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GIFT OF
Agriculture education

AIMS AND METHODS

NATURE STUDY

THE AIMS AND METHODS

NATURE STUDY

A GUIDE FOE TEACHERS

JOHN EENNIE, D.Sc., F.E.S.E.

LECTURER, AND ASSISTANT TO THE PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, IN THE

UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN ; ASSISTANT LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY IN THE

ABERDEEN AND NORTH OF SCOTLAND COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
PROFESSOR J. AKTHUK THOMSON

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN

Third Impression

BALTIMORE, MD., U.S.A.

WARWICK & YORK, INC.
tutorial lpre66 Xfc.

ENGLAND

AGRIG, HFPT,

PREFACE.

THE aim of this book is entirely practical in the sense
that the classroom and its needs have been reckoned with
throughout. It is a book intended to assist teachers of
Nature Study, and sets before them the ideals which the
author after a number of years' experience has come to
regard as the most worthy. The value of the work is
enhanced by the inclusion of an Introduction by Professor
J. Arthur Thomson, whose approval of the educational
soundness of its aims and methods constitutes an
authoritative recommendation of importance, and one
which is sincerely appreciated by the author.

Besides setting forth educational ideals the work offers
guidance in the planning of courses in keeping with these ;
by means of fairly numerous and varied illustrations it
suggests methods of teaching and generally indicates the
best means which in the opinion of the author tend to the
attainment and maintenance of efficiency in this subject.
In the Courses framed and in the notes given elsewhere,
e.g. in Chapters XXV., XXVL, and XXVII., the require-
ments of teachers in training for Rural School work in
Scotland have been kept in view. To this extent practical
values of Nature Study have been borne in mind.

While the needs of the classroom have been kept in
view in the sense that the work suggested is such as can
be carried out without disorganisation of the school

Till PREFACE.

routine, the author aims at transferring to the school lesson
something of the free spirit of gladness which the child find
in Nature out of doors, and that without imperilling disci-
pline. Considerable emphasis is laid upon the develop-
ment of outdoor work, controlled without being in any
degree irksome, and linked to appropriate indoor studies,
as the line leading to success.

During past years the author has had numerous oppor-
tunities of discussing Nature work with teachers of ex-
perience ; he desires to acknowledge that in the many
classes for teachers he has conducted he has profited much
from their practical experience. There are various hints
embodied in this work and information supplied by teacher
friends which require acknowledgment. In particular
thanks are due to Miss Proctor, Gordon Schools, Huntly,
for permission to reproduce her Nature Calendar as a
frontispiece ; to Miss Tennant, of the same institution, for
extracts from her pupils' notes of observations ; and to Dr.
A. W. Gribb, of Aberdeen University, who has written the
chapter on " Some Common Kocks." Other acknowledg-
ments are made in the text. Thanks are also due to
Mr. William Smith, jun., who has drawn from nature
nearly all the zoological figures, and who has copied the
frontispiece with taste and skill.

J. E.

UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN,
2&th March, 1910.

CONTENTS.

PACE

Introduction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xi

CHAPTER

I. THE IDEALS OF NATURE STUDY 1

II. OUR METHODS IN GENERAL.— OUTDOOR AND

INDOOR STUDIES 6

III. SCHOOL COURSES ... 15

IV. NATURE STUDY IN THE TOWN ... 52

V. COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT 56

VI. EXERCISES IN DESCRIPTION 76

VII. FROGS AND TOADS 80

VIII. SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY 91

IX. SOME COMMON MAMMALS 131

X. THE STUDY OF SHELLS 142

XI. THE SNAIL (Helix Aspersa) 150

XII. SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF IN-
SECTS ... 153

XIII. THE EARTHWORM 176

XIV. THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS ... 180
XV. ANIMAL LIFE AND WINTER „ 192

XVI. PLANT IDENTIFICATION 195

XVII. A LESSON ON BUTTERCUPS 206

XVIII. THE STUDY OF LEAVES 216

XIX. THE STUDY OF FLOWERS 226

X CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PAGE

XX. STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS 238

XXI. THE STUDY OF TREES 250

XXII. ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF FERNS • ... 272

XXIII. PROCESSES OF DECAY 277

XXIV. ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF SOME COMMON

ROCKS 281

XXV. THE SCHOOL GARDEN 288

XXVI. SOME INSECTS OF" ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE ... 309

XXVII. SUGGESTIONS FOR WEATHER STUDY 315

XXVIII. SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT ... 327

GLOSSARY , 339

INDEX 31G

INTRODUCTION.

BY PROFESSOR J. ARTHUR THOMSON, UNIVERSITY OP
ABERDEEN.

THIS book is intended to help teachers in their Nature-
Study courses in school^ and I wish to commend it strongly
to their consideration since I have seen for many years
now the excellent results reached by the author in teaching
along the lines here indicated, and since I believe in the
educational soundness of the aims and methods which he
has ably illustrated in the pages that follow. The con-
clusions I have come to as the result of many experi-
ments in Nature Study are in close agreement with
Dr. Eemiie's, so it is at the risk of slightly overlapping
his first chapter that I propose to state some of them in
this Introduction.

What is Nature Study but the old broad wholesome
Natural History — the study of our natural surroundings
and what goes on there ? It is as high as the heavens
and as deep as the sea, but in any particular case it should
not be as wide as the world, for, like charity, it begins at
home !

