University founded, i.
391 ; Congress, v. 504.
Proffuerie, contest in France be-
tween King and feudal no-
bility, L 78.
Pragmatic Sanctions (1438), L
362, 363, 393; (1525) ii 4 ; (1713)
iv. 218.
Pressburg, Hungarian States As-
sembly, iv. 11.
Prieras, Sylvester, Dominican, i.
406.
Prim, General, vi. 190, 192.
Printing : Influence on Reforma-
tion, L 2, 3 ; progress, ii. 105.
Pritchard, Mr., English mission-
ary at Tahiti, vi 65.
Prinli, Girolamo, Venetian am-
bassador, iiL 237.
Privilege of Union, L 66.
Procurators, i. 338.
ProgreHstaSy Spanish party, vl
67, 74.
Prokop, the Great and the little,
Hussite leaders, L 36.
PronundamentoSi protests a-
ceedings, vi. 72.
Propo^an^, Jacobin Clubabroad,
V. 51.
Propositions of Pistoia, iv. 419.
Prossnitz, John of, Bishop of
Grosswardein, i. 210.
Protestant League, iii 379.
Protestant Umon, iiL 156, 157,
187, 200, 205.
Protestantism: Recognition in
France, ii. 332 ; growth, iii 99;
predominance in Gennany, v.
525.
Protestants, iL 79, 89, 253 ; v.
38, 40, 41.
Provence : Union with France, I
166; persecution of Vaudois, iL
172.
Provence,* Count of, title of
Louis XVIIL, V. 214.
Provera, General, v. 263.
Prussia: Erection of Duchy, ii.
65; Lutheranism established,
65 ; Swedish invasion, iii. 402;
iv. 26; dignity of Sovereign-
Duke, iii. 406, 409; kinsdom,
iv. 82, 111 ; treaties and alli-
ances, iv. 159, 269, 329, 319,
366, 400, 403, 416 ; v. 162, 167,
174, 190 and naU, 197; 226, 357,
519; vi. 121, 156, 167, 174; ad
ministration and growth, iv.
172; army, 252; vE 154, 177;
resist of Austrian SuocesaioD
War, 305 ; Armed NeutnJity,
453 ; V. 321 ; campaign against
French, 190; withdrawal ^
troops to Poland, 195 ; compen-
sation cessions, 337 ; refusal to
join Third Coalition, 361 ; hn-
miliation, 381 ; war with Eng-
land, 382; renewal of dif^omfttic
relations with England, 394;
ultimatum to France, 395 ; fall
of, 398 ; reduction of fortresses
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
337
by the French, 399; ruin of,
406; renunciations at Tilsit,
405; second-rate power, 408;
abandonment of Sweden, 415 ;
Tugendbundt 460 ; desertion of
France, 496; war against
France, 497 ; Russian advance,
501 ; ac(][uisition of Poeen, 525 ;
predominance in Germany, 525;
revolutionary riots, vi. 87 ; Aus-
trian rivalry in Gr«rmany, 111 ;
influence ot Kreuz party, 112;
neutrality, 119; ZoUveretfn^ 155;
Nationcuverein, 156; Schleswiff-
Holstein, 170, 175; wardeclarea,
176 ; Seven Weeks' War, 182 ;
French declaration of war, 192.
Pucci, Lorenzo, L 345.
Puerto Rico, discovery of, i 336.
Puertocarrero, General, iii. 82.
Pugachev, Russian pretender, iv.
387.
Puglia, Francesco di, Franciscan
friar, L 236, 237, 238.
Pnisaye, Marquis de, v. 203.
Pulawski, Polish Confederate
leader, iv. 382.
Putnam, American commander,
iv. 442.
Puyravaux, Andry de, vL 38.
Quaade, Von, Danish plenipoten-
tiary, vi. 169.
Quadruple Alliances (1718), iv.
213; (1834). vL 70.
Quasdanowicn, General, v. 210,
229.
Quebec, French colony, iii. 131.
Queluz, Duke of, vi 69.
(^uerouaille, Mademoiselle de,
Duchess of Portsmouth, ui. 440.
Quesnay, founder of Physiocrat
Sect, V. 13.
Quesne, Du, iv. 332.
Quesnel, Father, Head of the
Jansenists,^ iv. 117, 199.
'€ti8t$, religious sect, iv. 200.
oga, Colonel, vL 11.
p, subjugation, ii. 190.
Radetzki, Marshal, military com-
mand in Austria, vi. 92, 95, 99.
VI.
Radom, Confederation of, iv. 371.
Radzejowski, Jerome, Vice-Chan-
cellor of Poland, iii. 394.
Radziejowski, Cardinal, Primate
of Poland, iv. 121, 135, 136, IdS,
139, 140.
Radzivil, Prince, Polish reformer,
ii. 453.
RadziviU, Grand General of Lithu-
ania, iii 394.
RadziviU, Prince, vi. 52.
RadziviU, Prince Charles, iv. 371.
Raglan, Lord, English command
in Crimea, vi. 121 ; death, 123.
Ragotsky, Francis, iv. 88 ; Hun-
garian insurrection, 92.
Ragotsky, Joseph, Prince of Tran-
sylvania, iv. 242.
Ragotsky, George I., Voyvode of
Transylvania, iii. 335.
Ragotsky, George II., Prince of
Transylvania, treaty with
Charles X. of Sweden, iii. 407 ;
capitulation, 409.
Rainer, Archduke, Viceroy of
MUan, vi. 22; Viceroy of
Austrian Italy, 92.
Raleigh, Sir Walter, iii. 80, 81.
RaUi, Greek minister, vi. 231.
Ramirez, Francisco, use of gun-
powder for mining, L 3^
Ramiro, Don, first King of Ara-
gon, L 63.
Ramus (or La Ram^), French
phUosopher, death, ii. 390.
Rantzau, Danish War Minister,
iv.412.
RanviUe, Guemon de, French
minister, vi. 39.
Rapinet, French commissioner,
V. 269.
Rastadt, Congress of, v. 280, 293.
Rasumo£&ki, Russian minister at
Stockholm, iv. 409.
Ratazzi, Sardinian minister, vi.
139, 141 ; Prime Minister of
Italy, 148, 186.
Ratisbon : Catholic Assembly
(1524), u. 67; Diets held at
(1632), 104, 147; iii. 204; (1630),
267; (1640), 336; (1641), 321;
(1664). 379; (1663), iv. 6; (1689),
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
838
MODERN EUEOPE
66; (1702), 85; (1801), v. 334;
(1806), 389; Conference, ii 204 ;
capture of, by Elector of Ba-
varia, iv. 87.
Ranmer, General von, Prassian
commander, v. 168.
Ranschenberger, Commandant of
Jiilich, iii. 168.
Ravage, Father, Confessor to
Kins of Spain, iv. 338.
Ravaillac, Fran9ois, assassin of
Henry IV., iii. 164 ; execution,
166.
Ravenstein, French Governor of
Genoa, i. 274.
Raynevai, Monsieur, French
Envoy to the Hague, iv. 397.
R^aux, Taboureau de, iv. 441.
Recamier, Madame, v. 187.
''Recess," collection of resolu-
tions passed by a Diet, i 449
note,
Rechberg, Count, Bavarian minis-
ter. Congress at Carlsbad, vi.
24, 156, 165.
Redcliffe, Lord Stratford de,
English ambassador to Porte,
vi. 118.
Reding, Aloys, Swiss commander,
V. 269, 339 ; arrest and imprison-
ment, 340.
Redschid Pasha, Grand Vizier of
Turkey, vi. 32, 62.
Reformation : European unity
weakened by, L 3 ; Wiclif and
the LoUards, 390 ; doctrines and
Standard of Faith of John Huss,
390, 391 ; influence of printing,
398 ; pre-Reformation reform-
ers, 398; revival of classical
leaminjg, 398 ; union of Roman
Catholic princes and prelates
in opposition to, ii 60; political
character, 67, 309 ; importance
of Turkish wars, 92 ; Counter-
Reformation, 145; Treaty of
Crespy, 167 ; question of In-
<lul^nees, 180, 181 ; doctrine
of justification by faitii, 181 ;
Hallam on the Reformation,
181, 182 note ; political effects,
183; iv. 171; Teutonic reaction,
ii 184; Council of Trent, 233;
Peace of Passau, 268 ; doctrine
of the sovereignty of the people,
iii 16 ; progress of, in Europe,
99; European results, iv. 165;
monarchical power increased by,
in certain countries, 193, 194.
Beformverein, Grerman National
Reform Union, vi 164.
Reichler, Dominican, ii. 60.
Beiehs-Kammer-Gerichty i 277.
BeichS'Regiment, i 278.
Reichstadt, meeting of Alexander
II. and Francis Joseph L, vi
210.
BeiS'Effendi, Minister for Foreign
Affaus, i 14.
Renault, C^ile, v. 152.
Rendsboig, Convention of, iv. 2i
Ren^, Princess of France, mar-
riage with Ercole II., Duke of
Ferrara, i 353 ; ii 39.
Bentes Perpittielles, origin of, i
443 no^.
Repnin, Prince, iv. 303, 369;
despotism in Poland — Russian
Constitution, 371 ; Russian com-
mand, 415, 425 ; V. 280 ; alliance
with Austria, 281.
Requesens, Don Louis de, ii. 373;
Governor of the Netherlands,
440; death, 444.
Retz, Cardinal, iii. 356, 360;
arrest and banishment, 366.
Reuchlin, author of ''De Verbo
mirifico," i. 399.
Reventlow, Count, vi 89, 104.
Rewbel, member of Frendi Direc-
tory, V. 207.
Reyneval, M. de, French ambassa-
dor to Portugal, V. 426.
Reynier, General, v. 384.
Rhenish Lands, acquisition by
Charles the Bold, i 151.
Rhenish League, iii 379, 383;
dissolution, 444.
Rhenskidld, General, iv. 148.
Rhine, formation of Electoral
Union of , i. 883 ; cession of left
bank to France, v. 270.
Rhodes, conquest by Solyman I.,
i 450, 451.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
339
Riario, Jerome, Count of Imolo, L
112; Captain-General of Papal
and Venetian League, 118.
Riario, Raphael, i. 362.
Ribagorza, Count of, i. 273.
Ribeuro, Pinto, iii. 317.
RicardoB, Don, Spanish command,
V. 127.
Ricasoli, Baron, vi 137, 140;
Prime Minister of Italy, 148.
Rieci, Jesuit missionary, iii. 110.
Rioci, Scipio, Bishop of Pistoia,
iv. 419.
Richard II. : Marriage with Anne
of Bohemia, i. 390 ; Reformation
hindered by weakness of, 390.
Richelieu, Armand du Plessis,
Cardinal : Etats-G&nhuux, iii.
170 ; career, 171 ; advancement
of, 173 ; return to power, 230 ;
cardinal's hat, 232 ; return to
power, 232, 233 ; Prime Minis-
ter, official appointment, 233
note ; foreign policy, 233, 234,
236, 236, 2^, 238, 239, 240, 241,
242, 243, 244, 246, 247, 248, 249,
270, 271, 272; 278; 297-301;
309, 312-315; 323-325; con-
spiracy against, 244; marine,
navigation and commerce — re-
forms, 246 ; treaty with Spain,
247 ; siege of La Rochelle, 250 ;
generalissimo of French Army
ui Italy, 270; death, 326; char-
acter and policy, 326; literature
encouraged by, iv. 168 ; effect
of policy on nobility and middle
classes in France, v. 4 ; views
tiJcen of policy, 5.
Richelieu, Duke of, chief min-
ister of Louis XVIIL, vi. 6;
resignation of Premiership, 7;
return to power, 8.
Richelieu, Marshal, iv. 315, 323,
324, 326, 330, 331.
Richepanse, French General, v.
311.
Ricotti, General, vi. 187.
Ridolfi, Florentine merchant, ii.
876.
Rieux, Marshal de, i 175, 176,
257.
Riego, Colonel, Spanish insur-
rection, vi. 11 ; election as Pre-
sident of Cortes, 13.
Rigny, Admiral de, vi. 33.
Rio, Del, ii. 425.
Rincon, French Envoy at Con-
stantinople, ii. 154.
Ripperdd, Baron, iv. 217.
Rittberg, Count Kaunitz, Aus-
trian minister, iv. 304.
Riva, Andrew, i. 288.
Rivers, Earl, i. 143.
Roberjot, French plenipotentiary,
V. 280 ; murder, 293.
Roberts, Lord : Cabul to Canda-
har march, etc., vi. 222 ; ad-
vance to Pretoria, 234.
Robespierre, Maximilien : In-
fluence in Assembly, v. 43;
Self-denying Ordinance, 70 ;
Montague Insurrection, 82 ;
member of the Oommunef 87 ;
September Massacres, 93 ; trial
of Louis XVI., 100; employ-
ment of SanS'CtdotteSy 119; over-
throw of Gironde organized by,
120 ; member of ComiU du SaZut
Public^ 128; President of Na-
tional Convention, 130 ; Loides
Suspects, 132 ; worship of rea-
son, 136 ; defeat of H^hertistes
and Dantonists, 146, 147, 148 ;
existence of Supreme Being es-
tablished by Decree of Conven-
tion, 149 ; " Law of 22nd Prai-
rial" 150 ; conspiracy against,
alleged, 152; arrest, 155; plot
to assassinate, 154 ; death and
chai-acter, 157.
