_A_History_Of_Pali_Literature

A HISTOEY OF
PALI LITEEATUEE

BY

BIMALA CHUEN LAW, Ph.D., M.A., B.L.,

Sir Asutosh Mookerjee Gold Medalist, Griffith Prizeman, Calcutta University;

Advocate, High Court, Calcutta ; Author, Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India,

Ancient Mid-Indian Ksatriya Tribes, The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa.

Geography of Early Buddhism, Heaven and Hell in Buddhist

Perspective, A Study of the Mah&vastu, Women in Buddhist

Literature, Historical Gleanings, The Buddhist

Conception of Spirits, The Law of Gift in

British India, etc,, etc.,
Editor, Buddhistic Studies.

With a Foreword by
WILHELM GEIGER, Ph.D.,

Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages,
Munchen University, Germany.

IN TWO VOLU
Vol. II.

KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Ltd.,

38, Great Russell Street,

London, W.C. 1.

1933

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION V

CHAPTER IV

EXTEA CANONICAL WORKS PRESUPPOSED

BY PALI COMMENTARIES .... 343

CHAPTER V
PALI COMMENTARIES 384

CHAPTER VI
PALI CHRONICLES 517

CHAPTER VII
PALI MANUALS 597

CHAPTER VIII
PALI LITERARY PIECES 611

CHAPTER IX

PALI GRAMMARS, LEXICOGRAPHIES, AND

WORKS OF PROSODY, ETC. . . . 630

CONCLUSION 642

APPENDIX A 648

APPENDIX B 665

INDEX 677

POST-CANONICAL PALI LITERA
INTRODUCTION

In between the closing of the Pali canon and
the writing of the Pali commentaries by Buddha-
datta, Buddhaghosa, and Dhammapala, there is a
short but dark period of development of Pali litera-
ture which has not as yet engaged adequate atten-
tion of scholars. Broadly speaking, this period
extends from the beginning of the Christian era to
the close of the 4th century A.D. The Nettipa-
karana, the Petakopadesa, and the Milinda Panha
are undoubtedly the three extra-canonical and
highly useful treatises that may be safely relegated
to the earlier part of this period. There are a few
other works, more or less, of a commentarial nature
that t are closely pre-supposed by the great com-
mentaries of Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa, and
Dhamfeiapala. These comprise, among others, (1)
certain earlier commentaries written in Sinhalese,
such as the Mula or Maha-atthakatha, the Uttara
Vihara atthakatha (the Commentary of the dwellers
in the " North Minster "), Mahapaccariya, the
Kurundiya or Mahakurunda atthakatha quoted by
Buddhaghosa in his commentaries, (2) two other
earlier commentaries, the Andhaka and the Sankhepa
current in South India, particularly in Kanchipura
or Conjeveram, and quoted by Buddhaghosa, (3)
the Vinayavinicchaya by Buddhasiha, a fellow
bhikkhu of Buddhadatta, pre-supposed by the
Vinayavinicchaya of Buddhadatta and the Samanta-
pftsadika of Buddhaghosa, (4) the Sinhalese com-
mentary on the canonical Jataka book referred
to and quoted by Buddhaghosa under the name of
Jfttaka-atthakatha, (5) certain views and interpreta-
tions of the schools of reciters quoted by Buddha-
ghosa in his commentaries, (6) the Dipavamsa,
the earlier Pali chronicle quoted by Buddhaghosa

vi Introduction

in his commentary on the Kathavatthu, and (7)
the Atthakatha Mahavamsa presupposed by
Mahftnama's great chronicle of Ceylon.

The writings of Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa,
and Dhammapala come necessarily after these earlier
works in both Pali and Sinhalese and occupy chrono-
logically a place next to them. The Mahavamsa
or the great epic chronicle of Ceylon composed by
Mahanama, the Anagatavamsa, a later supplement
to the Buddhavamsa, and the Jatakatthavannana
written by a thera at the personal request of the
elder Atthadassi, Buddhamitta of the Mahimsasaka
sect and Bhikkhu Buddhadeva of clear intellect,
may be assigned to almost the same period of
Buddhist literary activities in Ceylon which is
covered by the writings of Buddhaghosa. Maha-
nama's Mahavamsa may be regarded as a Pali
model of certain chronicles the Pujavaliya and the
rest written in Sinhalese. The commentaries on
the books of the Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma
Pitakas were followed by certain tikas to be chrono-
logically discriminated as mula and anu, Ananda
and Sariputta being noted as authors of some of
these mula and anu tikas. From the sixth or seventh
century A.D. onwards we see also the beginning of
a Pali grammatical literature headed by Kaccayana's
Pali Grammar as well as of Pali lexicons headed by
the Abhidhanappadipika. The literary processes
connected with the commentaries and sub-com-
mentaries and the compilations in the shape of
handbooks continued resulting in the growth of a
somewhat different type of later literature. The
Abhidhammatthasangaha and many other books of
great authority written by the eminent Anuruddha
and others are to be counted as remarkable literary
output of this stage of the development of Pali.
The Naraslhagatha quoted in the Nidanakathft of
the Jatakatthavannana, the Telakatahagatha rank-
ing with the satakas headed by the compositions of
Bhartrhari, the Jinacarita which is a kavya attempt-
ed in Pali less successfully on the model of Asva-

Introduction vii

gho^a's Buddhacarita, the Pajjamadhu, a Pali
poetical composition produced in Ceylon, the Paiica-
gatidipana and the Saddhammopayana, two similar
poetical compositions of Ceylon and the Rasavahini,
a book of interesting Buddhist folktales, written
in simple prose, are some of the literary pieces that
are included in our scheme of Post-Canonical Pali
literature. We are generally to exclude from our
scheme various Pali works on law, grammar, prosody,
lexicography, and the commentaries written in
Burma and Ceylon from the 15th century A.D.
onwards. In dealing with the Post-Canonical Pali
literature we are first of all to take up the extra
canonical works presupposed by the Pali com-
mentaries, next the Pali commentaries, then the
Pali chronicles, Pali Manuals, Pali literary pieces,
and lastly Pali grammars, books on prosody and
lexicons, the classification being arbitrary.

CHAPTER IV

EXTRA CANONICAL WORKS PRESUPPOSED
BY PALI COMMENTARIES

The title Nettipakarana 1 as explained by

Netti akarana. Dlmmmapala, means exposition of

ipa arana.

W j 1 j[ c i 1 leads to the knowledge
of the Good Law. The Netti shows the methodical
way of attaining textual knowledge. It contains
much of the materials which are so grouped as to
form a book by itself. The commentary on the
Nettipakarana says that without an able instructor
it is impossible for men to be guided in the right
understanding of the doctrines.

This treatise was translated into Burmese by
Thera Mahasilavarhsa in the fifteenth century of
the Christian era, and again two centuries later, by a

1 Tl*s work lias been edited by Prof. E. Hardy for the P.T.S.,
London, and published by the said society in 1902. There is also
a Burmese edition of this text. The text is not entirely free from
inaccuracies but all such defects are pardonable when we remember
that it is a pioneer work. The text edited by the P.T.S. is based
on the following manuscripts :

(i) Palm leaf manuscript of the India Office in Burmese
character (see Catalogue of the Mandalay MSS. in the
India Office Library by Prof. V. Fausboll, J.P.T.S.,
1896) ;

(ii) Palm leaf manuscript of the India Office (Phayre collec-
tion), likewise written in Burmese character (see
Catalogue of the Pali MSS. in the India Office Library
by H. Oldenberg) ;

(iii) Paper manuscript (brought from W. Subhuti by Prof.
Rhys Davids) in Sinhalese character (Introduction,
p. xxxv ). Prof. Hardy has relied on the palm
leaf manuscript of the India Office in Burmese
character in noting readings whenever they are
found to contribute to a better understanding of
the text.

Nettipakarana revised and edited by D. Sudassi thera and finally
revised by Yen. Srisumangala Ratanasara, Colombo, 1923, should
be consulted.

Mrs. Rhys Davids translates ' Nettipakarana * as the ' Book of
Guidance ' (Sakya or Buddhist Origins, p. 127).

344 A History of Pali Literature

dweller in the Pubbarama-Vihara. It was composed
at the request of Thera Dhammarakkhita and
highly praised by Mahakaccana. The Mandalay
manuscript ascribes its authorship to Mahakaccana
as every section bears a clear testimony to the
authorship of Mahakaccana who has been described
here as Jambuvanavasin, i.e., dweller in the rose-
apple grove.

The Netti is essentially a Pali treatise on the
textual and exegetical methodology, a Buddhist
treatment upon the whole of the Tantra Yuktis
discussed in the Kautiliya Arthasastra, the
Susrutasamhita, the Carakasamhita, and the Astanga-
Hrdaya. The Netti and Jnanaprasthana Sastra
have many points in common as they were written
to serve a similar purpose. It stands in the same
relation to the Pali canon as Yaska's Nirukta to
the Vedas. The scheme of methodology has been
worked out in a progressive order, the thesis being
developed or elaborated by gradual steps. To
begin with we have the opening section, Sangahavara,
or the conspectus of the whole book whicfti is a
feature also of the Milinda Panha. Then we have
the Vibhagavara or the section presenting a syste-
matic treatment in classified tables. This section
comprises three tables or sub-sections: (1) Udde-
savara, (2) Niddesavara, and (3) Patiniddesavara.
The Uddesavara merely presents a bare statement of
the theses and as such it serves as a table of contents.
It is followed by the Niddesavara which briefly
specifies the import or definitions of the theses
awaiting detailed treatment in the section imme-
diately following, we mean the Patiniddesavara,
which is but an elucidation and elaboration of the
Niddesa scheme. The theses in the Uddesavara
are introduced in three separate tables or categories
(1) that of sixteen haras (connected chains), (2)
that of five nayas (modes of inspection), and (3)
that of eighteen mfilapadas (main ethical topics).
The sixteen haras consist of desana (the method of
instruction), vicaya (the method of enquiry), yutti

Extra Canonical Works 345

(the method of establishing connection in groups),
padatthana (the method of teaching with reference
to the fundamentals), lakkhana (the method of
determining implications by characteristic marks),
catuvyiiha (the method of fourfold array), avatta
(the cyclical method), vibhatti (the method of
classification), parivattana (the method of trans-
formation), vevacana (the method of synonyms),
pannatti (the method of determining signification),
otarana (the method of descending steps), sodhana
(the method of rectification), adhitthana (the method
of determining positions), parikkhara (the method of
discriminating causal relations), and samaropana
(the method of attribution).

The five nayas consist of the following modes
of viewing things : (1) nandiyavatta, (2) tipukkhala
(by the triple lotus), (3) sihavikkilita (the lion-like
sport), (4) disalocana (broad vision), and (5) arikusa
(focussing).

The eighteen mulapadas comprise nine kusalas
and nine akusalas. The nine akusalas are tanha
(thirst)* avijja (ignorance), lobha (covetousness),
dosa (hatred), moha (delusion), subhasanna (false
idea of purity), niccasanna (false idea of permanence),
attasanna (false idea of personal identity), etc.
The nine kusalas are samatha (tranquillity), vipassana
(insight), alobha (absence of covetousness), adosa
(absence of hatred), amoha (absence of delusion),
asubhasafina (idea of impurity), dukkhasarma (idea
of discordance), aniccasanna (idea of impermanence),
and anattasafma (idea of non-identity).

In the Niddesavara, the reader is to expect
nothing more than a general specification of the
meaning of the topics proposed in the Uddesavara
for treatment. From the Niddesavara the reader
is led on to the next step, the Patiniddesavara
which contains four broad divisions, namely, (1)
Haravibhanga (explanations of the connected chains),
(2) Harasampata (discussions of the hara pro-
jections), (3) Nayasamutthana (exposition of the
modes of inspection), and (4) the Sasanapatthana

346 A History of Pali Literature

(the classification and interpretation of Buddha's
instructions).

The treatise deals in detail with sixteen haras
in the specified order as follows :

The Desanahara directs the reader to notice
six distinctive features in the Buddha's method of
instructions, namely, assadam (bright side),
adinavam (dark side), nissaranam (means of escape),
phalam (fruition), upay&m (means of success), and
anattim (the moral upshot). It also points out that
Buddha's instructions are carefully adapted to four
classes of hearers, namely (1) those of right intellect
(understanding things by mere hints), (2) those
needing short explanations, (3) those to be slowly
led by elaborate expositions, and (4) those whose
understanding does not go beneath the words. In
the same connection it seeks to bring home the
distinction between the three kinds of knowledge,
sutamayi, cintamayi, and bhavanamayi.

In the Vicayahara the method of ruminating
over the subjects of questions and thoughts and
repetitions in thought is laid down, and *his is
elaborately illustrated with appropriate quotations
from the canonical texts.

In the Yuttihara we are introduced to the
method of grouping together connected ideas and
the right application of the method of reasoning or
inference in interpreting the dharma.

The Padatthanahara explains the doctrinal
points by their fundamental characteristics and
exemplifies them. This hdra has an important
bearing on the Milinda expositions.

The Lakkhanahara points out that when one
of a group of matters characterised by the same
mark is mentioned, the others must be taken as
implied. For instance, when the sense of sight
is mentioned in a passage, the implication should be
that other senses received the same treatment.

The Catuvyuhahara unfolds the method of
understanding the doctrines by noting the following
points :

Extra Canonical Works 347

(1) the text, (2) the term, (3) the purport, (4)
the introductory episode, and (5) the sequence,
illustrating each of them with quotations from the
canonical texts.

The Avattahara aptly illustrates with authorita-
tive quotations how in the teachings of the Buddha
all things turn round to form cycles of some funda-
mental ideas such as tanha, avijja, the four Aryan
truths and the like.

The Vibhattihara explains the method of clas-
sifying Buddha's discussions according to their
character, common or uncommon, or according to
their values, inferior, superior or mediocre.

The Parivattanahara contains an exposition of
the method by which the Buddha tried to transform
a bad thing into a good thing and transform also
the life of a bad man.

The Vevacanahara calls attention to the dic-
tionary method of synonyms by which the Buddha
tried to impress and clarify certain notions of the
Dhamma. This section forms a landmark in the
development of Indian lexicography.

In the Pannattihara it is stated that though
the Dhamma is one, the Lord has presented it in
various forms. There are four noble truths begin-
ning with dukkha. When these truths are realised
then knowledge and wisdom come in and then the
way to Bhavana is open to the knower. The
elements may be compared but Nibbana cannot be
compared.

In the section on Otarana the Netti illustrates
how in the schemata of Buddha's doctrines diverse
notions spontaneously descend under the burden
of certain leading topics such as, indriyas, patic-
casamuppada, five khandhas and the like.

The Sodhanahara illustrates the method by
which the Buddha corrected the form of the questions
in the replies offered by him.

The Adhitthanahara explains in detail the method
of determining the respective positions of different
ideas according as they make for certain common

348 A History of Pali Literature

notions. In the Adhitthanahara the basis of all
truth is given. The four truths beginning with
dukkham are described and side by side avijja is
shown to be the cause working in opposite ways.
There are also paths bringing about the extinction
of dukkha, etc. The various kayas and dhatus
are also considered. Samadhi is the only means
of removing evils.

In the Parikkharahara the Netti explains and
exemplifies how one can distinguish between the
causal elements, broadly between hetu and other
causal relations. This section lias an important
bearing on the Patthdna of the Abhidhamma Pitaka.

We come at last to the section called the
Samaropanahara. This section explains and illus-
trates the Buddha's method of fourfold attribution,
(1) by way of fundamental ideas, (2) by way of
synonyms, (3) by way of contemplation, and by way
of getting rid of the immoral propensities.

Hara Sampata is a division which is dependent
on the hara as its purpose is to present the projec-
tions or main moral implications of the h*as or
the connected chains previously dealt with.

This division like the preceding one consists
of sixteen parts exactly under the same headings.

In the Hara Sampata the commentator Dham-
mapala has added and rearranged many new things.
He cites the passages from the text and then puts
a lay dissertation on them by way of questions and
answers. This division stands almost as an in-
dependent treatise by itself.

Desana hara Sampata In this division it is
laid down that Mara invades only a mind which is
quite unprotected (pamadacitta), which is based
on false beliefs, on idleness, etc.

Vicaya hara Sampata In this section it is
laid down that desire (tanha) is of two kinds : kusala
and akusala. The one leads to nibbana and the other
to birth and suffering (samsara). Mind is both kusala
and akusala in nature. The real nature of things
can only be seen in the fourth Jhana stage. The

Extra Canonical Works 349

various signs and nature of nibbana and samadhi
are described. Samadhi has five characteristics,
namely, joy, happiness, consciousness, enlightenment,
and right perception. There are ten objects of
meditation (kasinayatanani), e.g., pathavi, apo, etc.
They are then attached to three objects, anicca
(non-permanent), dukkha (suffering), and anatta
(non-existence of soul).

A differentiation is brought about between an
ordinary man and a man with knowledge. The
former can do any kind of offence that may be
possible. But the latter cannot. The former can
even kill his father or mother, can destroy the
stupas but the latter cannot ; when one practises
the four Jhanas, and attains to Samadhi, his previous
life and futurity are known to him.

In the Yutti-hara-sampata it is stated that sloth,
stupor, and misery disappear from him who is well
protected in mind, firm in resolution, and adheres
to right seeing.

In the Padatthana-hara and Lakkhana-hara-
sampa>ta, the padatthanas (reasonings) are described
as belonging to one who is well restrained in mind,
words, and actions and who by the proper attain-
ment of padatthanas realises the highest path.

In the Catuvyuhahara-sampata, Avattahara-
sampata, Vibhatti-hara-sampata, etc., great stress
is laid on right perception, mindfulness, and kusala
deeds which lead to the knowledge of paticca-
samuppada.

The third division called the Nayasamutthana
contains a detailed treatment of the five specified
modes of viewing things. Under the Nandiyavatta
mode, it is pointed out that the earlier extremity
of the world cannot be known owing to avijja
(ignorance) which has tanha (desire) at the root.
Those who walk in the field of pleasure are bound
down in heretical beliefs and are unable to realise
the truth. There are four noble truths Dukkham,
dukkhasamudayam, dukkhanirodham, and dukkha-
nirodhagaminipatipada. There is a middle path

350 A History of Pali Literature

(majjhima patipada) which rejects the two extreme
views and which is identified with the eightfold noble
path (ariya atthangiko maggo). He who has avoided
ditthi (false view) escapes from kama (lust). Hence
avoidance of desire (tanha) and ignorance (avijja)
leads to quietitude or calmness. Kamma is recognis-
ed as the cause of the world of sufferings. But
consciousness and all that concerns consciousness
may be seen in their increment in the ten vatthus.
The ordinary enjoyment of food and touch, etc., is
the cause of distress of a man with desire.

The various asavas (sins) are next described.
The sufferings of a man with attachments, faults,
and wrong views are also narrated. The four paths,
the four foundations of recollections, the four
Jhanas, the four essentials (sammappadhanas), the
four meditations, the four pleasure yielding states,
etc., are also stated ; each of these is described as
an antidote for the man with attachment, delusion,
and wrong views.

Buddhas, Pacceka-Buddhas, the disciples, and
all those who are devoid of attachment, batred,
delusion, etc., are like lions. Those who look to
the right aspects, the senses, the counter forces
of the views with as strong reasons as Buddhas,
Pacceka-Buddhas, etc., are said to have seen things
just like a lion. Human types are four in number.
Each of these has to undergo some sort of training.
To each of them is offered an advice as to tanha
(desire), raga (attachment), kusala (merit), etc.
This is the way shown to be of the Tipukkhalo and
of the Ankusa described in the text.

Now turning to the fourth division, the Sasana-
patthana, we get a treatment of the proper method
of classification and interpretation of the texts of
the Dhamma. That is to say, the Sasanapatthana
embodies a classification of the Pitaka passages
according to their leading thoughts. It is suggested
that the discourses of the Buddha can be classified
according to the themes into : (1) Sankilesabhagiya
(those dealing with sankilesa or impurity), (2)

Extra Canonical Works 351

V&sanabhagiya (those dealing with desire), (3)
Nibbedhabhagiya (those dealing with penetration),
(4) Asekhabhagiya (those dealing with the subject
of a non-learner), (5) Sankilesabhftgiya and Vasana-
bhagiya, (6) Sankilesa and Nibbedhabhagiya, (7)
Sankilesa and Asekhabhagiya, (8) Sankilesa and
Nibbedha and Asekhabhagiya, (9) Sankilesa and
Vasana and Nibbedhabhagiya, (10) Vasana and
Nibbedhabhagiya, (11) Tanhasankilesabhagiya, (12)
Ditthisankilesabhagiya, (13) Duccaritasankilesa-
bhagiya, (14) Tanhavodanabhagiya, (15) Ditthivo-
danabhagiya, (16) Duccaritavodanabhagiya. Of
these, sankilesas are of three kinds, tanha (desire),
ditthi (false view), and duccaritas (wrong actions).

Various padas, slokas, and texts are cited while
explaining each of these textual classifications.

The eighteen main padas are those which are
worldly (lokikam), unworldly (lokuttaram), etc. In
fact the chapter is made highly interesting by its
numerous quotations from familiar texts and it
does not enter deep into philosophical or logical
arguments. But the classification and reclassifica-
tions are no doubt interesting as intellectual gym-
nastics.

That the Nettipakarana is an earlier book than
the Patthana (Mahapakarana) has been ably shown
by Mrs'/ Rhys Davids (J.R.A.S., 1925, pp. 111-112).
She says that in the Netti there is a short chapter
on parikkhara, i.e., equipment. Usually applied
to a monk's necessities of life, it is here applied to
mean all that goes to bring about a happening, all
the conditions to produce an effect. These are
twofold paccaya and hetu. Take now this happen-
ing : " A seeing something ". Here the eye is the
dominant condition (adhipateyyapaccayataya
paccayo). The thing seen is the object condition
(arammana paccayataya paccayo). The light is the
medium condition (Sannissayataya paccayo). But
attention is the hetu. In conclusion it states :
Whatever is sufficing condition (upanissaya) that is
a causal antecedent (parikkhara). "This simple

352 A History of Pali Literature

exposition," says Mrs. Rhys Davids, " is a develop-
ment of the yet simpler wording in the suttas. There
no distinction is drawn between hetu and paccaya ".

She then turns her attention to the Patthana.
Here at the start not only has a distinction been
drawn but an elaborate classification of paccayas
twenty-four in kind, is drawn up as standardised
knowledge.

Hetu is a species of paccaya, first and chief
of them. Further, ' dominance ', * object ',
' medium ', * sufficing condition ', are classed as
paccayas, Nos. 3, 2, 9, and 8. And further, the in-
variable way of assigning causal relation in a happen-
ing is not the Netti's way but (hetu, etc.) paccayena
paccayo. We may conclude from this that the
writer of the Netti did not know the Patthana.
He did know some Abhidhamma. He alludes to a
method in the Dhammasangani, to a definition in
the Vibhanga but never to that notable scheme in
the Patthana.

The Petakopadesa is another treatise on the
p take adee textual and the exegetical mqjthodo-
op eea. logy ascribed to Mahakaccana and
it is nothing but a different manipulation of the
subject treated in the Nettipakarana. Interest of
this treatise, if it was at all a work of the same
author, lies in the fact that it throws some new
light here and there on the points somewhat obscure
in the Netti. Its importance lies also in the fact
that in places it has quoted the Pali canonical
passages mentioning the sources by such names as
Samyuttaka (=Saifayutta Nikaya) and Ekuttaraka
(^Ekuttara or Ahguttara Nikaya). Its importance
arises no less from the fact that in it the four Ariyan
truths are stated to be the central theme or essence
of Buddhism, the point which gained much ground
in the literature of the Sarvastivadin school. The
importance of the last point will be realised all the
more as we find how the discourses developed in
the Netti in the course of formulating the textual
and exegetical methodology centered round the

Extra Canonical Works 35$

four Ariyan truths. This work has not yet been
edited. The P.T.S., London, has undertaken an
edition of it. Specimen de Petakopadesa by R. Fuchs,
Berlin, 1908 deserves mention.

The Milinda Panha or the questions of Milinda
had originally been written in
Northern India in Sanskrit or in
some North Indian Prakrit by an
author whose name has not, unfortunately enough,
come down to us. But, the original text is now
lost in the land of its origin as elsewhere ; what
now remains is the Pali translation of the original
which was made at a very early date in Ceylon.
From Ceylon, it travelled to other countries, namely,
Burma and Siam, which have derived their Buddhism
from Ceylon, and where at a later date it was
translated into respective local dialects. In China,
too, there have been found two separate works
entitled "The Book of the Bhikkhu Nagasena
Sutra ", but whether they are translations of the
older recensions of the work than the one preserved in
Pali on of the Pali recensions is difficult to ascertain.
However, in the home of Southern Buddhism, the
book is accepted as a standard authority, second
only to the Pali Pitakas. Prof. Rhys Davids rightly
observes, " It is not merely the only work composed
among the Northern Buddhists which is regarded
with reverence by the orthodox Buddhists of
the Southern schools, it is the only one which has
survived at all amongst them 'V

The book purports to discuss a good number of
problems and disputed points of
rhn Took the Buddhism; and this discussion is
treated in the form of conversa-
tions between King Milinda of Sagala and Thera
Nagasena. Milinda raises the questions and puts
the dilemmas, and thus plays a subordinate part in
comparison to that played by Nagasena who answers
the questions and solves the puzzles in detail,

1 S.B.E., Vol. XXXV, Intro., p. xii.

354 A History of Pali Literature

Naturally, therefore, the didactic element pre-
dominates in the otherwise romantic account of the
encounter between the two.

Milinda who has been described as the King of
_, , the Yonas with his capital at Sagala

The two heroes. /ai i cv 11 A\ i. i iT

(Sakala=Sialkot), has long been
identified with Menander, the Bactrian Greek King
who had his sway in the Punjab. He was born,
as our author makes him say, at Kalasi in Alasanda,
i.e., Alexandria ; and if we are to believe our author,
he, resolved of all doubts as a result of his long
conversations with Nagasena, came to be converted
to Buddhism. Nagasena, however, cannot be
identified with any amount of certainty.

The name of the author, as we have already
Author said, kas no * come down to us. A

close analysis of the book shows that
a considerable number of place names refers to the
Punjab and adjacent countries, and a few to the
sea-coast, e.g., Surat, Bharukaccha, etc. Most of
the rivers named refer again to the Punjab. It is,
therefore, natural for us to conjecture that thejauthor
of the book resided in the far north-west of India or
in the Punjab. Mrs. Rhys Davids has a theory of her
own regarding the author of the Milinda Panho.
She thinks that the recorded conversations of
Milinda and Nagasena were edited in the new book
form after Milinda's death, by special commission
by a Brahmana of Buddhist Collegiate training,
named Manava. She points out that the author
was not a convinced Buddhist and that the detached
first portion of the Milinda Pafiha is in no way to be
matched in style or ideas with the quite different
dilemmas and the following portions. The first part
is a set of jerky rather desultory talks breaking off
and bearing marks of being genuine notes taken by
recorders at the time. The latter portions are
evidently written compositions, dummy conversa-
tions. " As to his name," says Mrs. Rhys Davids,
" that is not by me made of any importance : it is,
.let us say, my playful guess : a brahmana name

Extra Canonical Works 355

like the Shakespeare hidden allusions, alluded to in a
gatha, which there was no reason for quoting save
as a hint at the name ".

It is somewhat difficult to ascertain exactly
the date of the Book. Milinda or
Menander is, however, ascribed to
the last quarter of the 2nd century B.C. The
book must, therefore, have been written after that
date. On the other hand, it must have long been
an important book of authority when Buddhaghosa,
the celebrated Buddhist commentator, flourished in
the 5th century A.D. For, he quoted from the
book often in his commentaries, and that in such a
manner that it follows that he regarded the book
BS a work of great authority. From a close analysis
of the books referred to as quoted by the author of
the Milinda Pafiha, Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids, the
learned editor and translator of Milinda Pafiha,
came to the conclusion that " the book is later than
the canonical books of the Pali Pitakas (the author
of the Milinda Pafiha quotes a large number of
passages from the Pitaka texts), and on the other
hand, not only older than the great commentaries,
but the only book outside the canon, regarded in
them as an authority which may be implicitly
followed". 1

The Milinda Pafiha has a marked style of ite
Q4r . ,. own. Its language is most elegant,

Style and language. , , j j j_ jv T~ i J

and studied against the background
of ancient Indian prose, it is simply a masterpiece
of writing. The formal exactness of the early
Pitakas as well as the studied ornamentation of
later-day Pali or Sanskrit-Buddhist treatises are
alike absent from its pages. The charm of the
style is captivating and there are passages that are
eloquent in their meaning and gesture. The pre-
rorations with which the long discussions are often
closed are supreme inventions by our author of the
art of conversation as well as of writing. Its style

1 S.B.E., Vol. XXXV, Intro., p. xxxviil

366 A History of Pali Literature

and diction bear a close resemblance to and are
somewhat maturer than those of the famous Hasti-
gumpha inscription of Kharavela which is assigned
by Dr. B. M. Barua to the second quarter of the
1st century A.D. 1

At Sagala, a city of wealth and affluence, ruled

Text King Milinda versed in arts and

sciences and skilled in casuistry.

He had his doubts and puzzles with regard to

Buddha's doctrines and utterances and other knotty

problems of Buddhism. To resolve these doubts

he went to Nagasena, the famous arahat ; and then

began a wonderful conversational discourse between

the two. But before the discourse really begins,

we are introduced by our author to the previous

birth history (Pubba-yoga) of these two personages

and then to the contents of various sorts of puzzles.

We are told that Nagasena in a previous birth

(a) Book i ^ k* 8 was one ^ *^ e mem ^ ers f
the religious brotherhood near the

Ganges, where Milinda, in his turn, in a previous
birth of his, was a novice. In accordance M^th his
acts of merit in that birth and his aspirations, this
novice after wandering from existence to existence
came to be born at last as king of the city of Sagala,
a very learned, eloquent, and wise man. Now he
had doubts and problems in his mind, and in vain
did he seek the venerable Kassapa and Makkhali
Gosala to have them solved while all these were
happening. The brother of the religious brother-
hood who came to be born in a Brahman family was
Nagasena. When he was seven years old he learnt
the three Vedas and all else that could be learnt
in a Brahmanical house. Then he left the house,
meditated in solitude for sometime and he was
afterwards admitted into the order as a novice by a
venerable Buddhist priest, Rohana and was
eventually converted into Buddhism. He was then

1 Barua Old Brahmi Inscriptions, p. 172.

Extra Canonical Works 357

sent to Pataliputra to the venerable Buddhist sage
Dhammarakkhita where he became an Arahat.
Now while he was living there he was invited at the
Guarded Slope in the Himalayas by an innumerable
company of arahats who were being harassed by
King Milinda who delighted in putting knotty
questions and arguments this way and that. Naga-
sena readily accepted the challenge of Milinda and
went to Sagala attended by a band of samanas.
Just at that time Milinda had met Ayupala, an
Arahat of the Sankheyya monastery, whom too he
confronted with his casuistry. Nagasena who was
then living at the same hermitage came now to the
rescue of the Order. Milinda with five hundred
Yonakas then repaired to Nagasena, and after
mutual exchanges of courtesy and compliments the
conversational discourse began.

The first discourse turned on the distinguishing
(b) Book ii characteristics of moral qualities.
Milinda enquired how Reverend
Nagasena was known and what was his name.
Upon At Nagasena initiated a discussion on the
relation between name and individuality, and ex-
plained it thoroughly with the help of an instructive
simile. The king then, obviously to test his know-
ledge, put to him a riddle and questioned him as
to his seniority of years. Nagasena fully vindicated
himself, and the king then satisfied sought the per-
mission of the Reverend Arahat to discuss with
him. The Arahat in his turn told that he was agree-
able to a discussion if he would only discuss as a
scholar and not as a king. Then one by one Milinda
put questions and Nagasena solved them with
his wonderful power of argumentation, simile, and
illustration. He contended that there was no soul
in the breath ; he explained one by one the aim of
Buddhist renunciation, the Buddhist idea of rein-
carnation, the distinction between wisdom and
reasoning, and wisdom and intelligence. He further
contended that virtue was the basis of the five moral
powers requisite for the attainment of nirvana and

358 A History of Pali Literature

that other moral powers were faith, 1 perseverance,
mindfuhiess, and meditation which a recluse should
develop in himself. The characteristic marks of
each of these qualities were expounded in detail,
and their power to put an end to evil dispositions.
A very important metaphysical question is next
discussed wherein Nagasena wants to establish with
the help mainly of illuminating illustrations that
when a man is born, he remains neither the same
nor the another ; like a child and a growing man
through different stages of life. " One comes into
being " another passes away ; and the rebirth is,
as it were, simultaneous. In this connection it is
discussed if a man who will not be reborn feel any
painful sensation ; and then what is after all reborn.
A discourse is next initiated as to what is meant by
" time ", the root and the ultimate point of it.
This leads to another discussion as to the origin and
developments of qualities, as to other existence or
non-existence of anything as soul, which in its turn
most naturally leads to a further discussion as
regards thought-perception and sight-perqpption,
and lastly to the distinguishing characteristics of
contact or phassa, sensation or vedana, idea or
saiina, purpose or cetana, perception or vifinana,
reflection or vitakka, and investigation or vicara.
In all these discourses and solutions, Milinda is
fully convinced and is full of admiration for
Nagasena.

The second discourse turns on the question of
, v , TTT removal of difficulties and dispelling

(c) Book III. - , , , . ,, j.j.

of doubts in the way of attaining a
life of renunciation. The various questions as to
these doubts are not always related to one another,
but all of them are instructive and helpful to solve
doubts in the mind of Milinda, the King. He
wants to know why really there is so much distinc-
tion between man and man, how renunciation is
brought about, what is the character of the influence

1 Cf. Summary of faith in the Nettipakarana, p. 28.

Extra Canonical Works 359

of karma, and what is after all nirvana, and whether
all men attain it or not. The interesting point
raised next is whether rebirth and transmigration
are one and the same thing, and if there is a soul
or any being that transmigrates from this body to
another. Among other doubts that conflicted
Milinda were if the body were very dear to the
Buddhist recluse, if the Buddha had really thirty-
two bodily marks of a great man, if the Buddha was
pure in conduct, if ordination was a good thing.
Milinda further enquired of Nagasena what had
been the real distinction between one full of passion,
and one without passion, and lastly what was
meant by an Arahat who recollected what was past
and done long ago. Then there were also other
difficulties of various kinds which were all solved
by the venerable Nagasena. Milinda was satisfied
that he had propounded his questions rightly, and
the replies had been made rightly. Nagasena
thought that the questions had been well-put and
right replies had been given.

Thie book deals with solutions of puzzles arising
,^ *> , TAT out of contradictory statements

(d) Book IV. , ! ., -r> j 11 mi i

made by the Buddha. Ihese puzzles
were many and varied and were distributed in
eighty-two dilemmas which were put by Milinda
to Nagasena, who, in his turn, gave satisfactory
explanations to each of them. The contradictions
in the Buddha's utterances were more apparent
than real. About them strife was likely thereafter
to arise, and it was difficult to find a teacher like
Nagasena. So an early solution of these dilemmas
was imperative for the guidance of intending dis-
ciples of the Order. These dilemmas are particularly
interesting as well as instructive and it is profitable
to be acquainted here with a few examples. Milinda
was puzzled by a dilemma If the Buddha has
really passed away, what is the good of paying
honour to his relics ? Nagasena said to him, " Blessed
One, O King, is entirely set free from life and he
accepts no gifts. If gods or men put up a building

2

360 A History of Pali Literature

to contain the jewel treasure of the relics of a
Tathagata who does not accept their gift, still by
that homage paid to the attainment of the supreme
good under the form of the jewel treasure of his
wisdom do they themselves attain to one or other
of the three glorious states (Tisso Sampattiyo).
There are other reasons too. For, gods and men
by offering reverence to the relics, and the jewel
treasure of the wisdom of a Tathagata, though he
has died away, and accepts it not, can cause goodness
to arise in them, and by that goodness can assuage
and can allay the fever and the torment of the
threefold fire. And even if the Buddha has passed
away, the possibility of receiving the three attain-
ments is not removed. Beings, oppressed by the
sorrow of becoming, can, when they desire the
attainments, still receive them by means of the
jewel treasure of his relics and of his doctrine,
discipline, and teaching. Like the seeds which
through the earth attain to higher developments
are the gods and men who, through the jewel treasures
of the relics and the wisdom of the Tathagata
though he has passed away and consent not to it
being firmly rooted by the roots of merit, become
like unto trees casting a goodly shade by means of
the trunk of contemplation, the sap of true doctrine
and the branches of righteousness, bearing the flowers
of emancipation, and the fruits of monkhood. It
is for all these reasons that even when the Buddha
has passed away, an act done to him notwithstanding
his not consenting thereto, is still of value and bears
fruit."

A second dilemma that conflicted Milinda was,
how can the Buddha be omniscient, when it is said
that he reflects or thinks ? To solve this dilemma,
Nagasena analysed the thinking powers of men
from the lowest individual full of lust, ill-will and
delusion to the highest Buddha having all knowledge
and bearing about in themselves the tenfold power
and whose thinking powers are on every point
brought quickly into play, and act with ease. He

Extra Canonical Works 361

then classified these different kinds of thinking
powers into seven classes. The thinking power of
the Supreme Buddhas is of the last or seventh class,
and its stuff is very fine, the dart is highly tempered
and its discharge is highly powerful. It altogether
outclasses the other six and is clear and active in
its high quality that is beyond an ordinary man's
comprehension. It is because the mind of the
Blessed One is so clear and active that the Blessed
One has worked so many wonders and miracles.
For his knowledge is dependent on reflection, and
it is on reflection that he knows whatever he wishes
to know. It is more rapid than that, and more
easy in action in the all-embracing knowledge of
the Blessed One, more rapid than his reflection.
His all-embracing knowledge is like the store-house
of a great king who has stores of gold, silver and
valuables, and all sorts of eatables ; it is with the
help of reflection that the Blessed One grasps
easily and at once whatever he wants from the big
store-house of his knowledge.

A third dilemma was, why did the Blessed One
admit Devadatta to the Order, if he knew of his
machinations ? In giving a solution out of this
dilemma Nagasena told Milinda that the Blessed
One was both full of mercy and wisdom. It was
when he in his mercy and wisdom considered the
life history of Devadatta that he perceived how
having heaped up karma on karma, he would pass
for an endless series of kalpas from torment to
torment, and from perdition to perdition. And the
Blessed One knew also that the infinite karma of
that man would, because he had entered the Order,
become finite, and the sorrow caused by the previous
karma would also therefore become limited. But if
that foolish person were not to enter the Order,
then he would continue to heap up karma which
would endure for a kalpa. And it was because he
knew that that, in his mercy, he admitted him to
the Order. And by doing so, the Blessed One
acted like a clever physician, and made light the

362 A History of Pali Literature

heavy sorrow of Devadatta who would have to
suffer many hundreds of thousands of kalpas.
For having caused schism in the Order, he (Deva-
datta) would no doubt suffer pain and misery in the
purgatories, but that was not the fault of the Blessed
One, but was the effect of his own karma. The
Blessed One did in his case act like a surgeon who
with all kind intent and for man's good smears a
wound with burning ointment, cuts it with lancet,
cauterises with caustic, and administers to it a
salty wash. So did the Blessed One cause Devadatta
to suffer such pain and misery that at the end he
might be relieved of all pains and miseries. If he
had not done so, Devadatta would have suffered
torment in purgatory through a succession of
existences, through hundreds of thousands of kalpas.
Of other puzzles that arose in Milinda's mind,
mention may be made of three out of many. These
were, for example, how was it that an Arahat could
do no wrong ; why did not the Buddha promulgate
all the rules of the Order at once and how could
Vessantara's giving away of his children be approved.
Speaking as to the faults of the Arahat, Nagasena
told Milinda that the Arahats, like laymen, could
be guilty of an offence, but their guilt was neither
due to carelessness or thoughtlessness. Sins are
of two kinds those which are a breach of the
ordinary moral law, and those which are a breach
of the Rules of the Order. Now, an Arahat, in the
true sense of the term, cannot be guilty of a moral
offence ; but it is possible for him to be guilty of
any breach of the Rules of the Order of which he
might have been ignorant. Next, speaking as to
the method of promulgating the Rules from time
to time and not all at once, Nagasena quoted the
authority of the Tathagata ; for the Tathagata
thought thus, " If I were to lay down the whole
of the hundred and fifty rules at once the people
would be filled with fear, those of them who were
willing to enter the Order would refrain from doing
so, they would not trust my words, and through

Extra Canonical Works 363

their want of faith they would be liable to rebirth
in states of woe. An occasion arises, therefore,
illustrating it with a religious discourse, will I lay
down, when the evil has become manifest, each
Rule." As to the justification of King Vessantara's
giving away his beloved sons in slavery to a Brah-
mana, and his dear wife to another man as wife,
Nagasena told Milinda that he who gave gifts in
such a way as to bring even sorrow upon others,
that giving of his brought forth fruit in happiness
and it would lead to rebirths in states of bliss. Even
if that be an excessive gift it was not harmful, rather
it was praised, applauded, and approved by the
wise in the world.

The last four dilemmas of Milinda are concerned
with the difficult problem of Nirvana. Is Nirvana
all bliss or partly pain ; the form, the figure, duration,
etc., of Nirvana, the reaUsation of Nirvana, and the
place of Nirvana, these are the puzzles that inflicted
the mind of the king. Nagasena solved them all one
by one to the satisfaction of Milinda. According to
him Nirvana is bliss unalloyed, there is no pain in
it. It is true that those who are in quest of Nirvana
afflict their minds and bodies, restrain themselves
in standing, walking and sitting, lying, and in food,
suppress their sleep, keep their senses in subjection,
abandon their very body and their life. But it is
after they have thus, in pain, sought after Nirvana,
that they enjoy Nirvana which is all bliss. By no
metaphor, or explanation, or reason, or argument
can its form or figure, or duration, or measure be
made clear, even if it be a condition that exists.
But there is something as to its qualities which can
be explained. Nirvana is untarnished by any evil
dispositions. It allays the thirst of the craving
after lusts, desire for future life, and the craving
after worldly prosperity. It puts an end to grief,
it is an ambrosia. Nirvana is free from the dead
bodies of evil dispositions, it is mighty and bound-
less, it is the abode of great men, and Nirvana
is all in blossom of purity, of knowledge and eman-

364 A History of Pali Literature

cipation. Nirvana is the support of life, for it
puts an end to old age and death ; it increases the
power of Iddhi (miracle) of all beings, it is the
source to all beings of the beauty of holiness, it
puts a stop to suffering in all beings, to the suffering
arising from evil dispositions, and it overcomes in
all beings the weakness which arises from hunger
and all sorts of pain. Nirvana is not born, neither
does it grow old, it dies not, it passes not away, it
has no rebirth, it is unconquerable, thieves carry
it not off, it is not attached to anything, it is the
sphere in which Arahat moves, nothing can obstruct
it, and it is infinite. Nirvana satisfies all desires,
it causes delight and it is full of lustre. It is hard
to attain to, it is unequalled in the beauty of its
perfume, it is praised by all the Noble Ones. Nirvana
is beautiful in Righteousness, it has a pleasant
taste. It is very exalted, it is immovable, it is
accessible to all evil dispositions, it is a place where
no evil dispositions can grow, it is free from desire
to please and from resentment.

As to the time of Nirvana, it is not past, nor
future, nor present, nor produced, nor not produced,
nor producible. Peaceful, blissful, and delicate,
Nirvana always exists. And it is that wliich he
who orders his life aright, grasping the idea of all
things according to the teaching of the conquerors
realises by his wisdom. It is known by freedom
from distress and danger, by confidence, by peace,
by calm, by bliss, by happiness, by delicacy, by
purity, and by freshness. Lastly as to the place of
Nirvana, there is no spot either in the East, or the
South, or the West or the North, either above or
below where Nirvana is. Yet it exists just as
fire exists even if there is no place where it is stored
up. If a man rubs two sticks together, the fire
comes out, so Nirvana exists for a man who orders
his life well. But there is such a place on which a
man may stand, and ordering his life aright, he
can realise Nirvana, and such a place is virtue.

This book deals with solutions of problems of

Extra Canonical Works 365

inference. Milinda asked Nagasena how they could
(e) Book v know that Buddha had ever lived.
Nagasena told him that as the
existence of ancient kings was known by their
royal insignia, their crown, their slippers, and their
fans, so was the existence of Buddha known by
the royal insignia used by the Blessed One and by
the thirty-five constituent qualities that make up
Arahatship which formed the subject of discourse
delivered by Gotama before his death to his dis-
ciples. By these can the whole world of gods
and men know and believe that the Blessed
One existed once. By this reason, by this argument,
through this inference, can it be known that the
Blessed One lived. Just at the sight of a beautiful
and well-planned city, one can know the ability of
the architect, so can one, on examining the City of
Righteousness which the Buddha built up, come to
know of his ability and existence.

The sixth book opens with an interesting dis-
,,v , WT cussion. Can laymen attain Nir-

(/) Book VI. T> T . J , , , , , ,

vana ? Nagasena told that even
laymen and women could see face to face the
condition of peace, the supreme good, Nirvana.
" But, what purpose then do extra vows serve ? "
asked Milinda again. To this Nagasena replied
that the keeping of vows implied a mode of livelihood
without evil, it has blissful calm as its fruit, it
avoided blame and it had such twenty-eight good
qualities on account of which all the Buddhas alike
longed for them and held them dear. And whoso-
ever thoroughly carried out the vows, they became
completely endowed with eighteen good qualities
without a previous keeping of the vows by those
who became endowed with these good qualities,
there was no realisation of Arahatship ; and there
was no perception of the truth to those who were
not purified by 'the virtues that depended on the
keeping of the vows. Nagasena next explained in
detail with the help of a good number of similes
the character that came as a result of keeping

366 A History of Pali Literature

the vows for the good growth of the seed of renuncia-
tion and for the attainment of Nirvana. But those
who being unworthy take the vows incur a twofold
punishment and suffer the loss of the good that
may be in him. He shall receive disgrace and
scorn and suffer torment in the purgatory. On the
contrary, those who being worthy take the vows
with the idea of upholding the truth deserve a two-
fold honour. For he comes near and dear to gods
and men, and the whole religion of the recluses
becomes his very own. Nagasena then gave Milinda
the details of the thirteen extra vows by which a
man should bathe in the mighty waters of Nirvana.
Upasena the elder, practised all these purifying
merits of the vows and Blessed One was delighted
at his conduct. The thirty graces of the true
recluse are detailed next and whosoever is endowed
with these graces is said to have abounded in the
peace and bliss of Nirvana. Sariputta, according
to Nagasena, was one like this who became in this
life of such exalted virtue that he was the one who,
after the Master, set rolling the royal chariot-
wheel of the Kingdom of Righteousness in the
religion of Gotama, the Blessed One.

The seventh or the last book is concerned with a
/XT, , XTTT detailed list of the similes or qualities

(g) Book VII. PAI.T.- * j.i !

of Arahatship ; of these similes
thirty-eight have been lost and sixty-seven are still
preserved. Any member of the Order who wishes
to realise Arahatship must be endowed with these
one hundred and five qualities. Milinda silently and
reverently heard detailed descriptions of these
qualities ; and at the end he was full of admiration
for the venerable Thera Nagasena for his wonderful
solution of the three hundred and four puzzles. He
was filled with joy of heart ; and all pride was
suppressed within him. He ceased to have any
more doubts and became aware of the virtue of
the religion of the Buddhas. He then entreated
Nagasena to be accepted as a supporter of the
Faith and as a true convert from that day onward

Extra Canonical Works 367

as long as life should last. Milinda did homage
to Nagasena and had a vihara built called the
4 Milinda- Vihara ' which he handed over to Naga-
sena.

The Milinda Panha like the Bhagavat Gita is
the most interesting and instructive literary produc-
tion of an age which is heroic. Its long narrative
is composed of a long series of philosophical contest
between two great heroes, King Milinda on the
one hand and the Thera Nagasena on the other.
A pubba-yoga or prelude is skilfully devised to
arouse a curiosity in the reader to witness the
contest and watch the final result with a great
eagerness. On the whole, the Milinda successfully
employs a novel literary device to put together the
isolated and disconnected controversies in the Katha-
vatthu as representing different stages in the pro-
gress of the philosophical battle, and in doing so
it has been in one place guilty of the literary plagia-
rivsm in respect of introducing King Milinda as a
contemporary of the six heretical teachers on the
model of the Samafinaphala Sutta.

piaco and country Alasanda (dipa) the island town

names in the Miiin- of Alexandria on the Indus, founded

da Pafiha. fcy Alexander .

Yavana (Bactria) That province watered by
the Oxus or the Amu Daria and the premier satrapy
of the Achsemenian kings later on came to be
conquered by Alexander and in 321 B.C. fell to the
share of Seleukos Nikator. Hundred years later
the Bactrian Greeks threw off their allegiance to
their Seleukidan lord, asserted independence, and
gradually moved towards India to establish there an
independent principality. Milinda or Menander was
one of the kings of this line of Bactrian Greeks who
came to establish their power in India.

Bharukaccha an ancient seaport equivalent
to modern Broach in the Kaira district in Guzrat ;
Barygaza of the Greek geographers.

Cina (country) China.

368 A History of Pali Literature

Gandhara (rattham) an important ancient
kingdom that had its capital at Purusapura or
Peshwar in the North-western Frontier Province.

Kalinga an ancient kingdom on the Orissan
coast, identical with the modern Ganjam region.
All older works, such as the Jataka, Mahavastu,
and Dlgha Nikaya, mention a kingdom named
Kalinga with its capital Dantapura ages before
Buddha's time.

Kalasa (gama) a village situated in the
Alasanda island on the Indus; the birthplace of
Milinda.

Kajangala mentioned in very early Buddhist
Pftli texts as a locality somewhere near Rajmahal.

Kasmir (rattham) a famous kingdom in the
North of India.

Kosala an ancient province identical with
South Bihar, capital Sravasti.

Kolopattanam an ancient seaport probably
on the Coromandel coast.

Magadha (rattham) an ancient kingdom
identical with East Bihar ; capital Pataliputra.

Madhura (nigamo) an ancient city identical
with modern Mathura. Coins of Menander have
been found here.

Nikumba (rattham) somewhere in the north-
west of India.

Sagala (nagaram) identical with Sakala,
modern Sialkot, capital city of the King Milinda.

Saketa identical with ancient Ayodhya country.

Saka country the kingdom of the Sakas or
Scythians in the time of Menander was confined
to the Bactrian lands south of the Oseus and to
Sogdiana to the north.

Sovira ancient Sauvira, the country of the
Sauvira tribe adjacent to the Sindhu country.

Surattho (nigamo) an ancient seaport identical
with modern Surat.

Baranas! modern Benares.

Suvannabhumi identical probably with Lower
Burma and Malay Peninsula.

Extra Canonical Works 369

P&taliputra (nagaram) an ancient city, capital
of Magadha near modern Patna.

Udicca & country in the north-west of India.

Vanga identical with East Bengal.

Vilata an ancient kingdom somewhere in the
north-west of India.

Takkola an ancient seaport near Thaton in
Lower Burma.

Ujjeni identical with ancient Ujjayini, capital
of the ancient Malwa country.

Greek (country) ancient Greece in Eastern

Names of riven, Europe.

in the MUinda 1. Ganga The Ganges.
Pafiha * 2. Aclravati an ancient river in

Eastern India flowing through the Kosala country
past Srftvasti.

3. Yamuna a tributary of the Ganges, the
Isamos of the Greeks.

4. Sarabhu identical with Sarayu, a tributary
of the Ganges.

5. Mahi a river south to the Vindhyas flowing
into the Bay of Bengal. These five rivers are often
mentioned together in the Pitakas.

6. Sarassati an ancient tributary of the Indus.

7. Vitaihsa identical probably with Vitasta,
a tributary of the Indus, the Hydaspes of the
Greeks.

8. Candrabhaga identical with modern Che-
nab, a tributary of the Indus.

A. Books silently referred to :

1. Digha Nikaya, 2. Kathavatthu,
Books referred to 3. Anguttara Nikaya, 4. Maha-

and mentioned in ^L ^* n ,* **r A

theMiiindaPaflha. vagga, 5. Cullavagga, 6. Vessantara
Jataka, 7. Sivi J&taka, 8. Majjhima
Nikaya, 9. Sutta Vibhaiiga, 10. Catuma Sutta, 11.
Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta, 12. Amba Jataka,
13. Dummedha Jataka, 14. Tittira Jataka, 15.
Khantivada Jataka, 16. Cula-nandiya Jataka, 17.
Taccha-Sukara Jataka, 18. Cariya-pitaka, 19. Silava-
naga Jataka, 20. Sabbadatha Jataka, 21. Apannaka
Jataka, 22. Nigrodha-miga Jataka, 23. Mahapaduma

370 A History of Pali Literature

J&taka, 24. Ummagga Jataka, 25. Sutta Nipata,
26. Thera Gatha, 27. Samyutta Nikaya, 28. Dham-
mapada, and 29. Nigrodha Jataka.

1. Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma, 2. The

Suttantas, 3. Dhamma-Sangani, 4.

Books or passa- Vibhanga, 5. Dhatu-Katha,' 6.

ges of books men- -r^ , -A ~~ 4j_- n -rr j_i * TT \i

Soned by name. Puggala Pannatti, 7. Katha-Vatthu,
8. Yamaka, 9. Patthana, 10. The
Abhidhamma Pitaka, 11. The Vinaya Pitaka, 12.
The Sutta Pitaka, 13. Maha-Samaya Suttanta
(Digha Nikftya), 14. Maha-mangala Suttanta
(Sutta Nipata), 15. Sama-cittapariyaya Suttanta
(unknown), 16. Rahulvada Suttanta (Majjhirha), 17.
Parabhava Suttanta (Sutta Nipata), 18. Samyutta
Nikaya, 19. The Sutta Nipata, 20. Ratana Sutta
(Sutta Nipftta), 21. Khandha Paritta (not traced),
22. Mora Paritta, 23. Dhajagga Paritta (Jataka
Book), 24. Atanatiya Paritta (Digha Nikaya), 25.
Angulimala Paritta (Majjhima Nikaya), 26. The
Patimokkha, 27. Dhamma-dayada Sutta (Majjhima
Nikaya), 28. Dakkhina Vibhanga of the Majjhima
Nikaya, 29. Cariya Pitaka, 30. Navangam Buddha
Vaeanam, 31. Digha Nikaya, 32. Majjhima Nikaya,
33. Khuddaka Nikaya, 34. Maha Rahulovada
^Majjhima Nikaya), 35. Pura-bheda Suttanta (Sutta
Nipata), 36. Kalaha Vivada Suttanta (Sutta Nipata),
37. Cula-Vyuha Suttanta (Sutta Nipata), 38. Maha-
Vyuha Suttanta (Sutta Nipata), 39. Tuvataka
Suttanta (Sutta Nipata), 40. Sariputta Suttanta
(Sutta Nipata), 41. Mahasamaya Suttanta (Digha
Nikaya), 42. Sakkha-Panha Suttanta (Digha Nikaya),
43. Tirokucida Suttanta (Khuddaka Patha), 44.
Ekuttara Nikaya (Anguttara Nikaya), 45. Dhaniya
Sutta (Sutta Nipata), 46. Kummupama Suttanta
(Samyutta Nikaya), 47. Sacca Samyutta (Samyutta
Nikaya), 48. Vidhura Punnaka Jataka, 49. Dham-
mapada, 50. Sutasoma Jataka, 51. Kanha Jataka,
52. Lomahamsana Pariyaya, 53. Cakkavaka Jataka,
54. Culla Narada Jataka, 55. Lakkhana Suttanta
(Digha Nikaya), 56. Bhallatiya Jataka, 57. Parinib-
bana Suttanta (Digha Nikaya).

Extra Canonical Works 371

V. Trenckner's edition of the Milinda Panha
first published by Williams and Norgate in 1880
has been reprinted by the trustee of the James
G. Forlong Fund, Royal Asiatic Society, in 1928
with a general index by C. J. Bylands and an index
of gathas by Mrs. Rhys Davids. There is another
edition of this work by Hsaya Hbe, Rangoon, 1915.
A Burmese word for word interpretation of this
text by Adiccavarhsa, Rangoon, should be consulted.
It has been translated into English by T. W. Rhys
Davids and included in the Sacred Books of the
East Series as Vols. XXXV-XXXVI. There is a
Sinhalese translation of the Milinda Panha by
Hinati Kumbure under the title " Milinda prash-
naya'", Colombo, 1900.

The following books may be consulted :

1. Le Bonheur du Nirvana extrait du Milindap-
prashnaya ; ou Miroir des doctrines sacrees traduit
du Pali par Lewis da Sylva Pandit. (Revue de
Thistoire des religions, Paris, 1885.)

2. Deux Traductions chinoises du Milinda
Panha Par E. Specht arcc introduction par S. Levi.

3. Chinese translations of the MiUnda Panha
by Takakusu, J.R.A.S., 1896. This paper contains
a number of Chinese translations in existence, the
date of the two translations and the story of the
discussions of King Milinda and Bhikkhu Nagasena
found in the Buddhist sutra called Samyutta-
Ratnapitaka.

4. Historical basis for the questions of King
Menander from the Tibetan by L. A. Waddel,
J.R.A.S., 1897. This paper points out that the
Milinda Panha is known to the Tibetans.

5. Nagasena by Dr. T. W. Rhys Davids,
J.R.A.S., 1891.

6. Milinda Questions by Mrs. Rhys Davids,
1930.

7. Critical and philological notes to the first
chapter of the Milinda Panha by V. Trenckner
revised and edited by Dr. Anderson, J.P.T.S.,
1908.

372 A History of Pali Literature

8. Paul Pelliot Les noms propres dans les
traductions chinoises du Milinda Panha. (Journal
Asiatic, Paris, 1914.)

9. There is a Bengali edition of this work
published by the Bangiya Sahitya Parishat, Calcutta,
which can vie, if it can vie at all, in its uncritical
method and blunders.

10. F. Otto Schrader, Die Fragen des Konig
Menandros (Berlin, 1903).

11. Garbe, "Der Milindapanha, ein Kultur-
historischer Roman ", Indische Kulturgeschichte.

12. G. Cagnola, Dialoghi del Re Milinda
(Italian translation of the Milinda Panha).

13. Milinda by T. W. Rhys Davids (Encyclo-
paedia of Religion and Ethics, pp. 631-633).

14. M. Winternitz, Geschichte der Indischen
Litteratur (vol. 2., Leipzig, 1920).

In the Gandhavamsa (pp. 58 foil. J.P.T.S.,
1886) which is a comparatively
modern Pali compilation we have an
interesting classification of the
Buddhist teachers of India, Ceylon, and Burma
connected with Pali literature. This classification
goes to divide the teachers chronologically into
three orders : (1) Poranacariyas, (2) Atthakatha-
cariyas, and (3) Gandhakaracariyas. By the Porana-
cariyas or ancient teachers are meant the distinguish-
ed and profoundly learned theras of old numbering
about 2,200 Arhats, who as selected representatives
of different sections of the orthodox samgha took
part in the proceedings of the first three Buddhist
Councils and rehearsed the canonical texts. These
teachers are arbitrarily identified with the Atthaka-
thacariyas or teachers commanding the commentarial
authority. Buddhaghosa and others are, according
to this classification, to be counted among the
Gandhakaracariyas or teachers representing in-
dividual authorship. Such teachers are also to be
known as Anekacariyas or different authors.

The Gandhavamsa expressly treats the earlier
Sinhalese commentaries such as Kurundiya attha-

Extra Canmical Works 373

katha and the Mahapaccariya atthakatha pre-
supposed by the writings of Buddhaghosa as re-
markable productions of individual authorship. 1

We may be prepared to appreciate this sugges-
tive chronological classification in so far as it leads
us to contemplate the beginning of individual
authorship from a certain stage of literary develop-
ment, a stage which is represented by Buddhadatta,
Buddhaghosa, and Dhammapala. In the first or
early stage we have the various texts of the three
Pali pitakas, all of which the Samgltikaras made
their own by virtue of a joint rehearsal and canonisa-
tion. Though tradition ascribes the Kathavatthu
and the Parivarapatha to two different authors,
namely, Moggaliputtatissa and the learned Dlpa,
one need not be astonished to find that the claim
of individual authorship hats altogether merged in
the interests of the Samgltikaras, and ultimately
of the samgha as a whole.

The authority of the Milinda Pafiha has been
wrongly cited by Buddhaghosa and others with the
stamp of individual authorship of thera Nagasena.
It is the same thing to ascribe the Milinda Panha
to the authorship of Nagasena as to ascribe all the
Pali canonical texts to the authorship of the Buddha.
As a matter of fact Nagasena plays no more than
the role of the more powerful of the two controversia-
lists in the dramatic narrative of the Milinda Panha
a position which is in many respects similar to
that assigned to Vasudeva in the dramatic con-
versational narrative of the Bhagavat Gita.

The Gandhavamsa (p. 59) ascribes the Netti
and the Petakopadesa along with four other trea-
tises, exegetical and grammatical, to the author-
ship of Mahakaccayana, the venerable Mahakacca-
yana who was one of the immediate disciples of the

1 Gandhavamsa, p. 59 " Katame anekacariyehi kata
Gandhacariyo kurundlgandham nama akasi. Annataro acariyo
mahapaccariyam nama afttakathaxh akasi. Afifiataro acariyo
kunindigandhassa atthakatham akasi".

374 A History of Pali Literature

Buddha, doing his missionary work in western
India. This is a lump of anachronism which is
too big for a critical scholarly mouth to swallow.
As regards individual authorship, the Netti and the
Petakopadesa stand in the same position as the
Milinda Panha. Have we in this respect to confront
a different position with regard to the earlier Sinha-
lese commentaries under notice ? Highly doubtful
is the source of information that has enabled the
author of so modern a work as the Gandhavamsa
to say that a certain individual author wrote out a
treatise called Kurundigandha, another author, the
Mahapaccariya-atthakatha and another author, the
Atthakatha of the Kurundigandha.

Some earlier commentaries have been quoted
by Buddhaghosa without even meaning to regard
them as works of any individual authors. Even in
cases where he has referred to them as personal
authorities, he appears to have recourse to such an
indefinite expression as atthakathacariyas. 1 On the
other hand there are several statements in which
Buddhaghosa and other commentators haVe regarded
these earlier commentaries not as works of any
individual authors but as authoritative books of
interpretation of different monastic schools of
teachers (cf. Samantapasadika, P.T.S., pp. 1-2 ;
Atthasalim, p. 2).

" Mahaviharavasmam dipayanto vinicchayam
Attham pakasayissami agamatthakathasupi."

The earlier commentaries mentioned or cited by
Buddhaghosa in his Samantapasadika, Atthasalini,
Sumangalavilasim, and other commentaries are :

(1) The Maha Atthakatha.

(2) The Mahapaccariya.

(3) The Kurundl or Kurundiya. 2

(4) Andha Atthakatha.

(5) Samkhepa Atthakatha.

1 Atthasalini, pp. 85, 123, and 217

2 Samantapasadika, p. 2, v. 10.

Extra Canonical Works 375

(6) Agamatthakatha. 1

(7) Acariyanam samanatthakatha. 2 (?)

According to the Saddhama Sangaha, the Maha,
the Mahapaccari, and the Kurunda are the three
earlier Sinhalese commentaries quoted by Buddha-
ghosa in his Samantapasadika while the Maha-
atthakatha was made the basis of his commentaries
on the first four nikayas. 3

The Poranas and the Atthakathacariyas re-
present indeed a broad chronological classification
of the pubbacariyas which may as well be inferred
from Buddhaghosa's own statements. In the pro-
logue of his Samantapasadika, he expressly says
that the Maha, the Mahapaccari, and the Kurundi
are the three earlier commentaries that were written
in the native dialect of Sihala (Ceylon) (samvannana
sihaladipakena vakyena, Samantapasadika, I, p. 2).

The Maha-atthakatha otherwise known as the
mula atthakatha or simply the atthakatha is
undoubtedly the old Sinhalese commentary on the
three pitakas developed in the school of the Maha-
vihara or Great Minster at Anuradhapura. There
was a second monastery at Anuradhapura called
Uttaravihara or North Minster. A commentarial
tradition was developed also in this schooL The
distinction between the traditions of Mahavihara
and Uttaravihara would seem to lie in the background
of Buddhadatta's two Vinaya manuals the Vinaya-
vinicchaya and the Uttaravinicchaya. The name
of Mahapaccari or Great Raft can be so called " from
its having been composed on a raft somewhere in
Ceylon " (Saddhammasamgaha, p. 55). The suggest-
ed origin of the name is quite fanciful and there-
fore unreliable like the Maha or mula. The Maha-
paccari appears to have been a distinct compilation
of a monastic school of Ceylon. The Kurundi was

1 AtthasalinI, p. 2.

2 Ibid., p. 90.

8 Saddhaina Sangaha, pp. 55-56, J.P.T.S., 1890.

3

376 A History of Pali Literature

so called because it was composed at the Kurunda-
veluvihara in Ceylon (Saddhammasamgaha, p. 55).

The Andha-atthakatha represented a com-
mentarial tradition handed down at Kancipura
(Conjeveram) in South India. Presumably it was
written in some native dialect of the Deccan.

The Samkhepa atthakatha or short commentary
is mentioned together with the Andha commentary
and it is likely that like the latter it was a South
Indian work.

The Agamatthakatha referred to in Buddha-
ghosa's Atthasalini is now taken to be an old general
commentary on the agamas or nikayas.

Acariyanam Samanatthakatha has been cata-
logued by Mrs. Rhys Davids as though it were a
separate commentary but the context of the passage
in Buddhaghosa's Atthasalini (p. 90) in which the
term occurs, shows the matter to be otherwise.
By this expression (Ettika acariyanamsamanattha-
katha nama, Atthasalini, p. 90) Buddhaghosa
appears simply to mean an explanation which is
common to all the schools of interpretation. If so,
there will be no justification whatever for regarding
the term acariyanam samanatthakatha as a title of
any commentary.

FausbolTs edition of the Jataka commentary
now extant is known by the name
J5taka thl! haka " of Jatakatthavannana l containing
about 550 Jatakas. 2 In the Jata-
katthavannana itself there is a reference to an older
commentary namely, the Jataka-atthakatha which,
as rightly guessed by Prof. Rhys Davids, is " the
older commentary of Elu, or old Singhalese, on which
the present work is based ". 3 This older com-
mentary must have been the source from which

1 Fausboll's Jataka, Vol. I, p. 1 " Jatakass' Attha-

vannanam Mahaviharavasinam vacanamagganissitam bhasissarh ".

2 Strictly speaking the total number of the Jatakas contained
in it is 547.

8 Buddhist Birth Stories, p. 173, f.n. 2 ; Fausboll's Jataka, I,
p. 62.

Extra Canonical Works 377

Buddhaghosa has quoted several birth stories in
his commentaries. Judging by Buddhaghosa's
narrations of the Jatakas bearing a close resemblance
with those in the present Atthavannana, we can say
that the contents and arrangement of the Jatakas
in the Atthakatha had not materially differed from
those in the Atthavannana. It is evident from
Buddhaghosa's own statement in his Sumangala-
vilasinl that the total number of the Jatakas
already came to be counted in his time as 550. *
But as shown by Dr. B. M. Barua, the earlier
total as mentioned in the Cullaniddesa (p. 80
44 Bhagava pafica jataka-satani bhasanto attano
ca paresan ca atitam adisati "), which is a canonical
commentary on the Khaggavisana Sutta and the
suttas of the Parayanavagga, was not 550 but 500
(pancajataka-satani). He seems to think that the
same inference as to the earlier total of the Jatakas
may as well be drawn from an account of the Chinese
pilgrim Fa-Hien stating that he witnessed re-
presentations of 500 Jatakas when he visited Ceylofc
in the beginning of the 5th century A.D. 2 The
various literary processes by which the Jatakas
were mechanically multiplied have been well dis-
cussed 8 and need no further orientation here.

The word vinicchaya means " investigation,
trial, ascertainment, and decision ".
The meaning which suits the title
of the work under notice is de-
cision ". Certain decisions helping the right in-
terpretation and application of the Vinaya rules
and prescriptions embodied in the Vinaya Pitaka
grew up as a result of discussions among the theras
of Ceylon and South India, the decisions of the
Mahavihara school being generally regarded as the

1 Sumangalavilasim, I, p. 24 " Apannaka-jatakadini pafinasa-
dhikani pafica- jataka-satani Jatakan ti veditabbam ".

2 TheTravelsof Fa-hsien by H. A. Giles, p. 71 " repres
of the five hundred different forms in which the Bodhis
cessively appeared ".

3 B. M. Barua' s paper Multiplication of the Jatake

378 A History of Pali Literature

most authoritative. These decisions referred to in
the lump by Buddhaghosa as atthakathavinicchayas
were also incorporated in such Sinhalese com-
mentaries as the Maha (Mahavihara), the Maha-
karundiya, and the Mahapaccariya. It was binding
on Buddhaghosa and other later commentators
to see that the interpretations suggested by them
were not only not inconsistent with the canonical
texts but also with the atthakathaviniechayas. 1
In many places of his Samantapasadika Buddha-
ghosa has termed even his own decisive interpreta-
tion as a Vinicchaya. 2 Even apart from the
decisive interpretations in the earlier Sinhalese
commentaries Buddhaghosa appears to have cited
certain authoritative Vinayavinicchayas without
mentioning the source from which he cited them.
Looking out for the source we are apt to be led back
to a treatise written by thera Buddhasiha which
clearly bore the title of Vinayavinicchaya.

In the epilogue of his Vinayavinicchaya Buddha -
datta expressly says that his own work was nothing
but an abridged form of Buddhaslha's treatise.
Buddhasiha himself is represented as a saddhiviharl
or a fellow monk residing in the monastery erected
by Venhudasa or Kanhadasa in the beautiful river
port of Kaveri. 3

No trace of Buddhaslha'a treatise lingers except
perhaps in citations in Buddhaghosa's Samanta-
pasadika. The treatise was in all probability written
in prose while Buddhadatta's is a manual written
entirely in verse.

Narasihagatha is the title of an interesting Pali

1 Samantapasadika, p. 539. In discarding a particular in-
terpretation, Buddhaghosa says " afthakatha vinicchayehi na
sameti ", i.e., it does not tally with the decisions of the commentaries.

2 Of. Samantapsadika, p. 648 : " Ayam tava anto dasaharh
adhittheti vikappetiti ettha adhitthane viniccha-yo ". Again at p. 649
' ay am vikappetiti imasmim pade vinicchayo '.

3 Buddhadatta's Vinayavinicchaya, p. 229.

" vuttassa Buddhasihena Vinayassa vinicchayo
Buddhaaiham samuddissa mama saddhiviharikarh
kato 'yam pana bhikkhunam hitatthaya samasato."

Extra Canonical Works 379

octade consisting of eight stanzas composed in an
elegant style. The theme of this

NarasIhagSthS. i i i i

poem which became very popular
throughout Ceylon is a description of 32 major
bodily marks of the Buddha represented as a lion-
like man (narasiha). The gathas are characteristi-
cally put into the mouth of Rahulamata. Only
the first stanza of the ancient octade is quoted in
the Pali Jatakanidanakatha (Fausboll, Jataka, I,
p. 89), the reading of which goes to show that its
wording changed here and there in the octade as it
comes down to us through the Buddhist literature
of Ceylon.

(a) Earlier reading

" Siniddhamlamudukuncitakeso

suriyasunimmalatalabhinalato

yuttatungamudukayatanaso

ramsijalavitato narasiho' ti."

(&) Later reading

" Suddhamlamudukuficitakeso
suriyanimmalatalabhinalato
yuttatungamudukayatanaso
ramsijalopitate narasiho."

The octade may be regarded as an earlier
specimen of the Sinhalese Pali poetry.

The Dipavamsa is the oldest known Pali
,.. . chronicle of Ceylon (dipatthuti) and

Dipavarasa. CT&JII* /v , * i i

of Buddhism, the account of which
is closed with the reign of King Mahasena which
may be assigned to the middle of the 4th century
A.D. Buddhaghosa in his commentary on the
Kathavatthu, a book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka,
expressly quotes a number of verses from the
Dipavamsa as a traditional authority in support of
a certain statement of his, from which it is easy
to infer that the chronicle in its present form was
extant in the 4th century A.D., if not earlier. It
goes without saying that the tradition of both the
kings and theras of Ceylon as well as of their Indian
contemporaries grew up and accumulated gradually.

380 A History of Pali Literature

The stanzas quoted by Buddhaghosa may be traced
verbatim in the Dipavamsa (p. 36). *

Though a metrical composition, the verses of
this earlier chronicle interspersed in places with
certain prose passages some of which may be traced
in such authoritative canonical texts as the Vinaya
Cullavagga. 2 In the opening verses of the Dipa-
vamsa we are told that the chronicle embodied in
it was handed down by tradition from man to
man (vamsarh pavakkhami paramparagatam). So
we need not be astonished to find certain verses
occurring in the Vinaya Parivarapatha and furnish-
ing the traditional materials for the Dipavarhsa.
The verses incorporated in the Parivarapatha may
be just one of the isolated earlier specimens, there
being many others that are probably now lost.
Thus what we find in the Dipavamsa is the first
fruit of a methodical attempt at the composition
of a systematic chronicle narrative on the basis
of certain traditions, prevalent in both prose and
verse. We need not dilate further on this subject
as we have dealt with it in detail in the section
on the Pali chronicles.

The very name of the atthakatha Mahavamsa
may sound strange to the ears of

those who are tau 8 ht to think tha *
the Pali Mahavamsa is the first

work of its kind. To get rid of this predilection
the reader may do well to acquaint himself with the

1 Kathavatthuppakarana-atthakatha, J.P.T.S., 1889, p. 3,
" Vuttarfa pi c' etam Dipavaihse :

Nikkaddhita papabhikkhu therehi Vajjiputtaka
anftarh pakkham labhitvana adhamrnavadi bahu jana.
Dasasahassa samagantva akam.su dhammasamgaham
tasmayarh dhammasamgiti mahasamgiti vuccati."

2 Dipavamsa, p. 33

" tena kho pana samayena vassasatamhi nibbute bhagavati
Veaalika Vajjiputtaka Vesaliyam dasa vatthuni dipenti :
kappati singilonakappo, kappati dvangulakappo,
kappati gamantarakappo, kappati avasakappo, kappati
anumatikappo, kappati acinnakappo, kappati amathita-
kappo, kappati jalogim paturh, kappati adasakam
nisidanam, kappati jataruparajatan ti."
Cf. Vinaya Cullavagga, ch. xii, p. 294.

Extra .Canonical Works 381

verses forming the prologue of the great chronicle.
In these opening verses, the author says :

" Mahavariisarii pavakkhami nananunadhi-

karikam.

Poranehi kato p'eso ativittharito kvaci,
ativa kvaci samkhitto, anekapunaruttako.
Vajjitam tehi dosehi sukhaggahanadharanam"
(Mahavariisa, Chapter I).

Dr. Geiger translates " I will recite the Maha-
variisa, of varied contents and lacking nothing.
That (Mahavariisa) which was compiled by the
ancient (sages) was here too long drawn out and
there too closely knit ; and contained many repeti-
tions. Attend ye now to this (Mahavamsa) that is
free from such faults." (Geiger's translation of
the Mahavamsa, p. 1.) Thus the author of the Pali
Mahavamsa himself alludes to an earlier chronicle
and claims that the chronicle composed by him was
nothing but a thoroughly revised version of the
earlier compilation. Here the question arises
whether by the earlier compilations the author of
the Pali Mahavamsa intended to mean the Dipavariisa
or some other work, especially only bearing the
title of Mahavamsa. There are two arguments
that may be placed in favour of the Dipavamsa :

(1) that the faults " here too long drawn out and
there too closely knit ; and contained many repeti-
tions " are well applicable to the Dipavamsa ; and

(2) that the narrative of the Pali Mahavariisa,
precisely like that of the Dipavariisa is closed with
an account of the reign of King Mahasena of Ceylon.
Undoubtedly the Dipavariisa is the earlier chronicle
on which the Mahavariisa narrative was mainly
based. But there are many points of difference,
which are in some cases material. These cannot be
satisfactorily accounted for without bringing in a
somewhat different authority. Fortunately Dr.
Geiger in his instructive dissertation on the Dipa-
variisa and the Mahavariisa has convincingly proved
the existence of an earlier great chronicle in Sinhalese.

382 A History of Pali Literature

He has been able to ascertain that the earlier
form of the great chronicle was a part of a com-
mentary written in old Sinhalese prose mingled
with P8li verses. The commentary could be found
in different monasteries of Ceylon and it is just
the other earlier work that served as a basis of the
Pali Mahavamsa ascribed to Thera Mah&nama
(Geiger, Mahavamsa tr., intro., p. x).

Among the important citizens of the ideal

Dhammanagara the Milinda Panha

The schools of reel- mentions some six schools of reciters

ters: their views IJ.T_T>JJI-J.II^^ i

and interpretations, of the Buddhist holy texts, namely,
(1) Jatakabhanaka, the reciters
of the Jatakas, (2) Dighabhanaka, the reciters of
the Digha Nikaya, (3) Majjhimabhanaka, the
reciters of the Majjhima Nikaya, (4) Samyutta-
bhanaka, the reciters of the Samyutta Nikaya,
(5) Anguttarabhanaka, the reciters of the Ahguttara
Nikaya, and (6) the Khuddakabhanaka, the reciters
of the Khuddaka Nikaya. To this list may be
added Dhammapadabhanaka, the reciters of the
Dhammapada, mentioned in Buddhaghosa's Attha-
salini (p. 18). Bhanaka or a reciter of the Buddhist
holy texts is met with in a large number of Buddhist
votive inscriptions at Bharaut and Sanci as a
distinctive epithet of the monks. Buddhaghosa
in the introduction to his Sumangalavilasim records
a remarkable tradition accounting for the origin
of the different schools of the bhanakas. The same
tradition is met with in the Mahabodhivamsa with a
slight variation. According to this tradition, it so
happened that during the session of the first Buddhist
Council as soon as the Vinaya was recited and the
Vinaya texts were compiled, the preservation of
the Vinaya traditions and texts by regular recita-
tions was entrusted to the care of the venerable Upali
while in the course of rehearsal of the Dhammapada,
the Dlghagama or the Digha Nikaya came to be
compiled, the preservation of this text was entrusted
to the care of the venerable Ananda; in a similar
way the preservation of the Majjhimagama or the

Extra Canonical Works 383

Majjhima Nikaya was entrusted to the care of the
disciples of Sariputta ; that of Samyuttftgama or
the Samyutta Nikfiya was entrusted to the care of
the venerable Kassapa, that of the Ekuttaragama
was entrusted to the care of the venerable
Anuruddha. Thus one is to conceive the rise of
the five schools of bhanakas, to wit, Vinayabhanaka,
Dighabhanaka, Majjhimabhanaka, Samyutta-
bhanaka, and Anguttarabhanaka (Barua and Sinha,
Bharut Inscriptions, p. 9 ; Sumangalavilasim, I,
pp. 13-15).

With the progress of time, anyhow by the
time of Buddhaghosa the schools of reciters appear
to have developed into some distinct schools of
opinion and interpretation. No other reasonable
inference may be drawn from Buddhaghosa' s cita-
tions of their authorities. 1 The individual teachers
of Ceylon 2 whose views have been quoted and
discussed here and there by Buddhaghosa in his
various commentaries may be supposed to have
belonged to this or that school of reciters 3 and we
need not consider their case separately here.

1 SumahgalavilasinI, I, p. 15. tk Tato param Jatakam Maha-
niddeso CQla-niddeso Pati-sambhida-maggo Sutta-nipato Dhamma-
padam Udanam Itivuttakam Vimana-peta-vatthu Thera-theri-
gatha ti imam tantim samgayitva Khuddaka-gantho iiama ayan ti
ca vatva, Abhidhamma-pitakasmirh yeva samgaham aropayimsuti
Digha-bhanaka vadanti, Majjhima-bhanaka pana Cariya-pitaka-
Apadana-Buddhavamsesii saddhim sabbarn pi tarn Khuddaka-
gantham suttanta-pitake pariyapannan ti vadanti."

Atthasalim, p. 18 <4 Dhammapadabhanaka pana
Anekajatisamsaram sandhavissam anibbisaih
gahakarakaih gavesanto. Dukkha jati punappunam.
Gahakaraka dittho 'si puna geham na kahasi,
Sabba te phasuka bhagga gahakutam visankhitam,
visankharagatam cittam tanhanam khayam ajjhaga ti
I darn pathamabuddhavacanam n&ma ti vadanti ".
See for other references Atthasalim, pp. 151, 399, 420 noticed

for the first time by Mrs. Rhys Davids in her Buddhist Manual of

Psychological Ethics, p. xxx.

2 We mean such teachers as Tipi^aka Culanaga thera in the
Atthasalim, pp. 229, 230, 266, 267, 284 and the Tipitaka Maha-
dhammarakkhita thera in the ibid., pp. 267, 278, 286, 287.

3 Cf. Vieuddhimagga, p. 313.

SamyuttabhSnaka-Cu la-Si vathera.

CHAPTER V
PALI COMMENTARIES

Before proceeding to deal with the Pali com-
mentaries it would be interesting to record here
biographical sketches of three of the most celebrated
Buddhist scholiasts.

Buddhadatta, a contemporary of Buddhaghosa,
^ ^ wa s a celebrity of the Mahavihara

Buddhadatta. e r* * j -L T_J .. r

of Ceylon and was an inhabitant of
the Kaveri region in the kingdom of the Cholas.
He was born in Uragapura (modern Uraiyur) 1 and
flourished during the reign of King Accutavikkanta
of the Kalamba (Kadamba) dynasty. His works
which were all written in the famous monastery
erected by Kanhadasa (Kisnadasa) or Venhudasa
(Visnudasa), evidently a new Vaisnava reformer
of the Deccan, 2 on the banks of the river Kaveri are
so far as known to comprise the following :

(1) Uttaravinicchaya

(2) Vinayavinicchaya

(3) Abhidhammavatara

Known as Buddha -
datta's Manuals.

(4) Ruparupavibhaga
and (5) Madhuratthavilasim, a commentary on the
Buddhavamsa.