Just as there is one big science — the Science of the
Order of Nature — so we cannot tie down Nature Study.
It is just an inquisitive, appreciative, intelligent outlook
on Natural Phenomena ; it is learning to interpret natural
happenings ; it is an application of many sciences with a
particular purpose.

Xll INTRODUCTION.

Let me give two definitions by two great authorities.
" Nature Study is learning those things in Nature that
are best worth knowing, to the end of doing those things
that make life most worth living" (Hodge). "Nature
Study is the culture of the habit of observing and thinking
for one's self, and at one's best, without books or helps, in
presence of the facts, and in the open air" (G-eddes). I
should supplement these truths by saying that " In Nature
Study we aim at seeing, understanding, enjoying and prac-
tically learning from the natural world round about us."

If there be validity in the view of Nature Study briefly
suggested above — and expounded in this book — then there
are several very important practical corollaries.

(1) For instance, Nature Study should vary in garb
according to the locality. Its urban expression is different
from its rural expression. Here it should be more physio-
graphical and there more biological ; here it should have
much to do with stones and there with flowers ; here it
should make much of the migrating birds and there of
the shifting clouds. It matters not what the predominant
subject-matter is if it be congruent with the locality, if it
be not too narrow, and if it be not dwelt on so persistently
that the youthful mind becomes bored. All roads lead to
Eome, and what we wish to develop is not so much know-
ledge as a lively interest, a scientific way of looking at
things, and some joyful appreciation besides.

(2) Again, Nature Study should vary in expression
according to the teacher. Every man should teach his
own hobby, and it is better to ride our hobby than wait
indefinitely for Pegasus. Enthusiasm is personally infec-
tious. Moreover, although there is truth in the common
educational maxim that we should work from the general
to the particular, there is reason to believe that most
children care more for a turn of the road than for scenery,
more about particular flowers than "the plant," more

INTRODUCTION. Xlll

about the birds the teacher allowed himself to be enthu-
siastic over than about " the living organism."

(3) Again, the Nature Study should vary in expression
with the seasons, and since I believe very strongly that the
seasonal order of study is the most natural, the most con-
venient, the most vivid, the most successful order, I am
glad that the author has laid particular emphasis on this.
There are many obvious advantages in the seasonal order
of study, and some which are not so obvious and are pro-
bably more important. We may note, for instance, that
the seasons have subtle influences on human life, and the
natural phenomena of the outer world will be studied with
most sympathy and insight at the time of their occurrence.

Dr. Eennie has spoken temperately in regard to the
values of Nature Study, and perhaps it is well not to say
too much about them, leaving the teacher the pleasure of
discovering them. The difficulty is that one does not
really believe in the values of a particular discipline until
one sees them, and yet one cannot teach well what one does
not believe in. My conviction is that effective Nature
Study is very difficult, but that when it is effective it is
very valuable.

In the hands of skilful teachers I have seen Nature Study
prove itself of value in school (a) in developing sensory
acuteness and precision, (&) in educating inquisitive
interests, and (c) in brain- stretching — for there is a fine
discipline in its problems if they are honestly tackled.
Moreover, it helps us to find Nature " a joy for ever."
There is the practical side too, that it is actually useful
to understand something of those outer-world activities
that are intertwined with our human activities.

Speaking of values, however, I confess to the heresy that
one of the functions of science in schools is recreative in
the true sense. Not that one wishes amusement (in
the modern vulgar sense at least), nor careless, slipshod

XIV INTRODUCTION.

observation, nor making fun of facts ! And yet the serious-
ness may be preposterously overdone with young pupils.

Let me explain. Play is the natural expression of
youth, it has a deep biological significance, it is older even
than our humanity. Similarly, as Dr. Eennie points out,
interest in the world around us is a natural expression of
youth. Therefore, just as we must not peer into play too
much, inspecting and criticising, so we must not codify,
rationalise, and examinify Nature Study too much. Gram-
mar badly taught is very bad, but it does not spoil a life,
whereas harshly severe Nature Study may dim the eyes for
life. Only as we keep it fairly free and flexible will, as
Blackmore says, " a thousand winks of childhood widen
into one clear dream of age."

Therefore, while we wish to be thorough in parts and
most serious at times and clear always, we must keep in
mind the risk that scientific study prematurely forced may
blast the buds of joyous wonder. It is rather terrible that
the lover of flowers should be killed by the botanist, and
that he who has " a love exceeding a simple love of things
that glide in rushes and rubble of woody wreck " should
die that a " Nature-student " may live. I entirely agree,
therefore, with what the author says as to enjoying Nature.
Perhaps the via media is most likely to be found if we bear
in mind that what we wish is not information but inquisi-
tiveness, not learning-up about things but thinking about
things in presence of the things, not to teach scientific
principles (an understanding of which comes later, if ever)
but to develop the scientific mood which is as natural as
breathing.