Rochanibeau, Marshal, iv. 455;
V. 75, 349.
Rochefoucauld, Cardinal, iii. 233.
Rochefoucauld, Due de la, iv.
465.
Rochford, Lord, English Ambas-
sador at Madrid, iv. 427.
Rockingham, Marquis of, iv. 455.
Rodney, Admiral, iv. 447, 448,
454,456.
Rodolph II., Emperor : Kin|? of
the Romans, ii. 449 ; accession,
449; iii. 85; mediation in the
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
340
MODERN EUROPE
Netherlands, 4> 11 ; character,
152; Anstriaii Familjr Compact,
Act of Confederation, 153;
discontent in Bohemia and
Moravia, 153 ; Majestdts-Brief,
155; Cleves-Julich-Bei^ succes-
sion, 160; administration, 184,
185; resignation of Bohemian
crown, 186 ; death, 186.
Rodriguez, Simon, iL 468.
Roe, Sir Thomas, English Envoy
at the Porte, iiL 109.
Rohan, Cardinal de, French Am-
bassador at Vienna, iv. 385;
460.
Roland, French Minister of In-
terior, V, 74, 77, 87.
Roland, Madame : Influence with
the Girondists, v. 74; execu-
tion, 133.
Roland of France, death, i. 231.
Rollin, Ledru, vi. 105.
Romana, Marquis de la, Spanish
command, v. 415, 420, 445.
Romagna, extent of, L 41.
Roman Catholic Church : Auricu-
lar confession, i. 388 ; doctrine
of transubstantiaticm, 388; dis-
pensing power of Pope— nullity
of marriages, 388 note; Pope
and antipopes«-lo8s of influence
—need for reform, 389, 395;
state of German Church, 392;
doctrine of Purgatory, 401 ; In-
dulgences, 401, 402, 403 ; Mar-
tin Luther — citation to appear
at Rome, 407 ; union of Roman
Catholic princes and prelates,
ii. 60 ; Articles of Lou vain, 169,
170; oratory of Divine Love,
etc., 185; reform of city of
Rome and Papal Court — Pa^l
Bull, 187; reform in the Cuna,
iii. 101 ; Counter-Reformation
in favour of, 101.
Bmnan Curia^ Papal Court, L 42.
Roman Empire, downfaU of, on
invasion of Europe by Bar-
barians, i. 1.
Roman Emperor, title of German
ruler, i. ^.
Romania, Napoli di, vi. 29.
Romanoffl House of, founded by
Michael Romanoff, iiL 328.
Romanoff, Sophia, designs on the
crown, i. 25.
Romanzoff, General, Russian
commander, iv. 376, 386.
Rome: Legates and Nuncios, i.
339 ; storming of, by imperial
troops under Charles de Bour-
bon, iL 30; decline of, 189;
Republic proclaimed, v. 263;
vi. 102; entry of French troops,
V. 264, 288, 430; vL 102; pil-
lage and destruction of pro-
perty, V. 265; evacuation by
French, 287; ca^tulation to
Coalition Army, 299 ; declara-
tion as free and imperial citj
by Napoleon, 462 ; new consti-
tution eranted b^ Pius IX., vi.
94 ; Itauan Constituent Assem-
bly, 102; Antibes Legion, 186;
annexation to Italy, vi. 188.
Romero, Don Julian, iL 437, 440.
Romorantin, Edict of, iL 318.
Rondinelli, Fra Giuliano, i. 237.
Rooke, Admiral, iv. 61, 86, 92,
130. .
Roon, Von, Prussian War Min-
ister, vL 154; Franco-German
War, 193.
Rosa, Martinez de la, Spanish
Foreign Minister, vL 12, 66.
Rosas, President of Cortes of
Spain, vL 189.
Roseh, Burgomaster of Ziirich, L
359.
Rosenblut, Hans, L 398.
Rosenheim, Marshal, v. 384.
Rosiers, Snreau de, apostate Cal*
vinist minister, ii. 451.
Ross, Bishop of, iL 376.
Rossem, Martin, ii. 155, 158.
Rossi, Count, French ambassador
to Rome, vi. 101.
Rossignol, command of French
army in La Vendue, v. 130.
Rostoptchin, Count, burning of
Moscow, V. 489.
Eota JRomana, Papal Court of
Appeal, L 44.
Rottmann, ii. 125, 126.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
34,1
Kouill^, French Minister of
Marine^ iv. d08, 313.
Ronmania: Acquisition of Dob-
radsha, vi. 216, 217 ; independ-
ence, 216, 217 ; kingdom under
Charles I., 223.
Roumantsov, Count, Russian
Foreign Minister, v. 448.
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, influ-
ence and works, v. 20.
Rousillon : Acquisition by Count
of Foix, i. 127 ; cession to Spain,
181, 193, 105; revolt of inhabit-
ants, 194.
Rovere, Francesco della. Election
to Pontificate, i. 113 {see also
SixtusIV.).
Rovere, Francis Maria della, i.
288,430.
Rovere, Julian Cardinal della, i.
112, 188, 219, 233, 258 ; election
to Pontificate, 259.
Rovere, Leonard della, L 112 {see
a/«o Julius II.).
Rovere, Peter, Cardinal, Patriarch
and Archbishop, i. 112; death,
113.
Ruccellai, Bernardo, L 316.
Rudiger, General : Russian com-
mand in Poland, vi. 53 ; in
Hungary, 100.
Ruffin, French Envoy to Constan-
tinople, V. 283.
Ruffo, Cardinal, v. 299; Neapo-
litan Envoy to Napoleon, 384.
Rulhifere, General, French War
Minister, vi. 82.
Rumbold, Sir George, English
minister at Hamburg, v. 350.
Russell, Admiral, iv. 59.
Russell, Lord John, Foreign Sec-
retary: Protestsu^inst Russian
measures in Pofimd, vi. 159;
Schleswig-Holstein Question,
166,167; Conference of London,
168.
Russell, Odo, English Envoy to
Prussia, vi. 198.
Russell, Sir John, 1.465.
Russia: War with Turkey, ii.
374; iv. 241, 424; v. 418, 474;
vi 212 ; Revolution— Polish
Jesuits, iii. 103; trade and com-
merce, 127; V. 411, 474, 480;
vi. 237 ; contest for the Throne,
iii. 228 ; progress under Alexis
Romanoff, 395; conquest of
Azov, iv. 16, 244 ; treaties and
alliances, 133, 277, 366, 402,
415 ; V. 167, 279, 282, 298, 323,
357, 358, 360, 479, 480; vi. 156,
227; Swedish invasion, iv. 146;
introduction into European Sys-
tem, 159, 226 ; regency during
minority of Peter IL, 237, 238 ;
Muscovite revolutions, 238; re-
storation of Persian conquests,
239 ; revolution, 275 ; effects of
Austrian Succession War, 305 ;
Baltic Sea Neutrality, 336 ; re-
volution at St. Petersburg, 360,
361 ; Greek rising encouraged
by, 377 ; Tartar Provinces, gov-
ernment, 404 ; Armed Neutral-
ly, 450, 451 ; Third Partition
of Poland, v. 174; declaration
of war against Spain, 298; pro-
mise of assistance to Prussia,
395 ; Peace of Tilsit, 405 ; Secret
Articles of Tilsit, 407 ; Army-
Frontier Guards established,
474; Franco-Russian War, 485;
French advance under Napo-
leon, 486, 487 ; Peace of Paris,
519 ; territorial acquisitions,
525, 526; war with Sweden,
419 ; invasion of Finland, 420 ;
chan^ of policy on accession
of Nicholas I., 31 ; diplomatic
relations with Western Powers
broken off, 120; emancipation of
serf 8— discontent among nobles,
157 ; repudiation of Black Sea
clause in treaty, 198 ; armistice
between Serviaand Turkey, 210 ;
acquisition of Bessarabia, vi.
216, 217 ; secret agreement with
England, 217 ; secret treaty
with Germany, 221 ; growth of
Nihilism, 221 ; effects of Treaty
of Berlin on Eastern Europe,
222; Penjdeh incident, 22^;
occupation of Port Arthur, 237.
Russia Company, iii. 127, 128.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
342
MOBEEN EUEOPE
Rutowski, iv. 318.
Ruvigni, French ambassador^ iii.
458.
Ruyter, De, iii. 446, 452, 458.
Rye, General, vi. 104.
Ryhove, Ghent nobles, iii. 10.
Ryswick, Congress of the Allies,
to consider peace with France,
iv. 65.
Saavedra, Don Francisco, v. 272.
Sachs, Hans, Meistersdnger of
Niiremberg, i. 412.
Sackville, Lord Greorge, iv. 335.
Sadoleto, Jacopo, secretary to Leo
X. , i. 345; Bishop of Carpentras,
173.
SadriAalat title of Grand Vizier,
i. 12.
Sadullah Bey, vi. 215.
Saez, Victor, Confessor of Fer-
dinand VII. of Spain, vi. 15.
Safvet Pasha, Turkish Foreign
Minister, vi. 211.
Sakibi Develet, title of Grand
Vizier, i. 12.
SahibiMiihr, title of Grand Vizier,
i. 12.
Said All, command of Turkish
fleet, V. 419.
Saim, Turkish cavalry, military
tenures, i. 7.
St. Andr^, Marshal de, ii. 303,
310, 328, 342.
St. Arnaud, General, French War
Minister, vi. 107 ; Marshal of
the Empire, 110 ; French com-
mand in Crimea, 122.
St. Bartholomew Massacres, ii.
388; question of premeditation,
391, 398 and note,
St. Cyr, General Carra, v. 501.
St. Cyr, Greneral€k>uvion: French
comnwnd in Italy, v. 348 ; in
Spain, 449, 466 ; in Russia, 488 ;
bd.ton of Marshal, 488; capitu-
lation of Dresden, 509.
St. Dominic of Castile, founder of
. Dominican Order, i. 388.
St. Domingo : Reduction by the
French, v. 334; surrender to
the English, 349.
St. Francis of Assisi, founder of
Franciscan Order, i 388.
St. Germain, Assembly of Not-
ables, ii. 332.
St Goard, French ambassador, ii.
394, 399, 464.
St. Huruge, Marquis de, revolu-
tionist, V. 36.
St. lago. Military Order of Spain,
St. Joim, Knights of: Turkish
progress impeded by, i 17 ; set-
tlement in Malta, 451 ; Charles
V.'sgiftto, ii87.
St. Julien, Count, A;astrian
Envoy, v. 312.
St. Just : Trial of Louis XVI. , v.
100 ; suspension of Constitu-
tion, 132; proceedings in Strass-
burg, 143; Terrorists, 145 note;
attack on Comiti da ScUtU
Public, 154.
St. Marino, Republic of, y. 238.
St. Petersburg : Foundation, iv.
145 ; Congress, v. 323.
St. Petersburg Convention, v.
174.
St. Pierre, Abb^ de, eighteenth
century writer, v. 16.
St. Pol, Fran9ois de Bourbon-
Venddme, Comte de, i. 463, 470;
ii. 46.
St. Pol, Louis, Comte de. Con-
stable of France, i. 155, 156.
St. Priest, Count, French ambassa-
dor, V. 273.
St. Vallier, Jean de, L 460.
St. Vincent, Lord, v. 200, 233,
259, 272.
Salamanca, Concord of, i. 269,271.
SalcMe Conspiracy, iL 475.
Salerno, Prince of, i. 185.
Sales, St. Francois de, iii. 102.
Salicetti, Corsican deputy, v. 138,
222.
Saligni, Count, iv. 5.
Salisbury, Lord : Constantinople
Conference, vL 212 ; Foreign
Secretary, 216; Berlin Congress,
217; Turkish Question, 230,
231 ; Fashoda incident, 234.
Salm, Nicholas of, ii 80.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
348
Salmeron, Jesait theologian, iii
103.
Salmon, Spanish minister, vi.
16.
Salms, Von, Rhinegrave, iv. 399.
Salonika, murder of Prussian and
French consuls, vL 208.
Saluzzo, Marquis of, i. 262, 467 ;
iL 19, 24, 41, 122.
Salviati, Archbishop, i. 116.
Salviati, Papal Nuncio, ii. 392.
Salvius, Jonn Adler, Swedish
minister, iiL 335, 336.
Sambuca, Marquis, Neapolitan
minister, y. 1S2.
Sampson, Admiral, vL 236.
Sampson, Dr., English ambassa-
dor, i. 456.
Samson, Bemardin, Franciscan,
i. 421.
San Gallo, Marquis, Sardinian
minister, v. 241, 284, 367.
San Juan, Count, v. 449.
San Miguel, Spanish Foreign
Minister, vi. 14.
San Nicandro, Prince of, v. 181.
San Severino, Galeazzo di, i 247,
313.
Bandjaky district in Turkish pro-
vincial administration, i. 14.
Sandomierz Confederation, iv.
136, 137, 150.
Sanfedisti, Italian secret society,
VI. 19.
Sanga, Papal Envoy, ii 24.
SanS'CuloUes, v. 96, 100.
Santa Colonna, Count of, Viceroy
of Catalonia, iii. 314.