He was a patriotic poet of considerable reputa-
tion. It is stated in the Vinayavinicchaya that
when Buddhadatta was going to India from Ceylon,
he was met by Buddhaghosa who was then proceed-
ing to Ceylon at the request of the Buddhist monks
of India with the object of translating the Sinhalese
commentaries into Pali. Hearing of the mission of
Buddhaghosa of whose deep learning he was fully
convinced and delighted thereat Buddhadatta spoke

1 Barua, Religion of Asoka ; Bhandarkar, Asoka, 2nd Ed.,
p. 42.

2 Skandapurana, Brahmakhanda.

Pali Commentaries 385

thus, " When you finish the commentaries, please
send them up to me so that I may summarise your
labours ". Buddhaghosa said that he would gladly
comply with this request and the Pali commentaries
were accordingly placed in the hands of Buddha-
datta who summed up the commentaries on the
Abhidhamma in the Abhidhammavatara and those
on the Vinaya in the Vinayavinicchaya (vide
Buddhadatta's Manuals or Summaries of Abhi-
dhamma, edited by A. P. Buddhadatta, for the
P.T.S. in 1915, p. xix). Buddhadatta was no doubt
a great scholar. From the Vinayavinicchaya com-
mentary we know that he was highly esteemed by
the eminent commentators, Sariputta Sangharaja,
Buddhaghosa, and other great scholars of the period
for his scholarly attainments (cf . Madisapi kavi honti
Buddhadatte divangate).

Buddhadatta opens his scheme with a fourfold
division of the compendium, e.g., mind, mental
properties, material quality, and Nibbana ; while
Buddhaghosa expounds his psychology in terms of
the five Khandhas. In this respect Buddhadatta's
representation is perhaps better than that of Buddha-
ghosa. 1

There is no reason to disbelieve the statement
that the two teachers met each other. It is clear
that they drew materials from the same source.
This fact well explains why the Visuddhimagga and
the Abhidhammavatara have so many points in
common. Buddhadatta has rendered invaluable
service to the study of the Abhidhamma tradition
which has survived in Theravada Buddhism to the
present day. The legendary account is that Buddha-
datta put in a condensed shape that which Buddha-
ghosa handed on in Pali from the Sinhalese com-
mentaries. " But the psychology and philosophy
are presented through the prism of a second vigor-
ous intellect, under fresh aspects, in a style often
less discursive and more graphic than that of the

1 Mrs. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Psychology, Second Ed., p. 174.

386 A History of Pali Literature

great commentator, and with a strikingly rich
vocabulary."

As we have already pointed out that when on
sea Buddhadatta met Buddhaghosa and learnt that
the latter was going to Ceylon to render the Sinhalese
commentaries into Pali. He requested Buddha-
ghosa to send him the commentaries when finished
so that he might summarise his labours. Buddha-
ghosa complied with his request. Buddhadatta
then summed up the commentaries on the Abhi-
dhamma in the Abhidhammavatara and then on
the Vinaya in the Vinayavinicchaya. Mrs. Rhys
Davids says, " It is probably right to conclude that
they both were but handing on an analytical formula
which had evolved between their own time and that
of the final closing of the Abhidhamma Pitaka
(Buddhist Psychology, Second Ed., p. 179).

Like Buddhaghosa, Buddhadatta employed the
simile of the purblind and the lame to explain the
relation between Nama and Rupa (Abhidhamma-
vatara, P.T.S., p. 115). Buddhadatta's division of
the term into Samuha and Asamuha is another
interesting point (ibid., p. 83). It will be remembered
that such a division of terms as this was far in
advance of the older classification embodied in the
Puggalapaiinatti commentary (P.T.S., p. 173).

Supposing that Kumaragupta I of the Imperial
Gupta dynasty was a contemporary King of Ceylon
and that Buddhaghosa was a contemporary of
Thera Buddhadatta it follows that King Accuta-
vikkanta of the Kalamba dynasty was a contem-
porary of Kumaragupta I.

According to Rev. A. P. Buddhadatta, Buddha-
datta was either older than Buddhaghosa or of the
same age with him. "Ayampana Buddhadatta-
cariyo Buddhaghosacariyena samana vassiko va
thokam vuddhataro va ti sallakkhema " (Vinna-
panam, pp. xiii-xiv, Buddhadatta's Manuals, 1915),
This statement is however doubtful. In the Buddha-
ghosuppatti (p. 50) we find Buddhadatta addressing
Buddhaghosa by the epithet ' Avusa ' which is

Pali Commentaries 387

applied to one who is younger in age. The passage
runs thus " Avuso Buddhaghosa, aham taya pubbe
Lankadlpe Bhagavato sasanam katum agatomhi ti

vatv,, aham appayuko ". This shows that

according to the tradition recorded in the Buddha-
ghosuppatti, Buddhaghosa was younger than
Buddhadatta.

The different accounts of the comparative age
of Buddhadatta and Buddhaghosa are hardly re-
concilable. The account given in the introduction
of the Abhidhammavatara clearly shows that
Buddhadatta lived to write abridgments of some
of Buddhaghosa's works. This goes against the
legend contained in the Buddhaghosuppatti that
Buddhadatta left Ceylon earlier than Buddhaghosa
without translating the Sinhalese Atthakatha
apprehending that he was not to live long.

In the history of Pali literature, the name of
JJL t Buddhaghosa stands out pre-eminent

Buddhaghosa. *2 , * , , r , ,

as one of the greatest commentators
and exegetists. He is one of those Indian celebrities
who have left for us no other records of their career
than their teachings and works to be appraised for
what they are worth. So far as his life history is
concerned we have nothing except his commentaries
and a few legends and traditions, and it is not an
easy matter to separate the few grains of biographi-
cal detail from the mass of extraneous matter
gathered in them. Besides the meagre references
that Buddhaghosa himself has made to the details
of his life in his great commentaries, the earliest
connected account of his life is that contained in
the second part of Chapter XXXVII of the great
Ceylonese chronicle, the Mahavamsa. This section,
however, is considered to be later than the remaining
portions of the Chronicle, having been added by
Dhammakitti, a Ceylonese Sramana of the middle
of the 13th century A.D. This compilation though
made after the lapse of more than eight hundred
years is not altogether unworthy of credence, and is
very probably derived from older materials.

388 A History of Pali Literature

Buddhaghosa, according to this account, was a
brahmin youth born in the neighbourhood of the
terrace of the great Bo-tree in Magadha. After
he had accomplished himself in the " Vijja " and
the " Sippa " and achieved the knowledge of the
three " Vedas ", he established himself in the
character of a disputant, in a certain Vihara. There
he was once met by a Buddhist thera who convinced
the brahmin youth of the superiority of the Buddha's
doctrine and converted him to the Buddhist faith.
As he was as profound in his ' ghosa ' or eloquence
as the Buddha, they conferred on him the appella-
tion of Buddhaghosa or the voice of the Buddha.
He had already composed an original work called
' Sanodayam ' and written the chapter called
" Atthasalim" on the Dhammasangani. He went to
Ceylon to study the Sinhalese Atthakatha in order
to undertake the compilation of a " Paritta-attha-
katha " or a general commentary on the Pitakattaya.
He visited the island in the reign of King Maha-
nama, and there at the Mahapadhana Hall in the
Mahavihara at Anuradhapura, he listened to the
Atthakatha and the Theravada, became thoroughly
convinced of the true meaning of the doctrine of the
Lord of Dhanima, and then sought the permission
of the priesthood to translate the Atthakatha.
In order to convince them of his qualifications he
composed the commentary called " Visuddhi-
maggam " out of only two gathas which the priests
had given him as a test. Most successfully he
came out of the test to the rejoicings of the priest-
hood ; and taking up his residence in the secluded
Ganthakara Vihara at Anuradhapura, he translated
according to the grammatical rules of the Magadhas,
the whole of the Sinhalese Atthakatha (into Pali).
Thereafter, the object of his mission being fulfilled,
he returned to Jambudvlpa to worship the Bo-tree
at Uruvela in Magadha.

The most important service that Dhammakitti
(the author of the supplementary chapter of the
Mahavamsa from which the above account is com-

Pali Commentaries 389

piled) 1 renders to our knowledge of the great sage
is that he fixes definitely the time when Buddha-
ghosa lived. The King Mahanama as the Ceylonese
chronicle shows, reigned in the first half of the 5th
century A.D. ; and as Buddhaghosa visited Ceylon
and worked there during this period we can be
certain about the age he lived in. This date is
also substantiated by internal evidence derived from
the commentaries of Buddhaghosa himself. He
shows his acquaintance with the Milinda Panha as
also to other post-canonical Buddhist works, such
as the Petakopadesa and Anagatavamsa besides
some ancient Atthakathas, and other works which
are no longer extant. 2 It is to be observed that in
none of these cases there is the least reason for
thinking that any of the works quoted from or
referred to by Buddhaghosa was of a later date
than that allotted to him by Dhammakitti. The
Burmese tradition as recorded by Bishop Bigandet
also points to the beginning of the 5th century A.D.
as the time when the great commentator is said to
have visited the shores of Suvannabhumi. 8

Dhammakitti's account of Buddhaghosa's pro-
ficiency in the Vedas and other branches of brahmani-
cal learning is also substantially correct. It is
confirmed by internal evidence from the great
exegete's own commentaries ; they reveal that he
was acquainted with the four Vedas as also with
the details of Vedic sacrifices. But the Vedic texts
were not the only brahmanical works known to
Buddhaghosa. He reveals his knowledge of
" Itihasa ", of the brahmanical sutras as also of the
different systems of Hindu Philosophy.

Besides these comparatively authentic accounts
of the life of the great commentator, there is a mass

1 The account given by Dhammakitti of the life of Buddhaghosa
agrees generally with what the great exegetist has said about himself
in his own commentaries, specially in the Nidanakatha or story
of the origin of the works at their respective beginnings. For
details see my " Buddhaghosa ", pp. 15-24.

2 For details, see my " Buddhaghosa ", pp. 9-10.

3 Buddhaghosa's Parables by Capt. T. Rogers, p. xvi, f.n. i.

390 A History of Pali Literature

of legendary accounts of his life. Such legends are
found in the Buddhaghosuppatti, also known as the
Mahabuddhaghosassa Nidanavatthu by the priest
Mahamangala who lived in Ceylon evidently after
the time when the Mahavamsa account was written.
Other late works of the Southern school such as the
Gandhavamsa, the Sasanavamsa, and the Saddham-
masangaha furnish some additional details. But
the accounts of all these works are of the nature of
legends in which fact and fiction are often hopelessly
blended together. In their kernel, however, they
agree in more important points with Dhammakitti's
account in the Mahavamsa. Of further points we
learn that Buddhaghosa's father was one Kesi, a
brahmin preceptor who used to instruct the king of
the realm in the Vedas ; Kesi was, however, later
on converted by his son. The Buddhaghosuppatti
refers to Buddhaghosa's deep knowledge of Sanskrit
displayed before the Ceylonese monks as also to his
quick wisdom.

Some are of opinion that after having completed
his work in Ceylon, Buddhaghosa came to Burma
to propagate the Buddhist faith. The Burmese
ascribe the new era in their religion to the time
when he visited their country from Ceylon. He is
said to have brought over from that island to Burma,
a copy of Kaccayana's Pali Grammar which he
translated into Burmese. He is also credited with
having written a commentary on it. A volume of
Parables in Burmese language is also attributed
to him. The Burmese code of Manu, too, is said
to have been introduced into Burma from Ceylon
by the same Buddhist scholar. But the code itself
is silent on this point. The Chronicles of Ceylon to
which we owe the information about Buddhaghosa,
and which must have been well-informed on the
subject, give no account of his journey to Burma.
All serious scholars doubt this tradition. 1

Buddhaghosa was not only a metaphysician.

1 Hackinann's Buddhism as a Religion, p. 08.

Pali Commentaries 391

His scholarship was wide and deep and of an ency-
clopaedic character. His works reveal his knowledge
of Astronomy, Grammar, Geography, of the Indian
sects and tribes and kings and nobles of Buddhist
India, of the fauna and flora of the country, of ancient
manners and customs of the land, and of the history
of Ceylon.

The quality and bulk of the work produced in
a single life time show that Buddhaghosa must
have been toiling steadily and indefatigably, year
in and year out, working out the mission with which
he was entrusted by his teacher, immured in a cell
of the great monastery at Anuradhapura. Such a
life is necessarily devoid of events, and we cannot
expect to find in it the variety and fulness of the
life-story of a great political figure. Born in Northern
India, brought up in brahmanic traditions, versed
in Sanskrit lore and an adherent of the system of
Patanjali, it is really surprising to know how he
acquired such a thorough mastery over the Pali
language and literature and over Buddhist religion
and philosophy. His was a useful career, and as
long as Buddhism remains a living faith among
mankind, Buddhaghosa will not cease to be re-
membered with reverence and gratitude by Buddhist
peoples and schools. 1

An inhabitant of South India, Dhammapala
Dhamma sia dwelt at Padaratittha in the realm

ammapaa. ^ ^ e Damilas. He was also a

celebrity of the Mahavihara. He seems to have
based his commentaries on the Sinhalese Attha-
kathas which were not preserved in the main land.
T. W. Rhys Davids is of the opinion that Dhamma-
pala and Buddhaghosa seem to have been educated
at the same University. In support of this view
he refers to the published works of the two writers, a
careful study of which shows that they hold very

1 For a fuller and more detailed treatment read my book,
"The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa", Thacker Spink & Co.,
Calcutta, 1923.

392 A History of Pali Literature

similar views, they appeal to the same authorities,
they have the same method of exegesis, they have
reached the same stage in philological and etymolo-
gical science and they have the same lack of any
knowledge of the simplest rules of the higher criticism.
The conclusion follows that as far as we can at
present judge, they must have been trained in the
same school (Hastings' Ency. of R. and E., Vol.
IV, 701).

It seems probable that Dhammapala was born
at Kaiicipura, the capital of the Tamil country.
Hiuen Tsang who visited Kancipura in the 7th
oentury A.D. was told by the brethren there that
Dhammapala had been born here at Kancipura.

The Gandhavamsa (p. 60) enumerates the
following works ascribed to Dhammapala: (1)
Nettipakarana-atthakatha, (2 ) Iti vuttaka-attha-
katha, (3) Udana-atthakatha, (4) Cariyapitaka-
atthakatha, (5) Thera and Theri-gatha-atthakatha,

(6) Vimalavilasim or the Vimanavatthu-atthakatha,

(7) Vimalavilasim, or the Petavatthu-atthakatha,

(8) Paramatthamafijusa, (9) Lmattha-pakasini on
the four atthakathas of the four nikayas, (10)
Linatthapakasim on the Jataka-atthakatha, (11)
Nettittha-kathayatika, (12) Paramattha-dipam, and
(13) Linatthavannana.

Prom his works it appears that Dhammapala
was well read and well informed. His explanation
of terms is very clear. His commentaries throw
considerable light on the social, religious, moral, and
philosophical ideas of time like the commentaries
of Buddhaghosa. In his commentaries Dhamma-
pala follows a regular scheme. First comes an
introduction to the whole collection of poems, giving
the traditional account of how it came to be put
together. Then each poem is taken separately.
After explaining how, when, and by whom it was
composed each clause in the poem is quoted and
explained philologically and exegetically.

Mrs. Rhys Davids in her introduction to the
translation of the Therigatha (PSS. of the Sisters,

Pali Commentaries 393

p. xvi) says " In the 5th or 6th century A.D. either
before or just after Buddaghosa had flourished, and
written his great commentaries on the prose works
of the Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas, Dhammapala of
Kancipura, now Conjeeveram, wrote down in Pali
the unwritten expository material constituting the
then extant three Atthakathas on the Psalms and
incorporated it into his commentary on three
other books of the Canon, naming the whole ' Para-
matthadipam or Elucidation of the Ultimate Mean-
ing \ He not only gives the akhyana in each Psalm
but adds a paraphrase in the Pali of his day, of
the more archaic idiom in which the gathas were
compiled.'* She further points out that the pre-
sentation of verses, solemn or otherwise, in a frame-
work of prose narrative is essentially the historical
Buddhist way of imparting canonical poetry.
Dhammapala's chronicles are, for the most part,
unduplicated in any other extant work ; but not
seldom they run on all fours, not only with parallel
chronicles in Buddhaghosa's commentaries, but also
with a prose framework of poems in Sutta Nipata
or Samyutta Nikaya, not to mention the Jataka
(PSS. of the Brethren, p. xxv).

According to Indian tradition, a commentary

means reading new meanings back

Origin and j n t o old texts according to one's

growth of the , ,. j xi i TX

commentaries. own education and outlook. It

explains the words and judgments
of others as accurately and faithfully as possible ;
and this remark applies to all commentaries, Sanskrit
as well as Pali. The commentary or bhasya, as
it is called in Sanskrit, implies, as suggested by the
great Sanskrit poet Magha in his famous kavya,
* Sisupalabadha ', an amplification of a condensed
utterance or expression which is rich in meaning
and significance :

" Samkhiptasyapyatosyaiva vakyasyartha-

gariyasah

Su vistarataravacobhasyabhuta bhavantu me' '
(ii.24);

394 A History of Pali Literature

but at the same time an element of originality is
also implied by its definition as given by Bharata
in his lexicography. " Those who are versed in
the bhasyas call that a bhasya wherein the meaning
of a condensed saying (sutra) is presented in words
that follow the text and where, moreover, the own
words of the commentator himself are given."

" Sutrartho varnyate yatra padaih sutranu-

saribhih
Svapadani ca varnyante bhasyam bhasya-

vidoviduh

Iti Lingadisamgrahatikayam Bharatah "

(Sabdakalpadruma).

The need for an accurate interpretation of
the Buddha's words which formed the guiding
principle of life and action of the members of the
Samgha, was felt from the very first, even during
the life time of the Master. There was at that
time the advantage of referring a disputed question
for solution to the Master himself, and therein we
can trace the first stage in the origin of the Buddhistic
comments. The Buddhist and Jaina texts tell us
that the itinerant teachers of the time wandered
about in the country, engaging themselves wherever
they stopped in serious discussions on matters
relating to religion, philosophy, ethics, morals, and
polity. Discussions about the interpretation of the
abstruse utterances of the great teachers were
frequent and the raison d'etre of the development of
the Buddhist literature, particularly of the com-
mentaries, is to be traced in these discussions.
There are numerous interesting passages in the
Tripitaka, telling us how from time to time con-
temporary events suggested manifold topics of
discussion among the bhikkhus, or how their
peace was disturbed by grave doubts calling for
explanations either from the Buddha himself or
from his disciples. Whenever an interested sophist
spoke vehemently in many ways in dispraise of the
Buddha, the Doctrine, and the Order (Digha, I) ;

Pali Commentaries 395

whenever another such sophist misinterpreted the
Buddha's opinion (Majjhima, Vol. Ill, pp. 207-8),
whenever a furious discussion broke out in any con-
temporary brotherhood (Majjhima, Vol. II, Samagama
Sutta), or whenever a bhikkhu behaved improperly,
the bhikkhus generally assembled under the pavilion
to discuss the subject, or were exhorted by the
Buddha or by his disciples to safeguard their
interests by presenting a strong defence of their
case. The Digha and Majjhima Nikayas contain
many illuminating expositions of the Buddha, e.g.,
Ma h akamma vibhanga, the Salayatana vibhanga,
(Majjhima, Vol. Ill, pp. 207-222), etc. Then we
have from Thera Sariputta, the chief disciple of
the Buddha, a body of expositions of the four Aryan
truths, the Saccavibhanga. We have also to con-
sider other renowned and profoundly learned disciples
of the Buddha, among whom were some women,
who in their own way helped forward the process
of development of the commentaries. Mahakacca-
yana wrote some exegetical works like Kaccayana-
gandho, Mahaniruttigandho, etc. We have similar
contributions from Mahakotthita, Moggallana,
Ananda, Dhammadinna, and Khema, but it is
needless to multiply instances.

There is another class of ancient Buddhist
literature, the poranas, of which our knowledge is
at present based only upon some extracts in the
atthakathas. We are told in the Gandhavamsa
that those who are Poranacariya are also Attha-
kathacariya, or teachers who wrote the atthakathas,
and were evidently the earliest contributors to the
commentary literature. A number of quotations
made by Buddhaghosa may be found in his works
concerning the views of the poranas. It shall be
noted here that the poranas do not represent a
consistent school of philosophical thought. Each
teacher must have been responsible for himself
alone, and it is hopeless to discover any organic
connection among the numerous short and long
passages attributed to the poranas in Buddhaghosa's

396 A History of Pali Literature

writings (vide my " The Life and Work of Buddha-
ghosa," Chap. III. There is a paper on the origin of
the Buddhist arthakathas with introduction by R. C.
Childers, J.R.A.S., 1871, pp. 289-302, which should
be consulted).

The works of Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa, and

Dhammapala are the most important

Works of three Pali commentaries. They are rich

great Pali commen- . , . , I j.-

tators. m matenals for reconstructing a

secular and religious history of
ancient India. They also throw a flood of light on
the philosophical, psychological, and metaphysical
aspects of the period with which they deal. A
large variety of information is available from these
commentaries and hence their importance is very
great. Thanks to the indefatigable labours of the
Pali Text Society, London, for printing and publish-
ing a major portion of the Pali commentaries and
making them accessible to the reading public.
Besides, there are some other Pali commentaries,
such as the Saddhammapajjotika or a commentary
on the Niddesa written by Upasena ; Saddham-
mapakasim, a commentary on the Patisambhi-
damagga written by Mahanama Thera of Anuradha-
pura, and the Visuddhajanavilasim or a commentary
on the Apadana written by an unknown author.

A. WORKS OF BUDDHADATTA

The Abhidhammavatara was written by Buddha-
datta ; and it has been in continuous
Abhidhamma- ase amongst the students of the

vatara and Rupa- ^ jji . , . , T> ui i A.A.

rupavibhaga. Buddhist scriptures. Buddhadatta

was held as a personage of excep-
tionally high scholarly attainments by Buddha-
ghosa and others. It is interesting to note the
incidents which led to the writing of this work.
Buddhadatta was going from Ceylon to India when
he was met by Buddhaghosa who was then pro-
ceeding to Ceylon for the purpose of rendering the
Sinhalese commentaries into Pali. Knowing the

Pali Commentaries 397

mission of Buddhaghosa, Buddhadatta was highly
pleased and spoke thus, " When you finish the
commentaries, please send them up to me that I
may summarise your labours ". Buddhaghosa con-
sented to comply with his request and the Pali
commentaries were accordingly placed in the hands
of Buddhadatta who summed up the commentaries
on the Abhidhamma in the Abhidhammavatara
and that on the Vinaya in the Vinayavinicchaya. 1
He was the author of the Ruparupavibhaga and
of the commentary on the Buddhavamsa. The
Abhidhammavatara is written partly in prose and
partly in verse. It discusses the following points :

citta, nibbana, cetasika (that which relates to
the mind), arammana (object ideation), vipaka
citta (consequence of mindfulness), rupa (form),
pafifiatti (designation), etc.

The Ruparupavibhaga deals with rupa, arupa,
citta, cetasika, etc. It is written in prose. Rev.
A. P. Buddhadatta has edited Buddhadatta's
Manuals or summaries of Abhidhamma (Abhi-
dhammavatara and Ruparupavibhaga) for the first
time for the P.T.S., London.

The Vinayavinicchaya and Uttaravinicchaya

containing the summaries of the

Vinayavinicchaya Viuaya Pitaka have been edited by

and Uttaravimc- ., v* * A T^ -r -i 11 i A A r

chaya. the Rev. A. P. Buddhadatta or

Ceylon, and published by the Pali
Text Society of London. These two treatises on
the Vinaya seem to have been composed, after the
Samantapasadika, in an abridged form, in verses.
The Vinayavinicchaya contains thirty-one chapters
whereas the Uttaravinicchaya contains twenty-
three chapters. The author of these treatises was
a distinguished thera named Buddhadatta who was
a native of Uragapur (or modern Uraiyur) on the
banks of the Kaverl in the Chola Kingdom of South
India. The Vinayavinicchaya was composed while
he was residing in a monastery built by Pindidasa

1 Vide Buddhadatta's Manuals, p. xix.

398 A History of Pali Literature

in the neighbourhood of Bhutamangala, a pros-
perous town on the banks of the Kaveri, during the
reign of King Acyutavikrama of the Kalamba clan.
According to the editor of these treatises Buddha-
datta and Buddhaghosa were contemporaries ; but
the former was senior to the latter. Buddhadatta
came to Ceylon earlier, studied the Sinhalese com-
mentaries and summarised them in Pali.

There are two Pali commentaries of these two
treatises. The commentary on the Vinayavinicchaya
is known as the Vinayasaratthadipani and that on
the Uttaravinacchaya as the Uttaralmatthapakasini
supposed to have been written by Vacissara Maha-
sami. There is also a Sinhalese commentary on
the Vinayavinicchaya written by King Parakrama-
vahu II but this work is now extinct.

The Vinayavinicchaya opens with the Parajika-
katha in verses and is followed by the Sangha-
disesakatha, Aniyatakatha, Nissaggiya-Pacittiya-
katha, Patidesaniyakatha, and the Sekhiyakatha.
Thus the Bhikkhuvibhanga is closed. Then this
treatise deals with the Bhikkhunivibhanga under
the following heads : Parajikakatha, Sanghadises&-
katha, Nissaggiya-Pacittiyakatha and Patidesaniya-
katha. Then khandhakakatha, kammakatha,
pakinnakatha, and kammatthanakatha are narrated
in verses. The treatise consists of 3,183 verses
which are written in simple language and marked
by good diction.

The Uttaravinicchayakatha consists of 969
verses. Under the Mahavibhanga it treats of the
Parajikakatha, Patidesaniyakatha and Sekhiyakatha.
Under the Bhikkhunivibhanga it deals with Parajika-
katha, Sanghadisesakatha, Nissaggiyakatha,
Pacittiyakatha, Catuvipattikatha, Adhikaranap-
paccayakatha, Khandhakapuccha, Apattisamut-
thanakatha, Ekuttaranaya, Sedamocakagatha,
Sadharanasadharanakatha, Lakkhanakatha, and
Sabbasankalananaya.

The Madhuratthavilasinl is a commentary on
the Buddha vamsa. The author was Buddhadatta

Pali Commentaries 399

Thera. Spence Hardy mentions a commentary on
the Buddhavamsa by Buddhaghosa. This is pro-
bably the Atthakatha called the Madhuratthavilasin!
whose authorship is assigned by Grimbolt not to
Buddhaghosa but to a Buddhist monk living at the
mouth of the Kaveri in South India. 1 There is a
valuable edition of this commentary by Yogirala
Pannananda Thera revised by Mahagoda Siri
^anissara Thera, Colombo, 1922.

B. WORKS OF BUDDHAGHOSA

The Visuddhimagga 2 was written by Buddha-
visuddhima a ghosa at the request of the Thera
imagga. a nghapala, it is generally believed,
in Ceylon in the beginning of the 5th century A.D.,
when King Mahanaman was on the throne at Anura-
dhapura. Buddhaghosa, on reaching the Mahavihara
(Anuradhapura) entered the Mahapadhana Hall,
according to the account of the Mahavamsa, the great
Ceylonese Chronicle, and listened to the Sinhalese
Atthakatha and the Thera vada, from the beginning to
the end, and became thoroughly convinced that they
conveyed the true meaning of the doctrines of the
Lord of Dhamma. Thereupon paying reverential
respect to the priesthood, he thus petitioned : "I
am desirous of translating the Atthakatha ; give me
access to all your books ". The Ceylonese priest-
hood for the purpose of testing his qualification,
gave only two gathas saying, " Hence prove thy
qualification ; having satisfied ourselves on this
point, we will then let thee have all our books ".
From these (taking these gathas for his text), and
consulting the Pitakattaya, together with the
Atthakatha and condensing them into an abridged
form, he composed the commentary called the
" Visuddhimaggam ".

1 Indian Antiquary, April, 1890, Vol. XIX, p. 119.

2 The Visuddhimaggaganthi, a Burmese Pali work, explains
the difficult passages of the Visuddhimagga (Bode, Pali Literature
of Burma, p. 19, f.n.).

400 A History of Pali Literature

The Mahavamsa account of the circumstances
that led to the composition of the " Visuddhimagga "
agrees substantially with what Buddhaghosa has
written about himself in the Nidanakatha or story of
the origin of the works at their respective beginnings.
Thus in the Nidanakatha to his Visuddhimagga,
Buddhaghosa at the very beginning quotes the
following gatha of Buddha's own saying :

" Sile patitthaya naro sapaniio,

Cittam pannam ca bhavayam,
Atap! nipako bhikkhu,

So imam vijataye jatanti."

(After having been established in precepts, a wise
person should think of samadhi and pafina, an active
and wise bhikkhu disentangles this lock.)

Next he proceeds to record the circumstances
under which he wrote his compendium of Buddhism
(i.e., the Visuddhimagga). " The real meaning of
Sila, etc., is described by means of this stanza
uttered by the great sage. Having acquired or-
dination in the Order of the Jina and the benefit of
the Sila, etc., which is tranquil and which is the
straight path to purity, the yogis who are desirous
of obtaining purity, not knowing purity as it is,
do not get purity though they exert. I shall
speak of the Visuddhimagga according to the
instruction of the dwellers of the Mahavihara, which
is pleasing to them, and which is the correct in-
terpretation : Let all the holy men who are desirous
of obtaining purity listen to what I say, attentively "
(Visuddhimagga, P.T.S., Vol. I, p. 2).

At the end of the work again, Buddhaghosa
returns to that very gatha which he has adopted
as his text for writing the Visuddhimagga, and
after referring to his promise quoted above, thus
delivers himself : " The interpretation of the mean-
ings of the Sila, etc., has been told in the attha-
kathas on the five nikayas. All of them being taken
into consideration, the interpretation gradually be-
comes manifest, being free from all faults due to

Pali Commentaries 401

confusion ; and it is for this reason that the
Visuddhimagga should be liked by the Yogis who
are desirous of obtaining purity and who have
pure wisdom."

Thus, according to Buddhaghosa, the whole of
his Visuddhimagga was written as a commentary
on that one gatha uttered by the Master. Evidently
it was this gatha which the writer of the Maha-
vamsa account had in his mind when he wrote that
the Visuddhimagga was written as a comment on
and expansion of the two gathas which were set by
the Sinhalese Samgha residing at the Mahavihara
to test Buddhaghosa's learning and efficiency. The
Visuddhimagga is in fact an abridged edition of
the three pitakas, the Vinaya, the Sutta, and the
Abhidhamma, whose main arguments and con-
clusions are here condensed into a single treatise.
In the gatha itself, of which the Visuddhimagga is a
commentary, there is however no mention either
of the word " Visuddhi " or " Magga " ; but there
is mention of sila, samadhi, and pafifia. Strict
observance of the silas leads to the purification or
visuddhi of the kaya or body, while the practice of
samadhi leads to tide purity of soul and the thinking
of pafifia to perfect Wisdom. A wise man alone
is capable of disentangling the net of cravings and
desires and is fit to attain Nirvana. The disentangl-
ing of the lock, as it is called, is the final goal, it is
called " visuddhi " ; and sila, samadhi, and pafifia
are the ways or " magga " to attain to it. As the
ways or " magga " to attain to Purity or " visuddhi "
have been explained in the book, it is called
" Visuddhimagga " or " Path of Purity ".

The vocabulary of the text is astonishingly
rich as compared with the archaic simplicity of the
pitakas. The quotations in the Visuddhimagga
from the pitakas, the Sinhalese commentaries, the
poranas, etc., are numerous ; in other words it is
an abridged compilation of the three pitakas to-
gether with quotations from atthakathas. The work
deals with kusala, akusala, avyakatadhammas,.

402 A History of Pali Literature

ayatana, dhatu, satipatthanas, kammas, pakati and
many other topics of Buddhist philosophy, and may
be said to contain, in fact, the whole of the Buddhist
philosophy in a nutshell. Sila (conduct, precept),
samadhi (concentration) and paniia (wisdom) are
the three essential matters which are dealt with in
this work. In the chapter on sila are explained
cetanasila, cetasika sila and samvarasila. The
advantage of sila is also mentioned therein. There
are in it Patimokkhasamvarasila and Indriyasam-
varasila. Patimokkha (monastic rule) is samvara
(restraint) which purports to speak of restraint in
form, sound, smell, contact, etc. It is interesting
to read the section dealing with various kinds of
precepts as well as the section on Dhutangas.

The subject of concentration is next discussed
its nature, its advantages and disadvantages.
Meditation comes in next for explanation the four
stages of meditation : meditation on fire, wind, water,
delight, demerits, etc. The section on meditation
on demerits is important containing the discussion
of a variety of topics, viz. : Buddhanussati (re-
collection of the Buddha), Dhammanussati (re-
collection of dhamma), Samghanussati (recollection
of samgha), caganussati (recollection of self-sacrifice),
devatanussati (recollection of gods), purity on
account of recollection, maranasati, kayagatasati,
upasamanussati, mettabhavana, karunabhavana,
upekkhabhavana, akasanaiicayatana-kammatthana,
akincannayatanakammatthanam, nevasanfiana-
sannayatanakammatthanam, and aharepatikula-
sannabhavana. Ten iddhis or miraculous powers
next come in for systematic treatment. There is
one section on abhinna (supernatural knowledge)
in which is discussed the nature and definition of
wisdom, its characteristics, and the advantage of
contemplating on it. Rupa, vedana, safiiia, and
samkhara come one after the other for elucidation ;
points worth considering in this connection are
those on ayatana (abode), indriya (senses), sacca
^truth), dukkha (suffering), paticcasamuppada

Pali Commentaries 40$

(dependent origination) and namarupa (name and
form).

Maggamagga Nanadassanavisuddhi is this :
this is the right path and this is not the right path,
the knowledge which has been well acquired is what
is called maggamaggananadassanavisuddhi. Further
may be noted the discussions of the nine important
forms, viz. : delight, knowledge, faith, thorough
grasp, happiness, emancipation, knowledge of all
the four paths, right realisation of the truth and
lastly removal of all sins.

The Visuddhimagga is really an encyclopaedia
of Buddhism, a good abstract of Buddhist doctrines
and metaphysics and a vast treasure house of
Buddhist lore. It has earned for its author an
everlasting fame. The Sumangalavilasin! records
the contents of the Visuddhimagga in a nutshell.
The contents may be stated as follows : nature of
the silakatha, dhatudhamma, kammatthanam to-
gether with all the cariyavidhani, jhanani, the
whole scope of the samapatti, the whole of abhifina,
the exposition of the panfia, the khandha, the
dhatu, the ayatanani, indriyani, cattariariyasaccani,
paccayakara, the pure and comprehensive naya,
magga and vipassanabhavana.

Buddhaghosa is strong in his attacks on Pakati-
vada, i.e., the Sarhkhya and Yoga systems which
believe in the dual principles of Purusa and Prakriti.
He showed an extravagant zeal for differentiating
the Buddhist conception of avijja from the Prakriti-
vadin's conception of Prakriti as the root cause of
things (Visuddhimagga, Vol. II, p. 525). The
Visuddhimagga points out that the relation between
phassa and its object is the relation between eye
and form, ear and sound, mind and object of
thought (p. 463). Vedana is of five kinds, sukham,
dukkham, somanassam, domanassam and upekkha
(Ibid., Vol. II, p. 460). Safina is only perception of
external appearance of an object, while vinnana
means thorough knowledge of the thing (Ibid.,
Vol. II, p. 462). According to the Visuddhimagga

404 A History of Pali Literature

(Chap. XIV) we have 51 Samkharas (confections)
beginning with phassa (contact) and ending in
vicikiccha (doubt). Kamma, according to Buddha-
ghosa, means consciousness of good or bad, merit
and demerit (Visuddhimagga, Vol. II, p. 614).
Kamma is of four kinds : kamma which produces
result in this life and in the next life, kamma
which produces result from time to time and past
kamma (Ibid., p. 601). There is no kamma,
he says, in vipaka and no vipaka in kamma. Each
of them is void by itself, at the same time there is
no vipaka without kamma. A kamma is thus
void of its vipaka (consequence) which comes
through kamma. Vipaka comes into origin on
account of kamma (Ibid., Vol. II, p. 603). Cons-
ciousness is due to samkhara which is produced
by ignorance (Ibid. y p. 600). Samkharas owed
their existence in the past and will owe their existence
in future to avij ja (Ibid. , 522 f . ). The Visuddhimagga
enumerates the twelve ayatanas as cakkhu, rupa,
sota, sadda, jhaiia, gandha, jihva, rasa, kaya,
phottabba, mana, and dhamma (Ibid., Vol. II,
p. 481). The sense organs are due to kamma and
it is kamma which differentiates them (Ibid.,
pp. 444-445). In the section on rupakkhandha,
Buddhaghosa has divided rupa into two, viz. :
bhutarupa and upadarupa. By bhutarupa four
great elements are implied whereas by upadarupa
are implied twenty-four kinds (Ibid., Vol. II, p. 259 ;
Ibid., pp. 443-444).

The Visuddhimagga contains a description of
the evil effects of the violation of sila (Vol. I, pp. 6-
58). Buddhaghosa takes the word " Inda " in the
sense of the Buddha (Visuddhimagga, p. 491). In
his Visuddhimagga (Vol. II, Ch. XVI) he mentions
twenty-two indriyas beginning from cakkhundriya
or organ of the eye and ending with annatavindriya.
Upekkha (indifference) according to him is of ten
kinds beginning from chalanga (six senses) and
ending with parisuddhi (purification) (Visuddhi-
magga, Vol. I, p. 160). The advantages of practis-

Pali Commentaries 405

ing meditation are the five kinds of happy living
(Ibid., Vol. I, p, 84 foil.). Nirvana includes absence
of passion, destruction of pride, killing of thirst,
freedom from attachment and destruction of all
sensual pleasures. These are the attributes of
Nirvana (Visuddhimagga, Vol. I, p. 293) which
can be attained, it is suggested, through meditation,
wisdom, precept, steadfastness, etc. (Vol. I, p. 3).

Buddhaghosa had a fair knowledge of Anatomy
as is evident from his account of the thirty-two
parts of the body recorded in his Visuddhimagga 1
(Vol. I, pp. 249-265).

The Samanatapasadika * is a voluminous com-
mentary on the five books of the

SamantapSsadikS. T7 . TVA i TJ. -j.j. ^

Vinaya Pitaka. It was written by
Buddhaghosa at the request of the Thera Buddhasiri.
The principal contents of the book are as follows :

(I) The cause that led to the holding of the Buddhist
council, (2) Selection of members for thejCouncil, (3)
The Council cannot be held without Ananda, (4)
Place of the Council, (5) What Ananda did with
Gandhakuti, (6) Eighteen Mahaviharas, (7) Building
of a nice pandal for the meeting, (8) Recital of the
first and last words of the Buddha, (9) Classification
of the Vinaya, Sutta, and the Abhidhamma, (10)
How Vinaya was handed down to the third Council,

(II) Life of Moggali Brahmana, (12) Account of
Asoka, (13) Preachers sent by Asoka, (14) Discussions
on pitisukha and jhanas, (15) Importance of Vajji-
bhumi and Vajjiputtaka, (16) Various kinds of
pregnancy, (17) Account of Mahavana at Vesali,
(18) Importance of Bharukaccha as a port, (19)

1 There is a book called Paramatthamanjusa which is a scholium
on Visuddhimagga. Besides the P.T.S. edition of the Visuddhi-
magga there is an incomplete edition of this work in Bengali by
Gopaldas Choudhury and Samana Punnananda, 1923.

Read H. C. Warren's paper on Buddhaghosa' s Visuddhimagga
(9th International Congress of Orientalists, London, 1893).

2 Read "Pali Elements in Chinese Buddhism",
of Buddhaghosa's Samantapasadika, a commentar;
found in the Chinese Tripi^aka by J. Takakusu,
1897.

406 A History of Pali Literature

Account of Kutagarasala at Mahftvana at Vaisall,
(20) Discussions on kammatthana, sati, samadhi,
patisambhida, citta, viniiana, indriya and four
parajikadhammas, etc. Unlike other commentaries
of this nature, Samantapasadika is free from any
elaborate tangle of similes and metaphors, and is
written in an easy language. 1

The facts and contents of historical and geo-
graphical interest in this commentary may in short
be stated as follows :

Once when they were much troubled on account
of a famine at Veranja, the bhikkhus wanted to repair
to another place. The Buddha, therefore, crossed
the Ganges at Prayag direct from Veranja and
reached Benares (Vol. I, 201).

King Ajatasattu ruled Magadha for 24 years
(Vol. I, 72). He bore the cost of repairing at
Rajagaha 18 Mahaviharas which were deserted by
the bhikkhus after the parinibbana of the Buddha
(Vol. I, 9).

The Blessed One passed away in the eighth
year of Ajatasattu's reign (Vol. I, p. 72).

The missionaries who were sent to various
places to preach the dhamma of Asoka were all
natives of Magadha.

Udaya Bhadda was one of the kings of Magadha
who reigned for 25 years. He was succeeded by
Susunaga who ruled for 18 years. Kalasoka had
ten sons who ruled for 23 years. Then came the
Nandas who ruled over the country for the same
period. The Nanda dynasty was overthrown by
Candgutta who ruled the kingdom for 24 years and
he was succeeded by Bindusara who sat on the
Magadhan throne for 18 years. He was succeeded
by Asoka who also followed his father for some time

1 Portions of this work have been edited by Drs. Takakusu and
Nagai for the P.T.S., London. Siamese, Sinhalese, and Burmese
editions are available respectively in Siam, Ceylon, and Burma. A
portion of the Pali Samantapasadika was rendered into Chinese by
Samghabhadra in the 5th century A.D. (See Narirnan's Literary
History of Sanskrit Buddhism, p. 263.)

Pali Commentaries 407

in making donations to non-Buddhist ascetics and
institutions. But being displeased with them he
stopped further charities to them, and gave charities
to the Buddhist bhikkhus alone (Vol. I, 44).
Asoka's income from the four gates of the city of
Pataliputta was 4,00,000 kahapanas daily. In the
sabha (council) he used to get 1,00,000 kahapanas
daily (Vol. I, 52). Rajagaha was a good place
having accommodation for a large number of
bhikkhus (Vol. I, 8). Asoka is said to have enjoyed
undivided sovereignty over all Jambudipa after
slaying all his brothers except Tissa. He reigned
without coronation for four years (Vol. I, 41).

Two other kings of Magadha are mentioned in
the Samantapasadika, Anuruddha, and Munda (Vol. I,
72-73). Anuruddha succeeded his father Udayi
Bhadda and reigned for 18 years. Then came
Naga Dasaka who reigned for 24 years. Naga
Dasaka was banished by the citizens who anointed
the minister named Susunaga as King (Vol. I, 72-73).

Bimbisara is stated to have hundred sons (p. 41),
and Asoka is said to have built 84,000 viharas in
the whole of Jambudipa (p. 115). Reference is
made to Pataliputta (p. 35) where the King Dham-
masoka would appear and rule the whole of
Jambudipa.

There were eighteen Maha viharas at Rajagaha
(p. 9). On one occasion Mahakassapa asked
Ananda about dhamma (p. 15).

This commentary records the first and the
last words of the Master (p. 17).

The different classifications of the Vinaya,
Sutta, and Abhidhamma Pitakas (p. 18) are detailed
in this commentary. It contains also an interesting
account of how Vinaya was handed down till the
third council (p. 32).

Then we have accounts of the Thera Moggali-
putta Tissa (p. 37), who once went to a mountain
named Ahoganga. In order to refute the doctrines
of others, the thera composed the Kathavatthuppa-
karana (p. 61). The commentary then gives an

5

408 A History of Pali Literature

account of the missionaries sent to different countries
by Moggaliputtatissatthera (63-64).

The Samantapasadika refers to Kusinara, a
town of the Mallas, where between the two Sala
trees, on the full moon day of the month of Vesakha,
the Blessed One passed away (p. 4).

There are references to Campa and Gaggara
(p. 121), and to many other places, e.g., Veranja
(once visited by famine), Savatthi, Tambapanni,
Suvannabhumi, Uttarapathaka visited by traders
in horses (p. 175) ; Uttara-kuru, Kapilavatthu in-
habited by many good families (p. 241), Bhaddiya,
a city (p. 280), etc. Further, we are referred to the
river Ganges, Baranasi (which was once reached by
the Buddha after crossing the Ganges), Soreyya,
Vesali, and Mahavana (p. 201). Mention is made
of a village of the Vajjis (p. 207). We are told of
the kings of the Licchavigana (p. 212). There is a
reference to Uppalavanna, a beautiful daughter of
a banker of Savatthi (p. 272). The commentary
speaks of the Gijjhakuta mountain at Rajagaha
where once the Blessed One dwelt (p. 285) and where
Dabba, a Mallian, was once seen with a bhikkhu
named Mettiya (p. 598), of Isigili, a mountain, and
Kasi-Kosala countries (p. 286). Bimbisara is
mentioned here as the Lord of the Magadhas who
had an army of troops (p. 297).

There was a golden cetiya (dagoba) built by
Prince Uttara (Samantapasadika, Vol. Ill, p. 544).
A banker named Ghosita built a monastery which
was named after him (Ibid., p. 574). Veluvana was
a garden surrounded by lapis lazuli and it was
beautiful and of blue colour having a vault with a
wall 18 cubits in circumference (Ibid., p. 575).
During the reign of King Bhatiya there arose a
dispute regarding the doctrine between the theras
of Mahavihara and Abhayagiri (Ibid., 582). Kltagiri
is described as a janapada (Ibid., 613). Savatthi is
described as a city containing 57 hundred thousand
families and Rajagaha is mentioned as a city in-
habited by 18 kotis of human beings (Ibid., p. 614).

Pali Commentaries 409

There is a reference to the Gotamaka Cetiya in
Vesali visited by the Buddha (Ibid,, p. 636).
There is a reference to the Maha-atthakatha and
Kurundatthakatha (p. 299).

The Kankhavitaram is a masterly commentary
.... . . on the Patimokkha, a book of the

Kankhavitarani. T7 . ^.^ , , % ... ,

Vmaya Pitaka l ; and was written by
Buddhaghosa in his own initiative some time between
410 and 432 A.D. A manuscript of an ancient
Sinhalese glossary on this work is preserved in the
Government Oriental Library, Colombo. The work
is remarkable for the restraint and mature judgment
that characterise Buddhaghosa's style. While com-
menting on the precepts of the Patimokkha, he
has incidentally brought in much new information
throwing light on the later development of the
monastic life of the Buddhists.

The Sumangalavilasim 2 is a famous com-
commentaries on mentary on the Digha Nikaya,
the Sutta Pitaka written by the celebrated Buddhist
limlnrthe g c a om: exegete Buddhaghosa at the request
mentary on the of the Sanghathera Datha. It is
Di?ha Niksya. rich in historical information and

folklore, and abounds in narratives which throw
a flood of light on the social, political, philosophical,
and religious history of India at the time of the
Buddha. A vivid picture of sports and pastimes
as well as valuable geographical and other data of
ancient days are carefully provided in it. 3 The
book gives us a glimpse of the erudite learning of
Buddhaghosa who flourished in the 5th century
A.D. Its language is a bit less confused than that
of his other commentaries.

In the introductory verses of his Sumangala-
vilasim, Buddhaghosa makes the following reference

1 We have Sinhalese and Burmese editions of this work.

2 Read Pat/hamasaratthamanjusa which is a scholium on the
Sumahgalavilaaim.

3 The whole work has been printed and published in Burma,
two of the sermons in two parts have been published in Ceylon
and there is also an excellent Sinhalese edition in three parts.

410 A History of Pali Literature

to the history of the composition of his commentaries.
Thus he observes : " Through the influence of
serene mind and merit which are due to the salutation
of the Three Refuges and which put an end to
obstacles, in order to explain the meaning of the
Digha Nikaya containing long suttas, which is a
good Sgama, described by the Buddhas and minor
Buddhas, which brings faith, the Atthakathas have
been sung and afterwards resung from the beginning
by five hundred theras, and are brought to the
island of Lanka by the wise Mahinda and put in
the language of the island of Lanka for the welfare
of its inhabitants. Discarding the Sinhalese language
and rendering the Atthakathas into a good language
which is like Tanti and which is free from faults
and not rejecting the explanations of the theras
who are the dwellers of the Mahavihara, who are
the lamps of the group of theras and who are good
interpreters, I shall explain the meanings, avoiding
repetitions, for the delight of the good men and for
the long existence of Dhamma."

Here also Buddhaghosa refers to his Visuddhi-
rnagga (S.V., pt. I, p. 2) thus : " I shall not again
discuss what has been well told in the Visuddhimagga.
Standing in the midst of the four agamas, the
Visuddhimagga will explain the meaning which
has been told there, this being done, you will under-
stand the meaning of the Digha Nikaya taking it
along with this Atthakatha " (i.e., Sumangalavilasim).

There are according to Buddhaghosa four kinds
of suttas : (1) Attajjhasayo, i.e., sutta delivered
by the Buddha of his own accord ; (2) Parajjhasayo,
i.e., sutta delivered to suit the intention of others ;

(3) Pucchavasiko, i.e., sutta delivered in answer to
the question of the Supremely Enlightened One ;

(4) Atthuppatiko, i.e., sutta delivered in course of
delivering other suttas.

The examples of each class are given below :
(1) e.g., Mahasatipatthana, Akankheyya Suttam,
Vatthasuttam, etc., (2) e.g., Cularahulavada, Mahara-
hulavada, Dhammacakkapavattana, etc., (3) e.g.,

Pali Commentaries 411

Mftrasamyutta, Devatasamyutta, Sakkapanhasut-
tam, Samaiinaphalasuttam, etc., (4) e.g., Dham-
madayada, Cullasihanada, Aggikkhandupama,
Brahma jfilasutta (Sumangalavilasini, pp. 50-51).

The Sumangalaviiasim furnishes us with some
information regarding a bhikkhu's daily life. In
the day time a bhikkhu should free his mind from
all obstacles by walking up and down and sitting.
In the first watch of the night he should lie down
and in the last watch he should walk up and down
and sit. Early in the morning he should go and
cleanse the space surrounding the cetiya and the
Bodhi-tree. He should give water to the root of
the Bo-tree, and keep water for drinking and wash-
ing. He should then perform all his duties towards
his teacher. After finishing ablution, he should
enter his own dwelling place, take his rest on the
ground and think of kammatthana. At the time
of going for alms, he should sit up from meditation,
and after taking his alms-bowl and garment he
should first of all go to the Bodhi-tree and after
saluting it he should go to the Cetiya. After he
has saluted the Cetiya, he should enter the village
for alms and after having finished begging for alms,
he should give religious instruction to many persons
so desirous of hearing it. Then he should return to
the vihara (S.V., pt. I, pp. 186-187).

The Sumangalavilasini gives the following
reasons for calling Buddha the Tathagata 1 :

1. He has come in the same way.

2. He has gone in the same way.

3. He is endowed with the sign of Tatha

(truth).

4. He is supremely enlightened in Tatha-

dhamma (truth).

5. He has seen Tatha (truth).

6. He preaches Tatha (truth).

1 Read two interesting papers on the Tathagata, one by
R. Chalmers, J.R.A.S., 1898, pp. 311 foil. ; another by Dr. Walleser
in the Journal of the Taisho University, 1930.

412 A History of Pali Literature

7. He does Tatha (truthfully).

8. He overcomes all.

These reasons are explained in detail as
follows :

1. As previous Buddhas, e.g., Vipassin, Sikhi,
Vessabhu, Kakusandha, Konftgamana, Kassapa,
came, as the previous Buddhas obtained Buddha-
hood by fulfilling ten Paramitas (perfections), 1 by
sacrificing body, eyes, wealth, kingdom, son, and
wife, by practising the following kinds of cariyas :
Lokatthacariya, i.e., exertion for knowledge ;
Buddhatthacariya, exertion for Buddhahood, and
by practising four sammappadhanas (four kinds of
right exertion), four iddhipadas (four miracles),
five indriyas (five senses), five balas (five potentia-
lities), seven bojjhangas (seven supreme knowledges),
and the Noble Eightfold Path (ariya atthangika
maggo).

2. The Buddha Gautama walked seven steps
towards the north just after his birth as Vipassi,
Kassapa, and other Buddhas did. He looked all
round by sitting under a white umbrella and made
the following declaration:

" I am the first in the world, I am the chief
in the world, I am the most prominent in the
world. This is my last birth, there is no future
birth to me."

The Buddha Gautama destroyed desire for
sensual pleasures by renunciation, destroyed hatred
by non-hatred, torpor by steadfastness, doubt by the
analysis of Dhamma, ignorance by knowledge,
etc., like the former Buddhas, e.g., Vipassi, Kassapa,
and others.

3. The Buddha fully realised the true charac-
teristics " Tathalakkhanam " of four elements, sky,

1 The ten perfections are the following :

dana (charity), sila (precepts), nekkhamma (renunciation),
adifcthana (determination), sacca (truth), metta (compassion),
upekkha (indifference), khanti (forbearance), viriya (energy), and
paftna (wisdom).

Pali Commentaries 41$

consciousness, forms, sensation, perception, con-
fections, discursive thought, decisive thought, joy,
happiness, and emancipation.

4. The Buddha realised four sublime truths
known as tathadhamma, suffering, origin of suffering,
cessation of suffering, and the path leading to the
cessation of suffering. He also realised dependent
origination (paticcasamuppada).

5. The Buddha saw all the forms which in-
clude four elements which are produced by the
combination of four elements in the human world
as well as in the world of gods. He heard, knew,
touched, tasted, and thought of all that were in
existence in the human world as well as in the
world of gods.

6. From the time of his enlightenment by
conquering Mara till the time of his parinibbana,
what he preached, was complete and perfect in
meaning and exposition and to the point, and
leading to the destruction of passion, hatred and
delusion, and was true.

7. His bodily action was in agreement with his
action and speech and vice versa. He did what he
said and vice versa.

8. He overcame everything commencing from
the highest Brahmaloka to the Avici hell and endless
lokadhatus (worldly elements) all around by sila
(precepts), samadhi (concentration), panna (wisdom),
and vimutti (emancipation). There was no equal
to him and he was the unsurpassed king of kings,
god of gods, chief of all Sakkas, and chief of all
Brahmas (S.V., pt. I, pp. 59-68).

The Buddha had to perform fivefold duties :
(1) Duties before meal, (2) Duties after meal, (3)
Duties in the first watch, (4) middle watch, and the
(5) last watch of night.

1. Duties before meal included the following :
Ablution early in the morning, and sitting alone till
the time of begging ; at the time of begging alms
he used to robe himself ; tieing his waist with belt
and taking his alms-bowl he used to go for alma

414 A History of Pali Literature

sometimes alone, sometimes surrounded by the
bhikkhusangha in villages or towns, sometimes in
natural posture, and sometimes by showing miracles,
e.g., wind cleaning the street which he was to
traverse.

After collecting alms and partaking ol them
he used to preach to the dayakas (alms-givers)
according to their intelligence.

After hearing religious instruction, some of
the dayakas used to take refuge in the three gems,
some used to establish themselves in the five pre-
cepts, some used to attain fruition of the first,
second, and third stages of sanctification and some
after renouncing the world used to attain Arahatship.
After preaching the dhamma he used to return
waiting for the arrival of the bhikkhus from begging
tour. After they had all returned he used to enter
Gandhakuti (perfumed chamber).

2. Duties after meal : His attendant used to
prepare seat for him in the Gandhakuti and he
after sitting on it, used to wash his feet. Standing
on the step of the staircase of a Gandhakuti, he
used to instruct the bhikkhus to perform their
duties diligently. He spoke thus, " The appearance
of the Buddha is rare, it is difficult to be born as
human being, good opportunity is also difficult to
be obtained, ordination as bhikkhus is also difficult
to be had, and the hearing of the Saddhamma (true
law) is also difficult to be obtained ". Some of the
bhikkhus used to seek his instructions in kammat-
thanas (objects of meditation). The Blessed One
used to give instructions in the Kammatthanas
suitable to their nature. The bhikkhus used to
return to their dwelling-place or to the forest after
saluting the Buddha. Some used to retuni to the
Catummaharajika Heaven or to the Paranimmi-
tavasavatti Heaven. 1 After giving instructions, the
Blessed One used to enter the Gandhakuti and lie

1 See my book, " Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective ",
pp. 7, 15, etc.

Pali Commentaries 415

down on the right side. He used to see the world
with his eye of wisdom after refreshing himself.
He then used to give instructions to the people who
assembled in the preaching hall with scented flowers,
etc., and then the people after listening to the
religious instructions, used to return after saluting
the Buddha.

3. In the first watch of the night if he desired
to bathe himself, he used to get up from his seat
and enter the bath-room and bathed himself with
water supplied by the attendant who made ready
the seat for him in the Gandhakuti. The Blessed
One used to put on red coloured under-garment
tieing his waist with belt. Then he used to put on
the upper garment keeping one shoulder open,
and then he used to sit on his seat alone in a mood
of meditation. The bhikkhus used to come from
all sides to worship him. Some bhikkhus used to
ask him questions, some used to ask his instructions
on kammatthana, and some used to request him to
give religious instructions. The Buddha used to
satisfy the bhikkhus by fulfilling their desires.
Thus he used to spend the first watch of the night.

4. Duties in the middle watch : After the
bhikkhus had left him, the devatas used to come
from 10,000 lokadhatus (world cycles), and the
Blessed One used to spend the middle watch in
answering the questions of the devas.

5. Duties in the last watch of the night:
The last watch of the night was divided into three
parts. He used to spend the first part by walking
up and down, the second part by lying down on the
right hand side in the Gandhakuti, and the last
part by seeing with his eyes the person who acquired
competency in knowing dhamma on account of the
acquisition of merit by serving the previous Buddhas
(S,V., pt. I, pp. 45-48).

The Buddha performed double miracles 1 at
the gate of the city of Savatthl in the seventh

1 The so-called Yamaka-patfhSriya.

416 A History of Pali Literature

year after his enlightenment at the foot of Gandam-
baka tree, e.g., fire was burning on the upper part
of the body and water flowing down from the
lower part, fire coming out of one of the pores of
the skin of the body and water of six colours coming
out of another pore of the skin of the body, six
kind of rays coming out of the body of the Buddha
and illuminating all the ten thousand Cakkavalas
(world cycles).

Buddhaghosa describes the Buddha's fulfilment
of ten perfections (paramitas) during four asankha
kalpas and 1,00,000 kalpas. He renounced the
world at the age of twenty-nine, took ordination
on the bank of the Anoma river. For six years he
exerted simultaneously. On the Vaisakha full-
moon day he took honeyed rice-gruel offered by
Sujata at Uruvela and in the evening he entered the
Bodhi terrace by the south gate and thrice went
round the Asvattha tree. Going to the north-
east side of the tree he spread a seat of grass and
seated on it crosslegged facing the east and keeping
the Bo-tree at the back, he first of all meditated
upon metta (friendliness, love).

At dusk he defeated Mara and in the first
watch of the night he acquired the knowledge of
previous birth, in the middle watch he acquired
celestial insight and in early morning he acquired
the knowledge of dependent origination and attained
the fourth stage of meditation on inhalation and
exhalation. Depending on the fourth stage of
meditation, he increased insight and successively
acquired all the qualities of the Buddha (S.V., pt. I,
pp. 57-58).

The Buddha used to take two kinds of journey
tarita (quick) and atarita (slow). In order to
convert a fit person who was at a distance, he
used to travel long distance within a short time as
we find in the case of the Buddha going to receive
Mahakassapa who was at a distance of three
gavutas in a moment. The Buddha also took
tarita journey for Alavaka, Angulimala, Pukkusadi,

PdU Commentaries 417

Mahakappina, Dhaniya, and Tissasamanera, a pupil
of Sariputta.

The Buddha daily used to take a short journey
in order to do good to the people by preaching to
them and accepting their offerings, etc. This was
known as atarita journey. The atarita journey was
divided into three mandalas, e.g., mahamandala,
majjhimamandala, and antomandala. The maha-
mandala was extended over an area of 900 yojanas,
Majjhimamandala 600 yojanas, and antomandala
300 yojanas. He had to start on the day following
the Mahapavarana (i.e., last day of the lent) ;
if he had to undertake the mahamandala journey
he had to start at the beginning of Agrahayana and
in case of antomandala journey, he could start
at any time suitable to him (S.V., pt. I, pp. 239-242).

Among the Buddha's contemporaries were
Jivaka Komarabhacca, Tissasamanera, Pokkharasati,
and Ambattha. It will not perhaps be out of place
to record here a few interesting facts about them.

Jivaka Komarabhanda was reared up by
Abhayakumara, one of the sons of Bimbisara, so
he was called Komara-bhanda. Once Bimbisara
and Abhayakumara saw from the roof of the palace,
Jivaka lying down on the floor at the gate of the
palace surrounded by vultures, crows, etc. The
king asked, " What is that ? " He was told that
it was a baby. The king asked if it were alive.
The reply was in the affirmative. Hence he was
called JiVaka (S.V., pt. I, p. 133).

Once Jivaka caused the Buddha to take some
purgative. When the Buddha became all right in
health, Jivaka offered the Buddha a pair of valuable
clothes. The Buddha accepted his offering and
gave him suitable instructions with the result that
he was established in the fruition of the first stage
of sanctification. He offered his mango-garden to
the Buddha for his residence with his pupils, as
Jivaka thought that it would be difficult for him to
go to the Veluvana where the Buddha used to
five for attending on him and which was far from

418 A History of Pali Literature

his house. In the mango-garden, Jlvaka prepared
rooms for spending day and night for the Buddha
and his bhikkhus. Wells, etc., were sunk for them.
The garden was surrounded by a wall and a
Gandhakuti (perfumed house) was built for the
Buddha in the Mango-garden (S.V., pt. I, p. 133).

Tissasamanera : Once Sariputta wanted to go
to his pupil. The Buddha expressed his willingness
to go with him and ordered Ananda to inform 20,000
bhikkhus who were possessed of supernatural powers
that the Blessed One would go to see Tissa. The
Buddha with Sariputta, Ananda, and 20,000
khmasava-bhikkhus (the monks who were free from
sins) traversed the path of 2,000 yojanas through
sky and got down at the gate of the village where
Tissa was and they robed themselves. The
villagers received them all and offered them rice
gruel. After the Buddha had finished his meal,
Tissa returned from alms-begging and offered food
to the Buddha, which he (Tissa) had received on his
begging tour. The Buddha visited Tissa's dwelling
place.

Pokkharasadi : His body was like the white
lotus or like the silver gate of Devanagara. His
head was very beautiful and popular. At the time
of Kassapa Buddha, he was well-versed in the three
Vedas and in consequence of his offering charity
to the Buddha, he was reborn in the Devaloka.
As he did not like to enter the womb of a human
being, he was reborn in a lotus in a big lake near
the Himavanta. An ascetic who lived near the
lake reared him up. He made the child learn the
three Vedas and the child became very much learned,
and was regarded as the foremost brahmin in the
Jambudipa. He showed his skill in arts to the king
of Kosala. The king being pleased with him gave
him the city of Ukkattha as Brahmottara property
(i.e., the property offered to the brahmin) (S.V.,
pt. I, pp. 244-245).

Ambattha : He was the chief disciple of
Pokkharasadi or Pokkharasati. He was sent to the

Pali Commentaries 419

Buddha to see whether the Buddha deserved the
praises offered to him. He attempted in various
ways to defeat the Buddha but in vain. He also
expressed his opinion that no samanadhamma could
be practised by living in such a vihara. He came
back to his teacher after being defeated (S.V.,
pt. I, p. 253).

The Sumangalavilasini supplies us with some
new interesting geographical informations, some of
them being more or less fanciful in their origin.

Ahga : On account of the beauty of their body,
some princes were known as Angas. The place was
named Anga because those princes used to dwell
there (S.V., pt, I, p. 279).

Not far from the city of Anga, there was the
tank of Gaggara, so called because it was dug by a
queen named Gaggara. On its bank all round,
there was a great forest of Campaka trees decorated
with flowers of five colours, blue, etc. This account
of Campa has, however, hardly any geographical
value. Buddhaghosa also gives us his own in-
terpretation of the term Anga. According to him,
it is so called because of the beauty of the princes
of the country. The explanation seems to be
rather fanciful (S.V., pt. I, p. 279).

Daksinapatlia or the Deccan : Buddhaghosa
defines Dakkhinapatha or the Deccan as the tract
of land lying to the south of the Ganges (S.V.,
pt. I, p. 265). Many ascetics used to five there
and one of the forefathers of Ambattha went there
and learnt ambatthavijja, a science through the
influence of which the weapon once raised could be
brought down. He came to Okkaka and showed
his skill and secured a post under him (S.V., pt. I,
p. 265).

Ghositarama : In the past there was a kingdom
named Addila. In this kingdom a poor man named
Kotuhalaka while going to another place at the time
of famine, being unable to carry his son, threw him
on the way. The mother out of affection went
back and brought the child and returned to the

420 A History of Pali Literature

village of gopalas (cowherds) who gave them milk-
rice to eat. Kotuhalaka could not digest the milk
and died at night of cholera and was reborn in the
womb of a bitch. The young dog was the favourite
of the head of the cowherds, who used to worship
a paccekabuddha. The cowherd used to give a
handful of cooked rice to the young dog which
followed the gopalas to the hermitage of the pacceka-
buddha. The young dog used to inform the pacceka-
buddha by barking that rice was ready and used
to drive away wild beasts on the way by barking.
As the young dog served the paccekabuddha, he
was reborn after death in heaven and was named
Ghosadevaputta who, fallen from heaven, was
reborn in a family at Kosambi. The banker of
Kosambi being childless brought him up and when
a legitimate child was born to the banker, he
attempted to kill Ghosa seven times but on account
of the accumulation of merit Ghosaka could not
be killed. He was saved by the instrumentality
of a banker's daughter whom he eventually married.
After the death of the banker who attempted to
kill him, he succeeded him and was known as
Ghosakasetthi. At Kosambi there were two other
bankers named Kukkuta and Pavariya. At this
time five hundred ascetics came to Kosambi and
the three bankers, Ghosaka, Kukkuta, and Pavariya
built hermitages in their respective gardens for
the ascetics and supported them. Once the ascetics
while coming from the Himalayan region through
a forest became very much hungry and thirsty, and
sat under a big banian tree thinking that there
must have been a powerful devata residing in the
tree who would surely help them. The presiding
deity of the tree helped the ascetics with water to
quench their thirst. The deity when asked as to
how he (deity) acquired such splendour, replied
that he was a servant in the house of a banker
Anathapindika who supported the Buddha at
Jetavana. On a sabbath day the servant went
out to walk in the morning and returned in the

Pali Commentaries 421

evening. He enquired of the other servants of
the house and learning that they had accepted
uposatha, he went to Anathapindika and took
precepts. But he could not observe the precepts
fully and in consequence of the merit accumulated
due to the observance of half the uposatha at
night, he became the deity of this tree endowed
with great splendour. They went to Kosambi and
informed the setthis of this matter. The ascetics went
to the Buddha and acquired ordination and Arahat-
ship. The setthis afterwards went to the Buddha and
invited the Buddha to Kosambi. After returning to
Kosambi, they built three hermitages and one of them
was known as Ghositarama (S.V., pt. I, pp. 317-319).

Kosala : The Poranas say that prince Maha-
panada did not laugh even after seeing or hearing
objects that are likely to rouse laughter. The
father of the prince promised that he would decorate
with various kinds of ornaments the person who
would be able to make his son laugh. Many,
including even the cultivators, gave up their ploughs
and came to make the son laugh. They tried
in various ways but in vain. At last, Sakka the
chief of the gods sent a theatrical party to show
him a celestial drama to make the prince laugh.
The prince laughed and men returned to their
respective abodes. While they were returning home
they were asked on the way, " Kacci bho kusalam,
kacci bho kusalam " (are you all right ?). From
this word kusalam, the country came to be known
as Kosala (S.V., pt. I, p. 239).

Rajagaha : A name of the town in which
Mandhata and Mahagovinda took their abode. At
the time of the Buddha it was a town, at other
times it was empty (S.V., pt. I, p. 132).

The Sumangalavilasini serves as a glossary of
important terms, a few of which may be enumerated
here.

Adinnadana : It strictly means accepting that
which is not given. It also means stealing the pro-
perty of others, the thing which can be used by

422 A History of Pali Literature

others according to their wish and by using which
they are not liable to be punished, if that thing
be taken with the intention of stealing it, then he is
guilty of theft ; if the thing stolen be of greater
value, then the offence will be greater and if it is
of less value the offence will be less. If the
thing stolen belongs to a person of greater quality,
the offence will be greater and if it belongs to a
person of less quality, the offence will be less.

One is guilty of theft if the following conditions
are there :

(1) the thing stolen must belong to others ;

(2) the thief must be conscious at the time of

stealing, that the thing which he is
stealing belongs to others ;

(3) he must have the intention to steal ;

(4) he must make effort to steal and that effort

must bring about the theft of the thing
belonging to others (S.V., Vol. I, p. 71).

Musavada : It means application of word or
bodily deed to bring about dissension. Conscious-
ness due to the application of word or bodily deed
with the intention of bringing about dissension is
called speaking falsehood.

Musa in another sense means :

(1) the thing not happened before,

(2) untrue thing.

Vada means making known thing which is
untrue to be true and a thing unhappened before
to have happened.

Musavada is nothing but consciousness of the
person who is willing to make known a thing which
is untrue to be true and an unhappened thing to
have happened.

Buddhaghosa cites some examples in this
connection :

If a witness gives false evidence, he becomes
liable to greater fault ; if a bhikkhu makes exaggera-
tion humorously he will be liable to less fault ;

Pali Commentaries 42$

and if a bhikkhu says that he has seen a thing not
seen by him, that he has heard of a thing unheard
by him, he will surely be liable to greater fault.

One is guilty of falsehood if the following
conditions are there :

1. His subject or object must be false.

2. He must have the intention of creating

disunion or dissension.

3. He must make the effort created by that

intention.

4. His act of creating disunion must be known

to the parties concerned. He must
commit the offence himself. Buddha-
ghosa is of opinion that if a person
instigates others to commit falsehood,
and instigates others to do the offence
by letters or by writing on walls, etc.,
and if he himself commits the offence,
in all these cases, the nature of offence
must be the same (Ibid., p. 72).

Pharusavaca : According to Buddhaghosa,
Pharusavaca really means intention to wound the
feelings of others. It means harsh words (S.V.,
pt. I, p. 75). According to him a thoughtless speech
should be pleasing to the ear, producing love,
appealing to the heart and agreeable to many
(S.V., pt. I, pp. 75-76).

Pisunavaca : The person to whom the word
is spoken takes a favourable view of the speaker
but unfavourable view of the person about whom
it is spoken. It is nothing but consciousness of
the person who speaks to make himself closely
acquainted with the person to whom the word is
spoken and the person about whom it is spoken.

One is guilty of pisunavaca if the following
conditions be fulfilled :

1. He must have the intention of creating

dissension and making himself frier "

2. He must have the effort to

intention.

424 A History of Pali Literature

3. The act of creating disunion must be known

to the parties concerned.

4. The persons before whom the dissension is

created must be in existence (S.V., pt.
I, p. 74).

There are references to the following sports
and pastimes in the Sumangalavilasini :

Atthapadam : Dice.

Akasam : A kind of pastime which is played

after imagining a kind of dice-board in the

sky.

Candalam : Sporting with an iron ball.
Ghatikam : A sport in which large sticks are

beaten by short ones.
Vamsam : Sporting with a bamboo which is

turned in various ways.
Pariharapatham : A kind of sport which is

played on the ground on which many paths

having fences are prepared to puzzle the

player (S.V., pt. I, pp. 84-85).

References to various kinds of seats are found
in this work :

Asandim : A big seat.

Gonakam : A carpet with long hairs.

Koseyyam : A silk seat bedecked with gems.

Kuttakam : A kind of woollen seat in which
sixteen dancing girls can dance together.

Pallankam : A seat having feet with figure
of deer, etc.

Patalika : Thick woollen seat with various
designs of flowers.

Patika : Woollen seat.

Vikatika : A seat having the figure of lion or
tiger.

Dhopanam : It is a ceremony among the south-
ern Indian people who wash the bones of
their dead relatives after digging them out
and after having besmeared them with
scents and collecting all the bones in one

Pali Commentaries 425

place. On a certain auspicious day they eat
up various kinds of food and drink collected
for the occasion while crying for their
departed relatives (S.V., pt. I, pp. 84-87).

A person is called Puthujjano because various
kinds of sins are committed by him. His view
is that the body which is soul is not gone. He is
so called because he is merged in various kinds of
ogha (floods) and because he is burnt by various
kinds of heat. As he is attached to five kinds of
sensual pleasures and as he is covered by five
hindrances and as he does innumerable low deeds,
so he is called puthujjano. As he is separated by
Ariyas from the sila (precepts), suta (learning),
etc., he is called puthujjano (Ibid., p. 59).

Raja : He is so called because he pleases
(rafijeti) his subjects.

Silas : Poranas say that sila (precept) is the
ornament of a Yogi and sila is the object of decora-
tion of a Yogi. The Yogis being adorned with silas
have acquired perfection in matters of decoration.
One should observe silas just as a kiki bird protects
her egg. One should observe silas properly just as
one eyed man protects his only eye (S.V., pt. I,
pp. 55-56). Buddhaghosa says that all good deeds
are based on silas just as all the trees and vegetables
grow on the earth (S.V., pt. I, p. 56).

Cullaslla : Panatipata means slaughter of life.
Pana ordinarily means living beings but in reality
it is vitality. The thought of killing vitality is
what is called panatipata. To kill a lower animal
which is devoid of good qualities and a small being,
brings small amount of sin and to kill a big creature
full of sins brings large amount of sin because a
good amount of effort is needed to kill a big animal
whereas to kill a small animal, little effort is required.
To kill with great effort a creature having good
qualities brings about much sin, whereas to kill
with the same effort a creature having no quality
or having quality not of great amount brings about

426 A History of Pali Literature

less sin. If the body and the quality possessed
by it be of equal standard, there will be a difference
in the acquisition of sin according to greatness or
smallness of kilesas (sins).

One will be guilty of life-slaughter if the
following conditions be fulfilled :

(1) there must be a living being ;

(2) the killer must be conscious at the time

of killing that he is going to kill a
living being ;

(3) he must have the intention to kill ;

(4) then he must make the effort to kill ;

(5) the effect of that effort must lie in the

death of the being living.

The six kinds of efforts are :

Sahatthika (killing by own hand), anattika
(order to kill), nissaggika (throwing with the inten-
tion that living being should die), vijjamaya (killing
by magic), iddhimaya (killing by miracle), thavara
(killing by instruction written on immovable pillars),
etc. (Ibid., pt. I, p. 70).

The Sumangalavilasim contains some more
interesting historical materials. It speaks of the
origin of the &akyas which is traced back to King
Okkaka (i.e., Iksvaku). King Okkaka had five
queens. By the chief queen, he had four sons
and five daughters. After the death of the chief
queen, the king married another young lady who
extorted from him the promise to place her son
upon the throne. The king thereupon requested
his sons to leave the kingdom. The princes accord-
ingly left the kingdom accompanied by their sisters
and going to a forest near the Himalayas, began
to search for a site for building up a city. In
course of their search, they met the sage Kapila
who said that they should build a town in the
place where he (the sage) lived. The prince built
the town and named it Kapila vatthu (Kapila vastu).
In course of time the four brothers married the
four sisters, excepting the eldest one and they came

Pali Commentaries 427

to be known as the Sakyas (pt. I, pp. 258-260).
The only grain of fact hidden in this fanciful story
of the origin of the Sakyas seems to be that there
was a tradition which traced their descent from
King Okkaka or Iksvaku. Buddhaghosa in his
great commentaries, though a very reliable guide as
regards exposition and exegesis and the unravelling
of metaphysical tangles, becomes quite the reverse
when any point of history or tradition conies up.
Here he accepts the wildest theories and takes as

fospel truth even the most improbable stories,
ister-marriage was not in vogue in ancient India
even in the earliest times of which we have any
record, as the story of Yama and Yarn! in the
Rigveda amply demonstrates. It was a revolting
idea to the Indians from the time of the Rigveda
downwards. Yet we see that Buddhaghosa in the
case of the Licchavis and again here in that of the
&akyas, tries to explain the origin by sister-marriage.
Perhaps Buddhaghosa was actuated by the idea
of purity of birth by a union between brothers
and sisters as in the case of the Pharaohs of Egypt.
The great Ceylonese chronicle, the Mahavamsa,
also traces the origin of the Sakyas to the same
King Okkaka and goes further back to Maha-
sammata of the same dynasty.

When the Buddha was at Kosambi, he delivered
the Jaliya Sutta at the Ghositarama before a large
gathering of people including a number of setthis
among whom there were Kukkuta, Pavariya, and
Ghosaka who built three monasteries for the Buddha.
Ghosaka built the Ghositarama, Kukkuta built the
Kukkutarama, and Pavariya built Pavarika-
ambavana (S.V., pt. I, pp. 317-319).

On one occasion the whole of Rajagaha was
illumined and decorated and was full of festivities
and enjoyments. Ajatasattu with his ministers
went to the terrace and saw the festivities going
on in the city. The moon-lit night was really very
pleasing ; and the thought arose within him of
approaching a Samana or Brahmana who could

430 A History of Pali Literature

to heat them on the fire of Khadira charcoal. The
barber went to Bimbisara who thought that his
son had come to realise his folly and become kind
to him. The barber when asked by the king about
his mission, intimated to him the order of King
Ajatasattu. The barber carried out the ghastly
operations required by the royal order. Bimbisara
breathed his last with the words, " Buddha and
Dhamma". After death Bimbisara was reborn
in the Catummaharajika heaven as an attendant
of Vessavana named Javanavasabha (Ibid., I, p. 137).
On the day Bimbisara died, a son was born to
Ajatasattu. Both the reports, one conveying the
news of the death of his father, and the other,
that of the birth of his child were received by his
ministers at the same time. The ministers first of
all handed over the letter conveying the news of
the birth of his child to King Ajatasattu. On
receipt of the letter the king's mind was filled with
filial affection and at that moment all the virtues
of his father rose up before his mind's eye and he
realised that similar filial affection arose in his
father's mind when the latter received the news of
his (Ajatasattu's) birth. Ajatasattu at once ordered
the release of his father but it was too late. On
hearing of his father's death, he cried and went to
his mother and asked her if his father had any
affection for him. The mother replied, "When a
boil appeared on your finger, you were crying and
none could pacify you and you were taken to your
father w;hen he was administering justice at the
royal court. Your father out of affection put your
finger with the boil into his mouth and the boil
was burst open. Out of filial affection he swallowed
up the blood and pus instead of throwing them
away." Ajatasattu heard this and shed hot tears.
The dead body of his father was burnt. Shortly
afterwards Devadatta went to Ajatasattu and urged
him to order his men to go and kill the Buddha
too. Devadatta sent Ajatasattu's men to kill the
Master and himself took several steps to bring

Pali Commentaries 431

about his death. He himself went to the top of
the Gijjhakuta mountain and hurled at the Buddha
a big stone, then he set the mad elephant Nalagiri
against the Enlightened One but all his attempts
were baffled. All his gain and fame were lost, and
he became very miserable (Ibid., pt. I, pp. 138-139).
A conversation once took place between
Brahmadatta and Suppiya, a paribbajaka. Suppiya
said that the Buddha was a propounder of non-
action, annihilation, and self-mortification. He
further said that the Buddha was of low birth and
he did not possess any super-human knowledge.
Brahmadatta, on the other hand, was of opinion
that he should not follow his teacher in performing
evil deed. He said that if his teacher worked with
fire, it did not behove him to do so ; if his teacher
played with a black snake, it was not intended
that he should also do like that. He further said,
" All beings enjoy the fruits of their karma. Karma
is their own, father is not responsible for his son's
deeds and son is not responsible for his father's
deeds. So also mother, brother, sister, pupil, and
others are not responsible for one another's action.
Three jewels (Triratana) namely, the Buddha,
Dhamma, and Samgha are abused by me. To
rebuke an ariya (elect) is a great sin." Brahmadatta
spoke highly of the Master thus : " The Buddha
is the Blessed One, an arahat (saint), supremely
wise, etc. " He also spoke highly of the Dhamma
and the Samgha. Thus Suppiya and his pupil
Brahmadatta were holding contrary views. In the
evening all of them arrived in the garden of the
king named Ambalatthika. In that garden the king
had a beautiful garden-house. The Buddha took
his residence at that house for one night. Suppiya
also took shelter in the garden. At night bhikkhus
were seated surrounding the Buddha calmly and
without the least noise. In the first watch of the
night the bhikkhus sat in the mandalamala (sitting-
hall) of the house. The Buddha went to the spot
and asked them about the topic of their discussion.

432 A History of Pali Literature

The bhikkhus told him that they were discussing
the contrary views of Suppiya and Brahmadatta
and the endless virtues of the Buddha. The Buddha
then solved their topics of discussion by the long
discourse known as the Brahmajala Suttanta (S.V,,
pt. I, pp. 26-44).

The Sumangalavilasim furnishes us with an
account which embodies the tradition regarding the
recital of the Digha Nikaya in the First Council.

One week after the parinibbana of the Buddha
at the salavana of the Mallas near Kusinara, on the
full-moon day in the month of Vaisakha, a monk
named Subhadda who took ordination in old age
spoke thus, ** Friend, you need not lament, you
need not grieve. We are free from the Mahasamana
who used to trouble us by asking us to perform this
or that act." Hearing this Mahakassapa thought
that in order to save the monks from such people
and to save the saddhamma from destruction, it
was necessary to hold a council. He addressed the
assembly of monks to rehearse the Dhamma and
Vinaya. On the 21st day after the Buddha's
parinibbana, five hundred theras who were all
Arahats and possessed of analytical knowledge were
selected.