The author illustrates a third aim of Nature Study
besides knowing Nature and enjoying her for ever, — and
that is learning lessons that are of practical use. This aim
is full of promise, and also full of danger. To learn a little
about the weather, about the seasons, about the soil, about

INTRODUCTION. XV

useful and injurious plants and animals, about wholesome
and unwholesome habits, about the loves of the plants and
animals, about the inter-relations of things in the web of
life, about the intertwining of nature activities and human
activities — it is all of use ; and yet the Nature Study in
schools will miss its aim if it becomes too practical, just
as it does if it become too emotional or too scientific. For
here, as in so many other cases, we come back to the
familiar truth that educational aims and method are sound
in proportion as they recognise the three sides of our nature
— knowing, feeling, and doing : head, heart, and hand.

As to methods, the illustration of which occupies so much
of Dr. Eennie's book, they may be reduced to three — so
easily stated, so difficult to follow.

(1) "We must be objective and practical throughout,
studying real things, remembering what a wise man once
said, " The better half of a liberal education may be ob-
tained without books at all." I hope this book will help
the teacher to get free from books in Nature Study.
They are means, his slaves ; he must not be theirs.

(2) We must keep along Socratic or heuristic lines,
asking questions, stimulating questions. One good ques-
tion asked us is of more value than many answers.
Nature is a rare Euclid, and the pupil must be encouraged
to solve its problems, and he will never do this if he is told
too much.

(3) More subtle is the quality of vitality, the dynamic
method. Unless the plant be felt as a living creature —
growing, feeding, breathing, digesting, moving, feeling,
even struggling — the gist of the business? has been missed.
Of course Nature Study includes much that is not living,
but the study of everything — even of the dust — may be
vitalised.

Many detailed hints rise in my mind as the results of
many mistakes. Big words, be they ever so comforting,

XVI INTRODUCTION.

are apt to be a snare, especially if they are abstract ; yet
our language must not be babyish. Nothing is common
or unclean ; yet stinks are not for school. Correlation with
other studies is wholesome, when it is not far-fetched.
Finally, so far as we can, we should try to suggest that
Nature Study never ends. We must try to leave each
study as something developable — like a seed in the mind.

NATURE STUDY,

CHAPTER I.

THE IDEALS OF NATURE STUDY.

IN approaching the subject of Nature Study with a view
to acting as guides to others in the same field it is desirable
that we should at the outset endeavour to arrive at a clear
understanding as to what service the study of nature can
render as an educational process, what claim nature has
upon us in the training of young people towards efficiency
in life, and what is the relation between Nature Study and
human life in general. In other words, our first question
is : What is the place of Nature Study in education, and
what is its relation to the larger sphere of human life ?

In considering the educational value of any subject, a
wide outlook is absolutely essential. In the present in-
stance it must be agreed that to allow children to grow
up, we shall not say ignorant of nature in general, but even
of those aspects of her which are most familiar, is to deprive
them of knowledge not only of a useful kind, but also such
as can afford them some of the purest and most elevating
pleasures in life.

It must be recognised here that Nature Study stands
apart from the formal science courses which already form
an important part of the discipline afforded in our school
curricula. Nature Study is more than formal science.
The latter is rigidly disciplinary, training hand, eye, and
intellect, at the same time equipping the mind with know-
ledge useful in the affairs of life. Of Nature Study, as we
seek to teach it, all this can be said, and more.

N. S. 1

2."

OF NATURE STUDY.

The discipline is not always so obviously rigid ; it is
gentler, but none the less real. There can be no doubt as
to the training of hand and eye, nor sometimes also of
hearing, taste, and smell. And the knowledge gained is
always mind-enriching, i.e. it constitutes culture, and is not
infrequently practical as well. But beyond discipline and
beyond the storing of the mind with facts, we aim in our
school studies at developing a cultured appreciation of
nature, a sympathetic recognition of her aesthetic aspects
— that is a love of the open enriched and enlightened by
knowledge.

In what particular way, let us ask, is this special value
applicable to the child ? Why should we seek these things
during school age ? First of all, it is well to recognise
that mankind may be said to possess a functional apprecia-
tion of nature.* It is our common experience that nature
in most of her moods affects us pleasurably. We feel
the exhilaration of the mountain top, the physiological
appreciation of the extended view — of the widened horizon ;
the fascination of the river, endless in its flow ; the interest
and mystery of the sea. We delight in the glory of the
sunset, or of the star-lit sky; in the autumn tints upon
the trees, and in the summer flowers ; in the grace of
movement of the birds and beasts of the field. These are
but the powers of life which are born within us.

All these, and such as these, are part of our common
experience, and their significance in the present connection
is that they are not simply the possession of men and
women of matured intellect. Specially cultivated and
enriched with knowledge they make of some men artists
and of others poets; but undeveloped these powers in
varying measure are unmistakably present in the child.
We see this functional appreciation in the child's love of
pretty things — flowers, leaves, butterflies, birds. When
we enquire into it we find that children love nature for the

* Put more generally, we may say that there is in man a func-
tional response to nature. The response is not always pleasurable,
though it may be hazarded that with increase of knowledge there
is in general increased appreciation of nature's moods and phases.

THE IDEALS OF NATURE STUDY. 3

same fundamental reason as the poet or artist does — they
appreciate FORM, COLOUR, and MOVEMENT. Children, for
example, gather shells on the sea- shore. They admire
them, they speak of lovely shells. So does Tennyson :

" See what a lovely shell
Small and pure as a pearl
Lying close to my foot,
Frail, but a work divine,
Made so fairily well
With delicate spire and whorl,
How exquisitely minute,
A miracle of design.