Santa Croce, Marquis of, iii.
298.
Santa Hermandad, establishment
of Order, i. 197.
Santa Junta, League of Castilian
Cities, L 423.
Santerre, Commandant-General
of National Guard, v. 85.
Santhonax, French commissioner,
V. 146.
Saragossa, Alfonso, Archbishop
of, i, 369.
Sardinia: Spanish conquest, iv.
209^; peace with Austria, vi.
99; Crimean War, 123; alli-
ance with France, 131 ; Austrian
tUtitnatum, 133.
Sarpi, Fra Paolo, iii 149.
Sami, Bandinello de*, i. 362.
Saumarez, Admiral, v. 421.
Sauvage, Chancellor of Spain, L
374.
Sauvigny, Berthier de, v. 41.
Savary, General, v. 377, 438.
Savem, Roman noble, i. 225.
Savonarola, Girolamo: Rise and
character, L 217 ; political ser-
mons, 227, 234; interdict
threatened against Florentines,
236 ; " Conclusions," 236, 237 ;
torture, recantation, 239; de-
nunciation of clerical vices,
240, 395 ; execution, 240.
Savoy : French invasions, ii. 120,
121 ; iii. 136 ; treaty with Spain,
iv. 113 ; cession to France, vi.
142.
Savoy, House of :
Bastard of Savoy, i. 470.
Bona, Regent oi Milan, L 113,
118.
Charles III., Duke of, i. 443;
u. 120,162; death, 277.
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of,
ii. 277, 282; Regent of Nether-
lands, 288; 297, 303; mar-
riage, 304, 310, 313 ; Vaudois
success against, 324,
Filiberta, marriage with Julian
de' Medici, i. 357.
Ren^ of, i. 441.
Saxe, Marshal, iv. 286, 295, 299,
302.
Saxe-CobuTff :
Ferdinand, Prince of Bulgaria,
vL223.
Josias, Prince of, imperial
conmiand, v. 114.
Saxe-Teschen, Duke of, imperial
command, v. 81 ; 99.
Saxony : House of Wettin, rulers,
i. 26; Nuremberg agreement
with Brandenburg, 26; parti-
tion, ii. 276 ; Reformation, iii.
159 ; Prussian invasion, iv. 317;
alliance with Prussia, v. 395;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
344
MODERN ETJEOPE
neutrality, 398; Prussian oc-
cnpation, vi. 178.
Scanderbeg, Albanian chieftain,
i. 102.
Schamhorst, General, death, v.
502.
Sdiartlin, Sebastian, ii. 108, 209.
Schauenburg, Greneral, v. 267,
268.
Schaumburff :
Adolf Off, Archbishop of Cologne,
ii. 215.
Silvester von, i. 412.
Scheel Plessen, von, Governor of
Schleswig-Holstein, vi. 176.
Schenck, Colonel, iii. 36.
Schepper, Cornelius Duplicius, ii.
Scheremetov, General, iv. 144,
145, 146, 152.
Sch^rer, General, French com-
mand, V. 194, 211, 214, 291,
204.
Schill, Major, v. 461.
Schiller, German poet, views on
French Revolution, v. 179.
Schimmelpenninck, M., Dutch
'Envoy at Amiens, v. 328; Grand
Pensionary of Holland, 341.
Schinner, Matthew, Cardinal and
Bishop of Sion, L 293, 302,
314.
Schleswig : Danish invasion, iv.
129; succession question, vi.
85; Prussian occupation, 167;
Austrian occuj>ation, 168.
Schleswig-Holstein: Erection into
Duchy, vi 89; war, 104; settle-
ment of affairs, 113, 114; con-
stitution, 114; claim of Fred-
erick of Augustenburg, 164;
joint possession by Austria and
Prussia, 170; admission to
Zollverein, 171 ; annexation by
Pmssia, 181, 182.
Schleswig - Holstein - Augusten -
bni:g. Christian Augustus,
Crown Prince <rf Sweden, v.
476.
Schley, Admiral, vL 236.
Schlick, Count, iii. 101 ; iv. 87.
Schlippenbaeh, General, iv. 144.
Scholastic Philosophy, i. 397.
Schomberg, French Envoy, ii
454.
Schomberg, Marshal, iii. 249, 347,
458 * iv. 54.
Sch5nfelsi William of, i. 25.
Scfaonhausen, Herr Bismarck {see
Bismarck, Prince).
Schouvalov, Russian ambassador,
vi. 212, 216.
Schr($der, General, iv. 417.
Schuhmacher, Peter, Oerman
jurist, iv. 21, 24.
Schulenberg, Baron, iv. 211,
296.
Schurf,Jerome, Wittenberg jurist,
i 416.
Schwarzenberg, Prince, v. 368,
454, 486, 504» 514, 522; vi 94,
98.
Schwaven, Peter von, i 416.
Schwedt Convention, iv. 152.
Schwendi, Lazarus, li. 255.
Schwerin, Field-Marshal, iv. 256,
257,325.
Sciaroa, Calabrian brigand, v.
Scotland : Catholic and Protest-
ant differences, ii. 250 ; French
alliance, 251 ; Reformation,
315, 318; evacuation by the
French, 318; Covenanteor dis-
turbances, iii. 312 ; union witii
England, iv. 100.
Seadeddin, Turkish historian, iii
92,94.
Sebastian of Portugal: African
expeditions, ii 469, 470 ; death*
470, 471.
Sebastiani, Colonel : Mission to
Egypt, V. 342 ; Envoy to Con-
stantinople, 417.
S^helles, H^rault de, v. 123.
Seckendorf, Count von, iv. 242,
270, 280, 291.
Secus, Baron, vi. 46.
Sefi Dynasty of Persia, iv. 235.
Sega, rapal Nuncio, ii. 473.
S^gur, Count, iv. 268, 291, 406,
444.
Seidlitz, General, iv. 333.
Seld, Vice-ChanceUor, ii 289.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
345
6elim L, Sultan of Tnrk^ : Con-
quests, i. 375 ; death, ^9.
Sefim II., Sultan of Turkey : Ac-
cession, ii. 371 ; death, 374 ; iii.
89.
Belim III., Sultan of Turkey:
Accession, iv. 415 ; Russo-Turk-
ish alliance, v. 282 ; anti-Rus-
sian policy, 417 ; unpopular re-
forms, deposition, 419.
Semblan^ay, French Finance
Minister, i 436.
Septennat, vi. 202.
Sepulveda, Colonel, vi 17.
Serd-art Eshem, title of Grand
Vizier, L 13.
Serra, Aiitonio, iii 116.
Serrano, Marshal, Regent of
Spain, vi 190.
Serrurier, General, v. 294, 352.
Servfiud, French War Minister, v.
76, 77, 87.
Server Pasha, vi. 215.
Servetns, Michael, ii 311.
Servia: Conquest by Mahomet
II., i 97 ; war agamst Turkey,
vi. 210; independence, 216,
217 ; kingdom, 223.
ServHes, Spanish party, vi. 12,
16.
Setschin, Arehbishopof Novgorod,
iv. 360.
Seven Ionian Isles 'Republic, v.
328.
Seven Years* War: Origin, iv.
309 ; political results, 356.
Seymour, Sir G. H., English am-
oassador at St. Petersburg, vi.
117.
Sfondrati, Cardinal, election to
Pontificate, iii 60 {see aiso Gre-
gory XIV.).
Sforza:
Ascanio, Cardinal, i 188, 189,
221, 249, 258.
Francesco, Duke of Milan:
Marriage, i 53; services to
Milanese Republic, 55, 106,
108; entry into Milan, 56;
dominion over Genoa, 109;
alliance with Louis XI. 128 ;
evacuation of Milan, 465.
Francesco Maria: Plots in fa*
vour of, i 364; reinstate-
ment, 216 ; Morone's conspir-
acy, 18, 43; blockade in
Milan, 23; marriage with
Christina of Denmark, 85;
death, 119.
Galeazzo Maria: Duke of Milan,
i 110; death, 113.
Gian GaJeazzo, Duke of Milan:
Minority, i 113; majority,
118; support of Duke of
Ferrara, 183 ; marriage with
Isabella of Aiagon, 188 ; with
Lucretia Borgia, 189 ; death,
216.
Ludovico, Duke of Milan:
Policy, i 188; conspiracy
against Charles VIII., 224,
fw; alliance with Venice,
Papacy, Germain^, and Spain,
225; treachery ofmercenaries,
248 ; imi>nsonment, 249,
353 ; administration, 249 ;
death, 249.
Maximilian, Duke of Milan, i.
314, 347; abdication, 360,
361.
Shafter, General, vi. 236.
Sheikh-ul-Islamy head of spiritual
and temporal law, i 15.
Shelbume, Lord, iv. 455.
Shore Ali, Ameer of Afghanistan^
vi222.
Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, iv. 95,
100.
Shrewsbunr, Earl of, i 348.
SiametSy Turkish provincial ad-
ministrations, i 14.
Siawusch Pasha, Grand Vizier of
Turkey, iv. 12, 13.
Sicily: Independent kingdom, i.
63; union with Aragon, 63;
revolution, iii 457; sovereignty
of House of Savoy, iv. 112;
subjection by Allies, 231 ; re-
volution, V. 463, 464; vi. 19,
20; declaration of independ-
ence, vi. 94; rebellion termi-
nated, 103 ; conquest by Gari-
baldi 142; elecfion of Victor
Emanuel, 145 ; revolt, 186.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
846
MODERN EUROPE
Sickingen, Franz von, i 382, 412,
418, 419, 429 ; ii. 54, 55, 56, 67.
Sidney, Sir Philip, Governor of
Flashing, iii 27 ; death, 28.
Sieges: Acre(1832),vi.62; (1840),
63; Adrianople, 34, 214; Alex-
andria (1801), V. 326; (1807),
418 ; Alkmaar, ii 439 ; Almeida,
V. 470; Amiens, iii. 82; Ancona
(1799), V. 298; (1860), vi 144;
Antibes, iv. 299; Antwerp
(1584), ii. 480; (1585), iii. 24;
(1832), vi. 60 ; Archangel, 122 ;
Arras, iii. 369 ; Athens, iv. 12 ;
Badajos, v. 471; Barcelona,
(1651), iii. 368 ; (1697), iv. 65 ;
Bayonne (1814), v. 512, 517;
Be&ort,vi.l97; Belgrade (1739),
iv.243; (1788), 406; (1789), 415;
Bergen-op-Zoom, iii. 36; Bilbao,
vi. 71 ; Bordeaux, iii. 360 ;
Boston, iv. 442; Boulogne ( 1544),
ii. 165; (1545), 176; Bourges,
340; Breda, iii. 252; Brei-
sach, 309; Bremen, ii. 220;
Breslau, iv. 328; Bri^, iii. 323;
Brihne^, iv. 104 ; Briinn, iii.
335 ; Brussels, iv. 100 ; Brzesc,
iii. 407; Buda (1530), u. 81,
102; (1684), iv. 10, 11; Cadiz
(1810), V. 469; (1812), 472;
(1823), vi. 15; Calais, ii. 300;
Calvi (Corsica), v. 200; Cam-
bray (1581), iii 18 ; (1595), 78 ;
Candia, iv. 7 ; Capua, v. 288 ;
Casale, iii. 271 ; Caudebec, 63;
Charleroi, v. 192; Chivasso, iii.
326 ; Ciudad Rodrigo, v. 470 ;
Civitella,ii.295; Colbeig(1758),
iv. 333 ; (1761), 347 ; (1807), v.
414 ; Coni, iv. 285 ; Constanti-
nople (1453), i 81 ; (1807), v.
418; Copenhagen (1535), iii.
222; (1685), 416; (1807), v.
412; Corunna, v. 450; Cracow
(1586), iii. 88 ; (1794), v. 172 ;
(1831), vi. 53; Clistrin, iv.
333; Dantzig (1734), iv. 228;
(1793), V. 168 ; Diedenhofen, iii.
328 ; D6le, 433 ; Dresden (1745),
iv. 294; (1760), 337; Dubitza,
iv. 406; Dunkirk (1652), iii.
368; 1793), v. 140; Duppel, vi.
168 ; (Diiren, ii 160 ; Shren-
breitstein, v. 290; Brian, iL
271, 272 ; Florence, 83 ; Flush-
ing, V. 462; Frankenthal, iii
206, 208 ; Fredericksode, 411 ;
Fredericksshamm, iv. 409 ;
Frederikshald, 161 ; Fuent-
arabia, 214; Gaeta (1806), v.
384; (1861), vL 145; Galera,
ii. 367; Genoa (1747), iv. 299;
(1814), V. 521; Gerona, 468;
Gibraltar (1705), iv. 94; (1727),
220; (1778), 447; (1782), 456;
Glogau, iii. 323; Gotha, ii. 447;
G<5ttingen,iii.258; Gran (1543),
iL 153 ; (1594), iii. 93 ; Grave
and Venloo, iii 27 ; Gravelines,
337; Greifswald, iv. 26; Gaines,
ii. 300 ; Guns, 108 ; Haarlem,
438 ; Harburg, iv. 330 ; Havre,
ii 344; Heidelberg (1622), iii
208; (1634), 301; Herzogen-
busch (Bois le Due), 298 ; His-
din, ii. 277; Hoxter, iii 255;
Hulst, 81 ; Ingolstadt, iv. 90 ;
Julich, iii. 168 ; Kars, vi 125 ;
Kell, V. 229; Khartoum, vi
226; Kinbum,iv. 405; Kronen-
berg, iii 416; Kufstein, ▼. 454;
La F^re, iii 79 ; Landau (1702),
iv. 86 ; (1704), 91 ; (1793), v.