The people worshipped the dead body of the
Buddha with incense, garland, etc., for a week.
It was placed on a funeral pyre but there was no
fire for a week and in the third week since his death,
his bones, etc., were worshipped in the Mote-hall
and the relics were divided on the fifth day of the
bright half of the month of Jaistha. At the time
of the distribution of relics many bhikkhus were
assembled among whom five hundred were selected.
The five hundred bhikkhus were given time for
40 days to remove all their hindrances in order to
enable them to take part in the proposed rehearsal.
Mahakassapa with the five hundred bhikkhus went
to Rajagaha. Other Mahatheras with their own
retinue went to different places. At this time a
Mahathera named Purana with 700 bhikkhus con-

Pali Commentaries 433

soled the people of Kusinara. Ananda with five
hundred bhikkhus returned to Jetavana at Savatthl.
The people at Savatth! seeing Ananda coming there
thought that the Buddha would be in their midst ;
but being disappointed in this and learning the
news of the Master's parinibbana they began to cry.
Ananda worshipped the Gandhakuti where the
Buddha used to dwell, opened its door and cleansed
it. While cleansing the Gandhakuti, he cried saying,
" The Blessed One, this is the time of your taking
bath, preaching, instructing the bhikkhus, this is
the time of your lying down, sleeping, washing your
mouth, and face ". He went to Subha's house for
alms where he preached Subhasuttam of the Digha
Nikaya. After leaving the bhikkhus at Jetavana,
he went to Rajagaha to take part in the proposed
rehearsal. Other bhikkhus who were selected to
take part in the rehearsal also came to Rajagaha.
All the selected bhikkhus observed uposatha on the
full-moon day of the month of Aadha and spent the
rainy season. The bhikkhus approached Ajatasattu
and requested him to repair eighteen mahaviharas
of Rajagaha. The king had them repaired. He
also built a beautiful and well-decorated pandal near
the Vebhara mountain at the foot of the Sattapanni
cave, for them. This pandal was like that built by
Vissakamma in heaven. Five hundred seats were
prepared in this pandal for five hundred bhikkhus.
The seat of the President was on the south facing
the north. In the middle there was a dhammasana
in which Ananda and Upali took their seats and
preached Dhamma and Vinaya. Then Dhamma and
Vinaya were repeated simultaneously by the five
hundred bhikkhus. The question arose as to the
competency of Ananda to take part. He was not an
Arahat. Hearing this Ananda became ashamed
and after exertion he acquired saintship at night.
All the theras were present while Ananda's seat was
vacant. Some said that Ananda came to the
spot after coming through the sky and some were
of opinion that he came through the earth. Maha-

434 A History of Pali Literature

kassapa declared the attainment of Arahatshij
Ananda by shouting " Sadhu, Sadhu ". Maha-
kassapa asked whether Dhamma was to be rehearsed
first or the Vinaya. The opinion of the assembly
was that Vinaya should be rehearsed first as the
existence of the Buddhasasana depended on Vinaya.
The question arose as to who would answer the
questions of Vinaya. It was decided that Upali
would be the first person to answer such questions.
Mahakassapa taking the consent of the assembly
asked him where the first parajika rule was enacted.
The reply was that at Vaisali it was enacted concerning
Sudinna Kalandakaputto on the subject of methuna-
dhamma (sexual intercourse). All the questions
were put to Upali who answered them and all the
bhikkhus repeated and remembered them. The
question arose whether Ananda was competent to
answer the questions of Vinaya. In the opinion
of the assembly Ananda was competent, but Upali
was selected because the Buddha gave him the
first place among the Vinayadhara bhikkhus.
Ananda was selected by the assembly to answer
the questions on Dhamma. The Digha Nikaya
of the Sutta Pitaka was taken up first for rehearsal.
The Brahma jalasutta was first rehearsed by Ananda
and the assembly recited it in chorus. All the
suttas of the five Nikayas were then rehearsed one
after another (S.V., pt. I, pp. 2-25).

The Sumangalavilasim further records some
interesting information. Ujunna is the name of a
town. Kannakatthala is the name of a beautiful
spot. Migadaya is so called because it was given
for the freedom of deer (S.V., pt. II, p. 349). The
Blessed One who was dwelling in a great monastery
at Gijjhakuta, listening to the conversation held
between the paribbajaka Nigrodha and the disciple
Sandhana, went through the sky and came to them
and answered the questions put to by Nigrodha
(Ibid., p. 362). The kingdom of Gandhara built by
the sage Gandhara is a trading centre (p. 389),
Salavatika is the name of a village. It is called

Pali Commentaries 435

Salavatika because it is surrounded on all sides by
the sala trees appearing like a fence (p. 395).
Manasakata is the name of a village (p. 399).
Ambavana is a thicket of mangoe-trees. It is a
beautiful spot having sands scattered on the ground
like silver leaves and on the top having thick branches
and leaves of the mangoe-trees. Here the Exalted
One lived finding delight in solitude (p. 399). In
the interior of Jetavana there are four big houses,
e.g., Karerikuti, Kosambakuti, Gandhakuti, and
Salalaghara. Salalaghara was built by King Pasenadi
and the rest by Anathapindika (p. 407). There is a
reference to trees, e.g., sala, sirisa, udumbara or fig
tree, banyan, and assattha (p. 416). Jambudipa is
great and it is 10,000 yojanas in extent. There is
also Majjhimadesa and in the east there is Kajangala
country (p. 429). There is a reference to seven
gems, e.g., cakka (wheel), hatthi (elephant), assa
(horse), mani (jewel), itthi (woman), gahapati or
householder, painayaka or leader (p. 444). Catum-
maharajika heaven contains 90,00,000 gods who
obtain celestial happiness (p. 472). The Abhassara
gods are those whose bodies shed lustre (p. 510) and
whose lease of life is 8 kalpas (p. 511). Gijjhakuta
is so called because it has a pinnacle like a vulture
and vultures dwell in it (p. 516). Sarandada cetiya
has been described here as a vihara (p. 521).
Sunldha and Vassakara were endowed with great
riches (p. 540). Nadika has been described as a
village of relatives. Near the lake Nadika, there
are two villages belonging to the sons of Cullapiti-
Mahapiti (p. 543). Mara engages creatures to do
mischief to others and kill them (p. 555). There
are lakes, e.g., Kharassara, Khandassara, Kakassara,
Bhaggassara, etc. (p. 560). There is a reference to
weavers in Benares who produce soft and beautiful
garments (p. 563). Buddhaghosa understands
sukara-maddava by the flesh of a grown-up hog
neither too young nor too old. It is soft and
glossy (p. 568). Buddhaghosa refers to four kinds
of bed, e.g., the bed of one who is merged in sensual

436 A History of Pali Literature

pleasures, the bed of the departed spirit, the bed
of a lion, and the bed of the Tathagata (p. 574).
There is a mention of the three pitakas, five nikayas,
nine angas, and 84,000 dhammakkhandhas (p. 591).
Buddhaghosa interprets " attha Malla-pamokkha
in the sense that the eight Mallarajas were middle-
aged and were endowed with strength (p. 596).
Makutabandhana is a cetiya of the Mallas and is a
sala (covered hall) which gives satisfaction and
blessings to the Malla chief (p. 596). Bajagaha is
25 yojanas in extent from Kusinara (p. 609).
Jambudipa is 10,000 yojanas in extent, Aparagoyana
is 7,000 yojanas in extent, and Uttarakuru is 8,000
yojanas in extent (p. 623). Jotipala is so called on
account of his lustre and rearing others up (p. 660).
The Sakiyas and the Koliyas cultivated lands well
because they confined the river Rohim by a bund.
This river flows between the territories of the
Sakyas and the Koliyas (p. 672).

The Papaficasudam is an extensive commentary
on the Majjhima Nikaya written
(2) Papancasu- by Buddhaghosa at the request of a

^% C he m M e al." thera named Buddhamitta in the

Nikaya. style more or less of the Sumangala-

vilasini. In the commentary on
the first ten suttas of the Majjhima Nikaya, Buddha-
ghosa * discusses the following topics : the four
suttanikkhepas, balabojjhanga, Dhammacakka, the
origin of all the dhammas, Nibbana, earth, Tatha-
gata, Abhisambuddha, destruction of sin, false
belief, saddha, faith, four puggalas, obstacles in the
path leading to Nibbana, contact, old age, death,
suffering, right recollection, mindfulness, pleasing
sensation, and lastly emancipation. 2

The Papaficasudam furnishes us with some

1 This commentary by Buddhaghosa has been edited for the
P.T.S., London, by J. H. Woods and D. Kosambi.

2 There is a printed Burmese edition of this work published by
the P. G. Mundine Pitaka Press, Rangoon (J.R.A.S., 1894) ; and
also an excellent Siamese edition of this commentary printed and
published in three volumes.

Pali Commentaries 437

interesting historical and geographical details. There
was a janapada named Kuru and the kings of that
province used to be called Kums (p. 225), of whose
origin a fanciful story is told in the commentary.
King Mahamandhata was a cakravartti-raja, a
title which he had acquired for his having had a
cakraratana with the help of which he could go to
any place he liked. He conquered Pubbavideha,
Aparagoyana, Uttarakuru besides the devalokas.
While returning from Uttarakuru, a large number
of the inhabitants of that country followed Maha-
mandhata to Jambudipa and the place in Jambudipa
where they settled became known as Kururattham
including provinces, villages, towns, etc. It is in
this sense that the word Kurusu (i.e., among the
Kurus) occurs in the Pali-Buddhist Literature
(pp. 225-226).

There is also another fanciful explanation
of the origin of the name of Savatthi. Savatthi
was a place where one could get, it is asserted, what-
ever he wanted ; hence it is called Savatthi (Sabba-
atthi). In answer to a question by some merchants
as to what the place contained, it was told " sabbam
atthi " (there is everything). Hence it is called
Savatthi (vol. I, p. 59). The commentary refers in-
cidentally to Ganga and Yamuna (p. 12), to Savatthi,
Jetavana, and Giribbaja which is so called because
it stands like a cow-pen surrounded by a mountain
(p. 151). It also refers to four more rivers of India
besides Ganga and Yamuna, e.g., Bahuka, Sundarika,
Sarassati, and Bahumati (p. 178), and to a mountain
named Cittala, It relates the activities of Gautama
Buddha among the Kurus (p. 225), at the Bodhi
tree, and at Lumbinivana (p. 13). It is pointed
out that the abode of Tavatimsa gods is beautiful ;
that the four great kings were the employees of
Sakka, king of gods ; that Vejayanta palace is one
thousand yojanas in extent and that the Sudhamma
or the mote-hall of the gods is 500 yojanas in length
and the chariot of the Vejayanta heaven is 150
yojanas in extent (p. 225). In this book we find

438 A History of Pali Literature

that there are two kinds of Buddha's instructions ;
Sammutidesana and Paramatthadesana. The
Paramatthadesana includes anicca (impermanent),
dukkham (suffering), anatta (impermanent),
khandha (constituents), dhatu (elements), ayatana
(sphere), and satipatthana (right recollection) (p. 137).
A most important information is found in this
book of Damilabhasa and Andhabhasa, i.e., the
languages of the Tamils and the Andhras who may
now roughly be said to be represented by the
Telegus (p. 138). Tree worship was in practice ;
there were trees, it is said, which were worthy of
worship in villages and countries (p. 119). Cultiva-
tion and cow-keeping are the main occupations of a
householder and they are for his good (p. 111).
Five kinds of medicines are mentioned, e.g., sappi
(clarified butter, ghee), navamta (butter), tela (oil),
madhu (honey), and phanita (molasses) {p. 90). In
this text, Mara is called Pajapati because he lords
over a large assembly (p. 33). There are four
kinds of pathavi (earth) : earth with signs, earth
with load, earth with sense object, and earth
with selection (p. 25).

The Paparicasudam (Vol. II) further narrates
that the Himavanta (Himalayas) is 3,000 yojanas in
width (p. 6). Vesali is so called because it expanded
itself (p. 19). Rajagaha is 60,000 yojanas in distance
from Kapilavatthu (p. 152). Nadika has been
referred to as a lake (p. 235). Ghositarama is so
called because the arama or monastery was built
by the banker, named Ghosita (p. 390). Jambudipa
is mentioned here as a forest and Pubba-Videha, an
island (p. 423).

The Saratthapakasim is a commentary on the

Samyutta Nikaya written by

(3) ssrattha- Buddhaghosa at the request of a

SSS-IS *; thera named Jotipala.

Samyutta Nikaya. It has been published in two

volumes by the P.T.S. under the

able editorship of F. L. Woodward. The following

are the manuscripts and printed editions available :

Pali Commentaries 439

(1) Palm-leaf manuscript in Sinhalese

character at the Adyar Oriental
Library, Madras.

(2) Incomplete Sinhalese printed edition by

Vajirasara and Saninda Theras,
Colombo, 1900-1911.

(3) Simon Hewavitarne Bequest edition of

1924, Vol. I, revised and edited by
W. P. Mahathera.

(4) A beautifully written palm-leaf manuscript

in Sinhalese character.

In this commentary the word c guru ' is always
used in this world (loke) as referring to the Buddha.
The Blessed One is described as the possessor of
ten potentialities (dasa baladharo) (Vol. I, p. 12).
The commentator speaks of a land where the cows
graze near the Ganges and the Yamuna (Ibid., p. 13).
Anga and Magadha are described as having plenty
of food (p. 15). There is a reference to the four
Buddhas (cattaro Buddha) : sabbafmu Buddha
(all knowing), pacceko Buddha (individual), catusacco
Buddha (master of four truths), and suta Buddha
(Buddha who has heard) (Ibid., p. 25).

Saddhamma is explained in this commentary as
the term which includes the five silas, ten silas, and
four objects of recollection or mindfulness (p. 55).
The Mahavana is described here as a big natural
forest extending up to the Himalayas (p. 67).
Pancaveda is meant here as the five Vedas including
the Itihasa (p. 81). By vimuttacitta the com-
mentator means a mind which is free from the
Kammatthanas (p. 104). Nathaputta is explained
here as Nathassaputta or the son of Natha (p. 130),
Mallika is mentioned as the daughter of a poor
garland-maker (p. 140). According to the com-
mentator, Kisagotami was kisa or lean because
she had not got much flesh (p. 190). Loka refers
to the khandhaloka (the world of constituents),
dhatu loka (the world of elements), ayatana loka
(the world of abode), sampattibhavaloka (the world

7

440 A History of Pali Literature

of prosperity), and vipattibhavaloka (the world of
adversity) (p. 201).

There is a reference to the Mandakinipok-
kharam which is 50 yojanas in extent (p. 281)
and to the Kailasa mountain inhabited by a celestial
being named Nagadanta (p. 282). Gaya is
mentioned here as a village (p. 302). Siha-nada is
explained as great uproar (Vol. II, 46). Ganga and
Yamuna are mentioned as two great rivers (p. 54).
Dakkhinagiri is a janapada on the southern side
of the hill encircling Rajagaha (p. 176). There is a
reference to cow-killer who kills cows and severs
the flesh from the bone (p. 218).

The Manorathapuram l is a commentary on the
Anguttara Nikaya written by
(4) Manoratha- Buddhaghosa at the request of a
SS^-S; th named Bhaddanta. 2
Ahguttara Nikaya. The Manorathapurani deals with

the following topics : sloth and
stupor, haughtiness, desire for sensual pleasures,
friendliness, mental emancipation, suffering, right
realisation, functions of the mind, bojjhanga
(supreme knowledge), thirty-two signs of a great
man, puggala (human types), Tathagata, realisation
of the four patisambhidas or analytical knowledge, ac-
counts of Aiinakondafina, Sariputta and Moggallana,
Mahakassapa, Anuruddha, Bhaddiya, Pindolabhara-
dvaja, Punna-Mantaniputta, Mahakaccana, Culla-
Maha-Panthaka, Subhuti, Revata, Kahkharevata,
Sona Kolivisa, Sona Kutikanna, Sivali, Vakkali,
Bahula-Ratthapala, Kundadhana, Varigisa, Upasena,
Dabba, Pilindavaccha, Bahiya-Daruciriya, Kumara
Kassapa, Mahakotthita, Ananda, Uruvela Kassapa,
Kaludayi, Bakkula, Sobhita, Upali, Nanda, Nandaka,
Mahakappina, Sagata, Radha, Mogharaja, Maha-

1 There is a #ka on the Manorathapurani written by a pupil
of Sumedha Thera who flourished in the reign of Parakramabahu.
This work is also known as the Catutthasaratthamarijusa.

2 Dr. Max Wallesar has edited the first volume of this work
for the P.T.S., London. The complete work has been printed
and published in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam.

Pali Commentaries 441

pajapati Gotami, Khema, Uppalavanna, Patacara,
Dhammadinna, Nanda, Sona, Sakiila, Bhadda-
Kundalakesa, Bhadda-Kapilani, Bhadda-Kaccana,
Kisagotami, Sigalakamata, Tapassa-Bhallika,
Sudatta Gahapati, Citta Gahapati, Hatthaka, Maha-
iiama Sakka, Ugga Gahapati, Sura, Jivaka Komara-
bhacca, Nakulapita Gahapati, Sujata Senanidhlta,
Visakha Migaramata, Khujjuttara-Samavati, Uttara
Nandamata, Suppavasa Koliyadhita, Suppiya,
Katiyani, Nakulamata Gahapatani, Kaliupasika. 1

This commentary contains an interesting
account of the theras and theris. As to the account
of the theris contained in this commentary, the
readers are referred to my work, " Women in
Buddhist Literature ", Chap. VIII. An account of
some of the prominent theras is given below.

Anuruddha was the foremost among those who
had the divine eye. At the time of the Buddha's
visit to Kapilavatthu, the Sakiyan princes,
Anuruddha, brother of Mahanama, Bhaddiya,
Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila, and Devadatta followed
by the barber Upali renounced the worldly life
with the intention of becoming monks. They
asked admission into the congregation and the
Master ordained them (Manorathapurani, P.T.S.,
Vol. I, pt. I, pp. 183-192).

Pindola-Iihdradvdja was also one of the eminent
of the biiikkhus. He was born in a brahmin family
at Rajagaha. He was versed in the three Vedas.
He was called Pindola, for wherever he went he
asked for food. He once heard the Master preaching
the Norm at Rajagaha. Full of faith he asked for
admission into the Order. The Blessed One or-
dained him, as he soon attained arahatship (Ibid.,
pp. 196-199).

Punna-Mantdniputta was the son of a brahmani
named Mantam. He was born in a brahmin family

1 Vide " Women Leaders of the Buddhist Reformation ", pub-
lished in the J.R.A.S., 1893 ; it is an English translation of some
portions of the Manorathapurani.

442 A History of Pali Literature

at Donavatthunagara which was not far off the
city of Kapilavatthu. He was the nephew of the
thera Annakondanna, one of the five bhikkhus who
were converted by the Master at Isipatana where
he first set rolling the wheel of Law. It was through
Annakondanna that Punna was inspired with faith
in the Buddha. He received ordination and in
due course attained arahatship. He had five
hundred disciples who also attained arahatship
under his guidance. He was also declared by the
Lord as one of the foremost of the bhikkhus (Ibid.,
pp. 199-204).

Mahdkdccdna was the foremost among those
who could fully explain the brief utterances of the
Tathagata. He was born as the son of a chaplain
at Ujjeni. At the request of the King Canda-
pajjota, Mahakaccana went to the place where the
Buddha was in order to bring the Blessed One to
Ujjeni. Mahakaccana heard the Master preaching
the Norm. At the end of the discourse he won
arahatship. He informed the Buddha of king's
desire. The Blessed One did not grant his request,
but bade him go back to Ujjeni and assured him
that the king would be glad to see him alone.
The king was highly pleased with Mahakaccana
for his attainments (Ibid., pp. 204^-209).

Revata was the foremost among those who were
dwellers in a forest. He was the younger brother of
Sariputta. He received ordination from the
bhikkhus and performed the duties of a monk in
the forest. He attained arahatship in time (Ibid.,
pp. 223-230).

Sona-Koliwsa was the foremost among those who
put forth great efforts (araddhaviriyani). He was
born in a Setthikula. He was brought up in great
luxury. Once he heard the Master preaching the
doctrine. He took permission from his parents and
received ordination. He perceived that the highest
end could not be attained in luxury. So he put
forth great efforts and suffered every sort of morti-
fications. But he could not attain arahatship.

Pali Commentaries 443

He desired to return to the worldly life and perform
meritorious acts. The Lord came to know the
thera's thought, and exhorted him. The thera in
due course won arahatship (Ibid., pp. 231-237).

Rahula-Ratthapala. Rahula was the foremost
of the Samaneras, and Ratthapala of the youths
who left the world in search of * amata \ Rahula
was the son of the Buddha and Ratthapala was
born in a setthi family of the kingdom of Kuru.
At the time of the Buddha's visit to Kapilavatthu
Rahula received ordination from the Buddha. In
course of time he attained arahatship.

Once the Lord visited the Thullakotthita-nigama
(in the Kururattha) the place of Ratthapala's
birth. Ratthapala took permission from his parents
and received ordination from the Master and went
with the Buddha to Savatthi. He attained arahat-
ship. In order to see his parents he once went to
Thullakotthita-nigama and admonished them. Then
he came back to the place where the Buddha was
(Ibid., pp. 251-260).

Vanglsa was born in a brahmana family at
Savatthi. He was versed in the three Vedas. He
learnt the ' chavasisa mantam ' by which he could
tell the place of birth of deceased persons. He
travelled into different places and gained his living
by this sippa. He once met Buddha and had
conversation with him. The result was that
Vanglsa received ordination. He soon attained
arahatship. Whenever he visited the Buddha he
visited him with a hymn of praise. Accordingly he
was reckoned as the foremost of the Patibhana-
vantanam or those possessed of intelligence or ready
wit (Ibid., pp. 266-270).

Kumdra Kassapa was born at Rajagaha. His
mother, when she was pregnant, received ordination
and became a Samaneri. As the rearing up a child
was not consistent with the life of a Samaneri,
the child was reared up by Pasenadi, King of
Kosala. When he grew up he received ordination,
eventually won arahatship, and shined among the

444 A History of Pali Literature

preachers. Accordingly he was reckoned as the
foremost of the ' cittakathikanam ' or a wise speaker,
an orator or a preacher (Ibid., pp. 283-285).

MaMkotthita was the foremost among those
who possessed analytical knowledge. He was born
in a brahmin family at Savatthl. He learned the
three Vedas. He once heard the Master preaching
the Norm. Full of faith he received ordination
and attained arahatsliip through analytical know-
ledge (Ibid., pp. 285-286).

Ananda was the foremost among those who
were vastly learned in the doctrine. He with
Anuruddha, Bhaddiya, Bhagu, Kimbila, and Deva-
datta followed by Upali received ordination from
the Master. He was the personal attendant of the
Buddha, and attained arahatship just before the
work of the First Buddhist Council began (Ibid.,
pp. 286-296).

Urn vela Kassapa was the foremost of those who
had great followings. He with his two brothers
became ascetics of the Jatila sect. All the three
had a good number of followers. The Lord first
converted the eldest brother, Uruvela Kassapa,
by showing him his supernatural powers. The
next two brothers naturally followed suit (Ibid.,
pp. 297-300).

Updli was the foremost of those who knew
the Vinaya rules. He was a barber. The Sakiyan
princes Anuruddha, Ananda, and others with their
attendant Upali, the barber, visited the Blessed
One with the intention of becoming monks. They
asked for admission into the Order, and in order
to curb their pride, they requested that the barber
should be first ordained. Their request was granted
(Ibid., pp. 311-312).

Buddhaghosa wrote commentaries

Commentafieson Qn three books Q f th Khuddaka

the Khudclaka Ni- _

the Khud- Nikaya, e.g., (1) Khuddakapatha,
m " W Dhammapada, and (3) Sutta
Nipata.

Pali Commentaries 445

Khuddakapatha Atthakatha is known as the
Paramatthajotika. *

Like other commentaries of Buddhaghosa, the
Paramatthajotika, too, contains a good deal of
interesting information. To start with, there is a
very interesting but mythical origin of the Licchavis
which is summarised as follows :

" There was an embryo in the womb of the
chief queen of Benares. Being aware of it, she
informed the king who performed the rites and
ceremonies for the protection of it. With the embryo
thus perfectly protected, the queen entered the
delivery chamber when it was fully mature. With
ladies of great religious merit, the delivery took
place at the dawn of day. A lump of flesh of the
colour of lac and of bandhu and jivaka flowers
came out of her womb. Then the other queens
thought that to tell the king that the chief queen
was delivered of a mere lump of flesh while a son,
resplendent like gold, was expected, would bring
the displeasure of the king upon them all ; therefore,
they, out of fear of exciting displeasure of the
king, put that lump of flesh into a casket, and after
shutting it up, put the royal seal upon it, and placed
it on the flowing waters of the Ganges. As soon
as it was abandoned, a god wishing to provide
for its safety, wrote with a piece of good cinnabar
on a slip of gold the words, * the child of the chief
queen of the King of Benares ' and tied it to the
casket. Then he placed it on the flowing current
of the Ganges at a place where there was no danger
from aquatic monsters. At that time an ascetic
was travelling along the shore of the Ganges close
by a settlement of cowherds. When he came down
to the Ganges in the morning and saw a vessel
coming on, he caught hold of it, thinking that it

1 There is a valuable edition of the Commentary on the Khudda-
kapatha by Welipitiya Dewananda Thera and revised by Mahagoda
Siri Sfanissara Thera, Colombo, 1922.

Tt includes the commentaries on Jataka, Sutta Nipata, Dham-
mapada, and Khuddakapatha.

446 A History of Pali Literature

contained rags (pamsukula), but seeing the tablet
with the words written thereon and also the seal
and mark of the King of Benares, he opened it
and saw that piece of flesh. Seeing it, he thus
thought within himself : 6 It may be an embryo
and there is nothing stinking or putrid in it ', and
taking it to his hermitage, he placed it on a pure
place. Then after half a month had passed, the
lump broke up into two pieces of flesh ; the ascetic
nursed them with still greater care. After the
lapse of another half month, each of the pieces of
flesh developed fine pimples for the head and the
two arms and legs. After half a month from that
time, one of the pieces of flesh became a son resplen-
dent like gold, and the other became a girl. The
ascetic was filled with paternal affection for the
babies, and milk came out of his thumb. From
that time forward, he obtained milk from rice ;
the rice he ate himself and gave the babies the
milk to drink. Whatever got into the stomach of
these two infants looked as if put into a vessel of
precious transparent stone (mani), so that they
seem to have had no skin (nicchavi) ; others said,
' The two (the skin and the thing in the stomach)
are attached to each other (Hna-chavi) as if they
were sewn up together, so that these infants owing
to their being nicchavi, i.e., having no skin, or on
account of their being Hna-chavi, i.e., attached
skin or same skin, came to be designated as
Licchavis. The ascetic having to nurse these two
children had to enter the village in the early morning
for alms and to return when the day was far
advanced. The cowherds coming to know this
conduct of his, told him, * Reverend Sir, it is a great
trouble for an ascetic to nurse and bring up children ;
kindly make over the children to us, we shall nurse
them, do you please attend to your own business '.
The ascetic assented gladly to their proposal. On
the next day, the cowherds levelled the road,
scattered flowers, unfurled banners, and came to
the hermitage with music. The ascetic handed

Pali Commentaries 447

over the two children with these words : * The
children are possessed of great virtue and goodness,
bring them up with great care and when they are
grown up, marry them to each other ; please the
king and getting a piece of land, measure out a
city, and install the prince there \ c All right,
sir ', promised they, and taking away the children,
they brought them up. The children, when grown
up, used to beat with fists and kicks the children
of the cowherds whenever there was a quarrel in
the midst of their sports. They cried and when
asked by their parents, 4 Why do you cry ? ' They
said, * These nurslings of the hermit, without
father and mother, beat us very hard \ Then the
parents of these other children would say, c These
children harrass the others and trouble them,
they are not to be kept, they must be abandoned '
(vijjitabba). Thenceforward that country measur-
ing three hundred yojanas is called Vajji. Then
the cowherds securing the good will and permission
of the king, obtained that country, and measuring
out a town there, they anointed the boy, King.
After giving marriage of the boy, who was then
sixteen years of age, with the girl the king made
it a rule : c No bride is to be brought in from the
outside, nor is any girl from here to be given away
to any one '. The first time they had two children
a boy and a girl, and thus a couple of children
was born to them for sixteen times. Then as these
children were growing up, one couple after another,
and there was no room in the city for their gardens,
pleasure groves, residential houses and attendants,
three walls were thrown up round the city at a
distance of a quarter of a yojana from each other ;
as the city was thus again and again made larger
and still larger (visalikata), it came to be called
Vesali. This is the history of Vesali " (Para-
matthajotika on the Khuddakapatha, P.T.S.,
pp. 158-160).

In the Khuddakapatha Commentary we read
that at Savatthl, there was a householder who was

448 A History of Pali Literature

rich and wealthy. He had faith in the Buddha,
One day he fed the Buddha along with the Bhikkhu-
samgha. Once King Pasenadi being in need of
money sent for the householder who replied that he
was concealing the treasures and he would see the
king with them afterwards (pp. 216-217).

While the Buddha was at Savatthi, many
bhikkhus of different places went to him to learn
kammatthana (objects of meditation). Buddha
taught them kammatthana suitable to their nature.
Five hundred bhikkhus learnt kammatthana from
him and went to a forest by the side of the Himalayas
to practise it. The tree deities of the place became
frightened at seeing them there and tried to drive
them out in various ways. The bhikkhus being
troubled by them went to the Buddha to whom
they related the story of their trouble. The Buddha
said that they cherished no friendly feelings (metta)
towards the deities and that was the cause of
trouble. Accordingly the Buddha taught them
mettasuttam and asked them to practise it. After-
wards the deities became their friends (pp. 231
foil).

The Khudclakapatha Commentary l furnishes us
with many new and important materials concerning
religious and political history of ancient India. It
has references to the hermitage of Anathapindika
at Jetavana (p. 23), Kapilavatthu (p. 23), 18 great
monasteries in Rajagaha (p. 94), Sattapanni cave
(p. 95), Vesali (p. 161), Magadha, Gayfiafoa '(p. 204),
Ganga (p. 163), Bimbisara (p. 163), Licchavi (p. 163),
Upali (p. 97), Mahakassapa (p. 91), Ananda (p. 92),
Mahagovinda (p. 128), Visakha, Dhammadinna
(p. 204), Mallika (p. 129), etc.

In this commentary, the explanations are dis-
proportionate to the short readings of the text.
Its style is heavy and laboured, and its disquisitions
are in many places redundant. It seems, therefore,

1 The Khuddakapatfia Commentary has been edited for the
P.T.S. by Helmer Smith from a collation by Mabel Hunt.

Pali Commentaries 449

highly doubtful if this work can really claim to
have been written by Buddhaghosa.

The Dhammapada-atthakatha * is a voluminous
work which explains the stanzas of
the Dhammapada and contains a
mass of illustrative tales of the
nature of the Jatakas. It derives a considerable
number of its stories from the four nikayas, the
Vinaya, the Udana, the works of Buddhaghosa,
and the Jataka Book. But it is more intimately
related to the Jataka Book, for over fifty stories
of the Dhammapada Commentary are either deriva-
tives of Jataka stories or close parallels. In addition
many other Jataka stories are referred to and many
Jataka stanzas are quoted. So it is certain that the
Jataka Book is earlier than the Dhammapada
Commentary.

The Dhammapada-atthakatha is a commentary
on the stanzas of the Dhammapada which is an
anthology of 423 sayings of the Buddha in verses.
An analysis of each story in the Dhammapada
Commentary shows that each story consists of eight
subdivisions : (1) Citation of the stanza (gatha) to
which the story relates, (2) mention of the person
or persons with reference to whom the story was
told, (3) story proper, or, more strictly, story of the
present (Pacciippanna-vatthu), closing with the
utterance of the (4) stanza or stanzas, (5) word-for-
word commentary or gloss on the stanza, (6) brief
statement of the spiritual benefits which accrued
to the hearer or hearers, (7) story of the past,
or, more accurately, story of previous existences
(atita-vatthu), and (8) identification of the personages
of the story of the past with those of the story of
Ihe present. Sometimes the story of the past

1 Prof. H. C. Norman has edited the complete volume for the
P.T.S. ; Mr. E. W. Burlingame has translated it into English under
the title of * Buddhist Legends ' in three parts (Harvard Oriental
Series edited by Lanman, Vols. 28, 29, and 30) ; C. Duroiseile has
translated it into English in the periodical Buddhism, Vol. II,
Rangoon, 1905-1908.

460 A History of Pali Literature

precedes the story of the present, and not infre-
quently more than one story of the past is given
{Buddhist Legends, pt. I, pp. 28-29).

Mr. BurUngame in his Introduction to stories
of Dhammapada Commentary (Buddhist Legends,
pt. I, p. 26), has rightly said that the Dhamma-
pada-atthakatha (as a matter of fact all other Pali
atthakathas) is in name and form a commentary.
But in point of fact it has become nothing more
or less than a huge collection of legends and folk-
tales. The exegesis of the text has become a matter
of secondary importance altogether and is relegated
to the background.

The Jataka Book consists of 550 stories relating
to previous births of the Buddha. Our present
edition (FausbolTs edition) is not an edition of the
text but of the commentary.

Each Jataka consists of the following sub-
divisions : a verse together with a commentary
without which the verse will be unintelligible, a
framework of story stating when and where and
on what occasion the story is supposed to have been
spoken by the Buddha ; and finally the conclusion
in which the characters of the story are identified
with the Buddha and his contemporaries in a
previous birth.

We have pointed out the characteristics of a
Jataka story and also of a Dhammapada-atthakatha
story and it is not unreasonable to say that in
general character and structure of parts, the Jataka
Book and the Dhammapada-atthakatha do not differ.

Doubts have been raised whether the work
can really be attributed to Buddhaghosa. The
colophon, however, definitely ascribes the authorship
to the celebrated commentator, and there is hardly
any reason to doubt its authority. The scheme of
the commentary is systematic and can easily be
followed. Each story has been amplified by a good
story, and at the end of each story interpretations
of words have been given. The language is easily
intelligible. The work as a whole is full of materials

Pali Commentaries 451

which, however, should be properly and carefully
read and utilised for the study of social, religious,
political, and economic conditions of India in the
5th century A.D. Besides, there are in this work
humorous tales, animal stories, e.g., the story of
Parileyyaka, legends of saints, e.g., Visakha, Pata-
cara, etc. Some stories of the Dhammapada are
derived from the Vinaya Pitaka, e.g., Devadatta,
Bodhirajakumara, Channa, etc. ; some from Udana,
e.g., Mahakassapa, Samavati, Visakha, Sona Koti-
karma, Sundari, Nanda, Suppavasa, etc. Some of
the Jataka stories correspond to some of the stories
of the Dhammapada Commentary, e.g., Devadhamma,
Kulavaka, Telapatta, Salittaka, Babbu, Godha,
Cullapalobhana, Ananusociya, Kesava, Saliya, Kusa,
Ghata, etc. The Dhammapada Commentary, Then-
gatha Commentary, and the Anguttara Nikaya Com-
mentary have some of the stories in common, e.g.,
Kundalakesi, Patacara, Nanda, Khema, Dhamma-
dinna, etc. Mr. Burlingame is able to point out that
from the Samyutta are derived seventeen stories,
fifteen of them almost word for word (Buddhist Le-
gends, pt. I, pp. 45-46). Milinda Panha contains some
of the stories mentioned in this work, e.g., Mattha-
kundali, Sumana, Ekasataka brahmana, Pesakara-
dhita, Sirima, etc. (vide Buddhist Legends, pt. I,
pp. 60-62). Parallels to the stories of this work are
found in the Divyavadana and Tibetan Kandjur
(Ibid., pp. 63-64). Buddhaghosa says in the pro-
logue of the Dhammapada-atthakatha that he
translated the Sinhalese commentaries into Magadhi
(tanti) adding notes of his own at the request of the
thera named Kumarakassapa (Dhammapada
Commentary, Vol. I, pp. 1 and 2). Buddhaghosa
often mixes up fact and fable without exercising
any discrimination whatsoever as we find in the
story of King Parantapa of Kosambi (Dhamma-
pada-atthakatha, Vol. I, pt. II). The commentator
also records the account of the c
Vasavadatta with Udayana as we find
Svapnavasavadatta. Udayana had ;

452 A History of Pali Literature

named Magandiya, the daughter of a brahmin,
in the Kuru kingdom (Udenavatthu, pp. 161 ff.)
Anathapindika built a vihara known as the Jetavana
Vihara for the Buddha at the expense of 54 Kotis of
Kahapana (Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. I,
pp. 4-5). A girl of Anathapindika's family went to
the kingdom of Satavahana and there she offered
alms to a bhikkhu. A great thera informed King
Satavahana of it and eventually the girl was made
the chief queen of the monarch (Ibid., Burmese
edition, p. 333). Buddhaghosa refers to flying
through the air on the back of a garuda-bird made
of wood and sufficient for the accommodation of
three or four persons (Ibid., Vol. Ill, pp. 134 ff.).
In the Dhammapada Commentary, Buddhaghosa
makes mention of a bird called Hatthilinga which is
described as an animal possessing the strength of
five elephants. It was in the habit of looking back
on the track already trodden (Vol. I, pt. 11).
Buddhaghosa refers to the Mahavihara in Ceylon
(Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. IV, p. 74) where,
presumably his commentaries were written. Prof.
Hardy points out (J.R.A.S., 1898, pp. 741-794)
that the story of the merchant Ghosaka as related
by Buddhaghosa in his Manorathapuram, the com-
mentary on the Anguttara Nikaya, differs from the
same story told in the Dhammapada-atthakatha.
It should be borne in mind that Buddhaghosa was
not the writer of an independent commentary on
the canonical texts, but he was for the most part
translating or compiling from various Sinhalese
commentaries, sometimes from the Maha-attha-
katha, sometimes from the Mahapaccari, and some-
times from the Kurunda-atthakatha. Buddhaghosa
cannot, therefore, be held responsible for variations
in the narratives which might have been due to the
differences in the authorship of the great old com-
mentaries which were the embodiments of joint
labours of a large number of Buddhist sages and
scholars who had been working at the interpretation
of the Master's sayings ever since they were uttered.

Pali Commentaries 453

The Dhammapada-atthakatha abounds in
references to kings, e.g., Bimbisara, Ajatasattu,
Pasenadi ; to Acelakas, Niganthas, Ajivakas, Jatilas,
Micchaditthikas ; to lakes, e.g., Anotattadaha ; to
principal cities, e.g., Takkaslla, Kapilavatthu,
Kururattha, Kosambi, Kosala, Baranasi, Soreyya,
Magadha, Rajagaha, Savatthi, Vesali ; to mountains,
e.g., the Himalayas, Sineru, Gandhamadana,
Gijjhakuta ; to principal Buddhist women, e.g.,
Mahapajapati Gotami, Khema, Yasodhara, Sumana-
devi, Mayadevi, Mallika, Patacara, Sujata, Rahula-
mata, Vasuladatta, Visakha, Suppavasa, Dinna,
Kisagotami, Rupananda ; to the heavens, e.g.,
Tavatimsa, Tusita ; to forests and tanks, e.g.,
Veluvana, Mahavana, Jetavana, Maiigalapok-
kharani ; to rivers, e.g., Ganga, Rohim (Vol. II,
p. 99) ; to the famous physician Jivaka ; to ancient
Indian tribes, e.g., Licchavis, Mallas ; to distinguished
persons, e.g., Siddhattha, Sariputta, Mahinda,
Rahula, Ananda, Vessavana, Sona Kutikanna,
Moggallana, and Mendaka.

In the Dhammapada-atthakatha we read that
there lived at Kosambi a householder's son, Kosambi-
vasT Tissa Thera, who took ordination from the
Buddha. His supporter offered his son who was
seven years old to Tissa. The boy was made a
samanera by Tissa and as the hair of the samanera
was being cut, he attained arahatship (Vol. II,
pp. 182-185).

Buddhaghosa records legend which has some
points of agreement with a story in the Skanda-
purana (Ch. 5, Brahmakhanda). It is recorded
that there lived at Kosambi a king named Parantapa.
One day he sat under the sun with his pregnant
wife who was covered with a red blanket when a
bird named Hatthilinga having the strength of
five elephants, took her to be a lump of flesh, came
to her, and took her away with its claws. The
queen thought that before it could eat her, she
would cry out and it would leave her. It was in
the habit of looking back on the track. The queen

454 A History of Pali Literature,

also cried accordingly and the bird left her. At
that time rain poured heavily and continued through-
out the night. Early in the morning when the sun
arose, a son was born to her. A hermit came to
the spot where the son was born and saw the queen
on the Nigrodha tree which was not far from his
hermitage. When the queen introduced herself as a
Ksatriyani, the hermit brought down the baby
from the tree. The queen came to the hermitage of
the sage who accompanied her with her infant son.
The queen succeeded in tempting him to take her
as his spouse and they lived as husband and wife.
One day the hermit looked at the stars and saw
the star of Parantapa disfigured. He informed her
of the death of Parantapa of Kosambi. The
queen cried and told him, "He is my husband and
I am his queen. If my son had lived there, he
would have become the king now." The hermit
assured her that he would help her son to win the
kingdom. Her son eventually became king and
was known as Udayana. The new king married
Samavati, a daughter of the treasurer of
Kosambi. Buddhaghosa records moreover the
account of the elopement of Vasavadatta with
Udayana as we find it in the Svapnavasavadatta
by Bhasa (Vol. I, pt. II).

The Dhammapada Commentary gives us de-
tails regarding the life of the Thera Mahakaccayana.
We are told that when he was dwelling at Avanti,
the Buddha was residing at the palace of the
renowned upasika at Savatthi, Visakha Migaramata ;
nevertheless, though separated by such a long
distance from the Master, yet whenever any sermon
was delivered by the latter on Dhamma, Maha-
kaccayana used to be present. Therefore a seat
was reserved for him by the bhikkhus (Vol. II,
pp. 176-177). We also read in the same commentary
that when Mahakaccayana was living at the city of
Kuraraghara in Avanti, an upasaka named Sona
Kutikanno was pleased with him after listening to
his religious sermon. The upasaka requested him

Pali Commentaries 455

to give him ordination which was given (Vol. IV,
p. 101). A naga king named Erakapatta was
taught by the Buddha at the foot of the Sattasiri-
saka tree at Benares that it was very difficult to be
born as a human being (Vol. Ill, p. 230). A trader
of Benares used to trade by putting his goods on
the back of an ass. Once he went to Taxila for
trade and gave his ass rest there by taking down
the goods from its back (Vol. I, p. 123). A trader
of Benares was going to Savatthi with five hundred
carts full of red cloth, but he could not cross the
river as it was full of water, so he had to stay there
to sell his goods (Vol. Ill, p. 429). At Benares
there was a rich banker named Mahadhanasetthi.
His parents taught him dancing and music. Another
rich banker had a daughter who was trained in
dancing and music and both of them were married.
Mahadhanasetthi began to drink wine and was
addicted to gambling, with the result that he lost
his own wealth as well as his wife's. Afterwards
he began to beg for alms (Vol. Ill, pp. 129 foil.).
A king of Benares learnt a mantra from a young
brahmin by paying him 1,000 kahapanas as teacher's
fee. The king saved his life from the hands of the
barber who was instigated by the senapati to kill
him by that mantra (Vol. I, pp. 251 foil. ). A brahmin
of Taxila sent his son Suslma to learn Vedic mantra
from a teacher who was his father's friend. The
teacher taught him well (Vol. Ill, p. 445). A young
man of Benares went to Taxila to learn archery
from a distinguished teacher and he was well versed
in the art, and the teacher being satisfied gave his
daughter in marriage to him (Vol. IV, p. 66). We
read that a king of Benares went out in disguise to
enquire whether any of his subjects spoke ill of
him. For 1,000 kahapanas he learnt from a
young brahmin of Benares a mantra which enabled
him to read the evil thoughts of people (Vol. I,
pp. 251 foil.). In spite of the good government,
the country was not free from crime. Cakkhupala
was a physician at Benares. He gave medicine to
8

456 A History of Pali Literature

a woman who deceived him by telling a lie. He
being angry with her gave her a medicine which
made her blind (Vol. I, p. 20). Pasenadi, son of
Mahakosala, was educated at Taxila and Mahali,
a Lacchavi prince, and a Malla prince of Kusmara
were his class-mates (Vol. I, pp. 337-338). Kosala
was not inhabited by the setthis previous to Pasenadi
of Kosala who asked Mendakasetthi and Dhanaii-
jayasetthi to settle in the country and they did
settle there (Vol. I, pp. 384 foil.). Pasenadi of
Kosala was enamoured of a beautiful woman and
tried to win her by killing her husband, but he gave
up this idea when warned by the Buddha (Vol. II,
pp. 1 foil.). Some thieves were caught and brought
before the king of Kosala. He ordered them to be
bound in ropes and chains. They were thrown in
prison. This information was given by the bhikkhus
to the Buddha who was asked whether there was any
stronger tie than this. Buddha replied, " attach-
ment to wives, sons, and wealth is stronger than other
ties " (Vol. IV, pp. 54-55). In Kosala a cowherd
named Nanda was rich and wealthy. He used to
go to Anathapindika's house from time to time
taking with him five kinds of preparations from
cow's milk. He invited the Buddha who accepted
the invitation. Nanda continued charities for a
week. On the seventh day Buddha delivered a ser-
mon on dana, sila, etc., upon which Nanda obtained
the first stage of sanctification (Vol. I, pp. 322-
323). Mahasuvanna, a banker of Savatthi, had
two sons, the first son became a bhikkhu under the
Buddha and was known as Cakkhupala (Vol. I,
pp. 3 foil.). Matthakundali was the son of a rich
and stingy brahmin of Savatthi. Only by saluting
the Buddha he went to heaven (Ibid., pp. 25 foil.).
Thullatissa was the Buddha's father's sister's son
and lived at Savatthi as a bhikkhu. He was
pacified by the Buddha (Ibid., pp. 37 foil.). Kali-
yakkhin! was a Yakkhini worshipped by the
people of Savatthi. She could foretell drought and
excessive rainfall (Ibid., pp. 45 foil.). Savatthi

Pali Commentaries 457

contributed a fair number of the bhikkhus and
bhikkhunls who acquired fame and renown in the
Buddhist congregation for the purity of their lives.
Patacara was the daughter of a rich banker of
Savatthl. She afterwards became a bhikkhuni after
great bereavements and came to be known as
Patacara (Vol. II, pp. 260 foil.). Kisagotami was
the daughter of a setthi of Savatthl. After the
death of her only child she went to the Buddha
with the dead body and requested him to bring
the dead to life. The Buddha delivered a sermon
which led her to become a bhikkhuni (Ibid., Vol. II,
pp. 270 foil.). Anitthigandhakumara fallen from the
Brahmaloka was reborn in a rich family of Savatthl.
He used to cry when touched by women. He was
afterwards converted by the Buddha (Ibid., Vol. Ill,
pp. 281 foil.). Vakkali born in a brahmin family
of Savatthl became a bhikkhu seeing the beauty of
the Buddha's body (Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 118). A
servant of a brahmin of Savatthl became a bhikkhu
and subsequently attained arahatship (Ibid., Vol. IV,
p. 167). Nanda was the son of Mahapajapati
Gotami. He was made a bhikkhu by the Buddha
at Savatthl (Ibid., pp. 15 foil.).

The Dhammapada Commentary refers to the
long continued jealousy of the heretics towards
Buddhism. Moggallana, one of the chief disciples
of the Buddha, was struck by certain heretics with
the help of some hired men (Vol. Ill, pp. 65 foil.).
He used to dwell in Kullavalagama in Magadha.
At first he was very lazy, but being encouraged by
the Buddha he exerted strenuously and fulfilled
savakaparami. It is to be noted that Sariputta
who was a Magadhan obtained paramita here (Ibid.,
Vol. I, p. 96). The same commentary also gives us
legends about Bimbisara, King of Magadha, who
went to see the most beautiful palace of Jotiya
in the mythic land of Uttarakuru. Ajatasatru
was his son. Both of them took their meals at
Jotiya's palace. Jotiya presented Bimbisara with
a valuable gem, the light of which was enough to

458 A History of Pali Literature

illuminate the whole house (Dh. Com., Vol. IV,
pp. 209 foil.). A large number of heretics of the
Samsaramocaka caste, who were opponents of
Buddhism, employed some hired men to assault
Moggallana, one of the chief followers of the
Buddha (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 65 foil.). Two
chief disciples of the Buddha went to Rajagaha
and the inhabitants of Rajagaha showered charities
upon them. A silk robe which was given in charity
was given to Devadatta (Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 77 foil. ). A
daughter of a banker of Rajagaha obtained Sotapatti
(Ibid., Vol. Ill, p. 30). Sirima was a beautiful
prostitute of Rajagaha. She asked pardon of
Uttara, daughter of Punnakasetthi for her faults,
in the presence of the Buddha. She afterwards
became one of his lay devotees and spent a large
sum for him and his disciples (Ibid., Vol. Ill,
pp. 104 foil.). The mother of Kumarakassapa was
the daughter of a banker of Rajagaha. When
she grew up, she asked permission from her parents
to receive ordination which was refused. She then
went to her husband's place. She pleased her
husband very much and got permission from him
to receive ordination (Ibid., Vol. Ill, pp. 144-145).
A brahmin of Savatthi became an arahant of
Gijjhakuta. He was very proud of seeing the
beauty of the Buddha's body. The Buddha told,
*'No use seeing my body, see my Dhamma and
you will see me " (Ibid., Vol. IV, pp. 117-118).

This work further relates that Kundalakesi,
a beautiful daughter of a banker of Rajagaha,
remained unmarried till the age of sixteen. It is
there incidentally pointed out that at this age
women long for men (Vol. II, p. 217). Magha, a
householder of Magadha, married his maternal uncle's
daughter named Sujata (Vol. I, p. 265). Ananda
was enamoured of the beauty of his father's sister's
daughter named Uppalavanna and wanted to marry
her (Ibid. 9 Vol. II, p. 49).' ' Vepacitti, King of the
Asuras, refused to give his daughter in marriage
to any of the Asura princes. So he said, " My

Pali Commentaries 459

daughter shall choose for herself such a husband
as she sees fit ". He then assembled the host of
Asuras, made over a garland of flowers to his
daughter and said to her, " Choose for yourself a
husband who suits you". The girl selected one
as her husband and threw the wreath over his
head (Dh. Com., Vol. I, pp. 278-279). We are
informed by this commentary that a rich man's
daughter, when she attained marriageable age, was
lodged by her parents in an apartment of royal
splendour on the topmost floor of a seven-storied
palace, with a female slave to guard her. No male
servant was kept in that house (Vol. II, p. 217).
Daughters of noble families did not ordinarily
come out of their house, but they travelled in
chariots and the like while others entered an ordinary
carriage or raised a parasol of a palmyra-leaf over
their heads ; but if this was not available, they
took the skirt of their undergarment and threw it
over their shoulder (Vol. I, p. 391). From the
instances cited above it is reasonable to hold that
elopement and the preservation of chastity inter alia
contributed largely to the observance of ' purdah '
by the tender sex before or after marriage. But
there are exceptions, Visakha, for example, while
going to her father-in-law's house just after her
marriage entered the city of Savatthi not under
the c purdah ' but standing up " in a chariot un-
covered showing herself to all the city (Vol. I,
pp. 384 foil.). Daughters of respectable families,
who did not ordinarily stir out, used to go on foot
during a festival, with their own retinue, and bathe
in the river (Vol. I, pp. 190-191 and 388). Instances
of dowry being given by the bride's father are
referred to in the Visakhayavatthu of the Dhamma-
pada Commentary (Vol. I). The Savatthian
treasurer, Migara, on the occasion of the marriage
of his daughter, Visakha, well-known in the Buddhist
literature, gave her as dowry five hundred carts
filled with vessels of gold, five hundred filled with
vessels of silver, five hundred filled with copper

460 A History of Pali Literature

vessels, five hundred filled with garments made of
various kinds of silk, five hundred filled with ghee,
five hundred filled with plows, plowshares, and
other farm implements. Sixty thousand powerful
bulls and sixty thousand milch cows, and some
powerful bull-calves were also given to her.

Princess Vajira was the daughter of Pasenadi
of Kosala. She was given in marriage to Ajatasattu
of Magadha. Kasigama was given to her by her
father for bath and perfume money (Dh. Com.,
Vol. Ill, p. 266). The Savatthian treasurer, Migara,
gave his daughter, on her marriage, fifty crores of
treasure to buy aromatic powders for the bath
(Ibid., I, p. 398). The custom of collecting presents
(punnakaram) on the occasion of a marriage
ceremony is met with in the Dhammapada Com-
mentary where we read that on the occasion of the
marriage ceremony of Visakha, daughter of Dhan-
anjaya setthi with the son of Migara setthi, presents
including a hundred each of all kinds of gifts were
collected from hundred villages (Vol. I, pp. 384
foil. ). After marriage the girl was sent to her father-
in-law's house with the following directions l :

1. Do not carry outside the indoor fire.

2. Do not carry inside the outdoor fire.

3. Give only to him that gives.

4. Do not give him that does not give.

5. Give both to him that gives and him that

does not give.

6. Sit happily.

7. Eat happily.

8. Sleep happily.

9. Tend the fire.

10. Honour the household divinity.

1 Antoaggi bahi na niharitabbo, bahi aggi an to na pavesetabbo,
dadantass' eva databbam, adantassa na databbam, dadantassapi
adantassapi databbam, sukham nislditabbam, sukham bhunji-
tabbam, sukham nipajjitabbam, aggi paricaritabbo, antodevata
pi namassitabba' ti idam dasavidham ovadam (Dh. Com., I, 397-
398).

Pali Commentaries 461

These ten admonitions were interpreted as
follows :

1 . If the mother-in-law or other female members
of the household engage in a private conversation
within the house, their conversation is not to be
communicated to slaves, whether male or female,
for such conversation is tattled about and causes
quarrels.

2. The conversation of slaves and servants is
not to be communicated to persons within the
household ; as such conversation is talked about and
causes quarrels.

3. This means that one should give only to
those who return borrowed articles.

4. This means that one should not give to
those who do not return borrowed articles.

5. This means that one should help poor
kinsfolk and friends who look for succour, without
considering their capability of repaying.

6. This means that a wife seeing her mother-
in-law or her father-in-law should stand and not
remain sitting.

7. This means that a wife should not eat
before her mother-in-law, father-in-law, and husband
have taken their meals. She should serve them
first, and when she is sure that they have had all
they care for, then and not till then may she herself
eat.

8. This means that a wife should not go to
bed before her mother-in-law, father-in-law, and
husband. She should first perform all the duties
which she owes them and then she may herself
lie down to sleep.

9. This means that a wife should regard her
mother-in-law, her father-in-law, or her husband as
a flame of fire or as a serpent king.

10. When a monk after keeping residence in
a remote lodging comes to the door of a house,
and the housewife sees him, she must give to such
a monk whatever food there is in the house both

462 A History of Pali Literature

hard and soft ; and then she may eat (Dh. Com.,
Vol. I, pp. 403-404). A Magadhan householder,
named Magha, had four wives at a time, viz., Nanda,
Citta, Sudhamma, and Sujata (Ibid., I, p. 269). The
first wife of a householder of Savatthi being barren
brought another wife for her husband. When her
co-wife became pregnant, she was jealous and
effected abortion by administering medicine. Thrice
did this woman commit this heinous crime with
the result that her co-wife succumbed at last to
the effect of the abortive medicine. But the cruel
woman did not escape the penalty for doing this
sinful deed. She was beaten to death by her husband
who declared her to be the cpoise of the death of
his pregnant wife and destroyer of his line (Dh.
Com., Vol. I, pp. 45 foil.).

Besides her household duties a slave woman
had to husk paddy (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, p. 321)
and to go to market (Ibid., Vol. I, p. 208).

Khuj juttara, a maid-servant of Samavati, queen
of Udena, King of Kosambi, had to buy flowers
daily for eight kahapanas for the queen. But
she used to steal four kahapanas daily. One day
while she went to the garland-maker's house to
buy flowers, she heard the sermon delivered by the
Buddha. She obtained sotapattiphalam. Since
then she discontinued stealing and bought flowers
for eight kahapanas. The queen questioned her
how she had bought so many flowers for eight
kahapanas. The maid-servant could no longer
conceal anything, as by this time her faith in the
Buddha had become very strong. She confessed
her guilt and said that after hearing the Buddha's
sermon she had come to realise that stealing a
thing is a sin. The queen asked her to repeat the
Dhamma she had heard. Khujjuttara did so in
the presence of the queen and her five hundred
female attendants. The queen did not reproach
her for her stealing four kahapanas daily, on the
contrary, she praised her much for letting her
hear the Buddha's Dhamma. Since then the maid-

Pali Commentaries 463

servant was regarded as a mother and teacher by
the queen and her five hundred female attendants,
who asked her to go to the Master daily to hear
the Dhamma and repeat it to them. In course of
time she mastered the Tripitaka (Dh. Com., Vol. I,
pp. 208 foil.).

Sirima was the youngest sister of Jivaka,
the well-known physician. She was a courtesan of
unique beauty. She lived at Rajagaha. Once she
was appointed for a fortnight by the female lay
disciple, Uttara, wife of the treasurer's son, Sumana,
and daughter of the treasurer, Punnaka, for one
thousand pieces of money per night (Dh. Com.,
Vol. Ill, pp. 308-309) in order to minister to Uttara's
husband. One day she offended Uttara, but desiring
to be on good terms with her again, she begged
pardon of her. Uttara assured her that she would
pardon her if the Exalted One would do the same.
One day the Master and the congregation of monks
came to Uttara's house. When the Master had
finished his meal, Sirima begged his pardon. The
Teacher pronounced thanksgiving and delivered
discourse to which Sirima listened attentively.
Then she attained the first stage of sanctification.
Since then she regularly gave alms to eight monks
(Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 104 foil.). On her death,
Sirima's dead body was not burnt. It was kept in a
charnel-house (amakasusanam) and watched by a
guard against its being devoured by crows and
dogs. King Bimbisara informed the Buddha of
her death, and the Buddha requested the king not
to burn her dead body but to preserve it so that it
could be seen by the bhikkhus daily for asubha-
bhavana. The bhikkhus saw it daily and realised
that the most beautiful body becomes rotten, worm-
eaten, and finally the bones remain without flesh.
The citizens, too, were compelled to behold Sirima's
dead body, for there stood the royal proclamation,
" All who refuse to do so shall be fined eight pieces
of money ". This was done with a view to impress
on the citizens the idea of transitoriness of human

464 A History of Pali Literature

beauty which is but skin-deep (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill,
pp. 106-109).

Dinna was an upasika of the Buddha. She
was the queen of King Uggasena. A king promised
to the deity of a nigrodha tree that he would worship
the deity with blood of one hundred kings of
Jambudlpa, if he got the throne after his father's
death. He then defeated all the kings one by one
and went to worship the deity, but the deity, seeing
that many kings would be lulled, took compassion
for them and refused his worship on the ground
that the queen of King Uggasena whom he defeated
was not brought. The king had her brought and
she preached a sermon on the avoidance of life-
slaughter in their presence. The deity approved
and the king refrained from life-slaughter and
released the defeated and captured kings who
praised Dinna for her act. It was due to her
that so many kings were saved (Dh. Com., Vol. II,
pp. 15 foil.).

Kisagotami came of a respectable family at
Savatthi. She was married to a rich banker's son
who had 40 kotis of wealth (Dh. Com., Vol. II,
pp. 270-275). Bodhisatta was her maternal uncle's
son. One day while the Bodhisatta was returning
home after receiving the news of Rahula's birth,
he was seen by Kisagotami from her palace.
Buddha's physical grace and charm gladdened the
heart of Kisagotami and she uttered that the
mother who had such a child and the father who
had such a son and the wife who had such a husband
were surely happy (nibbuta); but the Bodhisatta
took the word nibbuta in the sense of nibbanam.
The Bodhisatta presented her with a pearl necklace
for making him hear such an auspicious and sacred
word (Dh. Com., Vol. I, p. 85). After the Bodhi-
satta had become the Buddha, Kisagotami once
came through the sky to worship the Buddha ; but
she saw that Sakka with his retinue was then
seated before the Master. She, therefore, chose it
not to descend and come near to the Buddha ;

Pali Commentaries 465

but did her worship from the sky and went away.
Being questioned by Sakka who had seen KisagotamI
performing her worship, the Buddha answered that
she was his daughter. Kisagotaml was the foremost
among the bhikkhunis who used very rough and
simple robes (Dh. Com., Vol. IV, pp. 156-157).

Once Pasenadi invited the Buddha to teach
Dhamma to queens Mallika and Vasabhakhattiya
who were desirous of learning it. But as it was
not possible for him to go everyday, the Buddha
asked the king to engage Ananda for the purpose.
Mallikadevi in due course learnt it thoroughly
well ; but Vasabhakhattiya was inattentive and
could hardly, therefore, learn it (Dh. Com., Vol. I,
382). Mallika once induced her husband, King
Pasenadi, to go to the Buddha and receive instruc-
tions from him, and thus saved the life of many
living beings who were brought before the king for
sacrifice to save the king himself from the evil effect
of hearing four horrible sounds at midnight, and
she made the following arrangements on the occa-
sion of Pasenadi's offering unique gift to the Buddha
and the Buddhists:

1. She made a canopy with sala wooden parts
under which five hundred bhikkhus could sit within
the parts and five hundred outside them.

2. Five hundred white umbrellas were raised
by 500 elephants standing at the back of five
hundred bhikkhus.

3. Golden boats were placed in the middle of
the pandal and each khattiya daughter threw
scents standing in the midst of two bhikkhus.

4. Each khattiya princess was found standing
in the midst of two bhikkhus.

5. Golden boats were filled with scents and
perfumes (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 183 foil.).

Mallikadevi had, however, to suffer after death,
in the Avici hell, because she had once deceived
her husband by telling a lie about her misconduct
(Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 119 foil.).

466 A History of Pali Literature

The daughter of Queen Mallika was also named
Mallika. She was the wife of General Bandhula,
but was childless for a long time. Bandhula,
therefore, once for all, sent her to her father's
house, when on the way she went to the Jetavana
to salute the Buddha and told the Master that her
husband was sending her home as she was childless.
The Buddha asked her to go back to her husband's
house. Bandhula came eventually to know of this
fact, and thought that the Buddha must have got
the idea that she would be pregnant. The sign of
pregnancy was soon visible in her and she desired
to drink water and bathe in the well-guarded tank.
Her husband made her bathe and drink water of
the tank (Dh. Com., Vol. I, pp. 349-351).

Uttara and her husband were serving a setthi
at Rajagaha. Once the setthi went to attend a
famous ceremony and Uttara with her husband
stayed at home. One morning, the husband of
Uttara had gone to the fields to till the soil, and
Uttara was going with cooked food to feed her
husband there. On the way she met Sariputta
who had just got up from nirodhasamapatti and
offered the food to him with the result that she
became the richest lady at Rajagaha and her
husband became a setthi named Mahadhanasetthi
(Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 302 foil.).

Punna was the maid-servant of a banker of
Savatthl. Once while engaged in husking paddy
at night, she went outside the house to take rest.
At this time Dabba, a Mallian, was in charge of
making arrangements for the sleeping accommoda-
tion of the bhikkhus who were guests. Punna with
some cakes went out to enquire of the cause of
their movements with lights at night, and met the
Buddha who had come out on that way for alms.
She offered all the cakes to the Buddha without
keeping anything for her, and the Buddha accepted
all of them. Punna was thinking whether Buddha
would partake of her food ; but the Buddha most
unhesitatingly did partake of it in her house. The

Pali Commentaries 467

effect of this offer was that Punna obtained sota-
pattiphalam at the place where the offer was made
(Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 321 foil.).

Rohini was Anuruddha's sister. She was
suffering from white leprosy, and did not go to her
brother as she feared she might contaminate
him. Anuruddha sent for her and asked her to
build a rest-house for bhikkhus to get rid of her sin.
She did so, and kept the rest-house clean even when
it was under construction. After she had done it
with great devotion for a long time, she eventually
became free from her disease. Shortly afterwards
the Buddha went to Kapilavatthu and sent for
Rohim. When she came, he told her that she had
been the queen of Benares in her former birth.
The king of Benares was at that time enamoured
of the beauty of a dancing girl. The queen knowing
this was jealous of the girl and to punish her she
put something in her cloth and poured in bathing
water which produced terrible itching all over the
body. On account of this sin, she had got this
disease. She however obtained sotapattiphalam and
the colour of her body was golden (Dh. Com.,
Vol. Ill, pp. 295 foil.).

A cultivator's daughter was in charge of a
paddy-field. She was once frying paddy in the
field, when at that time Mahakassapa was engaged
in meditation for a week in the Pipphali cave.
Rising up from meditation he went to the girl for
alms ; and she with a delightful mind offered fried
grains to him which he accepted. While the girl
was returning from the presence of Mahakassapa
to the spot where she was frying she was smitten
by a poisonous snake and died instantly. After
death she was reborn in the golden mansion of the
Tavatimsa heaven on account of this meritorious
deed, and was named there as Lajadevadhita who
had come from heaven to get more merit by serving
Mahakassapa. She used to cleanse his monastery
and keep water ready for his use. But after two
days, she was forbidden to serve him any more

468 A History of Pali Literature

as she was found out to be a devi. She lamented
much for not being able to serve the great arahat.
The Buddha came to know of this and preached a
sermon to her with the result that she obtained
sotapattiphalam (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 6-9).

The mother of Kumarakassapa had become
pregnant before she renounced the worldly life ;
but she was herself unaware of it. After she had
become a bhikkhum it was known that she was
pregnant. The matter was referred to the Buddha
who asked Upali to enquire into the matter. Upali
referred to Pasenadi, Anathapindika, and Visakha.
Visakha was afterwards solely entrusted to decide
the matter. Visakha found out that she had become
pregnant before her renouncing the world (Dh.
Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 144 foil.).

Rupananda was the Buddha's step-mother.
She thought that her eldest brother had renounced
the world and had become a Buddha. Her younger
brother Nanda was a bhikkhu ; Bahulakumara
had also obtained ordination ; her husband too had
become a bhikkhu ; and her mother Mahapajapati
Gotami, a bhikkhuni. She, therefore, thought that
as so many of her relatives had renounced the
world, so she too must follow their path. She did
not go before the Buddha as she was proud of her
beauty while the Buddha used to preach imper-
manence and worthlessness of rupa. The other
bhikkhunis and bhikkhus always used to praise
Buddha in her presence and told her that all, in
spite of their having different tastes, had become
pleased on seeing the Buddha (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill,
p. 115). Nanda, wife of Nandasena, a householder of
Savatthi, had no faith in the Buddha. One day
she thought of going to the Buddha with other
bhikkhunis, but she would not show herself to
the Buddha. The Buddha came to know that with
other bhikkhunis Nanda too had come ; and he
desired to lower down the pride of her beauty.
By his miraculous power, the Buddha created a
most beautiful girl by his side who at once engaged

Pali Commentaries 469

herself in fanning the Buddha. Nanda saw the
beauty of the girl, and readily discovered that
her own beauty was much inferior. The attendant
girl was seen gradually but miraculously attaining
youth, the state of mother of one child, and the
old age and disease and death. Nanda saw this
happening before her eyes and gave up the pride of
her beauty and came to realise the impermanence
of physical beauty. The Buddha knowing the
state of her mind delivered the sermon (Dh.
Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 113 foil.).

Visakha was the daughter of Dhananjayasetthi,
son of Mendakasetthi, who lived in the city of
Bhaddiya in the kingdom of Ariga. The family of
Mendaka was greatly devoted to the Buddha.
Dhananjayasetthi at the request of Pasenadi,
Bang of Kosala, went to his kingdom and settled
at Saketa. Visakha was married to Punnavaddhana,
son of Migarasetthi, who was, however, a follower
of the Niganthas. After marriage, she lived with
her father-in-law at Savatthi. One day Migara-
setthi invited five hundred naked ascetics (niganthas)
and when they came he asked his daughter-in-law
to come and salute the arahats. She came hearing
about the arahats and seeing them, she said,
" Such shameless creatures can't be arahats. Why
has my father-in-law called me ? " Saying this
she blamed her father-in-law and went to her
residence. The naked ascetics seeing this, blamed
the setthi and asked him to turn her out of the
house as she was a follower of Samana Gotama.
But the setthi knowing that it was not possible to do
so, apologised to them and sent them away. After
this incident the setthi sitting on a valuable seat
was drinking milk-porridge with honey from a
golden pot and VisSkha stood there fanning him.
At that time a Buddhist monk entered the house
for alms and stood before him, but th
no notice of him. Seeing that, Vis*
the thera "Go to another house, Sir, i
law is eating a stale food ". At thi

470 A History of Pali Literature

grew angry. He then stopped eating and ordered
his men to drive her out. Thereupon, Visakha
said that he should examine her shortcomings.
The setthi welcomed the idea and summoned her
relations and told them that his daughter-in-law
had said to a Buddhist monk that he was eating
stale food while he was drinking milk porridge
with honey. Visakha's relations enquired about
the truth of the statement. Visakha said that she
did not say so. She only said that her father-in-
law was enjoying the fruition of his merit in the
previous birth. In this way Visakha explained
away everything that was considered by her father-
in-law to bring blame upon her. While she was
found not guilty by her relations, she prepared to
leave the house of her father-in-law. Thereupon the
banker apologised and entreated his daughter-in-
law to remain in the house. She, however, con-
sented to remain on one condition only, namely,
that she could be allowed to entertain the bhikkhus
in the house at her will. Next day she invited the
Buddha to her house. The naked ascetics knowing
that the Buddha had entered the house of Migara-
setthi surrounded the house. Visakha requested
her father-in-law to come and serve the Buddha
himself. The naked ascetics prevented him from
going there. Thereupon Visakha herself served the
Buddha and his disciples and when their meal was
finished, she again requested her father-in-law to come
and listen to the sermon of the Buddha. The naked
ascetics again said that it was extremely improper to
go at that time, but when he went to listen to the
Buddha's sermon, he saw that the naked ascetics
had gone there earlier and placed the curtain and
requested the setthi to sit outside it. The setthi sat
outside the curtain, listened to the Buddha's sermon,
obtained the fruition of the first stage of sanctifica-
tion, went up to his daughter-in-law and said to her,
" Henceforward you are my mother ". From that
time Visakha came to be known as Migaramata or
Migara's mother. Migara was converted to

Pali Commentaries 471

Buddhism. Visakha afterwards made a vihara at
Savatthi at the cost of twenty-seven crores of
coins (Dh. Com., Vol. I, pt. II, pp. 384 foil.).

Sutta Nipdta Commentary. The Sutta Nipata
Commentary written by Buddhaghosa is a mine of
various sorts of valuable information geographical,
historical, religious, and otherwise. Illuminating
definitions of raga, tanha, mana, dosa, moha,
anusaya, and akusalamula ; and interpretations of
the words, e.g., sati, brahmaloka, uposatha,
sankappa, pamada, jhana, dhamma, gambhira-
panna, musavada, panatipata, upadhi, etc., occur
briskly in it sometimes systematically, sometimes at
random. To give one example, the very interesting
word c Nibutta ' is explained in connection with
the account of Dhaniya, the cowherd. In con-
nection with another account, namely, that of the
Khaggavisana Sutta, we are referred to three kinds
of dramas. Besides mentioning mountains and
mountain caves, e.g., Gandhamadana and Canda-
gabbha, the commentator reveals his knowledge of
geography when he makes mention of Baranasi,
Magadha, Savatthi, Kapilavatthu, Kosala, Neran-
jara, etc., nor does he seem to be deficient in his
knowledge of history, for he mentions Bimbisara,
Sundariparibbajaka, and Kosalaraja Pasenadi.
Bimbisara, we are informed, was called Magadha,
because he was the lord of the Magadhas. He was
the possessor of a big army, hence he was called
Seniya. It adds, besides, that Bimbisara was so
called because his colour was like that of excellent gold
(p. 448). Bajagaha was ruled by famous kings like
Mandhata and Mahagovinda. In the time of the
Buddha, it became a city, and in other times, it came
to be vacant and then inhabited by the yakkhas.

Interesting side-lights are thrown by other
accounts, a few of which may profitably be re-
counted here. A carpenter of Benares prepared
mechanical wooden birds by which he conquered
a tract of land in the Hiniavanta and became the
ruler of that land. His capital was known as
9

472 A History of Pali Literature

Katthavahanagara. He sent valuable presents to
the king of Benares and made friendship with him.
The king in return sent him the news of the advent
of the Buddha Kassapa in Benares, but when they
reached Benares the Buddha had obtained maha-
parinibbana. Afterwards, the yuvaraja with a
bhikkhu and the relics of the Buddha went back to
the Katthanagara, and the bhikkhu was later on
successful in converting the king and his subjects
into Buddhism (Vol. II, pp. 575 foE). A trader of
Benares went to buy goods with 500 carts to a
frontier country, and bought sandal wood (Vol. II,
pp. 523 ff.).

There lived at Savatthi a paribbajaka, named
Pasura, who was a great disputant. He planted a
branch of a Jambu tree declaring that he who
would be able to hold discussion with him, would
uproot it. Sariputta did uproot it. Pasura had a
discussion with Sariputta about sensual pleasures
and eye-consciousness with the result that the
paribbajaka was defeated. The paribbajaka went
to the Jetavana in order to be ordained by Sariputta
and to learn Vadasattam (art of disputation). He
met Laludayi at the Jetavana vihara. Thinking
that this Laludayi must be greatly wise, he took
ordination from him. He defeated Laludayi in
disputation and made him a paribbajaka even while
he was wearing the dress of a bhikkhu. Pasura
again went to Savatthi to hold discussion with
Gautama. He held discussion with Gautama but
was defeated. The Buddha then gave him in-
struction and he was converted into Buddhism
(Vol. II, pp. 538 foil.).

The Jdtaka Commentary. As to the authorship
of the Jataka Commentary there is a great dispute
which has not yet been settled. Some ascribe the
authorship to Buddhaghosa.

Buddhaghosa wrote a commentary on the
Dhammasahgani known as the Atthasalim. 1 It

1 There is a scholium on the Atthasalini called the Patfia-
maparamatthapakaeini. Read Abhidhammakatha, a Pali prose

Pali Commentaries 473

simply gives the meaning of the terms that occur
in the Dhammasangani. In some
Commentaries on places word-for-word explanations
have been gi ven which are apparently
tedious but are certainly useful to
students of Buddhism. 1
The Atthasalini contains some historical and
geographical information besides some explanations
of certain technical terms of Buddhist psychology.
It refers to some rivers, e.g., Aciravati, Ganga,
Godavari, Neranjara, Mahi, Sarabhu, and Anoma.
It also refers to some cities, islands, etc., e.g.,
Kasipura, Penambangana, Kosala, Isipatana, Jam-
fa udipa, Jetavana, Tambapanni, Aparagoyana, Patali-
putta, Pubbavideha, Bandhumati, Bharukaccha,
Rajagaha, Saketa, Savatthi, Sihaladipa. There are
references to some historical personages as well,
e.g., Ajita, Annakodanna, Abhayathera, Assagutta,
Ananda, Alara Kalama, Uttiya, Udayi, Uddaka,
Upaka, Kassapa, Channa, Dutthagamani, Abhaya,
Dasaka, Dipamkara, Nagasena, Buddhaghosa,
Bhaddaji, Mallika, Mahakassapa, Mahinda, Moggali-
putta Tissa, Revata, Vipassi, Vissakamma, Sariputta,
Sujata, Sumana, Sonaka, Metteyya, Pingalabuddha-
rakkhita, Cakkana Upasaka. Buddhaghosa in the
introductory verses laid down that after he had
already dealt with some subjects in his previous
composition, the Visuddhimagga, he had only to
supplement it by way of writing a commentary on

work being a guide to metaphysics of Buddhism for beginners
extracted from the Atthasalini. The Atthasalini has been edited
by Prof. E. Muller for the Pali Text Society. A translation of this
work has been brought out by Mr. Pe Maung Tin, and revised
by Mrs. Rhys Davids. It is widely studied by students of Buddhism
and by the Burmese monks ; and is often quoted by authors of the
Abhidhamma works.

1 Mr. Maung Tin speaks of the two Burmese translations of
the Atthasalini, namely, old Nissaya (MSS. Bernard Free Library,
Rangoon) by Ariyalankara of the earlier part of the 19th century,
and the new Nissaya printed in Kemmendine, Rangoon, 1905, by
Pyi Sadaw of the middle of the 19th century. On the whole
the translation will be useful in reading the text. In the Bernard
Free Library, Rangoon, there are original manuscripts of the
Atthasalini.

474 A History of Pali Literature

the Dhammasangani. But though the Atthasfilinf
aims to be an exposition of the Dhammasangani,
yet there is some anomaly in the contents and
arrangements of the two books. There are some
chapters of the text which the commentary omits
and some chapters which it adds independently
of the text itself. Unlike the Dhammasangani the
chapters in the AtthasalinI are clearly marked so
that the treatment is more scientific than that of
the former. Buddhaghosa at the outset gives an
introductory chapter. In this he deals with various
questions, both literary and philosophical. His
dissertation on literary subjects helps us to a great
extent in fixing the chronology of the texts of the
Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma. He says that
the commentary on the Abhidhamma was sung in
the First Council and was rehearsed in the succeeding
Councils. Mahinda brought it to Ceylon and it was
translated into Sinhalese. Buddhaghosa defines
Abhidhamma as one which excels all other dhammas
in qualities. The chief difference between Suttanta
and Abhidhamma is that in the Suttanta the five
aggregates are classified partially while in the
Abhidhamma this classification has been done
according to three methods, namely, the Suttanta
classification, the Abhidhamma classification, and
Catechism. He shows that Suttanta classification is
incomplete and defective. He next deals with the
Abhidhamma books themselves which are seven in
number and records that the very nature of the
Kathavatthu makes its position untenable in the
very classification itself, for it dates from the in-
cidents of the Third Council. But Buddhaghosa
relying on the traditional number seven in the
Abhidhamma class and showing the internal defects
of Mahadhammapadaya or Mahadhatukatha as the
possible substitutes for the Kathavatthu, holds that
the Kathavatthu falls within Abhidhamma class
particularly because Tissa followed the contents
and method of the Teacher who himself foresaw this
book.

Pali Commentaries 475

The author then gives a table of contents of
each of the seven Abhidhamma books after which
he gives a history of the first Abhidhamma thought
and compilation as emanating from the Buddha
himself. To Sariputta he attributes the origin of
the number and order of the books. Buddhaghosa
quotes many poetical passages as an introductory
explanation of the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma
Pitakas.

He says that the Abhidhamma is intended for
those only who think that there is " I ", " This is
mine ", and who fail to understand that the ultimate
self is merely a collection of things. The main
purpose of the Abhidhamma is, according to him,
to lay a distinction between mind and matter and to
train one in higher and metaphysical understanding.

The author then justifies the fact that the
three pitakas are the words of Buddha himself, for
those bhikkhus who are well practised in Vinaya
arrived at the three kinds of knowledge while those
who are well versed in the Sutta arrive at the six
kinds of super-knowledge and bhikkhus well cultivat-
ed in Abhidhamma arrive at the four analyses.
He then explains why each of the nikayas or
groups is so called. The first one is Digha, because
it contains 34 long suttas. The second one con-
taining 152 suttas is called Majjhima, because they
are of medium length. The Samyutta Nikaya
contains seven thousand seven hundred and sixty-
two suttas. The Anguttara contains nine thousand
five hundred and fifty-seven suttas.

The Khuddaka is one which excludes the four
nikayas, the Vinaya, the Abhidhamma, and includes
such books as Khuddakapatha, Dhammapada,
etc. Then follows an enumeration of the nine
Ahgas, the eighty-four thousand units of texts.
Buddhaghosa then says that the Abhidhamma is a
pitaka by pitaka classification and holds it as a
word of the Buddha. The Abhidhammikas claim
to be the best expositors of the Dhamma. But the
Abhidhamma is a field for the Buddha and not for

476 A History of Pali Literature

others. The author quotes the Elder Tissabhuti
who while seeking to trace the origin of the Abhi-
dhamma at the place of the great enlightenment
quoted Padesavihara Sutta where the Buddha
intuited all his qualities and possessions. He then
recommends the introduction of the Abhidhamma
to all its readers. The author then compares the
introductory portions both of the Sutta and the
Abhidhamma. He says that unlike the Sutta
which has one, the Abhidhamma has two intro-
ductions, the one dealing with the life and equip-
ment of the Buddha and the other with the events
just before the Dhammacakkapavattana. The
author then traces the history of Abhidhamma
teaching in Ceylon. According to him, Abhidhamma,
originated with faith and nurtured in the 550
Jatakas, was taught by the Buddha. It contained
exactly Buddha's words and was handed down by
the unbroken line of teachers till the Third Council
beginning with Sariputta and followed by the
long line of disciples. An examination of the
Atthasalim shows that it was composed after the
Samantapasadika to which it refers in pages 97
and 98 of the P.T.S. edition.

The Sammoha-vinodam or the commentary on
the Vibhanga (Vibhanga-atthakatha) written by
Buddhaghosa has been edited for the P.T.S. by
A. P. Buddhadatta Thera in 1923. This com-
mentary was published in Burma several times, but
in Ceylon about half of the book has been printed.
In many places we find that this commentary and
the Visuddhimagga comment on the same subjects.
This book consists of 18 sections dealing with the
expositions of five khandhas (e.g., rupa, vedana,
saiina, sankhara, and vinfianam), ayatanas (spheres),
dhatus (elements), sacca (truth), indriyas (senses),
paccayakara (causes interdependent), satipatthana
(right recollection), sammappadhana (right con-
centration), iddhipadas (bases of miracles), seven
bojjhangas (supreme knowledge), magga (the Noble
Eightfold Path), j liana (stages of meditation),

Pali Commentaries 477

appamanna (four appamannas consisting in an
unlimited or perfect exercise of the qualities of
friendliness, compassion, good will, and equanimity),
sikkhapadas (precepts), patisambhida (analytical
knowledge), nana (true knowledge), khuddaka-
vatthu (minor points), and dhammahadaya (re-
ligious heart). It should be noted that in the
section on the dhatus, 32 parts of the body
have been discussed. In the section dealing with
truth, the noble truths (ariyasaccam) are dealt with.
In the section on the Paccayakaras we find a dis-
cussion of the topic of dependent origination.
The Satipatthana Vibhanga should be read along
with the Mahasatipatthana Suttanta of the Digha
Nikaya and Satipatthana Suttanta of the Majjhima
Nikaya. The Sammohavinodani contains short
notes on avijja (ignorance), kaya (body), jati
(birth), jara (old age), tanha (desire), domanassa
(despair), nibbana, nama-rupa (name and form),
bhava (existence), bodhi (enlightenment), macchariya
(sloth), marana (death), maya (illusion), etc.

There is a tika on the Sammohavinodani known
as the Sammohavinodamlmattha.

The Dhatukathapakarana-atthakatha is a
commentary on the Dhatukatha written by Buddha-
ghosa. It has 14 sections containing interpreta-
tions of the five khandhas, twelve ayatanas (spheres),
sixteen dhatus (elements), etc.

The Puggalapannatti-atthakatha is a com-
mentary on the Puggalapanfiatti. This work has
been edited for the P.T.S. by G. Landsberg
and Mrs. Rhys Davids (J.P.T.S., 1913-1914).
The available manuscripts are (1) palm-leaf
Sinhalese manuscript procured for the P.T.S. by
Grooneratne, (2) paper Sinhalese manuscript, and
(3) Pyi Gyi Mandyne Press edition, Rangoon, in
Burmese character.