The tiny cell is forlorn,
Void of the little living will
That made it stir on the shore.
Did he stand at the diamond door
Of his house in a rainbow frill ?
Did he push when he was uncurled
A golden foot or a fairy horn
Through his dim water world ? "

Now just as there is to be seen' here clearly the transi-
tion from the functional to the intellectual appreciation of
nature's manifestations, so we may note this as an ideal in
our nature studies. Nature Study as apart from formal
science teaching is distinctively a response to the aesthetic
instinct, and as such alone claims important recognition in
school work. Apart from the values it undoubtedly has in
common with science, properly conducted it will yield a
cultured appreciation of nature at large, and will foster the
growth of human faculties for which only slight provision
has hitherto been made, and which too frequently have
been stifled at a period when they are most capable of
development. How this may be encouraged as part of the
school programme it is the aim of this work to show.

While we thus seek to make clear this important aspect
of Nature Study we do not overlook its other values. We
seek first to develop interest and delight in nature, but we

4 THE IDEALS OF NATURE STUDY.

know that something else follows. Buskin has laid it
down as " a quite general law " that " in the degree in
which you delight in the life of any creature, you can see
it, no otherwise." By seeing, in this sense, we know and
understand.

The child whose appreciation of natural objects is fos-
tered does not as a rule remain content with unintelligent
admiration. Out of a state of pleasant intellectual alert-
ness, which it is possible by suitable methods to induce in
the child, the teacher may guide along the paths of delibe-
rate, conscious, directed, observation of nature to profitable
intellectual studies. Enquiries arising out of observa-
tional studies, whether out of doors or in connection with
lessons in school, afford admirable intellectual discipline,
giving excellent scope for the exercise of the logical faculty.
Nature studies are disciplinary, training the mind to act
in a logical manner.

The knowledge acquired by the pupils in the study of
nature is of two kinds. Firstly, much of it is of practical
value. Whether it be the study of the weather, or of the
life histories of insects, or of the functions of plants, the
immediate bearing of the facts discovered upon agricultural
life in particular is not difficult to see, nor in many cases
to apply. And so in other cases.

But well guided nature studies must also yield knowledge
which enriches the mind with great ideas. Pupils cannot
fail to get glimpses of fundamental principles of nature,
e.g. the adaptedness of living things to the conditions of
their life, or to receive impressions which later in life will
enable them to grasp those principles more easily. Some-
thing will be gained when the average man or woman
realises, for example, an evolutionary development, not of
life only, but of the universe. Nature studies will prepare
the way. It will always be good if when they look at the
rocks they are able to realise that the world is old, or when
they see the flowers of the field, they remember a little of
what they have learned with regard to the mystery of how
they grow.

The nature studies, in dealing with concrete objects, are
not only valuable as a relief from those of a literary or

THE IDEALS OF KATURE STUDY. 5

abstract kind, but by being linked to other kinds of school
work serve to vitalise these. Our methods of study inti-
mately correlate the nature lesson and the drawing or paint-
ing one. Clay and cardboard modelling can also be worked
in association with nature studies, with profit on both sides.
For example, it will be found on examination of the lessons
outlined in this book, that in all studies of particular
objects an integral part of the lesson is the drawing of the
subject, whether bird, beast, flower, or leaf, and wherever
it is possible its representation in colour as well. Something
may be done with modelling also.

There can be no doubt as to the value on the artistic
side of the child exercising its art upon an object on which
it has been or is being guided to exercise its intellect also.
On the side of the nature lesson it is a well established
principle that for giving precision to observational work
pictorial representation or modelling stands in more im-
portant relation than handwriting does to literary com-
position. Also, for exercises in composition or written
description, these studies should be utilised; it will be
found that they not only add to the pupils' power of
expression, but that they distinctly foster precision of
language. Further, with the association of the best
nature literature it is possible to store the memories of
the pupils with sentiment of a lofty and enriching kind.

CHAPTER II.

OUR METHODS IN GENERAL.

OUTDOOR AND INDOOR STUDIES.

ALTHOUGH our subject is one for which much is claimed,
success in teaching depends upon the methods employed.
It is a subject in which it is particularly desirable that
general principles be kept well in view by the teacher, and
while considerable latitude is possible in the matter of
details, it should be the teacher's aim to carry out well
balanced courses, which will exercise an all-round influence
— aesthetic, disciplinary, informative — cultivating a love of
the open, each in degree suitable to the particular school
grade under instruction.

It will readily be recognised by the teacher that if our
ideals are to be realised, even in measure, a series of
lessons taught indoors on definite natural objects is not
sufficient. Our aim is

(1) to cultivate vital contact with the outdoor world;

(2) to exercise the various disciplines which Nature

Study is capable of supplying, so as to yield a wide
culture, together with an appreciation of human
relations — practical and other — to nature.

To effect these, some organisation for the carrying on
of outdoor work is required, and here certain practical
questions arise. Even in schools most favourably

OTTR METHODS IN GENERAL. 7

circumstanced for the teaching of Nature Study, problems
of organisation and discipline will to some extent restrict
or modify the development of the outdoor studies. The
following suggestions are framed with these difficulties
in view.

ORGANISATION OF OUTDOOR WORK.