144; Landrecies, 191 ; Laon,iii
70 ; La Rochelle (1573), u. 451,
452, 453 ; (1628), iii. 250; Leip-
sic (1641), iii 323 ; (1758), iv.
334 ; Le Mans, vi 197 ; Le
Quesnoy, v. 141 ; Lerida (1644),
iii 340, 341; (1646), 347; (1707),
iv. 99; Leyden, ii 441, 442,
443; LiUe (1666), iii. 433; (1708),
iv, 100; Longwy, v. 90; Louis-
bourg, iv. 342; Louvain, vi 50;
Luxembouig, iv. 36 ; Lyons, v.
137, 138 ; A&estricht (1579), iii
11, 12; (1748), iv. 303; (1793),
V. 114; Magdeburg (1550), ii
259 ; (1631), ui. 273, 274 ; Mainz
(1792), V. 98; (1793), 126, 127;
(1794), 195; Malta (1565), ii
367; (1798), v. 276; (1800), 312;
Mannheim (1622), iii 208;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
347
(1795), V. 210, 211 ; (1799), 297;
Mantua (1629), ui. 270; (1702),
iv. 86 ; (1796), v. 221, 229, 230,
231,232; (1799), 294; MaroeiUes,
ii. 123; Messina (1848), vi. 102;
(1861), 145; Metz (1552), ii. 273;
(1870), vi. 194, 196; Middelbnrg,
ii. 440 ; Minden, iv. 331 ; Misso-
longhi, vi. 32; Monheur, iii.
232 ; Mons (1572), ii 434, 435 ;
(1678), iii. 462; (1691), iv. 68;
(1709), 102; Montauban (1621),
iu.232; (1629), 270; Montreuil,
ii. 165; Moozon, iii. 360; Miin-
den, 268; Monster, ii 126;
Morviedro, v. 471 ; Namur, iv.
59 ; Narva, 131 ; Navarino, vi.
32 ; NenhaUsel, iv. 6 ; Nice, ii
162; Nieuport, iii 140; Nord-
lineen, 340; Olmtitz, iv. 332;
Orteans, ii 341 ; Ostend, iii
141, 143; Otchakov, iv. 406;
Pamplona, v. 612; Paris (1589),
iu. 51, 52; (1590), 58; (1593),
70; (1870), vi 195, 196, 197;
P^ronne, ii 123; Perpignan
(1542), 156, 167 ; (1793), v. 127 ;
Persano, vi 145 ; Peschiera, v.
294; Philippsbnrg (1687), iv.
61 ; (1734), 231 ; (1799), v. 297;
Pilsen, iii 191 ; Pinerolo, 271 ;
Pizzighettone,v. 294; Pleskow,
iii. 229 ; Plevna, vi 213, 214 ;
Pondicherry, iv. 446; PrM^ie
(1742), 270; (1744), 289; Pul-
tava, 148; Batisbon, iii. 296;
Benty, ii. 282 ; Rheinf elden, iii.
309; Riga (1621), 229; (1700),
iv. 128; (1713), 152; Rosetta,
v. 418; Rothweil, iii. 329;
Rouen, 63 ; St. DLder, ii 165 ;
St. John d'Acre, v. 303; St.
Martin, iii. 249 ; St. Omer, 319;
St. Philip, iv. 465; St. Qaentin,
ii 298, 299; St. Sebastian, v.
512: Salamanca, 472; Salas,
iii. 313, 314 ; Saragossa (1808),
V. 445; (1809), 446; Sebastopol,
vi 121, 122, 123, 124; ScMian,
195; Siena (1564), ii 283;
Silistria, vi. 121; Sluys, iii
29; Smolensko, 397; Strabnnd
(1628), 261, 262; (1711), iv. 161;
(1757), 327; (1807), v. 414, 415;
Stettin (1677), iv. 26; (1712),
151; Stockholm, ill 217; Svea-
borg, V. 421 ; Szigeth, ii. 369 ;
Tarnu^ona, v. 471 ; T^rouenne,
ii 277 ; Thorn (1658), iii 417 ;
(1703), iv. 137 ; Tonning, 129 ;
Tortosa, v. 471; Toulon (1707),
iv. 100; (1793), v. 138; Tou-
louse, 517 ; Toumay (1681), iii
18; (1745), iv. 295; Treves, iii.
340 ; Ulm, v. 371 ; Valencia,
471 ; Valenciennes (1566), ii.
420; (1793), v. 127; Valenzia,
iv. 65 ; Varna, vi. 34 ; Venice,
96; (1848), 103; Verdun, v. 94;
Veypr^m, iii 93; Vienna (1629),
ii. 79; (1619), iii. 197, 198;
(1683), iv. 8; (1848), vi 98;
Wachterdonck, iii. 36; War-
saw (1666), 404 ; (1794), v. 172 ;
(1831), vi 53 ; Wesel (1614) iii.
188; (1760), iv. 337; Weimar
(1676), 25; (1716), 157; York
Town, 455; Ypres, v. 192;
Zutphen, iii. 28 ; Zutphen and
Deventer, 38.
Siey^, Abb^, iv. 467 ; v. 33, 168,
207, 281, 305, 306, 307, 308.
Siffismund, Emperor, visit to
England, i 23.
Sigismund I., King of Poknd, i.
366; ii. 66, 72.
Sigismund II., King of Poland, ii.
453.
Siosmund III., King of Poland :
Election, iii 88, 225 ; Turkish
invasion, 21Q; attempts tosecure
Swedish crown, 225.
Sigismund of Tyrol, i 140.
Signatura Graticsy Papal Ck>urt,
1.44.
Sitpiatura Justiciie, Papal Court,
Silesia: Prussian conquest, iv.
254, 268 ; second Silesian war,
288.
Silvestro, Fra, i 237, 239, 240.
Silveyra, Don Lobo de, PortU'
guese £nvoy, v. 523.
Simiane, Paolo, ii. 162.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
848
MODERN EUEOPE
Simon, Jules, Premier of France,
vi. 204, 205.
Simonetta, Ciecoo, i. 118, 118.
Simpson, General, vi. 123.
Sinan Pasha, Grand Vizier, iii.
92,94.
Sinclair, Major Malcolm, Swedish
Envoy, iv. 274.
Siniavin, Admiral, v. 419, 428,
446.
Sion, Cardinal of, L 357, 359, 360,
437, 441.
Siropolo, Greek physician, iv. 376.
" Sixteen,'' origm of, in Paris, ii.
478.
Sixtus IV., Pope: Electicm to
Pontificate, L 112; league with
Naples, etc., 114; plot against
the Medici, 116; league with
Venice, 1 18 ; league witii Milan,
etc., 119 ; intrigues with Vene-
tians, 183; Spanish Inquisition,
198 ; death, 184.
Sixtus v.. Pope: Election to
Pontificate, iu. 31 ; treaty with
Philip II., 32; excommunication
of Henry of Navarre and Gond^,
42; death, 60.
Skelton, English ambassador, iv.
52.
Skiemevice, meeting of Em-
perors, vi. 221.
Skobelov, General, vi. 214.
Slulu Derbend, i. 20.
Sraalkald, League of, ii. 99, 136,
127,209.
Smalkaldic War, ii 209, 211, 214,
215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 268,
269.
Smith, Commodore Sir Sidney, v.
139, 303, 325, 357, 427.
SogUU Malissety iv. 439.
Soderini, John Victor, Juriscon-
sult, i. 316.
Soderini, Paoloantonio, Floren-
tine counsellor, i. 226.
Soderini, Pietro, Florentine Ad-
ministration, i. 315.
Sokolli, Mahomet, Grand Vizier,
iii 89, 90.
Solis, Juan Diaz de, i. 336.
Soltikoff, General, iv. 335.
Solyman, Grand Vizier of Turkey,
iv. 12.
Solyman L, Sultan of Turkey:
Accession, i. 447; European
policy, 448; invasion of Hun-
gary, ii. 70, 73, 74, 75, 79, 106,
107, 108, 109, 151, 152, 153, 270,
271, 369; truoe with Sigismund
I. and alliance with Francis I.,
72 ; invasion of Italy, 130, 131;
character, 370 ; death, 370.
Solyman II., Sultan of Turkey,
accession, iv. 13.
Sombieuil, De, v. 204.
Somerset, Duke of. Protector^ ii.
226,250.
Scnderhund, Swiss League, vi 86.
Sonoy, Deputy Stadholaer, ii. 437.
Sorel, Agn^s^ i. 75.
Soto, Dominico, iv. 179.
Soubise, Prince de, iii. 238, 239,
247 ; iv. 323, 326, 327, 330, 331.
Souboff, General, Russian com-
mand, V. 173.
Soudan : Abandonment by
English, vi. 227; reconquest,
233.
Soult, Marshal: Frenchcommand
in Switzerland, V. 297 ; Marshal
of the Empire, 352; command
in Portugal, 467; defence of
Toulouse, 517; Minister at
War, vi. 66; Prime Minister,
62,64.
South African War, vi. 234.
South Sea Company, iv. 191.
SouvT^, M. de, ui 176.
SpaMs, Turkish cavalry, i. 7.
Spain: Division into independent
sovereignties, i 60; treaties,
181, 225, 254; historjr of Don
Carlos, 191 ; Catalan insurrec-
tion, 193; Inquisition in Castile,
197; United Kingdom, 202,903;
royal marriages, 234; oonquasts
in Africa, 306, 306; acoeasion
of Charies I., 368; league of
leadiiigcities,374; Papal power,
394 ; Inquisition, 410, 413 ; for-
mation of Santa Junta, 4S3;
taxation grievances, loas of
power by Cartes, ii 140; Sch<das-
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
349
tic Philosophy, 188 ; conquest
of Mexico, 189; ephemeral
proeperity, 193, 194 ; trade and
commerce, 191, 192, 193, 194;
abdication of Charles L, 288;
religiooB persecutions, 320 ; re-
formation, Autos da fi, etc.,
320, 321 ; iii. 107, 108 ; revolt
and subjugation of Moriscoes,
ii. 366 ; position in Europe, iii.
99 ; opposition to Jesuits, 106 ;
zenith of prosperity, 110 ; fiscal
r^ttlations. 111 ; decline of
trade and commerce. 111, 112,
113, 117 ; foreign monopolies,
revenue and system of taxation,
114; decrease in population,
116; expulsion of Moriscoes,
150,151; treaties and alliances,
169, 342, 346, 434, 445; occupa-
tion of Valtellina, 230, 231;
Mantuan Succession Question,
269, 270, 271 ; war with France,
301, 340, 368, 384, 434; disturb-
ances, 313; fleet destroyed, 319;
position at Peace of Westphalia,
354 ; war with England, 375 ;
regency of Queen-Mother Maria
Anna, 428 ; fVench campaigns,
iv. 57, 58, 59, 61, 63, 214 ; Suc-
cession Question, 69 ; Partition
Treaties, 71, 72 ; European re-
cognition of Philip v., 78, 79;
destruction of fleet by Allies,
87; Spanish Succession War,
87, 94, 95, 98, 101, 104, 106,
113; treaties and alliances, 112,
113, 204, 215, 222, 261, 345;
maladministration, etc., 174;
Alberoni's reforms, 203; con-
quest of Sardinia, 209 ; Conven-
tion of the Pardo, 246; war
with England, 247, 348, 446;
effects of Austrian Succession
War, 305 ; policy during Seven
Years' War, 339; change of
policy, 342; expulsion of Jesuits,
435; treaties, v. 233, 324, 426,
451 ; Russian declaration of
war, 298; purchase of Tuscany
for Louis de Bourbon, 314 ; war
with England, 357; relations
with France, 423, 424; French
invasion, 435, 466, 469, 471;
insurrections against French,
442, 443, 444 ; supreme central
Junta, 448; struggle between
King and Cortes, vi. 9 ; banish-
ment of Joseph Bonaparte's
adherents, 10; revolution in
Spanish America, 10; sale of
Florida to United States, 11 ;
struggle with colonies, 11
note; i*evolutionary parties, 12;
Holy Alliance interterence, 13 ;
French invasion, 14 ; '* Army of
the Faith," 15 ; apostolic Junta,
16 ; Estatuto Meal, 67 ; Carlist
rebellion, 67 ; cholera visitation,
67 ; Constitution of 1812, 71 ;
effect of French Revolution of
1848,115; domestic dissensions,
189; Constitntionof 1869, 190;
Spanish-American War, 1^5,
Spalatin, George, Court preacher
in -Saxony, i. 406, 417.
Spaur, Count, Bavarian ambassa-
dor, vi 101.
Spechbacher, Tyrolese leader, v.
453.
Spencer, Earl, English Envoy to
Vienna, v. 193.
Spencer, General, v. 446.
Spencer, Sir B., v. 471.
Spener, Philip Jacob, iv. 195.