The Kathavatthu-atthakatha is a commentary
on the Kathavatthupakarana written by Buddha-
ghosa. According to this commentary (Kathavatthu
Commentary), two truths, dukkham and dukkha-

478 A History of Pali Literature

samudayam, are mundane (belonging to the world
of re-birth) and the other two truths (nirodha and
nirodhag&minipatipada) are supramundane (belong-
ing to the paths). Of the indriyas, ten belong to
the region of sense-desire, nine to the next two
worlds, and three to the supramundane. Samaya-
vimutta, according to the commentator, applies
to sotapanna, sakadagami, and anagami, and asama-
yavimutta applies to sukkhavipassaka-khinasavas.
Kuppadhamma is applied to an ordinary person
who has attained eight samapattis. It is also
applied to a stream-attainer and to an once-returner.
It means a person who is unsteady or not firmly
established in the path. It is so called because in
his case the mental conditions which are antagonistic
to samadhi and vipassana have not been com-
pletely stopped nor well washed off, and it is for
this reason that their attainment perishes and falls
away. Akuppa-dhamma is applied to an ana-
gami who has attained eight samapattis and to a
khinasava. It means a person who does not go
astray. He is steady or firmly established in the
path. Hindrances of samadhi and vipassana in
such a person are completely destroyed. His attain-
ment is not broken or destroyed by useless talks
or by any other unsuitable act committed through
negligence. The commentary further narrates that
the term ' Gotrabhu ' is applied to a person who
has reached the family, circle, or designation of
Ariyas by surpassing the family, circle, or designa-
tion of ordinary persons through the knowledge
acquired by meditation on Nirvana. According to
the commentary, by meditation on ' formlessness '
a person is freed from rupakaya (form) and by going
through the sublime Eightfold Path he is freed from
namakaya, therefore he is called ubhato-bhaga-
vimutto.

A person at first goes through different stages
of meditation, then he realises nibbanam. There
are six classes of kayasakkhi commencing from
eotapattiphalattha to arahattamaggattha.

Pali Commentaries 479

Ditthapatto. He who thoroughly knows that
this is suffering, this is the cause of suffering, this
is the cessation of suffering, this is the path leading
to the cessation of suffering, is one who has won
vision.

Dhammanusari. It applies to one who has
reached the first stage of sanctification because he
moves by saddha or faith.

Sattakkhattumparamo applies to one who
obtains arahantship at the seventh birth.

After the realisation of the fruition of sotapatti
one is not reborn in a low family. He is reborn
amongst devas and men six times only.

The term Ekabiji is applicable to a stream-
attainer who is reborn once only.

Antara-parmibbayi applies to a person who
obtains Nirvana before reaching the middle of the
term of life. Upahacca-parinibbayi applies to a
person who obtains parinibbana after passing the
middle of the term of life but does not reach the
end. Asankharaparinibbayi applies to a person
who attains complete passing away of mental
impurities. Sasankhara-parinibbayi applies to a
person who obtains the foregoing with instigation,
with trouble, and with exertion.

Akanitthagami. According to this commentary,
a person goes to the highest Brahmaloka passing
through four intermediate Brahma worlds, namely,
Aviha, Atappa, Sudassa, and Sudassi.

Kalyanamitta means a good or spiritual friend.
Hinadhimutto means low inclination. Pamtadhi-
mutto means " having good inclination ".

The commentary says that the seven learners
and average men are restrained from sin through
fear, but the Khinasavas have completely uprooted
their fear, therefore they are called Abhayuparato.

A person who has first obtained knowledge of
previous births and deva-sight and then arahant-
ship is called a tevijjo, i.e., possessed of three vijjas,
namely, pubbenivasananam (knowledge of previous
births), dibbacakkhunanam (knowledge of deva-

480 A History of Pali Literature

sight), and arahantaphalananarh (knowledge of
arahantship). A person attaining arahantship first
and then the other two is also called tevijjo.

Chalabhinrio. A person possessing six super-
normal faculties or super-knowledges, namely, iddhi-
vidha (various sorts of magical power), dibbasota
(deva-ear), paracetofianam (power of knowing
another's thought), pubbenivasaiianam (power of
remembering previous births), dibbacakkhu (deva-
sight), and asavakkhayananam (knowledge of des-
truction of sinful tendencies) is called chalabhiniio.

Pubbakari. A person who does good to others
before getting benefit from them.

Katannakatavedl. It means that a person who
after having known that he has got some benefit
from others does benefit to them afterwards.
Kasambu means dirty and also bad smelling water.

The word samkittisu means samkittetva
katabhattesu. In time of famine an acelaka (naked
ascetic) collects uncooked rice by begging from house
to house and declaring the object of his begging ;
he then cooks rice to be distributed among the
acelakas. A good acelaka does not accept any kind
of food.

Anusotagami puggalo means putthujjano or
ordinary person. According to this commentary,
by a fifth person is to be understood the person
who has exhausted the sinful tendencies.

The Yamakapakarana-atthakatha is a com-
mentary on the Yamaka written by Buddhaghosa.
Strictly speaking, it is a commentary on the Mula
Yamaka, Khandha Yamaka, Ayatana Yamaka,
Dhatu Yamaka, Sacca Yamaka, Samkhara Yamaka,
Anussaya Yamaka, Citta Yamaka, Dhamma
Yamaka, and Indriya Yamaka.

The Mula Yamaka deals with the essence of
the teaching of Gotama. In it is included the
kusalamula. Mula here means the cause.

The Khandha Yamaka deals with an account
of the khandhas (aggregates), e.g., Rupa, Vinnana,
Vedana, Sanna, and Samkhara.

Pali Commentaries 481

The Ayatana Yamaka deals with ayatana or
space, e.g., cakkhu, sota, kaya, rupa, rasa, phottabba,
etc.

The Dhatu Yamaka contains an account of
various dhatus or elements.

The Sacca Yamaka treats of the four Aryan
truths.

The section on Samkhara Yamaka deals with
kayasamkhara, vacisamkhara, etc.

The Anussaya Yamaka is a section on attach-
ment, e.g., kama, raga, etc.

The Citta Yamaka deals with mind and mental
states.

The Dhamma and Indriya Yamakas deal with
kusala, akusala, and avyakata dhammas and senses
respectively, e.g., manindriya, jlvitindriya, domanas-
sindriya.

The Patthanapakarana-atthakatha, edited by
Mrs. Rhys Davids for the P.T.S., London, is a com-
mentary on the Patthana written by Buddhaghosa
at the request of a monk named Cullabuddhaghosa
(J.P.T.S., 1886).

C. WORKS OF DHAMMAPALA

The Vimanavatthu Commentary is practically
a collection of stories illustrating
the Buddhist perspective of Heaven
and Hell, or more correctly, the
Buddhist idea of Heaven and Hell ' prevalent
amongst the people of Northern India at the time
of the Buddha and incorporated subsequently in
the Buddhist Scriptures V These stories help us
to form an idea of the various grades of heaven, the
pleasures of the Tavatimsa heaven, the joys and
comforts of the dwellers in the Buddhist vimanas,
location of the various vimanas, and the form of
the vimana and its comforts which are but propor-
tionate to meritorious deeds.

1 Ronaldshay in his Foreword to the * Heaven and Hell in
Buddhist Perspective ' by Dr. B. C. Law.

482 A History of Pali Literature

Synopses of Stories *

1. Plfhavimdna (pp. 5-6). A girl, a great
believer in the Buddha, once made the gift of a
wooden stool to a thera whom she had offered food.
In consequence of this meritorious deed, the girl
was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven where she
enjoyed joys and comforts of the heaven.

As a reward of her offering a seat to a bhikkhu
a woman of Savatthi obtained in heaven a virnana
made of Veluriya (lapis lazulis).

For presenting a pitha or a seat to an arhat
whom she had offered food, a mistress of a house
was reborn in the golden mansion of the Tavatimsa
heaven.

2. Kunjaravimdna (pp. 31 foil). A daughter
of a family of Rajagaha once entertained Sariputta
with a seat and various kinds of food and drink,
and presented him with new clothes and a conch.
In consequence of this meritorious deed, she was
reborn in the golden mansion of the Tavatimsa
heaven.

3. Ndvdvimdna (pp. 40 foil.). A woman for
offering drinking water to some thirsty bhikkhus
was reborn by virtue of her meritorious deed in the
Tavatimsa heaven. Another woman, too, for offering
cold drink and oil to rub his feet with to a thera,
was reborn after death in the same heaven.

A slave girl of a brahmin of the village of
Thuna in Kosala ran the risk of being beaten by
her master and offered a pot of water to the Buddha
to drink water from. The Buddha quenched his
thirst as well as that of his entire Order and yet
returned the pot full of water to the slave girl.
The girl after death was reborn in the Tavatimsa
heaven where she was given other objects of heavenly
enjoyment.

4. Dlpavimdna (pp. 50-51). For offering a
light in the dusk before a preacher's seat, an

1 For detailed summaries of these stories see my " Heaven and
Hell in Buddhist Perspective ", Sec. II, pp. 36-85.

Pali Commentaries 483

upasika after death was reborn in the Tavatimsa
heaven in the Jotirasavimana.

5. Tiladakkhinavimdna (p. 54). For present-
ing to the Buddha a certain quantity of sesamum
seeds in joined palms, a pregnant woman was reborn
after death in the Tavatimsa heaven.

6. Patibbatdvimdna (pp. 56-57). A beautiful
and faithful wife, as a reward of her sweetness and
sincerity, charity, and faithfulness, was reborn after
death in the Tavatimsa heaven.

7. Sunisdvimdna (p. 61). For offering some
portion of the cakes which she had got for her own
use to an arahant, the daughter-in-law of a Savat-
thian family was reborn after death in the Tavatimsa
heaven.

8. Uttardvimdna (pp. 62-74). By offering to
Sariputta the whole of the food prepared and meant
for her husband, Uttara, the loving wife of Punna,
the servant of a banker of Rajagaha, performed a
meritorious deed as a result of which her husband
became the richest man in the whole city and was
made the Nagarasetthi ; and both the husband
and wife attained the first stage of sanctification by
their deeds of charity in the shape of gifts to the
Buddha and the congregation.

Punna's daughter was also named Uttara ; at
one time she invited the Buddha and his disciples,
listened to the Buddha's religious discourse, and
then attained the second stage of sanctification,
while her husband and other relatives, who had
thus an opportunity of listening to the discourses
of the Master, attained the first stage. Uttara on
her death was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

9. Sirimdvimdna (pp. 75 foil.). For offering
alms to eight bhikkhus daily, and spending sixteen
kahapanas on charity, Sirima the courtesan was
reborn after death as a celestial nymph.

10. Kesakdrivimdna (pp. 86-89). A daughter
of Kesakari, a brahmin of Benares, listened to the
precepts of the Buddhist faith from a lay disciple,
and, while meditating on those of impurities, attained

484 A History of Pali Literature

the first stage and was, after death, reborn as an
attendant of Sakka.

11. Ddstvimdna (pp. 91-92), For serving four
bhikkhus daily with hearty devotion and observing
the true dhammas, a maid-servant was reborn
after death as one of the beloved attendants of
Sakka.

12. Lakhumdvimdna (pp. 97-98). For pre-
paring seats and supplying water to the bhikkhus
in the asanasala daily, a woman called Lakhumft
was established in the Sotapatti and was, after
death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

13. Awmaddyikdvimdna (pp. 100-101). For
offering her food and the acama which had been
given her by the inmates of a house behind which
she had taken shelter, to Mahakassapa, a woman of
Bajagaha was reborn among the Nimmanaratidevas.

14. Canddllvimdna (pp. 105-107). A candali
once at the exhortation of Mahamoggallana fell
down at the feet of the Buddha and worshipped
him. On account of this meritorious deed, she
was, on her death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

15. Bhadditthivimdna (pp. 109-110). Bhadda,
usually known as Bhadditthl, once offered good food
and drink to four disciples of the Master with
their followers, served them in every way, listened
to their discourses, embraced the faith, and received
the five silas. She, after death, was reborn in the
Tavatimsa heaven and worshipped the Buddha when
the Master went there.

16. Sanadinndvimdna (p. 115). For serving
bhikkhus, observing the precepts and the uposotha
with perfect regularity, Sonadinna, a devoted
upasika of Nalanda, attained Sotapatti and was
reborn after death in the Tavatimsa heaven.

17. Uposathavimdna (p. 115). For similar
meritorious deeds, Uposatha, another devoted
upasika of Saketa, was reborn after death in the
Tavatimsa heaven.

18. Bhikkhdddyikavimdna (pp. 118-119). On
account of her inviting the Buddha to have his

Pali Commentaries 485

daily meal at her house and serving him in other
ways, a woman of Uttaramadhura in Savatthi was,
after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

19. Uldravimdna (pp. 120-121). For offering
the cake of her mother-in-law's share to Maha-
moggallana, a girl was reborn, after death, in the
Tavatimsa heaven.

20. Ucchuddyikavimdna (p. 124). For similar
reasons another girl also obtained the same good
fortune,

21. Pallankavimdna (p. 128). A daughter of
an upasika at Savatthi was reborn in the Tavatimsa
heaven for her having been virtuous, free from
anger, devoted, and an observer of the Sabbath.

22. Latdvimdna (pp. 131-132). As a result of
her gentle behaviour and practising charity and
observing the Sabbath, Lata, a daughter of an
upasaka of Savatthi, was reborn as a daughter
of Vessavana Kuvera, and was appointed along
with her four other sisters as a dancing girl by Sakka.

23. Guttilavimdna (pp. 137-148). On account
of various kinds of charity, 32 nymphs had become
liberated from earthly life and came to be born
as heavenly nymphs possessing splendour greater
than that of other gods. When Guttila, the
musician, saw them in Indra's court, he, as remunera-
tion for his songs, prayed that all the bright goddesses
would recount to him the good deeds that had
brought them to the heavenly regions.

24. Daddalhavimdna (pp. 149 foil.). The
Daddalhavimana illustrates that offering food and
drink to the Samgha brings forth more merit than
that to individual bhikkhus.

25. Pesavativimdna (pp. 156 foil.). In con-
sequence of the meritorious deed of offering her
gold ornaments to be utilised for the erection of a
stupa, a girl was reborn in the devaloka, and from
that devaloka she was reborn in the family of a
householder in Magadha. In this birth of her,
she showed her respect to the dead body of Sariputta
by worshipping it with scents, flowers, etc. And

486 A History of Pali Literature

when she died with her mind full of respect for the
Buddha, she was reborn in the Tftvatimsa heaven.

26. Mallikdvimdna (p. 165). For offering
worship to the relic of the Buddha, Mallika, daughter
of the king of Kusinara, was reborn, after death,
in the Tavatimsa heaven.

27. Visdlakkhivimdna (pp. 169-170). For
daily sending garlands, perfumes, fruits, flowers,
etc., to the stupa over the relic of the Buddha,
Sunanda, a daughter of the garland-maker of
Rajagaha, was born after death as an attendant
of Sakka, who, on one occasion, addressed her as
Visalakkhi.

28. Pdricchattakavimdna (p. 173). For wor-
shipping the Buddha with Asoka flowers and
showing respect to him in various ways, a certain
woman was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

29. Manjetthakavimdna (pp. 176-177). As a
result of her worshipping the Buddha with sala
flowers, a certain maid-servant was, after death,
reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

30. Pabhassaravimana (pp. 178-179). For
welcoming Mahamoggallana to her house, offering
him a seat, and worshipping him, a daughter of a
certain upasaka of Rajagaha was reborn, after
death, in the Tavatimsa heaven.

31. Ndgavimdna (pp. 181-182). For offering a
pair of clothes to the Buddha and listening to a
religious discourse of the Master, an upasika of
Benares was, after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa
heaven.

32. Alomavimdna (p. 184). The good deed of
offering some rotten cooked rice, not finding
anything better without salt to the Buddha, brought
a poor woman named Aloma to the Tavatimsa
heaven after death.

33. Kanjikaddyikavimdna (pp. 185-186). For
offering to the Buddha a medicated drink of rice-
gruel that relieved the Master of his pain in the
stomach, the wife of the Buddha's physician was
reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven after death.

Pali Commentaries 487

34. Vihdravimana (pp. 187-189). Visakha the
great upasika of SavatthI once listened to a religious
discourse of the Buddha and offered her mahalata
ornament to the Master for the construction of a
vihara, the merit whereof was given to her maid-
servant. Visakha was, on that account, reborn
in the Nimmanarati heaven where he became chief
queen to the King Sunimmita, and the maid-servant
was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

35. Caturitthivimdna (pp. 195-196). For mak-
ing gifts to bhikkhus, four girls of the time of the
Kassapa Buddha became celestial nymphs after
death. At the time of Gautama Buddha they
were in heaven.

36. Ambavimdna (p. 198). For building a
hermitage for bhikkhus and the Master, an upasika
of SavatthI was, after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa
heaven.

37. Pitavimdna (p. 200). While on his way
to worship a stupa, an upasika was killed by a
milch-cow. She was reborn in the Tavatimsa
heaven.

38. Vandanavimdiia (p. 205). For making
obeisance to a number of bhikkhus to whom she
was filled with veneration and respect, a village
woman was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

39. Bajjumdlavimdna (pp. 206-209). For
being instrumental in inviting the Buddha to her
mistress's house, a servant girl was reborn in the
Tavatimsa heaven after death.

40. Mandukadevaputtavimdna (pp. 217-218).
A frog was trod upon by a cowherd while listening
to a religious discourse of the Buddha. It was
reborn, after death, in the Tavatimsa heaven.

41. Revatlvimdna (pp. 220 foil.). RevatI, wife
of a householder of SavatthI, practised charity only
when her husband was at home, and stopped all
works of charity after the death of her husband.
In consequence of this she had to experience suffering
in different hells while enjoying blessings of the
Tavatimsa heaven.

10

488 A History of Pali Literature

42. Chattamdnavakavimdna (pp. 229-233).
Knowing the impending death of Chatta, a son of a
learned brahmana, the Buddha set out for him, and
meeting him on the way converted him to ' the
faith. For his devotion to the faith, Chatta, after
death, was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

43. Kakkatakara^addyakavimdna (pp. 243-
244). For offering to a bhikkhu rice and crab
soup which relieved him of an acute pain in the
ear, a farmer of Magadha was reborn after death
in the Tavatimsa heaven.

44. Dvdrapdlakavimdna (pp. 246-247). For
daily receiving bhikkhus with care and devotion
and listening to their exhortations, a gatekeeper
was converted to the faith, and was, after death,
reborn in the Tavatiihsa heaven.

45. Karaniyavimdna (p. 248). For inviting
the Buddha to his house and offering him food
and drink, an upasaka was reborn, after death,
in the Tavatimsa heaven.

46. Sucivimdna (p. 250). For offering two
needles to Sariputta, a blacksmith was, after death,
reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

47. Dutiyasucivimdna (p. 251). For similar
act of charity, a tailor acquired the same good
fortune.

48. Ndgavimdna (pp. 252-254). For obtaining
with difficulty eight flowers with which he worshipped
the stupa, an upasaka was reborn as a devaputta
in various vimanas, and came to the Tavatimsa
heaven at the time of the Buddha Gautama.

49. Dutiyandgavimdna (pp. 254-255). An
upasaka of Rajagaha was reborn in the Tavatimsa
heaven on account of his charity and faithfulness
and on account of his offering alms and drinks to
the bhikkhus.

50. Tatiyandgavimdna (pp. 255-257). For
offering rice with sugarcane juice and sugarcane
pieces to three bhikkhus and then entertaining
respectfully an offence for which he was beaten to
death by his master, the keeper of a sugarcane

Pali Commentaries 489

field at Rajagaha was reborn in the Mote-hall
called Sudhamma of the gods.

51. Cularathavimdna (pp. 259-270). For re-
ceiving instruction in the faith from Mahakaccayana,
building a vihara, and inviting a thera to come
there, and for performing other meritorious deeds,
Sujata, the banished son of the king of Asoka, was
reborn after death in the Tavatimsa heaven.

52. Mahdrathavimdna (pp. 270-271). For hav-
ing worshipped the Buddha Vipassi with a garland
of gold, a devapntta named Gopala was reborn at
the time of Kassapa Buddha as the son of King
Kiki of Benares. In this birth he made immense gifts
and received the Dhamma from that Buddha, and was
accordingly reborn, after death, in the Tavatimsa
heaven. Later, at the time of Gautama Buddha he
learnt the principles of the faith from Mahamoggallana
and became established in the Sotapatti.

53. Agdriyavimdna (p. 286). In conse-
quence of their offering charity to bhikkhus, a rich
couple of Rajagaha were reborn in the Tavatimsa
heaven, having a very large golden vimana full of
celestial comforts.

54. Phaladdyakavimdna (pp. 288-289). For
offering to Mahamoggallana four mangoes which
were distributed by the Buddha to his four pro-
minent disciples, and making over the merit of the
gift to King Bimbisara, a gardener, after death, was
reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

55. Upassayaddyakavimdna (p. 291). For
placing one room at the disposal of a bhikkhu for one
night and for entertaining him with food and
drink, an upasaka of Rajagaha with his wife was,
after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

56. Bhikkhdddyakavimdna (pp. 292-293). As a
reward of his offering food to a bhikkhu, a house-
holder was reboni in the Tavatimsa heaven.

57. Yavapdlakavimdna (p. 294). For offering
food to a bhikkhu a boy, who was at that time
himself very hungry, was born, after death, in the
Tavatimsa heaven.

490 A History of Pali Literature

58. Kundallvimdria (p. 295). For making
arrangements for bhikkhus for their stay at night
and offering plenty of food and drink an upasaka,
after death, was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

59. Uttaravimdna (pp. 297-298). For listening
to the Payasi Sutta delivered by Kumarakassapa
Thera and embracing the Buddhist faith, as also
for practising charity on a poor scale, King Payasi
was, after death, reborn in the Catummaharajika
devaloka. But his officer who spent all his wealth
in charity was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

60. Cittalatdvimdna (p. 299). For serving
other people, and for being faithful, obedient, and
devoted to the three gems, a poor man of Savatthi
was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

61. Manithunavimdna (p. 301). For sweeping
the path which the bhikkhus used when going out
for alms, and for making all other arrangements for
making their journey comfortable as well as for
observing the precepts and offering charity, an
upasaka was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

62. Suvanriavimdna (p. 302). For offering to
the Buddha an excellent gandhakuti provided with
all necessary comforts, an upasaka, after death,
was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

63. Ambavimdna (pp. 305-306). For inviting
Sariputta to his garden and offering him water
for bath and drinking, a gardener was reborn in
the Tavatimsa heaven.

64. Gopdlavimdna (p. 308). A Imngry cowherd
of Bajagaha offered Mahamoggallana the sour gruel
meant for him. He was, as a result, reborn after
death in the Tavatimsa heaven.

65. Kanthakavimdna (pp. 312-314). The
famous horse of Gautama, named Kanthaka, was,
after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven for its
past services to Gautama, its master.

66. Anekavannavimdna (pp. 318-320). A
bhikkhu who became a householder was in the habit
of performing meritorious deeds, worshipping Caityas
and listening to the discourses. He was, after

Pali Commentaries 491

death, born in the devaloka and was more powerful
than Sakka. At the time of Gautama Buddha, he
was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

67. Serisakavimana (pp. 331 foil). In con-
sequence of his failing to offer charities with a
whole heart, King Payasi could not reach the
Tavatimsa heaven, but was reborn in the lower
heaven of Catummaharajikas, in a vacant vimana
called Serisakavimana.

68. Sunikkhitavimdna (pp. 352 foil.). An
upasaka who was very much devoted to the worship
of the Kassapa-Sammasambuddha and his caitya,
was reborn, after death, in a golden mansion in the
Tavatimsa heaven.

It will be seen from the above account of the
vimanas or celestial mansions that the form of the
vimana and the comforts and pleasures provided
therein are proportionate not only to the meritorious
deeds done on earth, but also to the particular
nature of the deeds themselves, as also to the
desire of the dweller of the vimana. It appears,
furthermore, that most of the departed spirits go
to the Tavatimsa heaven. Only in rare cases do
we read of a spirit passing to the regions of the
higher gods, the Nimmanaratis. It is only in very
exceptional cases indeed that spirits go to the
Brahmaloka. Downward also we read only in
one case of a king who went to the region of
Catummaharajikas for stinginess of making gifts.

Another thing that deserves notice is that the
vimana may not always be in the heavenly regions.
This is specially the case with the spirits in the lower
heavens who are not sufficiently purified or whose
attachment to things on earth is still rather keen.
The spirits could at will come down on earth in the
vimanas, and in several cases they came to the
Buddha in their vimanas to listen to his discourse. 1

1 For fuller and more critical observations on these anecdotes
eee my " Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective ", Chap. Ill,
pp. 80-91.

492 A History of Pali Literature

" The joys of heaven," Lord Ronaldshay rightly
observes, in his Foreword to my book on ' Heaven
and Hell in Buddhist Perspective ', " are represented
as being obtainable by means of what is suspiciously
like a mercenary bargain, entered into in a spirit
which far from being selfless is, on the contrary,
frankly selfish ". This is quite obviously foreign
to the lofty thought and teaching of Buddha
himself.

Petavatthu Commentary. The Paramatthadi-
pani 1 is a commentary on the Petavatthu, a work
devoted entirely to the petas or spirits of the de-
ceased. It was written by Dhammapala of Kanchi-
puram 2 in Southern India and it contains details of
stories compiled from Buddhist tradition handed
down orally as well as recorded in the ancient
atthakathas (or commentaries) preserved in Ceylon.
Dhammapala's atthakatha is a great storehouse of
information about the individual petas or spirits,
and these stories enable us to form an idea of the
Buddhist conception of spirits and the spirit world.

A short synoptical account of the stories of
the Petavatthu Commentary may be catalogued
as follows :

1. Khettupama Peta (pp. 1-9). A setthiputta
who deserved to be reborn in the devaloka for a
deed of charity towards Mahamoggallana was,
however, born on a much lower plane as a tree
spirit, owing to his affection towards Sulasa, a
beautiful maiden of his town. As a tree spirit, he
stole away Sulasa and kept her with him on the
tree for some time.

2. Sukaramukhapeta (pp. 9 foil.). For having
been unrestrained in speech, a bhikkhu was reborn

1 Petavatthu Commentary edited by Son Dhammaraina Tiasa
Nayaka Thera and Mapulagamacandajoti Thera ; finally revised by
Mahagoda Siri Sanissara Thera Tripi^aka Wagiswaracarya and
Pradhana Nayaka, Colombo. The Petavatthu with Sinhalese
commentary by Jinavamsa Pafinasara of Kosgoda, Colombo,
1893-1898, deserves mention.

2 The commentary has been edited for the P.T.S. by Prof.
E. Hardy.

EdU Commentaries 493

as a peta with the face like that of a swine or
sukara.

3. Putimukhapeta (pp. 12 foil.). A bhikkhu
very much unrestrained in speech once created
dissensions between two friends. As a punishment
he was reborn as a peta under the name of puti-
mukha, because his mouth used to give out a very
bad smell on account of his having been wicked
and unrestrained in speech.

4. Pitthadhitalikapeta (pp. 16 fall.). In course
of a discourse the Buddha approved of making
offering to the departed spirits; but added that
sorrow, lamentation, and weeping were of no use
to the petas, they only brought suffering to the
living relatives.

5. Tirokuddapeta (pp. 19 foil). Some people
for their misdeeds were reborn as petas ; but as
they did not obtain any offering from their relatives,
they were again born as petas. Bimbisara, who
was their former relative, however, gave a dinner
to the whole Sarhgha and made over to the petas
the merit thereof ; and the Buddha approved of it.

6. Panchaputtakhddakapeta (pp. 31 foil). For
causing miscarriage to a pregnant woman, another
woman was reborn as a peti of evil look and suffered
untold miseries. She was, however, freed from her
miserable condition only when her former husband
transferred the merit of a pious deed of charity
to the peti.

7. Sattaputtakhddakapeta (pp. 36-37). The
story of the misdeed and its retribution is just like
the previous one.

8. Gonapeta (pp. 38-42). A son consoled his
father who had become overpowered with grief at
the death of his father by saying that he was
weeping for one whose body was not even before
him and could not even be seen or heard.

9. Mahdpesakdrapeta (pp. 42-46). The wife of
the headman of a village was very malicious to-
wards the bhikkhus whom her husband used to
provide with cloth. The husband was reborn as a

494 A History of Pali Literature

tree-god while his wife came to Kve close by as
pet! who suffered boundless miseries, anguish, a
pain. She was however released from her pool
lot when her former husband, the tree-god, trans*
ierred the merit of one of his deeds of charity to her,
10. Kholotiyapeta (pp. 46-53), As a result o!
both good and evil deeds, a woman in her nexi
life found herself seated in a golden vim&na, but on
Account of her having stolen clothings of invited
guests, she was naked. But when the merit of a
pious act of a body of merchants was transferred to
her, she became draped in finest garments. Sub-
sequently she sent some presents to the Buddha
and was as a result reborn in a golden palace in the
Tavatimsa heaven.

11. Ndgapeta (pp. 53-61). As a direct result
of their unbelief and past misdeeds, husband and
wife were reborn as a peta and peti respectively,
and used to beat each other with iron clubs.

12. Uragapeta (pp. 61-66). Dhammapala, a
brahmin of Benares, taught the members of his
family not to lament at the death of anybody,
and all of them acted accordingly. For this wise
attitude they were rewarded by Sakka who was
no other than their own son reborn in heaven as
Sakka.

13. Mattakundalipeta (p. 92). The son of a
miserly brahmin who was reborn as a god came
down to console his father in the guise of a peta
and asked him not to lament for one whose dead
body was not even visible (cf. Dhammapada Com-
mentary, Vol. I, p. 28).

14. Satthikutasahassapeta (pp. 282-286). In
consequence of various serious misdeeds, four sons
of setthis of Rajagaha suffered in hell for 60,000
years, and then became petas suffering in Loha-
kumbhi hell (cf. Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. II,
pp. 68-73).

15. Bhogasamharapeta (pp. 278-279). For
cheating people, four women came to be reborn
as petls and became overwhelmed with great pain.

Pali Commentaries 495

16. AkkJuwukkhapeta (pp. 277-278). On
account of his act of help and charity done to an
upasaka, a man came to be reborn as a god living
on earth.

17. Ambapeta (pp. 273 foil.). An avaricious
trader, after death, came to live as a peta ; and he
was not relieved of his miserable plight until his
daughter transferred the merit of her meritorious
deed to him.

1 8. PdtalipiMapeta (pp. 27 1 foil. ). An upasaka
on account of his attachment to a particular woman
was reborn as a Vimanapeta where he with the
help of his miraculous power enjoyed for some time
the company of his lover.

19. Oanapeta (pp. 269 foil.). A number of
people of Savatthi, who formed a Gana and who
were unbelievers, unfaithful, misers, and doers of
evil deeds, were reborn after their death as petas
and on one occasion they related in detail the story
of their suffering to Moggallana.

20. Guthakhddakapeta (pp. 266-269). A family
bhikkhu was in the habit of speaking against
other bhikkhus, and also induced a householder who
had built for him a house to abuse them. Both of
them on account of their misdeeds were reborn as
petas.

21. Sdnuvdsipeta (pp. 177-186). The son of
the king of Benares once insulted a Pacceka Buddha,
for which sin, he, after death, was reborn in the
Avici hell. He was, however, reborn in the time of
Gautama and eventually became a famous monk.
But his relatives who all misbehaved with him
came to be born after death as petas.

22. Kwndrapeta (pp. 261-263). Two princes of
Kosala were, for committing adultery, reborn as
petas. To relieve them of suffering, the Buddha
asked the people to make offerings to the Samgha,
and transfer the merit of the offerings to the petas.

23. Dhdtuvivannapeta (pp. 212-215). A
wealthy householder, who was an unbeliever, and
used to speak ill of the relics, was reborn as a peta.

496 A History of Pali Literature

24. Ucchupeta (pp. 257 foil.). A sugarcane
farmer for his beating an upasaka with sugarcane-
sticks was reborn as a peta. He, however, got rid
of his sufferings, when he made an offering of a
huge bundle of canes to the Buddha and Samgha ;
as a result of this offering, he was reborn in the
Tavatimsa heaven.

25. Nandakapeta (pp. 244-257). Nandika, the
commander-in-chief of the king of Surattha, for
his unbelief, was reborn as a peta and resided on a
nigrodha tree. But when his daughter transferred
the merit of one of her meritorious deeds, he became
a believer.

26. Ambasakkharapeta (pp. 215 foil.). A
merchant of Vaisali for joking concealed the garment
of his associate and had to go naked in his next
birth though he was reborn as a god living on
earth. But impressed by his exhortations, King
Ambasakkhara offered his garments to bhikkhus
so that the naked might get clothes to wear.

27. Kutavinicchayikapeta (pp. 209 foil). For
his past sins of speaking malicious words and cheat-
ing people, a judicial officer of King Bimbisara had
to eat the flesh taken out from his own body,
though he was reborn as a devata for having kept
upasotha for one night.

28. Dutiyaluddapeta (pp. 207 foil.). As a result
of his cruelty by day, a hunter used to be bitten
by dogs in the daytime though he was reborn as
a Vimanapeta enjoying happiness at night for his
having ceased hunting by night.

29. Migaluddapeta (pp. 204 foil.). Like the
previous one.

30. Serinipeta (pp. 201 foil.). Serin!, an un-
believer, used to speak ill of the Samanas ; she
was, therefore, reborn as a petl in the petaloka
suffering miserably. She was, however, at last
freed from the petaloka by virtue of the merit
transferred to him by the mother of an upasaka.

31. Kumdrapeta (pp. 194 foil.). An envious
and stingy person used to speak ill of the ascetics ;

Pali Commentaries 497

but he was eventually prevailed upon to worship
the Buddha and make an offering. After death,
the son was reborn in the womb of a prostitute
who threw him into a cemetery. He was eventually
picked up by a wealthy householder to whose
wealth he became later on the sole heir.

32. Bhusapeta (pp. 191 foil.). A merchant of
Savatthi used to cheat people in trade, his son was
a sinner, his wife and daughter-in-law were also
very greedy. They were all reborn, after death, as
petas and petis in the Vindhya forest where they
suffered terribly and miserably.

33. Rathakdrapeta (pp. 186 foil. ). For the good
act of building a vihara for a Samgha, a pious woman
was reborn as a Vimanapeti on account of some
of her past misdeeds.

34. Abhijjamdnapeta (pp. 168 foil.). A hunter
who delighted in the cruel sport of hunting was
reborn as a peta naked and fierce in appearance
and never saw any food or drink. He was, however,
clothed and fed as a result of the charity of the
minister of King Bimbisara of food and clothes to
all upasakas.

35. Ubbaripeta (pp. 160 foil.). At the death of
her husband Culani Brahmadatta, king of Pancala,
Ubbarl was overpowered with grief and she wept
bitterly. The Master who was then Bodhisattva
came to her, and by a discourse on kamma and
on the many births and deaths, as also by expound-
ing the Dhamma, consoled her lacerated soul.

36. Suttapeta (pp. 144 foil.). A boy who was
an attendant of a paccekabuddha came to be reborn
as a Vimanapeta on account of his attachment to
a girl. By winning over her mother, the peta was,
however, able to bring the girl to his abode where
they lived together happily for some time.

37. Uttaramdtupeta (pp. 140 foil.). Uttara, a
woman, was stingy and a believer of false doctrines.
She also used to curse those who were believers ;
she was accordingly, after death, reborn as a pet!,
and suffered terribly for 55 years, when she was

498 A History of Pali Literature

at last saved by the merit of a charity transferred
to her by a thera.

38. Samsdramocakapeta (pp. 67 foil.). A girl
of the Samsaramocaka caste who was a false believer
was, however, made indirectly to salute a thera
who wanted her to be saved from going to hell
after death. She was reborn, therefore, as a peti,
with some chance of salvation. The chance even-
tually came, and she was freed from the petaloka.

39. Sdripuitattherassa Mdtupeti (pp. 78 foil.).
A mischievous woman, who did not give food, drink,
and habitation to the bhikkhus who came to her
place as guests, was reborn as a peti and had to
suffer miseries. She was, however, relieved of her
sufferings and reborn in the devaloka by Sariputta
whose mother she had been in the fifth birth.

40. Mattdpetl (pp. 82 foil.). Matta, the barren
wife of a householder of Savatthi, was very jealous
of her husband and his second wife who were very
loving and friendly towards each other, and daily
made offerings to theras and bhikkhus. On account
of her jealousy and other misdeeds, she was reborn
as a peti and suffered terribly. She was, however,
released from the petaloka by dint of the merit
of the second wife being transferred to her.

41. Nanddpeta (pp. 89 foil.). Nanda, the wife
of a householder, was, as a result of her misdeeds,
reborn as a peti. One day she appeared before her
husband who according to her direction made gifts
of charity to the bhikkhus and the peti was released
from her miseries.

42. Dhanapdlapeta (pp. 99 foil.). Dhanapala,
a miserly and sceptic merchant, was reborn as a
peta in a desert where he could not get a drop of
water to drink or grain to eat. After suffering for
55 years, he was, however, saved from suffering
by a caravan of merchants who made offerings on
his account to the Buddha and his disciples.

43. Culasetthipeta (pp. 105 foil.). A stingy and
sceptic householder of Benares was reborn after
death as a peta with a body without flesh and

Pali Commentaries 499*

blood. The peta once approached King Ajatasattu,
who, on his request and on his account, made
offerings to the Buddha and hie disciples, and the
peta was relieved of his suffering.

44. Revatlpeta (pp. 257). An unbelieving and
uncharitable wife of a believing and charitable
householder was reborn, as a result of her misdeeds,
as a peti. But when she was asked by her husband
to approve, and did so, of the meritorious acts done
by him, she became a devata and resided with her
husband in heaven.

45. Ankurapeta (pp. Ill foil.). Ahkura, the
youngest son of the king of Uttaramadhura, was a
charitable man. He learnt a good lesson, first
from a deity of a nigrodha tree, and later on from
a peta, that one should make gifts with his own
hands, because the man charged with work might
not do it in the right spirit. After death, he was
reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven.

These stories were evidently compiled with a
purpose. Each one of them has a lesson, a moral
which wants to drive home to the mind of the
reader the effect of kamma after death. A man
after death is reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven, or
in the devaloka, and enjoys the good and healthy
effects of kamma to the extent he during his life-
time did good to others, especially to the Buddha
and the bhikkhus of the Order, he was religiously
and favourably minded towards Buddhism, he
was charitable and he followed the right path by
which of course was meant the Eightfold Path of
Buddhism. But whosoever is guilty of misdeeds,
of cruelty, of too much worldly attachment, of
hatred or even lack of faith and devotion towards
the Buddha's religion or towards anyone belonging
to that religious Order, or was an unbeliever or
believer in false doctrines by which was certainly
meant any doctrine other than Buddhism, that
individual comes to be reborn, after death, as a
peta or peti ; he then suffers as the spirit of his
deceased existence. And not until he or she does

500 A History of P&li Literature

some good works or anybody else does it on their
account religious or charitable in the Buddhist
sense that he or she is delivered of his or her
life of a peta or petl.

The Theragatha Commentary written by
Dhammapala l and known as Para-
matthadipani contains accounts of
theras mentioned in the Thera-
gatha. The commentary refers to a number of
important places of ancient India, e.g., Savatthi,
Rajagaha, Kapilavatthu, KosambI, Magadha,
Campa, Vesali, Avanti, Saketa, Takkasila, Bharu-
kaccha, etc. Kings and tribes are also frequently
mentioned : Pasenadi, Bimbisara, Candapajjota,
Mallas, Vajjians, Sakians, etc., are a few of them.
It is evident from a study of the contents of the
commentary that the theras belonged to different
castes, from the highest aristocracy to the lowest
scavenger, but they looked to one another with
fraternal affection and equanimity. Most of the
theras lived contemporaneously with the Buddha.
A brief summary of the principal theras is given
below :

Subhuti was a nephew of Anathapindika. On
the day when the Jeta grove, purchased by his
uncle, was presented to the Exalted One, Subhuti
was present. When he headed the Norm preached
by the Blessed One, he realised the worthlessness
of the worldly life. He left the world and developed
his insight in the basis of love-jhana and won
arahatship. The Exalted One declared him to
be the chief of his disciples in universal amity and
chief among such as were held worthy of gifts.

Kotthita the Great was born in a very wealthy
clan of brahmins. He perfected himself in the
accomplishments of a brahmin. He found faith

1 It was edited by Suriyagoda Sumangala Thera and Webada
Samgharatana Thera, and finally revised by Mahagoda Siri Sanis-
sara Thera ; Simon Hewavitarane Bequest Series, published by the
Trustees, B.E.C.E., 2461/1918. The Pali Text Society has entrusted
the editorship of this text to Dr. Przyluski and M. Durr.

Pali Commentaries 501

in the Norm preached by the Exalted One and
entered the Order. He gained insight, attained
arahatship, and was ranked chief among those
who were proficient in insight.

Kanlcha-Revata was born in a wealthy family of
Savatthi. He found faith in the Norm and entered
the Order. The Master pronounced him to be
the chief of the bhikkhus who practised Jhana.

Punna of the Mantdnis was born in an eminent
brahmin clan. He was sister's son of the Elder
Kondarina. He accomplished the highest duties of
a recluse, and in due course of time, the Master
proclaimed Punna chief among the bhikkhus in
preaching the Norm.

Ddsaka was born as the child of a slave of
Anathapindika who appointed him as gate-porter of
the Jetavana vihara. His master freed him as he
was virtuous. He left the world and was ordained
accordingly. But he was slothful. He was soon
inspired by the Buddha. Not long after he realised
arhatship.

Abhaya was the bastard son of King Bimbisara,
He was at first the follower of Nataputta, the Jain
leader. He had a conversation with the Master.
After the king's death he left the world. He soon
realised arhatship.

Uttiya was born as the son of a brahmin. He
left the world and became a paribbajaka, a wanderer.
One day in course of his journey he came where the
Exalted One was preaching, and entered the Order.
He attained arhatship in time.

Suppiya was born in a despised class, as one of
a clan of watchman in a cemetery at Savatthi.
He was converted by the Thera Sopaka. He
entered the Order and attained to the highest.

Gavampati was born as one of the four lay-
companions of the Thera Yasa. He left the world
hearing Yasa's renunciation, and eventually won
arhatship. Once the Lord with a great company
of bhikkhus went to the An j ana grove. The
accommodation being insufficient, the bhikkhus

602 A History of Pali Literature

slept around the vihara on the sand banks of the
river Sarabhu. At night the stream rose in flood.
But the Thera Gavampati, as he was asked by
the Master, arrested the rising stream by his mystic
power. 1

Virnala-kondanna was the bastard son of King
Bimbisara. His mother was Ambapali. He left
the world for the Order and attained arhatship.

Ghanna was a slave of Suddhodana's household.
He entered the Order when the Master returned
after obtaining enlightenment to meet his kinsfolk.
Out of his affection for the Lord, egoistic pride in
4 our Buddha, our Doctrine ' arose in him. He
could not conquer this fondness nor perform his
duty as a novice. He suffered the Brahmadanda
as prescribed by the Buddha after the Lord's
Mahaparinibbana. Later on he attained arhatship.

Tissa was a ruler of the town of Roguva. He
was an absent ally of King Bimbisara. It was

1 Mrs. Rhys Davids rightly calls him, " a very Moses in psychic
power ". She is perfectly right when she says that Gavampati
has been lost in his last acts by the pifcaka tradition and we have
to seek him in Chinese translations of possibly Mahasanghika
originals. (Sakj'a or Buddhist Origins by Mrs. Rhys Davids,
p. 128.) Mrs. Rhys Davids further points out that the Thera
Gavampati praised in the Anthology as of mighty iddhi but else-
where coming into, she thinks but one brief sutta (Samyutta,
V, 436), declined to come for less worthy motives : this is according
to the Chinese recensions translated further by Prof. Przyluski
(Le councile de Rajagriha, pt. I, pp. 8, 30, 66, and 116). She further
adds, " there seemed to be nothing worth while in trying to help
the world, now that the light of it had faded out, save in fading
out also which he proceeded to do. It may well be that the failure
lay not in Gavampati's will but in his physical inability to travel.
But that it has been allowed to come in, as a serious reason for
holding aloof from a Community in w r horn the mission spirit was
still alive, is a sinister feature in the Compilers " (Sakya, pp. 348-
349).

It may further be noted here that Gavampati lives still in
Burmese Buddhist tradition where he has been acclaimed as thw
" Patron saint of the Mons " as well as the " patron saint of Pagan ".
He has been mentioned more than once in the Mon inscriptions of
Pagan as one of those who assisted sage Bisnu in the foundation
of the city of Sisit or Sriksetra, i.e., Old Prome. He thus becomes
intimately associated with the Mon or Telaing tradition of Lower
Burma as well. (E. P. Birminica.)

Pali Commentaries 503

through Bimbisara that he renounced the world
and entered the Order. He won arhatship.

Vacchagotta was the son of a wealthy brahmin.
He became a wandering recluse. He had a con-
versation with the Lord. He entered the Order
and in due course acquired sixfold abhinna.

Yasa was the son of a very wealthy councillor
at Benares. Seeing the worthlessness of the worldly
life he forsook it and went to the Buddha for or-
dination. He entered the Order and won arahatship.

Pindola-Bhdradvdja was the son of the chaplain
to King Udena of Kosambi. He was versed in the
brahmanical lore. He entered the Order and
acquired sixfold abhinna. The Master pronounced
him to be the chief among his disciples who were
lion-roarers.

Cunda the Great was the son of a female brahmin
named Rupasari, and younger brother of Sariputta.
He followed the latter into the Order and won
arhatship.

Dhammapdla was born as a brahmin's son.
Hearing from a certain thera about the Norm, he
left the world and acquired sixfold abhinna.

Dhaniya was born in a potter's family and
practised the potter's craft. Seeing that the
Buddha-Sasana helps one to be free from the
sorrows of rebirth, he entered the Order and in
due course won arhatship.

Upali was born in a barber's family. He left
the world following Anuruddha and the other
five nobles. In due time he won arahatship. The
Master himself taught him the whole Vinaya Pitaka.
He was ranked first among those who knew the
Vinaya.

Rahula was born as the son of Princess
Yosodhara. The circumstances of his entering the
Order are recorded in the Khandhaka. He won
arhatship.

Sona-Kutikanna was born in the country of
Avanti in the family of a very wealthy councillor*
He learned the Norm from the venerable Kacc&na

11

604 A History of Pali Literature

the Great and entered the Order through him. He
recited the sixteen atthakas and won arahatship.

Kassapa of Uruvela was born in a brahmin
family. He learnt the three Vedas. Finding no
vital truth in the scripture he became an ascetic.
It is mentioned in the Vinaya texts how the Blessed
One converted him and his two brothers having
the family name Kassapa. This Kassapa was the
chief of those bhikkhus who had great following.

Mdlunkyffs son was born as the son of the
king of Kosala's valuer. His mother was named
Maluiikyft. He left the world as a wandering
ascetic. On hearing the Master's teaching, he
entered the Order and in due course won arahatship.

Kaccdyana the Great was born as the son of the
chaplain to the King Candapajjota of Ujjeni.
At his father's death he succeeded to the post of
chaplain. The king coming to know the
Buddha's advent asked him to bring the Master
there. He went to the Master who taught him the
Norm. Afterwards he won arahatship. As bidden
by the Master he himself went to the king and
established him in the faith and then returned to
the Master.

Kappina the Great was born in a raja's family
in the border country at a town named Kukkuta.
At his father's death he succeeded as raja. At
that time there was a brisk trade between Savatthi
and Kukkuta. Once some traders, who were
followers of the Buddha, were brought to the king.
The king heard the excellence of the Norm from
the traders and forthwith renounced the world.
The Master who was then at Savatthi thought it
a proper time to see Kappina. The Lord then
came to the banks of the Candabhaga where he
met Kappina and his men. The Master preached
the Norm and they all won arahatship.

It is interesting to note as what Mrs. Rhys
Davids has rightly pointed out (Sakya, p. 39) that
an unrest of enquiry (as in the Dlgha, Vol. II,
151) is noticeable in the commentarial tradition of

Pali Commentaries 605

another nobleman of North India, the raja Kappina.
Mrs. Rhys Davids remarks in this connection thus,
" For us of European traditions the riding forth of
the noble on a quest is familiar, but we do not
find the Indian noble so doing in a similar tradition.
We have the Jataka quest of King Kusa after his
lady, but it is as a very exceptional procedure.
The Christian knight went on a worthy quest :
the aid of those who needed him. Kappina's
interest was said to be in the new in knowledge.
The purpose of the Sakyan prince was the combined
purpose of the new in knowledge in order to bring
help to men" (Sakya, pp. 39-40). This remark
of Mrs. Rhys Davids seems to be just and fair.

Revata. When the Thera Revata had won
arahatship he went from time to time with the great
theras to visit the Master. Going thus one day to
visit the Buddha he stayed not far from Savatthi
in a forest. Now the police came round on the
track of thieves. The thieves, however, dripped
their booty near the thera and ran. The thera was
arrested and taken to the king. The thera proved
his incapability for stealing and taught the king
the Norm.

Anuruddha was born in the house of Amitodana,
the Sakiyan. His elder brother was Mahanama,
the Sakiyan, the son of the Master's paternal
uncle. He was summoned with the Sakiyan rajas
to form a guard for the Master. Under the tuition
of the Master himself he won arahatship. The
Master ranked him foremost among those who
had attained the celestial eye.

Sdriputta and Moggalldna the Or eat. The
stories of Sariputta and Moggallana the Great are
taken together. In the days of Gautama Buddha
they were playmates named Upatissa (Sariputta)
and Kolita (Moggallana). They were born as
brahmins. Disgusted with the worldly life they
left the world and became followers of the wanderer
Sanjaya. In Sanjaya's teaching they found nothing
genuine. Through Assaji, the bhikkhu, they found

606 A History of Pali Literature

the Exalted One and were ordained by him. In
course of time they won arahatship. Sariputta was
ranked chief among the disciples in wisdom and
insight and Moggallana was foremost in super-
natural power of will.

Ananda was born in the family of Amitodana,
the Sakiyan. Ananda renounced the world with
Bhaddiya and others and was ordained by the
Exalted One. He became the permanent body-
servant to the Blessed One a favour which was
denied to Sariputta and Moggallana and others.
He won arahatship after the death of the Buddha
and just before the holding of the First Council.

Kassapa the Great was born in a brahmin family
at the brahmin village of Maha-tittha in Magadha
and was named Pippali-manava. He had not the
intention of marrying. But he was married to one
Bhadda Kapilam. Both of them lived separately.
When Pippali-manava's parents died, both of them
decided to renounce the world. Kassapa was or-
dained by the Master himself . In no time he won
arahatship. The Master pronounced him chief
among those who undertook the extra austerities.

Phussa was born as the son of the ruler of a
province. He shunned worldly desires. He heard
a certain great thera preach the Norm and entered
the Order. In due course he acquired sixfold
abhinna (supernatural knowledge).

Angulimdla was born as the son of the brahmin
Bhaggava, who was chaplain to the king of Kosala.
As he was born in the conjunction of the thief's
constellation, he became a thief. He made a garland
of the fingerbones and hung it round his shoulder as
if decked for sacrifice. Both the king and the
people were tired of him. The king sent a strong
force to capture the bandit. The Exalted One,
however, converted the robber-chief.

Anna-Kondanna was born in the village of
Donavatthu, not far from Kapilavatthu, in a very
wealthy brahmin family. Anna-Kondanna and four
others left the world in quest of Amata or Nirvana.

Pali Commentaries 507

Buddha after attaining enlightenment preached his
wheel sermon at Tripatana to those five ascetics.

Sona-Kolivisa was born at the city of Campa,
in the family of a distinguished councillor. When
the Blessed One had attained omniscience and
began rolling the wheel of the Norm, and was
staying at Rajagaha, Sona came to pay a visit to
the Buddha. He heard the Master teach the Norm
and obtained his parents' consent to enter the
Order. In due course he attained arahatship.

Kappa was born in the kingdom of Magadha,
as the son of a provincial hereditary raja. He
was addicted to self-indulgence and sensuality.
The Master out of compassion for him preached the
Norm to him. Kappa entered the Order and in
due course won arahatship.

Punna (Sundparanta) was born in the Suna-
paranta country, at the port of Supparaka, in the
family of a burgess. Once he went to Savatthi
with a great caravan of merchandise. There he
heard the discourse of the Buddha. He entered the
Order and in due course won arahatship.

Nandaka was born at Campa in a burgess's
family. He was the younger brother of Bharata.
When both of them heard that Sona-Kolivisa had
left the world, they also renounced the worldly
life. Bharata soon won sixfold abhinfia. But
Nandaka could not. Seeing an ox pulling a cart
out of the bog after it had been fed with grass
and water, Nandaka like the refreshed ox drew
himself out of the swamp of Samsara. Within a
short time he won arahatship.

Lakuntaka-Bhaddiya was born in a wealthy
family. Hearing the Master preach he entered the
Order and won arahatship.

Kassapa of the River was born in a clan of
Magadha brahmins, as the brother of Uruvela-
Kassapa. His religious inclination made him dislike
domestic life, and he became an ascetic. How.
Exalted One ordained him is recorded
Khandhaka.

508 A History of Pali Literature

Kassapa of Oaya was born in a brahmin family.
He left the world and with a company of disciples
dwelt at Gaya. The story of his conversion by
the Master is recorded in the Khandhaka.

Therlgdthd Commentary. The Therlgathfi, Com-
mentary 1 called the Paramatthadipani written by
the Thera Dhammapala appends explanatory stories
to the verses of the Therigatha. These stories give
us accounts of women who gradually became
theris. A summary of accounts of some of the
important theris is given below :

Abhirupanandd Nanda, so called for her great
beauty and amiability, had to leave the world
against her will owing to the sudden and untimely
death of her beloved suitor Carabhuta. But as
she was still very conscious of her beauty and always
avoided the presence of the Buddha for fear of
being rebuked on that account, she was one day
urged upon to appear before the Buddha. And he,
the Buddha, by his supernatural power transformed
her into an old and fading figure. It had the
desired effect and she became an arhat.

Jentl. Born in a princely family at Vaisali,
she won arahatship after hearing the Dhamma
preached by the Buddha ; and later developed the
seven sambojjhangas.

Citta. Born at Rajagaha, she one day, when
of age, heard the Buddha preaching, and came to
believe in his doctrine. She was ordained by
Mahapajapati, the Gotami, and later on won arahat-
ship.

Sukkd. Born in a rich family at Rajagaha,
Sukka, when of age, came to believe in the Buddha's
doctrine and became a lay disciple. But one day
hearing Dhammadinna preach she was much moved,
became a follower of him, and later on attained
arahatship with patisambhida (analytical knowledge).
One day she gave to the bhikkhunis a sermon so

1 It has been edited by E. Muller for the P.T.S.

Pali Commentaries 609

engrossing that even the tree-spirit heard her with
rapt attention.

Seld. Otherwise known as Alayika for her
having been born in the kingdom of Alavi, she one
day heard the Master and became a lay disciple.
Not long after she became an arhant, and came
to live with the Buddha at Savatthi, Mara once
tried in vain to seduce her to choose the sensuous
life.

Slhd. Born at Vesali as the daughter of General
Slha's sister, she one day heard the Master teaching
the Norm and thereupon entered the Order. For
seven years she tried in vain to attain arahatship
and she intended to die. When she was about to
kill herself, she succeeded in impelling her mind to
insight which grew within and she won arahat-
ship.

Sundari Nandd. Born in the royal family of
the Sakyas, beautiful Nanda renounced the world,
but was still proud of her beauty. Buddha com-
pelled her to come before his presence and taught
her in the same way as in the case of Abhirupananda,
and preached to her about the frail beauty of the
body. She afterwards became an arhant.

Khemd. Beautiful Khema was the consort of
King Bimbisara. Hearing that the Buddha was
in the habit of speaking ill of beauty, she liked not
to appear before him. One day, hearing the beauty
of the Veluvana vihara, she came to see it. It
happened that the Buddha was then living there,
and she was led before him. The Buddha then
illustrated with the example of a beautiful celestial
nymph passing from youth through middle and old
age to death the vanity of physical beauty and the
suffering therefrom. Khema at once became a
believer and came to attain arahatship.

Anopamd. Daughter of a banker of Saketa, and
beautiful as she was, she was sued by many young
men of influence. But thinking that there was no
happiness in household life, she went to the Master,
heard his teachings, and later on attained arahatship.

510 A History of Pali Literature

Rohini. Born at VesfiH in a prosperous brahmin
family, she, when grown up, went to the Master
and heard him preach. With her parents' per-
mission she entered the Order and soon attained
arahantship.

Subhd. Beautiful Subha, the daughter of a
goldsmith of Rajagaha, saw the Master, who taught
her the Dhamma. She then entered the Order
under Mahapajapati Gotami and in course of time
won arahantship.

Tissd. Born at Kapilavastu among the Sakyas,
she renounced the world and afterwards attained
arhantship.

Sumedhd. Daughter of King Konca of Man-
tavati, she, on hearing the doctrine of the Buddha
from the bhikkhunis, renounced the world, and
soon acquiring insight, attained arahantship.

Candd. Coming of a brahmin family, she had
to beg from door to door for food. One day she
took her food from Then Patacara and other
bhikkhunis. She then listened to the discourses of
Theri Patacara, renounced the world, and after-
wards succeeded in attaining arahantship with
patisambhida (analytical knowledge).

Guttd. Coming of a brahmin family of Savatthi,
she, with her parents' consent, entered the Order
under Mahapajapati Gotami, and eventually attained
arahantship together with patisambhida.

Cdld, Upacdld, and Sisupacdld. Born in
Magadha, these three were younger sisters of
Sariputta. On their brother leaving the Order,
they too followed suit and afterwards attained
arhantship. In vain Mara tried to stir up sensual
desires in them.

Uppalavannd. Coming of a banker's family at
Savatthi, Uppalavanna was sued by many bankers 5
sons and princes. But she renounced the world,
received ordination, and gradually attained arhant-
ship with patisambhida or analytical knowledge.

Sumangalamdtd. Coming of a poor family at
Savatthi, and wife of a basket-maker, she one day

Pali Commentaries 511

reflected on all she had suffered as a lay-woman.
On this her sight quickened and she attained
arhatship with analytical knowledge.

Punnd. Born of a domestic slave at Savatthi
in the household of Anathapindika, and with great
merits acquired in her previous births, she obtained
Sotapattiphalam, and afterwards defeated in debate
a brahmin Udakasiddhika. Punna renounced the
worldly life, entered the Order, and attained arahant-
ship.

Sundari. Born at Benares, Sundari lost her
brother, upon which her father renounced the
world and became an arhant. Sundari then followed
her father, left the world, entered the Order, and
after hard striving attained arhantship with pati-
sambhida.

Vimald. Born of a public-woman at Vesali,
Vimala one day went to the house of Mahamog-
gallana to entice him. The venerable thera rebuking
her, she was ashamed and became a believer and
lay-sister. Some time after she entered the Order
and gradually attained arhantship.

Mittakdlikd. Coming of a brahmin family in
the Kuru kingdom, she, when of age, entered the
Order of sisters. For seven years she strove hard
and afterwards won arhantship with the analytical
knowledge.

Sakuld (Pakuld). Born of a brahmin family
at Savatthi, she early became a believer, and one
day hearing the preaching of an arahat became so
much convinced that she entered the Order. After-
wards she attained arhantship and became fore-
most among the bhikkhums.

Muttd. Coming of a brahmin family of Savatthi,
she, when twenty years old, went to Mahapajapati
Gotam! and got ordination from her. She eventually
became an arhant.

Punnd. Daughter of a leading burgess of
Savatthi, she, when twenty years of age, heard the
Great Pajapati and renounced the world. In due
course she attained arhantship.

512 A History of Pali Literature

Dantikd. Coming of a purohita family, she,
when of age, entered the Order under Mahapaj&pat!
Gotami at Rajagaha, and eventually attained arhant*
ship with analytical knowledge.

Vaddhesi. Nurse of MahapajapatI Gotami, she
renounced the world following her mistress. For
twenty-five years she was harassed by the lusts of
the senses. But one day hearing Dhammadinnft
preach the Norm, she began to practise meditation
and soon acquired the six supernatural powers.

Uttamd. Coming of a householder's family at
Bandhumati, she in her old age heard Patacarft
preach and entered the Order and very soon became
an arhant. Afterwards she converted thirty sisters
who entered the Order, and they in their turn
became arhants.

Uttara. Coming of a clansman's family at
Savatthi, she, when grown up, heard Patacarft
preach the Norm, became a believer, entered the
Order, and became an arhant.

Bhaddd Kundalakesd. Coming of the family of
a banker at Rajagaha, she, when grown up, fell
in love with one Satthuka, a purohit's son. But
Satthuka was avaricious and wanted to have all
the jewels with which Bhadda had decked herself.
In vain she pleaded that she herself and all her
ornaments belonged to him. So when, Satthuka
one day took Bhadda to the precipice of a cliff to
give an offering, the latter pushed him over the
precipice and he died. Bhadda then left the world,
entered the Order of the Niganthas, and became an
unequalled debator. One day she challenged Sari-
putta to a debate but she was defeated, and went
to the Buddha for refuge. Buddha discerned her
maturity of knowledge, and she attained arhantship
with analytical knowledge.

Sdmd (I). Coming of a rich household at
Kosambi and moved by the death of one of her
dear friends, she went to listen to the Elder Ananda
and acquired insight. On the seventh day after
this she became an arhat.

Pali Commentaries 513

Sdmd (II). Another Sftma coming of a clans-
man's family heard in her old age a sermon through
which her insight expanded and she won arhantship
with patisambhida (analytical knowledge).

Ubbiri. Coming of the family of a rich house-
holder at Savatthi, beautiful Ubbiri was made a
queen of the king of Kosala. But a few years
after when her only daughter Jiva died, she wept
bitterly, whereupon she was questioned and in-
structed by the Buddha. She was then established
in insight and in due course won arhantship.

Kisagotaml. Coming of a poor family at
Savatthi, she, on the death of her only child, went
to the Buddha with the dead body, and requested
him to bring the dead to life. The Buddha then
delivered a sermon upon which she became a
bhikkhuni, and later on an arhant.

Patdcdrd. Coming of banker's family at
Savatthi, she, when of age, eloped with her lover
who afterwards became her husband. But un-
fortunately enough the husband died of snake-bite
and her son was drowned while crossing a river.
She lost her brother and parents. She then became
mad and went naked. But upon Buddha's directing
her to recover her shamelessness, she acquired
consciousness ; and instructed by the Master she
was established in Sotapattiphalam. Afterwards
she became an arhant.

Vdsitfhi. Coming of a clansman's family at
Vesali, she became mad with grief at the death of
her only son. But when she came to Mithila
and saw the Buddha she got back her normal mind,
and she listened to the outlines of the Norm preached
by the Buddha. She then acquired insight and
became an arhant.

Dhammadinnd. Coming of a clansman's family
at Rajagaha, Dhammadinna was married to a setthi
named Visakha. But on his renouncing the world,
she too followed and became a bhikkhuni in a
village. By virtue of her merits acquired in a pre-
vious birth, she soon became an arhant and was

514 A History of Pali Literature

later on ranked by the Buddha as the foremost
among the sisters who could preach.

Dhammd. Coming of a respectable family at
Savatthi, Dhamma entered the Order on her
husband's death and became an arhant with
thorough knowledge of the Norm in form and
meaning.

Mettikd. Daughter of a rich brahmin of Raja-
gaha, Mettika lived the life of a recluse and eventually
attained arhantship.

Abhayd. Coming of a respectable family at
Ujjain, Abhaya renounced the world, entered the
Order, and in course of time attained arhantship at
Rajagaha.

Sond. Born at Rajagaha as the daughter of a
purohita, Sona in her advanced years became a
lay disciple first and afterwards entered the Order.
Within a short time she attained arhantship, and
Mara tried in vain to deviate her from this path.

Bhaddd Kdpildm. Coming of a brahmana
family of the Kosiya clan at Sagala, she renounced
the world along with her husband and dwelt five
years in a hermitage. She was then ordained by
Mahapajapati Gotami and soon won arhantship.
She was later on ranked first among the bhikkkums
who could remember previous births.

Dhird. Born at Kapilavatthu in the noble
clan of the Sakiyas, Dhira renounced the world
with Mahapajapati Gotami and was troubled in
heart at the Master's teaching. She strove for
insight and eventually became an arhant.

Sanghd. Her story is exactly like that of
Dhira.

Sumand (I). Born at Kapilavatthu, Sumana (I)
renounced the world, was ordained by Mahapaja-
pati Gotami, and became gradually an arhant.

Sumand (II). Born at Savatthi as the sister
of the king of Kosala, Sumana (II) after the death
of her grandmother went to the vihara, and there
hearing the Buddha preach, asked for ordination
in her old age. She eventually became an arhant

Pali Commentaries 515

with thorough knowledge of the Norm in form and
in meaning.

Addhakdsi. Born in the kingdom of Kasi,
Addhakasi became a prostitute. But later on she
left the world and became ordained by a messenger
sent by the Buddha himself. She soon attained
arhantship with knowledge of the Dhamma in
form and meaning.

Sond. Coming of a clansman's family at
S&vatthi, Sona, following her husband, renounced
the world in her old age and entered the Order.
Her knowledge gradually matured as a result of
her hard strife, and she attained arhantship. She
was ranked first among the bhikkhunis for capacity
of effort.

Sujdtd. Born at Saketa in a treasurer's family,
Sujata one day visited the Buddha in the Angana
Grove where the Master expounded the Norm to
her in an inspiring lesson. Her intelligence being
ripe, she at once became an arhant and was admitted
to the Order of bhikkhunis.

Vaddhamdtd. Born in a clansman's family
at Bharukaccha, Vaddhamata, hearing a bhikkhu
preach, became a believer and entered the Order
and eventually became an arhant.

Ambapdli. Born spontaneously at Vesali in
the king's gardens at the foot of a mango tree,
beautiful Ambapali was sued by many princes and
afterwards became their courtesan. Later on, out of
faith in the Master, she built a vihara and handed
it over to him and the Order. And when she heard
her own son preach the Norm, she worked for
insight and soon attained arhantship.

Cdpa. Born in the Vankahara country as the
daughter of the chief trapper, Capa, on the attain-
ment of arhantship by her husband, renounced the
world at Savatthi and attained arhantship.

Subhd. Born at Rajagaha in the family of
an eminent brahmin, beautiful Subha received
faith and became a lay disciple. Later on, she
renounced the world, entered the Order under

516 A History of Pali Literature

MahapajapatI Gotami, exercised herself in insight,
and soon attained arhantship with a thorough grasp
of the Norm in form and meaning.

Isiddsi. Born at Ujjain as the daughter of a
wealthy and virtuous merchant, she was married
several times, but finding each husband undesir-
able, she grew agitated and took orders under the
Then Jinadatta. She strove for insight and not
long after attained arhantship together with thorough
grasp of the Norm in form and meaning.

The Paramatthadipam 1 is a commentary on the
Cariyapitaka. Its author was
Dhammapala. The British Museum
has acquired a good manuscript of
this commentary in Burmese character dated 1764
(vide J.R.A.S., 1904, 174). The P.T.S. has under-
taken to edit this text. Dhammapala also wrote
commentaries on the Udana and Itivuttaka. The
Itivuttaka Commentary is being edited by the
P.T.S.

1 It includes the commentaries on the Cariyapitaka, Thera-
Therigatha, Petavatthu, Vimanavatthu, Itivuttaka, and Udana.

CHAPTER VI
PALI CHRONICLES

The Dipavamsa 1 or the chronicle of the island
of Lanka is the earliest known work

.

ipavamsa. o f its kind. It puts together certain
well-known traditions handed down among the
Buddhists of Ceylon, sometimes in a clumsy manner.
Its diction is in places unintelligible, and its narrative
is dull and interrupted by repetitions. Though it
is composed in verse, curiously enough the verses
are, here and there, intervened by prose passages
(cf. Dipavamsa, pp. 33, 64-65). What inference
should be drawn from the occurrence of the prose
passages in a metrical composition is still a matter
of dispute. The point to be settled is whether the
traditions on which the Dipavamsa narrative is
based were prevalent all in prose or all in verse or
in both prose and verse. Its authorship is unknown.
The canonical model of this work is to be traced
in a number of verses in the Parivarapatha of the
Vinaya Pitaka. 2 The Dipavamsa is an authorita-

1 Dr. Geiger has published a valuable treatise known as
" Dipavamsa und Mahavamsa und die geschichtliche iiberlie-
ferung in Ceylon," Leipzig, 1905. Translated into English by
E. M. Coomaraswamy, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, Colombo,
1908. We invite our readers' attention to Dr. Geiger's interesting
contribution to the Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXV, p. 443, on the
Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa and the Historical tradition in
Ceylon.

2 Cf. Parivarapatha, Vinaya Pitaka, Vol. V, p. 3.
" Tissatthero oa medhavi Devatthero ca pandito, |

punar eva Sumano medhavi vinaye ca visarado,
bahussuto Culanago gajo va duppadhamsiyo, |
Dnammapalitanamo ca Rohane sadhupujito,
tassa sisso mah&pafino Khemanamo tipefcki |
dlpe t&rakaraja va paftnaya atirocatha.
Upatisso oa medhavi Phussadevo mahakathi, |
punar eva Sumano medhavi Pupphan&xno bahussuto
mahakathi Mahaeivo pifake sabbatthakovido, |

518 A History of Pali Literature

tive work well known in Ceylon at the time of
Buddhaghosa, and, as a matter of fact, the great
Pali commentator has copiously quoted from it in
the introductory portion of his commentary on the
Kathavatthu. Dr. Oldenberg has edited and trans-
lated the book into English. He says that the
Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa are in the main
nothing but two versions of the same substance,
both being based on the historical introduction
to the great commentary of the Mahavihara. The
Dipavamsa follows step by step and almost word
for word the traces of the original. According to
Oldenberg the Dipavamsa cannot have been written
before 302 A.D. because its narrative extends till
that year. If we compare the language and the
style in which the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa
are written, it leaves no doubt as to the priority
of the former. The Dipavamsa was so popular in
Ceylon that Bang Dhatusena ordered it to be recited
in public at an annual festival held in honour of an
image of Mahinda in the 5th century A.D. (vide
Dipavamsa, ed. by Oldenberg, Intro., pp. 8-9). An
idea of its contents can be gathered from the
summary given below.

The first chapter gives an account of Buddha's

punar eva Upali medhavi vinaye ca visarado,
Mahanago mahapanno saddhamrflavamsakovido, |
punar eva Abhayo medhavi pi$ake sabbatthakovido,
Tissatthero ca medhavi vinaye ca visarado, |
tassa sisso mahapanno Pupphanamo bahussuto
sasanazh anurakkhanto Jambudlpe patitthito. |
Culabhayo ca medhavi vinaye ca visarado
Tissatthero ca medhavi saddhammavamsakovido |
Culadevo ca medhavi vinaye ca visarado
SIvatthero ca medhavi vinaye sabbatthakovido, |
ete naga mahapaftna vinayanriu maggakovida
vinayam dipe pakasesum pitakam Tambapanniya 'ti. 11
Cf. also Dipavamsa, p. 32.

Nibbute lokanathasmim vassani solasam tada,
Ajatasattu catuvisam, Vijayassa solasam ahu,
samaeaVthi tada hoti vassam Upalipano!itam,
Dasako upasampanno Upalitherasantike.
yavat& buddhasetthassa dhammappatti pakasita
sabbaxh Upali v&cesi navangam jinabhasitam.

Pali Chronicles 519

first visit to the island of Lanka. Gotama obtained
perfect enlightenment at the foot of the Bodhi-
tree. He surveyed the whole world and perceived
the island of Lanka, a dwelling-place fit for saints.
He foresaw that Mahinda, the son of the Indian
King Asoka, would go to the island and propagate
the Buddhist faith there. Accordingly he placed
a divine guard over the island. He visited Lanka
and drove the Yakkhas, the inhabitants of the
place, out of the island.

Buddha visited the island for the second time
when the island was on the verge of being destroyed
by a terrific war which ensued between the mountain-
serpents and the sea-serpents. The Lord exhorted
them to live in peace and all the serpents took their
refuge in him.

His third visit to the island was in connection
with an invitation he got from the Naga King
Maniakkhika of Kalyani.

The Dipavamsa then traces Buddha's descent
from the Prince Mahasammata, the first inaugurated
king of the earth. Gotama Buddha was the son
of Suddhodana, chief of Kapilavatthu and Rahula-
bhadda was the son of Gotama. Mention is also
made of many other kings who reigned before
Suddhodana and after Mahasammata.

A brief account of the first two Buddhist
Councils and the different Buddhist schools that
arose after the Second Council is also given. The
First Council was held under the presidency of
Mahakassapa and under the patronage of Ajata-
sattu. The first collection of Dhamma and Vinaya
was made with the assistance of Upali and Ananda.
The Second Council was held during the reign of
Kalasoka. The Vajjiputtas proclaimed the ten
indulgences which had been forbidden by the Tatha-
gata. The Vajjiputtas seceded from the orthodox
party and were called the Mahasamghikas. They
were the first schismatics. In imitation of them
many heretics arose, e.g., the Gokulikas, the
Ekavyoharikas, the Bahussutiyas, etc. In all there

12

520 A History of Pali Literature

were eighteen sects l seventeen heretical and one
orthodox. Besides these there were other minor
schools.

The Dipavamsa further deals with the reign
of the great Indian King Asoka, the grandson of
Candagutta and son of Bimbisara, and the notable
events that took place in his time. It was during
his reign that Mahinda went to Ceylon and spread
Buddhism there with the help of the Ceylonese
King Devanampiyatissa who was a contemporary
of Asoka the Great. It is said that this great king
built 84,000 viharas all over the Jambudipa. The
Third Buddhist Council was held under the pres-
idency of Thera Moggaliputta Tissa and under the
patronage of Asoka. After the Council was over
the thera sent Buddhist missionaries to different
countries (Gandhara, Mahisa, Aparantaka, Maha-
rattha, Yona, Himavata, Suvannabhumi, and Lanka)
for the propagation of Buddha's religion.

The Dipavamsa gives a brief account of the
colonisation of Ceylon by Vijaya, son of the king of
Vanga, and also a systematic account of kings of
Ceylon who ruled after Vijaya and their activities
in promoting the cause of Buddhism. Sihabahu,
king of Vanga, enraged at the bad conduct of Vijaya,
his eldest son, banished him from his kingdom.
Vijaya with a number of followers went on board
a ship and sailed away on the sea. They in course
of their journey through the waters visited the sea-
port towns of Suppara and Bharukaccha and later
on came to Lankadipa. Vijaya and his followers
set on colonising this country and built many
cities. Vijaya became the first crowned king of
the island. After Vijaya we find a long list of
kings among whom Devanampiyatissa stands out
pre-eminent.

1 Vide Mrs. Rhys Davids, ' The sects of the Buddhists/ J.R. A.S.,
1891, pp. 409 foil. ; schools of Buddhist belief, J.R.A.S., 1892,
pp. 1 foil. Of. Mah&vamsa, chap. 5, Mahabodhivamsa, pp. 96-97,
Sasanavaxhsa, p. 14, Kathavatthupakarana-atthakatha, pp. 2, 3, 5.

Pali Chronicles 521

It was during the reign of Devanampiyatissa
that Buddhism was first introduced into Lanka
through Mahinda who at the instance of Thera
Moggaliputta Tissa, the President of the Third
Council, went to Ceylon for the propagation of the
Buddhist faith there. It may be noted here that
the great Indian King Asoka was a contemporary
of Devanampiyatissa and that they were in friendly
terms. Asoka sent a branch of the Bodhi-tree of
the Tathagata to Lanka which was planted with
great honour at Anuradhapura.

After the death of Devanampiyatissa Buddhism
was not in a flourishing condition. The immediate
successors of the king were weak. The Damilas
came over to Lanka from Southern India and
occupied the country. The people were tired of
the foreign yoke. They found in Dutthagamani, a
prince of the royal family, who could liberate the
country from the foreign domination. Duttha-
gamani at the head of a huge army drove the
Damilas out of the country. He was the greatest
of the Sinhalese kings. Whether as a warrior or
a ruler, Dutthagamani appears equally great. He
espoused the cause of Buddhism and built the
Lohapasada, nine storeys in height, the Mahathupa,
and many other viharas. Indeed Buddhism was
in its most flourishing condition during the reign
of this great king.

Dutthagamani was followed by a number of
kings, among them Vattagamani was the greatest.
His reign is highly important for the history of
Buddhist literature. It was during his reign that
the bhikkhus recorded in written books the text
of the three pitakaS and also the Atthakatha.
Vattagamani was also succeeded by a number of
unimportant kings. The account of the kings of
Ceylon is brought down to the reign of King
Mahasena who reigned for 27 years from circa 325
to 352 A.D.

At the close of the 4th century A.D. there
existed in Ceylon, an older work, a sort of chronicle

522 A History of Pali Literature

of the history of the island from very early times.
The work was a part of the Attha-
katha which was composed in 'old
Sinhalese prose mingled with Pali
verses. The work existed in the different monasteries
of Ceylon and on it the Mahavamsa is based. The
chronicle must have originally come down to the
arrival of Mahinda in Ceylon ; but it was later
carried down to the reign of Mahasena (4th century
A.D.) with whose reign the Mahavamsa comes to
an end. Of this work, the Dipavamsa presents
the first clumsy redaction in Pali verses. The
Mahavamsa is thus a conscious and intentional
rearrangement of the Dipavamsa as a sort of com-
mentary on the latter.

Author Mahavamsa is

known as Mahanaman. 1

A well-known passage of the later Culavaifasa
alludes to the fact that King Dha-
tusena bestowed a thousand pieces
of gold and gave orders to write a dipika on the
Dipavamsa. This dipika has been identified by
Fleet with the Mahavamsa ; and if this identifica-
tion be correct, then the date of its origin is more
precisely fixed. Dhatusena reigned at the beginning
of the 6th century A.D., and about this time the
Mahavamsa was composed.

Historicity of the The historicity of the work is estab-
work. lished by the following facts :

(a) As to the list of kings before Asoka, namely,
the nine Nandas, Candagutta, and Bimbisara, the
statements concerning Bimbisara and Ajatasattu
as contemporaries of the Buddha agree with can-
onical writings, and, in respect of the names, with
those of the Brahmanic tradition. In the number
of years of Candagutta's reign, the Ceylonese tradi-
tion agrees with the Indian. Candagutta's councillor
Cftnaka (Canakya) is also known.

1 Bead 'Mahanama in the Pali Literature' by Rev. R.
Siddhartha, published in I.H.Q., Vol. VIII, No. 3, pp. 462-465.

Pali Chronicles 523

(6) The conversion of Ceylon, according to the
chronicles, was the work of Mahinda, son of Asoka,
and this is confirmed to a considerable extent by
the fact that Asoka twice in his inscriptions (Rock
Edicts XIII and II) mentions Ceylon to be one
of the countries where he sent his religious mis-
sionaries and provided for distribution of medicines.
It receives further support from Hiuen Tsang who
mentions Mahendra, a brother of Asoka, expressly
as the man by whom the true doctrine was preached
in Sinhala. Even before Mahinda, relations existed
between India and Ceylon, for the chronicles relate
that Asoka sent to Devanampiyatissa presents
for his sacred consecration as the king of Ceylon.

(c) An inscription from a relic-casket from
Tope No. 2 of the Sanci group gives us the name of
Sapurisasa Mogaliputasa who, according to the
tradition, presided over the Third Council under
Asoka' s rule. There is no doubt that he is iden-
tical with Moggaliputta Tissa of the Ceylonese
chronicles.

(d) The narrative of the transplanting of a
branch of the sacred Bodhi-tree from Uruvela to
Ceylon finds interesting confirmation in a repre-
sentation of the story on the reliefs of the lower and
middle architrave of the East gate of the Safici
Stupa.

(e) The contemporaneity of Devanampiyatissa
with Asoka is established on the internal evidence
of the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa, as well as
by archaeological evidence. Another contemporaneity
of King Meghavarman reigning from c. 352-379
A.D. with Samudragupta is established by the
Chinese account of Wang Hiuentse.

(/) There is a general historical reminiscence
underlying the stories of the three Buddhist Councils
recorded in the chronicles.

But the historical statements are not always
infallible ; and the longer the interval between the
time of the events and the time when they are
related, the greater the possibility of an error, and

524 A History of Pali Literature

the more will be the influence of legend noticeable.
As regards the period from Vijaya to Devanampiya-
tissa, there is a considerable distrust of tradition
and traditional chronology. Also during the period
from Devanampiyatissa to Dutthagamani there is
matter for doubt. But in later periods we encounter
no such difficulties and impossibilities. The chron-
ology is credible, the numbers appear less artificial,
and the accounts more trustworthy.

In the ninth month after Buddhahood, when
the Lord Buddha was dwelling at
Uruvela, he one day personally went
to Lanka and converted a large
assembly of Yakkhas as well as a large number df
other living beings. After this, he came back to
Uruvela but, again in the fifth year of his Buddha-
hood when he was residing in the Jetavana, he, in
an early morning out of compassion for the nagas
went to the Nagadipa (apparently the north-
western part of Ceylon) where he preached the
five moral precepts and established the three
refuges and converted many nagas. The Lord then
came back to Jetavana, but, again in the eighth
year of his Buddhahood the Teacher, while dwelling
in the Jetavana, went to Kalyam and preached
the Dhamma, and then came back to Jetavana.
The Chapter II gives a long list of kings be-
ginning with Mahasammata from
The ^mmata Mah5 " whose race sprang the Great Sage,
the Tathagata. Descendants of this
race of kings ruled in Kusavati, Rajagaha, and
Mithila, and they reigned in groups in their due
order. One group whose chief was Okkaka ruled
at Kapilavatthu and was known as the Sakyas.
In this line was born Yasodhara, a daughter of
King Jayasena, and she was married to Sakka
Aiijana. They had two daughters, Maya and
Pajapati, who were both married to Suddhodana,
a grandson of Jayasena and son of Slhahanu. The
son of Suddhodana and Maya was the Lord Buddha
whose consort was Bhaddakaccanft, son was Rahula,

Pali Chronicles 525

great friend was Bimbisara, and another con-
temporary was Bimbisara's son, Ajatasattu.