In the first place a great deal can and ought to be done
in the way of encouraging the pupils to observe and report
outdoor occurrences. In the school situated in the country
such work is particularly easy and proves of very great
interest and value. In town, on the other hand, this part
of the work is bound to be restricted in its scope. At
the same time many of the things suggested which seem
to be suited only for the country school can be observed
in the public parks of our cities. The children should be
encouraged to go to these parks, to use their eyes when
there, and to take walks into the country. And, after all,
it is not making a great demand upon the teacher to
expect him or her to have something of personal observa-
tion to report to the scholars week by week of the happen-
ings in the world of nature, which will act as a stimulus
to the pupils to do likewise.

Calendars of outdoor observations.

(o>) Pictorial Calendars. — Calendars for recording the
observations out of doors should be kept. The number
and type of these will depend upon the age, capacity, and
opportunities of the scholars. For the youngest scholars
the calendar should appeal largely to the eye and should
therefore be framed upon pictorial lines. An example
of this type of calendar is given in the frontispiece. The
illustrations for such a calendar should 'be decided upon
by the teacher and scholars jointly and the aim should be
to have in it, when complete, a kind of conspectus of the
succession of appearances and events typical of the various
seasons of the year which have come under the notice of
the pupils.

8 OUR METHODS IN GENERAL.

It should be clearly understood that this is really a
calendar which is to be filled in month by month, and is
not a scheme to be drawn up a year beforehand. Much
profitable discussion may be got with the pupils over the
questions of appropriate illustrations for each period of
the year.

This calendar should be drawn up upon a large sheet of
cardboard to hang in the schoolroom ; the making of the
illustrations will in most instances fall to the teacher, but
in the central space small books should be attached in
which are written down the observations of the pupils on
their way to and from school or at other times. It is quite
likely that this portion of the calendar will require some
editing on the part of the teacher, if for no other reason
than that of training the pupils to distinguish between
the trivial and the significant. The following are ex-
tracts taken from the observations of pupils in the north
of Scotland and recorded in a calendar such as is here
described : —

1909.

March 1-20. — Heavy snowstorm. Birds coming to school door to
be fed. Fieldfares, Thrushes, Blackbirds, Robins,
Sparrows, Starlings noted.
21. — Heard Larks singing.
22. — Worms coming to surface of ground.
April 1. — Lilac leaf-buds bursting. Snow on " Tap o' Noth."
5. — Primroses in flower.
6. — House-fly and hive-bee seen.
7. — Insects becoming common.
15.— " Pee- wits" nest, 3 eggs, found by J. McK.
19. — Swallows seen.
27. — Worms numerous after rain, 216 counted by M. G. on

school path. Plane tree and lilac buds unfolded.
May 9. — Cuckoo heard in woods (A. L.).

10. — Oats sprouted in field near school. Butterflies seen.

15.— Snow !

18. — Robin's nest in hedge, 6 young birds (A. L.).

20. — Lime trees in leaf.

24.— Elm fruit falling thickly.

OTTR METHODS IN GENERAL.

Sept. 15. — Worms seen pulling decayed leaves into ground.

Corn in fields turning yellow.
Oct. 26.— Snow fell.

27. — Hail showers.

Oct. 18. — Squirrels seen in wood. A store of beech-nuts found

at the foot of an oak tree.

21. — Beech twig with new buds opened (autumn shoots).
22. — Leaves being pulled underground by worms.
28. — Potato-lifting begun.
29. — Ploughing commenced. Ground hard with frost.

The opportunity should of course be taken by the
teacher to comment suitably upon all occurrences re-
ported which have particular seasonal or other significance.

Calendars of this type for the youngest pupils might
well be confined to illustrations of the animal and plant
life characteristic of the seasons. For older pupils, accord-
ing to their capacity to appreciate, the following might also
find a place : —

(1) A ground colour for each season to be painted in
each quadrant. The colour to be decided on by the class
in consultation with the teacher (see lesson on Colour, p. 56).

(2) The kind of cloud most in evidence each month.

(3) The zodiacal signs month by month.

(4) Seasonal occupations of the country or of the dis-
trict. These need not all be included in any one year;
indeed to maintain interest changes in successive years are
desirable.

Whilst the pictorial or artistic calendar is the place in
which to record the general outdoor observations of the
pupils, other calendars or records of outdoor occurrences
which cannot be conveniently incorporated with it ought to
form part of the school work.

10 OUR METHODS IN GENERAL.

(&) Weather Records. — The usual observations should
be recorded daily, especially by the senior pupils, e.g. baro-
metric pressure, temperature, rainfall, wind, etc. Weekly
averages should be charted in graphic form. Besides these
the following important weather indicators should receive
prominence. In schools situated in rural districts there
should be recorded the dates of commencement of the more
important agricultural operations, together with the name
of the farm on which the operations take place. In order
that such a record may have some permanent local
value, it should apply to the same farm each year, and
such farm should be selected for its average situation
as regards exposure, etc. Dates of the commencement
of the following operations in each year, or of the more
important of them might suitably be included in this
list :—

CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS.

Winter —

Ploughing Stubble and Lea.
Ploughing clean land (after Turnips).

Spring —

Sowing of Oats, Wheat, and Barley.

" Brairding " (Sprouting of Cereal Crops).