Spina, Cardinal, v. 332 noU,
Spinola, General Ambrose, iii.
142, 143, 144, 202, 252, 270,
271.
Spinola, Paolo, ii. 247.
Spinosa, Cardinal, Vice-Grand
Inquisitor, ii. 365.
Spires, Diets held at (1526), ii.
25, 69, 87; (1529), 87, 88, 89;
(1544), 162.
Spiridoff, Admiral, iv. 377.
Stadion, Count, v. 377, 451.
St&el, Baron de, Swedish Envoy,
V. 199.
St&el, Madame de, v. 8, 72, 187.
Staffler, Colonel of Swiss mercen-
aries, L 367.
Stahl, Privy Councillor, vL 152.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
850
MODERN ETJEOPB
Stahremberg, Count, iv. 4, 8, 9,
101, 314.
Stair, Earl of, English and €rerman
command, iv. 280, 281.
Stamboulov, Bulgarian minister,
vi223.
Stamp Act of 1765, iv. 441.
Stanhope, General, iv. 101.
Stanhope, Lord, English ambassa-
dor, IV. 219.
Stanislaus Lesczinski, King of
Poland : Election, iv. 138, 227 ;
coronation, 140 ; retirement,
156 ; abdication, 232, 284.
Stanislaus Poniatowski, Kins of
Poland, iv. 152, 154, 364; elec-
tion, 366; subserviency to
Russia, V. 160 ; Confederation
of Targowitz, 167 ; Act of Ab-
dication, 175.
Stanley, Sir William, Governor
of Deventer, iii. 28.
Stein, Baron von, Prussian minis-
ter, V. 460, 496.
Steinmetz, Greneral, German com-
mand, vi. 193.
Stenbock, General, iv. 151.
Stephen, Archduke, Hungarian
Palatine, vi. 97.
Sternberg, Ungem, iv. 326.
Stewart, Sir Charles, English
Envoy, vi. 20.
Stii-ling Castle, use of bombards
in siege, i. 342.
Stofflet, La Vendue insurrection,
V. 113, 203, 204.
Stoilov, Bulgarian minister, vi.
223.
Stolberg, Count, German poet, v.
179.
Stolberg, Prince, iv. 354.
Stopford, Admiral, vi 63.
Storch, Klaus, ii. 51, 53.
Stormont, Lord, British ambassa-
dor, iv. 445.
Stourdza, M., Russian Envoy, vi.
23.
Strafford, Earl of, English pleni-
potentiary, iv. 107.
Strahan, Sir Richard, v. 279, 381,
461.
Strassburg : Capture by French,
iv. 82; revolutionary commis-
sion, V. 143, 144.
Straubing, John of, ruler of
Lower Bavaria, i 26.
Strozzi, Philip, ii. 475.
Strozzi, Pietro, Marshal of France,
ii 283, 300, 302.
Struensee, influence and power in
Denmark, iv. 410, 411 ; fall and
execution, 412.
Stuart, General, v. 385.
Stuart, Hon. Charles, v. 279.
Stuart, House of, Act of Abjura-
tion excluding from English
throne, iv. 83.
Stuart, Sir Charles, English am-
bassador, V. 503.
Stuart, Sir John, v. 463.
Stukely, Thomas, ii. 473.
Sture,Sten: Swedish claimant to
the throne, iii 213; regency
and death, 214.
Sture Sten, the younger, regent
of Sweden, iii 214; death, 215.
Sture, Swante, regency of Swe-
den, death, iii 214.
Styrum, Count, imperial com-
mand, iv. 87.
Suabian League, i 212, 386 ; ii. 57,
61, 62, 65, 128.
Suarez, Spanish Jesuit, iii 17,
316.
Suarez, Francis, Jesuit of Gran-
ada, iv. 179.
Sublime Porte, Turkish seat of
government, i 12, 14.
Suchet, Marshal: French com-
mand in Italy, v. 309, 468;
bd.ton of marshal, 471 ; Duke of
Albufera, 471 note; command
in Spain, 511.
Sudermania, Charles, Duke of,
regency of Sweden, v. 178.
Suez Canal : Endish control, vi
209 ; opening, 225.
Suffolk, Duke of, ii. 279.
Suffolk, Earl of, i 269, 270.
Suf&en, Bailli de, iv. 454.
Suleiman Pasha, vi 214.
Sully, Duke of : Financial system,
iii 120, 123; Christian Republic
scheme, 137, 138; retirement, 167.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
UTOEX
351
Sultan, title, powers and pre-
rogatives, i. 11.
Snresne Conference, iii. 66.
Surrey, Earl of, i. 348, 443 ; exe-
cution, ii. 226.
Sutton, Sir Robert, English medi-
ator, iv. 212.
Snvaroff, General, iv. 382, 405,
415, 424.
Suvorov, General, v. 173, 174, 281,
291, 295.
Sweden : Ck)nquest by Christian
IL, iii. 215, 216; reformation,
219; conversion into hereditary
monarchy, 222 ; Civil War, 224 ;
Council of Regency, 266 ; min-
ority of Queen Christina, 330 ;
war with Denmark, 331 , 410 ; re-
newed alliancewith France,335,
444 ; German cessions, 351 ; re-
volution and counter-revolution,
iv. 21; treaties with foreign
powers, iv. 21, 28, 273, 274, 408,
415; war with Brandenburg,
22; war with Denmark, 24,
151 ; absolute monarchv, 29,
414 ; army regulations, 30 ; war
with Russia, 131, 275, 409;
Second Grand Alliance against,
150 ; revolution, 161, 407 ; con-
stitution restored to ancient
oligarchy, 162; foreign policy,
162 ; HaU and Nightcaps, 273 ;
Baltic Sea neutrality, 336;
Armed Neutrality, 452 ; treaties
and alliances, v. 319, 414, 415,
479, 480; St. Peteraburff Con-
vention, 324 ; blockade of Prus-
sian ports, 383; war with Russia,
419 ; Danish declaration of war,
420 ; election of Crown Prince,
476; tariff of Trianon, 478;
coalition against Napoleon, 499;
Norway united to, 510.
Switzerland : Form of govern-
ment, divisions, etc., i. 33; Con-
federation of Forest Cantons, 34;
merc^iaries, 35; Burgundian
invasion, 157, 158 ; peace with
Burgundy, 166; alliance of mer-
cenaries with Julius II., 294;
organization of infantry, 341 ;
treaty with Leo X. , 354 ; treaty
with Francis I., 363; reforma-
tion, 420, 422; ii. 180, 182; mer-
cenaries in Austro-French wars,
i. 437 ; independence recognized
by Peace ofWestphalia, iii. 352;
adoption of French revolution-
ary principles, v. 265 ; Helvetic
Republic, 265, 268; revolt of
Forest Cantons, 269; Union-
ists and Federalists, 339; Act
of Mediation, 340; neutrality,
513 ; Sonderhund^ vi. 86.
Sybel, Von, historian, vi. 156.
Syria, restoration to Turkey, vi.
63.
Szilagyi, Governorship of Bis-
tritz, i. 95.
Tachmas, Kouli Khan, Shah of
Persia, iv. 239.
Tagsatzung, v. 267.
Taillagafim, ii. 479 ; iii 47.
Tallard, French general, iv. 90.
Talleyrand-P^rigord, Bishop of
Autun, iv. 465 ; v. 59 ; French
Foreign Minister, 255, 262 ; in-
terference in Switzerland, 266 ;
loan demanded from United
States, 271 ; dismissal, 295 ; re-
instatement, 308; privileges
granted to, by Pius VIL, 332;
note to Lord Hawkesbury, 346 ;
Russian interference, 354; Peace
of Pressburg, 379 ; treaty forced
on Prussia— humiliating terms,
382 ; principality of Benevento,
386; confeaeration of German
States scheme, 388; negotiaticm
with Prussia, 400; Denmark's
attitude, 411 note; Foreign Min-
ister under Louis XVIIL, 519 ;
French Envoy to Congress of
Vienna, 523 ; chief minister to
Louis XVIIL, vi. 4.
Tallien, Madame, v. 187,
Tallion, pro-consul at Bordeaux,
V. 139.
Tanucci, Bernardo, iv. 231 ; Nea^
poHtan policy and reforms, v.
181 ; foreign policy— dismissal,
182.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
852
MODEBN ET7B0PE
Tapete, Admiral, vi. 190.
Tarascon, Terreur Blanche, v. 189.
Tavannes, Gaspard de, iL 360,
361.
Tchenderelli, Kara Chalil, estab-
lishment of Janissaries, i. 6.
Tegethof, Austrian admiral, vi.
185.
Tekeli, Count Emmerich : Hun-
garian revolt, iv. 7 ; imprison-
ment at Adrianople — liberation,
etc., 11; VoyvcJie of Transyl-
vania, 14; banishment and
death, 16.
Temple, Sir William, British
Resident at Brussels, iiL 435.
Termes, Marshal Paul de, Gover-
nor of Calais, ii. 302.
Terra-firma, subjugation, ii. 190.
Terrai, Abbd, iv. 439, 440.
Terreur Blanche, counter-revolu-
tion in the provinces, v. 189*
Tess^, Marshal, iv. 94, 100.
Tetzel, John, Dominican friar, i.
404, 406, 409; death, 410.
Teutonic Order, knights of, L 25;
ii. 65.
Tewfik, Viceroy of Egypt, vL 225.
Thamasp, Shah of Persia, iL 71 ;
iv. 235.
Theatines, Recular priests, ii. 185.
Thebes, annexation by Mahomet
II., i. 84.
Theobald, Baron of Geroldseck, i.
421.
Theot, Catherine, v. 153.
Theresa, St., iiL 102.
Thessalonica, conquest of, by
Amurath II. , L 17.
Thiene, Gaetono de, ii. 185.
Thiers, M., journalist, vL 35 ;
President of Council, and Secre-
tary of State for Foreign Affairs,
58 ; French Prime Minister, 62;
76; opposition to policy of
Napoleon III., 191 ; mission to
European Courts, 195 ; admini-
stration, 201; fall of, 202;
death, 205.
Thiersch, vi. 35.
Third European Coalition, v. 359,
363,364.
Thirty Years' War : iii. 155, 15^
157, 158, 159, 160; 253-263;
264-269; 272-309; 310-312; 320-
323 ; 328-333 ; 334-353, iv. 165 ;
negotiations for general peace
— congresses in Westphalia, iiL
328; 335-353.
Thor^, Montmorenci de, iL 461.
Thorigny, Monsieur de. Minister
of Interior— retirement, vL 107.
Thorn, peace of, iL 65.
Thorwenel, French Foreign Minis-
ter, vL 141 ; dismissal, 149.
Thuffut, Baron, Austrian Envoy
to Prussia, iv. 390 ; v. 172, 180,
191, 235 ; Austrian peace with
France— treachery to Great
Britain, 241 ; cession of left
bank of Rhine to France, 270 ;
recall, 281 ; treaty of Austria
with Sicilies, 285; retirement,
335.
Thum, Count Henry of, iii. 190,
191, 192.
Tiecke, General, Belgian com-
mander, vi. 49.
Tiepolo, Venetian ambassador,
ill 100.
Tier8'Etat,ul 170; effect of revo-
lution on Tiers-Etat as landed
proprietors, v. 4 note.
Tilly, Count, iii. 158, 201, 208,
255, 258, 262, 267, 274, 275, 279.
Timarli, Turkish cavalry — ^mili-
tary tenures, L 7.
Timars, nrovincial administration
in TurJdsh dominions, L 14.
Tinville, Fouquier, execution, v.
187.
Todleben, defender of SebastopoL
vL214.
Toisan cFOr, Ordtar of, L 72.
Toledo, Francis, Grovemor of
Siena, iL 284.
Toledo, Frederick de, ii. 437.
Toledo, Pedro de. Viceroy of
Naples, a. 236, 274.
Tolly, Barclay de : Kussian com-
mand, v. 485; resumption of
command in chief, 503.
Tolna, diet of, L 376.
Tomory, Archbishop, ii 74.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
353
Tone, Wolf, v. 278.
Tonqoin : French policy, vi 206 ;
French expedition, 225.
Topographical Maps, first use of.
Tord, French chancellor, iv. 75,
76.
Torgan, League of, ii. 68, 69.
Torquemada, Spanish High In-
quisitor, L 203; iii 110.
Torrington, Earl of, English
commander, iv. 54.
Torstenson, Swedish commander,
iiL 905, 322, 323, 329, 330, 331,
833, 335, 339.
Toulouse, exemption from taxes,
i. 127.
Tour-du-Pin, Mademoiselle de la,
iv. 60.
Toumon, Cardinal, ii 128, 227.
Tonrville, Admiral, iv. 59, 61.
Tours: Etais-Gin^atix, i. 137,
170; Assembly of Notables, 145 ;
National Ecclesiastical Council,
298.
Toussaint FOuverture, y. 333,
384.
Torghud (or Draghut), Turkish
corsair, ii 258, 267.
Tracy, de, French Naval Minister,
vi. 82.
Trade and Commerce : Maritime
discoveries fatal to Mediter-
ranean ccmimerce, i. 337 ;
herring fishing industry, 438;
European mercantile system,
iv. 181 ; effect of maritime dis-
coveries and colonization, 183
{see (Uso names qf emmiries and
cities),
TransuDstantiation, doctrine of,
Lateran General Coundl estab-
lishing, i. 388.