The First Buddhist Council 1 was convened
three months after the parinirvftna
of th Buddha (at Ku&nara) in the
Sattapanni Cave at Rajagaha where
his nearest disciples followed by seven hundred
thousand bhikkhus and a large number of laymen
assembled to establish the most important rules
of the Order as, according to their recollection, the
Master himself had laid down. The work of the
compilation was entrusted to Thera Ananda and
Thera Upali. Thera Upali spoke for the Vinaya,
and Thera Ananda for the rest of the Dhamma ;
and Thera Mahakassapa seated on the thera's chair
asked questions touching the Vinaya. Both of them
expounded them in detail and the theras repeated
what they had said. The work of the First Council
took seven months to be completed, and the Council
rose after it had finished compilation of the Dhamma,
and the Canon came to be known as thera tradition.

A century after the parinibbana of the Buddha
when Kalasoka was the reigning king, there were
at Vaisali many bhikkhus of the Vajji clan who used
to preach the Ten points of Buddhism. But the
theras of Pava and Avanti with their leader, the
great Thera Revata, declared that these Ten points
were unlawful, and wanted to bring the dispute to a
peaceful end. All of them followed by a large
number of bhikkhus then went to Vaisali and there
met the bhikkhus of the Vajji clan. Kalasoka too
went there, and, hearing both sides, decided in
favour of the true faith, held out by the theras
of Pava and Avanti. The brotherhood then came
together finally to decide, and Revata resolved
to settle the matter by an Ubbdhikd wherein

1 Prof. Przyluski's Le Concile de R&jagriha, pt. I, pp. 8, 30,
66, and 116 should be consulted. Read also Buddhist Councils
by Dr. R. C. Majumdar published in the Buddhistic Studies, edited
by Dr. B. C. Law. Vide The Buddhist Councils held at Rajagriha
and Vesali translated from Chinese by S. Beal.

526 A History of Pali Literature

four from each of the two parties were represented.
Thera Revata, in order to hold a Council, chose also
seven hundred out of all that troop of bhikkhus,
and all of them met in the Valikarama and compiled
the Dhamma in eight months. The heretical
bhikkhus who taught the wrong doctrine founded
another school which came to bear the name
Mahasanghika.

The Third Council was held under better
circumstances during the reign of King Asoka at the
Asokarama in PataBputta under the guidance and
presidentship of Thera Moggalliputta Tissa. Within
a hundred years from the compilation of the
doctrine in the Second Council, there arose eighteen
different sects in the Buddhist Order with their
respective schools and systems, and another schism
in the Church was threatened. At this time, 218
years from the parinibbana of the Buddha, Asoka
came to the throne, and after a reign of four years,
he consecrated himself as king in Pataliputta. And,
not long after, Samanera Nigrodha preached the
doctrine to the king, and confirmed him with many
of his followers in the refuges and precepts of duty.
Thereupon the king became bountiful to the
bhikkhus and eventually entered the doctrines.
From that time the revenue of the brotherhood was
on the increase but the heretics became envious,
and they too, taking the yellow robe and dwelling
along with the bhikkhus, began to proclaim their
own doctrine as the doctrine of the Buddha, and
carry out their own practices even as they wished.
They became so unruly that King Asoka was obliged
to arrange an assembly of the community of bhikkhus
in its full numbers at the splendid Asokarama under
the presidency of Thera Moggalliputta Tissa. Then
did the king question one by one on the teachings
of the Buddha. The heretical bhikkhus expounded
their wrong doctrine, upon which the king caused
to be expelled from the Order all such bhikkhus
and their followers. Only the rightly believing
bhikkhus answered that the Lord taught the

Pali Chronicles 527

Vibhajja-doctrine, and this was supported and
confirmed by Thera Moggalliputta Tissa. Three
thousand learned bhikkhus were then selected to
make a compilation of the true doctrine under the
guidance of the great thera, and they completed
their work at the Asokarama in nine months.

Vijaya of evil conduct was the son and prince

regent of King Sihabahu, ruler of

The coming and the kingdom of Lala ; but he

consecration of was banished from the kingdom by

Vijaya and others. ^ father for ^ many intolerab l e

deeds of violence. Boarded on a
ship with his large number of followers with their
wives and children, Vijaya first landed at Supparaka,
but afterwards, embarking again, landed in Lanka
in the region called Tambapanni, where he eventually
married and consecrated himself as king and built
cities. After his death, he was succeeded by his
brother's son Panduvasudeva who married Subhad-
dakaccana, and consecrated himself as king. He
was in his turn succeeded by his son Abhaya who
was followed by Pandukabhaya. Between Pandu-
kabhaya and Abhaya there was no king for 17 years.
Pandukabhaya's son Mutasiva followed his
^ - .... father and was succeeded by his

Devanampiyatissa. , T\ - .- i

second son Devanampiyatissa whose
friend was Dhammasoka whom he had never
seen, but to whom he was pleased to send a
priceless treasure as a gift. Dhammasoka ap-
preciated the gift, and sent as a return-gift another
treasure to Devanampiyatissa who was now con-
secrated as king of Lanka.

After the termination of the Third Council,
Moggalliputta Tissa Thera, in order to establish the
religion in adjacent countries, sent out learned and
renowned missionaries to Kasmir, Gandhara,
Mahisamandala, Vanavasa, Aparantaka, Maharattha,
Suvannabhumi (Burma), and to the Yona country.
To the lovely island of Lanka, he sent Mahinda,
the theras Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala, and Bhaddasala
to preach the religion.

528 A History of Pali Literature

Mahinda came out to Lanka with four theras
,. , and Sanghamitta's son Sumana, the

Mahinda. ... , T, ', .

gifted samanera. Even on their
landing many devas, nagas, and supannas were
converted to the doctrine, and he with his followers
entered the capital city where people thronged
to see him, and he preached the true faith unto
them. The wise King Devanampiyatissa heard
him explain some of the miracles and teachings and
episodes of the life of the Buddha, and became
one of his most devoted patrons. The king
then built for the great thera the Mahavihara,
henceforth known as the Mahameghavanarama,
which the thera accepted. Next the king built
for him and his followers another vihara on the
Cetiyapabbata, henceforth known as the Cetiya-
pabbata-vihara, which too the thera accepted.
The wise king then became eager to enshrine one
of the relics of the Great Lord the Buddha in a
stupa, so that he and the followers of the faith
might behold the Conqueror in his relics and worship
him. At his request Mahinda sent Sumana to
King Dhammasoka with the instruction to bring
from him the relics of the Sage and the alms-bowl
of the Master, and then to go to Sakka in the fair
city of the gods to bring the collar-bone of the Master
from him. Sumana faithfully carried out the
instruction, and when he landed down on the Missaka
mountain with the relics, the king and the people
were all filled with joy, and thirty thousand of them
received the pabbajja of the Conqueror's doctrine.
Later on the king sent his nephew and minister
Arittha again to Dhammasoka to bring the Bodhi-
tree which at Dhammasoka's approach severed of
itself and transplanted itself in the vase provided
for the purpose. Arittha then came back on board
a ship across the ocean to the capital with the holy
tree and a gay rejoicing began. With the Bodhi-
tree came also Theri Sanghamitta with eleven
followers. The Tree and its Saplings were planted
with due ceremony at different places, and royal

Pali Chronicles 529

consecration was bestowed on them. Under the
direction of the Thera Mahinda who converted the
island, Devanariipiyatissa continued to build viharas
and thupas one after another, and thus ruled for
40 years, after which he died. He was succeeded
on the throne by his son, Prince Uttiya ; but in the
eighth year of his reign, the great Thera Mahinda,
who had brought light to the island of Lanka, died
at the age of sixty ; and the whole island was
struck with sorrow at his death, and the funeral
rights were observed with great ceremony.

After a reign of ten years Uttiya died, and was
n , , , . followed by Mahasiva, Suratissa, two

DutthagSmani. -rv i i Ai ^ i A i

Damilas, Sena and Guttaka, Asela
and Elara, a Damila from the Cola country, in
succession. Elara was killed by Dutthagamani who
succeeded the former as king.

Gamani, for such was his original name, was
born of Prince Kakavannatissa, overlord of Maha-
gama, and Viharadevi, daughter of the king of
Kalyam. Gamani was thus descended through the
dynasty of Mahanaga, second brother of Devanam-
piyatissa. Kakavannatissa had another son by
Viharadevi named Tissa, and both Gamani and Tissa
grew up together. Now when they were ten and
twelve years old, Kakavannatissa, who was a
believing Buddhist, wanted his sons to make three
promises ; first, they would never turn away from
the bhikkhus, secondly, the two brothers would
ever be friendly towards each other, and, thirdly,
never would they fight the Damilas. The two
brothers made the first two promises but turned
back to make the third, upon which their father
became sorry. Gamani gradually grew up to sixteen
years, vigorous, renowned, intelligent, majestic, and
mighty. He gathered round him mighty and great
warriors from far and near villages, as well as from
the royal and noble families. Gamani developed a
strong hatred towards the Damilas who had
than once usurped the throne of Lanka,
determined to quell them down. No

530 A History of Pali Literature

gathered a strong army of brave and sturdy warriors
round him, he approached his father for permission
*to make war on the Damilas. But the king, though
repeatedly requested, declined to give any such
permission. As a pious Buddhist devoted to the
cult of ahimsa, he could not give permission for
war that would result in bloodshed and cruelty.
He also dissuaded the warriors to fight for his sons.
Gamani, thereupon, became disgusted with his
father, and went to Malaya ; and because of his
anger and disgust towards his father, he was named
as Dutthagamani. In the meantime King Kaka-
vannatissa died, and there arose a deadly scramble -
for the throne between the two brothers, Duttha-
gamani and Tissa. Two battles were fought with
considerable loss of life, and Dutthagamani
eventually became victorious. Peace was then con-
cluded and the two brothers began to live together
again. He took some time to provide for his
people who had suffered during the last wars, and
then went out to fight against the Damilas. He
overpowered Damila Chatta, conquered Damila
Titthamba and many other mighty Damila princes
and kings. Deadly were the wars that he fought
with them, but eventually he came out victorious,
and united the whole of Lanka into one kingdom.
Gamani was then consecrated with great pomp,
and not long after he himself consecrated the
Maricavatti vihara which he had built up. Next
took place the consecration of the Lohapasada ;
but the building up of the Great Thupa was now
to be taken up. He took some time to the obtaining
of the wherewithal, i.e., the materials of the thupa
from different quarters, and then began the work
in which masons and workmen from far and near
did take part, and at the beginning of which a
great assemblage of theras from different countries
took place. When the work of the building had
considerably advanced, the king ordered the making
of the Relic-chamber in which the relics were
afterwards enshrined with due eclat, pomp, and

Pali Chronicles 531

ceremony. But ere yet the making of the chatta
and the plaster work of the monument was finished,
the king fell ill which later on proved fatal. Hd"
sent for his younger brother Tissa, and asked him
to complete the thupa, which Tissa did. The ill
king passed round the Cetiya on a palanquin and
did homage to it, and left with Tissa the charge
of doing all the work that still remained to be
done towards it. He then enumerated some of
the pious works he had done in his life to the
theras and bhikkhus assembled round his bed, and
one of the theras spoke to him on the unconquerable
foe of death. Then the king became silent, and
he saw that a golden chariot came down from the
Tusita heaven. Then he breathed his last, and was
immediately seen reborn and standing in celestial
form in a car that had come down from the Tusita
heaven.

Dutthagamani was succeeded by his brother

Saddhatissa who ruled for 18 years,

and built man Y cetiyas and viharas.

He was followed by Thulathana,
Lanjatissa, Khallatanaga, and Vattagamani. The
last named was a famous king during whose reign
the Damilas became powerful and again usurped
the throne. Vattagamani was thus followed by
Damila Pulahattha, Damija Bahiya, Damila Panaya-
maraka, Damila Pilayamaraka, and Damila
Dathika. But the Damilas were dispossessed of
their power not long after by Vattagamani, who
now ruled for a few more years.

After his death, his adopted son Mahaculi

Mahatissa reigned for 14 years with

Eleven kings. . , i T- TT j? 11 j

piety and justice. He was followed
by Coranaga, Tissa, Siva, Damila Vatuka, Brahmin
Niliya, Queen Anula, Kutakanna Tissa, Bhati-
kabhaya, and Mahadathika Mahanaga. 1 All of
them had short reigns and were builders of viharas

1 In the list of Ancient Kings of Ceylon the name of Daru-
bhatikatissa appears after Damila Vatuka (vide Geiger, Mahavamsa,
Introduction, p. xxxvii).

532 A History of Pali Literature

and cetiyas. Anula was a notorious queen and to

^her love intrigues at least four kings, Siva, Tissa,

^Damila Vatuka, and Brahmin Niliya, lost their

lives. Except Tissa, they were all upstarts and they

rightly deserved the fate that had been theirs.

After Mahadathika's death, Amandagamani
Abhaya, his son, followed him on
ngs. t ^ e throne. He was followed by
Kanirajanutissa, Culabhaya, Queen Sivali, Ilanaga,
Candamukha Siva, Yasalalakatissa, Subharaja,
Vankanasikatissaka, Gajabahukagamani, and
Mahallaka Naga in succession. Most of these kings
were worthless, and their merit lay only in the
building or extension of viharas and other religious
establishments and in court-intrigues. Two of them,
Ilanaga and Subharaja were, however, comparatively
more noted for their acts of bravery and valour
exhibited mostly in local wars.

After the death of Mahallanaga, his son Bhatika-
. . , . tissaka reigned for 24 years. He

Thirteen kings. r n i T_

was followed m succession by
Kanitthatissaka, Khujjanaga, Kuncanaga, Sirinaga,
Tissa, Abhayanaga, Sirinaga, Vijayakumaraka,
Samghatissa, Sirisamghabodhi, Gothabhaya, and
Jetthatissa who are grouped together in a chapter
entitled " Thirteen Bangs " in the Mahavamsa.
Scarcely there is anything important enough to be
recorded about these kings, besides the fact that
most of them ruled as pious Buddhists, always
trying to further the cause of the religion by the
foundation and extension of religious establishments,
and that they carried out the affairs of the kingdom
through wars, intrigues, rebellions, and local feuds.
King Jetthatissa was succeeded by his younger
. . , brother, Mahasena, who ruled for

King MahSeena. -._ ' , , / ,

27 years and during whose reign,
most probably, the Mahavamsa was given its
present form. Originally it ended with the death of
King Dutthagamani, but now it was probably
brought up-to-date.

On his accession to the throne, he forbade the

Pali Chronicles 533

pie to give food to any bhikkhu dwelling in the
lavihara on penalty of a fine of hundred pieces
of money. The bhikkhus thus fell in want, and
they left the vihara which remained empty for
nine years. It was then destroyed by the ill-
advisers of the king and its riches were removed
to enrich the Abhayagirivihara. The king wrought
many a deed of wrong upon which his minister
Meghavannabhaya became angry and became a
rebel. A battle was imminent, but the two former
friends met, and the king, repentant of his mis-
deeds, promised to make good all the harm done to
the religious establishments of Lanka. The king
rebuilt the Mahavihara, and founded amongst others
two new viharas, the Jetavanavihara and the
Manihiravihara. He was also the builder of the
famous Thuparamavihara, as well as of two other
nunneries. He also excavated many tanks and
did many other works of merit.

Dr. Kern says in his Manual of Indian Buddhism
that the Mahavamsa deserves a special notice on
account of its being so highly important for the
religious history of Ceylon. Dr. Geiger who has
made a thorough study of the Pali chronicles, has
edited the text of the Mahavamsa for the P.T.S.,
London, and has ably translated it into English
for the same society, with the assistance of the
late Dr. M. H. Bode. G. Tumour's edition and
translation of this text are now out of date. Prof.
Geiger has translated it into German. Mrs. Bode
has retranslated it into English and Dr. Geiger
himself has revised the English translation. There
is a commentary on the Mahavamsa known as
the Mahavamsatika (Wamsatthapakasim revised
and edited by Batuwantudawe and -Sanissara,
Colombo, 1895) written by Mahanama of Anuradha-
pura. This commentary is helpful in reading
the text. It contains many additional data not
found in the text. Readers are referred to the
Mahawanse, ed. by Tumour, Ceylon, 1837, Maha-
vamsa revised and edited by H. Sumangala Batu-

534 A History of Pali Literature

wantudawe, Colombo, 1883, and Cambodjan Maha-
vamsa by E. Hardy, J.R.A.S., 1902. There is a
-Sinhalese translation by Wijesinha, Colombo, 1889
(chapter and verse).

It has long been ascertained that both Dlpa-

vamsa and Mahavamsa owe their

Dipavamsa and origin to a common source the

Mah&vamsa com- A , fV i j.i_ - n/r i - r ji

pared. Atthakatha-Mahavamsa of the

Mahavihara monastery, which, evi-
dently was a sort of chronicle of the history of the
island from very early times, and must have formed
an introductory part of the old theological com-
mentary (atthakatha) on the canonical writings of
the Buddhists. Both Oldenberg and Geiger, the
celebrated editors of the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa
respectively, are of opinion that this Atthakatha-
Mahavamsa was composed in Sinhalese prose, inter-
spersed, no doubt with verse in the Pali language.
This book (Mahavamsa-atthakatha) existed in
various recensions in the different monasteries of
the island, and the authors of both Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa borrowed the materials of their works
from one or other of the various recensions of that
Atthakatha. This borrowing presumably was
independent, and quite in their own way ; but even
then, in the main, they are nothing but two different
versions of the same thing. But as the Dipavamsa
had been composed at least one century and a
half earlier than the Mahavamsa, it shows perhaps
more faithfulness to the original, i.e., to the Attha-
katha, for, as Oldenberg points out, that the
" author of the Dipavamsa borrowed not only the
materials of his own work but also the mode of
expression, and even whole lines, word for word,
from the Atthakatha. In fact, a great part of the
Dipavamsa has the appearance not of an
independent, continual work, but of a composition
of such single stanzas extracted from a work or
works like the Atthakatha ". x But the author of

1 Dipavamsa (Oldenberg), Introduction, p. 6.

Pali Chronicles 535

the Mahavamsa is not so fettered in his style or
execution. Coming as he did at least one century
and a half later (i.e., the beginning of the 6th
century A.D.) than the author of the Dipavamsa
when the islanders had attained much more freedom
in their learning and writing of the Pali language
he evidently showed greater ease and skill in his
use of the language, as well as in his style and
composition, and finally, a more free and liberal
use of the material of his original.

It is well known that Mahanaman was the
author of the Mahavamsa, whereas we are com-
pletely in the dark as to the name of the author of
the Dipavamsa. A further proof of the fact that
both the authors were indebted to a common
source is provided by a very striking coincidence
of the two narratives, namely, that both the chron-
icles finish their accounts with the death of King
Mahasena who flourished about the beginning of
the 4th century A.D. It was not much later that
the Dipavamsa was composed, but as the Mahavamsa
was composed still later, we might as well expect
the bringing down of the narrative to a later date.
But this was not the case, apparently for the fact
that their common source, the Atthakatha-Maha-
variisa of the Mahavihara monastery, as shown by
Oldenberg, was very intimately connected with
King Mahasena with whose reign the glorious
destinies of the monastery came practically to an
end, and there the Atthakatha could only logically
stop its account. 1

But the historical writers of the Mahavihara
fraternity did not at once bring down their account
to the reign of Mahasena. The Atthakatha-Maha-
variisa seems to have originally brought down its
account only to the arrival of Mahinda in Ceylon ;
but it was later on continued and brought down to
the reign of Mahasena, where both the Dipavamsa and
the Mahavamsa as already noticed, came to an end.

1 Dipavamsa (Oldenberg), Intro., p. 8.

13

536 A History of Pali Literature

That the Dlpavamsa was well known to the
author of the Mahavamsa is evident from the very
arrangement of the chapters and events of the
narrative, so much so that the Mahavamsa seems
to be more an explanatory commentary on the
earlier chronicle. The account in the Dipavamsa
is condensed, and the sequence of events and
characters presents the form more of a list and
catalogue than of any connected account. The
Mahavamsa, on the other hand, is elaborate, more
embellished, and seems rather to explain the cata-
logue of events and characters of the earlier chronicle
so as to give it the form of a connected narrative.
Geiger rightly thinks in this connection that " the
quotation of the Mahavamsa of the ancients in the
prooemium of our Mahavamsa refers precisely to
the Dlpavamsa 'V The well-known passage of
the Culavamsa (38. 59) " datva sahassam dipetum
Dlpavamsam samadisi" which Fleet translates as
" he (King Dhatusena) bestowed a thousand (pieces
of gold) and gave orders to write a dlpikd on the
Dipavamsa " also lends support to this view, 2 for
this Dipika, Fleet says, is identical with Mahavamsa.

It is interesting to compare the more important
chapters of the two chronicles to see how their
subject-matters agree or differ. We have already
indicated that their contents are almost identical ;
in the Dipavamsa they are condensed, and in the
Mahavamsa, elaborate. After an identical account
of the race of Mahasammata, both the earlier and
later chronicles proceed to give a more or less
detailed account of the three Buddhist Councils.
The account of the First Council is almost the
same. Five hundred chosen bhikkhus assembled
under the leadership of Mahakassapa in the Satta-
panna cave at Rajagaha and composed the collec-
tion of the Dhamma and the Vinaya. The Dipa-

1 Mah&vaxhsa (Geiger), Intro., p. xi.

2 Mahavamsa (Geiger), Intro., p. xi, where Geiger quotes
Fleet.

Pali Chronicles 537

vamsa mentions the fourth month after the Master's
death as the time at which the First Council was held.
This was the second Vassa-month, i.e., Savana.
This date is substantially confirmed by that pro-
vided by the Mahavamsa which mentions the
bright half of Asfida, the fourth month of the year
as the beginning of the Council. But as the first
month was spent in preparations, the actual pro-
ceedings did not begin till the month of Savana.
The account of the Second Council too is sub-
stantially the same. It was brought about by the
dasa-vatthuni of the Vajjians of Vesali, a relaxation
of monastic discipline ; and 700 bhikkhus took
part in the discussion of the Council. It was held
in the llth year of the reign of Kalasoka ; there is,
however, a slight discrepancy about the locality
where the Council was held. The Mahavaihsa
mentions the Valikarama, whereas the Dipavamsa
mentions the Kutagarasala of the Mahavana
monastery as the place of the Council. The tradi-
tion of a schism in the Second Council is also
identical in the two chronicles. The Dipavamsa
states that the heretical monks held a separate
Council called the Mahasamgiti, and prepared a
different redaction of the Scriptures. The tradition
is also noticed in the Mahavamsa where it is related
that they formed a separate sect under the name
Mahasamghika. The account of the Third Council
is also identical. It was held at Pataliputta under
the presidency of Tissa Moggaliputta and lasted
for nine months.

The list of Indian kings before Asoka and
pieces of historical account connected with them,
the traditional date of the Buddha's parinirvana,
and the duration of reigns of individual Indian kings
are always almost identical in both the chronicles.
The story of the conversion of Ceylon, that of the
coming of Vijaya and his consecration, the list
and account of Ceylonese kings up to Devanam-
piyatissa and that of the latter's contemporaneity
with Kong Dhammasoka, are for all practical purposes

538 A History of Pali Literature

the same. But before the two chronicles take up
the account of Mahinda's coming to Ceylon, the
Mahavamsa inserts a somewhat elaborate account
of the converting of different countries under
the efficient missionary organisation of Moggaliputta
Thera. The Mahavamsa thus rightly stresses the
fact that it was a part of the religious policy of the
great thera that Mahinda came to Ceylon. Here
again the accounts of the Dipavamsa and the
Mahavamsa are identical; then follow the identical
accounts of Mahinda's entry into the capital, his
acceptance of the Mahavihara and that of the
Cetiyapabbata-vihara, the arrival of the relics, the
receiving and coming of the Bodhi tree, and the
Nibbana of the Thera Mahinda. From Vijaya to
Devanampiyatissa the tradition and traditional
chronology are almost identical ; there is only a
discrepancy about the date of Devanampiyatissa
himself. The earlier chronicle states that filing
Devanampiyatissa was consecrated king in the
237th year after the Buddha's death, whereas the
Mahavamsa places it on the first day of the bright
half of the ninth month, Maggasira (Oct. -Nov.),
showing a discrepancy involved probably in the
chronological arrangement itself. 1

The account of the kings from the death of
Devanampiyatissa to Dutthagamani is also identical
in the two chronicles. But the Mahavamsa is
much more detailed and elaborate in its account of
Bong Dutthagamani, giving as it does in separate
chapters the topics of the birth of Prince Gamani, the
levying of the warriors for the war of the two
brothers, Gamani and Tissa, the victory of Duttha-
gamani, the consecrating of the Maricavatti vihara,
the consecrating of the Lohapasada, the obtaining
of the wherewithal to build the Mahathupa, the
beginning of the Mahathupa, the making of the
relic-chamber for the Mahathupa, the enshrining
of the relics and finally his death : whereas the

1 See Mahavamsa (Geiger), Intro., pp. xxxi foil.

Pali Chronicles 539

Dipavamsa touches, and that also in brief, the two
accounts only in their main outline.

The list and account of the later kings from
Dutthagamani to Mahasena in the Dipavamsa are
very brief. In the Mahavamsa, however, though
the essential points and topics are the same, the
accounts differ considerably in their detail which
may be due to the more liberal use by the author
of the original as well as of other historical and
traditional sources than the Atthakatha-Mahavamsa.
He might have also used those indigenous historical
literature and tradition that might have grown up
after the author of the Dipavamsa had laid aside
his pen. This is apparent from a comparison of
the respective accounts of any individual king, say,
the last King Mahasena. Thus the Dipavamsa
relates that while he was in search of really good
and modest bhikkhus, he met some wicked bhikkhus ;
and knowing them not he asked them the sense of
Buddhism and the true doctrine. Those bhikkhus,
for their own advantage, taught him that the true
doctrine was a false doctrine. In consequence of
his intercourse with those wicked persons, he per-
formed evil as well as good deeds, and then died.
The Mahavamsa account is otherwise. It gives the
story of his consecration by Saiighamitta, the
account of the vicissitudes of the Mahavihara, how
it was left desolate for nine years, how a hostile
party succeeded in obtaining the king's sanction for
destroying the monastery, why for this fault of the
king the minister became a rebel, how the Maha-
vihara was reconstructed and came to be again
inhabited by bhikkhus, how an offence of the gravest
kind was made against Thera Tissa and how he was
expelled, how the king built the Mamhlra-vihara,
destroying the temples of some brahmanical gods,
and how he built many other aramas and viharas,
and a number of tanks and canals for the good of
his subjects.

One such instance as just noticed is sufficient
to explain the nature of the difference in the accounts

540 A History of Pali Literature

of individual kings as given in the two chronicles.
The duration of ruling years as given to individual
kings is in most cases identical ; there are only a
few discrepancies, e.g., with regard to the reigns of
Sena and Gutta, Lajjitissa (the Mahavamsa gives
the name as Lanjatissa), Niliya, Tissa Yasalala,
Abhaya, and Tissa. In the case of Sena and Gutta,
the Dipavamsa gives the duration of rule as 12 years,
whereas the Mahavamsa gives it as 22 years. The
Dipavamsa gives 9 years 6 months to Lajjitissa,
whereas the later chronicle gives 9 years 8 months.
Niliya is given 3 months in the earlier chronicle,
but in the later chronicle he is given 6 months.
Tissa Yasalala is given 8 years 7 months, and 7
years and 8 months respectively ; and the order
of rule of Abhaya and Tissa of the Dipavamsa is
transposed in the Mahavamsa as Tissa and Abhaya,
and Abhaya is given only 8 years in place of 22 as
given by the Dipavamsa.

In the early days of the study of the Ceylonese

chronicles, scholars were sceptical

The value o^the about their value as sources of

icies nese C r n authentic historical tradition and

information. But now after lapse

of years when the study of Indian and Ceylonese

history has far advanced, it is now comparatively

easy for us to estimate their real value.

Like all chronicles, the Dipavamsa and the
Mahavamsa contain germs of historical truth buried
deep under a mesh of absurd fables and marvellous
tales. But if they do contain mainly myths and
marvels and read more like fantasies, they are like
other chronicles of their time. This, however,
should not be used as any argument for completely
rejecting the chronicles as positively false and
untrustworthy. It is, however, important that
one should read them with a critical eye as all
records of popular and ecclesiastical tradition deserve
to be read. Buried in the illumination of myths,
miracles, and legends, there are indeed germs which
go to make up facts of history, but they can only

Pali Chronicles 541

be gleaned by a very careful elimination of all
mythical and unessential details which the pious
sentiment of the believer gathered round the nucleus,
" If we pause ", Geiger rightly says, " first at internal
evidence then the Ceylonese chronicles will assuredly
at once win approval in that they at least wished to
write the truth. Certainly the writers could not go
beyond the ideas determined by their age and their
social position, and beheld the events of a past time
in the mirror of a one-sided tradition. But they
certainly did not intend to deceive hearers or
readers." l

The very fact that both Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa are based on the earlier Atthakatha-
Mahavamsa, a sort of a chronicle which itself was
based upon still earlier chronicles, ensures us in
our belief that they contain real historical facts,
for, with the Atthakatha, the tradition goes back
several centuries, and becomes almost contemporary
with the historical incidents narrated in the chronicle.

Even in the very introductory chapters, there
are statements which agree with other canonical
writings, and find confirmation in our already known
facts of history, Sucli are the statements that
Bimbisara was a great friend of Buddha, and
both Bimbisara and Ajatasattu were contem-
poraries of the Master. There does not seem to be
any ground for rejecting the tradition of the
chronicles that Gotama was five years older than
Bimbisara, though the duration of rule ascribed
to each of them disagrees with that ascribed by
the Puranas. But whatever that might be, there
can hardly be any doubt as to the authenticity of
the list of Indian kings from Bimbisara to Asoka
provided by the chronicles. The Jain tradition
has, no doubt, other names ; " this ", as pointed
out by Geiger, " does not affect the actual agree-
ment. There can be no doubt that the nine Nandas
as well as the two forerunners of Asoka, Candagutta

1 Mahavamsa Geiger, Intro., p. xv.

642 A History of Pali Literature

and Bindus&ra, were altogether historical person-
ages." But more than this is the complete agree-
ment of the Ceylonese and Pauranic tradition in
the duration of reign, namely 24, ascribed to
Candagutta. The discrepancy of the two traditions
in respect of regnal duration of Bindusara and Asoka,
namely 3 years and 1 year respectively, is almost
negligible. Still more interesting is the name of
Canakka (Canakya), the brahmin minister of Canda-
gutta, who was known to the authors of the Dipa-
vamsa and the Mahavamsa.

So much with regard to the historical value
of the Ceylonese chronicles in respect of Indian
history. But more valuable are the chronicles with
regard to the history of Ceylon. As regards the
oldest period from Vijaya to Devanampiyatissa the
chronicles are certainly untrustworthy to the extent
that the duration of years ascribed to each reign
seems incredible in view of the fact that they appear
to be calculated according to a set scheme, and
present certain insuperable difficulties of chronology
with regard to one or two reigns, e.g., of King
Pandukabhaya and Mutasiva. Moreover, the day
of Vijaya's arrival in Ceylon has been made to
synchronise with the date of Buddha's death,
which itself is liable to create a distrust in our mind.
But even in the first and the earliest period of
Ceylonese history, there are certain elements of
truth which can hardly be questioned. Thus there
is no ground for doubting the authenticity of the
list of kings from Vijaya to Devanampiyatissa ;
nor is there any reason for rejecting the account of
Pandukabhaya's campaigns, as weff as the detailed
account of the reign of Devanampiyatissa, which
seem decidedly to be historical. We have also
sufficient reason to believe the contemporaneity and
friendship of Tissa and Asoka who exchanged
greetings of gifts between themselves.

As for the period from Devanampiyatissa to
Mahasena, the chronicles may safely but intelligently
be utilised as of value. There are no doubt gaps in

Pali Chronicles 543

the traditional chronology which have been care-
lessly filled in, notably in the period from Deva-
nampiyatissa to Dutthagftmani, but after Duttha^
gftmani there is no such careless and fictitious
in of gaps, nor any set-up system of chroirfuogy,
and on the whole the list of kings and their duration
of reigns are credible. But even where the chrono-
logy is doubtful, there is no ground whatsoever for
doubting the kernel of historical truth that lies
mixed up with mythical tales in respect of the
account of each individual reign, say, for example,
of the reign of Dutthagamani. It may, therefore,
be safely asserted that the Ceylonese chronicles
can be utilised, if not as an independent historical
source, at least as a repository of historical tradition
in which we can find important confirmatory evidence
of our information with regard to early Indian and
contemporary Ceylonese history.

But the chronicles must be considered to be of
more value for the ecclesiastical history not only of
Ceylon but of India as well. With regard to this
there are certain notices in the chronicles that have
helped us to start with almost definite chronological
points which are equally important in respect of the
political history of the continent and its island.
One such fixed point is provided by the chronicles
where it has been stated that 218 years after the
Sambuddha had passed into Nirvana when Asoka
was consecrated. This corner stone has helped us
to ascertain one of the most knotty and at the same
time most useful starting points of Indian history,
namely, the year of the Buddha's parinirvana and
his birth, which, according to the calculation based
on the date just cited are 483 B.C. and 563 B.C.
respectively. 1

Next in point of importance with regard to the
history of Buddhism is the conversion of the island
by Mahinda, who is represented in the chronicles
as a son of Asoka. Historians have doubted the

1 See Mahavamsa (Geiger), Sees. 5 and 6. Introduction.

544 A History of Pali Literature

tradition in view of the fact that there is no mention
of it in the numerous edicts and inscriptions of
^Asoka. Geiger has very ably shown that this
aigiunent is at least an argumentum e silentio and
can Lordly be conclusive. The tradition of the
chronicles is unanimously supported by the tradition
of the country itself, and finds further confirmation
in the account of Yuan Chwang who expressly
states that the conversion of Ceylon was the
work of Mahendra or Mahinda, who is, however,
represented as a brother of Asoka. But it must
not be understood that Ceylon was converted all
on a sudden by Mahendra or Mahinda. Similar
mission must have been sent earlier ; " a hint that
Mahinda's mission was preceded by similar missions
to Ceylon is to be found even in Dipavamsa and
Mahavaihsa when they relate that Asoka, sending
to Devanampiyatissa with presents for his second
consecration as king, exhorted him to adhere to the
doctrine of the Buddha." *

Geiger has also been able to find very striking
confirmation of the history of the religious missions
as related in the chronicles in the relic-inscriptions
of the Safichi stupa, No. 2. 2 He has thus pointed
out that Majjhima who is named in the Mahavarhsa
as the teacher who converted the Himalaya region
and Kassapagotta who appears as his companion
in the Dipavamsa are also mentioned in one of the
inscriptions just referred to as ' pious Majjhima '
and * pious Kassapagotta, the teacher of the
Himalaya '. In another inscription also Kassapa-
gotta is mentioned as the teacher of the Himalaya.
Dundubhissara who is also mentioned in the
chronicles as one of the theras who won the Himalaya
countries to Buddhism, is mentioned in another
inscription as Dadabhisara along with Gotiputta
(i.e., Kotiputta Kassapagotta). The thera, i.e.,
Moggaliputta Tissa, who is described in the chronicles

1 Mahavarhsa, p. xix.

2 Ibid., pp. xix-xx.

Pali Chronicles 545

as having presided over the Third Buddhist Council,
is also mentioned in another inscription as Mogali-
putta. These facts are guarantee enough for care-
fully utilising the chronicles as an important spwrce
of information for the early history of BudfJHism.

This would be far more evident whenwe would
consider the accounts of the three Buddhist Councils
as related in the two chronicles. The authenticity
of the accounts of these Councils had during the
early days of the study of the two chronicles often
been doubted. But it is simply impossible to doubt
that there must lie a kernel of historical truth at
the bottom of these accounts. As to the First
Council, both the northern and southern traditions
agree as to the place and occasion and the President
of the Council. As to the Second Council, both
traditions agree as to the occasion and cause of
the first schism in the Church, namely, the relaxa-
tion of monastic discipline brought about by the
Vajjian monks. As to the place of the Council,
the northern tradition is uncertain, but the southern
tradition is definite inasmuch as it states that it
was held in Vesali under King Kalasoka in 383/2
B.C. and led to the separation of the Mahasamghikas
from the Theravada. The Ceylonese tradition
speaks of a Third Council at PataUputra in the year
247 B.C. under King Dhammasoka which led to the
expulsion of certain disintegrating elements from
the community. The northern tradition has, how-
ever, no record of a Third Council, but that is no
reason why we should doubt its authenticity.
Geiger has successfully shown that the " distinction
between two separate Councils is in fact correct.
The Northern Buddhists have mistakenly fused the
two into one as they confounded the kings, Kalasoka
and Dhammasoka, one with another. But traces
of the right tradition are still preserved in the
wavering uncertain statements as to the time and
place of the Council." *

1 Mahavamsa ( Geiger' s Tr.)> pp. lix-ix and ff.

546 A History of Pali Literature

The succession of teachers from UpAli to
Mahinda as provided by the chronicles is also
interesting from the view-point of the history of
eatrji^Buddhism. The succession list which includes
Upli,^>&e great authority on Vinaya at the time
of the Buddha, Dasaka, Sonaka, Siggava, Moggali-
putta Tissa, and Mahinda, may not represent the
whole truth, they even might not all be Vinaya-
pamokkha, i.e., authorities on Vinaya ; but the
list presents at least an aspect of truth, and is
interesting, presenting, as it does, " a continuous
synchronological connexion between the history of
Ceylon and that of India ". The list can thus be
utilised for ascertaining the chronological arrange-
ment of early Indian history as well as of the teachers
of early Buddhism.

The chronicles can still more profitably be
utilised as a very faithful record of the origin and
growth of the numerous religious establishments of
Ceylon. They are so very elaborately described and
the catalogue seems to be so complete that a careful
study may enable us to frame out a history of the
various kinds of religious and monastic establish-
ments, e.g., stupas, viharas, cetiyas, etc., of Ceylon.
Thus the history of the Mahavihara, the Abhayagiri
vihara, the Thupar&ma, Mahameghavanarama, and
of a host of others is recorded in elaborate detail.
Incidentally they refer to the social and religious
life led by the monks of the Order as well as by the
lay people. It is easy to gather from the chronicles
that the great architectural activity of the island
began as early as the reign of Devanampiyatissa
and continued unabated during each succeeding
reign till the death of Mahasena. The numerous
edifices, tanks, and canals whose ruins now cover
the old capitals of the island were built during that
period, and their history is unmistakably recorded in
the chronicles. Religious ceremonies and pro-
cessions are often vividly described, and they give
us glimpses of the life and conditions of the time.
Not less interesting is the fact, often times related

Pali Chronicks 547

as a part of the account of these religious edifices,
of very close intercourse with more or less important
religious centres of India, namely, Rajag&h^,
Kosambl, Vesali, Ujjenl, Pupphapura, Ir^S&va,
Alasanda (Alexandria), and other countriejsXlSvery
important function was attended by brotner monks
and teachers from the main land to which the
Ceylonese kings and people turned for inspiration
whenever any question of bringing and enshrining
a relic arose. There are also incidental and stray
references which are no less valuable. The Maha-
vamsa informs us that King Mahasena built the
Manihiravihara and founded three other viharas,
destroying temples of the (brahmanical) gods. It
shows that brahmanical temples existed side by
side, and religious toleration was not always the
practice.

As for the internal political history and foreign
political relations with South India, specially with
the Damilas, the chronicles seem to preserve very
faithful records. No less faithful is the geographical
information of India and Ceylon as supported by
them. But most of all, as we have hinted above,
is the information contained in them, in respect of
the history of Buddhism and Buddhist establish-
ments of the island. There is hardly any reason
to doubt the historicity of such information.

The Culavamsa l is not an uniform and homo-
-_. . geneous work. It is a series of

Culavamsa. , ,. . , . . .

additions to, and continuations ot,
the Mahavamsa. The Mahavamsa is the work of
one man Mahanama, who compiled the work during
the reign of Dhatusena in the 6th century A.D.
But the single parts of the Culavamsa are of different
character, written by different authors at different
times. The first who continued the chronicle was
according to Sinhalese tradition the Thera Dham-

1 Edited by Dr. W. Geiger in two volumes for the P.T.S.,
London, translated into English by Geiger and Mrs. R. Rickmers,
1930.

648 A History of Pdli Literature

makitti. He came from Burma to Ceylon during
the reign of King Parakkamabahu II in the 13th
century A.D.

"***Between the Chapters 37 and 79 no trace is
found ^)Mhe commencement of a new section. This
part of ttifc chronicle seems to be the work of the
same author. So it is clear, if the Sinhalese tradition
is authentic, then about three quarters of what we
call the Culavamsa (pages 443 out of 592 pages of
Geiger's edition of the Culavamsa) were composed
by Dhammakitti.

The second section of the Culavamsa begins
with the reign of Vijayabahu II, the successor of
Parakkamabahu I, and ends with that of Parak-
kamabahu IV. Hence it follows, the second part
of the Culavamsa consists of the Chapters from 80
to 90, both inclusive.

The third portion begins with the Chapter
91 and ends with the Chapter 100.

The Mahavamsa gives us a list of kings from
Vijaya, the first crowned king of Ceylon, to Mahasena.
Mahanama simply followed here his chief source, the
Dlpavamsa, which also ends with King Mahasena.
The Culavamsa, however, begins with the reign of
King Sirimeghavanna, son of King Mahasena, and
ends with Sirivikkamarajasiha.

The first section of the Culavamsa begins
with Sirimeghavanna and ends with Parakkama-
bahu I. Evidently this portion gives a chronological
account of 78 kings of Ceylon. Altogether eighteen
paricchedas are devoted to the glorification of the
great national hero of the Sinhalese people, Parak-
kamabahu I. Bevd. R. S. Copleston has called this
portion of the Culavamsa the " epic of Parakkama".
This king was noted for his charity. He not only
made gifts of alms to the needy, but also to the
bhikkhus. As a warrior this king also stands out
pre-eminent. The Colas and Damilas came to
Lanka from Southern India and occupied Anuradha-
pura. Parakkama fought many battles with
them and drove them out of the country and became

Pali Chronidea 549

king of the united Lanka. He then espoused the
cause of the Buddhist Sarhgha. He built many
great viharas and thupas. He also construct^
many vapis and uyyanas. '

The second portion of the Culavaihsa^egins
with Vijayabahu II and ends with Parak^mabahu
IV. Thus it refers to 23 kings of Ceylon.

The third section begins with Bhuvanekabahu
III and ends with Kittisirirajasiha. Thus it refers
to 24 kings.

The last chapter gives a brief account of the
last two kings, e.g., Sirirajadhirajasiha and Sirivik-
kamarajasiha.

There are in both the chronicles, the Dipavamsa

and the Mahavamsa, interesting

List of psii texts references to Pali texts affording

in the Ceyloneee -, . , - jvij_

chronicles. very useful materials for the history

of Pali literature as well as of early
Buddhism in Ceylon.

In the Dipavamsa references are not only
made to Vinaya texts, the five collections of Sutta
Pitaka, the three Pitakas, the five Nikayas (they
are not separately mentioned), and the ninefold
doctrine of the Teacher comprising the Sutta,
Geyya, Veyyakarana, Gatha, Udana, Itivuttaka,
Jataka, Abbhuta, and Vedalla, but also to the seven
sections of the Abhidhamma, the Patisambhida, the
Niddesa, the Pitaka of the Agamas and the different
sections, namely, Vaggas, Parifiasakas, Samyuttas,
and Nipatas into which the Digha, Majjhima,
Samyutta, and Anguttara Nikayas are respectively
divided. Mention is also made separately of the
two Vibhangas of Vinaya, namely, Parivara and
Khandhaka, the Cariyapitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka,
the Patimokkha, and the Atthakatha, We find
further mention of the Kathavatthu of the Abhi-
dhamma, the Petavatthu, the Saccasamyutta, and
the Vimanavatthu. Of Suttas and Suttantas
separate mention is made of the Devaduta Sutta,
Balapandita Suttanta, Aggikkhanda Suttanta,
Asivisa Suttanta, Asivisupama Suttanta, Ana-

550 A History of Pali Literature

mataggiya Sutta, Gomayapindaovada Suttanta,
Dhammacakkapavattana Suttanta, and the Maha-
samaya Suttanta.

*Vf **dex of Pali texts in the Dipavamsa

Abhidhamma, 5, 37 ; 7, 56.

Abbhuta, 4, 15.

Aggikkhandha Suttanta, 14, 12.

Anamataggiya Suttanta, 14, 45.

Atthakatha, 20, 20.

Agamas, 4, 12 ; 4, 16.

Asivisa Suttanta, 14, 18.

Asivisupama Suttanta, 14, 45.

Itivuttaka, 4, 15.

Udana, 4, 15.

Kathavatthu, 7, 41 ; 7, 56.

Khandhaka, 7, 43.

Geyya, 4, 15.

Gatha, 4, 15.

Gomayapindaovada Suttanta, 14, 46.

Cariyapitaka, 14, 45.

Jataka, 4, 15 ; 5, 37.

Dhutanga (precepts), 4, 3.

Dhamma, 4, 4 ; 4, 6.

Dhatuvada precepts, 5. 7.

Dhammacakkapavattana Suttanta, 14, 46.

Devaduta Sutta, 13, 7.

Nipatas, 4, 16.

Niddesa, 5, 37.

Nikayas, 7, 43.

Pitakas, 4, 32 ; 5, 71 ; 7, 30 ; 20, 20.

Parivara, 5, 37 ; 7, 43.

Pannasakas, 4, 16.

Petavatthu, 12, 84.

Patimokkha, 13, 55.

Patisambhida, 5, 37.

Viiiaya, 4, 3 ; 4, 4 and 6 ; 7, 43.

Veyyakarana, 4, 15.

VedaUa, 4, 15.

Vaggas, 4, 16.

Pali Chronicles 551

Vimanavatthu, 12, 85.

Balapandita Suttanta, 13, 13.

Vinaya Pitaka, 18, 19 ; 18, 33 ; 18, 37.

Vibhangas, 7, 43.

Mahasamaya Suttanta, 14, 53.

Sutta, 4, 15 ; 4, 16. /

Sutta Pitaka (pancanikaye), 18, 19 : 1&, 33.

Samyuttas, 4, 16.

In the Mahavamsa too we find numerous
mentions of Pali texts. But, curiously enough, refer-
ences to independent texts are much less compre-
hensive than that of the earlier chronicle; though
mentions of Suttas and Suttantas mainly of the three
Nikayas, the Anguttara, the Majjhima, and the
Samyutta, as well as of the Sutta Nipata and the
Vinaya Pitaka are much more numerous. There are
also several references to Jatakas. The three pitakas
are often mentioned as important texts, but only
the Abhidhamma and the Vinaya are mentioned
by name, and that too only once or twice in each
case.

Index of Pali Texts in the Mahavamsa

Abhidhamma Pitaka, 5, 150.

Asivisupama Sutta (Anguttara Nikaya), 12, 26.

Anamatagga Samyutta (Samyutta Nikaya), 12,

31.

Aggikkhandopama Sutta (Anguttara), 12, 34.
Kapi Jataka, 35, 31.
Kalakarama Suttanta, 12, 39.
Khajjaniya Suttanta (Samyutta N.), 15, 195.
Khaiidhakas (Sections of the Mahavagga and

Cullavagga of the Vinaya Pitaka), 36, 68.
Gomayapindisutta (Sam. N.), 15, 197.
Culahatthipadupama Suttanta (Majjhima N.),

14, 22.
Cittayamaka (Ref. Yamakappakarana of the

Abhidhamma), 5, 146.
Jataka (tales), 27, 34 ; 30, 88.
Tipitaka, 4, 62 ; 5, 84 ; 5, 112 ; 5, 118 and 119 ;

5, 210; 27, 44.

14

552 A History of Pali Literature

Tittira Jataka, 5, 264.

Devaduta Suttanta (Majjhima N.), 12, 29.

Dhammacakkapavattana-suttanta (Mahavagga

of the V.P.), 12, 41; 15, 199.

pandita Suttanta (Samyutta N.), 15, 4.
Brsfcomajala Suttanta, 12, 51.
Vess&tatara Jataka, 30, 88.
Vinaya, 5, 151.

Maha-narada-Kassapa Jataka, 12, 37.
Mahappamada-suttanta (Samyutta N.), 16, 3.
Mangala Sutta (Sutta Nipata), 32, 43.
Mahamangala Sutta (Sutta N.), 30, 83.
Mahasamaya Suttanta (Digha Nikaya), 30, 83.
Samacitta Sutta (Samacittavagga in the Duka

Nipata of the Anguttara Nikaya), 14, 39.
Sutta Pitaka, 5, 150.

The Ceylonese chronicles incidentally refer to a

large number of countries and

Geographical ref- localities, important in the history

erences in the Cey- / T> i 1 1 TT j/> i

lonese chronicles. of Buddhism, in India and Ceylon.
Most of them come in for mention
as a result of their association with the life and
religion of the Buddha, or in connection with the
historical interrelation, or the part played by them
in the history of India and Ceylon. Most of these
places and countries are already known from other,
mainly Buddhist, sources, and few of them require
any new identification. Even then, they add to our
geographical knowledge, and not a few of the
references are of more than passing usual interest.
Such are, for example, the references to Alasanda
in the city of the Yonas in the Mahavamsa, or to
Yonaka in the Dlpavamsa in connection with the
building of the Great Thupa, and the sending of
Missions by Moggalliputta respectively. Alasanda,
as is well known, is Alexandria in the land of the
Yonas, probably the town founded by Alexander in
the country of the Paropanisadae near Kabul.
The chronicles refer in common to the following
places and countries in India and Ceylon :

Pali Chronicles 553

North and North- West India

Gandhara modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi

districts.
Yona or Yonaka The foreign settlements on

the North-Western Frontier, perhaps identical

with the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom.yr
Anotatta laka One of the seven^reat lakes

in the Himalayas.

Western India

Aparantaka comprises modern Gujrat, Kathia-

war and the sea-coast districts.
Suppara (Dip) or Supparaka (Mah) Surparaka

(Sans), modern Sopara in the Thana district,

north of Bombay.
Maharattha modern Maharastra.

Mid-India and Eastern India

Kapilavatthu the birth place of Gotama, and

capital of the Sakya tribe in Nepal.
Kusavati identical with later Kusinara.
Kusinara a town of the clan of the Mallas in

modern Nepal.
Giribbaja or Rajagriha, modern Rajgir in

Bihar.
Jetavana a park and monastery near Savatthi

in the Kosala country.
Madhura another name for Mathura, modern

Muttra.
Ujjem now Ujjain in the Gwalior State ; old

capital of Avantl.
Uruvela ^in ancient Buddha-Gaya in Gaya

district.

Kasi modern Benares district.
Isipatana the famous deer park of Benares

where Buddha first turned the Wheel of

Law.
Tamalitiya (Dip) or Tamalitti (Mali) Tamra-

lipti, modern Tamluk in the district of

Midnapur, Bengal.

554 A History of Pali Literature

Pataliputta identical with modern Patna and

the adjoining region.

Pupphapura Puspapura, identical with ancient
^^v Pataliputra.

Bfeanasi modern Benares.

MitHla modern Tirhut in Bihar.

Raja^iha modern Rajgir in Bihar.

Vanga ^Bip) or Vanga (Mah) identical roughly

with Eastern Bengal.
Vesall modern Basar in Muzaffarpur, north

of Patna.

The Deccan and South India

Vifijha (Dip), Vinjhatavi (Mali) The Vindhya

mountain with its dense forests.
Damila The Tamil country.

Ceylon

Suvannabhumi not in Ceylon, generally identi-
fied with Lower Burma comprising the
Rammafinadesa.

Malaya Central mountain region in the interior
of Ceylon.

Abhayagiri outside the north gate of Anu-
radhapura.

Dighavapi probably the modern Kandiya-
Kattu tank in the Eastern Province.

Silakuta northern peak of the Mihintala
mountain.

Jetavana & park and monastery near Savatthi
in the Kosala country.

Kalyani modern Kaelani, the river that flows
into the sea near Colombo.

Cetiyapabbata the later name of the Missaka
mountain.

Nandanavana between Mahameghavana where
the Mahavihara now stands and the southern
wall of the city of Anuradhapura.

Lanka is identified with the island of Ceylon.
Missakagiri (Dip), pabbata (Mah) modern
Mihintala mountain, east of Anuradhapura.

Pali Chronicles 556

The Dlpavamsa, however, exclusively mentions
several countries and places which are not mentioned
in the Mah&vamsa.

North and North- West India

Kurudipa probably identical with UjAarakuru.
Takkaslla modern Taxila in the JjXw. frontier

province.
Sagala (reading doubtful) modern Sialkot in

the Punjab.

Western India

Bharukaccha modern Broach, an ancient sea-
port in Kathiawar.

LaJarattha identical either with Lata in modern
Gujerat or Radha in Bengal.

Sihapura capital city of Lata or Radha
country.

Mid-India and Eastern India

Anga identical with modern Bhagalpur region
in Bihar.

Camp& modern Pfitharghata in the district of
Bhagalpur.

Magadha a tribe dwelling in the territory now
represented by modern Patna and Gaya
districts in Bihar.

Malla a republican tribe of ancient Kusinarft
and Pava.

Vardhamanapura Vardhamanabhukti of in-
scriptions : modern Burdwan.

Veluvana the famous bamboo-garden monas-
tery in R&jagriha, modern Rajgir.

Vedissa Vidisfi/, modern Bhilsa in the Gwalior
State.

Hatthipura Hastin&pura (Sans) ^generally
identified with an old town in Mawana
Tahsil, Meerut.

Indapatta Indraprastha, near modern Delhi.

556 A History of Pali Literature

It may be noticed in this connection that
in the Dipavamsa, Ariga, Magadha, Variga, and Mallft
are mentioned in the plural, not as Vanga in the
singular as in the Mahavamsa. The tribal signi-
ficance has been maintained in the Dipavamsa,
wherea^vin the later chronicle it has been over-
looked. >*

Ceylon

Anuradhapura ancient capital of Ceylon, now

in ruins.
Aritthapura in North Central province, north

of Habarana.
Naggadipa probably an island in the Arabian

Sea. r

Tambapanni most probably identical with tht?

island of Ceylon.

The Mahavamsa likewise refers exclusively to
several countries and places not mentioned in the
Dipavamsa.

North and North- West India

Alasanda Alexandria, the town founded by
Alexander in the Paropanisadse country.

Uttarakuru a country north of K&Smlra,
mentioned in Vedic and Pauranic literature.

Kasmira modern Kashmir.

Mid-India and Eastern India

Avanti the region round modern Ujjain in

Gwalior.
Madda the country lay between the Ravi and

the Chenab, roughly identical with the

country round the modern district of Sialkot.
Mahavana a monastery in the ancient Vajji

country mentioned also by Fa-Hien.
Dakkhinagiri vihara a vihara in Uj jenl.
Payftga modern Allahabad.
Pftva a republican state inhabited by the

Mallas.

Pali Chronicles 557

Kosambi modern Kosam in Allahabad, on
the Jumna, capital of the Vatsas.

South India and the Deccan

Cola the ancient Chola country whose capital

was Kanchipuram, modern Conjejrveram.
Mahisamandala identical with Manjjmata island

on the Narbada, ancient capij-gi^Mahismati,

a district south of the Vindhya.
Vanavasin modern Vanavasi in north Kanara,

preserves the older name.

Ceylon

Akasa Cetiya situated on the summit of a

rock not very far from the Cittalapabbata

monastery.
Kadamba nadi modern Malwatte-oya by the

ruins of Anuradhapura (Kadambaka nadi in

the Dipavamsa).
Karinda nadi modern Kirindu-oya in the

Southern province where must be located

the Panjali-pabbata.
Kala Vapi built by Dhatusena by banking up

the river Kalu-oya or Gona nadi.
Gambhlra nadi 7 or 8 miles north of Anu-
radhapura.

Gona nadi modern Kalu-oya river.
Jetavanarama near Abhayagiri dagoba in

Anuradhapura.
Tissamahavihara in South Ceylon, north-east

of Hambantota.

Tissavapi a tank near Mahagama.
Thuparama a monastery in Anuradhapura.
Pathama Cetiya outside the eastern gate of

Anuradhapura.
Manihira now Minneriya, a tank near Pulon-

naruwa.
Mahaganga ^identical with Mahawseliganga

river.
Mahatittha identical with modern Mantota

opposite the island of Manaar.

568 A History of Pali Literature

Mahameghavana south of the capital Anu-

radhapura.
Dvaramandala near Cetiyapabbata (Mihintale),

east of Anuradhapura.
Pulinda a barbarous tribe dwelling in the

country inland between Colombo, Kalutara,

GaQfc and the mountains (Geiger-Mahavamsa,

p. GO^Npte 5).
Ambatthala immediately below the Mihintale

mountain.

Besides these, there are many other references
to countries and places of Ceylon of lesser importance.
They have all been noticed and identified in Geiger's
edition of the Mahavamsa to which we are indebted
for the identification of places in Ceylon noticed
above.

The Buddhaghosuppatti deals with the life
Buddhaghosup- and career of Buddhaghosa, the

patti. famous commentator, less authentic

than the account contained in the Culavamsa. It
gives us an account of Buddhaghosa's boyhood, his
admission to the priesthood, his father's conversion,
voyage to Ceylon, Buddhaghosa as a witness, per-
mission to translate scriptures, his object attained,
return to India, and his passing away. The book
is written in an easy language. It is more or less
a historical romance. As to the historical value
of this work readers are referred to my work, ' The
Life and Work of Buddhaghosa' (Ch. II, pp. 43-44).
The Buddhaghosuppatti has been edited by James
Grey and published by Messrs. Luzac & Co.,
London. Grey has also translated the book into
English.

The stories in the Milinda Panha, the Mahavamsa
and the Buddhaghosuppatti are so similar that one
doubts it very much that the author of this work
borrowed the incidents from the Milinda Panha and
the Mahavamsa and grafted them on to his own.

A critical study of the Buddhaghosuppatti does
not help us much in elucidating the history of

Pali Clvrwiidea 559

Buddhaghosa. The author had little authentic
knowledge of the great commentator. He only
collected the legends which centred round the
remarkable man by the time when his work was
written. Those legends are mostly valueless from
the strict historical point of view. Grey truly says
in his introduction to the Buddhaghosupppatti that
the work reads like an " Arthuriag^^JKomance ".
The accounts given by the Budohaghosuppatti
about the birth, early life, conversion, etc., of
Buddhaghosa bear a great similarity to those of
Milinda and Moggaliputta Tissa. In the interview
which took place between Buddhaghosa and Buddha-
datta, the latter is said to have told Buddhaghosa
thus, " I went before you to compile Buddha's
word. I am old, have not long to live and shall
not, therefore, be able to accomplish my purpose.
You carry out the work satisfactorily ".

In Buddhadatta's Vinayavinicchaya we read
that Buddhadatta requested Buddhaghosa to send
him the commentaries when finished that he might
summarise them. This request was complied with
by Buddhaghosa. Buddhadatta summarised the
commentary on the Abhidhamma in the Abhidham-
mavatara and the commentary on the Vinaya in
the Vinayavinicchaya. The above statement in
the Vinayavinicchaya which is more authoritative
than the Buddhaghosuppatti is in direct contra-
diction to the statement in the latter book.
The author has made a mistake in the sixth chapter
of the Buddhaghosuppatti in which it is stated that
Buddhaghosa rendered the Buddhist scriptures into
Magadhi. In the seventh chapter of the same book
we read that after the lapse of three months when
he completed his task, the works of Mahinda were
piled up and burnt. Buddhaghosa translated the
Sinhalese commentaries into Magadhi and not the
texts themselves. Had it been so there would not
have been any occasion for burning the works of
Mahinda. On the other hand they would have
been carefully preserved as the only reliable and

560 A History of Pali Literature

authentic interpretation of the sacred texts. It
has been distinctly stated in the Mahavamsa that
the texts only existed in the Jambudipa and
Buddhaghosa was sent to Ceylon to translate the
Sinhalese commentaries into Magadhi. If the
tradition recorded in the Mahavamsa is to be
believed,^hen only we can get an explanation for
the destruksjon of Mahinda's works.

The SacWhammasamgaha is a collection of
Saddhammasam- good sayings and teachings of the

gaha. Master. There are prose and poetry

portions in it. It consists of nine chapters. It was
written by Dhammakityabhidhana Thera. It has
been edited by Nedimale Saddhananda for the
P.T.S., London. The Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta,
Anguttara, and Khuddaka Nikayas are mentioned
in it. The books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka are
referred to in this work. There are references in
it to the Vajjiputtakas of Vesali and Yasa's stay in
the Kutagarasala in the Mahavana. It is mentioned
in this book that Moggaliputta Tissa recited the
Kathavatthu in order to refute the doctrines of
others. This treatise contains an account of the
missionaries sent to various places to establish the
Buddha's religion. Thera Majjhantika was sent
to Kashmir and Gandhara, Mahadeva Thera to
Mahisamandala, Rakkhita Thera to Vanavasi,
Yonaka-Dhammarakkhita Thera to Aparantaka,
Mahadhammarakkhita Thera to Maharattha, Maha-
rakkhita Thera to the Yonaka region, Majjhima
Thera to the Himalayan region, Sonaka and Uttara
to Suvannabhumi, and Mahinda Thera to Lanka
with four other theras, Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala,
and Bhaddasala. Besides, there is a reference to
the Buddha preaching his Dhamma to the inhabitants
of the city of Campaka (Campakanagaravasinam).

The Sandesa-Katha has been edited by Minayeff
a -i xr *u, in J.P.T.S., 1885. It is written

Sandesa-KathS. xl . T , , M .

mostly in prose. It dilates on
many points, e.g., the composition of Abhidhammat-
thasamgaha by Thera Anuruddha, the composition

Pali Chronicles 561

of a commentary known as the Abhidhammat-
thavibhaviru by Thera Sumangalasami, etc. It
refers to many kingdoms, e.g., Suvannabhumi,
Ramanfia, Jayavaddhana, Ayuddhaya, Kamboja,
Sivi, Cma, etc.

The Mahabodhivamsa has been edited by
vr K S U .. Mr. Strong for the P.T.%, London.

Mahabodhivamsa. mi . , .- ... ,

This work was ^written by
Upatissa (Upatissatheravarena viracito). The
Sinhalese edition by Upatissa and revised by
Sarandada, Colombo, 1891, deserves mention. There
is a Sinhalese translation of this work in twelve
chapters. Prof. Geiger says that the date of the
composition of the Mahabodhivaihsa is the 10th
century A.D. (Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, p. 79).
According to some it was composed within the last
quarter of the 4th century A.D. Strong points out
in the preface to his edition of the Mahabodhivaihsa
that the author has treated his subject with freedom
and prolixity. Most of the events in the early
history of Buddhism pass under the shadow of the
Bo-tree. The author has borrowed largely from
the sources as well as from the actual text of the
Mahavariisa, but there is abundant evidence that he
employed other materials as well. This work
contains discourses on the attainment of bodhi
(enlightenment), the attainment of bodhi by Ananda,
passing away of the Buddha who was endowed
with ten potentialities, the first three Buddhist
convocations (sangiti), landing of Mahinda at Lanka,
accepting Mahavihara and Cetiyagiri, things wor-
shipped by the Buddhas, advent of Duminda, etc.
The following manuscripts of the Mahabodhi-
vamsa are available :

(1) A manuscript on paper in the Sinhalese
character in possession of the P.T.S., England.

(2) A palm-leaf manuscript in the
character in possession of the P.T.S., En

(3) A palm-leaf manuscript in the
character in the Library of the British Mjj

662 A History of Pali Literature

(4) A palm-leaf manuscript in the Burmese
character in the Library of the India Office.

The Thupavamsa contains an account of the
_ . . thiipas or dagobas built over the

Thupavamsa. ,.^ * ^1 & T> i -n T* i >

relics of the Buddha. Readers
attention is invited to a paper on this book by
Don MaruHo< de Zilva Wickremasinghe (J.R.A.S.,
1898). This work has not yet been edited by the
P.T.S., London. A Sinhalese edition of this work
is available (ed. by Dhammaratana, Paeliyagoda,
1896).

In the Thupavamsa we are told that the Thera

Moggaliputta Tissa sent theras

. Historical aiiu- (elders) to different parts of India

sions in the Thupa- ^ ,,' ,. J ,, ^ -, ,, . .

vamea. for the propagation of the Buddhist

faith. He sent Majjhantikathera
to Kasmira and Gandhara, Mahaldevathera to
Mahimsakamandala, Rakkhitathera to Vanavasi,
Yonaka-dhammarakkhitathera to Aparantaka,
Mahadhammarakkhitathera to Maharat/tha, Maha-
rakkhitathera to Yonakaloka, Majjhimathera to
Himavanta, Sonathera and Uttarathera to
Suvannabhuml, and Mahinda and four other theras
to Tamba-Pannidipa. It may be added here that
the Thera Mahinda and the Then Sanghamitta, son
and daughter respectively of Asoka, were instrumen-
tal in propagating Buddhism in Ceylon. The Maha-
vamsa also states the same thing, and it further
says that Moggaliputta Tissathera was a contem-
porary of Asoka and that he presided over the
Buddhist Council which was held under the patronage
of this great monarch.

It appears from both the Mahavamsa and
the Thupavamsa that the Thera Moggaliputta
Tissa sent these theras to different parts of
India at his own initiative. There is no mention
of Asoka having taken any part in this acti-
vity, though such an important event occurred
during his time and in his own kingdom mainly.
But in his Rock Edict XIII, Asoka says that he

Pali Chronicles . 563

despatched ambassadors to countries in and outside
India. He further says in his Rock Edict II that
he provided for the distribution of medicines in
different countries. In both the Edicts Asoka
mentions Ceylon (Tambraparni). But how to
reconcile these two accounts which we find in the
Mahavamsa and the Thupavamsa on the one hand
and the lithic records of Asoka op the other ?
Dr. Geiger in his introduction to his translation of
the Mahavamsa (pp. xvi-xx) says that before
Mahinda relations existed between continental India
and Ceylon and efforts were made to transplant
the Buddhist doctrine to Ceylon. But with Mahinda
this process came to a successful end. Besides,
Mahinda's mission was preceded by similar missions
to Ceylon. The Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa
relate that Asoka, sending to Devanampiyatissa
with presents for his second consecration as king,
exhorted him to adhere to the doctrine of the
Buddha.

The history of the missions as related in
Dipavariisa, Mahavamsa, and Thupavamsa receives
most striking confirmation in the inscriptions. The
names of the theras Majjhima and Kassapagotto
(who appears as Majjhima's companion in the
Dipavamsa) occur in the Bhilsa Topes (Sanchi
group and Sonari group) as teachers of the Himalayas.
The name of Moggaliputta Tissa also occurs in the
Sanchi group. Further, according to Griinwedel,
the transplanting of a branch of the sacred Bodhi-
tree from Uruvela to Ceylon is represented in the
East Gate of the Sanchi Topes.

Dr. Geiger has successfully proved the trust-
worthiness of the Ceylonese chronicles. He in an
ingenious and convincing way has shown that the
two accounts, which we find in the inscriptions of
Asoka and the Ceylonese chronicles, are not un-
trustworthy. Asoka strove to propagate Buddhism
in and outside India. Moggaliputta Tissathera
also played an important part in spreading Buddhism
in countries within India. The conversion of

That the success of Buddhism both in India
and outside countries was largely due to the support
it got from kings like Bimbisara, Pasenadi, Asoka,
Kanishka, and Harshavardhan and also from the
Pala kings of Bengal, nobody can dispute. If it
did not receive royal patronage, it would have
surely met the same fate as Jainism did, Taking
this important fact into consideration, we shall
not be unjustified to say that Asoka must have
lent ungrudging help to Moggaliputta Tissathera,

From what has been stated above and from the
grounds which we will state below it will not be
unreasonable to say that there were no two separate
attempts, but a single attempt for the propagation
of the Buddhist Faith, and that in this attempt
both Asoka and Moggaliputta Tissathera played
important parts. But why the names of Asoka
and Moggaliputta Tissathera are absent respectively
from the Ceylonese chronicles and the inscriptions
of Asoka ? In a general way Asoka says that he
sent ambassadors, who were undoubtedly Buddhist
monks, to different countries, He does not even
make mention of his own son and daughter who
did great service to the cause of Buddhism, He
must have sent ambassadors in collaboration with
the leading theras of the time, It will be unjust
to accuse such a great king like Asoka that he
intentionally out of self-complacency and self-
conceit did not mention Moggaliputta Tissathera

Pali Chronicles 565

and other leading theras. But such is not the
case with the authors of the Ceylonese chronicles.
They have intentionally excluded the name of
Asoka, and thereby have enhanced the position of
the Buddhist Samgha, and the prestige of its leaders.
There is no lack of fables and tales in the chronicles.
There are also statements which are untenable.
But these are meant for the glorification of the
Buddha, His Dhamma, and His Samgha only.

Tdmalitti, a harbour in the region at the mouth

of the Ganges, now Tamluk. At

Geographical Tfimalitti the Chinese pilgrim Fa-

Hien embarked for Ceylon in the

beginning of the 5th century A.D.

Gandhdra comprises the districts of Peshawar
and Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab.

Kasmlra is the modern Kashmir.

Mahirhsakamandala is generally taken as the
modern Mysore. Fleet takes it as the territory of
Mahisha of which the capital was Mahismati.
Agreeing with Pargiter he places this capital on
the island of the Narbada river, now called
Mandhata. Mahimsakamandala is, therefore, a
district south of the Vindhya mountains.

Vanavdsi The Vanavasakas or Vanavasins
are mentioned in the Mahabharata and Harivamsa,
as a people dwelling in Southern India. There is
also a modern town VanavasI in North Kanara
which seems to have preserved the old name.

Apardnta,ka, the western ends, comprising the
territory of Northern Gujarat, Kathiawar, Kachcha,
and Sind.

Mahdrattha, the country of the Marathas.

Yonatoica The Yonas are also mentioned
together with the Kanibojas, in the Rock Edicts V
and XIII of Asoka. V. Smith says that they must
mean the clans of foreign race (not necessarily
Greek) on the north-western frontier, included in
the Empire of Asoka.

Suwnnahhumi The general opinion is that
Suvannabhumi is lower Burma with adjacent

666 A History of Pali Literature

districts. Fleet says that it might be the country
in Bengal called KAinasuvarna, or else the country
along the river Son, a river in Central India, and
tributary of the Ganges on its right bank, which
is called Hiranyavaha 4 the gold bearer '.

Vedisa is the modern Bhilsa in Gwalior State,
situated 26 miles north-east of Bhopal.

RdmagdmaThe Koliyas of Ramagama were
a tribe related* to the Saluyas. The river Rohini
flowed between the territories of the Koliyas and
Sakyas. In the Sumangalavilasini the capital of
the Koliyas is called Vyagghapajja.

Pdvd was the capital of the Mallas. Missaka
Pabbata, now the mountain Mihintale, 8 miles to
the east of Anuradhapura, is also called the
Cetiyapabbata.

The text of the Thupavamsa may be con-
veniently divided into three main
Three chapters chapters. The first chapter com-

of the Text and xi v' j_i j? j_i

their resume. prises the previous births of the

Buddha. The second chapter deals
with the life of the Buddha from his birth to the
attainment of his Mahaparinibbana and also the
distribution of the bodily relics of the Buddha by
the brahmin Dona and the building of a great
thupa at the south-eastern part of Rajagaha by
Ajatasattu of Magadha at the instance of the
Thera Mahakassapa in which the bodily relics of
the Buddha from Vesali, Kapilavatthu, Allakappa,
Vethadipa, Pava, Kusinara, and Rajagaha were
deposited. The third or the last chapter treats of
the later history of the relics.

The author justifies his composition of the
^ _ Thupavamsa in Pali, when there

Chapter I. i i ^ ^ *

are already two other versions of
the same text, one in the Sinhalese language and
the other in the Magadhl, by saying that the
Sinhalese version is not conducive to the good
of all, and that the Magadhl version is full of con-
tradictory words and that it is not exhaustive.
The author goes to explain what is meant by a

Pali Chronicles 567

thupa. He says that there are four kinds of persons
who are worthy of thupas : TathSgato, Pacceka-
Buddha, Tathftgata-savako, and Raja-cakkavatti. A
thupa is a cetiya in which the relics of any one of
the above four have been deposited. As for example,
the Kaiicanamalika Mahathupo contains the relics
of Gotama Buddha who has fulfilled the thirty
paramitas, attained the supreme knowledge, set
rolling the wheel of law, and fSerformed other
duties and won the anupadisesa-nibbana.

The author then gives a detailed account of the
Buddhas who appeared in this earth for the salvation
of mankind. He speaks of the Buddhas who pre-
ceded Gotama Buddha and the thupas that
were erected in honour of them. He then sums
up the life of Gotama Buddha in a masterly way
and gives a detailed account of the thupas, that
were erected over the relics of Gotama Buddha,
with their later history.

We shall now deal with the story of Sumedha
Tapasa who was born as the Bodhisatta several
times during the period in which the twenty-four
Buddhas appeared in this earth for the welfare of
the worldly beings and who himself appeared in
this earth as the 25th Buddha, called Gotama
Buddha.

In the time of the Buddha Dipankara, the
brahmin Sumedha lived in the city of Amaravati.
He was versed in the Brahmanical lore. He lost
his parents in his boyhood. When he came of
age he inherited a vast fortune. But knowing that
the world is full of miseries and that money is the
source of misery, he made up his mind to distribute
his wealth among the needy. One day he gave
away his wealth to the poor and left the world and
dwelt in the Himavanta.

Meanwhile the Buddha Dipankara came to
Rammanagara and the inhabitants of the city
invited the Blessed One and his followers to take
their meal at a certain place highly decorated for
the purpose. The people began repairing the road
15

568 A History of Pali Literature

connecting the proposed place and the Vihara in
which the Lord dwelt. Sumedha heard the news
and offered his service. He was given a muddy
place to cleanse. Before the place was cleansed
the Buddha with his followers reached the place.
Sumedha at once fell flat on the muddy place with
the determined desire to become a Buddha in a
later birth and the Buddha and his followers
crossed the muddy place treading over his body.
The Blessed One while crossing the muddy place
over Sumedha's body predicted that Sumedha
would surely become Gotama Buddha in future.
The Buddha Dipankara went to the place where
he had been invited, took his meal, and exhorted
all to do good deeds and went away. The Blessed
One attained anupadisesanibbana in the Nandarama
and the people raised a great thupa.

In the time of the Buddha Kondanfia, the
Bodhisatta was born as a great king named Vijitavi.
He made immense gifts to the Bhikkhu Samgha with
the Buddha at its head. The Lord predicted that
the Bodhisatta was destined to become Gotama
Buddha in future. When the king heard the
Buddha preaching he made up his mind to renounce
the worldly life. He did leave the world. He
performed many meritorious acts and was born
in the Brahmaloka. The Buddha attained Parinib-
bana in the delightful Candarama and a cetiya,
measuring 7 yojanas in extent, was raised by the
people.

In the time of the Buddha Mangala, the Bodhi-
satta was born as a brahmin named Suruci. He
invited the Buddha to his house for seven days and
heard the Blessed One preaching. The Lord pre-
dicted that the Bodhisatta would become Gotama
Buddha in future. When the Bodhisatta heard
this prediction, he left the worldly life and adopted
the life of a monk. In due course he was born
in the Brahmaloka, The Buddha won Parinibbftna
in due course and the people raised a great thupa.

In the time of the Buddha Sumana, the Great

Pali Chronicles 569

Being was born as a N&ga king named Atula. He
invited the Buddha and his followers to his house
and served them with dainty dishes. The Lord
predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama in
future. The Blessed One attained Parinibbana in
due course and a thupa was raised.

In the time of the Buddha Revata, the Bodhi-
satta was born as a brahmin named Atideva. He
heard the Buddha preaching and*was established
in the silas. The Blessed One predicted that he
would be Gotama Buddha in future.

In the time of the Buddha Sobhita, the Bodhi-
satta was born as a brahmana named Ajita. He
heard the Buddha preaching and was established
in the silas. The Lord predicted that he would
be the Buddha Gotama in future.

In the time of the Buddha Anomadassi, the
Bodhisatta was born as a Yakkhasenapati. He
made immense gifts to the Bhikkhu Samgha with the
Buddha at its head. The Buddha predicted that
he was destined to be the Buddha Gotama.

In the time of the Buddha Paduma, the Bodhi-
satta was born as a lion who for seven days without
going out in search of food saw the Buddha engaged
in the Nirodha-samapatti. The Blessed One
predicted that the lion would be born as the Buddha
Gotama in future.

In the time of Buddha Narada, the Bodhisatta
renounced the worldly life and invited the Buddha
and his followers to a sumptuous feast. The Buddha
predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama
in future.

In the time of the Buddha Padumuttaro, the
Bodhisatta was born as a great king named Jatila.
He made immense gifts to the Buddha and his
followers. The Buddha predicted that he would
be the Buddha Gotama in future.

In the time of the Buddha Sumedha, the
Bodhisatta was born as a youth named Manavo
possessing immense riches. He distributed his
wealth and made immense gifts to the Buddha

570 A History of Pali Literature

and his followers and heard the Buddha preaching
and was established in the saranas or refuges. The
Buddha predicted that he would be the Buddha
Gotama in the near future.

In the time of the Buddha Sujata, the Bodhisatta
was born as a great king. He heard the preaching
of the Buddha and distributed in charity his riches
to the Buddha^and his Samgha. He renounced the
world and always made great gifts. The Buddha
predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama in
future.

In the time of the Buddha Piyadassi, the
Bodhisatta was born as a youth named Kassapa.
He mastered the three Vedas. Once he heard the
discourses of the Buddha and distributed his immense
riches. He was established in the silas and saranas.
The Buddha predicted that he would be the Buddha
Gotama in future.

In the time of the Buddha Atthadassi, the
Bodhisatta was born as a great ascetic named
Susima. He heard the religious discourses of the
Buddha and worshipped the lord with great honour.
The Blessed One predicted that Susima was destined
to become a Buddha in future.

In the time of the Buddha Dhammadassi, the
Bodhisatta was born as Sakka, the king of gods.
He worshipped the lord with great honour. The
Blessed One predicted that he would be a Buddha
in future.

In the time of the Buddha Siddhattha, the
Bodhisatta was born as a great ascetic named
Mangala. He picked up jambu fruits and offered
them to the Buddha. The Blessed One predicted
that he would be the Buddha Gotama in future.

In the time of the Buddha Tissa, the Bodhisatta
was born as a Khattiya of great fame and wealth.
He renounced the worldly life. He worshipped the
Buddha with great honour. The Blessed One
predicted that he would be a Buddha in future.

In the time of the Buddha Phussa, the Bodhi-
satta was born as a Khattiya king named Vijitavl.

Pali Chronicles 571

He gave up the worldly life, learnt the three pitakas,
and performed the alias and paramitas. The
Buddha predicted that he was destined to be a
Buddha in future.

In the time of the Buddha Vipassl, the Bodhisatta
was born as a Naga king named Atula. He made a
gift to the Buddha of the great golden throne adorned
with seven kinds of gems. The Blessed One
predicted that he would become a Bttddha in future.

In the time of the Buddha Sikhi, the Bodhisatta
was born as a king named Arindamo. He made
immense gifts to the Bhikkhu Samgha with the
Buddha at its head. The Blessed One predicted
that he would be a Buddha in future.

In the time of the Buddha Vessabhu, the
Bodhisatta was born as King Sudassana. He made
immense gifts to the Buddha and his Samgha. The
Blessed One predicted that Sudassana would be
born as Buddha in future.

In the time of the Buddha Kakusandha, the
Bodhisatta was born as King Khema. He made
immense gifts to the Buddha and his Bhikkhu
Samgha, heard the discourses of the Buddha, and
gave up the worldly life. The great teacher
predicted that he should be a Buddha in future.

In the time of the Buddha Konagamana, the
Bodhisatta was born as a king named Pabbata.
He accompanied by his ministers went to the teacher
and heard the Master preaching. He made many
gifts by way of charity to the Bhikkhu Samgha with
the Buddha at its head. Afterwards he received
ordination from the Buddha. The Blessed One
predicted that the King Pabbata would be a Buddha
in future.

In the time of the Buddha Kassapa, the Bodhi-
satta was born as a youth named Jotipala. He
was well versed in the three Vedas. He with
Ghatikara went to the place where the Buddha was.
He heard the Master preaching. He took pabbajja
and learnt the three pitakas. The teacher predicted
that he was destined to be a Buddha,

572 A History of PaK Literature

The Buddha Gotama having passed through
_ . successive births during the period

Chapter II. . , . , ,, , , i? T S-n

in which the twenty-four Buddhas
beginning with Dlpankara appeared in this earth
was born as King Vessantara having performed the
Paramitas. He was then born in the Tusita heaven.
He was entreated by the Devatas to be born among
men in order 4*> work out their salvation. The
Buddha consented to their proposal and observing
the time, the island, the country, the family, and
the extent of lifetime of her who will bear him,
he was born in the Sakya family. He was bred
and brought up in luxury. On four occasions
while going out to enjoy in the gardens he saw an old
man, a diseased person, a dead man, and a samana
respectively. Seeing the miseries of the world he
was bent upon renouncing the world. He left the
world leaving behind his wife and only son. On
the bank of the Anoma he cut off his hairs and wore
the robes of a monk forsaking his royal garments.
He first went to Alava and Uddaka and being
unsatisfied with their discourses went to the river
Neranjara and sat at the foot of the Bodhi tree
meditating. He was fully enlightened. He became
the Buddha. Being entreated by Brahma to preach
the doctrine he evolved, he went to Benares and
preached the doctrine there to the Pancavaggiya
bhikkhus. Thousands of men and women gradually
became his followers. The Blessed One attained
Mahaparinibbana at Kusmagara in the Upavattana
of the Mallas. The body was wrapped up with
corded cotton and new cloth and was kept in an
iron trough containing oil and was covered with
another iron trough. Four Malla chiefs followed
by others tried to light up the coffin but failed in
their attempt. It was then told by Anuruddha
that the coffin could not be lighted before the Thera
Mahakassapa, who with his followers was on the
way to Kuslnara from Pava, would arrive at the
place and pay his obeisance to the Lord. In due
course the thera arrived. Fire was set to the

Pali Chronicles 573

coffin. When the body was burnt and the fire
extinguished, the bones from the coffin were taken
out to be distributed. The claimants for the bodily
relics of the great teacher were the Mallas of
Kuslnarft, King Ajatasattu of Magadha, the Licchavis
of Vesalf, the Sakya rulers of Kapilavatthu, the
Bulis of Allakappa, the Koliyas of Ramagama, a
brahmana of Vethadipaka, and the Mallas of Pava.
At first the Mallas of Kusinara Were unwilling to
part with any portion of the relics. A strife became
imminent. But the brahmin Dona by an impressive
speech succeeded in bringing about reconciliation
among those present. The relics were divided into
eight equal portions. The Brahmana Dona kept for
himself the teeth of the Master without telling
others about it. But Sakka, the king of gods,
stole the teeth and brought the same to the
heaven of gods. When Dona, after distributing the
relics, did not find the teeth, he took the bowl in
which the relics were originally kept. The Moriyas
of Pipphalivana who came late had to content them-
selves with the ashes only.

