Aims and methods of high school Latin

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VOL. 9

SEPTEMBER 1. 1913

No. 17

University of Pittsburgh
Bulletin

Latin Series

Number One

Aims and Methods

OF

High School Latin

BY

B. L. ULLMAN, Ph. D.

Professor of Latin

Published Semi-Monthly by the University oJ Pittsburgh

Entered June 4, 1910, at the Post Office at Pittsburgh, Pa.,

as second class matter under act of Congress of

July 16, 1894.

VOL. 9 SEPTEMBER 1. 1913 No. 17

University of Pittsburgh
Bulletin

Latin Series Number One

Aims and Methods

OF

High School Latin

BY

B. L. ULLMAN, Ph. D.

Professor of Latin

Published Semi- Monthly by the University of Pittsburgh

Entered June 4, 1910, at the Post Office at Pittsburgh, Pa.

as second class matter under act of Congress of

July 16, 1894.

PREFATORY NOTE.

The University of Pittsburgh believes that it is its function to be of
the greatest possible service to the people of Western Pennsylvania. The
department of Latin of the University desires to do its share towards the
accomplishment of this aim. One of the plans of the department is to
publish a series of bulletins that may be of value to the principals and
Latin teachers of the high schools of Western Pennsylvania, especially
those who can not avail themselves of the courses of instruction at this
University, or elsewhere. It is intended that these bulletins shall treat of
methods of teaching, the course of study, points to be emphasized, making
the subject interesting, etc. Bibliographical notes are to be included. The
intention is to be suggestive and helpful rather than exhaustive and novel.
Besides publishing these bulletins from time to time, the department of
Latin is at all times ready to assist Latin teachers and others in any
way it can in matters of teaching, encouraging the Qassics, etc. — to be
a clearing-house for all matters pertaining to Latin in this part of the
state. Suggestions for this purpose and for the bulletin will be wel-
comed.

B. L. Ullman, Professor of Latin.

Copies of the Bulletin may be had free by addressing the Secretary,

University of Pittsburgh.

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AIMS AND METHODS OF HIGH SCHOOL LATIN

It is the purpose of this bulletin to suggest to teachers of Latin that
it is highly desirable for them to ask themselves what their aims are in
teaching Latin and how those aims affect or should affect their methods
— for we can not discuss methods profitably until we have come to some
conclusion about aims. This fundamental truth is not always remem-
bered by those who talk about methods. To achieve the purpose indi-
cated, it is proposed to present the various aims and to make brief com-
ments on methods suggested by them, more detailed discussion being left
to another time.

Entirely too many teachers will say that they have no aims, that,
though they know little about the subject and have no interest in it, they
have been assigned classes in Latin against their wishes, or that they are
teaching Latin because the positions which they are holding pay better
than others, etc. In this state of affairs lies the responsibility, it seems
to me, for much of the dissatisfaction with the American high school.
It is asserted that none of the subjects is properly taught and that poor-
ly equipped teachers have passed on their meagre knowledge to their
successors. The fault is not that of the teacher but of the authorities or
the community. I do not mean to say, of course, that a narrow specialist
is needed in the high school, or that a person with a thorough knowledge
of his subject is sure to be a good teacher. Unfortunately, the prom-
inence given in recent years to teaching students in distinction from
teaching Latin or any given subject has tended to give the impression
that a knowledge of principles and methods of teaching, etc., is all-im-
portant and that a knowledge of the subject is of lesser importance. As
a matter of fact, both are important — ^but an adequate knowledge of the
subject must come first. Horse and cart are both necessary, but progress
will be somewhat slow if you get them in the wrong order.

Let us return to our main point — the aim or aims of high school
Latin. Some teachers say that their entire aim is to prepare students for
college entrance examinations. Such a statement today betrays either
ignorance or prejudice. For in the first place, many colleges now admit
students on certificate (and this is particularly true of the colleges which
the majority of Western Pennsylvania students attend), and, in the sec-
ond place, even those colleges which require examination have, for the
most part, so modified their examinations that teachers now have little
reason to say that their sole aim is to prepare for these examinations.
This change has been due to a report of a representative Committee of
Fifteen which recommended that greater attention be given in the examina-
tions to the ability to translate Latin at sight. A detailed discussion of

AIMS AND METHODS

this important report must be left to another bulletin, as it involves the
question of the high school course in Latin. It must not be overlooked
that many colleges go much farther than the Committee's suggestions. It
can not be said then that the high school Latin teachers of Western
Pennsylvania are dominated by the colleges as far as aims and methods
are concerned.