Transvaal, declaration of war
against England, vi. 284.
Tnmsylvania: Cession to Rodolph
n., iii. 96; Voyvodes of, 196;
Turkish interference and in-
vasion, iv. 3^ incorporation with
Hungary; vi. 98.
Trapam, Francis, Count of, vi.
uuneary; vi. 93.
'rajpam, Francis,
Trastamara, House of, i 61, 195,
196.
Traun, Field-Marshal, Rhine
campaign, iv. 286.
Trautmannsdorf, Count, govern-
ment of Austrian Netherlands,
iv. 401, 417.
Trautson, Sixt von, Austrian
commander, i. 282.
Treaties : Abo, iv. 278 ; Adrian-
ople (1829), vi. 34 ; (1878), 215 ;
AggerhnyiB, iii. 220; Ainali
Karak, iv. 403 and note ; Aix-
la-Chapelle (1668), iii. 436;
(1748), iv. 804; Akerman, vi
32; Alessandria, v. 310; Alt-
mark, iii. 229 ; Altranstftdt, iv.
143; Amiens, v. 328; Amster-
dam, iv. 159; Andrusoff, Hi.
421; An^rs (1551), H. 256;
(1598), iii. 74; Aranjuez, iv.
296 ; Augsburg (Keligious
Peace), ii. 287 ; Austerlitz, v.
378 ; Badajoz, 316 ; Barcelona,
ii. 48, 81. 85 ; Bardo, vi 220 ;
Barrier Treaty (1713), iv. 110;
(1715), 115; Baxtenstein Con-
vention, v. 403, 414 ; B&rwalde,
iii. 273; Basle (Prussia and
France), v. 197; (France and
Spain), 208 ; Bavonne, v. 440 ;
Belgrade, iv. 2i3; Bergen-op-
Zoom, iii 146 ; Bergerac (1577),
ii. 466; (1580), 468; Berlin
(1742), iv. 269; (1788), 400;
(1792), V. 73; (1878) vi. 217;
Bomy, ii 130, 181 ; Breda, iii
431 ; Brescia, v. 222 : Breslau
(1742), iv. 209, 280; (1818) v.
497 ; BrOmsebro (1541), iii 222 ;
(1645), 382 ; Bucharest (1812), v.
475 ; vi 27 ; (1886), 228 ; Cadan,
ii 126; Cambray ("La Paix
des Dames"), 47, 81 ; Campo
Fo^io, V. 241, 254 ; Carlowitz,
iv. 10, 16; Castiglione, v. 813;
Cftteau-Cambr^sS, ii 803, 304;
Chambord, ii 260, 261 ; Chau-
mont, V. 514; Cherasoo (1631),
iu. 271 ; (1796), v. 218; Peace
of Christendom, Iii. 170; Cintra
Convention, v. 446 ; Cdre Con-
VI.
A A
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
854
MOBEBN EUBOPE
vention. 291; Gompi^gne, iiL
234; Concordat, v. 316, 332;
ConBtantinople (1784), iv. 404;
(1790), 416 ; (1798), v. 283. 284 ;
(1897), vi 231; Ck>penhagen
(1660),i.iii. 420 ; (1709), iv. 151 ;
(1767), 324; (1794), v. 319;
Crespy, iL 167 ; Treaty of the
Oown, iv. 81 ; Dobran, 24 ;
Dover, iii. 439 ; Dresden (1699),
iv. 122; (1709), 150; (1745),
294, 295: Drottingholm, 415;
V. 177; £1 Arisch, SSS; Escurial,
230, 246; Evoramonte, vL 70;
Family Alliance, iv. 402;
Family Compact, 345; Florence,
V. 315; Folembray, iii. 73;
Foligno, V. 315; Fontainebleau
(1743), iv. 283; (1762), 353;
(1785), 396; (1807), v. 413, 426;
Frankfnrt (1744), iv, 288;
{1871), vL 198, 200; FriedrichB-
hamm, v. 423 ; Fiissen, iv. 291;
Gastein (1865); vi. 172; (1879),
220; Pacification of Ghent, ii.
446 ; Gorcum. 138 ; Grand Alli-
ance (1690), IV. 56; (1701), 82;
Grodno, v. 169 ; Hague (1613),
iii. 187; (1669), 424; (1678),
453, 454, 456; (1678), 460;
(1690), iv. 57; (1748), 302;
(1794), V. 190 ; HaU, iiL 161 ;
Hamburg, iv. 350; Hampton
Court, iL 338, 339; Hanover
(1726), iv. 219; (1741), 262;
Herrenhausen, 219 ; Hohen-
linden, v. 312 ; Holy Alliance,
vi 8; Hnbertsburg, iv. 353;
Jaesy, 425 ; J5nkopmg, v. 423 ;
Kainardji, iv. 386 ; Kardis, UL
420; Kiel, v. 413; (1814), 509,
510; Klein-Schnellendorf, iv.
266 ; Kloster Zevem (1532), ii.
102; (1757), iv. 324; Labrian,
iii. 406 ; Leipeic, iv. 291 ; Paci-
fication of Limerick, 54 ; Jab-
bon, iii. 436; London (1793),
V. 109, 110 ; (1814), 620 ; (1827),
vi. 33 ; (1840), 63 ; (1852), 114 ;
LoOy iv. 400; Loudun, iii
173 ; LOwenwolde's Treaty,
iv. 224 ; Liibeck, iiL 262 ;
Lnnden, iv. 28; Lnneville, v.
314 ; Madrid (1621), iiL 231 ;
(1721), iv. 215; (1750), 304;
(1801), V. 314, 316 ; Mainz, 109 ;
Malmd, vL 90; Mantua Con-
vention, V. 521 ; Marienborg,
iii. 403 ; Memel, v. 394 note ;
Methuen, iv. 89 ; MiUn (1706),
97 ; (1797), v. 242 ; (1798), 271 ;
Mon^on (1537), iL 131 ; (1626),
iiL 243 ; <* Monsieur,'* iL 461 ;
Montebello, v. 246; Mont-
pellier, iiL 232; Moscow, iv.
277 ; Munich, iiL 197 ; Mlin-
ster, 346 ; Naples, v. 286 ; Ne-
mours Edict, 11. 481 ; Ndrae, iL
467; Nikolsbuiv (1622), iiL
208 ; (1866), vL m, 186 ; Nime-
guen, iii. ^1 ; Nuremburg, ii.
102, 103; Nymphenburg, iv.
261; NystaJid, 163; OUvia, iiL
419 ; OUoki, v. 422; Orebro, v.
480; Paris (1526), iiL 242;
(1657), 377; (1727), iv. 220;
(1763), 354; (1786), 459; (1796),
V. 222, 224; (1798), 269; (1801),
324; (1802), 326, 336; (1803),
348; (1805), 367; (1806) 388,
390; (1807), 430; (1812), 481;
(1814), 519; (1815), vL 4, 5;
(1856), 126; (1857), 126; (1858),
126; Parsdorf, v. 311; Parti-
tion Treaty (1698), iv. 71;
(1700), 72, 76, 77, 78. 79 ; (1772),
382 ; Paasarowitz, 212 ; Passon,
iL 268; Plessis-l^-Tours, iiL
15 ; Poischwitz (or Pleistwitz),
V. 503; Poitiers, iL 466 noie;
Potsdam Convention, v. 374;
Prague (1595), iii. 93; (1635),
301 ; (1866), vL 181 ; Pre88biu&
V. 379; Capitulation of the
Pruth, iv. 154; Pyrenees, iiL
386; Quadruple AlBanoe (1718),
iv. 218 ; (1834), vL 70 ; iUiny,
iL 155; Radstadt and Baden,
iv. 114; Radsbon, iv. 37;
Beichenbach Convention(1790),
iv. 422; (1813), v. 503; Reich-
stadt, vL 210; Bied, v. 506;
Roskild, iiL 414 ; BueU, 358 ;
Byswick, iv. 65 ; St Grermain,
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
855
ii. 9S2; St. Germain-en-Laye,
iv. 28 ; St. ndefonso (1796)» v.
232; (1800), 314; St. Peters-
burg (1762), iv. 349; (1764),
366; (1772), 381; (1794), v.
201 ; (1795), 174 ; (1798), 284,
286; (1799), 298, 299; (1801),
324; (1805), 360; (1812), 480;
Ste. Menehould, iii 170; St.
Stefano, vi 215; Schiarino-
Bizzino, v. 521 ; Schlatkow,
414 ; Schleswig-Holstein, vi.
113; Schbnbnum (Convention,
V. 379; Schwedt (Convention, iv,
152 ; Secret Treaty between the
Empire and Spain, iv. 219 ;
Seville, iv. 222; Shimonoseki,
vi 237 ; Sistova, iv, 422 ; Sit-
vatorok, iii 97 ; Slobosia, v.
419 ; Stettin, iii. 225 ; Steyer,
V. 313; Stockholm (1672), iii
444 ; (1720), iv. 162; (1808), v.
420 ; (1813), 499 ; Stolbova, iii
229; Stuttgardt, v. 369; Sohlin-
gen Convention, 346; Sz&ny,
ui 334; Teschen, iv. 391;
Thorn, ii. 65; Tilsit, v. 405;
Toledo, ii 133; Tolentino, v.
237; Taplitz, 504; Trachen-
bnrg, 504 ; Travendahl, iv. 130,
131; Treviso, v. 314; Triple
Alliance (1668), iii. 435 ; (1717),
iv. 208 ; (1788), 400 ; Troyes, ii
363; Tnrin (1738), iv. 229;
(1814), V. 522; Uim (1620), iii
200; (1647), 342; Unkiar
Skelessi, vi 63; Utrecht, iv.
113; Valenziana, v. 199; Vas*
var, iv. 6 ; Tmce of VatiseUes,
ii. 291; Vergara, vi. 72; Ver-
sailles (1756), iv. 314; (1727),
321, 322; (1783), 458; Vervins,
ui 83 ; Vic, 278 ; Vienna (1608),
442; (1725), iv. 218; (1731),
223; (1738), 232; (1798), v. 285;
(1809), 457; (1815), 526; (1864),
vi 170; (1866), 186; Villa-
franca, 138 ; Vossem, iii 453 ;
Warsaw (1705), iv. 140; (1716),
157; (1745), 290; (1746). 312;
(1790), V. 162 ; WeLsan, iii. 409 ;
Weiben, 275 ; Werela, iv. 415 ;
Westminster (1674), iii. 455;
(1716), iv. 207 ; (1742), 269, 270 ;
Westphalia, iii 349 ; (Comple-
ment of the Peace of West-
phalia, 379; Westphalia, iv.
165 ; WiUstadt, iu. 168 ; Wilna,
406 ; Worms, iv. 283 ; Xanten,
iii. 189; Zell, iv. 27; Znaym,
V. 454 ; Zurich, vi. 138,
Treilhard, jFrenoh plenipoten-
tiarjr, v. 258, 280.
Tr^moille, Louis de la, i 257.
Trent, Council of: ii 169, 176,
177, 204, 232 ; transference to
Bologna, 236 ; Charles V.'s pro-
test, 240; re-opening under
Julius III., 253, 254 ; re-assem-
bly, 258; dispersion, 265; re-
assembly, 346, 347, 348; last
sitting, 350; canons of, 350;
Catholics and Protestants, line
of demarcation, iii. 100.
Trinidad: Discovery of, i 334;
cession to Great Britain, Hi.
328; English conquest of, v.
258.
Triple Alliance (1668), iu. 435;
(1717), iv. 208.
Tristan TErmite, Provost, i 167.
Triumvirate, alliance of Guise,
Montmorenci, and St. Andr^,
u. 328.
Trivulno, Antonio, Papal Le-
^te, ii 173.
Tnvulzio:
Gian Giacope, i 224, 231,
233, 247, 249, 287, 296, 300,
301, 302, 303, 346, 347, 358,
436.
Theodoro, Grovemor of Genoa
in name of Francis I., ii
40.
Trochn, General, Governor of
Paris, vi 195, 197.
Troja, Prime Minister of Naples,
V1.95.
Troile, Gustaf, Archbishop of
Upsala, iii 213, 215, 219, 221,
222.
Tromp, Admiral van: Dutch
commander, iii 372, 373 ; Ad-
miral of Denmark, iv. 25.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
856
MODERN EUBOPE
Tronohet, oonnsel for defence of
LouuXVL, V. 101.
Troppau Conffreas, vi. 20.
Trabetskoi, Prince, Governor of
Novgorod, iv. 131 ; vi. 31.
Tmchwes:
GeUiard, Archbishop and
Elector of Cologne, ill. 87.
George, ii. 67, 62, 89
Truguet, Admiral, French am-
bassador to Madrid, v. 272.
Tsar oi Rnasia, title first assumed
by Ivan IV., iii. 228 note.
Titjrmdbund, Prussian League of
Virtue, V. 460.
Tuahra, engraving on Sultan's
seal, i. 12.
Tunis, capture of, by Charles V.,
ii. 118 ; French expedition, vi.
226.
Tnnstall, Enfflish Envoy to the
Netherlan£, ii. 6.