Eight great thupas were built over the relics
of the Buddha at the following places : Rajagaha,
Vesall, Kapilavatthu, Allakappa, Ramagama, Vetha-
dlpa, Pava, and Kusinara. But the relics which
were deposited at Ramagama were taken and kept
by the Nagas with great care and honour. These
relics (of Ramagama) were afterwards taken to
Ceylon.

At the suggestion of the Thera Mahakassapa
King Ajatasattu collected the bodily relics of the
Buddha from Vesall, Kapilavatthu, Allakappa,
Vethadipa, Pava, and Kusinara and deposited them
together with the relics at Rajagaha under a great
thupa at the south-eastern part of Rajagaha.

At the time of Asoka, eighty-four thousand
_ TTT cetiyas were built over the relics

Chapter III. . , y -> ,,,

of the Buddha.

We shall now proceed to give a detailed account
of the same. King Bindusftra had one hundred

574 A History of Pali Literature

sons. At the time when Bindusara was ill, Asoka,
who was Governor of Ujjeni, hurried to Rajagaha,
the capital of the Magadha kingdom, to usurp the
throne. Bindusara died and Asoka having killed
all his brothers except Tissa Kumara took possession
of the royal throne. But Asoka' s consecration took
place four years after. At first Asoka was not a
patron of the Buddhists. He like his father support-
ed the brahmin^ and other sects. One day he
noticed the improper conduct of them while taking
meals. He became highly dissatisfied with them.
Thenceforth he began to feed the Buddhist monks
and became their great patron.

One day the king saw his nephew Nigrodha
Samanera, son of Sumana, who was Asoka's elder
brother, passing through the royal courtyards. The
king was highly satisfied with Nigrodha's calm
demeanour. The king sent his minister for the
Samanera. When Nigrodha came, the king received
him with great honour. The Samanera admonished
the king by reciting the Appamadavagga of the
Dhammapada. The king with his followers was
established in the three saranas and five Silas.
Throughout his kingdom he built 84,000 viharas
in 84,000 cities. He found out the relics that were
deposited in the south-eastern part of Rajagaha by
King Ajatasattu and deposited them in the 84,000
viharas that he built. He further became a ' dayada '
of the Dhamma by allowing his son Mahiuda and
his daughter Sanghamitta to become members of
the Buddhist Samgha.

Meanwhile the Thera Moggaliputta Tissa in
order to propagate the Buddha's Dhamma sent
Majjhantikathera to Kasmira and Gandhara,
Mahadevathera to Mahimsakamandala, Rakkhita-
thera to Vanavasi, Yonakadhammarakkhitathera
to Aparantaka, Mahadhammarakkhitathera to
Maharattha, Maharakkhitathera to Yonakalokam,
Majjhimathera to the Himavantadesa, the theras
Sona and Uttara to Suvannabhumi, and the theras
Mahinda, Ittiya, Uttiya, and Bhaddasala to the

Pali Chronicles 575

Tambapannidlpa. All the theras succeeded in their
mission. The Thera Mahinda together with his
companions went to Ceylon when Devanampiyatissa
was ruling there. King Devanampiyatissa was a
great friend of Asoka, though the two had never
seen each other. The Ceylonese king knowing that
the theras were disciples of the Buddha received
them with great honour. The people of Ceylon
together with their king became 'followers of the
Buddha. Many were established in the saranas.

The king with his 500 wives was established
in the first stage of sanctification when they heard
the Thera Mahinda preaching the Vimanavatthu,
Petavatthu, and Saccasamyutta. When the thera
preached the Devaduta Suttanta to the masses, they
were also placed in the first stage of sanctification.

At the request of the Thera Mahinda the King
Devanampiyatissa sent the Samanera Sumana to
King Asoka in order to have relics so that he could
build a thupa. Sumana went to Pataliputta and
got from King Asoka relics contained in the bowl
used by the Buddha. He then saw Sakka, the
king of gods, and got from him the Buddha's right
eye. Sumana came back to Lanka with the relics.
The relics were received by Devanampiyatissa with
great care and honour. A great vihara was built
and the right eye of the Buddha was placed in it.

Anuladevi, Devanampiyatissa' s brother's wife,
became desirous of receiving pabbajja. At the
suggestion of the Thera Mahinda, Devanampiyatissa
sent his nephew Arittha to Asoka in order to bring
a branch of the Bodhi tree to Ceylon and also to
bring the Then Sanghamitta who would give pabbajja
to Anula. King Asoka received Arittha with
great honour when the latter came to Pataliputta.
The king readily consented to send a branch of the
Bodhi tree and the Then Sanghamitta to Ceylon.
In course of time Arittha came back to Ceylon with
the branch and Sanghamitta. The branch was
transplanted at Anurftdhapura with great honour.
Anulftdevi with five hundred young ladies received

576 A History of Pali Literature

the pabbajja ordination from the then Sanghamitta.
They gradually attained arahatship.

The great King Devanampiyatissa built thftpas
throughout Tambapannidlpa at the interval of a
yojana.

Devanampiyatissa was followed by a succession
of rulers : Uttiya, Mahasiva, and Suratissa. But
Suratissa was defeated by the Damilas who usurped
the throne of Lanka for some time. But the
Damilas were overpowered by Asela, a son of
Mutasiva. But a Damila named Elara came over
to Lanka from the Chola country, defeated and killed
Asela and became king of Ceylon. Elara, however,
could not rule for long, for he was killed and defeated
by King Dutthagamani.

King Devanampiyatissa's second brother was
Uparaja Mahanaga. The king's wife desiring that
her son should be king, tried every means to put an
end to Mahanaga's life. Mahanaga accompanied by
his wife and followers fled to Rohana and thence
to Mahagama and began to rule there. His wife
bore him two sons, Yatthalatissa and Tissa. After
Mahanaga's death Yatthalatissa ruled over Maha-
gama. After Yatthalatissa's death his son Gotha-
bhaya became king. Gothabhaya was succeeded
by Kakavannatissa who had two sons, Gamini
Abhaya and Tissa.

The country was under the yoke of the Damilas.
Dutthagamani, when he came of age, expressed his
desire to fight with the Damilas. But his father
did not permit him to do so out of affection. But
Dutthagamani became very turbulent and repeat-
edly expressed his desire to free the country
from the yoke of the Damilas. He fled from
Mahagama as he was angry with his father. He
was accordingly called Dutthagamani. After the
death of Kakavannatissa, Tissa, who was then at
Dlghavapi, came to Mahagama and performed
his duties to the departed soul. He being afraid
of his brother came back to Dlghavftpi with his
mother and the elephant Kandula. Dutthagftmani

Pali Chronicles 577

came back to Mahftgftma and became king. On his
accession to the throne he sent messengers to his
brother demanding his mother and the elephant.
Tissa refused to accede to the demand. The two
brothers met in the battle-field. Dutthagamani
was defeated in the battle. Dutthagamani again
marched with a huge army against his brother.
This time he came out successful. The theras
of the island brought about reconciliation between
the two brothers.

Dutthagamani then decided to drive the
Damilas out of the island. He marched with a
mighty army against the Damilas. He first went
to Mahiyangana and inflicted a crushing defeat
upon the Damilas and built the Kancuka thupa
at Mahiyangana. The past history of this thupa
may be told here. At the time of the Buddha's
visit to Lanka at the ninth month of His Enlighten-
ment, Sumana, the Lord of gods, got from the Buddha
his (the Blessed One's) hairs as relics to worship.
A thupa was raised 7 cubits in height over the relics
at Mahiyangana, the place which the Buddha visited.
After the Buddha's Mahaparinibbana, Sarabhu,
Sariputta's disciple, came to Lanka with the collar-
bone of the Buddha and deposited it in the same
cetiya which was made 12 cubits in height. Deva-
nampiyatissa's brother Culabhaya made the cetiya
30 cubits in height and Dutthagamani after defeating
the Damilas made the cetiya 80 cubits high.

Dutthagamani succeeded in defeating and killing
the thirty-two Damila kings, the greatest of them
being Elara, and thus freed the country from the
foreign domination. He then became the undisputed
ruler of the country. He rewarded those who served
him in his enterprise against the Damilas. He
then devoted himself to promote the weal and
happiness of his subjects and the interests of the
Buddhist Samgha. The king built the Maricavatti-
vihara over the spear with the relic, with which he
marched against the Damilas and routed them.
The vihara was dedicated to the Buddhist Samgha.

578 A History of Pali Literature

Dutthagamani then made known his desire
to build the great thupa, the splendid Sovannamali,
a hundred and twenty cubits in height, and an
uposatha house, the Lohapasada, making it nine
storeys high. The Lohapasada was built after the
design of the Palace of the gods. There were one
thousand chambers in the pasada. On the pillars
were figures of lions, tigers, and shapes of devatas.
Some Jataka-talek were also fitly placed here and
there. When the vihara was finished, the king
dedicated the same to the Buddhist Samgha.

Dutthagamani then resolved to build the
Mahathupa without oppressing the people by levying
taxes from them. He was very anxious how to
get the materials to build the great thupa. But the
gods came to his rescue. He was provided with
all the materials by the gods. The building of the
Mahathupa was begun on the full-moon day of the
month Vesakha. The foundation stone of the
Great Cetiya was laid with great care and magni-
ficence in presence of the bhikkhus who assembled
there from different parts of Jambudipa. In the
relic-chamber the king placed a Bodhi tree, made up
of jewels. Over it a beautiful canopy was raised.
The figures of the sun, moon, and stars and different
lotus-flowers, made up of jewels, were fastened to
the canopy. In the relic-chamber were depicted
the setting in motion of the wheel of the doctrine
by the Buddha, the preaching in the heaven ot gods,
the Mahasamaya Suttanta, the exhortation to
Rahula, the Mahamahgalasutta, the distribution of
the relics by Dona, and many other scenes con-
nected with the life of the Buddha.

One of the eight donas of the bodily relics
of the Buddha, which was adored by the Koliyas
of Ramagama and which was taken thence to
the Naga kingdom, was brought to Lanka to be
deposited in the Mahathupa. The relics were then
enshrined with great honour.

But before the making of the chatta and the
plaster-work on the cetiya was finished, Duttha-

Pali Chronicles 579

gamani fell seriously ill. The king sent for his
younger brother Tissa from Dlghavapi and told
him to complete the work of the thupa that was
left unfinished. Lying on a palanquin the king

red round the cetiya and paid his homage to it.
bade the scribe read aloud the book of meri-
torious deeds. It is stated that the king built 99
viharas of which the Maricavatti-vihara, the Loha-
pasada, and the Mahathupa were iris greatest works.
The great king passed into the Tusita heaven.

The Hatthavanagalla-vihara-vamsa or the
history of the temple of Attanagalla
consists of eleven chapters written
in simple Pali. Eight chapters deal
with an account of Bang Siri-Samghabodhi and the
last three chapters deal with the erection of various
monumental and religious edifices on the spot
where the king spent his last days. It reads Uke
an historical novel. J. D'Alwis' English transla-
tion with notes and annotations deserves mention.
Dr. G. P. Malalasekera lias undertaken to prepare
an edition and English translation of this work in
the Indian Historical Quarterly. There is an edition
of this work published in Colombo, 1909, under
the title, " Attanagalu-vihara-variisaya ".

The Datliavariisa or the Dantadhatuvamsa
nieaiis an account of the tooth-
relic of the Buddha Gautama.
Vamsa means chronicle, history, tradition, etc.
Literally it means lineage, dynasty, etc. The
Dathavamsa is a quasi-religious historical record
written with the intention of edifying and at the
same time giving an interesting story of the past.
This work is noteworthy because it shows us Pali
as a medium of epic poetry.

The work was written by Mahathera Dham-
. % , makitti of the city of Pulatti. He

The Author. ,. . f < o- j. -LU

was a disciple of Sanputta, the
author of the Saratthadipanl-tika, Saratthamaiijusa-
tlka, Ratanapancika-tika on the Candravyakarana
and the Vinayasaiigraha. He was well versed in

580 A History of Pali Literature

Sanskrit, M&gadhibhSea, tarkaSftstra (logic),
vy&karana (grammar), kavya (poetry), agama (reli-
gious literature), etc. He was fortunate enough
to secure the post of a Rajaguru. Two vamsas of
the Pali Buddhist literature, the Sfisanavamsa and
the Gandhavamsa, tell us that it was he who com-
posed the Dathavamsa (P.T.S. Ed., p. 34 and
J.P.T.S., 1886, p. 62). We know from the Datha-
vamsa that originally it was written by the poets
in the Sinhalese language and later on rendered into
Magadhibhasa by Dhammakitti for the benefit of
the people of the other countries at the request of
Parakkamo, the Commander-in-chief of Ceylon,
who placed Lflavati on the vacant throne of Ceylon.
This Lilavati, later on, became the queen of Para-
kramabahu, the king of Ceylon. (Verses 4-10.)

The Dathavamsa was written in the Buddha

era 845 during the reign of King

Date tio^ mp 8i " Kittisirimeghavanna of Ceylon.

Kern says that it is also known

as Daladavamsa composed about 310 A.D. It was

translated into Pali in A.D. 1200 under the title of

Dathavamsa (Manual of Indian Buddhism, p. 89).

The Dathavamsa is an important contribution

Im rtan e * *^ e ^ S * Or y ^ ^^ Buddhist

mpor ce. literature. It is an historical record
of the incidents connected with the tooth-relic of
the Buddha. It is as important as the Mahavamsa
and the Dipavamsa. The history of Ceylon would be
incomplete without it.

The Dathavamsa is a specimen of fine poetry.

gt te It contains Pali and some debased

ye ' Sinhalese words. Its vocabulary is

rich. Kern rightly remarks that it belongs to the
class of compendiums and contains repetitions of
passages from more ancient works with more or
less apocryphal additions (Manual of Indian
Buddhism, p. 9). In the first chapter, stanzas are
written in jagatichanda. Sixty stanzas are written
in vamsastha vritta and the last two in Sragdharft
vritta ; in the second chapter, stanzas are written

Pali Chronicles 581

in anu$tupachanda in pathyavaktra vritta and in
mandakranta vritta ; in the third chapter, the stanzas
are written in tristhupachanda in upajata, indra-
vajrft, upendravajra, and &kharinl vrittas ; in the
fourth chapter, stanzas are written in atisakvari-
chanda in malini, eaddulavikridita vrittas ; and in
the last chapter, stanzas are written in 6akvarichanda
in vasantatilaka and ragdhara vrittas.

The Dathavamsa gives an accpunt of the tooth-

*^ 6 Buddha w Wch is Said

Subect matter

u jec -ma r. ^ have been brought to Ceylon by
Dantakumara, prince of Kalinga, from Dantapura,
the capital of Kalinga. It consists of five chapters,
a brief summary of which is given below.

Chapter I. While the Buddha Dipankara was
coming to the city of Rammavati at the invitation
of the people of the city, a hermit named Sumedha
showed his devotion by laying himself down on
the muddy road which the Buddha was to cross.
The Buddha walked over his body with his disciples.
Sumedha prayed to the Buddha Dipankara that he
might be a Buddha himself in future. Dipankara
granted him the boon whereupon he set himself
in all earnestness, to fulfil the ten paramitas
(perfections). The hermit was in heaven prior to
his last birth. At the instance of the gods, he
was reborn in Kapilavastu in the family of Suddho-
dana and in the womb of Mahamaya. As soon as
he was reborn, he stood up and looked round and
was worshipped by men and gods. He went seven
steps northwards. He was named Siddhattha-
kumara. Three palaces, suitable for the three
seasons of the year, were built for him. While
going to the garden, he saw an old man, a diseased
man, a dead man, and a hermit. He then made up
his mind to renounce the worldly life. With the
help of the gods he left the palace and reached the
river Anoma and on the banks of the river, he cut
off his hair and threw it upwards to the sky. Indra
got the hair and built a caitya over it which is still
known as Culamani Caitya. A potter brought a

582 A History of Pali Literature

yellow robe, a beggar's bowl, etc., for him. He put
on the yellow robe and left for Rajagaha. Thence
he went to Uruvela and made strenuous efforts for
six years to acquire bodlii (enlightenment). In the
evening of the full-moon day of Vai^akh, he went to
the foot of the Bodhi tree and sat on a seat made
of straw and defeated Mara's army. In the last
watch of the night he acquired supreme knowledge.
After the attainment of bodhi, he spent a week,
seated on the same seat at the foot of the Bo-tree,
enjoying the bliss of emancipation. He spent
another week, looking at the Bodhi tree with stead-
fast eyes. Another week was spent by him at a
place called Ratanaghara near the Bodhi tree,
meditating upon paticcasamuppada (dependent
origination). He then went to the foot of the
Ajapalanigrodha tree where he spent a week in
meditation. He went to Mucalinda nagabhavana
where he was saved by the naga from hailstorm.
He then visited the Rajayatana. Thence he started
for Isipatanamigadava to preach his first sermon
known as Dhammacakkapavattana, but on the way
two merchants, Tapussa and Bhallika, offered him
madhupindika (a kind of food prepared with honey
and molasses). The Buddha placed them in two
refuges. He then reached Isipatana on the full-
moon day of the month of Asadha. He preached
the Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta to the first band
of five disciples headed by Annakondanna.

Chapter II. The Buddha was thinking of doing
good to the world. Nine months after his attain-
ment of bodhi, the Buddha made an aerial voyage
to Lanka to fulfil his mission and descended on the
garden named Mahanagavana. Then he went to
the meeting of the yakkhas and terrified them by
creating storm, darkness, and heavy rains. The
yakkhas having been greatly troubled by these,
came to the Buddha and asked for protection.
In the midst of the meeting he sat down on a seat
of leather but by his miraculous power he made the
seat very hot and owing to the excessive heat

Pali Chronicles 583

radiating from the seat, the yakkhas became very
much distressed and the leather expanded so as to
cover the whole of the island of Lanka and the
yakkhas gathered together on the coast, unable to
bear the excessive heat. The Giridlpa which was
full of shady trees, was brought close to the island
of Lanka by the Buddha and the yakkhas, to save
themselves from the extreme heat, went into the
Giridlpa which was again set on/ its former site
and thus the island of Lanka was rid of the yakkhas.
As soon as the yakkhas left the island of Lanka,
he stopped his miracle and many a god came to the
island and surrounded him. The Buddha preached
to the devas Dhamma and gave one of his hairs
to God Sumana who built a caitya over it on the
top of the Sumanakuta Hill and worshipped it.
Then the Buddha returned to Jetavana. Again
he went to Lanka five years after his enlightenment
and pacified the contest between Culodara and
Mahodara for a jewelled throne. Again he came
to the island of Lanka eight years after his enlighten-
ment being invited by a naga named Maniakkhika.
The Buddha with five hundred disciples went to
the house of Maniakkhika in Kalyani. A caitya
built over the seat offered by Maniakkhika and used
and left by the Buddha, was worshipped by the
nagas there. This caitya was named Kalyam Caitya.
The Buddha then visited the Sumanakuta Hill
and left his footprints there. Thence he went to
Dighavapi where he sat in meditation for some time.
Thence he visited the site of the Bodhi tree at
Anuradhapura where also he sat in meditation
for some time. Thence he visited the Thuparama
and finished his work in Ceylon. He preached
Dhamma for forty-five years and obtained parinib-
bana on the full-moon day of the month of Vaisakha
in the garden named Upavattana of the Malla kings
near Kusmara. In the first watch of the night of
his parinibbana, he preached Dhamma to the Mallas,
in the middle watch he made Subhadda an arahat,
and in the last watch he instructed the bhikkhus to

16

584 A History of Pali Literature

be ardent and strenuous. Early in the morning
he rose up from meditation and passed away. Many
miracles were seen after his parinibb&na, e.g., the
earth quaked from end to end, celestial music was
played, all trees became adorned with flowers,
though it was not the time for flowers to bloom.
The body of the Buddha was wrapped up in new
clothes and cotton, five hundred times. It was
put into a golde^i pot, full of oil. A funeral pyre
was prepared with scented wood such as sandal,
twenty cubits in height, and the Malla chiefs put the
oil-pot in the pyre. As Mahakassapa did not arrive,
fire could not be kindled because it was desired by
the gods that the Buddha's body must not be burnt
before Mahakassapa had worshipped it. As soon
as Mahakassapa came and worshipped the dead
body of the Buddha, fire was kindled. The dead
body was so completely burnt as to leave no ashes
or charcoal. Only the bones of the Buddha of the
colour of pearl and gold remained. On account of
the Buddha's desire the bones became separated
excepting the four bones of the head, two collar-
bones, and teeth. Sarabhu, a disciple of Sariputta,
went to Mahiangana in Ceylon taking with him one
of the collar-bones of the Buddha and built a caitya.
An arahat named Khema took a left tooth-relic
of the Buddha and over the remaining bone-relics,
kings of eight countries began to quarrel. Dona
settled the dispute and divided the bones equally
among the eight countries. The kings after having
received the relics, took them to their respective
kingdoms, built caityas over them, and worshipped
them. One tooth-relic taken by Khema was given
to Brahmadatta, king of Kalinga, who built a caitya
over it and worshipped it. Brahmadatta' s son,
KSsIraja, succeeded his father and worshipped,
like his dead father, the caitya built over the tooth-
relic of the Buddha. Kasiraja's son, Sunanda,
succeeded him and did the same. Sunanda's son,
Guhaslva, succeeded him to the throne and did the
same. Guhasiva's minister, who was a false believer,

Pali Chronicles 585

asked the king whether there was anything super-
natural in the tooth-relic of the Buddha which the
king worshipped and for which valuable offerings
were given by him. The king then narrated the
various qualities of the tooth-relic which showed
miracles when prayed for. The minister gave up
his false belief and became a follower of the Buddha.
The heretics seeing this became very much dis-
satisfied. Guhasiva ordered all the niganthas to
be driven out of the kingdom. The niganthas went
to King Pandu of Pataliputta, who was then a very
powerful king of Jambudlpa. They complained
to Pandu that King Guhasiva being a king sub-
ordinate to him (Pandu) worshipped the bone of a
dead person (that is, Buddha's relic) without
worshipping Brahma, Siva, and others whom he
(Pandu) worshipped and they further complained
that Guhasiva ridiculed the deities worshipped by
him (Pandu). Hearing this King Pandu grew angry
and sent one of his subordinate kings called Cittayana
with a fourfold army to arrest and bring Guhasiva
with the tooth-relic. Cittayana informed Guhasiva
of his mission and Guhasiva welcomed him cordially,
showed him the tooth-relic of the Buddha, and
narrated to him the virtues possessed by it. Citta-
yana became very much pleased with him and
became a follower of the Buddha.

Chapter III. Cittayana then informed Guhasiva
of the order of King Pandu. Guhasiva with the
tooth-relic on his head, followed by a large number
of followers with valuable presents for King Pandu,
went to Pataliputta. The niganthas requested
King Pandu not to offer any seat to Guhasiva, and
they also requested him to set fire to the tooth-
relic. A big pit of burning charcoal was dug by
the king's command and the heretics after taking
away the tooth-relic, threw it into the fire. As
soon as it came in contact with fire, fire became as
cool as the winter breeze and a lotus blossomed
in the fire and in the midst of the lotus, the tooth-
relic was placed. Seeing this wonder, many heretics

586 A History of Pali Literature

gave up false beliefs, but the king himself being a
false believer for a long time, could not give up
false belief and ordered the tooth-relic to be destroyed
by stone, which found its place in the sky. The
niganthas asked the king not to attach great
importance to the miracles as they were not un-
precedented. The tooth-relic was put in a casket
and the niganthas were asked to take it out and
throw it away, but none could do so. The king
declared that he who would be able to take out
the tooth-relic, would be rewarded. Anatha-
pindika's great grandson recollecting the virtues of
the Buddha and the deeds done by his great grand-
father for the Buddha, was very much pleased to
know of the declaration and went to take the
tooth-relic out of the casket. He praised the
tooth-relic much and then the tooth-relic rose up
to the sky and then came down to rest on the head
of the great grandson of Anathapindika. The
niganthas told King Pandu that due to the influence
of Anathapindika's great grandson the tooth-relic
could rise up to the sky and come down to rest
on the head of the great grandson. The niganthas
denied the influence of the tooth-relic which displayed
various miracles according to the desire of Anatha-
pindika's great grandson. The tooth-relic was
thrown into a moat. Cittayana advised the king
that he should follow Dhamma of the Buddha
because by worshipping the tooth-relic, Bimbisara
and other kings attained nirvana. Thus advised
he gave up false belief and brought the tooth-relic
with great pomp. King Guhasiva was cordially
received by King Pandu and both of them did many
meritorious deeds.

Chapter IV. A king named Khiradhara came
to fight with King Pandu who became victorious.
Pandu after re-establishing peace in his kingdom,
sent back Guhasiva with Buddha's tooth-relic to
Kalinga. Dantakumara, son of the king of Ujjain,
came to Kalinga to worship the tooth-relic. Guhasiva
cordially welcomed him and became pleased to

Pali Chronicles 587

hear the qualities of Dantakumara and afterwards
gave his daughter in marriage to Dantakumara.
After the defeat of Dantakumara, his sons and
nephews came to Malayavana, a town near Danta-
pura, to take away the tooth-relic by force. Fully
realising the danger, Guhasiva asked his son-in-law
and daughter to go to Ceylon with the tooth-relic.
As the king of Ceylon and his subjects were faithful
to the Buddha, he thought Ceyttm would be the
best and safest place for the relic. At this time
Mahasena, a friend of Guhasiva, was the king of
Ceylon. The son-in-law and the daughter with
the relic sailed by a merchant ship from the port
of Tambralipti. The ship reached Ceylon safely
with the relic.

Chapter V. Dantakumara and his wife with
the relic went to a village near the eastern gate of
Anuradhapura in the ninth year of the reign of
Kittisirimegha, son of Mahadisena. Dantakumara
met an arahat and informed him of the tooth-relic
which he brought to Ceylon for its safety. The
arahat after hearing this, went to the king and
informed him of the matter. Mahadisena, the pre-
ceding king of Ceylon, was a friend of Guhasiva,
king of Kalinga, who did not know that Mahadisena
had died and his son, Kittisirimegha, was on the
throne of Ceylon. Dantakumara and his wife
became very much grieved to know that Mahadisena
was no more and his son Kittisirimegha had succeeded
him on the throne. The king of Ceylon after learning
from the arahat that the tooth-relic was brought
to Ceylon for its safety by Dantakumara and his
wife, became very much pleased. The king and
the queen of Ceylon went barefooted to Meghagiri-
vih&ra, residence of the arahat, to receive the relic.
They brought the relic to the palace and placed
it on the throne with great devotion. The citizens
of Ceylon, the bhikkhus well- versed in the Tripitakas,
and the arahats came to worship it. The king
knew that the colour of the relic was as white
as the morning star. But finding it not to be so

588 A History of Pali Literature

when it was taken out of the casket, suspicion
arose in the mind of the king, but his suspicion was
soon removed when the relic displayed several
miracles. The king built a special temple and
kept it there. All the Sinhalese monks and house-
holders assembled at Anuradhapura to worship the
tooth-relic. At this time a question arose as to the
section of the monks to whom the tooth-relic would
be entrusted for' its safety and management. The
king decided that the tooth-relic would select its
own abode. The tooth -relic placed on a fully
decorated elephant was taken round the city and
was brought to the place where the Thera Mahinda
preached his first sermon after reaching Ceylon.
The king of Ceylon ruled that the relic would be
taken round the city once in a year in spring. The
temple where it was kept, was extended at the
cost of nine lacs. After the death of Kittisirimegha,
his successors such as Buddhadasa worshipped it
with devotion and protected it. 1

The Cha-kesa-dhatu-varhsa has been edited
by Minayeff of St. Petersburg in
J-P.T.S., 1885. It is a work by a
modern Burmese author of unknown
date. It is a mixture of prose and poetry. The
language is simple and the diction noteworthy. It
contains an account of the thupas raised by Sakka,
Pajjunna, Manimekhala, Addhikanavika, Varuna-

1 The Dathavamsa has been edited in Devanagari character
and translated into English by Dr. B. C. Law and published by
Messrs. Motilal Banarsidas, proprietors of the Punjab Sanskrit
Book Depot, Lahore. Besides, there are two Sinhalese editions
(by Terunnanse and Silalankara), and a P.T.8. (London) edition
published in 1884 in J.P.T.S. There is another English translation
of this work by Mutu Coomaraswami, published by Messrs. Triibner
and Co., London. A French version of this work appeared in Paris
in 1884 under the name " Le D&fh&vanca ; ou t Histoire de la dent
relique du Buddha Gotama: poeme epiquo pali de Dhammakitti '.
There is a commentary on the Dathavamsa known as the D&tha-
dhatuvamsatfka mentioned in an inscription of the 15th century
A.D. Vide also G. Tumour Account of the Tooth-Relic of Ceylon
(J.A.S.B. vi.).

Pali Chronicles 589

nagaraja, and Sattanftvika over the hair relics of the
Buddha.

The Gandhavamsa has been edited by Minayeff.
JU . His edition is based on Burmese

Gandhavamsa. . . T . n j

manuscripts. It is a small and
interesting outline of the history of Pali books. It
is written mostly in prose. Besides the books of
the canon, there is contained in it a sketch of the
history of more modern Pali works far more detailed
than that in the Sasanavamsa. A list of authors
and their works as stated in the Gandhavamsa is
given below :

Mahakaccayana : Kaccayanagandho, Maha-
niruttigandho, Cullaniruttigandho, Nettigandho,
Petakopadesagandho, Vannanftigandho.

Buddhaghosa : Visuddhimaggo, Sumangala-
vilasim, Papancasiidanl, Saratthapakasini, Mano-
rathapurani, Samantapasadika, Paramatthakatha,
Kankhavitaram, Dhammapadatthakatha, Jata-
katthakatha, Khuddakapathatthakatha, Apada-
natthakatha.

Buddhadatta : Vinayavinicchayo, Uttaravi-
nicchayo, Abhidhammavataro, Madhuratthavilasini.

Ananda : Mulatikaih.

Dhammapala : Nettipakaranatthakatha, Iti-
vuttaka-atthakatha, Udanatthakatha, Cariya-
pitaka-atthakatha, Theragathatthakatha, Vimana-
vatthussa Vimalavilasim nama atthakatha,
Petavatthussa Vimalavilftsini nama atthakatha,
Paramatthamanjusa, Dlghanikayatthakathadinarii
catunnarii atthakathanam Llnatthapakasini nama
tika, Jatakatthakathaya Llnatthapakasini nama
t Ika, Paramatt hadipam, Linattha va nnana.

Mahavajirabuddlii : Vinayagandhi.

Vimalabuddhi : Mukhamattadlpani.

Cullavajiro : Atthabyakkhyanam.

Dipamkaro : Rupasiddhipakaranam, Rupa-
siddhitikarh Summapancasuttam.

Culladhammapalo : Saccasamkhepai

Kassapo : Mohavicchedam, VimaJ
Buddha vamaa. Anajaratavfimsa. A

590 A History of Pali Literature

Mah&n&ma : Saddhammapak&sanl, Maha-
vamsa, Cullavamsam.

Upasena : Saddhammatthitikam,

Moggallana : Moggallanabyakaranam.

Samgharakkhita : Subodhalamkaram.

Vuttodayakara : Vuttodaya, Sambandhacinta,
Navatlkaih.

Dhammasiri : Khuddasikkham.

Anuruddha : Khuddasikkham.

Anuruddha : Paramatthavinicchayarii, Nama-
rupaparicchedam, Abhidhammatthasamgahapa-
karanam.

Khema : Khemaih.

Sariputta : Saratthadipani, Vinayasamgaha-
pakaranam, Saratthamanjusarii, Pancakam.

Buddhanaga : Vinayatthamanjusam.

Navo Moggallana : Abhidhanappadipikam.

Vacissaro : Sambandhacintatika, Moggallana-
byakaranassatika, Namarupaparicchedatika,

Padarupavibhavanam, Khemapakaranassatika,

Mulasikkhayatlka, Vuttodaya vivaranam, Sumari-
galapasadanl, Balavataro, Yogavinicchayo, Sima-
lankara, Ruparupavibhaga, Paccayasarhgaho.

Sumangala : Abhidhammatthavika^am, Abhi-
dhammattha-Vibhavam.

Dhammakitti : Dantadhatupakaranam.

Medhamkaro : Jinacaritaih.

Saddhammasiri : Saddat thabhedacinta.

Devo : Sumanakutavannana.

Cullabuddhaghoso : Jatattagmidanam, Sotat-
taginidanam.

Ratthapala : Madhurasavahinl.

Aggavamsa : Saddanltipakaranarh.

Vimalabuddhi : Mahatlkam.

Uttama : Balavataratikam, Lingatthaviva-
ranatikam.

Kyacvarafino : Saddabindu, Paramatthabindu-
pakaranam.

Saddhammaguru : Saddavuttipakaaanarh.

Aggapandita : Lokuppatti.

Saddh am m a j o tipala : S!malamk&ra8sat!k& 9

Pali Chronicles 591

Matikatthadlpam, Vinayasamutthanadlpam, Gan-
dhasaro, Patthanaganananayo, Samkhepa-
vannana, Suttaniddeso, Patimokkhavisodhanl.

Nava Vimalabuddhi : Abhidhammapannara-
satthanam.

Vepullabuddhi : Saddasaratt ha jaliniyatika,
Vuttodayatlka, Paramatthamanjusft, Dasagandhi-
vannana, Magadhabhutavidaggam, Vidadhimukkha-
mandanatika. *

Ariyavamsa : Manlsaramanjusam, Manidipam,
Gandabharanam, Mahanissaram, Jatakavisodhanarh.

Civaro : Janghadasassa tlkarh.

Nava medhamkaro : Lokadipakasaram.

Sariputto : Saddavuttipakasakassatikarii.

Saddhammaguru : Sadda vuttipakasanam.

Dhammasenapati : Karikam, Etimasamidl-
pakarh, and Manohararia.

Sfanasagaro : Lihgattha^varanapakasanam.

Abhaya : Saddatthabhedacintaya mahatikam.

Gunasagaro : Mukhamattasaram tat-tlkarh.

Subhutacandana : Langatthavivaranapakara -
narii.

Udumbaranamacariyo : Pet a kopadesassa
tikam.

Upatissacariya : Anagatavamsassa atthakatha.

Buddhapiya : Saratthasamgahanamagandho.

Dhammanandacariya : Kaccay anasaro ,
Kaccayanabhedam, and Kaccayanasarassatika.

Gandhacariyo : Kurundigandha.

Nagitacariya : Saddasaxatthajalim.

Works of unknown authors mentioned in the
Gandhavamsa are stated below :

Mahapaceariyam, Puranatika, Mulasikkhatika,
Unatthapakasinl, Nisandeho, Dhammanusaram,
Jfeyyasandati, Neyyasandatiya tika, Sumahavataro,
Lokapanfiattipakaranam,Tathagatupattipakaranam,
Nalatadhatuvannana, Sihalavatthu, Dhammadi-
pako, Patipattisarhgaho, Visuddhimaggagandhi,
Abhidhammagandhi, Nettipakaranagandhi, Visud-

592 A History of Pali Literature

dhimaggacullanavatlka, Sotappamalim, Pasada-
janani, Subodhalankarassa Navatika, Gulhatthatl-
kam, Balappabodhanam, Saddatthabhedacintaya
majjhimatlkam, Karikayatikam, Etimasamidipi-
kayatlkam, Dipavamsa, Thupavamsa, and
Bodhivamsa.

The author of the Sasanavamsa gives an outline
Sasanavamsa ^ Buddha's life and briefly deals
with the three Buddhist Councils
held during the reigns of the three Indian kings,
Ajatasattu, Kalasoka, and Asoka. After the Third
Council was over, Moggaliputta Tissathera sent
Buddhist missionaries to different countries for
the propagation of the Buddhist faith. Pannasaml,
the author of the Sasanavamsa, speaks of the
nine regions visited by the missionaries. But of
these nine, five are placed in Indo-China. Dr. Mabel
Bode is of opinion that the author's horizon seems
to be limited, first by an orthodox desire to claim
most of the early teachers for the countries of the
South (and hence to prove the purest possible
sources for the Southern doctrines), and secondly
by a certain feeling of national pride. According
to this account, Maha-Moggaliputta Tissa (as if
with a special care for the religious future of
Maramma) sent two separate missionaries to neigh-
bouring regions in the valley of the Irawaddy
besides three others, who visited Laos and Pegu.

The Thera Mahinda went to Ceylon for the
propagation of the faith during the reign of the
Sinhalese King Devanampiyatissa who was a
contemporary of the Indian King Asoka.

Sona and Uttara visited Suvannabhumi
(Sudhammapura that is, Thaton at the mouth of
the Sittaung River). The author holds that even
before the sending out of the missionaries to
Suvannabhumi by Moggaliputta Tissathera, the
President of the Third Buddhist Council, Buddha
came here personally with a number of bhikkhus
to preach his doctrines.

Maharakkhita Thera spread Buddhism in the

Pali Chrwiiclea 593

Yona country (the country of the Shan tribes about
Zimme).

Yonakarakkhita Thera visited the country of
Vanavasi (the region round Prome) and propagated
Buddhism there.

Majjhantika visited Kasmlra and Gandhara
(the Gandhara country) lay on the right bank of
the Indus, south of Kabul, and the whole country
became a strong Buddhist hold. *

It was through Maha-Revata Thera that
Buddhism found its way into Mahimsakamandala
(Andhra country).

Maha-Dhammarakkhita Thera went to Maha-
rattha (Mahanagara-rattha or Siam) and spread
Buddhism there.

Majjhima Thera spread the Buddhist faith in
Cinarattha (tiie Himavantapadesa of the Ceylon
books).

Now we shall deal with the history of the
spread of Buddhism in Aparantarattha which (placed
by European scholars west of the Punjab) is no
other than the Sunaparanta of the Burmese, i.e.,
the region lying west of the upper Irawaddy.

The Sasanavamsa brings before us a picture of
the relations of State and Samgha in Burma from
the time of Anuruddha, with his constant adviser,
Arahanta, to the time of Meng-Dun-Meng, with his
Council of Mahatheras. Those relations were one
of mutual dependence. The Order, though
enriched by the gifts of pious laymen, yet depends,
in the last resort, upon the king. The peaceful,
easy life dear to the Burmese bhikkhu, the necessary
calm for study or the writing of books, the land or
water to be set apart for ecclesiastical ceremonies,
all these are only secured by the king's favour and
protection. This accounts for the general loyalty
of the Samgha to the head of the State. The
king's despotism is also held in check.

" At the lowest, the royal gifts of vihftras and
the building of cetiyas are either the price paid

594 A History of Pali Literature

down for desired prosperity and victory, or the
atonement for bloodshed and plunder ; and the
despot dares not risk the terrors, the degradation,
that later births, in coming time, may hold in
store for him, if he injures or neglects the Samgha."
As a rule, the king was the recognised authority
in ecclesiastical affairs. Tliis is evident from
Anuruddha's vigorous reforms. The Samgharaja
is not the elected Head of the Order. He is appointed
by the king, whose favourite and tutor he usually
is. It appears from the Parupana Ekamsika con-
troversy that the king's power to settle a religious,
question by royal decree is fully recognised by the
Samgha. But we also see the king himself under his
acariya's influence, so far as to ensure his favouring
the orthodox or unorthodox school, according to
the views of the Samgharaja.

The history of religion in Mramma is nothing
more than the history of the Buddhist Order in
Sunaparanta and Tambadlpa. The history of the
Burmese as a nation centres in a group of cities
Pugan, Sagain, Ava, Panya, Amarapura, Mandalay
each, in its turn, the seat of kings.

The early Buddhist stronghold in Burma was
at Sudhammapura, the capital of Manohari, king
of Pegu. Anuruddha, king of Pugan, at the
instance of Arahanta, a great thera who came from
Sudhammapura to Pugan, made war with Manohari
and brought the sacred relics and books to Pugan.
All the members of the Samgha in Thaton (Sudham-
mapura) were also transferred to Pugan. Anuruddha
further sent for copies from Ceylon, which Arahanta
compared with those of Pegu, to settle the readings.

During the reign of Narapatisisu, the celebrated
teacher, Uttarajlva, came from Sudhammapura to
Arimaddana and established religion there. His
pupil Chapada who spent ten years studying in
Ceylon returned with four colleagues to the capital.
After the death of Chapada separate schools came
into existence, having their origin in certain dif-
ferences that arose between the three surviving

Pali Chronicles 595

teachers Slvali, Tamalinda, and Ananda. The
schools are together known as Pacehagana to
distinguish them from the earlier school in Arimad-
dana (Purimagana) founded by Arahanta.

The reign of Kyocva is highly important for the
history of Buddhism. He was himself the author
of two manuals Paramatthabindu and Saddabindu,
for the use of his wives, and one of his daughters
wrote the Vibhatyattha. We pxe told of the
science and zeal of the women of Arimaddana, and
anecdotes are told of their skill in grammar and the
keenness of their wit.

In the reign of Bureng Naung religion thrived
most. It is recorded of Mm that he even forced
Buddhism on the Shaiis and Muslims in the north
of his kingdom.

In the reign of Siri-Mahasihasurasudhammaraja
begins a new chapter in the history of Burmese
Buddhism the Parupana-Ekaihsika controversy.
The rise and many phases of the dispute are set
forth at length by the author of the Sasanavaihsa.
Two sects arose the Ekamsika sect (it was named
so for going about in the village with one shoulder
uncovered by the upper garment) and the Parupana
sect (this school strictly observed the wearing
of the upper garment on both shoulders, during
the village rounds). During the reign of Bodoah
Pra the question was settled for good. A royal
decree established the Parupana practices for the
whole of the kingdom.

During the reign of Meiig-dun-Meng we come
to the last controversy, perhaps recorded because it
points to the influence of the Burmese Samgha in
Ceylon. An ancient Sima in the island (Ceylon)
was the subject of dispute. The matter was brought
for judgment to the Samgharaja at Mandalay, by
deputations from both sides. The Samgharaja gave
judgment after consulting various sacred texts.
The members of both sides received presents from
the king. Thus the history of religion in Aparanta
closes.

596 A History of Pali Literature

The edition of the Sasanavamsa l is based on
two palm-leaf MSS. in the British Museum. It is a
non-canonical book and is a text of Burmese author-
ship. It is a very interesting historical work. The
author Pafinaswami, who dates his book 1223 of
the Burmese Common Era 1861 A.D., was the
tutor of the then reigning king of Burma and
himself a pupil of the head of the Order at Mandalay.
The table of contents promises a general history of
Buddhism drawn from a few well-known Pali works,
e.g., Atthakatha, Vinaya Pitaka, Mahavariisa, and
Dipavamsa. Events are brought up to the time
of the Third Council in the time of Asoka and the
sending forth of missionaries by the Thera Maha-
MoggaUputta Tissa. The later history of religion
consists of nine chapters, which falls into two
parts. The first part consists of a few legends
strung together with quotations from Biiddhaghosa
and Dipavamsa. The accounts of Ceylon and
Burma seem to be more careful and complete than
those of other matters of this group. The second
part covers three-fifths of the book and treats
solely of the history of Buddhism in Burma proper.
In part one, the section dealing with the missions
strikes the key-note of the Sasanavamsa. A few
geographical notes explained the nine regions
visited by the first missionaries. A careful study of
this work shows the author's intimate acquaintance
with the commentaries. The style imitates that of
Buddhaghosa and his successors. There are no
points of philological interest. The book gives us
an interesting record of the part played by the
Buddha's religion in the social and intellectual life.
Pannaswami's history is a purely ecclesiastical piece
of work. This work has been edited by Mabel
Bode, Ph.D., for the P.T.S., London.

1 Read Sasanavamsadipa edited by Jnanatilaka Nayaka
Punnanse and Sasanavamsadlpaya by Vimalasara Unnanse. Read
also "The author of the Sasanavaihsa " by M. Bode, J.R.A.S.,
1899, pp. 674-676.

CHAPTER VII
PALI MANUALS

INTRODUCTION

Sangaha is an earlier Pali nomenclature for both
a compilation and a manual. The later term
Atthasdra is precisely an equivalent of the English
handbook or manual. The Buddhist teachers had
indeed developed the art of manual writing much
earlier, the Khuddakapatha, the Patimokkha, and
the Abhidhamma treatises, all partaking of the
character of manuals. The manuals were written
in both prose and verse and in some cases in the form
of Karikas. As a matter of fact most of the works
of Thera Buddhadatta represent so many manuals
in the shape of Karikas. Buddhaghosa's writings
are conspicuous by the absence of such manuals
with the solitary exception of the Visuddhimagga.
The same holds true in the case of Dhammapala's
writings. The art continued nevertheless and coming
to somewhat later times we have a number of works
that deserve to be classed under manuals. Although
the subject-matters of these manuals vary, one
predominant feature of each of them is this that
it presents its theme systematically in a somewhat
terse and concise form, purporting to be used as a
handbook of constant reference.

The Saccasamkhepa is a religious work on truth
G ... written by Dhammapala Thera.

Saccasamkhepa. -n/rii i j "T^ij^i

Malalasekera points out that there
seems to be some uncertainty as to the authorship
and date of the Saccasamkhepa. The Saddhamina-
samgaha assigns it to Ananda, 1 The Saccasamkhepa
has been edited by Dhanimarama Bhikklm. There
are five chapters in it dealing with rupa (form),

1 The Pali Literature of Ceylon, p. 202.

598 A History of Pali Literature

vedana (feeling), cittapavatti (thought), pakinna-
kasamgaha, and nibbana. It is known as the
summary of the truth, published by the P.T.S.
in J.P.T.S., 1917-1919. It consists of 387 stanzas.
Bupa or form is one of the five khandhas. The
destruction of the four elements means the destruc-
tion of rupa. There are three kinds of vedana or
feelings, feeling that is pleasant, feeling that is
unpleasant, and feeling that is neither pleasant nor
unpleasant, i.e., indifferent. All the three vedanas
are to be done away with, for they are painful.
Citta or thought when attached to raga or passion
leads to repeated births which are full of misery.
When citta is detached from passion there is no
rebirth for a being. The Pakinnakasariigaha-
vibhaga treats of miscellaneous subjects, e.g., pride,
sloth, niggardliness, and their evil effects. The last
chapter deals with nirvana which means destruction
of all passions and desires and avoidance of all
worldly miseries.

The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha l has served for
probably eight centuries as a primer
of Psychology and philosophy in
Burma and Ceylon, and a whole
literature of exegesis has grown up around it, the
latest additions to which are but of yesterday. The
manual is ascribed to a teacher named Anuruddha ;
but nothing is known about him except the fact
that he had compiled two other treatises on philo-
sophy, and one of them was written while the
author was at Kancipura or Conjeeveram. Burmese
tradition asserts that he was a thera of Ceylon and
wrote the compendium at the Sinhalese vihara
founded by Somadevi, queen of King Vattagamanl
who flourished between 88-76 B.C., a date fictitiously
early for the book. In fact, Anuruddha is believed
to have lived earlier than 12th but later than the

1 Abhidhammattha-Sangaha-im Compendium Buddhistischer
Philosophic und Psychologic, Vol. I, by Brahmacari Govinda
deserves mention.

Pali Manuals 599

8th century A.D. S&riputta compiled a paraphrase
to this book. The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha has
been edited and published in J.P.T.S., 1883, and
translated with notes by Shwe Zan Aung and
revised by Mrs. Rhys Davids under the name of
the Compendium of Philosophy included in the
P.T.S. translation series.

The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha is classed in
other contempo- Burmese bibliography under a clas-
rary philosophical sified list of Philosophical manuals,
manuals. ^^ in num b er- They are :

1. Abhidhammattha-Sangaha, by Anuruddha,

2. Paramattha Vinicchaya, by Anuruddha, 3. Abhi-
dhammavatara, by Buddhadatta, 4. Ruparupa-
vibhaga, by Buddhadatta, 5. Saccasamkhepa, by
Dhammapala, 6. MohavicchedanI, by Kassapa,
7. Khemapakarana, by Khema, 8. Namacara-
dipaka, by Saddhamma Jotipala, and 9. Namarupa-
pariccheda, by Anuruddha.

The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha, because of its
exclusively condensed treatment,
stimulated a large growth of ancillary
works, of which the following have
uptill now been known.

A. Four tikas or commentaries : 1. Porana-
tika, by Navavimala Buddhi of Ceylon, 2. Abhi-
dlianimattha-vibhavanl, by Sumangala of Ceylon,

3. Sankhepa-vannana, by Saddhamma Jotipala
of Burma, and 4. Paramattha-dipani-tika, by Ledi
Sadaw of Burma.

B. A 'Key' to the Tika-gyaw, entitled
Manisaramaiiju, by Ariyavamsa of Sagaing, Burma.

C. A commentary entitled Madhu-Sarattha-
dipani, by Mahananda of Hanthawaddy, Burma.

D. A number of works, not in Pali, but in
Burmese :

1. Abhidhammattha-sangaha-madhu, a modern
work by Mogaung Sadaw, 2. Abhidhammattha-
sangaha-gandhi, a modern work by Payagyi Sadaw,
3. Paramattha-Sarupa-bhedaru, by Visuddharama
Sadaw, 4. Abhidhammattha-Sarupa-dipaka, by
17

600 A History of Pali Literature

Sadaw, 4. Abhidhammattha-Sarupa-dlpaka, by the
late Myobyingyi, and 5. a number of analytical
works entitled Akauk.

The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha covers very
m. AUV, -M> largely the same range of subject-

The Abhidham- ^ ^ , e ^ TT j 11

mattha-Sangaha matter as that of the Visuddhimagga,
and the visuddhi- though the amplitude of treatment
magga. ^^ ^ order and emphasis of

treatment in each are different. But they are to
some extent complimentary, and as such still
hold the field as modern text-books for students of
Buddhism in Buddhist countries.

The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha is so highly
condensed that it consists, for the most part, of
terse, jejune sentences, which are not easily intelli-
gible to lay readers. It is, therefore, profitable
to have a resume of the main topics and problems
of the whole work as a Manual of Buddhist Psycho-
logy and Philosophy.

Mind is ordinarily defined as that which is

Min conscious of an object ; and the

Buddhists have tried to frame their
definition with the help of fifty-two mental attributes
or properties enumerated in Part II of the Abhi-
dhammattha-Sangaha. But the definition of mind
is also a division of mind, and our author's division
into vedana, nana, and sankhara corresponds to
Bain's division of the mind into feeling, thought
or intellect, and will or volition.

Consciousness (vifinana) has, therefore, been
defined as the relation between arammanika (subject)
and arammana (object). In this relation the object
presented is termed paccaya (the relating thing)
and the subject, paccayuppanna (the thing related).
The two terms are thus relative.

The object of Consciousness is either object of
Sense or object of Thought. Object of sense
subdivides itself into five classes sight, sound,
smell, taste, and touch, which are collectively
termed panc&rammana (fivefold object). The object
of thought also consists of five sub-clauses : citta

Pali Manuals 601

(mind), cetasika (mental properties), pasada, rupa
and sukhumarupa (sensitive and subtle qualities of
body), pannati (name, idea, notion, concept), and
nibbana. These are collectively termed dhammft-
rammana.

The Pannatti object consists of several sub-
clauses. Pannatti is either (1) that
which makes known (pannapetlti) ; or
(2) that which is made known (pafmgpiyatiti), corres-
ponding to our author's terminology Saddapafinatti
and Atthapannatti which are undoubtedly relative
terms. Saddapafinatti is a name (of a thing)
which, when expressed in words, or represented by
a sign is called a * term '. It is synonymous with
nama-pannatti. Atthapannatti is the idea or notion
of the attributes of a thing made known or
represented by a name. In other words, it is equi-
valent to 6 concept ' and is subdivided into various
classes. Pannatti has been distinguished from Para-
mattha in the sense that the former is nominal and
conceptual whereas the latter is real.

The object comprehending, as it does, the
subject, is wider, more extensive than the latter.
This is probably one reason why greater prominence
is given to the object patthana. In Buddhism
there is no actor apart from the action, no percipient
apart from perception. In other words, there is no
conscious subject behind consciousness.

' Like the current of the river ' (nadi soto
viya) is the Buddhist idea of exis-

Lifea ^ew. n ient tence - F . or no two consecutive
moments is the fabric of the body
the same, and this theory of the ceaseless change or
flux is called anicca-dhamma which is applied alike
to the body and the mind, or the Being and thought
respectively. The dividing line between these two
is termed mano-dvara, the Threshold of Conscious-
ness. Life, then, in the Buddhist view of things,
is like an ever-changing river, having its source in
birth, its goal in death, receiving from the tributary
streams of sense constant accretions to its flood,

602 A History of Pali Literature

and ever-dispensing to the world around it the
thought-stuff it has gathered by the way.

Subliminal consciousness is either kama, rupa
or arupa. Supraliminal conscious-
Primary ciassifi- ness i s normal, supernormal, and

cation of Con- , j j. i *vr i

eciousness. transcendental. Normal conscious-

ness is termed kamacitta, so called
because desire or kama prevails on the plane of
existence. Supernormal consciousness is termed
Mahaggatacitta because it has reached the sublime
state, and is further distinguished as rupa, or
arupacitta.

Consciousness in this fourfold classification is
primarily composed of seven mental
Universal mental properties (cetasikas) namely, con-
SEST^of c d tact (phassa), feeling (vedana), per-
sciousness. ceptioii (saiiiia), will or volition

(cetana), oneness of object (ekaggata),
psychic life (jlvitindriya), and attention (manasikara).
These seven mental properties are termed sabba-
citta-sadharana or universals, because they are
common to every class and state of consciousness,
or every separate act of mind or thought. There
are forty-five different properties distinguishing one
class from another. And those, in varying combina-
tions, give rise to the eighty-nine classes of conscious-
ness enumerated in Part I of the Abhidhammattha-
Sangaha, or according to a broader classification,
one hundred and twenty-one. The seven mental
properties have been enumerated above ; there are,
besides these, six particular specific or accidental
properties. These are vitakka, vicara, adhimokkha,
viriya, piti, and chanda. The four universal bad
cetasikas or properties are moha, ahirika, anottappa,
and uddhacca. Besides these, there are also two
specific cetasikas or properties, lobha and ditthi.
All these properties are discussed and explained
in the body of the book.

Of these and other classes of consciousness
making up a total of eighty-nine, some function
as causes or karma, some as resultants or vip&ka,

Pali Manuals 603

and some are non-causal or kriya. Besides these

three classes, there are two ele-
d Clafi f e ?k an< ? or " ments in every consciousness, the
ness grouped 010 " Constant and the Variable. The

form of consciousness is the cons-
tant element, and is opposed to the matter of
consciousness which constitutes the variable ele-
ment. But in Buddhism, both subject and object
are variable at every moment ; t and there are
several forms of consciousness each of which may
be designated a 4 process of thought ' whenever
it takes place as a fact. To every separate state
of consciousness which takes part in a process
of thought as a functional state, either in the sub-
jective form of the stream of being, or in the objective
form of a conscious act of mind or thought, there
are three phases genesis (uppada), development
(thiti), and dissolution (bhanga) each of which is
explained and discussed by the author in his Manual
in all its processes and stages.

The possibility of the ' internal ' presentation

of all the six classes of objects men-
internal intui- tioned above is that a sensation can be
pro n p " d Xd n experienced, the Buddhists believe,
manodvravithi). without the corresponding objective

stimulus. The possibility of Reflec-
tion proper is attributed to the relation termed * proxi-
mate sufficient cause ' by virtue of which (a) a
sense impression once experienced in a sense cognition
by way of the five doors, or (6) a previous experience
of all internal intuition or cognition by way of the
mind-door, or (c) the idea once formed in the sequels
of either, can never be lost. There are different
processes of reflection in connection with Things
Seen (dittha). But when an object that has not
been actually sensed is constructed out of, and
connected with these seen objects, it is termed
6 object associated with things seen ' (ditthi-sam-
bandha). And the process of thought connected
therewith is classed in the category of objects
associated with things seen. The object constructed

604 A History of Mi Literature

out of and connected with Things Heard (suta object)
is termed 4 object associated with things heard 9
(suta-sambandha). Any object constructed out of
Things Cogitated (vinftftta) and connected therewith
is termed ' associated with things cogitated 5
(vinnfita-saihbandha). Any object in the category
of Things Seen, Heard or Cogitated may either be
past, present or future. When it is present, it is
intuited as a viadd reality. The same forms hold
good for all kinds of thought or reflection.

How is memory possible, if the object be not

the same for any two consecutive

Memory and moments in life? The answer is

Changing Personal- . -1^.11^1 ,1. -n i.

ity. given in detail by the author. Each

mental state is related to the next
in at least four different modes of relation (paccaya) :
Proximity (anantara), Contiguity (samanantara),
Absence (natthi), and Abeyance (avigata). This
fourfold relation is understood to mean that each
expired state renders service to the next. In other
words, each, on passing away, gives up the whole of
its energy to its successor : and this is how the
memory is helped and retained.

The stage of apperception pertains to that

active side of an existence (kamma-

The ethical bhava), which determines the passive

aspect of appercep- ., , ... , , _ v - .,* ,

tion of Javana. side (upapatti-bhava) of the next
existence. The apperceptional act
is thus a free, determining, causal act of thought,
as distinguished from the mental states, which
are fixed, determined and resultant acts (vipaka) of
kamma. Volition, under favourable circumstances,
is transformed into kamma. But volition (cetanft)
in apperception on occasion of sense (panca-dvSrika-
javana) cannot possibly become kamma. Hence
we must look to the volition involved in reflective
or representative apperception (manodvarika-javana)
for kamma, which according to the different
characters of volition is classed in different types or
varieties with distinct characteristics.

Interesting though is the phenomenon of dream,

Pali Manuals 606

it is conspicuous in the Abhidhaimnattha-Sangaha
by its absence. Scattered refer*

Dream^nscioue- enceg ftnd Mnjtt ^ sou systematic 6X-

planations have here and there been
made in Buddhist works regarding forms of dream-
thought, dreams-classified, theories of dreams, rela-
tion of dream to sleep, etc.

The first essential qualification of the process
of thought transition from the
normal to the supernormal is 4 purity
of virtue or morals '. The next is
meditation and concentration of thought. There
are four moments of apperception during the
transitional stage from normal to super-normal
consciousness. The first is termed ' preparation ',
the second ' success ', which is followed by the
third called * adaptation '. After the last moment
of 4 adoption ' normal consciousness is cut off by
the super-normal, and the transitional stage is
superseded by the latter, known as the first
Jhana, and for one thought-moment, the person
attaining it experiences eestacy. Attainment in
Jhana is thus a very important psychological
moment, marking an epoch in his mental experience
for the person who succeeds in commanding it.
Jhana is usually classified in five stages, and in the
fifth stage ecstatic concentration reaches its full
development with the help of the continued voluntary
exercise of the mind on an after-image to which it
has been directed.

To attain super-intellectual powers (abhinna)
for an adept in the Fifth Jhana,
^ will be necessary for him to go
through a course of mental training
in fourteen processes. Super-normal powers of will
or Iddhi-vidha may then be developed by means of
the so-called four bases of Iddhi which involve
respectively the development of Four dominant
or predominant principles of purpose, effort, know-
ledge, and wisdom. There are ten classes of Iddlii
known to Buddhism, the last three of which

606 A History of Pali Literature

constitute the Iddhi-vidhft, and are used as a basis
for the willing process.

With a slight difference in procedure in mental
ATU ajhsnas attitudes and mood of thought,
upa nas. ^ e same forms of the transitional,
inductive, or sustained and retrospective processes
of Fifth Rupa-Jhana obtain in the case of the Four
Arupa-Jhanas. When an adept in the Fifth Rupa-
Jhana, who has repeatedly induced the same through
any one of the ten circles, with the exception of
space, erroneously believes that all physical pain
and misery are due to the existence of the body,
and reflects on the relative grossness of this Jhana,
he wishes to attain the First Arupa-Jhana, which he
considers to be very calm and serene.

A person who wishes to transcend the experience
of this conditioned world must first
of all cultivate 'purity of views'
or ditthi-visuddi. Next, he must
cultivate in succession, 4 purity of transcending
doubt ' or Kankha-vitarana-visuddhi, ' Ten modes
of Insight ' or Vipassana-nanas or in other words
the contemplative insight, enumerated and explained
in the Text. All these ten kinds of insight are
collectively termed ' purity of intellectual culture '.
The matured insight of equanimity receives the
special designation of 'insight of discernment
leading to uprising \ because it invariably leads to
the Path, conceived as a 4 Rising out of. It
is also styled as the * mouth or gate of Emancipation '
(Vimokkha-mukha).

Emancipation has a triple designation, namely,
. A . the c Signless ' or animitta, the ' Un-

Emancipation. , . ,*? iu_ JJ.T.

desired or appamhita, and the
* void ' or sunnata. Emancipation itself, whether
of the Path, the Fruit, or Nibbana, also receives
the same triad of names, according as it is preceded
by the contemplation of things by 'uprising dis-
cernment ' as either impermanent, or evil, or
substantial.

The purity of insight which is the gateway of

Pali Manuals 607

Emancipation is also called Path-insight. One who
r, ., ~ . has attained perfect purity of

Path Consciousness. . . *, . .1 i , J *

insight cuts oflf the hentage of
the average man and evolves the lineage of the
Transcendental. It is followed by a single moment
of Path-consciousness by which the first of the
Four Noble Truths is clearly discerned. Error
and doubt are got rid of, Nibbana is intuited,
and the eightfold Path-constituents are cultivated.
These four simultaneous functions'correspond to the
Four Noble Truths. Just like the Four Noble
Truths, there are four stages of the Path, which
are called Four Paths. The attainer of the first is
termed Sotapanna who will have as yet to undergo
seven more rebirths in the Kamaloka ; the attainer
of the second is termed Sakadagami who will have
one more such rebirth. But the complete destruc-
tion of these two does not permit of another rebirth
in the case of the Anagami or Never returner of the
Third Path. The wisdom of the Highest or Supreme
Path is the same mental order of intelligence deve-
loped into the Perfected view of the highest order
and is the last stage of ' purity of insight '.

Death is assigned to one of four causes : (1)

the exhaustion of the force of the

^ ' reproductive (janaka) kanima that

has given rise to the existence in question, (2) the

expiry of the maximum life-term possible for this

particular generation, (3) the combination of both

these causes, (4) the action of a stronger arresting

kamma that suddenly cuts off the reproductive

kamma before the latter's force is spent or before

the expiry of the life-term.

The decease of the Arhant is according to
i r. *u Buddhist philosophy, the Final

Final Death. ^^ j f the 4^^ be Q f the

class known as ' dry-visioned ' (sukkha-vipassaka)
who does not practise Jhana, his final death, which
takes place on the kama plane, occurs after appercep-
tion or retention of impressions. If he be proficient
in Jhana, final death may occur (a) after sustained

608 A History of PaU Literature

Jhftna; or (6) after apperception in subsequent
retrospect; or (c) after the moment of 'super-
intellectual ' knowledge (abhinnft) ; or finally, (d)
after retrospection following the attainment of the
Topmost Fruit.

The Namarupapariccheda is another Abhi-
dhamma manual written by Anu-
ruddha Mahathera. It consists of
1,885 stanzas dealing with name
and form. r

The Namarupasamasa was written by Thera
XTX . . Khemacariya mostly in prose. It

Namarupasamasa. , , . , J . S j. i i XL -

deals with citta and cetasikakatha.

The Sutta Samgaha is a later manual or com-

. . . , pendium of select suttas and is

Sutta Samgaha. r . ., . , , , . , , ,

pnmanly intended for those begin-
ners who desire to have a knowledge of the Pali
scriptural texts in a nut-shell.

The Paritta or Mahaparitta, a small collection
. of texts gathered from the Sutta

Paritta. -p.., , . & .111 t_

Pitaka, is more widely known by
the Burmese laity of all classes than any other
Pali book. The Paritta, learned by heart and
recited on appropriate occasions, is to conjure
various evils, physical and moral. Some of the
miscellaneous extracts that make up the collection
are of purely religious and ethical character. The
use of the Paritta is said to have had the Buddha's
sanction. The victory of the holy men was accom-
plished by the Paritta (Mabel Bode, The PaU
Literature of Burma, pp. 3-4).

The Kammavaca 1 is a convenient title for the
collection of certain set forms of speech followed
or to be followed in conducting the business of the
Samgha either at the time of conferring ordination
or at the time of holding a synod or a council

1 Cf. "A new Kammavaca " by T. W. Rhys Davids and Clauson,
F. Speigel's Kammavakya, Palice et Latine ed. Vgl Ferner Dickson,
J.R.A.S., Vol. VII, New Series ; Upasampada-kammavSca, a Pftli
text with a translation and notes by J. F. Dickson, J.R.A.S., 1875.

Pali Manuals 609

These set forms are but excerpts from the Vinaya
Mahavagga and Cullavagga, the utility of the
Kammavaca text being no other than this, namely,
that we have in it all put together in a handy and
systematic form. There are various manuscripts
of this text available in Burma, Ceylon, and Siam ;
some of the Mandalay manuscripts being very
handsome written as they are in Burmese ritual
or tamarind seed letters printed, with a thick black
resinous gum. There is a collection of Kammavacas
made by Herbert Baynes (vide J.R.A.S., 1892, Art.
III). In Burmese Pali collections we find no less
frequently than the Paritta of the laity, the Kamma-
vaca of the mendicant order. It goes without
saying that the text of Kammavaca is a text of a
purely Buddhist ecclesiastical use.

In the Kalyam stone inscriptions of Dhamma
Bedi of Pegu, we find mention of
th e Slmalankarapakarana amongst
the earlier authoritative texts bearing
upon the subject of sima or sanctified boundary of
the Buddhist ecclesiastical order. It is not quite
clear from the reference if the Slmalankarapakarana
was not the same work as the Simalankarasamgaha
mentioned in the same lithic record of the 15th
century A.D. It is evident from these records as
well as from a later work, the Simavivadavinicchaya-
katha that the proper erection and the determination
of the sanctified boundary came to be considered
as an effective means of the purification of the
Buddhist holy order.

The Khuddakasikkha and the Mulasikkha are the
two short Vinaya manuals, written
mostly in verse, a few passages oc-
curring in prose. The Thera Dham-
masiri, evidently a Sinhalese priest, is the author
of the Khuddakasikkha. But in the Burmese history
of the pitakas the Mulasikkha is ascribed to Dham-
masiri and the Khuddakasikkha, to another Sinhalese
priest, Mahasftmi by name. The authorship of
the Khuddakasikkhft cannot be reasonably ascribed

610 A History of Pali Literature

to any other person than Dhammasiri in view of
the author's own statement in the following stanza :

" Tena Dhammasirikena Tambapanniyaketuna
therena racita Dhammavinayannupasam-
sita."

If we are to give credence to the Burmese
tradition, there is no other alternative than regarding
the Mulasikkha as a work not of Dhammasiri but
of Mahasami. It is also difficult to accept the
Burmese tradition according to which the two
manuals were written about 920 years after the
demise of the Buddha. 1 Judged by the language
and general style of the two manuals, these would
seem to be literary productions of a much later age.
We have already given an idea of their contents
(ante p. 79). Only one important point which
remains to be noticed is the significance of the
Mulasikkha used as a title of one of the two manuals.
It is suggested in the opening stanza of the Mula-
sikkha that the title has no other significance than
this, that the manual presents the necessary lessons
on the Vinaya rules and discipline in the language
of the original texts, that is to say, in Pali which is
the language of the pitakas :

" Bhikkhuna navakenado mulabhasaya sikkhi-
tum yannimittam pavesanto bhikkhu mag-
gattaye cuto."

1 J.P.T.S., 1882, p. 87.

CHAPTER VIII

PALI LITERARY PIECES

INTRODUCTION

In the present chapter we have to deal with
seven metrical compositions, tlie Anagatavamsa,
the Jinacarita, the Telakatahagatha, the Pajja-
madhu, the Rasavahini, the Saddhammopayana,
and the Pancagatidipana, which were evidently the
literary productions of Ceylon 1 and which belonged
mostly to the closing period of Pali literary activities
of Ceylon ranging from the tenth or eleventh to the
fourteenth or fifteenth century A.D. Amongst them
the Anagatavamsa stands as a supplement to the
canonical work, Buddha vamsa ; the Jinacarita occu-
pies the same place in Pali as the Buddhacarita in
the Sanskrit Buddhist literature, the Telakataha-
gatha and the Pajjamadhu represent two interesting
examples of the Sataka type of poetry, the Panca-
gatidipana and the Saddhamopayana are written
for the edification of certain select topics of Buddhism
and the Rasavahini is a most charming book of
folk-tales narrated in elegant and simple style, in
prose and in verse. Most of these works show a
tendency towards the sanskritisation of Pali and
display that amount of literary excellence and
poetic imagination as may be expected from the
people of Ceylon in general and the Buddhist monks
in particular.

The Anagatavamsa edited by Minayeff for the
P.T.S., is based upon four Burmese

Anffgatavaiusa. . , u- i j j.

manuscripts which do not agree in
their contents. One manuscript embodies recension
of this work in prose and in verse, and in anothfiji

1 It is only in the case of the Anagatavamsa
may differ.

612 A History of Pali Literature

we have it entirely in verse while in a third we
have quite a different work in prose dealing with
ten future Buddhas including Metteyya and devoting
a chapter to each of them. The possibility of the
last mentioned work is suggested in the closing
verses of that mixed recension of the Anagatavamsa
which is found in prose and in verse :

" Metteyyo, Uttamo, Ramo, Pasenadi Kosalo'-

bhibhu
Dighason! ca Samkacco Subho Todeyya

brahmano

Nalagiripalaleyyo Bodhisatta ime dasa
Anukkamena sambodhim papunissanti'na-

gate'ti ".

(Anagatavamsa, J.P.T.S., 1886, p. 37.)

So far as the mixed recension goes, this text
is written in prose style of the suttas in the nikayas.
The prose passages are intervened or followed by
certain verses, the general tenor of which is some-
what different from those generally met with in the
nikayas. The text is composed of a dialogue
between Sariputta and Buddha and deals with the
subject of gradual decline and disappearance of
Buddhism, its literature, glory, and influence in
time to come rather than with the life and career
of the future Buddha, Metteyya. Viewed in this
light, this text of the Anagatavamsa may justly
be regarded as a supplement or sequel to the suttas
dealing with Anagatabhayani, " future dangers of
the faith ", the discourses recommended by King
Asoka in his Bhabru Edict for a constant study by
the Buddhists, both monks and laity. Whether
such a prose dialogue as this was at any time
incorporated in the nikayas is a question to which
no decisive answer may yet be given. It may
suffice here to treat as a sequel to the Anagata-
bhayasuttas and the texts dealing with the ten
future Buddhas.

The text with which we are concerned is a
work in verse. It is completed in 142 stanzas

Pfifo* Literary Pieces 613

and which deals with the life and career of the
future Buddha Metteyya. According to the Gandha-
vamsa the original An&gatavamsa was the work of
an elder named Kassapa (presumably the Citrakathi
Kumara Kassapa). The ascription of authorship to
Kassapa is not however justified by the text itself,
which is set forth as a dialogue between Sariputta
and the Buddha. It is composed apparently in
the manner and style of the Budcjha vamsa to which
it was meant to serve, no doubt, as a supplement.
A comparison between the following verses quoted
from the two works may make their interconnection
clear :

1. Buddha vamsa With regard to Buddha
Vipassi :

" Nagaram Bandhumati nama Bandhumo nama
khattiyo mata Bandhumati nama Vipas-
sissa mahesino." (xx. v. 23.)

2. Anagatavarhsa :

" Sarhgho nama upasako Samgha nama upasika
paccupessanti sambuddham caturasitisa-
hassato." (v. 61, J.P.T.S., 1886.)

Seeing that the account of future Buddha
Metteyya is precluded from the extant Buddha-
vamsa scheme of the lives of 26 Buddhas including
Metteyya, it will be reasonable to enquire if the
AnSgata vamsa in its present form was not a later
elaboration of a shorter account of Metteyya forming
the closing section of the Buddhavamsa in its
original form.

At the request of Sariputta who desired to
know about the future Buddha, the Buddha Gautama
spoke in brief about Metteyya Buddha. The future
Buddha would be born in India at Ketumati in a
brahmin family. He would be named Ajita and
would possess immense wealth. He would enjoy
worldly life for eight thousand years and then
would forsake the world after having seen the four
nimittas (Omens). Thousands of men and women

614 A History of Pali Literature

would renounce the world with him. On the day
of his retirement he would proceed to the great
Bodhi tree. He would attain supreme enlighten-
ment and then would set rolling the Wheel of Law.
Many would escape worldly miseries by following
the Dhamma which would be preached by the
Buddha Metteyya.

Jinacarita is a Pali Kavya consisting of more
T . .^ than 470 stanzas composed in differ-

Jinacarita. ^ , . ,

ent metres, some stanzas being of the
atijagati class, consisting of 13 syllables. It re-
presents a poetic development in Pali similar to that
represented by the Buddhacarita in the Sanskrit
Buddhist literature. Its theme, like that of the
Buddhacarita, is the life of the Buddha and the
narrative is chiefly based upon the Jataka-nidana-
katha. The slavish dependence on the prose narra-
tive of the Nidanakatha has proved a handicap to a
free expression of the poetic sentiment.

Mon. Duroiselle, to whom we owe the English
edition and translation of the text, has aptly
remarked that the poet has risen to heights placing
him in the foremost rank among poets only in those
places where he has broken through the slavish
imitation and written from the depths of his own
inspiration. In the opinion of Mon. Duroiselle,
" the charm of the Jinacarita lies in its lighter
style ; in the author's choice of graceful, and some-
times forcible, images ; in the art of his descriptions,
the richness and, in some passages, the delicacy
of his expressions ; qualities which go to make its
reading refreshing and welcome after the laborious
reading of heavy didactic poetry ". (Jinacarita,
Introduction, p. ii.)

The influence of the Sanskrit Kavya poetry of
India, particularly of the works of Kalidasa, cannot
be denied. We meet indeed in the Pali Kavya
with some images and comparisons " which are
seldom found in Pali, but are of frequent occurrence
in Sanskrit works (e.g., the Kumarasambhava and
Meghaduta). In a few instances Mon. Duroiselle

Pali Literary Pieces 615

has found also an echo of some of verses of the
Mahabharata :

Jinacarita " Ko yam Sakko nu kho Brahma

Maro nago ti adina."
Mahabharata " Ko 'yan devo 'thava yakso

gandharvo va bhavisyati ? "

(III. 6, 52,'Vanaparva.)

Without denying the intimate acquaintance of
the author of the Jinacarita with classical Sanskrit
poetry, we may point out that the type of stanzas
quoted from the Mahabharata is not such as not
to be frequently met with in the Jataka literature.
And as far as the indebtedness of our author to
Kalidasa or to ASvaghosa who paved the way for
the former is concerned, we may equally maintain
that the style of poetry developed either in the
Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa or in the Kumara-
sambhava of Kalidasa, leads us back to the gathas
forming the prologue of the Nalakasutta in the Sutta
Nipata for its model.

In the Gandhavamsa and Saddhamma-sangaha
the work has been ascribed to one Medhankara.
He was called Vanaratana Medhankara, and was
also the author of another Pah book c Payogasiddhi '
and flourished under Bhuvaneka Bahu 1st (1277-
1288 A.D. 1 ).

The Jinacarita, however, throws no new light
T ^ . on the life of the Master ; and we

Its importance. in A i .* <

can hardly expect such a thing from
a purely devotional work such as this. But what
is strikingly surprising is that the Jinacarita is
unknown both in Burma and Siam.

1 Jour. P.T.S., 1904-5, p. iv, Note on Medhankara by
T. W. Rhys Davids. But Mon. Charles Duroiselle thinks that
" the poem was written in the monastery built by Vijayabahu II,
who ascended the throne in A.D. 1186 and was the immediate
successor of the famous King Parakramabahu ". Jinacarita, p. iii
(edited and translated by C. Duroiselle, Rangoon, 1906). Read
also " Jinacarita ", edited and translated by Dr. W. H. D. Rouse
in the J.P.T.S., 1904-1905.

18

616 A History of Pali Literature

In the beautiful city of Amara, there was a
_. Brahman youth, wise and com-

The Poem. , S ,' , , ,

passionate, handsome and pleasant,
by name Sumedha. Hankering after wealth and
treasures he had none, for this bodily frame he had
no attachment. He, therefore, left his pleasant
house, went to the Himalayas, and there discovered
the eight implements necessary for an ascetic. He
put on the ascetic garb and within a week obtained
the five High Powers and the eight Attainments,
enjoying the bliss of mystic meditation. One day
he came down from the sky, and lay himself down
in a muddy portion of a road through which the
Dlpankara Buddha with his disciples was to pass.
He, the Dlpankara Buddha, was delighted at it,
and foretold that the ascetic Sumedha, in times to
come, should become a fully enlightened Buddha,
by name Gotama. Sumedha did him homage,
and then seated in meditation, he investigated
those conditions that go to make a Buddha.
Sumedha, searching for Nirvana, endured many
hardships while going through the continued suc-
cession of existences, fulfilling the virtue of charity.
He fulfilled, moreover, the Perfections of Morality,
of Self-abnegation, of wisdom, and all others, and
came to the existence of Vessantara. Passing away
thence, he was reborn in the city of Tusita, and
afterwards had another rebirth in the city of Kapila
through the noble King Suddhodana, and his Queen
Maya. He approached the bosom of Maya, and
at the time of his conception, various wonders
took place all over the world. In her tenth month,
while she was proceeding to the house of her relative,
she brought forth the Sage in the Lumbini garden
while she kept standing under a Sala tree catching
hold of a branch. The god Brahma approached
and received the child in a golden net, the child
that was born unsullied as a priceless gem. From
the hands of Brahma and the angels, he stepped on
to the ground, and gods and men approached and
made offerings to him. Accompanied by a con-

Pali Literary Pieces 617

course of gods and men, he went to Kapilavastu
and there a rejoicing of nature and men ensued
for days and nights. In the Tavatimsa heaven
the hosts of angels rejoiced and sported and pre-
dicted that he, the child, would sit upon the Throne
of Wisdom and become a Buddha. The ascetic
Kaladeva, the spiritual adviser of King Suddhodana,
went to the Tavatimsa heaven, heard the cause
of their rejoicings, came down to Suddhodana's
palace, and wanted to see the child. The child
was brought and instantly, the lotus-feet of the
prince were fixed on the ascetic's head. Upon this,
both Kaladeva and Suddhodana reverenced the
soft lotus-feet. A second act of reverence was done
by Suddhodana and other men and women of the
royal house during the sowing festival when the
child, the Wise One, had performed a miracle. The
prince then began to grow day by day living as
he did in three magnificent mansions provided for
him. One day as he came out on chariot on the
royal road, he saw in succession the representation
of an old man, of a diseased man, and of a dead man.
He then became free from attachment to the three
forms of existence and on the fourth occasion,
delighted in seeing pleasant representation of a
monk. He then came back home and laid himself
down on a costly couch, and nymph-like women
surrounded him and performed various kinds of
dances and songs. The Sage, however, did not
relish them ; and while the dancers fell asleep he
bent upon retirement into solitude and free from
attachment to the five worldly pleasures, called
his minister and friend Channa to harness his horse.
He then went to his wife's apartment and saw the
sleeping son and mother and silently took leave
of them. Descending from the palace he mounted
his horse and silently came out of the gate which
was opened up by the gods inhabiting it. Mara
then came to thwart him from going by saying that
on the seventh day hence, the divine wheel of a
universal monarch should appear unto him. But,

618 A History of Pali Literature

he, the Wise of the World, did not desire any
sovereignty, but wanted to become a Buddha.
Upon this Mara disappeared, and he proceeded
towards the bank of the river Anoma where he
dismounted himself and asked Channa to go back
home with the horse and his ornaments. He then
cut off his knot of hair with a sword ; the hair rose
up into the air and Sakra received it with bent head
and placed it in a gold casket to worship it. Next
he put up the ei^ht requisites of a monk and having
spent seven days in the Anupiya mango grove in
the joy of having left the world, went to RSjagaha
and made his round for alms just enough for his
sustenance. Leaving the town he went to the
Pandava mountain and took the food. He was
repeatedly approached by King Bimbisara and
offered the kingdom, but he declined it ; and retiring
to a cloister practised unmatched hardships. All
this was of no avail ; he, therefore, partook of
material food and regaining bodily perfection, went
to the foot of the Ajapala banyan tree where he
sat facing the east. Sujata, a beautiful woman,
mistook him for a sylvan deity and offered him a
gold vessel of milk rice. The Sage took it, and
having gone to the bank of the Neranjara river he
ate the food, took his rest, and then in the evening
went to the Bo-tree which he circumambulated
keeping the tree to his right. To his astonishment,
a throne appeared, on which he took his seat facing
the east, and promised that he would give up his
efforts to attain Supreme Enlightenment even if
his flesh, blood, bones, sinews, and skin dried up.
On his head the Maha-Brahma held an umbrella.
Suyama, the king of gods, fanned a splendid yak's
tail, and god Pancasikha, the snake-king Kala and
thirty-two nymphs all kept standing and serving
the Sage. Mara, then, creating unto himself a
thousand dreadful arms, and surrounding himself
by a manifold faced army, approached the Bo-tree.
Aiid at his approach the gods made good their
escape. Mara created a terrific wind with a fierce

Pali Literary Pieces 619

roar, then the terrible torrent of large rocks, and
brought on a most dreadful darkness, but each in
succession was of little avail. All these turned to
good account and the Blessed One did not even
show any sign of consternation. The Evil One
then threw his disc, hurled rocky peaks, yet the
Unconquerable sat motionless as before. Baffled
in his attempts he approached the All-Merciful
and asked him to rise from his sat. The Blessed
One enquired of the witness about his seat and Mara,
showing his army, told that they were his witnesses
and asked in his turn who had been the witness of
Siddhartha. Siddhartha then stretched his hands
towards the earth and called the earth goddess to
witness. She gave forth thousands of roars and
Mara caught by the fear fled with his army. Having
dispersed Mara's hosts, he remained seated still
on the immoveable seat, and in the first watch of
the night he obtained the excellent knowledge of the
past, and in the middle watch the Eye Divine.
In the last watch, he gained thorough knowledge
of the concatenation of causes and effects, and at
dawn he became perfectly Enlightened Buddha.
Yet he did not rise up from his seat, but to remove
the doubts of the gods remained seated there for seven
days and performed a double miracle. Then after
the investigation of the Pure Law, he at the foot
of the goat-herd's banyan tree, caused to wither
the face of Mara's daughter, and, at the foot of
the Mucalinda tree, caused to blossom the mind of
the snake-king. And, at last, at the foot of the
Rajayatana tree, he enjoyed the bliss of meditation.
Then the king of the Law, entreated by Brahma
Sahampati, wanted to fill the world with the free
gift of the nectar of the Good Law. With this
object, he travelled to the splendid Deer Park
where the sages and mendicants made him a saint,
and came to acknowledge him as the Sanctified,
the Perfectly Enlightened, the Tathagata. To the
Elders of the Park, he delivered a discourse on the
establishment of the kingdom of Truth, and dispelled

620 A History of Pali Literature

their ignorance. He thus set the Wheel of the Law
in motion for the good of the world by delivering
the people from the mighty bond of transmigration.
On his way next to Uruvela, he gave to some thirty
Bhaddavaggiya princes the immortal draught of
the Three Paths ; and conferred on them the gift
of ordination. He then went to Latthivana Park
and there presented King Bimbisara with the
immortal draught of true doctrine. Thence he
proceeded to the Veluvana Park and dwelt there
in a hermitage. Then King Suddhodana, having
heard that his own son had attained to Supreme
Knowledge, sent his minister Udayi to bring his
son back to him. Udayi came with a thousand
followers and hearing the Master preach renounced
the world and entered upon the path to saint-
hood. He then made known to the Master the
desire of Suddhodana to see him, and requested
to preach the Law to his kith and kin. The Buddha
agreed to it and went to Kapilavastu where he
was worshipped by Suddhodana and his relatives.
But seeing that the young ones did not greet him,
he performed a miracle at the sight of which
Suddhodana was filled with joy. Then he went
to the royal palace and preached the sweet doctrines
to the king and hundreds of fair royal women.
Next he extinguished the great grief in the heart
of Bimba or Yasodhara, his wife ; and ordained
prince Nanda even before the three festivals,
marriage, ceremonial sprinkling and entering on
the house, had taken place. When his own son
Rahula followed next for the sake of an inheritance,
the Wise One ordained him too.