Some of us take the position that our aim is so obviously to teach
the student to read Latin with understanding that any discussion of the
matter is superfluous. In a way this is of course true, but the trouble
is that it does not go deep enough. Why should our students be able to
read Latin? Evidently we can not be satisfied with so general a guiding
principle. When we come down to "brass tacks" we see that our aims
must coincide with our conceptions of the educational values of Latin.

There are many who would say categorically that our only aim is
to instil an appreciation of Latin literature. If this be so, then we can
not expect many students to study Latin. The majority of students can
not be expected to reach a stage of appreciation during the high school
course that would justify the expenditure of one-fourth of their time,
and we can not go on the supposition that they will go to college and
continue Latin there. We must leave the college out of consideration
and think of the high school coiirse as an end-all and be-all in itself;
for it must be understood that we are trying to justify the study of Latin
by the thousands whose Latin course does not extend beyond the high
school. Furthermore we must keep in mind the students who do not
complete even the high school Latin course. If literary appreciation is to
be the chief aim, we must be content to see a comparatively small number
of Latin students in our schools. I do not of course mean that literary
appreciation has no place at all in the high school Latin course — we shall
see in a moment what that place is.

It seems rather that there should be several aims of Latin study —
the more that we can accomplish by teaching Latin, the more suitable a
subject it is for the high school. There is thus no reason to attack
Latin because teachers can not agree on any one aim. The important
aims may be grouped under four heads: i) mental discipline, 2) help in
English and all language study, 3) literary appreciation, 4) historical
perspective. Teachers differ as to the relative importance of these.
Taking the high school Latin course as a whole, the second seems to me
the most important; in the early years the first is more important than
the third or fourth; in the later years the reverse is true; finally the
fourth seems more important than the third. The first two are far more
easy of attainment and appeal to far more persons than the third. Let
us discuss them in order.

HIGH SCHOOL LATIN

I. Mental Discipline.

A few years ago many educators scoffed at the idea of getting "for-
mal discipline", as it was called, from any subject; i. e-, it was denied that
any mental habit could be transferred from one field to another. The
anti-discipline movement, like many others, was not altogether without
basis of truth, and thus had a wholesome effect, but the consensus of
opinion to-day is that there is such a thing as discipline (we now call it
"mental" discipline) and that it is an extremely important function of
the high school course.l But it is often asserted that other subjects give
discipline besides Latin. This is true, but it seems to me that Latin is a
better-balanced discipline than other subjects, and that this fact, together
with its other advantages, makes it a highly efficient educational instru-
ment. It has been said that "the science of language is the subject
which of all the circle of the Sciences affords us the most satisfactory
revelations about human thought and methods of apprehension."2 And
as for Latin, it has been said that "an inherent logic [is] the main char-
acteristic of the Latin language and grammar."3 Let us try to analyze
(difficult though it be) what we mean by discipline and see if our claims
are justified, and at the same time consider what influence the aim to apply
effectively the various forms of discipline should have on method.

The power of observation — correct observation — is necessarily culti-
vated more in Latin than in modern languages because of the greater
number of forms. It is necessary for the student to recognize the forms
in the sentence before he can translate it. Since this is fundamental, it
is all-important for the student to learn the forms at the beginning of his
course. Drill on forms is thus the chief work of the first year. This does
not mean merely memorizing a list of them. The student must know the
forms — he must associate meaning and function with each individual one
in order to recognize them when he meets the form. One might

Johnston, High School Education, p. 44: "Finally it should be kept
constantly in mind that, in the considerations of this chapter, two vital
questions are involved. One is that we must make our choice of studies
and of selected materials in these studies with reference to the discip-
linary effects inherent in them, as well as with reference to the imme-
diate social use and advantage they possess. The other is that, after
our curriculum subjects and the particular topics within these special
fields have been settled upon, we must refine our methods so as to
make the best possible use of the subject-matter in the course."
Quoted by Weise, Language and Character of the Roman People
(English translation), p. 64.
Ibid. p. 55-

8 AIMS AND METHODS

train a South Sea Islander unacquainted with English to recite from
memory the soliloquy from "Hamlet". To an American listener the
sounds would convey a meaning, to the speaker they would be merely a
succession of sounds. In the case of most students who do poor work in
Latin in their later years the trouble goes back to the first year, and much
of the trouble of the first year is due to this sort of mechanical memoriz-
ing.