Turenne, Marshal : iii. 339, 340,
341, 348, 368, 363, 364, 365,
369, 378, 447, 462, 466; death,
467.
Tumt, iv. 440, 441 ; V. 14.
Turm, capital removed from,
vLi60.
Turkey : Capture of Constanti-
nople, i. 1> 4 ; establishment of
Ottoman power in Eurcqw, 4 ;
Osman, or Othman, founder of
Ottoman Empire, 5; army or-
ganization, janissaries, 6, 7, 8,
6, 10 ; civil and religious insti-
tutions, 11, 12, 14 : education
and administration of justice,
16 ; creation of navy, 84 ; pro-
ffr«»s and advance into Emt^,
89; crusade against Turks, 283;
treaty with Venice, 264 ; ad-
vance of power into Europe, iL
79 ; Russia and Turkey, 374 ;
extent of Turkish dominion in
1607, iii 97, 98 ; oppression of
Christians, 131, 132 ; reyival id
?ower, iv. 4 ; war with Venice,
, 12, 210; support of Hun-
£^an insurgents, 8; revolu-
tion, 239; war with Persia,
240; war with Russia, 241,
876^ 406, 424 ; project of Greek
Revolution against Turkey,
377 ; secret treaty with Aus-
tria, 380; Prussian alliance,
416; Russo-Turkish alliance, v.
282; peace with France, 326;
Russo-Turkish War, 418, 474;
treaty with England, 419 ;
armistice of Slobosia, 419 ; dis-
organization of amr^, vi. 27 ;
Russian designs, 117; Russo-
Turkish war, 118, 119 ; Bertin
Memorandum, 208 ; London
Protocid rejection, 212; war
with Greece, 224, 231 ; Ar-
menian massacres, 229, 2afk
Tuscany : Administration of
Grand Duke Leopold, iv. 419 ;
French occupation, v. 428 ; de-
cree bestowing on Eliza Baoci-
occhi, 463 ; revolutionary
movement, vi 94; democratie
ministoy, 101; Austrian policy,
provisional government, 137
annexation to Sardinia, 140
annexation to Piedmont, 142 ,
return of Grand Duke to MUan,
103,188.
Tyrawley, Lord, Governor of
Minorca, iv. 316, 363.
Tyroowitz, Confederacy ol, iii
403.
Ukraine, history of, iii 395.
Ulema, order of men learned in
Law and Religion, i. 15.
Ulin, eamtulatioB of, v. 371.
Ulrica, Eleanora, of Sweden, iv.
162; death, 276.
Ulrich, Duke of Wiirtembeigy ii
61, 126, 136, 214, 886.
Unam Sanctum, eonstitation of
Boniface VIII., i 388.
Unigenihts, Bull against Jan-
senists, iv. 117, 199.
Union of Brussels, iii. 6.
United Irishmen, revolutionary
association, v. 278.
United States of Ameorica:
Dedarationof IndependeiMe, iv.
442, 443 ; formal recognition of
independence, by France, 444;
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
367
French treaty with, 444 ; trade
and oommeroe, secret treaty
with England, v. 271 ; dis-
pute with France, 271 ; pur-
chase of Louisiana from the
French, 347; purchase of
Florida, vL 11 ; Guiana- Vene-
zuela Boundary Question-
Treaty of Washington, 235;
Spanish -American War, 235,
236; nayy, 236 {see aUo
America).
Urban VII., Pope, election and
death, iii. 60.
Urban VIII., Pope : Election to
Pontificate, 236 ; character,
236 ; death, 341.
Urbino, Duchy of, incorporation
with States of the Cnurch, i.
379.
Urbino, Duke of : Papal army
commanded by, i. 117, 297,
300, 308, 309, 315, 440, 447,
460; ii 22, 23. 32.
Utraguists (see CcUixtmes),
Utrecht : Union of, iii. 10, 11 ;
Peace Conference, iv. 107.
Utschakov, Admiral, command
of Russian Fleet, v. 294, 298.
Uzeda, Duke of, iii. 180, 231.
Vadier, trial and transportation,
V. 187, 188.
Vagleia, monk of Monreale, vi.
20.
Valais, annexation to France,
V. 466.
Valdes, Fernando, Archbishop of
Seville and Chief Inquisitor of
Spain, iL 320.
Valdez, Spanish command a-
^Bunst Carlists, vi 67, 68.
Valencia: Union with Aragon,
i 63; insurrections — Herman-
dad, 406.
Valentinois, Duke of {see Borgia,
C»8ar).
Valenzuelo, Don Fernando de,
uL 445; Spanish Prime Min-
ister, banisnment, iv. 68.
Valetta, establishment as capital
of Malta, ii 368.
Valette, Jean Parisot de la, ii
368.
Valla, Laurentius, L 398.
Valie, Fantino della, i. 204.
Valois, House of Burgundy, Dukes
of, i 70; direct line extin-
gpaished, i. 242; ii. 465; ex-
tinction, iii 52; descent, iii
52 note,
Valparaiso, Count, iv. 339.
Vandanmie, Greneral : Rhenish
Confederation, v. 400; French
command in Germany, 452, 506.
Vandenberg, Adrian, iii. 37.
Vandenesse, French commander,
i 463.
Vansittart, Mr., Spedal Envoy
to Copenhagen, v. 322.
Varaubon, Marquis of, iii. 37.
Varennes, Billand : September
massacres, v. 73 ; resignation,
186; trial and transportation,
187, 188.
Vargas, Juan de, ii 425.
Vasconcellos, Michael, iii 316.
Vassos, Colonel, command of
Greek troops agauist Turkey
in Crete, vi 231.
Vassy, Ma^usacre of ii 334.
Vauban: French engineer, iii
447, 453 ; fortification of Strass-
burg, iv. 33.
Vaubois, General, v. 223.
Vaud, Pays de, independence
proclaimed, v. 267.
Vaudemont, Count of, death, ii.
41.
Vaudois, Persecution of, ii. 172 ;
iv. 42.
Vedel, General, French com-
mand in Spain, v. 445.
Vega, Garcilaso de la, ii 123.
Vehnigericht, secret tribunal of
Westphalia, i 29.
Vektli Muthiak, title of Grand
Vizier, i 12.
Velasco, Don Fernando de, Con-
stable of Castile, ii. 140 ; iii
72 ; command of Dutch troops ;
Thirty Years* War, 202.
Velasquez, Diego, i. 336.
Velez, Marquis de los, iii, 318.
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
858
MODERN EUEOPE
VenaisfliB, tmioii with France,
V.09.
VendOme :
Antony, Duke of {see Antony
of Bonrbon).
Louis JoBeph, French com-
mand in Spain, iv. 05, 85,
88.
Venegas, Greneral, v. 468.
Venice and Venetian Kepnblic :
Constantinople factories, i. 16 ;
Tnrldsh advance into Europe,
17, 99, 100, 103, 264; jnriadio-
tion in Greek islands, 17 ;
power and extent of Venetian
Repablic in fifteenth oentory,
45, 46 ; power of Doge, constitu-
tion, 47; chief maritime and
commercial state of Enrope,
47 ; treaties and alliances, 86,
87, 104, 114, 118, 183, 184, 225,
264, 306, 375, 376; loss of
Morea, 101 ; Italy arrajred
against, 184; nentraHly with
re^rd to Charles VIII.'s
claims on Naples, 215; war
with Maximilian, 281 ; situa-
tion after battle of Agnadello,
289 ; reconciliation with Julius
II., 292 ; successes against the
Germans, 297 ; decline of, 371»
372 ; trade and commerce, de-
cline of, 371, 372; independence
of Papal power, 394 ; truce with
the Porte, ii. 139 ; trade, bank-
ing, etc., 194, 195 ; progress of
pnnting, 195; conclusion of
peace with Turkey, 374 ; con-
gratulations to Henry IV. on
accession, iii. 56 ; fiscal regula-
tions. Papal authority disputed
by, 149 ; plot against, 181 ;
Turkish war in Crete, 334;
war with Turkey, iv. 7, 12, 16,
210; alliancewitn Charles VI.,
211 ; neutrality with regard to
France, etc., v. 183 ; dismissal
of Count of Provence from
Verona required by France,
214; Bonaparte's policy to*
wards, 221 ; insurrection and
massacre of French soldiery.
242; French party in, 242;
French occupation, 244; re-
volutionary government, 245;
fall of, 245 ; cession b^ Aus-
tria to Napoleon III., vL 185;
French occupation, 186; an-
nexation to Italy voted by
pUbucite, 186.
Vere, Colonel, English comman-
der at Rheinberg, iii. 37, 38.
Vere, Sir Francis, iii. 140, 141.
Vere, Sir Horace, iii. 208.
Vergennes, Count, French min-
ister, iv. 375, 399, 440, 443,
445, 457, 462.
Vergerie, Paoal Nuncio, iL 145.
Vergniaud : President of National
Legislative Assembly, v. 87;
orator of Gironde, 102, 103,
122.
Vermiglio, Peter, reformer, ii
330.
Vernon, Admiral, iv. 247.
Verona Congress, vi. 7, 9, 13.
Veronese Vwpers, v. 242.
Verrazano, Florentine explorer,
ii. 190.
Versailles, Assembly of Notables,
iv. 462.
Vestri Actsam, title of Grand
Virier, i. 12.
Vespucci, Guidantonio, Floren-
tine counsellor, 226.
Vespugi, Amerigo, 334.
Vesc, Etienne de, i. 214, 226.
Vicini, Italian ambassador, vL
59.
Victor, General, French com-
mand, V. 295, 467.
Victoria, Francis de, iv. 179.
Victoria, Queen : Visit to Napo-
leon III., vi. 124 ; death, 240.
Victor Amadous I., Ihike (A
Savoy, iii. 271 ; death, 325.
Victor Amadous II., Duke of
Savoy and King of Sardinia:
persecution of VaudcHs Protes-
tants, iv. 42 ; Grand Alliance,
57 ; treachery to Allies-^treaty
with Louis XIV., 64, 112;
generalissimo of France and
Spain in Italy, 79 ; accession to
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
INDEX
359
Grand Alliance, 89; King of
Sfiu-dinia, 215 ; abdication, 229.
Victor Amadous III. : Peace ei
Cherasco, v. 218 ; death, 218.
Victor Emanael I., King of Sar-
dinia : Retention of Piedmont
and Savoy, acquisition of
Genoa, v. 524 ; abdication, vi
21.
Victor Emanuel II., King of Sar-
dinia : Accession, vi 99 ; Italian
Treaty ; speech to chambers at
Turin, 132 ; command of Sar-
dinian army, 134; march on
Naples, 144; King of Italy;
proclamation of Garibaldi, 144 ;
King of Sicily, 145; Convention
with Napoleon III. , 149 ; Italian
campaign, 185; annexation of
Rome, 188.
Vienna: Erection of Bishopric,
L 205; capitulation, 208 ; Hun-
fi;arian garrison, capitulation to
Maximilian, 210 ; si^ by the
Turks, ii. 79; bombardment
of, iii 193; siege, by Turks,
iv. 8, 9 ; entry of the French,
V. 373 ; capitulation to Napo-
leon, 454 ; Ck>ngress of Vienna,
5^ ; Austrian constituent Na-
tional Assembly, vi. 97 ; Con-
ference of Neutral Powers, 120 ;
peace conference, 123.
Vilain, Adrian de, i. 174.
Vilalva, Spanish general, i. 369.
Villa Franca, Prince of, vi 20.
ViUadarias, Marquis of, Spanish
command, iv. 87, 94.
VOlaflor, Count, Portuguese Lib-
eral leader, vi 68.
Villiuret Joyeuse, French general,
V. 200..
Villarias, Marquis, iv. 338.
Vilh&rs, Marshal, iv. 86, 87,193,
102,109,114,230,231.
VillMe, M. : Prime Minister to
Louis XVIII. , vi 8; resigna-
tion, 26.
Villena, Marquis of, i 267.
Villeneuve, Admiral, v. 363.
Villeneuve, French resident in
Turkey, iv. 241.
Villeroi, Marshal, French com-
mand in Netherlands, iv. 63,
82, 85, 87, 97.
Villers, Philip de V lie- Adam, i
450.
Villetard, Secretary of Legation
at Venice, v. 243.
Vilna, massacre of Russian gar-
rison, v. 171.
Vins, General de, v. 199; Aus-
trian command, 211.
Vinnesa, Canon, vi. 12.
Visconti, Carlo, assassination of
Duke of Milan ; death, i 113.
Visconti, House of, i 52, 54.
Vissegrad, capture by Turks, ii
153.
Vitelli, Giulio, Bishop, i 313.
Vitelli, Spanish officer, ii 377.
Vivaldi, Marquis, v. 263.
Vizier, Grand: Functions and
powers, i 11 ; Cupola, ap-
>intment of assistant Viziers,
Volkerschktchi, battle of Leipsic,
V.607.
Voltaire : Greek revolution jwo-
ject. iv. 376; influence and
works, V. 17 ; popularitj^ of , 20.
Vorstins, Papal Nuncio, ii. 145,
182.
Waddington, Prime Minister of
France, vi 205.
Wadi Haifa, English occupation,
vi.227.
Waitz, Baron de, project of con-
federation of German States, v.