After this he went to Sitavana at Rajagaha
where he preached to a merchant of Savatthi,
named Sudatta, who attained the fruit of the First
Path. Sudatta then went back to Savatthi, and
there selected a park of Prince Jeta for the residence
of the Blessed One. He (better known as Anatha-
pindika) bought this for a crore of gold pieces for
the Teacher's sake alone, and built there a chamber

Pali Literary Pieces 621

and a noble monastery for the abode of the
Master and his followers. He also beautified it
with tanks and gardens, etc., and then inviting the
Teacher to the spot dedicated to him the park
and the monastery. The Buddha accepted the
gift and thanked Sudatta for it, preaching to him
the great benefit which lies in the giving of
monasteries.

Residing there, he spent his days going here
and there and beating the great drum of the Law.
In the first season, he dwelt in the Deer Park in
the Benares city. In the second, third, and fourth
seasons he dwelt in the lovely Veluvana at Rajagaha.
In the fifth season, he made his abode in the great
wood near Vesali. In the sixth, he dwelt on the
great mountain Makula, and in the seventh in
the cool and spacious rocky seat of Indra. In the
eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth seasons,
he dwelt respectively in the delightful wood of
Bhesakala, in the Kosambi silk cotton wood, in
goodly Paraleyya, and in the Brahman villages
of Nala and Veraiija. In the thirteenth season,
he lived on the beautiful Caliya mountain, and in
the fourteenth, in fair and lovely Jetavana. In
the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth,
and nineteenth seasons, the Wise One made his
abode respectively in the great Nigrodha monastery
on a large hill at Kapilavatthu in the city of Alavaka,
in Rajagaha, and twice on the great mount Caliya.
In the twentieth season, he took up his abode in
Rajagaha ; and for the rest twenty-five years of
his life, he made his abode in Savatthi and Jetavana.
Thus for forty-five years, the Blessed One preached
his sweet doctrine, bringing happiness to men, and
freeing all the world and the gods from the great
bond of transmigration.

The book ends with a prayer of the author in
which he gives out his pious wishes to be born in
the Tusita heaven, to be born contemporaneously
with the great being, the future Buddha, to be
able to give food, drink, alms, and monasteries

622 A History of Pali Literature

to the Wise One and so forth, and to become at
least a Buddha himself.

The Telakatahagatha is a small poem in 98
Teiakatshagsths stanzas on the vanity of human life.
It contains some of the fundamental
doctrines of Buddhism. The verses are written
in chaste language. They represent the religious
meditations and exhortations of a great thera named
Kalyaniya who was condemned to be cast into a
cauldron of boiling oil on suspicion of his having
been accessory to an intrigue with the Queen-
consort of King Kalani Tissa who reigned at Kelaniya
in 306-207 B.C. 1 A reference to this story caii be
traced in the Mahavamsa, the Rasavahini and
the Sinhalese work, the Saddhammalahkara, which
is a compilation from the Rasavahim. 2 The inci-
dent on which the poem is based is somewhat
differently narrated also in the Kakavannatis-
sarannavatthu. The author of this work is unknown.
A careful study of the poem shows that the author
was well acquainted with the texts and commentaries
of the Buddhist scriptures. This work mentions
the three refuges, death, impermanence, sorrows,
soullessness of beings, evils of committing bad deeds,
fourfold protection, and exhorts all to practise
dhamma strenuously and attain salvation. It then
discusses paticcasamuppada (dependent origination)
and points out that nothing happens in this world
without any cause. Avijja or ignorance is the cause
of bad deed which leads to birth and which in turn
is the cause of manifold miseries such as old age
and death. So every one should practise dhamma
by doing good deeds and thus escape from worldly
miseries.

The charm of the style of composition lies in
the balanced rhythm of the lines and alliterations,
a literary art that may be seen developing itself
through the stanzas of such earlier poems as Ratana

1 G. P. Malalasekera, The Pali Literature of Ceylon, p. 162.

2 J.P.T.S., 1884, p. 49.

Pali Literary Pieces 623

Sutta in the Khuddakapatha and Sutta Nipata and
the Naraslhagatha presupposed by the Jataka
commentaries.

(1) Telakatahagatha, stanza No. 3:

Sopanamalam amalam tidasalayassa
Samsarasagarasamuttaranaya setum
Sabbagatibhayavivajjitakhemamaggam
Dhammam namassatha sada munina
panltam.

(2) Ratana Sutta, v. 222 :

Yanldha bhutani samagatani
bhummani va yani va antalikkhe,
sabbe va bhuta sumana bhavantu,
atho pi sakkacca sunantu bhasitarii.

Though in Goonaratne's edition pubhshed in
J.P.T.S., 1884, the poem contains 98 stanzas, it
may be presumed from its general style and purpose
that it was meant to represent a Pali sataka con-
sisting of a hundred stanzas. The poem, as we
now have it, is divided into nine sections, each
section dealing with a particular topic of Buddhism,
Ratanattaya, Marananussati, Aniccalakkhana, Duk-
khalakkhana, Anattalakkhana, Asubhalakkhana,
Duccarita-idinava, Caturarakkha, and Paticca^am-
uppada. The sataka type of poetry came into
vogue with the popularity of the three famous
satakas, the Sringara, the Vairagya, and Nirvana,
composed by so great a poet as Bhartrihari.
Among the Buddhist satakas, the one which may
rank as a high class of poetry is no doubt the
Bodhicaryavatara of Santideva. Although the aim
of the satakas, whether found in Sanskrit or in
Pali is didactic like that of the Pali Dhammapada
or the Santiparva of the Mahabharata, the charac-
teristic difference of the Centuries lies in their
conscious attempt to give expression to individual
moral or religious experiences. This differential
feature of the satakas has been well brought out

624 A History of Pali Literature

in the following apology of 6antideva in the opening
verses of his Bodhicaryavatara,

"Na me parartha cinta, samano vasayitum

kritam mamedam
Mama tavadanena yati vriddhim, kusalam

bhavayitum prasadavegah
Atha matsamadhatureva paiSyed aparo'

pyenamato'pi sarthako'yam."

By this one must understand that the object
of a sataka is not so much to instruct others as
to manifest one's own self in the hope that those
" who are like-natured, like-minded, and like- visioned
will care to look at the (matter as the author has)
viewed it and may, perhaps, derive some benefit
from it " (Barua's Gaya and Buddhagaya, p. xi).
We mean to say that in the satakas, the didactic
aim has been subservient to the purpose of self-
expression, a feature which is noticeable in certain
Psalms of early Buddhist Brethren and Sisters.

The Pajjamadhu is a poem composed of 104
D .. stanzas in praise of the Buddha.

Pajjamadhu. T>IH -i * T j

Buddhappiya, a pupil of Ananda, is
the author of this work. He is also the author of
the Pali grammar known as the Rupasiddhi. " We
may safely premise ", says Goonaratne, " that it
was composed at the same time as the Rupasiddhi
to which scholars give 1100 A.D. as the probable
date". 1 The author has given his name and pupilage
in verse 103 of this poem :

" Ananda ranna ratanadi maha yatinda
Niccappa buddha padumappiya sevi nangi
Buddhappiyena ghana buddha gunappiyena
Theralina racita Pajjamadhum pi bantu."

The language is sanskritised Pali and some of
the verses are puzzling. There is a gloss in Sinhalese
on the entire poem but it is verbose and rather
diffuse in its explanations. This poem may be

1 J.P.T.S., 1887, p. 1.

Pali Literary Pieces 625

regarded as another example of sataka in Pali with
four stanzas in excess. The first 69 verses describe
the beauty of the Buddha and the remaining verses
are written in praise of his wisdom concluded with
a panegyric on the order and nirvana. It is lacking
in the vigour of poetical imagination and its style
is laboured and artificial and is far from fulfilling
the promise of sweetness of poetry suggested in
its title Pajjamadhu. .

The Rasavahini is a collection of 103 tales
_ u . _ written in easy Pali, the first forty

Rasavahmi. , ,. , /, . . , , , .

relating to the incidents which
happened in Jambudipa and the rest in Ceylon. A
Sinhalese edition of this work has been brought
out by M. S. Unnanse. The text with Sinhalese
interpretation by B. Devarakkhita has been pub-
lished in Colombo, 1917. The P.T.S., London,
has undertaken to bring out an edition of this work
in Roman character. Its date is unknown, but
at the conclusion the author gives us a clue which
helps us in determining it to be in all probability
in the first half of the 14th century A.D. It is
considered to be a revision of an old Pali translation
made from an original compilation by Ratthapala
Thera of the Mahavihara in Ceylon. Vedeha, the
author of the Rasavahini, gives us an account
of the Vanavasi School to which he belonged. 1
The late H. Nevill suggests that the Sahassavatthu-
ppakarana still extant in Burma, formed the basis
for the Pali Rasavahini. 2 This work throws much
light on the manners, customs, and social conditions
of ancient India and Ceylon. It contains materials
of historical importance and as such is widely
read in Ceylon. This work has been edited and
translated by P. E. Pavolini. 8 There is a glossary
on the Rasavahini called the Rasavahimganthi.
The verses of this text with a word-for-word Sinhalese

1 Malalasekera, The Pali Literature of Ceylon, p. 210.

* Ibid., p. 129.

8 Societe Asiatica Italiana, 1896.

626 A History of Pali Literature

translation by Dharmaratna have been published
in 1913.

Buddhist legends of Asoka and his time
translated from the Pali of the
' R^savfthinl by Laksmana Sftstrl
with a prefatory note by H. C.
Norman (J.R.A.S., 1910) and Zwei Erzahlungen aus
der Rasavahini, Von. Sten Kono (Deutsche morgen-
landische Gesellschaft, Zeitschrift, Leipzig) II
settimo capitolo della Rasavahini by P. E. Pavolini
(Societe Asiatica Italiana, Giornale, Firanze, 1895),
should be consulted. Die Zvveite dekade der
Rasavahini (M. and W. Geiger), Munchen, 1918,
with translation deserves mention.

The Saddhammopayana edited for the P.T.S.
Saddhammo- by Richard Morris and published

payana. J n t h e J.p.T.S., 1887, is a lllOSt

notable work on Buddhism. It is written entirely
in verse and completed in 629 stanzas. It begins
with a prologue and is closed with an epilogue,
the author introducing himself in the prologue
under the name and designation of Brahmacarf
Buddhasomapiya. l He was undoubtedly a Buddhist
teacher of Ceylon. The work, as its title implies,
deals with the Way of the Good Faith. We can
broadly divide it into two parts, the first of which
contains an edification of the dangers or dis-
advantages of things moral and the second, that the
rewards or advantages (anisamsa) of things moral.
The author dwells on such topics of the saddhamma
as akkhana, dasa akusala, petadukkha, papadinava,
punnaphala, dananisamsa, and the rest. Though
the views of the author are not in any way new, the
manner of treatment of each topic is masterly,
and his style is at once easy, dignified, and res-
trained. Such a treatment of the subject cannot
be expected from one who had not long pondered
over it and thoroughly assimilated the fundamental

1 Namato Buddhasomassa piyasabrahmacarino Saddham-
mopayana, verse 3.

Pali Literary Pieces 627

principles of Buddhism. He has nowhere slavishly
followed any earlier authority a fact which may
be clearly brought home to the reader by a com-
parison between the Praises of sila (sllanisamsa) in
Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga and those in the
Saddhammopayana :

(1) Visuddhimagga

" Na Ganga, Yamuna capi, Sarabhu va

Sarasvati, .

ninnaga va' ciravati Mah! va pi mahanadl
Sakkunanti visodhetum tarn malam idha

paninam,

Visodhayati sattanam yam ve sflajalam
malam."

(Vol. I, p. 10.)

(2) Saddhammopayana

Idarii hi sllaratanarh idhaloke parattha ca
anisaihsavare datva paccha papeti nibbutim
Paccakkham limajaccam hi accantolara-

varhsaja
narinda silasampannarii namassantiha

bhavato.

(Verses 415-416.)

The Paiicagatidipana has been edited by M. Leon
p . t ... Feer (J.P.T.S., 1884, pp. 152-161).

Pancagatidipana. T . . v ... . tt A "i mi.

It is written in 114 stanzas. This
work tells us of the five destinies which are in store
of beings according as they commit good or bad
deeds in this world by body, mind, etc. This text
furnishes us with an interesting piece of information
regarding different hells, namely, Safijiva, Kalasutta,
Samghata, Roruva, Maharoruva, Tapa, Mahatapa,
and Avici. Those who kill and cause living beings
to be killed out of avarice, delusion, fear, and anger
must go to the Safijiva hell. For one thousand
years they suffer in this hell being subjected to
continual torments without losing life and con-
sciousness. Those who cause injury or do harmful
deeds to friends and parents, speak falsehood and
backbite others must go to the K&lasutta hell.

628 A History of Pali Literature

In this hell they are cut to pieces with burning
saws. Those who kill goats, sheep, jackals, hares,
deer, pigs, etc., are consigned to the Sanghata
hell, where they are huddled up in one place and
then beaten to death. Those who cause mental
and bodily pain to others or cheat others or
are misers have to go to the Roruva hell, where
they make terrible noise while being burnt in the
terrific fire of hell. Those who steal things belonging
to gods, brahmahs, and preceptors, those who
misappropriate the property of others kept in trust
with them, and those who destroy things entrusted
to their care are cast into the Maharoruva hell,
where they make a more terrible noise while being
consumed by a fire fiercer than that in the Roruva
hell. Those who cause the death of living beings
by throwing them into the Davadaha fire, etc.,
have to go to the Tapa hell, where they have to
suffer being burnt in a dreadful fire. Those who
cause the death of beings by throwing them into
greater Davadaha fire must go to the Mahatapa
hell, where they have to suffer still more by being
burnt in a greater fire. Those who injure men
of great virtue and those who kill parents, arahats,
or preceptors must sink into the Avici hell, where
they suffer being burnt in such a terrible fire that
would consume even the hardest things. In this
hell there is not a least wave of happiness, it is
therefore called the Avici or waveless. Besides
these hells, mention is made of a hell called the
Patapana, where people suffer by being burnt in
fires that are much more terrific than those of the
Tapa and Mahatapa hells. Each hell has four
Ussadanirayas, viz., Milhakupa, Kukkula, Asipatta-
vana, and Nadi. Those who are in the Mahaniraya
have to proceed to Milhakupa when released. In
this terrible hell they are bitten by a host of worms.
Thence they go to Kukkula where they are fried
like mustard seeds on a burning pan. Coming out
of Kukkula they find before them a beautiful tree of
fruits and flowers where they take shelter for relief

Pali Literary Pieces 629

from torments. As soon as they reach the tree
they are attacked by birds of prey such as vultures,
owls, etc. They are killed by these animals which
they make a repast on their flesh. Those who
are traitors must go to the Asipattavana where
they are torn and eaten up by bitches, vultures,
owls, etc. Those who steal money will also suffer
in this hell by being compelled to swallow iron
balls and molten brass. Those who kill cows and
oxen, suffer in this hell by being* eaten up by dogs
having large teeth. Those who kill aquatic animals
will have to go to the fearful Vaitaram river where
the water is as hot as a molten brass. Those who
prostitute justice by accepting bribes will be cut
to pieces in an iron wheel. Those who destroy
paddy have to suffer in the Kukkula hell. Those
who cherish anger in their heart are reborn as
swans and pigeons. Those who are haughty and
angry are reborn as snakes. Those who are jealous
and miserly are reborn as monkeys. Those who
are miserly, irritable, and fond of backbiting are
reborn as tigers, bears, cats, etc. Those who are
charitable but angry at the same time are reborn
as big Garudas. Those who are deceitful and
charitable are reborn as great Asuras. Those who
neglect their friends on account of their pride are
reborn as dogs and asses. Those who are envious,
cherish anger, or become happy at sight of sufferings
of others are reborn in Yamaloka and the demon
world. (Cf. the description of hell in the Markandeya
Purana. )

There is nothing new to be learnt from this
poem, new in the sense of that which is different
from what we read in some of the Jatakas and suttas
and particularly in the canonical text, Petavatthu.
The real literary value of this poem consists in the
simplicity of its diction and the handy form which
is peculiar to a later digest of doctrines that are
old.

CHAPTER IX

PALI GRAMMARS, LEXICOGRAPHIES, AND
WORKS ON PROSODY, ETC.

Vyakarana is the accepted Indian term to
denote a book of grammar. This very term was
used to denote on'e of the six Vedangas, or sciences
or treatises auxiliary to the four Vedas. We have
in the ancient vocabulary another term to denote
another amongst the six Vedangas, namely, the
Chandas or treatise or treatises on metre or prosody.
The treatises on Alankara or Poetics were later
offshoots of the treatises on grammar. The begin-
nings of lexicography (abhidhana) can similarly be
traced in the Nigrantha sections of the treatises
on exegetical etymology the Nirukta denoting
another amongst the six Vedangas. Corresponding
to the Sanskrit Vyakarana we have the Pali Veyya-
karana, counted among the nine types of literary
texts or compositions (navangam satthu-sasanam).
But the Pali term, as explained by Buddhaghosa
and other Buddhist commentators, was far from
signifying any treatise on grammar. They have
taken it to represent that distinct literary type
which is characterised by prose exegeses, the
Abhidhamma books being mentioned as chief
examples of such a type. 1 There is indeed another
Pali word, Vyakarana, which is phonetically the
exact equivalent of the Sanskrit Vyakarana, but in
Buddhist terminology it means ' announcement or
prediction '. The term ' Veyyakarana ' means
'exposition or explanation, the function of which
is to make things explicit or clear '. If this term
be applied to a treatise on grammar, we can under-
stand that the main function of grammar is to

1 SumangalavilasinI, part I, p. 24. " Sakalam Abhidhamma
Pifakam niggathaka-suttam . . . .tarn veyyakaranan ti veditabbam."

Pali Grammars 631

help expositions of texts by clearing up the connec-
tions of letters, words, sentences, their sequence,
and the rest. The importance of grammar has
been sufficiently emphasized in early Buddhism in a
verse of the Dhammapada which reads :

" Vltatanho anadano niruttipadakovido
akkharanam sannipatam jafifia pubbaparanica
sa ve antimasariro mahapanno (mahapuriso)

ti l vuccati."

In this important dictum a great man or a
man of knowledge is expected to be conversant
with the rules of construction of sentences, com-
bination of letters or syllables in words, and deter-
mination of sequence or syntax. Here the most
important term is iiirutti which may be taken to
mean ' verbal analysis ', ' glossology ', * use or ex-
pression of a language ', or c grammatical and
logical explanation of the words or text of the
Buddhist scriptures' (Childers, Pali Dictionary,
Subvoce Nirutti). Thus we may understand that
the need of grammatical analysis and grammatical
treatises came to be felt by the exigency of exposi-
tion, and this point has been well brought out in
the Nettipakarana (pp. 8-9). Pada, akkara, vyafijana,
akara, iiirutti are the terms that are of use in a
treatise on grammar. Sankagana, pakasanft,
vivarana, and the rest are the terms that are of use
in an exegetical treatise. The Netti says " Bhagava
akkhareki sankaseti, padehi pakaseti, byafijanehi
vivarati, ak&rehi vibhajati, niruttihi uttanikaroti,
niddesehi panfiapeti : akkharehi ca padehica uggha-
teti, byafijanehi ca ftkaxehi ca vipaficayati, niruttihi
niddesehi ca vitthareti."

So far as Buddhism is concerned, the develop-
ment of grammar, lexicography, and works on
prosody took place long after the development of
literature itself and it appears that no need of a
separate book of grammar for the teaching or learn-

1 Dhammapada, v. 352.

19

632 A History of Pali Literature

ing of Pali was felt so long as India remained the
home of the language. There were certainly some
codified rules of grammar to which the language
of the PSli pitakas conformed. It cannot surely
be doubted that a wonderful linguistic genius has
been displayed in the coinage and manipulation of
many new technical terms and expressions which
could not have been possible but for a close and
intimate acquaintance with the fundamental prin-
ciples of grammar and phonology. We may venture
to suggest that there was no book of Pali grammar
in existence till the time of the three great Pali
commentators, Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa, and
Dhammapala. All of them appear to have ex-
plained the grammatical construction of Pali words
by the rules of Panini quoted verbatim in Pali, e.g.,
Sutta Nipata commentary, Vol. I, p. 23, vattamana-
samipe vattamana vacanalakkhana, Panini, III. 3.
131. It appears that Buddhaghosa studied the
great grammar of Panini. In the Visuddhimagga
(P.T.S. Edition, pp. 491-492, ' Indriyasaccaniddeso ')
we read :

" Ko pana nesarfa indriyattho namati ? Inda-
lingattho indriyattho ; indadesitattho indriyattho ;
indaditthattho indriyattho ; indasitthattho indriyat-
tho ; indajutthattho indriyattho : so sabbo pi
idha yathayogam yujjati. Bhagava hi samma-
sambuddho paramissariyabhavato indo, kusala-
kusalam ca kammam, kammesu kassaci issariya-
bhavato. Ten' ev'ettha kammasafijanitani tava
indriyani kusalakusalakammam ullingenti. Tena ca
sitthaniti indalingatthena indasitthatthena ca indri-
yftni. Sabban eva pan 5 etani Bhagavata yatha-
bhutato pakasitani abhisambuddhani ca ti inda-
desitatthena indaditthatthena ca indriyani. Ten'eva
Bhagavata munindena kanici gocarasevanaya,
kanici bhavanasevanaya sevitamti indajutthat-
thenapi etani indriyani."

Buddhaghosa goes on to add :

" Api ca adhipaccasankhatena issariyatthena
pi etani indriyftni. Cakkhuvinnanadippavattiyam

Pali Grammars 633

hi cakkhadmam siddham adhipaccam, tasmim
tikkhe tikkhatta, mande mandattati. Ayam tftv'
ettha atthato vinicchayo."

These explanations of * Indriya ' are evidently
a reminiscence of Panini, V. 2, 93. " Indriyam
indralingam indradrstam indrajustam indradattam
iti va."

In the grammar of Panini, there is a mention of
dpatti in the sense of prdpti and in this sense too,
apatti occurs several times in the* Samantapasadika.
This seems also to show that Buddhaghosa knew
of and utilised the work of Panini.

If Panini had remained the standard gram-
matical authority with the Buddhist scholiasts who
flourished in the 5th or 6th century A.D., the ascrip-
tion of the first Pali grammar to the authorship
of Kaccayana or Mahakaccayana, an immediate
disciple of the Buddha, becomes unjustifiable on
account of the anachronism that it involves. If any
authoritative book of Pali grammar were in existence
when Buddhaghosa and Dhammapala wrote their
commentaries, there is no reason why they should
seek guidance from the rules of Panini rather than
from those of Kaccayana. We may indeed maintain
that the first Pali grammar, attributed to Kaccayana,
was a compilation made by some Buddhist teachers
of Ceylon and that the ascription of its authorship
to Kaccayana cannot be justified except on the
ground that the necessity for grammatical study
of the Pali texts was particularly felt in the tradition
of Kaccayana who even according to Buddha's
own estimate was a past master in the art and
method of exegesis or analytical exposition. Even
as regards Kaccayana' s grammar, the unknown Pali
compiler of Ceylon can hardly claim any originality
in view of the fact that barring certain special rules
introduced to meet certain exceptional cases, the
bulk of the treatise is based verbatim on the Sanskrit
grammar of Katantra. The indebtedness of the
Pali grammar to some such Sanskrit authority is
frankly admitted in the aphorism, 1. 1. 8. (Para-

634 A History of Pali Literature

samannapayoge), and clearly brought out in the
vutti or gloss of the same :

" Ya ca pana sakkatagandhesu samanna
. . ..pajunnate."

The next standard book of Pali grammar to
be noted is the Rupasiddhi or Maharupasiddhi based
on Kaccayana's work. The Balavatara is the second
important work that was produced in Ceylon on
the lines of Kaccayana's work and its only importance
lies in the re-arrangement of the aphorisms of
Kaccayana. Passing over the tlkas and glosses
on Kaccayana's grammar, the Rupasiddhi and
Balavatara, we have to mention the Saddamti
and the Mukhamatthadipani as the two later
grammatical works of outstanding merit.

The earliest known Pali lexicography is the
Abhidha/nappadipika which too must stand to the
credit of the Pali scholars of Ceylon. The plan
of this lexicography seems to have been conceived
on the model of the Sanskrit kosa of Amarasingha
who is taken, for some good reasons, to be a Buddhist
by faith. The Abhidhanappadipika just like its
Sanskrit prototype is a dictionary of synonyms.
It is far from having any alphabetical arrangement
of words, which was adopted in some later works,
such as Ekakkharakosa and the Abhidhanappadipika
suci. The beginnings of Pali lexicography may,
however, be clearly traced in the Vevacanahara
chapter of the Nettipakarana and the Petakopadesa.
The dictionary method of making the meaning of a
term or word clear is indeed extensively used in the
Pftli Abhidhamma books and in some portions of
the nikayas.

Pali literature is conspicuous by the absence
of any noteworthy work on Poetics. If there be
any such work, we may safely take it to be based
on some Sanskrit authority. There are a few P&li
works on metre notably the Vuttodaya and the
Subodhalankara. With regard to all these works on
prosody, it may suffice to say that they are far
from being original productions.

Pali Grammars 635

The three principal grammarians are Kaccayana,
_ , m Moggallana, and the author of the

Books of grammar. Fjp ...

b Saddamti.

KaccSyana's Pali grammar 1 Kaccayana is
reported to be the author of the first Pali grammar
called Susandhikappa. There are many suttas in
Kaccayana's grammar which are identical with
those of the Katantravyakarana. This grammar is
said to have been carried into Burma early in the
fifth century A.D.

As helps to the grammar of Kaccayana, there
are Rupasiddhi 2 , Balavatara 8 , which consists of 7
chapters, Mahanirutti, Culanirutti, Niruttipitaka,
and Manjusatikavyakhya.

As helps to the grammar of Moggallana, there
are Payogasiddhi, Moggallayanavutti, Susaddasiddhi
and Padasadhana 4 or Moggallana Saddattharatna-

1 The oldest and best commentary on Kaccayana's Pali grammar
is Mukhattadlpam written by Acarya Vimalabuddhi. This work
is commonly known as Nyasa. There is a paper entitled " Note
on the Pali Grammarian, Kaccayana" (Proceedings of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1882). The late Dr. Satish Chandra
Vidyabhusana edited Kaccayana's grammar. Mason's edition of
this grammar is noteworthy.

* Rupasiddhi-t'Tka ascribed to Diparhkara should be read along
with the text to get a clear idea of the Pali grammar. Grunwedel's
Rupasiddhi, Berlin, 1883, is noteworthy. There are editions con-
taining Burmese interpretations of the Rupasiddhi (vide supple-
mentary catalogue of Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit Books in the British
Museum, p. 442, compiled by L. D. Baraett, 1928).

8 Balavatara by Dharmakitti ; Balavatara, ed. Sri Dharmarama ;
Balavatara with tfka, ed. Sumahgala, Colombo, 1893. It is a work
on Pali grammar and is the most exhaustively used handbook in
Ceylon on the subject. It is the smallest grammar extant and
based on Kaccayana's work.

There is an abridgement of the Balavatara with Pali sutras
and Sinhalese commentary composed by Revd. Sitinamaluwa
Dhammajoti and edited by Jinaratana Thera and D. A. DeSilva,
Batuwantudava, second edition, Colombo, 1913. There is a word-
for-word Burmese interpretation of the Balavatara, Rangoon, 1916.
The Balavatara has been translated into English by Mr. H. T.
DeSilva with the co-operation of the Rev. Katane Oopatissa Thera
and revised by Woodward, Pegu, 1915.

4 There is a commentary on Padasadhana, a Pali grammatical
work on the system of Moggallana, written by Sri Rahula
Thera and discovered by Louis De Zoysa.

636 A History of Pali Literature

kara which consists of six sections dealing with
sadda, sandhi, samftsa, verbs, prefixes, and suffixes.

As helps to the grammar called Saddanlti 1 ,
there is only one work called Culasaddanlti. The
Saddaniti is still regarded as a classic in Burma.

Among other treatises on Pftli grammar may
be counted the following :

Sambandhacinta, Saddasaratthajalin! (a good
book on Pali Philology), Kaccayanabheda, Sad-
datthabhedacinta, Karika, Karikavutti, Vibhat-
tyattha, Gandhatthi, Vacakopadesa, Nayalakkhana-
vibhavani, Niruttisangha, Kaccayanasara, Vibhat-
tyatthadlpam, Sanvannanayadipam, Vaccavacaka,
Sadda vutti, Balappabodhana 2 , Karakapupphaman-
jari, Kaccayanadipam, Gulhatthadipam, Mukha-
mattasara, Sadda vindu 3 , Saddakalika, Sadda vinic-
caya, Bijanga, Dhatupatha, Sudhiramukhamandan-
dana 4 , etc., with their commentaries and supple-
mentary commentaries.

Kaccayana, as we have already pointed out,
is the oldest of all Pali grammarians. Readers are
referred to Kaccayana's Sandhikappa 5 (J.P.T.S.,
1882).

Nepatikavannana is a work on Pali indeclinable
participles. Saddamala is a comprehensive Pali
grammar based on the grammar of Kaccayana.

1 There is a book named Dhatuatthadlpani, by Hingulwala
Jinaratana, which contains a re -arrangement in material form
of the roots mentioned in Aggavamsa's Saddam ti. Saddanlti,
La Grammaire Pali de* Aggavamsa by Helmer Smith in 3 vols.
is worth perusal. The date of this grammar is traditionally given
as the 12th century A.D. This grammar consists of three parts,
Padamala, Dhatumala (root numbers) and Suttamala (sutra number).
It gives many quotations from the Pali canon as examples of
grammatical rules. It is no doubt a standard work on Pali grammar
and philology. It is undoubtedly a scholarly edition prepared by
Helmer Smith.

8 It is a grammar for beginners.

8 It was written by Narada Thera.

4 It is a work on samasa of Pali compound nouns written by
Attarag&mavandararajaguru.

5 On sandhi in Pali by R. C. Childers, J.R.A.S., new series,
Vol. II, 1879.

Pali Orammars 637

The development of grammar is a comparatively
late phase of Pali literature, as late as the sixth or
seventh century A.D., if not later still. Even in the
grammar of Kaccftyana, the debt to Sanskrit is
freely acknowledged in one of the introductory
aphorisms. Uptifl the time of Buddhaghosa and
Dhammapala, the Buddhist teachers as already
pointed out, followed the authority of the grammar
of Panini. It has only recently been detected
that the Pali commentators have freely quoted the
rules of Panini in accounting for grammatical
formations of Pali words.

Abhidhanappadipika (by Moggallana Thera, ed.
by W. Subhuti, 2nd edition,
Lexicons. Colombo, 1883) l and Ekakkhara-
kosa 2 are the two well-known Pali lexicons. The
Abhidhanappadipika was written by Moggallana
in the reign of Parakramabahu the Great. It is
the only ancient Pali dictionary in Ceylon and it
follows the style and method of the Sanskrit
Amarakosa (vide, Malalasekera, The Pali Literature
of Ceylon, pp. 188-189). This work consists of
three parts dealing with celestial, terrestrial, and
miscellaneous objects and each part is subdivided
into several sections. The whole book is a dictionary
of synonyms. The last two sections of the last
part are devoted to homonyms and indeclinable
particles. This work is held in the highest esteem
both in Burma and Ceylon (Ibid., p. 189). Subhuti's
edition of this dictionary with English and Sinhalese
interpretations together with a complete Index of
all the Pali words giving their meanings in Sinhalese
deserves mention. R. C. Cliilders has published
a very useful dictionary of the Pali language. In
1921, T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede brought
out a Pftli dictionary compiled mainly from col-
lection by the former for 40 years which is a

1 Ferner, A complete Index to the Abhidhanappadipika is a
useful publication.

2 It is a small work on Pali lexicography, a vocabulary oi
words of one letter by Saddhammakitti Thera of Burma.

638 A History of Pali Literature

publication of the P.T.S., London. Quite recently a
critical dictionary begun by V. Trenckner and revised,
continued, and edited by Dines Anderson and
Helmer Smith has appeared in two parts (1924 and
1929).

The beginnings of Indian lexicons are to be
traced mainly in the Nighantu section of Yaska's
Nirukta. The Nettipakarana stands to the Pali
canon in the same relation in which Yaska's Nirukta
stands to the Vedas. And it is in the Vevacanahftra
of the Netti, the chapter on homonyms, that the
historians can clearly trace the early model of later
lexicons.

Vuttodaya l written by Sangharakkhita Thera,
m . , Kamandaki, and Chandoviciti are

Works on prosody. T>.I. ' ' i , o i_ ju-

Pah works on metres. Subodha-
lankara 2 is a work on rhetoric by Sangharakkhita
Thera. Kavisarapakaranam and Kavisaratika-
nissaya are the two good books on prosody.

A number of scholars, both European and
. w . Indian, have made a study of Pftli

Modern Works. , , , sr. , , , .

grammars and have embodied their
researches in their treatises on Pali grammars.
These treatises are named below :

(1) E. Burnouf observations grammaticales

sur quelques passages de T Essai sur le
Pali de Burnouf et Lassen Paris,
1827.

(2) B. Clough compendious Pftli grammar

with a copious vocabulary in the
same language Colombo, 1824.

(3) J. Minayeff Grammaire Palie, traduite

par St. Guyard, Paris, 1874.

(4) J. Minayeff Pftli Grammar, a phonetic

and morphological sketch of the Pftli
language, with an introductory essay

1 Vuttodaya (exposition of metre) by Sangharakkhita Thera,
J.A.S.B., Vol. XLVT, pt. I, (Col. G. E. Fryer).

2 Analysis and Text of Subodh&lafikara or Easy Rhetoric by
SaAgharakkhita Thera, J. A.S.B., Vol. XLIV, pt. I, (Col. G. E. Fryer).

Pali Grammars

on its form and character by J. M.,
1872; translation from Russian into
French by M. St. Guyard, 1874,
rendered into English by Ch. G. Adams,
1882.

(5) E. Kuhn Beitrage Zur Pali Grammatik,

Berlin, 1875.

(6) 0. Frankfurter Handbook of Pali being

an elementary grammar, 1883.

(7) E. Muller A simplified grammar of the

Pali language, London, 1884,

(8) V. Henry Precis de Grammaire Palie

accompague d' um choix de textes
Graduis, Paris, 1894.

(9) Geiger Pali Literatur und sprache

(Grundriss der Indo Arischen Philo-
logie and Altertumskunde).

(10) E. Windisch, uber den sprachlichen

charakter des Pali, Paris, 1906.

(11) H. H. Tilbe Pali Grammar, Rangoon,

1899.

(12) J. Grey Elementary Pali Grammar,

Calcutta, 1905.

(13) Charles Duroiselle A Practical Grammar

of the Pali Language, Rangoon, 1906.

(14) Senart Kaccayanappakaranilni (1868-

70).

(15) E. Kuhn Kaccayanappakaranae Speci-

men, Halle, 1869.

(16) Nyanatilaka Kleine systematische Pali

Grammatik, Breslau, 1911.

(17) Grunwedel Rupasiddhi, Berlin, 1883.

(18) Tha Do Oung A Grammar of the Pali

language (after KaccSyana), Vols. I,
II, III, and IV.

(19) Subhuti Namamftla.

(20) Sri Dharmarama Balavatara by

Dharmakirti.

(21) H. Sumangala Bfilftvatara with tlka,

Colombo, 1893.

(22) Chakravarty and Ghosh Pftli Grammar.

640 A History of Pali Literature

(23) Pe Maung Tin Pfili Grammar.

(24) Vidhusekhar &strl Pali Prakasa.

(25) J. Takakusu A Pali Chrestomathy,

Tokyo, 1900.

Of all these works on Pali grammar, Mr. Tha
Do Oung has treated this subject exhaustively.
The first volume deals with sandhi, nama, karaka,
and samasa ; the second volume contains taddhita,
kita, unadi, akhyata, upasagga, and nipata parti-
ciples ; the third and fourth volumes deal with word
roots, ten figures of speech and 40 modes of expression,
and prosody. Pali grammar by Muller and Duroiselle
are also very useful. Prof. Chakravartty's grammar
is worth perusal. Pandit Vidhusekhar Sastri's work
is a compilation and as such it is useful.

The following are the noteworthy publications :
Morris Notes and Queries, J.P.T.S., 1884,

1885, 1886, 1887, 1889, and 1891-93.
E. Muller A glossary of Pali proper names,

J.P.T.S., 1888.
Morris Contributions to Pali Lexicography,

Academy, 1890-91.
Mabel Bode Index to Pali words discussed

in translations, J.P.T.S., 1897-1901.
J. Takakusu A Pali Chrestomathy with
notes and glossary giving Sanskrit and
Chinese equivalents, Tokyo, 1900.
E. Windisch Uber den Sprachlichen charak-
ter des Pali Actes du XlVe. Congress
Internat des Orientalistes, Paris, 1906.
Mrs. Rhys Davids, Similes in the Nikayas,
J.P.T.S., 1907-8 and Mrs. Rhys Davids,
Sakya or Buddhist origins, chapter XVII,
pp. 314 foil.

The Dative Plural in Pali (published in Sir
Asutosh Mookerjee Silver Jubilee
volumes, Vol. Ill, Orientalia-Pt. 2,
pp. 31-34). It is a valuable paper
and should attract the attention of scholars interested
in Pftli grammar and philology. Prof. Majumdar

Pali Grammars 641

has shown in it that in the inscriptions of Asoka
and of his grandson there are ten instances of the
use of dative plural in * Epigraphic Pali '. These
occur not only in one version or at one place but
at such distant places as Dhauli, Jaugada, Barabar
hills, Nagarjuni hills, Kalsi, Manserft, and Girnar.
In Barabar and Nagarjuni cave inscriptions the
dative is the only form in use showing that the old
form was better preserved in tfce Magadhi. As
for the Rock Edicts some versions use the dative
and some the genitive. The Shahbazgarhi text is
the only version which has not used even once
the dative form. Majumdar sums up his argument
by saying that we find promiscuous use of the
dative and genitive plurals in * Epigraphic Pali'.
If the old Buddhist and Jaina texts be carefully
examined in this light, some instances of the dative
plural will be found in literary Pali and Prakrit
also. When the genitive plural began to be used
for the dative plural, their singular forms also came
to be confused in use. This confusion in the
singular was also helped by the fact that in the
language of the later Vedic texts the dative singular
of feminine nouns was used for the genitive. But
as the dative singular Prakritic form had not been
confused in shape with any other form, it lingered
longer than the dative plural. Dative singular is
almost as common in Asokan dialects as in Sanskrit.
It lingered in literary Pali but died out in the Prakrits
of the dramas.

CONCLUSION

In the foregoing pages an attempt has been
made to give a general survey of canonical and non-
canonical Pali literature. Some distinct types of
literature came to be developed within a growing
collection of texts of traditional authority. This
collection came indeed to be closed at a certain date
which is undoubtedly pre-Christian. The origin and
development of even just one recension of the early
corpus of Buddhist literature covered a pretty long
period of about five centuries, which is very imperfect-
ly known or understood by the meagre evidence of
Sanskrit literature. The Pali pitakas coupled with
the Jain agama texts and some of the Sanskrit
treatises like Panini's grammar, Katyayana's
Vartika, Patanjali's Mahabhasya, and the contem-
porary inscriptions and coin-legends fill up a
very important gap in the history of ancient Indian
humanity. The particular literature with which we
are concerned developed under aegis of religion which
was destined to be a great civilising influence in
the East, highly ethical in tone, dignified in the
forms of expression, dramatic in setting, direct in
narration, methodical in argument, and mechanical
in arrangement. This wealth of literary output was
shown forth in its perspicuity and grandeur in the
garb of a new literary idiom having a place midway
between the Vedic Sanskrit on one hand and classical
Sanskrit and Ardhamagadhi on the other. In
between the closing of the Pali canon and the
beginning of the great commentaries and chronicles
we had to take note of an imperfectly known period
of transition which became remarkable by the
production of so great a work of literary merit and
doctrinal importance as the Milinda Panha occupy-
ing, as it does, the foremost place for its lucid, elegant,
and rhythmical prose style in the whole range of
Sanskrit and Sanskritic literature. The Pfi/li com-

Conclusion 643

mentaries, as we have them, were produced at a
period far beyond the Mauryan and Sunga, the
Kanva and the Kushana. The Augustan period of
Pali literature began with these commentaries and
closed with the earlier epic chronicles of Ceylon.
The period which followed was a decadent one, and
it became noted only for the compilation of some
useful manuals, some books of grammar and lexico-
graphy chiefly in imitation of some Sanskrit works
of India, and a few metrical compbsitions exhibiting
the wealth of Ceylonese poetical imagination and
plagiarism. Pali literature would have been
as dead but for its rejuvination in Burma, the
Buddhist country, which has produced enormous
literature of considerable importance during the last
three or four centuries. From the geographical
allusions it may be deduced that the main bulk of
the Pali canon developed within the territorial limits
of the Middle Country and some parts of Western
India, notably Mathura and Ujjain. The Milinda
Pafiha is full of associations reminiscent of the life,
manners, and customs of the north-western region
of India, which became the meeting place of Indo-
Aryan and Graeco-Bactrian civilisation. The com-
mentaries clearly point to Kancipura, Kaveripattana,
Madura, and Anurfidhapura as notable centres of Pali
Buddhism. Along with South India one has got
to take Sirikhetta (modern Prome) in Burma as
the centre of Pfili Abhidhamma culture. There is
reason to believe that Pali literature developed in
one shape or another in Lower Burma giving rise
to Pali law codes, compiled more or less on the
model of Manu's code. The inscriptions and sculp-
tures are not without their important bearings on
the history of Pali literature. We can say that the
lower limit of the evolution of Pali literature is
represented by the KalyanI stone inscriptions of
King Dhammaceti of Pegu. In dealing effectively
with Pali literature, one has got to consider the
history of literary development in India, Ceylon,
Burma, and Siam. It stiU remains a problem for

644 A History of Pali Literature

modern historian and philologist to find out how
far Pali literature has influenced the vernaculars
of these four countries. There is sufficient evidence
to prove that Sinhalese developed as a vernacular
with its wealth of literature as early as the 2nd
century B.C.

Pali literature is incomplete by itself. It is
wanting in many works of secular interest, such as
those on mathematics, astronomy, astrology, medi-
cine, logic, and rbyal polity. The few such works
that we have are of recent origin and as such, they
do not fall within the scope of our present investiga-
tion. Even as a pure literature, it has just one
work, the Jinacarita, which deserves the name of a
Kavya. The Jinacarita itself is chiefly based upon
the Jataka Nidana-katha which latter may be
regarded as a Kavya in prose, or in prose and
verse.

There is hardly a drama or a novel, strictly
so called. But there are a great many suttas, parti-
cularly those contained in the Digha Nikaya, the
Brahmajala, the Samannaphala, the Sakkapanha,
the Mahaparinibbana, which have a dramatic setting.
The literary art employed in the Samannaphala
Sutta has been extensively developed in the Milinda
Panha. In reading the suttas of the Sagatha-vagga
of the Samyutta Nikaya one is apt to feel as though
there is a stage-action in which one devaputta
appears to test the knowledge of the Buddha and
retires to make room for the next man waiting. In
short, Pali literature abounds in dramatic elements
without having a single book of drama. The literary
art employed in the historical narrative of the
Mahaparinibbana Suttanta and in those of the
Milinda Panha, the Udenavatthu and the Visakha-
vatthu is a novelty.

There are several legendary and historical
accounts of the life and career of the Buddha and
his disciples and followers Theras, Theiis, Upasakas,
and Upasikas which are interesting biographical
sketches without a rigorous biographical treatment.

Conclusion 645

Even if it be assumed that there are no biographies
in the modern sense, there is no getting away from
the fact that the Buddhist teachers successfully
tried to conceive and develop a universal science of
biography in the Jataka Nidana-katha.

There is just one story of creation in the Pali
Aggafma Suttanta. The way in which it has been
introduced goes to show that it was rather a citation
for some purpose than an original production.

The early Buddhist attitutle towards ornate
poetry or imaginative literature was far from
appreciative. Such poetry was viewed with dis-
favour, the superabundance of it being dreaded
as a great future danger of the good faith (anagata-
bhaya) uptill the time of Asoka. The development
of ornate poetry was sought to be accounted for in
early Buddhism by an extraneous influence. A
highly imaginative literature developed nevertheless
within the four corners of Pali Buddhism with
its wealth of gdthds and akkhdnas, highly ethical
or spiritual in tone. We come across an example
of song in the Sakkapaftha Suttanta, which is
said to have been sung by Pancasikha, the heavenly
minstrel. Other pieces described as songs in some
of the Birth-stories and Buddhist legends are hardly
distinguishable from the main body of gdthds. Some
of the Psalms of the Early Brethren and Sisters,
which are musings of emancipated hearts, e.g., the
Talaputa-thera-gatha and the Ambapali-gatha, are
truly musical in tone. One can say that Pali
literature is sufficiently rich in the wealth of lyrics
and reflective poetry. The Dhammapada stands
out as a remarkable literature in the field of didactic
poetry.

Its richness consists also in the wealth of similes
and parables deserving a separate and careful study
as elements that apparently influenced the later
Kavya poetry of India and have their parallels in the
early Gospels of Christianity.

To counteract the influence of the Mahabharata
and the Ramayana, particularly that of the former,

646 A History of Pali Literature

the Buddhists began to develop the J&takas, supply-
ing thereby so many interesting themes for artistic
delineation and materials for Indian dramas and
kavyas.

So far as the epic and historical chronicles go,
the position of Pali literature is almost unique,
the mediaeval Kashmere chronicle, Rajatarangini,
being the only notable Sanskrit work of their
kind.

Pali literature* has no book on logic, but in the
Kathftvatthu we have a great book of controversy,
which lies at the immediate background of the entire
Nyaya literature. Strictly speaking, there is no
medical treatise in Pali, but in the Buddhist study
of the 32 parts of the human organism we have
something which is of paramount interest to a
student of medical science. Prior to the compila-
tion of the Law codes, we meet with in Pali the
definitions of karma, murder, theft, and the rest
which anticipate many points in modern jurispru-
dence. There may not be a Buddhacarita or a
Kumarasambhava in Pali, but there is certainly the
Vatthugatha of the Nalaka Sutta in the Sutta
Nipata to serve as a clear model of them. The
manuals of psychological ethics must always be
considered as notable contributions to Indian
culture.

These and other points of interest and im-
portance are left for future study and investigation.
In spite of the fruitful labours of great many
scholars, we are still on the threshold of the study
of Pali literature, to evaluate and appreciate
which one has to look at it in different aspects,
just as one looks at a gem by its facet.

It has still its immense possibilities as a means
of developing modern literature, both in the East
and the West. The Amitabha, the Jagajjyoti, the
Buddhadevacarita, the ASoka, the Ajata^atru, and
the Kinnari are but the few works produced yet in
modern Bengali utilising the materials of Pali and
Sanskrit Buddhist literature. As regards old Bengali

Conclusion 647

literature, Pali literature has its legacy in the
plot of Vidyasundara set forth in the story of the
Maha-ummagga-Jataka and the song composed in
praise of the princess Pancalacandi. The creation
of literary types is indeed the most distinctive
feature of the literature, a bird's eye view of which is
given in the present work.

20

APPENDIX A

HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES IN
THE PALI PITAKAS

I. IN THE VlNAYA PlTAKA

The Vinaya Pitaka is an important store-house of interesting
geographical and historical information of the time of which it
speaks. There is a very important reference to the four
boundaries of the Middle Country or the Majjhimadcsa as under-
stood by the Buddhists, and to the various sites, towns, and
villages included therein, and associated very intimately with
the Buddha and Buddhism. Interesting sidelights are also
thrown on the political history, and social and economic
conditions of the time.

Bimbisara is said to have ruled over 80,000 townships

... (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., II, p. 1) and there

Historical, etc. were 80j(K)0 oversecrs ovcr tne townships

(Ibid., II, p. 4). That the Magadha kings were in fear of the
Vajjians is testified to by the fact that Sunidha and Vassakara
are referred to as building a fort at Pataliputta to crush the
Vajjians (Ibid., II, p. 101). The Magadha king had a royal
physician, Jivaka by name, who was asked by the king to
cure a setthi who did good service to the king and to the
merchants' guild (Ibid., II, 181). Jivaka also cured King
Pradyota of Avanti of jaundice (Ibid. , II, pp. 187 &.). His success
in operating on the fistula of King Bimbisara won for him the
post of royal physician, and he was afterwards appointed by
the king physician to the Buddha and the congregation of
bhikkhus that lived with him. Once we arc told Magadha was
visited by five kinds of diseases (e.g., leprosy, goitre, asthma,
dry leprosy, and apamara), and Jivaka had to treat the bhikkhu
patients only suffering from those diseases (Vinaya Pitaka, I,
p. 71). Once we are told that King Bimbisara went to have
his bath in the river Tapoda that flew by this ancient city ;
when he reached the river, he saw the bhikkhus taking their
bath. The city gate was closed and so he could not enter the
city of Rajagaha. Next morning he came after taking his bath
without proper dress to the Buddha who gave him instruction
and advised the bhikkhus not to spend so much time in their
bath (Ibid. , IV, 116-117). Bimbisara 's son was Ajatasattu, whose
chief minister was Vassakara who began the work of repairing
the fort of Rajagaha in the kingdom of Magadha. He needed
timber for the purpose and went to the reserved forest, but
was informed that the wood was taken by a bhikkhu named

Appendix A 649

Dhaniya. Vassakara complained to King Bimbisara about it.
It was brought to the notice of the Buddha who ordered the
bhikkhus not to take anything not offered or presented to them
(Ibid., Ill, 41-45). There is a reference which suggests that the
palace of Bimbisara should be of gold (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E.,
II, p. 65). There was a sugar factory at Rajagaha (Ibid., II,
p. 67) ; and the country was rich in molasses (Vinaya Pi^aka,
I, 226).

The town of VaiSali too was well provided with food, and
was generally prosperous (Vinaya Texts, II, 117).

There is a reference to the dancing girls asked to dance and
greeted with applause (Vinaya Texts, II, 349).

Of the notable bhikkhu disciples of the Master, mention
is made of Sariputta and Moggallana (Ibid., II, 318, 353), Upali
(Ibid., II, 395) who discussed the manatta discipline of a bhikkhu
with the Master, and Ananda through w r hose intercession
Mahapajapati Ootami with other Sakya ladies obtained
permission for ordination (III, p. 322). Kakuclha, a Koliyan,
was an attendant on Moggallana (Ibid., Ill, 234).

Of the heretical teachers mention is made of Makkhali
Gosala, Ajita Kesakamball, Pakudha Kaccayana, Sanjaya
Belatthiputta, and Nigantha Nathaputta (Ibid., Ill, p. 79).

References are made to Devadatta's attempt to create a
disunion among the bhikkhus in the Bhikkhu Samgha (Ibid., Ill,
p. 251), and also to the two councils of Rajagaha and Vaisali
(Ibid., Ill, llth and 12th Khandhakas). When the First Great
Council of the disciples of the Buddha was held after his
parinirvana to compile the teachings of the Master, Yasa sent
messengers to the bhikkhus of Avanti inviting them to come,
and settle what is Dhamma, what is Vinaya, and what is not,
and to help the spread of Dhamma and Vinaya (III, p. 394).

To the east of the Middle Country or Majjhimadesa lay the
G h' 1 town Kajaiigala, and beyond it Mahasala,

p ' to the south-east the river Salalavati, to
the south, the town Setakarmika, to the west the brahmana
district of Thuna, and to the north, the mountain range called
Usiradhvaja. Beyond these were the border countries and
this side of these was the Middle Country (Vinaya Texts, II,
pp. 38-39). One of the most important towns of the MadhyadeSa
was Rajagaha (Rajagriha-Giribraja) where the Gijjhakuta was
and the Buddha stayed there for some time (Ibid., II, p. 1).
From Rajagaha, a road lay to Andhakavinda which was once
visited by 500 carts, all full of pots of sugar (Ibid., II, p. 93).
Rajagaha was the capital city of King Bimbisara, while the
court-physician Jivaka is referred to as an inhabitant of this
place (Ibid., II, pp. 184-5). But his birth-place was Magadha
(Ibid., II, 173). Jivaka was, however, educated at Taxila
(Ibid., II, p. 174). Rajagaha had a gate which was closed in
the evening, and nobody, not even the king, was allowed to

650 A History of Pali Literature

enter the city after the gate was closed (Ibid., IV, 116-17).
It was here at Rajagaha that Sariputta learned Buddha's
Dhamma from Assaji, one of the Paiicavaggiya bhikkhus.
Sariputta went to Rajagaha with his friend Moggallana where
the Buddha was, and both of them were converted by the
Master (Vinaya Pitaka, I, pp. 40 ff.). Rajagaha could boast
of another physician (vejja) named Akasagotta (Ibid., I, p. 215).
Veluvana, the bamboo park of Rajagaha, has often been referred
to as a residence of the Master. When once the Buddha was
here, Devadatta's gain and fame were completely lost (Vinaya
Pitaka, IV, p. 71). The Kalandakanivapa of Rajagaha has also
been referred to as another residence of the Master. While he
was once there, a party of six bhikkhus (chabbaggiya bhikkhu)
went to attend the Giraggasamajja, a highly popular music of
the day (Ibid., II, 107). A setthi of Rajagaha built a vihara
for the bhikkhus. He had to take consent of the Buddha as
to the bhikkhus' dwelling in a vihara (Vinaya Pitaka, II, p. 146).
References are made to a trader of Rajagaha who wanted to go
to Patiyaloka (Ibid., IV, pp. 79-80), to a Sakyaputta named
Upananda who, while at Rajagaha, was invited by his supporters
(Ibid., IV, p. 98), to Upali, the son of a rich trader of Rajagaha,
who was ordained as bhikkhu at the initiative of his parents
(Ibid., IV, pp. 128-29). The Mahavagga tells us of an occasion
when the Blessed One on his way to Vesali noticed bhikkhus
with a superfluity of dress, and advised them as to the least
quantity of robes a bhikkhu should require (Ibid., II, pp. 210 foil.).
The Cullavagga speaks of a setthi of Rajagaha who acquired
a block of sandal wood, and made a bowl out of it for the
bhikkhus (Vinaya Texts, III, p. 78).

Pataligama was another important locality which was once
visited by the Buddha accompanied by a great number of
bhikkhus (Ibid., II, p. 97). Sunidha and Vassakara are referred
to as building a fort at Pataligama to crush the Vajjians (Ibid.,

II, p. 101).

No less important were Vesali and Savatthi. The former
was well provided with food, the harvest was good, alms were
easy to obtain, one could very well get a living by gleaning or
through favour (Ibid., II, p. 117). There at Vesali was the
Gotamaka shrine (Ibid., II, p. 210) where the Buddha stayed for
some time. There lay a high road between Vesali and Rajagaha
(Ibid., II, p. 210). The Buddha came to Vesali from Kapila-
vastu whence a number of Sakya ladies came to receive, through
the intercession of Ananda, ordination from the Master who at
that time resided at the Kutagara hall in the Mahavana (Ibid.,

III, pp. 320 foil.). The Cullavagga of the Vinaya Pitaka tells us an
occasion when the Enlightened One was staying at the peak-
roofed hall in the Mahavana (Cullavagga, VI, S.B.E., XX,
p. 189). We are further told of a poor tailor of Vaisali who was
very much bent on building a house for the Samgha (Ibid.,

Appendix A 65l

pp. 190-91). In the 12th Khandhaka, there is the important
reference to the Buddhist Council of Vesali (Ibid., III).

References are often made to the Jetavana of Anathapindika
at SavatthI (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., I, p. 325) where 'the
Buddha stayed. Another staying place of the Master there
was the arama of Migaramata (Ibid., pt. Ill, p. 299).

Kasi or BaranasI (i.e., Benares) and Kosala (Vinaya Texts,

I, pp. 226, 312) often find mention in the Vinaya Pitaka. In
course of his religious propaganda tour, the Master first went
to Benares, then to Uruvela and then he visited Gayaslsa,
Rajagaha, Kapilavatthu, and SavatthI {Ibid., I, pp. 116, 136,
210). There lay a road from Saketa to SavatthI (Ibid., p. 220).
A few bhikkhus travelling on the road in the Kosala country
went off the road to a cemetery to get themselves pamsukula
robes (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., II, p. 197). Brahmadatta, the
legendary king of Benares, is invariably alluded to while intro-
ducing a Jataka. In his time there was a king of Kosala
named Dighlti who was not so wealthy as the king of Kasi.
Brahmadatta went to wage war against the king of Kosala,
and thus ensued a series of vicissitudes in which the king of
Kosala suffered most, though his son Dlghavu ultimately brought
the king of Kasi to his knees, and friendship was restored (Ibid.,

II, pp. 301 ff.). Yasa, a young nobleman of Benares, son of a
setthi, had three places fixed for three seasons of the year
(Vinaya Texts, I, pp. 102-108).

KosambI was another important place where at Ghosita-
rama Buddha stayed from time to time (Vinaya Texts, II,
p. 285 ; Ibid. , II, p. 376). There is a reference to the quarrelsome
bhikkhus of KosambI who came to SavatthI (Vinaya Texts,
S.B.E., II, p. 318).

The republican states of Pava and Kuslnara are also men-
tioned (Vinaya Texts, III, 370 and Ibid., pt. II, 135) andRoja,
a member of the Mallas of Kuslnara, is said to have gone to
welcome the Buddha (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., pt. II, p. 135).

Of less important places and localities, mention is made of
Campa inhabited by a sctthi's son named Sona Kolivisa (Vinaya
Texts, S.B.E., II, p. 1), Avanti visited by Mahakaccana, and
where there was a hill called Kuraraghara (Ibid., II, 32), Kotigama
where Buddha resided for some time (Ibid., II, p. 105), and Bhad-
diyanagara where lived a householder named Mendaka who was
possessed of a miraculous power (Ibid., II, p. 121). Reference
is also made to Kitagiri where dwelt the wicked bhikkhus who
were the followers of Assaji and Punabbasu (Ibid., II, p. 347),
to Anupiya, a town of the Mallas (Ibid., Ill, p. 224), to Saketa
where dwelt a banker whose wife was suffering from head disease
and who was treated by Jlvaka (Ibid., II, pp.176 foil.), to the
Gijjhakuta hill in Rajagaha which was visited by the Buddha
(Ibid., I, p. 239), and to Uttarakuru where Buddha is said to have
gone to beg alms (Ibid., I, p. 124).

652 A History of Pali Literature

Of important rivers, mention is made of Ganga, Yamuna,
AciravatI, Mahl, and Sarabhu (Vinaya Texts, III, pp. 301-302).

II. IN THE SUTTA PITAEA
Historical

The Samanfiaphala Suttanta (Digha, I.) is important
from a historical point of view ; for it fur-
Niks the f Dl th* n ^ 8 ^ es us w **k viable information about the
Sutttif Pitaka. y i ews f s i- x leading thinkers (titthiyas) of the
time : Parana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala,
Ajitakesakambali, Pukudha Kaccayana, Safijaya Belatthiputta,
and Nigantha Nathaputta. This sutta also gives us a list of
crafts and occupations of the time, e.g., Dasakaputta (slaves),
Kumbhakara (potters), Malakara (garland -makers), Hattharoha
(elephant-riders), Assaroha (cavalry), Rathika (charioteers),
Danuggaha (archers), Alarika (cooks), Kappaka ( barbers ),Naha-
paka (bath-attendants), Suda (confectioners), Rajaka (washer-
men), Pesakara (weavers), and NaJakarS (basket-makers).
Another important historical allusion in this sutta is the fact
which refers to Jlvaka, the famous physician of the Buddha,
and gives us an account of the visit paid to the Buddha by the
patricide monarch of Magadha, the terrible Ajatasattu. In the
concluding portion of the suttanta there is an allusion to the
actual murder of Bimbisara which his son Ajatasattu committed.

The Ambattha Suttanta (Digha, I.) refers to King Pasenadi
of Kosala, as well as to some famous sages of the time, e.g.,
Yamataggi, Angirasa, Bharadvaja, Yasettha, Bhagu, and Ves-
samitta. A famous brahmin teacher of Kosala and the teacher
of Ambattha, Pokkharasildi, is said to have enjoyed the property
given by King Pasenadi, the contemporary of the Buddha.

The Sonadanda Suttanta (Digha, I.) refers to Cam pa visited
by the Buddha with 500 monks, to Gaggarii, a famous tank
in Campa, and to King Bimbisara of Magadha and King Pasenadi
of Kosala. This suttanta also tells us how the Anga kingdom
with its capital Campa was included in the Magadhan empire.
While the Buddha was sojourning at Campa in the kingdom of
Anga, a brahmin named Sonadanda was in the enjoyment of the
revenues of the town as it was given to him by Biinbisara of
Magadha. Brahmin householders of Cam pa went to the Buddha.
Sonadanda also accompanied them, and eventually all of them
became lay supporters of the Buddha.

The Mahali Suttanta (Digha, I.) refers to Buddha's dwelling
at Vesall in a Kutagarasala in Mahavana.

The Lohicca Suttanta (Digha, I.) refers to king of Kosala,
to Salavatika inhabited by a brahmin named Lohicca, and
to Pasenadi, king of Kasi-Kosala, who used to collect taxes
from the inhabitants of KasI-Kosala and to enjoy the income
not alone but with his subordinates.

Appendix A 653

The Mahapadana Suttanta (Dlgha, II.) refers to the two
famous disciples of the Buddha, Sariputta and Moggallana.

The Mahaparinibbana Suttanta (Dlgha, II.) has a dramatic
setting inasmuch as it represents King Ajatasattu of Magadha
as appearing on a stage and indulging in a soliloquy giving
an expression of his grim determination to annihilate his Vajjian
rivals. It further relates that when the Buddha heard of
this determination of the king, he remarked that so long as the
Vajjians fulfilled the seven conditions of welfare, there would
not be any danger for them. But, afterwards Ajatasattu is
stated to have succeeded in annihilating the Vajjians with the
help of his two ministers, Sunidha andT Vassakara, when dis-
sensions arose among the Vajjians. The suttanta also refers
to some incidents of Buddha's life, e.g., the visit of Subhadda to
Buddha, and his conversation with the Lord, the passing away
of the Lord, the homage of the Mallas, cremation of Buddha's
dead body, quarrel over the relics, the amicable distribution of
relics by Dona, and erection of stupas over them.

The Janavasabha Suttanta (Dlgha, II.) refers to King
Bimbisara of Magadha as a righteous king.

The Pasadika Suttanta (Dlgha, III.) refers to the news of
the demise of Mahavira to Ananda at Samagama in the Malla
country.

The Atanatiya Suttanta (Digha, III.) states that the Blessed
One dwelt in the Gijjhakuta mountain at Rajagaha.

The Sanglti Suttanta (Dlgha, III.) informs us that Mahavira,
the founder of Jainism, died at Pava. It further tells us that
the Mallas of Pava arc addressed as the Vasetthas by the
Buddha. This shows that the Mallas belonged to the VaSistha
gotra.

Geographical

The Ambattha Suttanta (Dlgha, I.) refers to a brahmin
village of Kosala named Icchanangala or Icchanankala which
was visited by the Buddha with a large retinue of 500 monks.
It also refers to the Himalayan region.

The Kutadanta Suttanta (Dlgha, I.) refers to a brahmin
village named Khanumata visited by the Buddha with 500
monks.

The Mahali Suttanta (Dlgha, I.) refers to Vesali inhabited
by the brahmin messengers of Kosala and Magadha, and to
a hermitage called Ghositarama at Kosambl.

The Kevaddha Suttanta (Dlgha, I.) refers to Pavarika
mango grove at Nalanda where the Buddha dwelt. It speaks of
the prosperity of Nalanda which was inhabited by many people.

The Tevijja Suttanta (Dlgha, I.) refers to a brahmin village
in Kosala named Manasakata which was visited by the Buddha
with 500 monks, and to the north of which flowed the river
Aciravati. On the banks of this river there was a mango grove.

654 A History of Pali Literature

The Mahanidana Suttanta (Dlgha, II.) refers to a Kuru
country named Kammassadhamma where the Buddha dwelt
for some time.

The Mahaparinibbana Suttanta (Dfgha, II.) states that the
Exalted One went from Nalanda to Pataligama where Sunldha
and Vassakara built a fort to crush the Vajjians. From
Pataligama he went to Magadha where he had accepted the
invitation of the two ministers, Sunldha and Vassakara. Thence
he went to Kotigama ; and further he proceeded to Nadika
where he dwelt at the Ginjaka abode. He then went to Vesall
where he had accepted the invitation of the famous courtesan,
Ambapali. The same suttanta refers to the Gijjhakuta-pabbata
at Rajagaha where the Blessed One dwelt, to the river Ganga
where the Buddha approached at the time when it was over-
flowing, to Ajapala banyan tree on the banks of the river
Neranjara where the Buddha obtained Enlightenment, to Isigili,
Sltavana, and Veluvana at Rajagaha. This sutta also speaks of
Gotamakanigrodha, Corapapata, Vebharapassa, Sattapanniguha ,
Kalandakanivapa, and of Jivaka's mango grove as beautiful.
It further refers to the river Kakuttha, Upavattana, the Salavana
of the Mallas at Kusinara, and to the river named Hirannavatl.
This suttanta mentions Savatthl as a great city which was the
resort of many wealthy nobles, brahmins, heads of houses, and
believers in the Tathagata. Great cities such as Campa,
Rajagaha, Savatthl, Saketa, Kosambi, and Baranasi are suggested
as the places where the Blessed One should obtain pari-
nibbana.

The Mahasudassana Suttanta (Digha, II.) refers to the
Salavana of the Mallas called Upavattana at Kusinara and to
Campa, Rajagaha, Saketa, Savatthi, Kosambi, and Baranasi.
Kusinara was also named as Kusavati, the capital of the King
Mahasudassana. Kusavati was rich, prosperous, and full of
many men. Alms could profusely be obtained there.

The Janavasabha Suttanta (Dlgha, II.) refers to Kasl-
Kosala, Vajji-Malla, Cedi-Vamsa ; Kuru-Pancala, and Maccha-
Surasena kingdoms.

The Mahagovinda Suttanta (Digha, II.) refers to a number
of great cities built by Govincla. They are : Dantapura of
the Kalingas, Potana of the Assakas, Mahissatl of the Avantis,
Roruka of the Sovlras, Mithila of the Videhas, Campa of the
Angas, and Baranasi of the Kasis.

The Sakkapanha Suttanta (Digha, II.) points out that to
the east of Rajagaha there was a brahmin village called
Ambasanda, and to the north there was a cave called Indasala
in the Vediyaka mountain.

The Mahasatipatthana Suttanta (Digha, II.) refers to the
Buddha's dwelling among the Kurus. It mentions the Kam-
massadhamma, a village of the Kurus.

The Payasi Suttanta (Digha, II.) refers to King Pasenadi

Appendix A 655

of Kosala, and to a forest called Simeapavana which lay to the
north of the city, Setavya.

The Patika Suttanta (Digha, III.) refers to Anupiya as
the country of the Mallas where the Buddha went for alms. It
also refers to Buddha's stay at Kutagarasala or the pinnacled
house in the Mahavana at Vesali.

The Udumbarika Sihanada Suttanta (Digha, III.) refers
to the Gijjhakuta-pabbata at Rajagaha visited by the Buddha.

The CakkavattI Sihanada Suttanta (Digha, III.) men-
tions that the Blessed One dwelt at Matula in the kingdom of
Magadha. It refers to the capital called KetumatI of King
Samkha, and to Jambudipa.

The Dasuttara Suttanta (Digha, III.) states that the Blessed
One dwelt at Cam pa on the side of the tank called Gaggara
with 500 bhikkhus.

Historical

Important historical references in the Majjhima Nikaya are
mainly concerned with the life and itinerary

*1 the Majjhima of ^ Buddha and some of hig disciples.
Nikaya of tho Sutta r , , , , , , . , ^ . ^ L

Pitaka. Thus we are told that the Blessed One once

stayed at the foot of a big Sala tree in the

Subhaga forest at Ukkattha (Vol. I, 1), at another time in

the Jetavana hermitage of Anathapindika at Savatthi (I, 12;

II, 22), at Ukkacela on the banks of the Ganges (I, 225), at
Vesali in the Kutagarasala at Mahavana (I, 227), at Savatthi
in the palace of Migaramata at Pubbarama (I, 251), at Veluvana
at Rajagaha (I, 299) at Campa by the side of the tank Gaggara
(I, 339), at Nalanda in the mango grove of Pavarika (I, 371),
at Rajagaha in the Kalandakanivapa at Veluvana, a hermitage
of the paribbajakas called Moranivapa (II, 1), at Mithila in
the mango grove of Makhadeva (II, 74), at Savatthi (II, 190 ;

III, 1, 15, 20), at Kuslnara in the thicket known as Baliharana
(II, 238), at Mahavana in a pinnacled house (II, 252), at
Kapilavatthu among the Sakkas in the Nigrodharama (III,
109), at Ghositarama at Kosambl (III, 152), at Tapodarama
at Rajagaha (III, 192), at Nagaravinda, a brahmin village of
the Kosalans where the Blessed One went with a large assembly
of bhikkhus (III, 290) as well as at Mukheluvana at Kajangala
(III, 298). Of the places visited by the Buddha, mention is
made of Mahavana (I, 108). The Master also went to the
Kosalans for alms with a large retinue of monks (II, 45), to
the Kurus for the same purpose with a retinue of monks and
to the Kuru country called Thullakotthita (II, 54), to Devadaha,
a country of the Sakkas (II, 214), and to Kammassadhamma or
Kammassadhamma, a country of the Kurus (II, 261, 1, 55). Of
his disciples and other prominent individuals, reference is made
to Sriputta and Moggallana (I, 24-25), Kumarakassapa dwelling
at Andhavana (I, 142), Ananda living at Vesali in the Veluva

656 A History of Pali Literature

village (I, 349), Kassapa Buddha dwelling at Benares in the
Deer Park at Isipatana where King Kiki of Benares came to
see him (II, 49), Mahakaccana dwelling at Gundavana at Madhura
(II, 83), Angulimala, a bandit, dwelling in the kingdom of King
Pasenadi of Kosala (II, 97) and entering Savatthl for alms (II,
103), Brahmayu, an old brahmin of Mithila (II, 133), Ananda
residing in the Kalandakanivapa at Veluvana in Rajagaha
shortly after the parinibbana of the Buddha (III, 7), Ajatasattu,
king of Magadha (III, 7), Mahapajapati Gotanri who approached
the place where the Buddha was, saluted him, and entreated him
to instruct and give a religious discourse to the bhikkhums
(III, 270), SunakkhatU, a Licchavi (I, 68), and Mahanama, a
Sakka (I, 91).

Of other historical references, mention may be made of the
allusions to the Vajjis and Mallas (I, 231), the Sakyas of
Kapilavatthu (I, 353), the Kasls of BaranasI (I, 473), the Angas
and the Magadhas (II, 2), to the heretical teachers, Purana
Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Ajitakesakambali, Pakudha Kacca-
yana, Sanjaya Belatthiputta, and Nigantha Nathaputta (II, 2),
and to Nigantha Nathaputta's death at Pava (II, 243).

Geographical

Important geographical references in the Majjliima Nikaya
are few, and are already well known from other sources. Thus
we have references to Bahuka, Adhikakka, Gaya, Sundarika,
Sarassati, Payaga, and Bahumatl (I, 39), to Gosingasalavana
which was beautiful (I, 213), Vejayanta palace (I, 253), Assapura,
a country of the Angas (I, 271), Sala, a brahmin village of the
Kosalans (I, 285), Nalakapana, a palasa forest (I, 462),
Haliddavasana, a country of the Koliyas (I, 387), Sumsumara
mountain in the Deer Park of Bhesakalavana of the Bhaggas
(II, 91), Medalumpa, a country of the vSakyas (II, 118), Opasada,
a brahmin village of the Kosalans visited by the Buddha^ along
with the bhikkhus (II, 164), and to Samagama of the Sakkas
(II, 243).

In the Samyutta Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka

The Samyutta Nikaya refers to King Pasenadi of Kosala,

the capital of which was Savatthi. The

Historical refer- whole of tfae Kosala-Samyutta is devoted to

enccs ' him. We are told that a war broke out

between Ajatasattu, king of Magadha, and Pasenadi. Each

claimed the possession of the township of Kasl. At first

Ajatasattu was victorious, but later on he was defeated and

taken prisoner by Pasenadi. Pasenadi, however, married his

daughter, Vajira, to him and granted to him the township of

Kasl (I, 82-85). We are also told of the death of Pasenadi's

Appendix A 657

grandmother (I, 97). The venerable Pindolabharadvaja who
dwelt at Kosambi in the Ghositarama gave answer to King
Udena's questions. Udena was highly pleased with his answers
and declared his faith in the Buddhist Triad (IV, 110).

When the Master attained Supreme Enlightenment at
Uruvela under the Banyan tree on the

referenced bank of the river Neranjara, he was unwilling

to preach the doctrine. Brahma requested

him to set rolling the Wheel of Law for the good of all. The

Blessed One after much deliberation consented to the proposal

(I, 136-137).

The Lord, while dwelling at Rajagaha in Veluvana in the
Kalandakanivapa, converted the brahmana Bharadvaja and
many other brahmanas of the Bharadvajagotta (I, 160-
163).

The Blessed One once dwelt in the country of the Bhaggas
at the Sumsumaragiri in the Deer Park of Bhesakajavana where
he gave to the householder Nakulapita religious discourses
(HI, 1).

The Blessed One dwelt at the city of Devadaha of the
Sakyas (III, 5).

Mahakaccana dwelt at Avanti on the mountain called
Kuraraghara (III, 12). When the Lord was residing in Vesali
at Mahavana in the Kutagarasala, lie refuted the heretical
views of Purana Kassapa which had been put to him by Mahali,
a Licchavi (III, 68-69).

The Lord once dwelt at Kapilavatthu in the Nigroclharama
(III, 91).

At Savatthi Vacchagotta, a wanderer, put to the Buddha
some heretical questions (whether the world is eternal or non-
eternal, etc). The Buddha explained the origin of wrong views
(III, 258).

Sariputta while dwelling at the village of Nalaka in Magadha
explained to the wanderer Jambukhadaka the Eightfold Patli
leading to the attainment of nibbana (IV, 251).

Sariputta while dwelling in the country of the Vajjis in
Ukkavela on the bank of the river Ganga addressed a religious
discourse to the wanderer Samandaka (IV, 261).

The Blessed One once went to Nalanda from Kosala and
converted Gamani, Asibandhakaputto (IV, 323).

Once the Lord dwelt at the Deer Park of Aficanavana at
Saketa (V, 73).

The Lord resided at the city of Setaka in Sumbha (V, 89).

The Lord dwelt at the city of Haliddavasana in the country
of the Koliyas (V, 115).

The Blessed One visited the brahmana village of Sala in
Kosala (V, 144).

The Lord visited with a company of the bhikkhus the
brahmana village of Veludvara in Kosala (V, 352).

658 A Itistory of Pali Literature

The Blessed One visited Kotigama in the Vajji country
(V, 431). Ananda and Bhadda lived at the Kukkutarama in
Pataliputta (V, 171).

In the Anguttara Nikdya of the Sutta Pitaka

There were sixteen Mahajanapadas, viz., Anga, Magadha,

. . Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Mai la, Cetl, Vamsa,

enc^. Kuru > Pancala, Maccha, Surasena, Assaka,

Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja. It is

worthy of notice that the names are names of people and

not of countries (I, 213 ; IV, 252).

We are also told of King Pasenadi of Kosala and his Queen
Mallikadcvi (III, 57).

While the Lord was staying at Rajagaha on the Gijjhakuta-
pabbata, Vassakara the brahmin minister of King Ajatasattu of
Magadha, as directed by his royal master, came to the Buddha
for advice concerning the king's desire for leading an expedition
to the Vajji country. After a talk with the Buddha, Vasnakara
realised that the only means of subjugating the Vajjis lay in
sowing the seeds of mutual jealousy among them (IV, 17-21).

Mahakaccana while dwelling at Madhura in the Gundavana
explained the evils of sensual pleasures to
t ^ ie Brahmana Kandarayana who professed
his faith in the Buddhist Triad (I, 67).

Once the Blessed One went to the brahrnana village of
Venagapura in Kosala where he addressed a religious discourse
to the brahmanas who took their refuge in the Buddha, the
Dharama, and the Samgha (I, 180).

The Master once visited the township of Kesaputta of the
Kalaraas who were converted by him (I, 188).

The Buddha visited the township of Pahkadha in Kosali
and from Pankadha went to Rajagaha and dwelt at the Gijjha-
kuta (I, 236, 237).

There are references in the Anguttara Nikaya to Bhanda-
gama in the kingdom of the Vajjis visited by the Buddha
(II, I), Ajap&lanigrodha (Ibid., 22), Madhura and Veraiiji (Ibid.,
57), the Master dwelling among the Bhaggas in the? Deer Park
of Bhesakalavana (Ibid., 61), Kuslnara where the Buddha dwelt
between the twin sala trees of the Mallas at Upavattana (Ibid.,
79), the hermitage of Anathapindika at Jetavaria in Savatthl
(III, 1), a brahmin village of the Kosalans called the Iccha-
nangala visited by the Buddha (Ibid., 30), the Blessed One
dwelling among the Bhaddiyas (Ibid., 36), the Master dwelling
at the pinnacled house in the Mahavana in Vesall (Ibid., 38),
Narada dwelling at the Kukkutarama in Pataliputta (Ibid., 57),
the young Licchavi roaming about in the Mahavana armed
with bows and arrows accompanied by dogs (Ibid., 75), Sranda-
dacetiya (Ibid. y 168), the bhikkhus dwelling in the Deer Park at

Appendix A 659

Benares (Ibid., 320), the Buddha dwelling at Rajagaha on the
Gijjhakuta mountain (Ibid. 9 366).

While dwelling at Vesali in the Sarandada Cetiya the
Blessed One spoke to the Licchavis on the seven conditions, by
following which, they were sure to thrive (IV, 16).

The Venerable Uttara is said to have dwelt at Mahisavatthu
on the mount Samkheyyaka (IV, 162).

The Blessed One while dwelling at Veranja under Na}eru-
pucimandamula converted the Brahmana Veranja (IV, 172).

There were five great rivers, Ganga, Yamuna, Aciravati,
Sarabhu, and Mahi (IV, 202).

The Lord dwelt at the Aggalava Cetiya in Alaviya (IV, 218).

The Buddha once visited the township of Kakkarapatta of
theKoliyas(IV,281).

The Lord also went to the brahmin village of Icchanangala
in Kosala and there he converted the brahmin householders
(IV, 340), to the township of Uruvelakappa of the Mallas (IV,
438), to Kammasadhamma in the Kuru country (V, 29-30), to
Sahajati in the Cetl country (V, 41), to Kajahgala and dwelt
there at the Veluvana (V, 54).

The township of Kasl was in the possession of Pasenadi,
king of Kosala (V, 59).

The Lord once went to the township of Nalakapana in
Kosala and dwelt at the Palasavana (V, 122).

A certain householder, Dasama by name, came to Pataliputta
from Atthakanagara on some business. He went to Kukkuta-
rama, which was in Pataliputta, in order to see the Thera Ananda.
But he was informed that Ananda was then dwelling at Vesali
in Veluvagama. He then after finishing his business went to
Veluvagama (V, 342).

Historical and geographical references in the Khuddaka

Nikdya

Devadatta was destined to go to Hell (Itivuttaka, p. 85).

King Bimbisara of Magadha and King

is onoa . Pasenadi of Kosala have been referred to in

the Udiina (p. 11) and there is a mention in it of Suppavasa,

a daughter of the Koliyas (p. 15). There are references in the

Udana to Pasenadi and his wife Mallika (p. 47), Cunda (p. 81),

and King Udena who went to a garden. When he went there,

a harem was built and 500 women headed by Samavat! died

(p. 79). The Udana further refers to Visakha, mother of Migara

(p. 91), and Dabba, a Mallian (p. 93).

The Sutta Nipata refers to the Buddha dwelling among the
Magadhas in a brahmin village named Ekanala at Dakkhinagiri
(p. 13) and to the Master dwelling at Ajavi in the abode of the
Yakkha A^avaka (p. 31). There are references in the Petavatthu

660 A History of Pali Literature

to King Brahmadatta of PaftcSla (p. 32) and King Pingalaka
of the kingdom of Surattha and the Moriyas (p. 57).