Summer —

" Shooting " of Grain (extrusion of ears from leaf

sheath).

Sowing Turnip Seed.
Planting Potatoes.
Turnip Hoeing.
Mowing Hay.
Stacking Hay.

OUR METHODS IN GENERAL. 11

Autumn —

Lifting Potatoes.
Sowing Wheat.

of Barley.

Eeaping

of Oats.

of Wheat.
Finished Eeaping.
Finished Harvesting.

There should also be included amongst the weather
observations the date of leafing of particular trees of
several species in the neighbourhood. Eecords of this
kind ate of particular value for comparing the weather in
successive years and appeal to the child mind in an
effective way. The following observations also, which are
suggested by the Meteorological Office Authorities as of
particular value, might be in part at least aimed at in
suitable localities with the help of scholars : —

1. Hazel (Corylus avellana)

2. Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara)

3. Wood Anemone (Anemone nemorosa)

4. Blackthorn or Sloe (Prunus spinosa)

5. Grarlic Hedge Mustard (Sisymbrium alliaria)

6. Song thrush (Turdus musicus), first heard.

7. Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), first heard.

8. Honey bee (Apis mellifica), first seen.

9. Wasp (Vespa vulgaris), first seen.

10. Small white butterfly (Pieris rapae), first seen.

Other suggested observations are given at p. 41.

•9
I

12 OUR METHODS IN GENERAL.

(c) Local list of Fauna and Flora. — Even in districts
where such lists have long since been made and printed
the scholars should note the wild flowers as they appear,
recording dates. In this way, making a record from the
specimens found by themselves, they will gradually learn
the names of the flowers and trees. Such lists can be
extended in successive years by records of such points as :
length of time particular species of plants are found in
flower, census of colours of flowers in the different seasons,
time of first appearance of various wild fruits, order of
leafing of the trees, and so on as the circumstances suggest.

On the animal side such points as the following might
find a place in this calendar. The first appearance of the
spawn of frog or toad, the nesting of rooks or other birds,
the arrival of migrants, e.g. swifts, swallows, cuckoo, the
appearance of particular caterpillars, or of humble bees,
the first butterfly, all wild animals observed out of doors
not previously recorded in the school faunal list, etc.

Since much of the information which can be gathered in
this way has a permanent value for the district, the teacher
should take some pains to see that the facts submitted are
in the main correct and also that they are recorded in
some permanent document such as a School Nature Diary
or in the Transactions of a local society.

(d) School Excursions. — Whilst a very great deal can be
done by means of such lists as have been suggested to
quicken and maintain the observational powers and interest
of the pupils and to develop an intelligent love of nature,
this can be further aided by class excursions. These may
consist of rambles into the country, to wood, or moor, or
pond, when in particular the relation of animal and plant
to environment may be studied, or a general acquaintance
with nature cultivated. Or short excursions may be made
to particular spots at which definite lessons can be taught
or illustrated.

It is well in such cases to keep the significance of the
visit clearly before the pupils and to require from them
an account of the excursion as a subsequent exercise.
Further, the opportunity should be taken of giving lessons

OUR METHODS IN GENERAL. 13

indoors of a detailed character upon material collected or
observed at the excursions. Some judgment will be
required on the part of the teacher so that he or she may
on the one hand encourage a free delight in nature and at
the same time exercise a controlling influence, guiding
thought and action so that the work may be really
educative.

THE WORK WITHIN THE SCHOOL.

The work within the school is designed primarily to
heighten the interest and cultivate the understanding of
the pupils with reference to the world of nature outside.
It is calculated to store the mind with knowledge, and to
afford mental discipline, cultivating the art of clear think-
ing and giving power to interpret nature's problems.

The Courses here outlined and the lessons worked out in
detail are put forward as practical illustrations of indoor
studies which ought in large measure to fit in harmoniously
with outdoor work. In the case of the lessons, the main
idea has been to convey the subject-matter in a form such
as the teacher might adopt with a class, and different
grades of class have been kept in view.

It will of course be understood that the information
worked out in some of the lessons may prove beyond the
capacity of even the senior pupils. None of it should be
beyond the teacher, and while the general methods of
teaching adopted are suggested as suitable for school work,
the teacher must decide ultimately exactly what facts are
to be taught to a particular class. But our aim as a rule
has been to enlarge the horizon of the teacher, so that he
or she may be in possession of more facts than are suitable
for the child. Only when so equipped cah the teacher be
effective in the best degree.

It will be understood that whilst a considerable number
of subjects is dealt with in the lessons, no attempt has
been made to cover all the subjects which are suggested
in the Courses outlined

14 OUR METHODS IN GENERAL.

No pretence at uniformity of method in the ordinary
sense is put forward in the attempt here made to realise
our aims. Such we hold is unsound in principle with
reference to nature study whose ideals are complex. It is
true great stress will be found to be laid upon observational
work as a basis for subsequent reasoning, and in general
the scientific method is utilised. But we have tried also, in
spirit at all events, to capture the imagination, to appeal
to wonder, to acknowledge mystery. For these studies —
according to our view — in seeking to develop interest in
nature are seeking to add to the joys of life. Consequently
— no sarcasm is intended — we hope our methods have but
little flavour of the scholastic. We would sum up thus :
Awaken interest ; having secured it, keep it as long as you
can, Never destroy interest (which is but quickened
intellect) for the sake of adherence to a scholastic method
— heuristic or otherwise.