We need then intelligent drill in forms in the first year, but further
than that we need accurate observation of forms in the following years.
Insistence on this point is essential to real progress, and at the same
time acts as a stimulus to correct observation and thus is invaluable for
discipline.

After a given set of facts has been observed, the next step is to re-
late them to each other by the reasoning process. This is exactly what
must be done in translating a Latin sentence — more so than in a modern
language. As far as the process of reasoning is concerned reading Eng-
lish is like watching the spokes of a rapidly moving wheel — we get only
the general effect; our reading of a modern foreign language is like
watching the spokes when the wheel moves slowly; reading Latin gives
one the opportunity of examining carefully the individual spokes of the
motionless wheel. In order to learn Latin and in order to gain the full
benefit of this discipline, it is important that the- teacher constantly en-
courage correct reasoning. Let us illustrate the processes of observation
and reasoning by a concrete example: In hostis castris eram. A care-
less student starts to translate thus : 'Tn the enemy" — and stops. The
teacher asks what the case of hostis is and by judicious questions and
suggestions he gets at the correct answer. "If it is genitive, can it be the
object of int" asks the teacher. "No," is the answer. "Why?" "Because
prepositions do not govern the genitive." "What must be the construc-
tion of hostis then?" "It must depend on castris," etc. This sort of
thing m.ust go on continually in the class-room during the earlier work.
Gradually the pupils make fewer mistakes, the teacher takes more things
for granted, and the details of the reasoning process are laid bare less
often. It is the teacher's art to know both what he needs to ask and
what not to ask. To give the student the greatest amount of discipline
the teacher should force the student to think for himself. A lazy stud-
ent often makes an unreasonable answer to a question on construction.
The teacher must keep at him till he makes him think it out. The ef-
fect will be salutary to the individual and the class. It is discipline in
a double sense.

Latin syntax should be taught, in some measure, at least, as a reason-
able thing. The inductive method — impossible if carried to extremes —
can be of some service here. In taking up certain new constructions, the

HIGH SCHOOL LATIN

student may be taught to observe certain facts, and to reason out rules
from them — all under the guidance of the teacher. And this suggests
that nothing should be more welcomed by the Latin teacher than the
supervized-study plan which is being introduced in some schools. Proper
supervision (which does not mean doing the student's work for him) is
bound vo improve the work done. For one thing it will help in the mat-
ter of "ponies" — a disease which comes over some schools like a blight
and leaves others untouched.

Altogether, then, this observation and reasoning, with the necessity
for accuracy, concentration and hard work which it entails, furnishes in
Latin a "splendid mental discipline", to use the words of one who is none
too good a friend of Latin, President G. Stanley Hall.l

XL Aid in English and Language Study.

Let us consider the value of Latin for English, and its effect on
aims and methods. First, there is the fundamental language value of
Latin syntax. One often hears people say that they knew no English
grammar until they studied Latin. French and German are just as de-
pendent on Latin for this purpose and therefore can not serve as a sub-
stitute for Latin. The Latin teacher should keep this value of Latin in
mind when teaching syntax — he should compare and contrast English
and Latin syntax. Even more important is the matter of vocabulary. The
English words that everybody knows from childhood are mostlv of
Anglo-Saxon origin; the words that we learn later are largely of Latin
origin, directly or indirectly. The objection has been raised that the
meanings of such words are usually not the same as they were in the
Classical Latin authors which we read, but as they were in late Latin
and the Romance languages; that, therefore, a Romance language like
French should be studied instead of Classical Latin. This objection be-
trays utter misapprehension of the point. Why study any language but
our own? Why go to the trouble of learning that the Latin form of 'con-
science' is 'conscientia', or that the French form of 'scruple' is 'scrupule'?
It is because the word has changed in meaning fc^t it is essential to get
at the original meaning, and this for two reasonja : sometimes an English
word derived from the Latin is used in several senses — the original and
a derived meaning, and we must be able to sec how the latter grew out
of the former, and, secondly, a word is often used in a combination of
senses picturing its whole history. Both of these things are due to the
fact that most of the men who have molded our language have been thor-
oughly acquainted with Latin — Classical Latin.