We shall briefly state some facts from the Jatakas regarding
the political history of ancient India. From the Jatakas we
know that Anga was once a powerful kingdom. Magadha was
once under the sway of Angaraja (Jataka, Fausboll, VI, p. 272).
It is said (Jataka, V, pp. 312-316) that King Manoja of Brahma-
vardhana (another name of Benares) conquered Ahga and
Magadha. It appears from the Jatakas (Jataka, III, pp. 115
foil. ; Jataka, I, pp. 262 foil.) that before the Buddha's time
Kasi was the most powerful kingdom in the whole of Northern
India. In the Jatakas (Vol. II, p. 237 ; IV, pp. 342 foil.) we
find that Mahakosala, father of King Pasenadi of Kosala, gave
his daughter in marriage to King Bimbis t ara of Magadha. The
pin-money was the village of Kasi yielding a revenue of a hundred
thousand for bath and perfume. We are also told that there
took place many a fierce fight between the sons of Mahakosala
and Bimbisara, Pasenadi, and Ajatasattu respectively. In one
of the Jatakas (Jat., IV, pp. 144 ff.) we are told that Vidudabha, in
order to crush the Sakiyas who deceived his father Pasenadi by
giving him a daughter of a slave girl to marry, deposed his
father and became king. He marched out with a large army
and succeeded in annihilating the Sakiyas. But he with his
army met also with destruction. The river Rohim was the
boundary between the Sakya and Koliya countries. A quarrel
broke out among the Sakiyas and Koliyas regarding the possession
of the river. But the Buddha succeeded in restoring peace
among his kinsfolk (Jat., I, pp. 327 foil. Rukkhadhamma Jataka;
Jat., IV, pp. 207 foil. Phandana Jataka). A king of Benares
attacked the kingdom of Kosala and took the king prisoner.
The king of Ko.sal i had a son named Chatta who fled while his
father was taken prisoner. Afterwards Chatta recovered his
kingdom (Jataka, III, pp. 115 foil.). The kingdom of Benares
was seized by a king of Savatthi named Varika. But it was
soon restored to the king of Benares (Jataka, III, pp. 168-69).

Besides there are other historical references. A king of
Benares had a gardener who could make sweet mangoes bitter
and bitter mangoes sweet (Jataka, V, p. 3). Fine cloths widely
known as Kasi cloths were manufactured (Jataka, V, p. 377).
There was a great town of carpenters in Benares containing a
thousand families (Jataka, IV, p. 159). There were in Benares
snake-charmers (Jataka, III, p. 198). Slaughter of deer, swine, and
other animals for making offerings to goblins was in vogue in
Benares (Jataka, IV, p. 115). There was a king named Assaka in
Potali. He was instructed by a Bodhisatta (Jataka, II, pp. 155foll.).
There was a festival at Rajagaha where people drank wine, ate
flesh, danced, and sang (Jataka I, p. 489). Pilindiyavaccha turned
the palace of Rajagaha into gold with the result that he was
given an abundant supply of the five eatables, e.g., sugar, butter,

Appendix A 661

ghee, honey, and oil (Jataka, III, pp. 363-364). A meeting was
held in a Sahthagara at Rajagaha where the people met and
discussed the means of welfare but they could not arrive at any
definite conclusion and the matter was referred to the Buddha
who settled it finally by preaching the Mangala Sutta of the
Khuddakapatha (Ibid., IV, pp. 72 foil.). In the Vepulla mountain
surrounding Rajagaha there was a gem used by an universal
monarch by which Dhananjaya, the Kaurava king, might be
defeated in playing dice (Ibid., VI, p. 271).

The Gijjhakuta-pabbata has been described as a big
. mountain in Giribb&ja of the Magadhas
Geograph.cal. (itfruttaka, p. 17). The Udana mentions the
Bo-tree at the foot of which the Buddha first obtained enlighten-
ment on the bank of the river Neranjara at Uruvela (p. 1),
Jotavana where the Buddha dwelt (p. 3), Gayasisa at Gaya
where the Master dwelt (p. 6), Pipphali cave where Mahakassapa
dwelt (p. 29), Upavattana, the sala forest of the Mallas (p. 37),
Kalandakanivapa at Veluvana at Rajagaha visited by the
Buddha (p. 39), and Kosambi visited by the Buddha (p. 41).
There are references in it to Gahga, Yamuna, AciravatI, and
Mahl (pp. 53, 55), Mahavana where the Master dwelt (p. 62),
and to the five Cetiyas, Capala, Udena, Gotamaka, Sattambaka,
Bahuputta, and Sarandada (p. 62). Kusinara and Pataligama
arc also referred to in it (pp. 82 and 85).

The Sutta Nipata refers to the Gijjhakuta-pabbata (p. 86),
Rajagaha (p. 86) visited by the Buddha, Veluvana, and Kalanda-
kanivapa (p. 91), Icchanankala (p. 115), Savatthi (p. 18), Pubba-
rarna where there was the palace of Migaramata (p. 139),
Dakkhinapatha (p. 190), Kapilavatthu (p. 192) visited by the
Buddha, Patitthana, Mahissati, Ujjeni, Vedisa, Kosambi, Seta-
vya, Kusinara, Magadha, and the Otiya Pasanaka (p. 194). This
work refers to the rivers Godavarl (p. 190), Gahga (p. 32), and
Sundarika (p. 79).

The Vimanavatthu refers to Cittalatavana which was
beautiful (]). 16) and the Petavatthu refers to Gahga (pp. 28
and 29) and to two famous cities of Vcsfill and Savatthi (pp. 45
and 63).

There are many geographical allusions in the Jatakas.
It is said that Campa, the capital of the kingdom of Ahga,
was at a distance of 60 yojanas from Mithila (Jat., VI, p. 32).
In the Assaka Jataka (Jat., II, p. 155) we are told of the Assaka
territory, the capital city of which was Potali. In the Bhima-
sen i i Jataka (Jat., I, pp. 356 ff.) Takkasila is referred to as a
great centre of learning. In the Cetiya Jataka (Jat., Ill, p. 460)
we are told that the four sons of the king of Ceti built five cities :
Hatthipura, Assapura, Slhapura, Uttara-Paficala, and Daddara-
pura. From the Sivi Jataka (Jat., IV, p. 401) we know that
Aritthapura was the capital of the Sivi kingdom. The kingdom
of Baveru is referred to in the Baveru Jataka (Jat., Ill, p. 126).

662 A History of Pali Literature

Bharukaccha, a seaport town, is referred to in the Sussondi
Jataka (Jat., Ill, pp. 187 ff.). In the Cetiya Jataka (Jat., Ill,
p. 454) it is said that Sotthivatinagara was the capital of the
kingdom of Ceti. In the Gandhara Jataka (Jat., Ill, pp. 363-
369) the Kasmir-GandhSra kingdom and the Videha kingdom
are also mentioned. The kingdom of Kasi is also referred to in
the Jatakas. Its capital was Baranasl. The extent of the city
is mentioned as 12 yojanas (Jat., IV, p. 160). There are also
references to the Kosala kingdom (Jat., Ill, p. 237 ; Jat., Ill,
pp. 211-213). The Kamboja kingdom is also referred to in
the Jatakas (Jat., IV, p: 208). There are innumerable references
to the Magadha kingdom (Jat., IV, pp. 454-455 ; Jat., V, p. 316 ;
Jat,, VI, p. 272). The city of Mithila, the capital of the Videhas,
was 7 leagues and the kingdom of Videha 300 leagues in extent
(Cowell's Jat., Ill, p. 222). We find a reference to the Madda-
rattha in the Kalinga-Bodhi Jataka (Co well's Jat., IV, pp. 144-
145). In the Kumbhakara Jataka (Cowell's Jat., Ill, p. 230)
we read that the capital of Uttara-Paiieala was Kampilla. The
city of Samkassa is referred to in the Kanha Jataka (Jat.,
Fausboll, I, p. 193). The country of Surattha is referred to in
the Sarabhanga Jataka (Jat., V, p. 133). In the Salittaka
Jataka (Jat., I, p. 418) and in the Kurudhamma Jataka
(Jat., II, p. 366) we find that the river AciravatI was near
Savatthi. In the Baka-Brahma Jataka (Jat., Ill, p. 361) the
river Eni is referred to. The river Campa formed the boundary
between Anga and Magadha (Campeyya Jataka Jat., IV, p. 454).
The river Godavarl is near the Kavittha forest (Sarabhanga
Jataka Jat., V, p. 132). The Aranjara, a chain of mountains, is
referred to in the Sarabhanga Jataka (Jat., V, p. 134). The
Candaka mountain is referred to in the Samkhapala Jataka
(Jat., V, p. 162). In the Gahgamala Jataka (Jat., Ill, p. 452)
the Gandhamadana is mentioned. The Hingula-pabbata is in
the Himavanta-padesa (Jat., V, p. 415).

The Niddesa contains some geographical information. It
refers to Gumba, Takkola, Takkasila, Kalamukha, Maranapara,
Vesuhga, Verapatha, Java, Tamali, Vanga 1 , Elavaddana, Suvan-
nakuta, Suvannabhuml 2 , Tambapanni 3 , Suppara 4 , Bharukaccha 5 ,
Surattha a , Ahganeka, Gangana, Paramagahgana, Yona 7 , Para-
mayona, Allasanda 8 , Marukantara, Jannupatha, Ajapatha,
Mendapatha, Sankupatha, Chattapatha, Vamsapatha, Sakuna-

1 Bengal.

2 Burma.

3 Ceylon.

4 Souppara (Pali Supparaka), once a great seaport town.

6 Broach.
Surat.

7 Between the rivers Kophen and the Indus.

8 Alexandria.

Appendix A 663

patha, Musikapatha, Daripatha, Vettftdhara (Niddesa, I, pp. 154-
155).

In the Niddesa (II, p. 1) we are told that once a certain
brahmin named BSvari desirous of akiftcannam (salvation)
went to Dakkhinapatha from the beautiful city of the Kosalans.
He lived on the banks of the river Godavarf in the kingdom
of Assaka near Mulaka. In the same book (Ibid., pp. 4-5)
we find that there was a route, probably a trade route, from
Patitthana to Magadha. There are references to Mulaka l , Patit-
thana 2 , Mahissati 3 , Ujjeni 4 , Gonadham, Vedisa, Kosambi 6 ,
Saketa, Savatthi 6 , Setavyam, Kapilavattfcu 7 , Kusinara, Pava 8 ,
Bhoganagara, Vesall 9 , and Magadha. 10

The Patisambhidamagga mentions Savatthi as the place
visited by the Master (Vol. II, pt. I, p. 177), Kosambi visited
by Ananda (Vol. II, p. 92), and Isipatana Migadava at Benares
visited by the Buddha (Vol. II, pp. 147, 159).

The Buddha vamsa refers to the city of Amaravati where
lived a brahmin, Sumedha (p. 6), the city of Rammavatl (p. 17),
the Himalayas (p. 49), Kusinara, Vesall, Kapilavatthu, Alia-
kappa, Ramagama, Paialiputta, Avantipura, and Mithila (p. 68).

The Cariyapitaka mentions the following cities Indapatta
ruled by Dhanaiijaya, some brahmins from Kalinga came to
him (p. 74), Kusavati (p. 75), Campeyya where the Bodhisatta
was born as a snake king (p. 85), and Pancala where there was
a king named Jayadissa in the city of Kappila (p. 90), and there
is a reference to Ganga in the Cariyapitaka (p. 87).

The Apaclana refers to the cities of Hamsavati famous for
good flowers (p. 124), Bandhuniati (pp. 270, 295), Arunavati
(p. 282), and Ketumati (II, p. 354). This work also refers to the
following rivers :

1 According to the Buddhists, Mulaka was a different town
from Assaka. The countries of Mulaka and Assaka were separated
by the river Godavarl.

2 Pai^han. the capital of Assaka or Maharashtra on the Godavari.

3 Mahe^vara or Mahesh, on the right bank of the Nerbuda, 40
miles to the south of Indore. During the Buddliist period it was
the capital of Avanti-Dakshinapatha.

4 Capital of Malava or Avanti on the Sipra.

5 Kosam, an old village on the Jumna, 30 miles S.-W. of
Allahabad.

Sahet-Mahet on the border of the Bhraich and Gonda
districts of the Fyzabad division, U.P.

7 The village of Piprawa (Basti district) marks the site of
Kapilavatthu.

8 Between Pava (Fazilpur-Gorakhpur district) and Kusinagara
(Kasia) was the river Kukuttha or Kuku.

9 Vesali has been identified with the ruins at and near Besarhar
Bazar (Muzaffarpur district, Bihar).

10 The districts of Patna and Gay a formed this territory proper.

21

664 A History of Pali Literature

(1) Sindhu (p. 325), Candabhfcga (pp. 277, 291), Gtengft,
Yamuna, Sarabhu, Mahl, Saraswati (p. 27), and it mentions
the following cetiyas Buddha-cetiya (p. 71) and Sikhi-cetiya
(p. 255). The Himalayan mountain has been mentioned in the
Apad&na (pp. 15, 20, 50, 58, 160, 278, 279, 336, 411).

APPENDIX B
PALI TRACTS IN THE INSCRIPTIONS

Much light is thrown on the development of Pali canonical
literature by the lithic records of Asoka.

Edtet. T he first ^ cri P tion that deserves notice

in this connection is the Bhabru Edict. It
opens with a declaration of Asoka's deep* and extensive faith in
the Buddhist Triad and of his firm conviction that the utterances
of Buddha are gospel truth. It then enumerates certain
Dhammapariyayas or canonical texts selected out of the Buddhist
scriptures then known to him for the constant study and medita-
tion not by the clericals only, but also by the laity and that with
a view to making the good faith long endure. The texts referred
to by Asoka are as follows :

(1) Vinaya Samukase or the exaltation of discipline, Patimok-
kha (Rhys Davids, J.R.A.S., 1898).

Prof. Bhandarkar
Mr. Mitra

Prof. Oldenberg
Barua

Kosambi
Rhys Davids

. Tuvatthaka Sutta (Sutta Nipata).

. Sappurisa Sutta (Majjhima) and later,
A Vinaya tract in the Anguttara,
Vol. I.

. The Patimokkha.

. Singalovada Sutta (Digha) called Gihi-
vinaya and Anumana Sutta (Maj-
jhima) called Bhikkhuvinaya.

(2) Aliya- Vasdni

. Ariyavamsa (Anguttara), Vol. II, p. 27.
. Ten Ariyavasani enumerated in the

Samgiti Suttanta (Dlgha). J.R.A.S.,

1898.

(3)
Rhys Davids . . Anagata bhayani (Anguttara).

(4) MunigatM

Rhys Davids . . Muni Sutta (Sutta Nipata), I, 12, p. 36

(5) Moneya Bute

Kosambi . . Nalaka Sutta (Sutta Nipata), iii, II,
pp. 131-134.

666 A History of Pali Literature

Prof. Barua . . Nalaka Sutta minus the Prologue.

Rhys Davids . . Moneyya Sutta, J.R.A.S., 1898.

(6) Upatisa Pasine

Kosambi and Sariputta Sutta (Sutta Nipata), iv, 16,

Barua. pp. 176-9.

Neuman . . The questions of Upatissa in the

Rathavinita Sutta (Majjhiina).

(7) Ldghulovdde

Rhys Davids . . ' Rahulovada Sutta (Majjhima), ii, 2, 1,

Vol. I, p. 414.
M. Senart . . The Ainbalatthika Rahulovada Sutta

(Majjhima).

These are the Dhammapariyayas or canonical texts which
have been identified differently with suttas of the Pali canonical
literature.

At the time of Asoka there was a Buddhist literature.
Asoka selected out of this body of Buddhist literature seven
Dhammapariyayas which, in his opinion, would serve his
purpose, that is, making the good faith long endure.

It is generally accepted by scholars that Buddhism is the
basis and source of inspiration in regard to Asoka's Dhamrna.
The Sihgalovada Sutta of the Digha Nikaya and the Maha-
mangala Sutta of the Sutta Xipata enumerate just those courses
of conduct which Asoka w r as never tired of inculcating on the
minds of his people and it is easy to understand how greatly
the texts of the Rock Edicts, 9 and 11, were inspired by the
Mangala Sutta. Now there are the two scriptural texts which
have been particularly reserved by Buddhism for the lay people
to read, contemplate, and practise.

The style of composition and the subject of discussion in
the last portion of the Kalsl, Shahbazgarhi, and Mansherah
versions of R.E. IX are almost similar to those in the Katha-
vatthu (composed by Moggaliputta Tissa in the third council
held under the patronage of Asoka), and the Samannaphala
Sutta respectively. (Bhandarkar and Majumdar, Inscriptions
of Asoka, pp. 34-36.)

M. Senart points out that the use of the phrase " Dhamma-
dana " must have been suggested to Asoka by a verse from the
Dhammapada " Sabbadanam dhammadanam jinati ".

On the monuments of the 2nd century B.C. the names of
donors of different parts of the buildings are

^ f i?T ce8 - t0 i inscribed and in many cases with their titles.
Buddhist canonical & * Jt *** ^.

literature. Some of these titles are very important

because they have been derived from the
well-known divisions of the Buddhist canonical literature.
Among these epithets have been found the following : Dhamma-

Appendix B 667

kathika, Petakin, Suttantika, SuttantakinI, and Paficanek&yika
which refer to the Buddhist books. They conclusively prove the
existence of a Buddhist literature before the date of the inscrip-
tions. This Buddhist literature had divisions known by the
technical names of Pitaka, Nikaya, Suttanta, and Jataka.
Again the Nikaya is said to have five divisions. There were
not only the Pitaka, the five Nikayas and the Jatakas but also
distinct groups of reciters known as the bhanakas.

The inscriptions on the Inner Railings and Gateways of the
Barhut Inscrip- Buddhist Stupa at Barhut in Central India
tions. throw interesting light on the development of

Pali literature. Barua and Sinha in their ' Barhut Inscrip-
tions ' have broadly distinguished the inscriptions as Votive
Labels and Jataka Labels, grouping the former as they occur
on the Gate way -pillars, the Rail-pillars, the Rail-bars, the
Coping-stones and the isolated Fragments, and grouping the
latter as they arc attached to different scenes in accordance with
the accepted Jataka-outlines of the Buddha's life.

That the bas-reliefs on the Barhut Tope illustrate several
scenes from the Jataka stories can be shown by the fact that the
titles of the Jatakas inscribed on the bas-reliefs correspond to
those in Pali literature. The titles inscribed on the bas-reliefs,
e.g., Vitura Punakiya, Miga, Naga, Yavamajhakiya, Mugapakaya,
Latuva, Chadantiya, Isisingiya, Yam bamano avayesi, Hansa,
Kinara, Isimigo, Janoko raja, Sivala devi, Uda, Secha, Sujato
gahuto, Bidala Jataka, Kukuta Jataka, Maghadeviya and Bhisa
Haranlya, correspond to those found in the Pali Jataka books,
e.g., Vidhura Pandita, Nigrodha, Kakkata, Episode in Maha-
Ummagga, Miigapakkha, Latukika, Chaddanta, Alambusa,
Andha-bhuta, Nacca, Canda Kinnara, Miga-potaka, Maha-
Janaka, Dabbha-Puppha, Dubhiya-Makkata, Sujata, Kukkuta,
Makhadeva, and Bhisa. Again, in the Barhut Stupa we find
some scenes which have got no title inscribed on the bas-relief.
But a close examination of the pictures engraved on the railing
enables us to identify some of the scenes with those in the Pali
Jataka stories. The names of such Pali Jataka stories are, e.g.,
Kurunga-Miga, Sandhi-bheda, Asadisa, Dasaratha, Maha-Kapi,
Camma-Sataka, Arama-Dusaka, and Kapota.

The Museum at Samath shelters a huge, more than life
size image of a standing Bodhisattva.

t tL Ins ptl l 8 At the front and back of the pedestal of
at tne oarnatn . , ,, ., in

Museum. the image, as well as on the umbrella over

his head, there are three Pali inscriptions
inscribed in the 3rd year of the reign of Kaniska, the great
Ku?ana king. The text of the inscription relates itself to the
subject of the first sermon delivered by the Buddha to the five
brahmanas immediately after the sambodhi at Sarnath. It is
not exactly a quotation but is rather of the character of an
abstract of the original subject from the Mahavagga (1, 7, 6).

668 A History of Pali Literature

(a) " Chattar=im&ni bhikkhave ar (i) ya-sacc&ni, (b)
Katamani (ca) ttari dukkha (m) di (bhi) kkhave ar&
(i) ya-saccam, (c) dukkha-samuday (d) ariya-
saccani dukkha-nirodho ariyasaccam, (d) dukklia-
nirodho-gamini (cha) patipada."

Translation : " Four are the Noble Axioms, ye monks !
And what are these four ? The Noble Axiom about suffering,
ye monks, the Noble Axiom about the origin of suffering, the
Noble Axiom about the cessation of suffering, and the Noble
Axiom about the way, leading to the cessation of suffering "
[Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sarnath, No. D,
(c) 11].

Maunggan Gold plates

Two gold plates bearing inscription in Pali, very closely

- . .. , , allied to the Kadamba script of the 5th
Inscriptions found . AT ^ ro^i T j- j-

in Burma. century A.D., of Southern India, were dis-

covered at Maunggan, a village near old
Prome, Burma. These two plates begin each with the well-
known Buddhist formula : Ye dhamma hetuppabhava tesam
hetu, etc., which is followed in the first, by 19 categories from the
Abhidhamma in numerical order and, in the second, by the no
less well-known praise of the Triratana. (An. R.A.S., Burma,
1924, p. 21.)

Bawbawgyi pagoda stone fragments

In 1910-11, while clearing a small portion of the debris
round the Bawbawgyi pagoda of Hmawza (old Prome) three
fragments of a stone inscription were discovered. Their
characters are the same as those of the Maunggan plates ; and
the script may be referred to the 6th century A.D. It contains
an extract from the Vibhanga, a book of the Abhidhamma, and
corresponds to page 144 of Mrs. Rhys Davids' edition. (An.
R.A.S., Burma, 1924, p. 21.)

The two gold plates and the stone fragments have been
elaborately treated by Mon. Finot in his article " Un nouvean
document sur le buddhisme birman " a new document of Burmese
Buddhism published in the Journal Asiatique, Vol. XX,
Juilkt-Aout, 1912, pages 121 ff.

Text of the two Gold plates

I. (1) Ye dhamma hetuppabhava tesam hetu tathagato
aha tesan ca yo nirodho evamvadi mahasamano ti (2) Catvaro
sammappadhana catvaro satipatthana catvari ariyasacc&ni
cutuvesarajjani pancindriyani panca cakkhuni cha (3) asaddha-
ranani satta bojjhanga ariyo atthangiko maggo navalokuttar&
dhamma dasa balani cuddasa buddhaM&ni attharasa buddha
dhammjl ti.

Appendix B 669

II. (1) Ye dhamma hetuppabhava (te) sa (m) hetu tatha-
gato aha tes&ft ca yo nirodho evambadi mahasamano ti iti pi
so bhagava araham (2) Samma sambuddho vijjacarana-sampanno
sugato lokavidu anuttaro purisadhamma sarath! sattha deva-
manussanam buddho bhagava ti (3) Sakhyato bhagavata dhammo
sanditthiko akaliko ehipassiko opanayiko paccattam veditawo
vinfiuhlti.

The first plaque begins with the well-known formula.
After that it enumerates 19 categories in a progressively numeri-
cal order : 4 iddhipadas, bases of magical power, 4 Sammappa-
dhanas, good deeds, 4 Satipatthana, .subjects of meditation,
4 ariyasaccani, holy truths, 4 Vesaraj jani, confidences, 5 indriyani,
senses, 5 Cakkhuni, eyes, 6 asadharai^ani, special knowledges of
Buddhism, 7 bojjhahga, elements of the Bodhi, the noble way
of the 8 elements, 9 lokuttara dhamma, supernatural states,
10 balani, powers, 14 Buddhananani, knowledges of the Buddha,
and 18 Buddha dhammas.

The 2nd plaque begins in the same manner. It is followed
by the well-known hymn (praise) of Triratna. See for example
the Anguttara Nikaya, II, 56.

The script may at first sight be said to belong to Southern
India * Kanara-Telegu ' script of Biihler, more particularly
Kadamba.

Text of the fragmentary stone inscription

(1) na samphus (i) tattam vedanakkhando safinak-

kliando sankkharakhando

(2) ditthivipphanditam ditthi ayam vuccati chalayatana-
paccayo phasso tattha katam (a) (pha) ssa paccaya vedana
I yam ceta (s) i

(3) Sannojanam ga (ho) patilaho abhimveso paramaso
kummaggo.

Translation :

(1) (the contact), the fact of coming into contact,

the Vedanakkhandha, the Sanfiakkhandha, the samkhara-
khandha constituent elements of sensation, perception, and
confections ; (2) quarrels of opinion, this is what people call
opinion. (Diithi.) Touch comes from the six organs of sense.
What is the sensation which is derived from touching. That

which in thought (3) Chain, inclination, contagion, bad

path

This text is probably an extract from a canon, which is
difficult to be traced. It presents considerable similarities with
certain passages of the Dhammasangani. It could, therefore, be
found in a treatise of the Abhidhamma, and perhaps one of those
which are still unpublished.

670 A History of Pali Literature

A gold-leaf manuscript discovered ai Hmawza, Prome

A manuscript in every way similar to the palm-leaf manus-
cript so common in India and Burma but with leaves of gold,
twenty in number with writing incised on one side, has been
discovered within a relic chamber unearthed at Hmawza, a
small village five miles north of Prome.

The writing is in characters of an early South Indian script
of the Canara Telegu type, and may be assigned to the V-VIth
century A.D.

The manuscript contains extracts from the Vinaya and
Abhidhamma Pitakas, 'together with those mentioned above,
the earliest proofs of Pli Buddhism in Burma. The MS.
begins on the first page with an extract giving the chain of
causation (Paticcasamuppada) and ends on the last page with
4 Itipi so Bhagava araham Sammasambuddho, etc.* enumerating
the qualities of the Buddha. This manuscript may be assigned
to the Vl-VIIth century A.D. (Archaeological Survey of India,
Annual Report, 1926-27, p. 200).

An inscription of A.D. 1442

The inscription of B.E. 804 (1442 A.D.) is among those
collected by Forchhammer at Pagan. The Governor of Taungdwin
and his wife made various gifts to the Buddhist Order and this
inscription commemorates this memorable event. The pious
donors not only made gifts of monastery, garden, paddy-lands,
and slaves but also offered to the bhikkhus a collection of texts.
The importance of the list of texts lies in the fact that it not
only helps us in fixing the chronology of many Pali works but
also enables us to form some notion of the point reached by the
Sanskrit scholars in Burma in the 15th century for the list
contains a number of titles of Sanskrit works.

The list of texts contained in the inscription may be given
here :

1. Parajikakanda. 2. Pacittiya. 3. Bikkliunivibhanga.
4. Vinayamahavagga. 5. Vinayaculavagga. 6. Vinayaparivara.
7. Parajikakanda-atthakatha. 8. Pacittiyadi-atthakatha. 9.
Parajikakanda-tlka. 10. Terasakanda-tlka. 11. Vinayasan-
graha-atthakatha (the greater). 12. Vinayasangraha-attha-
katha (the less). 13. Kankhavitaranl-atthakatha. 14. Khudda-
sikkha-tlka (ancient). 15. Khuddasikkha-tfka (new). 16.
Kahkha-tika (new). 17. Vinayaganthipada. 18. Vinayauttara-
siflcaya-atthakatha. 19. Vinayasineaya-tlka (later). 20.
Vinayakandhaniddesa. 21. Dhammasangani. 22. Vibhanga.
23. Dhatukathfc. 24. Puggalapannatti. 25. Kathavatthu.
26. Mulayamaka. 27. Indriyayamaka. 28. Tikapafthana. 29.
Dukatfkapatthana. 30. Dukapafthana. 31/AtthasalinI-attha-
katha. 32. Sammohavinodanl-atthakatha. 33. Paficapakarana-
afthakatha. 34. Abbidhamma-anutlka. 35. Abhidhammattba-

Appendix B 671

sangaha-atthakatha. 36. Abhidhammatthasangaha-tlk&. 37.
Abhidhammatthavibhavani-tika. 38. Silakkhandha. 39.
Mahavagga. 40. Patheyya. 41. Silakkhandha-atthakatha.
42. Mahavagga-atthakatha. 43. Patheyya-atthakatha. 44.
Silakkhandha-tlka. 45. Mahavagga-tika. 46. Patheyya-tlka.
47. Mulapannasa. 48. Mulapannasa-atthakatha. 49. Mula-
pannasa-tlka. 50. MajjhimapannSsa. 51. Majjhimapannasa-
atthakatha. 52. MajjMmapannasa-tika. 53. Uparipannasa.
54. Uparipannasa-atthakatha. 55. Uparipannasa-tika. 56.
Sagathavaggasamyutta. 57. Sagathavaggasamyutta-atthakatha.
58. Sagathavaggasamyutta-tika. 59. 9 Nidanavaggasamyutta.
60. Nidtaavaggasamyutta-atthakatha. 61. Khandhavagga-
samyutta. 62. Khandhavaggasamyutta-tika. 63. Salayatana-
vaggasamyutta. 64. Salayatanavaggasamyutta-atthakatha.
65. Mahavaggasamyutta. 66. Ekaduka-tika-anguttara. 67.
Catukanipata-anguttara. 68. Pancanipata-anguttara. 69. Cha-
sattanipata-anguttara. 70. Attha-navaiiipata-anguttara. 71,
Dasa-ekadasanipata-ahguttara. 72. Ekanipata-anguttara-
atthakatha. 73. Dukatikacatukanipata-ahguttara atthakatha.
74. Pancadi-anguttara-atthakatha. 75. Ahguttara-tika. 76.
Anguttara-tika. 77. Khuddakapatha text and atthakatha.
78. Dhammapada text and atthakatha. 79. Udana text and
atthakatha. 80. Itivuttaka text and atthakatha. 81. Suttanipata
text and atthakatha. 82. Vimanavatthu text and atthakatha.
83. Petavatthu text and atthakatha. 84. Thera(gatha) text
arid atthakatha. 85. Therl(gatha) text and atthakatha. 86.
Pathacariya. 87. Ekanipatajataka-atthakatha. 88. Dukani-
patajataka-atthakatha. 89. Tlkanipatajataka-atthakatha. 90.
Catuka-pafica-chanipatajataka-atthakatha. 91. Satta-attha-
navanipatajataka-atthakatha. 92. Dasa-ekadasanipatajataka-
atthakatha. 93. Dvadasaterasa-pakinnaka-nipatajataka-attha-
katha. 94. Visatijataka-atthakatha. 95. Jatattaki-sotattaki-
nidana-atthakatha. 96. Culaniddesa. 97. Culaniddesa-attha-
katha. 98. Mahaniddesa. 99. Mahaniddesa. 100. Jataka-tlka.
101. Dumajataka-atthakatha. 102. Apadana. 103. Apadana-
atthakatha. 104. Patisambhidamagga. 105. Patisainbhida-
magga-atthakatha. 106. Patisambhidamagga-ganthipada.

107. Visuddhimagga-atthakatha. 108. Visuddliimagga-tika.
109. Buddha vamsa-atthakatha. 110. Cariyapitaka -atthakatha.
111. Namarupatika (new). 112. Paramatthavinicchaya (new).
113. Mohavicchedanl. 114. Lokapannatti. 115. Molianayana.
116. Lokuppatti. 117. Arunavati. 118. Chagatidipanl. 119.
Sahassaramsimalini. 120. Dasavatthu. 121. Sahassavatthu.
122. Sihajavatthu. 123. Petakopadesa. 124. Tathagatuppatti.
125. Dhammacakka (? pavattanasutta). 126. Dhammacakka-
tika. 127. Dathadhatuvamsa. 128. Dathadhatuvamsa-tUia.
129, Culavamsa. 130. Dlpavamsa. 131. Thupavarhsa. 132.
Anagatavamsa. 133. Bodhivamsa. 134. Mahavamsa. 135.
Mahavamsa-tika. 136. Dhammadana (? in text dhainmandan).

672 A History of Pali Literature

137. Mahakaccayana. 138. Nyasa. 139. Than-byan-tfka. 140.
Mahathera-tika. 141. Bupasiddhi-a^hakatha. 142. Rupasiddhi-
tfka. 143. Balavatara. 144. Vuttimoggallana. 145. Paftcika-
Moggallana. 146. Pancika-Moggallana-tika. 147. KarikS,.
148. Karika-tlka. 149. Lingatthavivarana. 150. Lingattha-
vivarana-tlka. 151. Mukhamattasara. 152. Mukhamattasara-
tika. 153. Mahagana. 154. Culagana. 155. Abhidhana. 156.
Abhidhana-tlka. 157. Saddaniti. 158. Culanirutti. 159. Cula-
sandhivisodhana. 160. Saddatthabhedacinta. 161. Saddattha-
bhedacinta-tika. 162. Padasodhana. 163. Sambandhacinta-
tika. 164. Rupavatara* 165. Saddavatara. 166. Saddhamma-
dipaka. 167. Sotamalini. 168. Sambandhamalini. 169. Pada-
vahamahacakka (Padavatara ?). 170. Nvadi (Moggallana).
171. Kataca (Krt-cakra ?). 172. Mahaka (Kappa or Kaccayana ?).
173. Balattajana (Balavatarana ?). 174. Suttavali. 175. Akkha-
rasammohacchedani. 176. Cetiddhlnemiparigatha (sic) (?). 177.
Samasataddhitadipani. 178. Bijakkhyam. 179. Kaccayanasara.
180. Balappabodhana. 181. Atthasalini. 182. Atthasalini-
nissaya. 183. Kaccayana-nissaya. 184. Rupasiddhi-nissaya.
185. Jataka-nissaya. 186. Jatakaganthi. 187. Dhammapada-
ganthi-nissaya. 188. Kammavaca. 189. Dhammasatta. 190.
Kalapapancika (panjika). 191. Kalapapancika-tika. 192.
Kalapasuttapratinnasaku (? patinnapaka) tika. 193. Prindo-
tika. 194. Rattaraala. 195. Rattamala-tlka. 196. Roganidana.
197. Dabraguna. 198. Dabraguna-tika. 199. Chandoviciti.
200. Candaprutti (Candra-vrtti). 201. Candrapaneikara (panjika).
202. Kamandaki. 203. Dhammapannapakarana. 204. Maho-
satthi (Mahosadha ?). 205. Subodhalamkara. 206. Subodha-
lamkara-tika. 207. Tanogabuddhi (?). 208. Tandi (Dandin ?).
209. Tandi-tika. 210. Cankadasa. 211. Ariyasaccavatara.
212. Vicitragandha. 213. Saddhammupaya. 214. Sarasangaha.
215. Sarapinda. 216. Patipattisangaha. 217. Sulacharaka.
218. Palatakka (balatarka ?, logic for beginners ?). 219.
Trakkabhasa (Tarkabha?a). 220. Saddakarika. 221. Kasi-
kapruttipalini. 222. Saddhammadlpaka. 223. Satyatatvavabodha
(?). 224. Balappabodhanapruttikarana. 225. Atthabyakhyam.
226. Ciilaniruttimanjusa. 227. Manjusatikabyakhyam. 228.
Anutikabyakhyam. 229. Pakinnakanikaya. 230. Catthapayoga
(?). 231. Matthapayoga (?). 232. Rogayatra (on medicine ?).
233. Rogayatra-tika. 234. Satthekavipasvaprakasa (?). 235.
Rajamattanta. 236. Parasava. 237. Koladdhaja. 238. Brihajja-
taka. 239. Brihajjataka-tfka. 240. Dathadhatuvarhsa and tika.
241. Patigaviveka-tlka. 242. Alamkara-tika (on Subodha-
lamkara ?). 243. Calindapaiicika (commentary on ?). 244.
Vedavidhinimittanirutti-vannana. 245. Niruttibyakhyam. 246.
Vuttodaya. 247. Vuttodaya-tlkS. 248. Milindapanha (in text
Malinapafina). 249. Saratthasangaha. 250. Amarakosanissaya.
251. Pindo nissaya. 252. Kalapanissaya. 253. Roganidana -
byakhyam. 254. Dabbragana-tlka. 255. Amarakosa. 256.

Appendix B 673

Dandi-tika. 257. Dandi-tfka. 258. Dandi-tfka. 259. Koladhvaja-
tika.' 260 Alamkara. 261. Alamkara-tlka. 262. Bhesajja-
manjusa. 263. Yuddhajeyya (Yuddha-dhyaya ?). 264. Yatana-
prabha-tika (Ratana ?). 265. Viragdha. 266. Viragdha-tfka.
267. Cuiamanisara. 268. Rajamattanta-tlka.

269. Mrtyuvancana "^

270. Mahakalacakka >(Qaiva works ?).

271. Mahakalacakka-tlka J

272 Paraviveka (commentary on Parahita ?). 273. Kaccayana-
rupavatara. 274. Pumbharasarl (or karasari in text ?). 275.
Taktavatara (Tattvavatara ?). 276. Taktavatara- t*ka. 277.
Nyayabindu. 278. Nyayabindu-tlka. 279. Hetubindu. 280.
Hetubindu-t/ika. 281. Rikkaniyayatra (?). 282. Rikkaniya-
yatra-tika, 283. Barittaratakara (Vrttaratnakara ?). 284.
Shyaramitikabya (?). 285. Yuttisangaha. 286. Yuttisahgaha-
tika. 287. Sarasangaha-nissaya. 288. Rogayatra-nissaya.
289. Roganidana-nissaya. 290. Saddatthabhedacinta-nissaya.
291. Paranissaya. 292. Shyaramitikabya-nissaya (?). 293.
Brihajjataka-nissaya (?). 294. Rattamala. 295. Narayutti-
saiigaha. 1

The Kalyani inscriptions of Pegu (Burma) 2 were erected
c. 1476 A.D. by Dhammaceti, king of
cri T tion^ o 1 ? & Pe i? Ramanfiadesa or ancient Pegu, and record
Introduction. e ^ U ^ ne bistory of the estabUshment of Buddhism
in Burma, and its gradual evolution through
many vicissitudes of fortune. The main object in founding
the Kalyanl-sfma appears to have been to afford to the priest-
hood of Ramannadesa a duly consecrated place for the purpose
of performing the uposatha, upasampada, and other ecclesiastical
ceremonies, and indirectly to secure continuity in their apostolic
succession from Mahinda, the Buddhist apostle of Ceylon. The
object of the Kalyani inscriptions is to give an authoritative
ruling on the varied opinions of scholars with regard to ordina-
tion, and to prescribe a ceremonial for the consecration of a sima.

The Kalyani inscriptions are situated at the western suburbs
of the town of Pegu. They comprise ten stone slabs, more or
less broken to pieces and scattered about. The language of
the first three stones is Pali, and that of the rest is Talaing,
being a translation of the Pali text.

Owing to the want of a large number of priests well versed
_ in Tripitaka, learned, wise and able, and

Interpreta^ons of who ^^ ^ meeting and consulting

together, investigate as to what was proper
or not, disputations arose amongst the Buddhist Order of Pegu

1 For details, readers are referred to M. H. Bode's
Literature of Burma', pp. 101-109.

2 Taw Seim ko A preliminary study of the Kalyani jj
Pegu, LA., Vol. XXIII, 1893.

674 A History of Pali Literature

with regard to the performance of ecclesiastical ceremonies,
such as the consecration of a sima and the upasampada ordina-
tion. Each thera gave his own interpretation, and the king
himself joined in the disputations. In course of these disputa-
tions citations were made from various Buddhist authorities,
most important of which was the Atthakatha. The following
tracts collected here were incidentally made use of by the theras
and the king in their discussion as to the performance of
ecclesiastical ceremonies of consecrating a sima and upasampada
ordination.

1. ' Anvaddhamdsam anudasdham anupancahanti '

Atthakatha yam

Some theras could not rightly interpret these words
mentioned in the Atthakatha, and would like in the excessively
rainy region of Ramanfiadesa to perform the upasampada
ordination in an udakukkhepasima consecrated on a river or
lake, which was devoid of its respective characteristics.

2. Dhammaceti, the king, in repeatedly investigating and
considering the rule of the Vinaya as regards the consecration
of a sima, as interpreted by the authors of the Atthakathas,
tikas, and pakaranas, consulted both the spirit and the letter
of the following works, controlling the Atthakatha by means
of the Pali, the tika by means of the Atthakatha, and the
pakarana by one another, and at the same time, by collecting
what was gone before, and what came after : the Vinayapali,
the Vinayatthakatha, the vinayatika called the Saratthadlpam,
the Vinayatlka called the Vimativinodam, the Vinayatika
written by Vajirabuddhi-thera, the Matikatthakatha called the
Kankhavitaranl together with its tika, the Vinayaviniccaya-
pakarana together with its tika, the Vinayasangahapakarana,
the Simalankarapakarana, and the Simalankarasangaha To
the king who repeatedly investigated and considered the question
and interpreted the ruling of the Vinaya according to his light
and knowledge.

3. " Yasma hi vassanassa catusu masesu " iti atthakathayam.

This short citation purports to say that the rainy season
comprises four months, during which lakes and rivers become
filled with water and during which season the under -robe of a
bhikkhunl crossing a stream of such description at any place, is
wetted. On such a mahanadl such a udakukkhepasima may be
consecrated, and the upasampada ordination performed in it
will be valid and inviolable.

4. There existed an old sima whereon the Kaly5,nl-
slmS, came to be built and consecrated later on. It was, there-
fore, necessary to desecrate the old sima, for otherwise the new
slm& would be null and void, because of the doubtful defeat of

Appendix B 675

the junction and overlapping of simas. The king accordingly
had preparations made for performing the ceremony of desecrat-
ing the existing sim& in accordance with the procedure expressly
laid down in the Atthakatha. He then proceeds to interpret
the passage of the Atthakatha in question.

5. With regard to this subject of desecration of an existing
sima, and consequent consecration of a new one a question is
made from the VimativinodanI :

" Keci pana Idisesu pi viharesu chapancamatte bhikkhu
gahetva, viharakotito patthaya viharaparikkhepassa
anto ca bahi ca samanta leddupate tattha sabbattha
mancapamane okase nirantaram thatva, pathamam
avippavasasimam tatosamanasamvasakasiman casamu-
hananavasena simasamugghate kate, tasmim majjha-
gata te bhikkhu ta samuhaneyyum. Tato gamasima
eva avasisseyya. Na hettha simaya va paricchedassa
va jananam ahgam hoti. Simaya pana anto thanam
samuhanessamati, kammavacakarananc'ettha ahgam.
Atthakathayam khendasimam pana jananta avippa-
vasam ajananta pi samuhataya vuttatta gamasimay'
evn ca avasitthaya tattha yatharucilakam duvidham
pi simam bandhitun c'eva upasampadadi-kammam
katun ca vattatlti vadanti. Tam yuttam vi}^a dissati ;
vimamsitva gahetabban ti ".

Translation : " There are some theras, who, in the case of
such viharasimas, would convene a chapter of five or six priests,
would station them in a continuous row of places, which are
each about the size of a bedstead, and whose distances are
determined by the fall, all round, of stones thrown, first from
the extremity of a viharasima, and then towards the inside and
outside of its limits, and would successively desecrate an avippa-
vasaslma, and a samanasamvasakaslma. If either a khanda-
slma or a rnahaslma exists on that vihara, the priests standing,
as they do, in the midst of these simas, would, from a maiicat-
thana, certainly desecrate the sima, and the gamasima would
remain. In this manner it is not essential to know the sima
on its extent. But it is necessary for the reciters of the kamrna-
vaca to say : c We shall desecrate the inside of a sima (and
act accordingly) '. It is stated in the Atthakatha that those
who are aware of the existence of a khandasima, but not that of
an avippavasaslma, are qualified to effect both desecration and
consecration, and then thus, although the extent of a rnaha-
slma is unknown, desecration may be effected. On the authority
of this statement, they say that at any selected spot on the
remaining gamasima, it is appropriate to consecrate the two
kinds of simas, and to perform the upasampada ordination and
such other ceremonies. This dictum appears to be correct ;
but it should be accepted after due enquiry."

676 A History of Pali Literature

6. When the existence of an old slma is not known, it is
said in the Atthakatha :

" Atthakathayanca purana-slmaya vijjamanattam va
paricchedam va ajanantanam slmasanugghatassa
dukkaratta mahantam vayamam akatva yena va
tena va vayamena samuhananavasena simasamuggha-
tarn sandhaya ye pana ubho pi na jananti ; te n'eva
samuhanitufi ca labhantiti vuttam ".

Purport : ' If both classes of sima are not known, the
sima should not be desecrated or consecrated.' This dictum of
the Atthakatha does liot, however, mean to indicate that,
although the existence of the sima to be desecrated may not be
known, if great exertion is put forth that sima will not be
desecrated.

Besides these quotations from and interpretations of Pali

_ . _ .. texts, there are a good number of references

tex^ * PaU texte in ^ e Kalyani inscriptions

in the way of adducing arguments or citing

authorities. The three pitakas are more than once mentioned

the Vinaya having the honour of being mentioned most. But

most often referred to is the Atthakatha of the Vinaya-pitaka.

Other texts are the Patimokkha, the Khuddakasikkha, the

Vimativinoda^i, the Vinayapali, the Vinayatika called the

Saratthadipani, the Vinayatika written by Vajirabuddhi-thera,

the Matikatthakatha called the Kankhavitaranl together with

its tika, the Vinaya vinicohayapakarana together with its tika,

the Vinayasangahapakarana, the Simalahkarapakarana, the

Simalankarasangaha, and other texts relating to the Vinaya-

pitaka.

Pali texts referred to in the inscription of Pardkramabdhu
at Galwihara, Ceylon

1 . The Vinaya books, 2. The Khuddakasikkha, 3. The Pati-
mokkha, 4. The Dasadhammasutta, 5. The three Anumana-
suttas, 6. The Mulasikkha, 7. The Heianasikkha, and 8. The
Sekhiya.

INDEX

Abhidhammappakarana, xvii.
Abhidhammattha Sangaha,

598, 599, 600, 602, 605.
Abhidhammavatara, 385, 396,

599.

Abhidhanappadipika, 634, 637.
Abhidharma-Maha^astra, 342.
Abhirupananda, 78.
Aciravatl, 369.
Adhikaranasamatha, 20.
Adhikaranasamathadhamma,

47, 49, 60.

Adhivacanapatha, xiv.
Ajatasatru, 646.
Ajatasattu, 12, 84, 429, 453,

653.

Ajitakesakambali, 108.
Alwis, James, xviii, xxvi.
Ambapall, xxiii, 302, 515.
Ambattha, 418.
Amitabha, 646.
Anagatabhayani, 30.
Anagatavariisa, 389, 611, 612,

613.
Anathapindika, xxi, 113, 435,

452.

Andhaka, 12, 27.
Anesaki, xxvii.
Ahga, 419, 555.
Ahga-Magadha, xi.
Angulimala, 506.
Aniyata, 20.

Aniyatadhamma, 49, 51.
Annakondanna, 62.
Anuradhapura, 556.
Anuruddha, 301.
Apadana, 1, 7, 33, 34, 35, 301.
Aparantaka, 565.
Aparaseliya, 27.
Ariyavaiusa, 193.
Asoka, xviii, xxii, xxiii, xxiv,

6, 9, 10, 15, 37, 40, 41, 112,

646.
Assaji, 62, 66.

Astadhyayi, xii.
A^vaghosa, 6, 7, 38.
Atthaka, 2.
Atthakatha, Andha, 374.

Agama, 375.

Jataka, 376.

Maha, 374.

Mahavamsa, 380,
381.

Sankhepa, 374.
Atthakavagga, 1, 4, 5, 38.
Atthasalinl, 473.
Aung, S. Z., xxvii, 316, 330.
Abhassaraloka, 83.
Acariya-paramparaya, 27.
Ajivikas, 453.
Alada Kalama, 101.
Ardhamagadhi, xx, xxi, xxii,

xxiii.
Arya Maudgalyayana, 342.

Bandhu, Cattaro, 280.

Bapat, xxvii, 237.

Barhut, 39.

Barua, B. M., xv, 4, 28, 277,

301.

Balavatara, 634, 635.
Baranasi, 111, 368.
Benares, 62.
Bendall, xxvi.
Bhaddakapilani, 302, 514.
Bhadda-kundalakesa, 302, 512.
Bharukaccha, 367, 555.
Bhabru Edict, xxi, 6, 10, 30,

192, 665.
Bhanaka, Ahguttara, 28, 382.

Dhammapada, 382.

Digha, 7, 41, 382.

Jataka, 28, 382.

Khuddaka, 28, 382.

Majjhima, 7, 28, 34,
382.

Samyutta, 28, 382.
Bhanakas, 27.

678

A History of Pali Literature

Bhikkhu, interpretation of, 278.
Bhikkhuni Samgha, rules for its

guidance, 74-77.
Bhuridatta, 294.
Bigandet, xxvi.
Bimbisara, xi, 40, 63, 429, 453,

620, 648, 659.
Bindusara, 574.
Bode, Mabel, xxvi.
Bodhgaya, 39.
Bodhicaryavatara, 624. <,
Body, parts of the, 195.
Brewster, E. H., 3.
Buddha, Anomadassi, 288.

Atthadassi, 289.

Dhammadassi, 289.

Dipankara, 287.

Gotama, 290.

Kakusandha, 289.

Kassapa, 290.

Konagamana, 289.

Kondanna, 287.

Mangala, 287.

Xarada, 288.

Padiuna, 288.

Padumuttara, 288.

Phussa, 289.

Piyadassi, 288.

Revata, 288.

Siddhattha, 289.

Sikhi, 289.

Sobhita, 288.

Sujata, 288.

Suinana, 288.

Sumedha, 288.

Tissa, 289.

Vessabhu, 289.

Vipassi, 289.
Buddhacarita, 6, 7, 38, 615,

646.

Buddhadatta, xxvii, 10, 12,
384, 385, 559 : works of, 396.
Buddhadevacarita, 646.
Buddhaghosa, x, xi, xii, xiii,
xv, xxvii, 2, 11, 12, 18, 22,
31, 34, 96, 113, 274, 334,
387, 388, 389, 390, 409,
416, 422, 518, 589, 627, 632 ;
works of, 399.

Buddhaghosuppatti, 558.
Buddha's prediction on the

effect of the admittance of

women into Order, 77-78.
Buddhavamsa, 1, 7, 33, 35,

42, 285, 286, 613.
Buddhism, an ethical religion

from the Sutta Nipata, 235 ;

traces of primitive Buddhism

in Sutta Nipata, 238.
Buddhist councils

First, 19, 20, 525 ;

Second, 15, 525 ;

Third, 40, 526.
Bulis, 101.
Bunyiu Nanjio, 80.
Burlingame, xxvi, 450.

Caityas, 100.
Cam pa, 555.
Campeyyake Vinaya Vatthu-

sniin, 15.

Candrabhaga, 369, 664.
Cariyapitaka, 1, 7, 33, 35, 42,

290.

Cariyapitaka commentary, 516.
Carpenter, J. E., xxvi.
Caves, Khandagiri, xxv.
Udayagiri, xxv.
Ceylon, xix, 38.
Ceylonese chronicles, Geo-
graphical references in, 552 ;

Pali texts in, 549 : value of,

540.

Cha-kesa-dhatu-vamsa, 588.
Chandasa, xi, xii, xiii.
Chandoviciti, 638.
Channa, 617.

Childers, R. C., xviii, xxvi.
Cilia, 368.
Cittayana, 585.
Clough, xxvi.
Conditions for entering the

Order, 73-74.
Culasaddaniti, 636.
Culavamsa, ix, 547.
Cullavagga, xi, 14, 15, 16, 19,

26, 28, 29, 31, 42, 45, 61, 65,

66, 609.

Index

679

Cunda, 100.

Dabba, 78.
Dakkhinapatha, 419.
Damilas, 576.
Dantakumara, 587.
Dantapaii, xxiii.
Das, Sarat Chandra, xxvii.
Dative Plural in Pali, 640.
Dasa, Cattaro, 280.
Dathavamsa, 579, 581.
De, Harinath, xxvii.
Devanampiyatissa, 12, 524,

538, 576.
Dhammapada, xiv, 1, 7, 33, 41,

42, 200, 623 ; editions and

translations of, 223; Pali

and Prakrit, 40, 215, 221.
Dhammapada-atthakatha, 449,

457.
Dhammapala, xxvii, 11, 12,

343, 392, 393, 597, 632,

637 ; works of, 481.
Dhammapala, Anagarika,

xxvii.
Dhammasahgani, 10, 12, 21, 24,

25, 26, 304-311 ; method of
exposition in, 310.

Dhammasoka, 40.
Dharmaskandha, 341.
Dhatukatha, 12, 21, 22, 25,

26, 42, 332. '
Dhatukathapakarana-attha-

katha, 477.
Dhatukaya, 340.
Dighagama, 80.
Digha Samgaha, 80.
Dlpa, 12, 78.
Dipavamsa, xvii, 379, 380,

517, 519, 520, 534, 535, 536,

539, 563 ; and Mahavamsa
compared, 534 ; Pali Texts
in the, 550.

Dutthagamani, 12, 521, 529,

577.
Dutthafthaka, 2.

Eja, meaning of, 280.
Ekakkharakosa, 634.

22

Eliot, Sir Charles, xxvi.

Fa-Hien, 38.

Fausboll, xxvi, 260.

Feer, Leon, xxvi.

Fick, 88.

Franke, Otto, xx, xxvi, 43.

Frankfurter, xxvi.

Gandhara, 368, 553, 662.
GandhaVamsa, 372, 373, 589.
Ganga, 369, 437.
Geiger, xx, xxvi, 7, 9, 15, 533,

544.

Ghositarama, 419, 655.
Gijjhakuta, 408, 431, 661.
Girnar, xx, xxii.
Gods, grades of, 147 ;

Tavatimsa, 103.
Gogerly, 113.
Gosala, 84.
Gotami, 302.
Grammar, treatises on Pali,

636, 638.

Grierson, Sir George, xix, xxvi.
Grimm, xxvi.
Guhatthaka, 2.

Hardy, Edmund, xxvi.
HatthavanagaUavihara-vamsa,

579.

Hemavata, 27.
Hewavitarne, xxviii.
Hiuen Tsang, 342.
Hunt, Mabel, 285.

Inscriptions, Barhut, 667 ;

Kalyanl, 673.
Isigili, xxv.
Isigiri, xxv.
Itivuttaka, 1, 33, 41, 42, 228.

Jackson, xxvi.

Jacobi, xxvi.

Jagajjyoti, 646.

Jain Schools of thought, 82.

Jambudlpa, 14, 111, 407.

Java, 38.

680

A History of Pali Literature

Jayaddisa, 296.
Jayatilaka, xxvii.
Jataka, xxvii, 7, 33, 39, 267 ;
and popular Buddhism, 272 ;
literature on, 276 ; origin
and purpose of, 271.
Jataka, Andabhuta, 269.

AsStarupa, 269.

Ayacitabhatta, 268.

Cammasataka, 270.

Culladhammapsla, 269

Cullasetthi, 268.

Dasaratha, 270.

Devadhamma, 268.

Dummedha, 269.

Ekapanna, 269.

Ekarajaj 269.

Kanha, 270.

Katahaka, 269.

Khadirangara, 269.

Khantivada, 270.

Khurappa, 269.

Mahanarada Kassapa,
270.

Mahapingala, 269.

Mahasutasoma, 270.

Makhadeva, 268.

Matakabhatta, 268.

Nalapana, 269.

Nalinika, 270.

Nigrodhamiga, 268.

Sakuna, 269.

Sama, 275.

Surapana, 269.

Tandulanali, 268.

Ummagga, 275.

Valahassa, 269.

Vessantara, 275.

Vidhurapandita, 271.
Jataka commentary, 472.
Jetavana, 553.

Jinacarita, 611, 614, 615, 644.
Jlvaka Komarabhacca, 62, 84,

85, 417.
JMnaprasthana, 336, 337, 344.

Kaccayana, 504, 633, 634, 635,

636, 637.
Kalinga, xix, 368.

KalyanI, 554.

Kamma, Pabbajaniya, 66,
Tajjaniya, 66.

Kamma vaca, 608.

Kanha, 280.

Kanhadlpayana, 300.

Kanishka, 564.

Kahkharevata, 501.

Kankhavitarani, 409.

Kapilavastu, 87, 553, 657.

Kashmir, 104.

Kassapa, Gaya, 62.
Nadi, 62.
Uruvela, 62.

Kathavatthu, 1, 7, 8, 9, 10,
21, 22, 26, 27, 40, 316; a
work of Asoka's time, 324 ;
Historical connection be-
tween the Kathavatthu and
the Milindapaiiha, 326.

Kathavatthu-atthakatha, 477.

Kathavatthuppakarana, 407.

Kavisarapakaranaih, 638.

Kavisara(Ikanissaya, 638.

Kalasoka (Kakavarni), 12.

Kalidasa, 615.

Kama, 278.

Kamandaki, 638.

Kamasutra, 147.

KasI, 651, 659.

Katantravyakarana, 635.

Katyayana, 642.

Katyayaniputra, 336.

Keith, xxi, xxii, xxvi.

Kern, xxvi, 533.

Khandhakas, 1, 7, 8, 14, 15,
32, 45, 61.

Khema, 509.

Khiddapadosika, 83.

Khuddakapatha, 1, 7, 34, 193.

Khuddakapatha-atthakatha,
445.

Khuddakasikkha, 79, 609.

Khujjuttara, 462.

Kinnari, 646.

Kisagotami, 464.

Kita Hill, 66.

Koliyas, 101.

Konow, Sten, xxvi.

Index

681

xxi, 368, 420, 453,

456 657.
Kosambi, D., xxvii, 6, 420,

453, 621, 651, 657.
Kuhn, xx.
Kumarapafiha, 8.
Kumarasambhava, 615, 646.
Kuru Kingdom, 452.
Kuru-Pancala, 654.
Kusinara, 100, 408, 432.

Landsberg, xxvi.
Lanman, xxvi.
Laghulovada, xxi.
Lesny, xxvi.
Levi, Sylvain, xxi.
Lexicographies, 630.
Licchavis, 101, 453.
Loka, 279.
Ltiders, H., xx.

Madhuratthavilasini, 384.

Madhyadesa, xx.

Magadha, xi, xviii, 84, 368,

407, 648.

Maghadeviya, xxi.
Maha-atthakatha, 12.
Mahabharata, 30, 615, 623, 645.
Mahabha^ya, 642.
Mahabodhivamsa, 561.
Mahajanapadas, 658.
Mahakaccana, 5, 301-2.
Mahakassapa, 301.
Mahakatyayana, 6.
Mahakurundiya, 12.
Mahalomahaihsa, 301.
Mahameghavanarama, 546.
Mahamoggallana, 301.
Mahanama, 62.
Mahapaccariya, 12.
Mahasammata, 524.
Mahasena, 524.
Mahavagga, 14, 15, 16, 19, 42,

45, 61, 63, 80, 609.
Mahavamsa, ix, 37, 522, 534,

535, 536, 537, 543, 563 ; Pali

texts in the, 551.
Mahavamsa-tika, 533.

Mahavana, 650.

Mahavastu, 6, 7, 104.

Mahavira, 84.

Mahl, 369.

Mahinda, xix, xx, xxiv, 13, 14,

37, 410, 523, 528.
Mahisamandala, 557.
Majjhimadesa, 9.
Makhadeva, xxi, 31.
Malalasekera, xxvii.
Mallas, 101, 432, 453, 573, 656.
Mallika, 466.
Manopadosika, 83.
Manorathapuram, 440.
Maudgalyayana, 342.
Mazumdar, S. N., 10, 640.

Magadhaka, xii.

Magadhi, x, xi, xii, xix, xxii,
xxiii, xxv.

Magadhinirutti, x, xi.

Mara, 62.

Markandeyapurana, 629.

Matanga, 296.

Maya, 616.

Menander, 354.

Migara, 78.

Milindapafiha, xxvii, 11, 20, 21,
26, 28, 31, 39, 40, 644.

Minayeff, xxvi.

Mithila, 663.

Moggallana, 62, 505, 635.

Moggallana Saddattharatna-
kara, 636.

Moggallayanavutti, 635.

Mokkhali Gosala, xxv, 356.

Moneya Sute, 6.

Mookerjee, Sir Asutosh, xxviii.

Moore, xxvi.

Morris, Richard, xxvi, 22.

Mukhapathavasena, 27.

Mulabhasa, x.

Mulasikkha, 79, 609.

MuUer, 640.

Mundarajavagga, 32.

Muni, 278.

Munigatha, 6.

Naraslhagatha, 378, 379, 623.
Nariman, xx.

682

A History of Pali Literature

N&gasena, 356, 360, 363, 365,
367.

Nalakaprasna, 6.
NWanda, 653, 657.
Namarupapariccheda, 608.
NSmarupasamasa, 608.
Narada, xxvii.
Nerafijara, 62.

Nettipakarana, 351, 631, 638.
Nibbana, 319 ; in the Dhamma-

pada, 222 ; in the Khuddaka-

patha, 199.
Nidana, 49.
Niddesa, 1,3; diseases in, 281 ;

doctrines in, 281 ; religious

belief sin, 281.
Niddesa, Culla, 4, 5, 33, 37, 39,

277.
Maha, 1, 4, 5, 33, 34,

37, 38, 277.
Nidhikanda, 8.

Nikaya, Anguttara (Ekuttara),
1, 2, 10, 12, 18, 19,

21, 22, 23, 30, 41,
42, 180-193 ; its im-
portance, 191.

Digha, 1, 3, 10, 12, 17,

22, 31, 41, 42, 80,
342.

Khuddaka, 4, 10, 18,
22, 28, 33, 36, 39,
80, 193.

Majjhima, xv, 1, 10,
12, 18, 31, 41, 42,
80, 115.

Paiica, 16, 18, 28, 31.
Samyutta, xiv, 1, 10,
12, 22, 31, 41, 42,
80, 157.
Nimi, 291.
Nipata, Attha, 188.

Catukka, 182, 231.
Chakka, 187.
Dasaka, 189.
Duka, 181, 231.
Eka, 180, 230.
Ekadasaka, 190.
Navaka, 188.
Paficaka, 186.

Nipata, Sattaka, 187.

Tika, 181, 231.
Nirukta, 344, 638.
Nirutti, xiv.
Niruttipatha, xiv.
Nissaggiya, 20.
Nissaggiya pacittiya dhamma,

47, 49, 52.
Novice's questions, 195.

Oldenberg, xiii, xvii, xix, xxvi,

16, 39.
Oung, Tha Do, 640.

Padasadhana, 635.
PaiSaci Prakrit, xxi.
Pajjamadhu, 611, 624.
Pakudhakaccayana, xxv.
Pancagatidipana, 627.
Pannattipatha, xiv.
Papancasudam, xv, 436, 438.
Parakramabahu, 549, 676.
Paramatthaka, 2.
Paramatthadlpani, 516.
Parissaya, 280.
Paritta, 608.
Parivara, xvii, 45.
Parivarapatha, 13, 14, 42, 78.
Pasenadi, 112, 448, 465, 652,

660.

Patacara, 302.
Patanjali, 642.
Patidesaniya dhamma, 47, 49,

58.

Patisambhida, xvii, 1.
Pat-isambhidamagga, 33, 41,

42, 282, 337.

Patthana, 21, 25, 26, 334, 335.
Patthanapakarana-atthakatha,

481.

Pavarana, 61.
Payogasiddhi, 635.
Pacittiya, 45, 46.
Pacittiya dhamma, 54.
Pali bhasa, importance of the

study of, xxvi-xxviii ; origin

and home of, ix-xxv.
Pali canon, chronology of, 1-42.
Pali commentaries, 384.

Index

683

PaflLGrammars, 630.
Pali\iterary Pieces, 611.
Pali Manuals, 597.
Panini, xii, 632, 633, 637.
Parajika, 20, 45, 46, 49.
Parajika dhamma, 50.
Parayana, 2, 42.
Parayanavagga, 4, 37, 38.
Patali, xviii.
Pataliputra, xviii, 357, 369,

554, 650.
Patheya, 80.
Patikavagga, 80.
Patimokkha, 2, 3, 17, 19, 21,
42, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 63,
76, 79.
Pava, 566.
Pavarika, 112.
Petaki, 28.

Petakopadesa, 31, 352, 389.
Petavatthu, 8, 36, 42, 261,

263, 629.

Petavatthu commentary, 492.
Peta-vimanavatthu, 1, 7, 33.
Pindola-Bharadvaja, 503.
Pischel, xxvi.

Pitaka, Abhidhamma, 12, 14,
17, 18, 21, 23, 24,
26, 43, 303.
Sutta, 12, 43, 79.
Vinaya, xix, 10, 13,

14, 18, 43, 79.
Poussin, La Valee, xxvi.
Prajnapti-Sastra, 342.
Prakaranapada, 339.
Precepts, ten, 194.
Profession, various kinds of,

124.

Prosody, works on, 630, 638.
Przyluski, J., xxvi.
Pubbasava, 280.
Pubbaseliya, 27.
Puccha, Ajitamanava, 254.

Bhadravudhamaijava,

256.

Dhotakamanava, 255.
Hemakamanava, 256.
Jatukannimanava,
256.

Puccha, Kappamanava, 256.
Mettagumanava, 264.
Mogharajamanava,

257.

Nandamanava, 256.
Pihgiyamanava, 257.
Posalamanava, 256.
Punnakamanava, 254.
Tissametteyyamanava

254.

Todeyyamanava, 256.
* Udayamanava, 256.

Upatissamanava, 256.
Puggalapafinatti, 1, 21, 22, 23,
26, 42, 114, 328, 330; com-
mentary, x, 477.

Rakkha, 30.

Rasavahim, 625.

Rahula, 61, 301.

Rahula-Ratthapala, 443.

Rahulovada, xxi.

Rajagaha, 84, 407, 621, 649,

655.
Rajagahe Uposatha Samyutte,

15.

Rajatarahgini, 645.
Ramagama, 566.
Raya Paseni, 109.
Refuges, three, 194.
Revata, 505.
Rhys Davids, Mrs. C. A. F.,

xxiii, xxiv, xxvi, xxvii, 24,

117, 157, 334.
Rhys Davids, T. W., xxi, xxii,

xxvi, xxvii, 8, 81, 113, 275.
Rock Edicts (of Asoka) ; Kalsi,

9 ; Manshera, 9 ; Shahbaz-

garhi, 9.
Rohini, 467.
Rouse, xxvi.
Rupananda, 468.
Ruparupavibhaga, 599.
Ruparupavinicchaya, 384.
Rupasiddhi, 634, 635.

Saccasamkhepa, 597, 599.
Sadaw, Ledi, xxvii, 334.
Saddaniti, 635, 636.

684

A History of Pali Literature

Saddhammasamgaha, 560.
Saddhammopayana, 611, 626,

627.

Sailagatha, 6.
Sakanirutti, xi, xii.
SalalavatI, 63.
Samantapasadika, xii, 405, 407,

408.

Samarasekara, W. A., 80.
Samghadisesa, 20, 49, 67, 68.
Samghadisesa dhamma, 50.
Samhita, caraka, 344 ; Susruta,

344.

Sammohavinodam, 476.
Samyutta, Abhisamaya, 168.

Anamatagga, 169.

Anuruddha, 179.

Aranavibhanga, xv.

Asankata, 177.

Avyakata, 177.

Anapana, 179.

Bala, 179.

Bhikkhu, 170.

Bhikkhuni, 163.

Bojjhariga, 177.

Brahma, 163.

Citta, 177.

Devaputta, 162.

Devata, 160.

Dhatu, 168.

Ditthi, 172.

Gamani, 177.

Gandhavyakaya,
173.

Iddhipada, 179.

Indriya, 177.

Jambukhadaka ,
176.

Jhana, 174, 179.

Kassapa, 169.

Khandha, 171.

Kilesa, 173.

Kosala, 162.

Lakkhana, 170.

Labhasakkara, 170.

Magga, 177.

Mara, 162.

Moggallana, 176.

Naga, 173.

Samyutta, Nidana, 168.

Opama, 170.

Radha, 172.

Sacca, 37, 179.

Sakka, 168.

Salayatana, 175.

Sammappadhana,
178.

Satipatthana, 177.

Sariputta, 173.

Sotapatti, 179.

Supanna, 173.

Uposatha, 31.

Uppada, 173.

Vacchagotta, 174.

Valaha, 174.

Vana, 164.

Vahgisa, 164.

Vedana, 175.

Yakkha, 164.

Sahgitipariyaya,
339.

San jay a, 81.

Sankhapala, 297.

Sarabhu, 369.

Sarassati, 369.

Sasapandita, 294.
Sandesa-katha, 560.
Sanghamitta, 575.
Sanskritabha^a, xii.
Sakyas, 87, 101.
Salho, 78.
gantideva, 623.
Saratthapakasini, 438.
Sariputta, 62, 118, 301, 505.
Sasanavamsa, 592, 593, 596.
SavatthI, 78, 456, 663.
Schrader, Otto, xxvi.
Sekhiya rules, 21.
Sekhiya dhamma, 49, 58.
Senart, 102.

Shastri, Haraprasad, xxvii, 43.
Siam, king of, xxvii.
Siddhartha, xxvii, 65, 619.
Sikkha, 278.
Sikkhapada, 17.
Sllakhanda, 80.
Sflas, 2, 42.
Sflavanaga, 294.

Index

685

SiinVankarapakarana, 609.

Sirisudhammaraja, 43.

Sivi, 292.

Smith, Helmer, xxvi.

Social conditions in the Ganges

Valley, 85.
Somanassa, 297.
Sona Kolivisa, 63, 442.
Sonapandita, 298.
So-sor-ther-pa, 48.
Spiegel, xxvi.
Stede, xxvi.
Steinthal, xxvi.
Strong, xxvi, 561.
Subodhalahkara, 634, 638.
Sudassana, 292.
Sudatta, 620.
Suddhatthaka, 2.
Suddhodana, 616, 620.
Sukhodaya, 274.
Sumahgala, Suriyagoda, xxvii.
Sumahgalavilasinl, 3, 7, 18, 19,
22, 33, 409, 411, 419, 426,
434,451.

Sunakkhatta, 110.
Sundarl Nanda, 509.
Superman , his t h i r t y -t w o

marks, 145.
Suppiya, 81.
Susaddasiddhi, 635.
Susandhikappa, 635.
Susunaga, 407.
Sutasoma, 300.
Sutra, Madhyamagama, 116.
Sutta, Abhayarajakumara, 137.

Acchariyabhuta-
dhamma, 152.

Agganna, 111, 644.

Aggivacchagotta, 140.

Alagaddupama, 128.

Ambalatthik a r a h u 1 o-
vada, 138.

Ambattha, 86.

Anangana, 119.

Anathapindikovada,
155.

Angulimala, 144.

Anumana, 18, 125.

Anuruddha, 152.

Sutta, Apannaka, 138.

Aranavibhanga, xv, 154.
Aravaka, 243.
Ariyapariyesana, 129.
Assalyayana, 146.
Attadanda, 253.
Atthakanagara, 136.
Akankheyya, 119.
Amagandha, 244.
Anandabhaddekaratta,

153.

Ananjasappaya, 149.
Anapani, 151.
Atanatiya, 30, 113.
Bahudliatuka, 151.
Bahuvedaniya, 138.
Balapandita, 153.
Bhaddali, 139.
Bhaddekaratta, 153.
Bhayabherava, 118.
Bhumija, 152.
Bodhirajakurnara, 144.
Canki, 147.
Catuma, 139.
Cetokhila, 125.
Chabbisodhana, 150.
Chachakka, 156.
Channovada, 155.
Cula-Assapura, 133.
Cula-Dhammasama-

dana, 134.
Culadukkhakkhandha,

125.

Culagopalaka, 132.
Culagosihga, 131.
Culahatthipadoma, 129.
Culakammavibhanga,

153.

Cula-Maluiikya, 138.
Culapunnama, 150.
Cula Rahulovada, 156.
Cula-Saccaka, 132.
Cula-Sakuladayi, 142.
Culasaropama, 130.
Culaslhanada, 122.
Cujasufinata, 152.
Cula-Tanhasankhaya,

133
Cula-vedalla, 134.

686

A History of Pali Literature

Sutta, Cula-viyiiha, 253.
Cunda, 242.

Dakkhinavibhanga, 155.
Dasuttara, 115.
Dayatanupassana, 251.
Devadaha, 148.
Devaduta, 153.
Dhammacariya, 245.
Dhammacetiya, 145.
Dhammadayada, 117.
Dhammika, 248.
Dhananjani, 147.
Dhaniya, 241.
Dhatuvibhahga, 154.
Dlghanaka, 141.
Duttatthaka, 251.
Dvedhavitakka, 24, 127.
Esukari, 147.
Ghatikara, 143.
Ghotamukha, 147.
Gopakamoggallana, 150.
Guhatthaka, 251.
Gulissani, 140.
Hemavata, 243.
Hiri, 245.

Indriyabhavana, 157.
Isigili, 151.
Janavasabha, 103.

Jara, 252.

Jaliya, 92.
Jivaka, 136.
Kakaeupama, 127.
Kalahavivada, 253.
Kannakatthala, 145.
Kandaraka, 135.
Kapila, 245.
Karaniyametta, 198.
Kassapaslhanada, 92.
Kama, 251.
Kayagatasati, 151.
Kevaddha, 95.
Khaggavisana, 4, 6, 37,

241.

Kimsila, 246.
Kinti, 148.
EatHgiri, 140.
Kokaliya, 250.
Kosambiya, 15, 135.
Kukkuravatika, 137.

Sutta, Kutadanta, 90.

Lakkhana, 112, 342.
Latukikopama, 139.
Lohicca, 95.
Lomasakahgiya-Bhad-

dekaratta, 153.
Madhupindika, 126.
Madhura, 144.
Maha-Assapura, 133.
Mahacattari, 151.
Mahadhammasama-

dana, 134.
Mahadukkhakkhanda,

123.

Mahagopalaka, 131.
Mahagosihga, 131.
Mahagovinda, 3, 29,

103.
Mahahatthipadoma,

130.
Mahakaccanabhadde-

karatta, 153.
Mahakainmavibhanga,

153.

Mahali, 91.
Mahamahgala, 245.
Mahamalunkya, 138.
Mahanidana, 97.
Mahapadana, 96.
Mahapadhana, 29.
Mahaparinibbana, 3, 98.
Mahapunnaka, 150.
Maharahulovada, 138.
Mahasaccaka, 132.
Mahasakuladayi, 142.
Mahasalayatanika, 156.
Mahasamaya, 105.
Mahasaropama, 130.
Mahasatipattbana, 36,

107.

Mahaslhanada, 122.
Mahasudassana, 102.
Mahasunnata, 152.
Mahatanhasankhaya^

133.

Mahavacchagotta, 140.
Mahavedaila, 134.
Mahftviyuha, 253.
Makhadeva, 31, 144.

Index

687

, Mangala, 196.
Magandiya, 5, 141,

252.

Magha, 249.
Maratajjaniya, 135.
Metta, 242.
Moneyya, 6, 38.
Mulapariyaya, 116.
Muni, 6, 244.
Nagaravinda, 156.
Nalakapana, 139.
Nandakovada, 156.
Nalaka, 6, 38, 251.
Nava, 246.
Nidhikanda, 8, 198.
Nivapa, 129.
Pabbajja, 248.
Padhana, 7, 248.
Pancattayya, 148.
Paramatthaka, 252.
Parabhava, 242.
Pasura, 252.
Pasadika, 112.
Patika, 109.
Payasi, 36, 108.
Pindapataparisuddhi,

157.

Piyajatika, 145.
Potali, 136.
Potthapada, 93.
Punnovada, 155.
Purabkeda, 252.
Ratana, 196, 244.
Rathavinita, 128.
Ratthapala, 143.
Rahula, 247.
Rajagaha, 15.
Sabbasava, 117.
Saccavibhanga, 155.
Sakkapanha, 106.
Salayatana, 154.
Salla, 250.
SaUekha, 120.
Samanamandika, 142.
Sammaditthi, 120.
Sammaparibba j aniya,

247.

Sampasadaniya, 112.
Sandaka, 141.

Sutta, Sangarava, 147.
Sangiti, 114.
Sankharuppatti, 152.
Sappurisa, 150.
SatipattMna, 121.
Saleyyaka, 134.
Samagama, 148.
Samannaphala, 17, 29,

84.

Sariputta, 253.
Savatthiya, 15.
Sekha, 136.
Sela, 6, 146, 250.
Sevitabba-Asevitabba,

151.

Singalovada, 113.
Sobhiya, 249.
Sonadanda, 88.
Subha, 94, 147.
Subhasita, 249.
Suddhattbaka, 252.
Sunakkhatta, 149.
Sundarikabharad vaj a,

249.

Tevijja, 95.

Tevijjavacchagotta, 140.
Tirokudda, 8, 197.
Tissametteyya, 252.
Tuvataka, 253.
Uddesavibhanga, 154.
Udumbarikaslhanada,

110.

Upakkilesa, 153.
Upali, 136.
Uraga, 6, 241.
Vakkala, 152.
Vammika, 128.
Vanapatha, 126.
Vanglsa, 247.
Vasala, 242.
Vatthupama, 119.
Vaseftha, 147, 250.
Vekhanassa, 143.
Veranjaka, 134.
Vijaya, 243.
Vimamsaka, 135.
Vitakkasanthana, 127.
Suttavibhahga, 7, 17, 45;
Kosambiya, 15, 16 ; Raja-

A History of Pali Literature

gahe, 15, 16 ; Savatthiya, 15,
16.

Sutta Nipata, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
40, 42, 232, 632 ; editions and
translations of, 257 ; its im-
portance in the history of the
middle Indo-Aryan lang-
uages, 258.

Sutta Nipata commentary,

Suvannabhumi, 554.
Suzuki, xxvii.

Tailang, xxvii.
Takakusu, xxvii, 115, 339.
Takkasila, 555.
Tambapanni, 14.
Tathagata/94, 95, 100, 318.
Taxila, University of, xx,

455.

Taylor, Arnold, xxvi.
Tekicchakari, 40.
Telakatahagatha, 611, 623.
Thera-Therlgatha, 1, 39.
Theragatha, 1, 263, 264.
Theravada, xvi.
Theragatha commentary, 500.
Therigatha, 1 264 ; essence of

Buddhism involved in, 265.
Therigatha commentary, 508.
Thomas, E. J., xviii, xxvi.
Thullananda, 78.
Thuna, 63.
Thupavamsa, 562.
Tin, P. Maung, xxvii.
Tissa, Moggah'putta, 9, 564,

574.

Tissa Samanera, 418.
Trenckner, V, xxvi.
Tumour, xxvi, 533.

Udana, 1, 33, 41, 225.
Udanavarga, 220.
Ujjain, xx.
UjjenI, xxiv,
University of Taxila, xx.
Upali, 63, 444.
Upaniahads, 84, 91.
Uposatha Samyutta, 31.

Uppalavanna, 408, 510.
Uslradhaja, 63.
Uttarakuru, 408, 556.
Uttaravinicchaya, 384, 397.
Uttarapathaka, 27, 408.

Vagga, Appamada, 201.

Arahanta, 202.

Atta, 205.

Atthaka, 251.

Bala, 202.

Bhikkhu, 213.

Bodhi, 227.

Brahmana, 213.

Buddha,' 206.

Citta, 201.

Cula, 228, 244.

Danda, 204.

Dhammattha, 208.

Jaccandha, 228.

Jara, 204.

Khandha, 158.

Kodha, 208.

Loka, 206.

Magga, 210.

Maha, 159, 248, 282.

Mala, 208.

Meghiya, 227.

Mucalinda, 227.

Nanda, 227.

Nidana, 158.

Pakinnaka, 211.

Pandita, 202.

Pafina, 284.

Papa, 203.

Parayana, 253.

Pataligamiya, 228.

Puppha, 201.

Sagatha, 158.

Sahassa, 203.

Salayatana, 159.

Sona, 227.

Tanha, 212.

Uraga, 241.

Yamaka, 200.
Vai6ali, 649.
Vanga, 369.
Vanglsa, 443.
Vasumitra, 339.

Index

689

VatVgamani, xx, 11, 12, 13,

14, 26, 34, 598.
Vaftapotaka, 299.
Vatthugathas, 4, 6, 7, 254.
Vajiriya, 27.
Vanarinda, 299.
Vatsayana, 147.
Vedangas, 630.
Vedas, 91.
Vedic mantras, 95.
Vesall, 554.
Vessantara, 293.
Vetullaka, 27.
Vibhajjavadin, xii.
Vibhanga, 313.

Bhikkhu-Bhikkhuni, 17.

Bojjhahga, 315.

Dhammahadaya, 316.

Indriya, 315.

Jnana, 316.

Khuddakavatthuvi-
bhanga, 316.

Magga, 315.

Paiisambhida, 316.

Sacca, 24, 315.
Vibhahgas, 10, 12, 16, 24, 25,

26.
Vidyabhuana, Satish Chandra,

xxvii.

Vidyasundara, 647.
Views, current philosophical,

82.

Vijaya, 542.
Vijnanakaya, 340.
Vilata, 369.
Vimala-kondanna, 502.

Vimanavatthu, 36, 42, 260, 261.
Vimanavatthu commentary,

481.
Vinaya, xi ; Bhikkhu, 18 ; Gihi,

18 ; Ubhato, 16.
Vinaya texts, 78.
Vinayasamukase, 192.
Vinayavatthus, 16.
Vinayavinicchaya, 377, 397,

559.

Vindhja mountains, xix.
Visakha, 469.
Visuddhimagga, ix, xxiii, 399,

400, 401, 403, 404, 410, 627.
Vitasoka, 40.
Vuttodaya, 638.
Vyakarana, 630.

Walleser, Max, xviii, xxvi.
Warren, xxvi.
Watanabe, xxvii.
Westergaard, xx, xxvi.
Windisch, xix, xxvi.
Winternitz, xix, xx, xxvi.
Woods, James, xxvi.
Woodward, xxvi.

Yamaka, 42, 333
334 ; Citta, 334
334 ; Dhatu, 334
334 ; Mula, 334,

Yamuna, 369, 437.

Yasodhara, 302, 620.

Zetland, Lord, 261.
Zoysa, xxvii.

Anusaya,
Dhamma,
Khandha,

Published by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., 38, Great Ruaeell

Street, London, W.C. 1, and Printed by P. Knight,

Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta.

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