CHAPTER III.

SCHOOL COURSES.

The Framing of Courses.

The following courses are framed as a continuous
series to extend over five years of elementary school life.
Teachers will probably not be able to adhere rigidly to the
details submitted, since there is no doubt that local circum-
stances ought in the main to determine these. While this
is so it will be found in most cases that much material of
a kind common to all localities is included. The general
principles applied in the drawing up of the courses should,
however, not be lost sight of.

Seasonal Studies.

The work of the courses should be carried through with
some recognition of the seasons. In a sense such advice is
scarcely necessary, for practical teachers are compelled
from force of circumstances to utilise almost exclusively
just the materials which the seasons bring, and as a matter
of fact studies out of season are comparatively rare. But
the opportunity should not be lost of tracing the relation
between the seasonal cycle of the earth and the life upon
it. This may be done in the lower classes simply by
teaching lessons at the appropriate time, in the higher by
showing the dependence of all life upon the heat of the
sun, and by tracing a correspondence between the cycle of
increasing and declining heat and the flow and ebb of life
upon the earth.

16 SCHOOL COURSES.

In illustration, let us trace through the spring this
seasonal influence. In the plant world, on the arrival of
spring there becomes evident a stirring of dormant life.
Seeds, scattered in the autumn, which have lain dead-like
in or on the ground throughout the winter, germinate.
The minute roots emerge and penetrate the ground, whilst
upward into the air there push the embryo stems (plumules)
bearing their seed leaves, and growth goes on apace. In
underground stems there is a movement of sap, buds below
and above ground swell out and unfold. The chemistry
of these things is invisible ; its results are visible and
impressive. Trees which through the winter have stood
bare and dead-like are already in that transition stage
'twixt bud and leaf so pleasant to look on.

" Such a time as goes before the leaf,
When all the wood stands in a mist of green,
And nothing perfect."

But perfection is delayed only for a time, and we
welcome each returning year the fresh tender leaf of
springtime upon the trees, the flowers of the shady
woodlands and of the fields. With the early sunny days
there comes the awakening of the winter sleepers — flies,
bees, squirrels, hedgehogs; the hatching out of winter
eggs and pupae; the singing of the birds, mating and
nest-building ; the repeopling of the fresh waters ; over
all the land a wealth of awakening life, convincing
evidences to us, even when we ourselves are scarcely con-
scious of increased warmth, that the physical changes are
acting upon life.

In our school courses such relations as these ought to be
realised, in the mind of the teacher, at all events. In
this connection it may be pointed out here that it is not
desirable in Nature Study to have a time table allotting an
equal amount of time for each week throughout the year.
In spring and summer considerably more time should be
given than in autumn or winter, and it will be found that
the materials prescribed in the courses are distributed in
keeping with this view.

SCHOOL COURSES. 17

General Principles to be Taught.

If the advocates for Nature Study are to save the subject
from reproach they must, whilst utilising materials varied
in character, aim at teaching with definite continuity of
principle ; the material should be illustrative of such.
That is to say, a year's course of lessons unconnected by
any set of generalisations, or which is not capable of being
summarised under a set of principles, cannot be regarded
as satisfactorily planned.

Not only single courses, but the whole series of courses
within a school, should be framed in logical continuity, so
that by the time a pupil has passed through the school he
has been put in possession, not simply of a large number
of facts regarding nature, but has obtained a grasp of
fundamental facts, which give him some power in inter-
preting nature's problems.

Such an aim has been kept in view in the following
courses. Fundamental principles are made clear by simple
experiment and otherwise to the pupils at the earliest
stages. In the later stages, as the pupils come into touch
with more detail, complexities and amplifications of prin-
ciple are in measure introduced.

Much energy may be dissipated for lack of summarising
or of focussing the results of a series of lessons. It does
not follow, of course, that the principle under which the
facts dealt with are grouped need be always enunciated
to the pupils. But undoubtedly the facts will gain in
presentation if they are always so grouped first of all in
the mind of the teacher. And conversely, if they are not
so grouped, will their presentation tend to be ineffective
and lacking in interest.

The teacher who adheres to this rule in the planning of
his Nature Study lessons will not find it difficult to build
up well connected courses likely both to develop the
interest of the pupils and to provide them with a unified
scheme of nature knowledge.

N. S.

18 SCHOOL COURSES.

COUBSE I. — For pupils of ages seven to eight.

I. PLANT STUDIES :

Make the children familiar with from fifteen to twenty
Flowers which grow wild in their neighbourhood. At each
lesson on the flower, the children to learn its name, to
write its name out, to decide its colour, if scented to note
this, to remark on its shape, and to say if they have ever
seen bees, flies, or other insects visit it. The teacher to
draw and colour the flower. The teacher must exercise
judgment in the selection of flowers for these lessons, and
in particular plants of the order Compositae should be
avoided at this stage, as also any showing peculiarities of
structure. Some examples may be given : —

Snowdrop, Wood Anemone, Periwinkle, Marsh Marigold,
Primrose, Sweet Yiolet, Hawthorn, Germander Speedwell,
Dog Eose, Harebell, Eagged Eobin, Forget-me-not, Butter-
cup, Wild Hyacinth, Queen of the Meadow, Wood Sorrel,
Silverweed, Apple Blossom, Poppy, Meadow Crane's Bill.