1 In a lecture at the University of Pittsburj*^, July 9, 1913.

/

10 AIMS AND METHODS

The importance of Latin for English vocabulary should be recognized
in the teaching. English derivatives should always be sought out by the
student under the teacher's direction from the very beginning of Latin
study. The teacher must get the pupil into the habit of associating the
Latin word and the English derivatives. An interesting experiment for
the teacher to try by himself and to illustrate before the class is to take
a paragraph or page of Latin and to see how few of the words have no
English derivatives. This emphasis on derivation has a practical result
for the Latin itself. It is a great help in the acquisition of a Latin vo-
cabulary. Getting a vocabulary is a matter of associations, and the most
useful and natural associations are those of Latin word and English de-
rivatives. While we are on this point, it may be said that getting the
meaning of the new words in a Latin sentence should not be difficult —
what with English derivatives, related Latin words and the context — the
difficulty is in recognizing the form. To take the example given above,
the student does not know whether hostis is dative or ablative plural of
the first or second declension, or genitive singular of the third. The
special vocabularies in our school editions are great evils, though nec-
essary ones, apparently, under our present system. It might be a great
help if they merely gave the information about the form of the word (e.
g., hostis, noun, masc, gen. hostis) and omitted the English translation,
leaving it to the notes to supply it when absolutely necessary. There is
no question but that students are altogether too dependent on the vocab-
ulary. A partial remedy, even with our present books, is to do a good
deal of sight reading— in which the teacher should lead the student to find
the meaning of the new words and not tell him outright.

Another thing to be stressed for the sake of the English is Latin
word formation. Finally, teachers should be extremely careful about the
English that the students use in translating. This is apt to be one of
the weak points in the Latin work. I doubt if the student's English is
harmed by slip-shod translation in the Latin class-room, as some main-
tain, but it certainly is not improved, and thus one of our most import-
ant aims may in part be nullified. A striking testimonial to the value of
Latin for English is given by Mr. A- S. Perkins of the Dorchester, Mass.
High School in the Cl^sical Journal, 8. 301. The teachers of the com-
mercial department of thv:f;^hool asked that Latin be substituted for mod-
ern language in the firsts wo years because their experience told them
that the Latin students h^id a better knowledge of English, and good
English was indispensable to the commercial graduate. The advantage
of the Latin student consisted, they felt, "in giving a better idea of the
meaning of words, and in imparting an observable facility in expressing
oneself." Mr. Perkins rigHtly concluded that this value of Latin was
so important that he ought *a adapt his method of teaching to it. He in-

r

HIGH SCHOOL LATIN 11

srsted on correct English in translating, demanding much written work
for this purpose, and required considerable study of English words de-
rived from Latin, Such emphasis should not be limited to a two-year
course for commercial students, but should find a place in all high schools.
One result will be to make it more profitable than it has been in some
schools for students to take one or two years of Latin,

III. Literary Appreciation.

In discussing literary appreciation as an aim of high school Latin
teaching we need to have clearly in mind what we mean by the term.
Some have used it rather loosely to cover some of the points discussed
above, as well as those included in our fourth aim. Assuming, however,
that by literature we mean a form of art, it is clear that the literary ap-
preciation to be acquired in the first two years is trifling. In dealing with
Cicero, however, attention should be given to the chief features of his
periodic style, — chiasmus, anaphora, etc. Indeed, a little conscious at-
tention to these matters will make it far easier for the student to learn
to read Cicero. Appreciation of Cicero is vital; he who likes Cicero likes
Latin; he who knows Cicero knows Latin, more than that, he knows
English style. No one has had greater influence, directly and indirectly,
on English style than Cicero. Some of this influence can and should be
pointed out — a notable example is Burke. But in the fourth year, with
its poetry, still greater stress should be laid on the literary side. Scan-
sion is, or should be, taught solely for the purpose of adding charm to
the verse. Virgil, as Cicero, should be brought into relation with Eng-
lish literature, Virgil and Ovid furnish convenient starting points for
the study of mythology — a knowledge of which is so important for the
study of both English and Latin literature. But there is something more
which can not be so definitely stated. It is enough to say that if the
teacher himself appreciates the literature he will pass on some of his
appreciation to his students.

IV. Historical Perspective.

Then there is a fourth aim which we should keep in mind — what we
may roughly call the historical, and its value may be called a social one.
We may say that it consists in comparing and contrasting ancient and
modern civilization. The essential .hing is to impress on the student
the modernness of antiquity and the antiquity of modernness. A broad
course in history, excellent as it is, can not give this impression. But a

12 AIMS AND METHODS

comparison of Roman politics as described by Cicero and Sallust with
modern politics is bound to have an effect. The present age seems to de-
light in the concrete, and this is especially true of the school-boy. To
read about the remarkable life of Julius Caesar may not bring him very
near to us, but if this reading is accompanied by that of some of the
original words of this man it can not fail to be impressive. The teacher
who does not connect the text of Caesar with Caesar the man is missing
a great opportunity. As with literary appreciation, so with historical ap-
preciation— the teacher himself must have it to impart to his students.
The lives of Caesar and Cicero, the relation of Virgil to Augustus, cer-
tain phases of Roman life, private and public, social and political — the
background needed for the reading of the texts — are the materials that
the teacher should utilize in his method.