387.
Waldeck, Prince, imperial com-
mand, iv. 57, 58.
Waldegrave, Lord, iv. 222.
Waldhiiuser, Conrad, i 390.
Walewski, Count, French Foreign
Minister, vi. 130, 138, 141.
Wall, Don Ricardo, Spanish am-
baasador, iv. 339.
Wallachia, conquest by Mahomet
IL, i 97, 99.
Wallenstein, Albert of: Early
career, iii.- 192 ; character and
appearance, 256; method of
Digitized by V^OOQ IC
360
MODERN EUEOPE
raising army, 256, 257; cam-
paigns, 257, 25ft; ambitions
schemes, 260 ; Prince of Sagan,
261 ; dismissal, 268; lesunption
ofoommand,279,280: establish-
ment of camp near Nuremberg,
282; negotiations, 288; oifioers'
protest M^nst resignation, 280 ;
dismissal, 290; assassination,
293.
Wallis, Count, imperial com-
mand, iv. 243.
Walmoden, General, v. 195, 196,
346' vL 21.
Walpole, Sir Robert, iv. 246, 279,
War of Three Henries, iii. 41, 51.
Warfare: Modem warfare, i.
340; cavcUeadeSf firearms, etc.,
341 ; Eastern Europe, military
point of view, 342 ; institution
of standing armies, 343; Gar-
not's new system, v. 140 iwte ;
armed neutrality, disregard of
law of nations, 318.
Warren, Sir John Borlase, v.
278.
Wars of the Roses, i. 124.
Warsaw : Diet, iv. 138; massacre
of Russians, 171 ; a<M}U]sition
by Russia, 525 ; conscription in,
VI. 158 ; conversion of Polish
into Russian University, 162.
Wartensleben, General, v. 225.
Warwick, Earl of: Negotiations
with Louis XI., i. 142; sup-
pression of insurreotion in
Scotland, 143 ; escapeto France,
144 ; reconciliation with Edward
IV., 144 ; restoration of Henry
VI., 146 ; death, 146.
Warwick, Earl of, u. 251, 344.
Washington, George, Comman-
der-in-Chief of .^erican Colo-
nies, iv. 442, 443, 444, 455.
Wassiltschikoff, Alexander, iv.
402.
Wattenwyl, Jacob of, L 350.
Wavrin, John, i 143.
Wawrzecki, Polish oomnumder-
in-chief, v. 174.
Wedell, General, iv. 335.
Wei-hai-wei, lease by England,
vi 237.
Weishaupt, Adam, establish-
ment 01 Order of Ilittminatiy v.
179.
Wdss, Colonel, v. 267.
Welden, Baron, Austrian com-
mand, vi. 100.
WeUes, Sir Robert, i. 144.
Wellington, Duke of (Sir Arthur
Wellesley) : expedition to Den-
mark, V. 412; command in
Portugal, 446, 467; Viscount
Wellington of Talavera, 468;
Torres Vedras Lines Defence,
470; generalissimo of Spanish
armies, 472; Envoy to Vienna
C(mgress,523; batfie of Water-
loo, 530; Louis XVIIL, Minis-
ters, vi. 4 ; conmiand of Allied
Armies of Occupation in France,
5 ; Envoy to Verona Congress,
13.
Wentworth, General, iv. 248.
Wentworth, Lord, Commandant
of Calais, ii. 300.
Werf , Adrian von der, ii. 442.
Wesel, John of, pre-Reformaiion
reformer, i. 399.
West Indies: Discovery, L 331;
English conquests, v. 145, 357.
Westokoreland, Earl of, ii. 375.
Westphalia: VehmffeHcht, secret
tribunal, i. 29 ; congresses, ixL
336; treaties, 349; iv. 165;
kin^om, v. 405, 406.
Wettin, House of, rulers in
Saxony, L 25.
Wettin, Albert of, founder d
Saxon Albertine line, i. 26.
Wettin, Ernest of, founder of
Sason Ernestine line, i. 25.
Weyer, Van der, vL 46.
WMte. General, v. 200.
Whiteboys, Irish revolutionary
party, v. 278.
Wnitworth, Lord, English Envoy,
V. 319, 343, 344, 345.
Whitworth, Sur Charles, v. 279.
Wickham, Mr., EnglicA minister,
V. 212, 266.
Widif, John, L 88
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INDEX
361
Wied, Hennaim of, Archbishop
of Cologne, iL 215.
Wielond, views on French Be-
▼olution, y. 179.
Wielopolski, Marquis, vi. 157.
William I., Duke of Bavaria, i.
386; ii. 76, 206, 210.
William II., Duke of Bavaria, iii.
86,103.
William, Duke of Brunswick, vi.
54.
William, Duke of Brunswick-
Oels V. 461.
William, Duke of Cleves, u. 138,
148, 155, 150, 160.
William, Duke of Jiilich, iii. 4.
William I. (King of Prussia),
Emperor of Germany : B^^t,
vi 113; accession, 146, 152;
Convention of Gastein, 172;
aovereignty of Lauenburg, 172 ;
command-m-chief in Bohemia,
177, 179 ; Northern Bund, 182 ;
Spanish Question, 192; com-
mand-in-chief of Grerman Army,
193 ; invasion of France, head-
quarters at Versailles, 195 ; title
of Em^or adopted by, 196;
Dreika%8erbund, 207; alliance
with Austria, 220 ; death, 228.
William II. , Emperorof Germany:
accession, vi. 228 ; influence and
Toolicy, 240.
William III., King of England
(Prince of Orange): Captain-
Cro&eral of Dutch Bepubhc, iii
446 ; Stadhold^, etc, for life,
450, 454 ; marriage with Mary
of EnfflaQd, 459; hatred of
Louis AlY., iv. 44, 45 ; League
of Augsburg, 46; landing in
England; acceptance of crown,
53 ; Spanish Succession Ques
tion, 71, 72; death, 83.
William IV., King of Inland
Accession, vi 43 ; death, 83.
William L, King of the Nether
lands: Sovereign Pnnoe, v.
509; Kii^, 525; Belgian re
volt, vi. 45, 49.
WUliam I. , Stadholder of Nether
lands (Prince of Orange), ii
289, 404, 408, 409; departure,
421, 422 ; preparations for re-
volt, 428 ; manifesto, 428 ; con-
version to Calvinism, 439;
marriage with Charlotte of
Bourbon, 444 ; Perpetual Edict,
iii 4 ; popularity and influ-
ence, 5, 6; proscription, 13;
Jji)ologie, 14; sovereignty of
Holland and Zealand, 17 ; at-
tempted murder, 19 ; marrit^e
with Louise T^ligni, 23 ; char-
acter and achievements, 24 ;
assassination, ii. 479 ; iii. 22, 23.
William II., Stadholder of Hol-
land : Poli<rv^ in favour of
Stuarts, iii 370 ; death, 371.
William IV. (of Nassau-Dietz),
Stadholder of Holland, iv. 301.
WiUiam V., Stadholder of Hol-
land, iv. 396, 399.
William IL of Hesse, vi. 54.
Williams, General, defence of
Kara, vi. 125.
Willot, General, v. 260.
Willoughby de Broke, Lord, i.
176.
Willoughby, Lord, iii. 30.
Willoughby, Sir Hugh, iii. 127.
Wilmington, Lord, iv. 280.
Wilson, Sir Bobert, vi. 15.
Wimpina, Counter-Theses, i.,406.
Winchester, Bishop of, English
plenipotentiaiy, li 168.
Windischgrfttz, Jmnce, vi 93, 98,
99,100.
Wingfield, English Envoy, ii 6.
Winangerode, General, v. 615.
Wireker, Nu;el, i 398.
Witt, De, Grand Pensionary of
HoUand, iii 373, 434, 446,
450.
Wittelsbach, House of, i 26 ; iv.
^.
Wittelsbach, Bobert of, i 153.
Wittenberg Theses, i 405.
Wittgenstein, General, v. 485,
501, 502 ; vi. 34.
Wladislaus, King of Hungary and
Bohemia : Bohemiansucoession,
i 204; coronation at Fnunie,
206 ; election in Hungary, f 10 ;
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MODERN EXJEOPE
marriAge with Anne de Foix,
366 ; death, 376.
WkdialaoB VI. (or III.), King of
Hungary and Poland: Amu-
rath's embassy, L 17 ; King of
Hungary, 18, 38; cmsade, 19,
20; accession, 39; death, 20,
21,40.
Wladislaos VII., King of Poland,
accession, iii 30S.
Wolfe, General, iv. 342.
WolfenbUttel, Henry the youn-
ger, Duke of, ii, 68.
Wolfgang, Prince of Anhalt, iL
68.
Wolfgane of Neuburg, iiL 186,
Wolmar. M., German plenipo-
tentiary, iii 338.
Wolsey, Cardinal: Bishop of
Lincoln and Toumay, i 352 ;
Archbishop of York, 2S2; sup-
port of Francesco Maria Sforza,
364; alliance of England and
Spain, 364; Cardinal's Hat,
364 ; negotiations with Frauds
I. , ^9 ; support of Charles V. ,
385, 429; Conference of Calais,
432, 433; treachery, 435 ; Papal
legate d latere, 461 ; candidate
for tiara, 461 ; English change
of policy, ii 5, 20 ; Embassy to
France, 38 ; application to
Clement VII. for annulment
of Henry VIIL's marriage, 41;
fall of, 44; character, states-
manship and death, 44.
Wolsey, Sir Garnet, ^Dglish
command in Egypt, vL 226.
Woodville, Elizabeth, L 142, 143.
Woodville, Lord, i. 175.
Woodville, Sir John, i. 143.
Worcester, Bishop of, Ambassa-
dor to Spain, ii. 22.
Worms: Diets held at (1495), i
277; (1521),385, 410,415; (1545),
ii 170 ; disputation of Papists
and Lutherans, 147.
Woronzoff, Elizabeth, iv. 359.
Wotton, Sir Henry, i 338.
Wrangel, Charles Augustus, Swe-
dish Field-Marshal, iii. 332,
335, 342, 348, 349, 398, 410,
411, 415 ; iv. 23.
Wrangel, General, Prussian com-
mand, vi. 90, 98, 167.
Wrede, General, v. 506.
Wroniski, Prince, vL 101.
Wurmser, General, iv. 391; v.
142, 190, 210, 229.
Wurtemberg : Creation as Duchy,
i. 27, 385 ; Peasant Risii^, 386 ;
settlement as ArrUre Fief of
the Empire, ii 126.
WUrtemberg:
Christopher of , ii. 126.
Duke of, L 350, 385, 386.
Elector of, sovereignty, v. 379.
Prince of, v. 225.
Wyat, Sir Thomas, ii 279.
Xavier, Francis, ii. 186, 468.
Xavier, Jesuit missionary, iii
109, 110.
Xavier de Saxe, Prince, iv. 336.
Ximenes, iii. 110.
Ximenes, Cardinal, L 199, 272,
274, 305, 368, 369, 372, 373, 403.
Ximenes de Cesneros, Frauds,
i.266.
Yakoob Khan, Ameer of Afghan-
istan, vi. 222.
Yorck, Greneral, v. 496.
York, Frederick, Duke of, Eng-
lish command, v. 126, 140, 191,
195, 300, 304.
York, James, Duke of : Conver-
sion to Roman Catholicism, iii.
440, marriage, 465.
York, Roland, Commandant of
Zutphen Fort, iii 28.
Ypsilanti, Alexander, v. 29.
Yrles, Canto d'. Commandant of
Mantua, v. 232.
Ysabeau, Pro -Consul at Bord-
eaux, V. 139.
Yussuf , Grand Vizier of Turkey,
iv. 406, 425.
Yussuf Pasha, v. 419, 475.
Zamoisky, Grand Chanoellor of
Poland, iii 88.
Zamora, Bishop of, i. 426.
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INDEX
363
Zamoyski, Count Andrew, vi 157.
Zapolya, General, i. 206.
Zapolya, Geor^, ii. 35, 74.
Zapolya, House of, 1. 376.
Zapolya, John, i. 376 ; ii. 75, 79,
102, 151, 152.
Zapolya, Stephen, L 210.
Zastrow, General, Prussian En-
voy, V. 400.
Zayas, Spanish commander, vi.
15.
Zeebergen, Pensionary of Haar-
lem, IV. 397.
Zinzendorf, Count, iv. Ill, 196.
Ziska, John, i. 37.
Zizim of Turkey, i. 220.
Zollem, GenersJ, i 465.
Zollverein, Customs Union, vi 54,
150, 155, 171, 174.
Zouboflf, Count, v. 176.
Zrinyi, Count, iv. 4.
Zucdbi, Greneial, vi. 59.
Zumulacarragui, Carlist leader,
vi. 67, 70.
Zuniga, Diego Lopez, ii. 188,
192.
Zurich: Union with Swiss Con-
federacy, i. 35; Reformation,
421 ; massacre of refugee Rus-
sians, V. 297.
Zutphen, purchase by Charles
the Bold, i. 151.
Zutphen, Henry of, ii. 60.
Zweibriicken, IXdke of, iii 169.
Zwickau Prophets, ii. 51, 53,
54.
ZwingU, Ukich, i. 420, 421, 422 ;
ii. 91, 101, 180.
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