When we sum it all up, we find that, by making these our aims, we
nre using an excellent method of teaching the student to read Latin; by
keeping in mind the first two aims, we teach him to read with under-
standing— knowing what the Latin says to us, — by keeping in mind the
last two aims, we teach him to read with intelligence — knowing what the
Latin means to us.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.

Aims, etc.

Johnston, High School Education (1912, Scribner, $1.50). This book,
the latest on the subject, is based on the correct assumption that no
one person can speak authoritatively on the teaching of all the high
school subjects. The excellent chapter on Latin (p. 257!) is by A-
T. Walkerr

Kelsey, Latin and Greek in American Education (1911, Macmillan,
$1.50). An invaluable collection of papers by various men on the
position and value of the Classics, particularly from the standpoint of
the professions. Chapter II (Kelsey) deals with aims. Cf. also p.
303, "The Case for the Classics" (S^iorey), a summary of arguments
for and against the Classics, with copious references to the litera-
ture of the subject; emphasizes the point that the Classics depend
not on any on6 value but on all together.

Bennett and Bristol, The Teaching of Latin and Greek in the Sec-
ondary School (new edition, 19I1, Longmans, Green), chapter I.
Emphasizes the value of translation for English. Bibliography of the
older literature.
Classical Journal 5.232. Summa y of opinions of a number of teach-

HIGH SCHOOL LATIN X3

Qassical Journal 6.233. Emphasizes disciplinary value and value for
English (Lord).

Classical Journal 3.221. Deals briefly with the four aims (Greene).
Sabin, An Exhibit Showing in Concrete Form the Relation of Greek
and Latin to Practical Life (to be published 1913, not over $5). Will
contain the material collected by a Latin teacher for use with her
classes. A unique work which promises to be of very great value.
For details see Classical Journal 8.230.

Committee of Fifteen on entrance requirements.

The complete report may be found in the Classical Weekly 3.98 and
the Classical Journal 5.155.

Latin and English.

Classical Weekly 5.201. From the standpoint of a professor of Eng-
lish (Sherman).

University of Michigan Bulletin, New Series, Vol. XIII, No. 5, p.
59. Emphasizes English value and insists on new methods (Gray).
University of New Mexico Bulletin, Educational Series, Vol. I, No.
4 (sent free on request). The same author (Gray) expresses the
same views at greater length. Contains much that is excellent, but
over-stresses the value for English.

School Review 19.569. Emphasizes English value and suggests a sep-
arate second year class for those who take but two years of Latin
(Scott). This seems unnecessary.

English derivatives.

Perkins in the article quoted above (Classical Journal 8.301) lists
some books that have aided him. Particularly valuable is Greenough
and Kittredge, Words and Their Ways in English Speech (1901, Mac-
. millan).

Word formation.

Jenks, Manual of Latin Word Formation (Heath, $-50) is indispen-
sable for the teacher.

Literary appreciation.

Classical Journal 7.34. Summary of opinions of a number of teachers.

Historical aim.

Abbott, Society and Politics in Ancient Rome (1909, Scribner, $1.25),
p. 22f. A comparison of the senates of Rome and the United States.
Classical Weekly (to be published in vol. 7). A comparison of Amer-
ican politics with politics of Cicero's day (Ullman).
Classical Journal (to be published in vol. 9). A discussion of the
"recall" in ancient Rome (Sage). Helps to explain political condi-
tions in the time of Caesar and Cicero.

14 AIMS AND METHODS „____

In the above list reference is made to a number of articles in the Classi-
cal Weekly and the Classical Journal. Both of these are indispensable to
the teacher on all matters pertaining to Latin. Residents of Pennsylvania
can obtain the former (28 issues per year) only by becoming members
of the Classical Association of the Atlantic States ($2 per year; address
Chas. Knapp, Barnard College, New York). Members may obtain back
volumes (1-6) for $1 each, and the Classical Journal (9 issues per year)
at the reduced rate of $1 per year (regular rate $1.50). The School Re-
view (University of Chicago Press) and the Educational Review (Colum-
bia University) occasionally contain articles dealing with Latin.

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