In the course of the year the children to become familiar
with the fact that, besides Flowers, plants have Seeds,
Leaves, Stems, Eoots. The teacher must in these lessons
educe by showing relations that

(a) The flower yields the seed and fades away.

(6) The leaves are flattened parts spread out to the
light ; they make food for the plant, getting it in the air
when the light is shining on them.

(d) The root takes food from the earth ; water is neces-
sary for this.

Simple experiments might be devised to show that light
and moisture are necessary for plant life. For pupils at
this stage these must be of the simplest possible nature.

SCHOOL COURSES.

Experiment. --Take two plants in pots, place alongside, cover one
so as to exclude the light from the plant. Otherwise treat both
similarly as regards watering and heat. Leave for a few days and
then compare.

Experiment. — Perform a similar experiment, this time depriving
one of the plants of water. Continue the experiment as long as
necessary.

Experiment. — Perform a similar experiment, this time place one
in the most favourable place as regards natural heat, and the other
in a cold place. Otherwise treat similarly, and compare after a
time as regards growth. Seedlings may suitably be used for these
experiments.

The scholars may thus be led to realise the elementary
needs of the plant. The teacher should make the scholars
write out, and also show by a simple blackboard drawing,
what these needs are.

Fig. 1.— Diagram to illustrate the needs of a plant.

Plants require

Sunlight (heat and light).

Air.

Water.

Soil.

Supplied with these they grow.
Fact grasped by the child : A plant is a living thing.

20 SCHOOL COURSES.

About six of the commonest trees in the district to be
recognised by their leaves. Scholars will be supplied with
leaves, the teacher will draw and colour and scholars will
recognise by comparison. Scholars will write out the
names. A fact which may be educed here observationally
is the difference between trees not evergreen (shedding all
their leaves each year) and those evergreen (shedding some
only each year) .

Fruits. — Attractive — In what way ? By colour, smell,
taste, shape. Wild fruits not specially attractive to be
left out of account at this stage.

Distinguish amongst common edible fruits two kinds —
dry and juicy. Show that seeds are an essential part of a
fruit. Contrast with some edible vegetables, and drill
pupils by questioning. The test is : Are seeds present ?
If so, the object is a fruit. (Unusual fruits, such as the
banana, in which the seeds are aborted will for the present
be avoided.)

A simple classification of plants used as food by man
himself or by the animals he keeps. In particular, educe

Seeds used as food.
Boots ,, „
Leaves „ „
Fruits „ „
Stems „ „

Similarly educe parts of plants used in providing shelter,
e.g. wood ; also vegetable substances used for clothing —
cotton, linen, straw, etc.

Fact grasped ly the child: Animal life is dependent
upon plant life.

Appropriate poetry to be learned or quoted at the time
of study of particular trees or flowers. For suitable poetry
see The Greenwood Tree (Arnold).

Also for many short quotations, some of which pupils
might write out or learn, see Nature Knowledge in Modern
Poetry, by Mackie (Longmans, Green & Co.). Teachers
will find these works generally useful.

SCHOOL COURSES. 21

II. ANIMAL STUDIES :

The school should be supplied with a fresh water aqua-
rium containing the commoner animals of the pools. The
children are to be made familiar with these so as to know by
name tadpoles, newts, gnats, water boatmen, water beetles,
pond skaters, etc. ; also they should have a general know-
ledge, acquired by observation, of their feeding and breath-
ing habits, and of the more obvious changes which some of
them undergo. Drawings are to be made by the teacher
at the lesson time, scholars are to identify and to write out
sentences descriptive of the facts learned.

The rearing of insects should form a definite work of
this class. The scholars will bring food when required,
they will assist with the cleaning out of the cages. As a
definite exercise, some time should be spent regularly
watching the feeding of the caterpillars, and noting gener-
ally their behaviour.

The teacher will draw from time to time the outline of
a caterpillar, and on each occasion draw attention to the
more important structural points which they can easily
verify.

Definite lessons on a series of familiar animals should
be included in this course. Circumstances will largely
determine what examples are to be taken, but the lessons
should be taught on observational lines.

As examples may be suggested the commoner domesti-
cated animals — sheep, ox, pig, horse, dog, cat, rabbit, etc.
In revision lessons, comparisons should be made on such
points as food and mode of feeding ; distinctive peculiari-
ties in locomotion ; types of limb, with number of toes ;
characters of coat, etc. Drawings should be made on the
blackboard.

As opportunities arise simple lessons may be given on
the commoner wild animals of the country, e.g. weasels and
stoats are to be got without much difficulty from game-
keepers. Such animals as these may be stuffed, without
being set up, at a trifling cost. Hedgehogs, moles, and
bats are other types not at all difficult to procure. All
distinctive habits of such animals should be noted, and

22 SCHOOL COURSES.

generally with this class some attention should be given to
the play of animals.

Similar lessons should be given on common birds ; out-
door observations on the lines of recognition by plumage,
flight, song should be encouraged. The birds should be
fed in winter, when excellent opportunities for general
observation work are afforded. (General appreciation of
prominent functions of the birds — parental care, nest
building, power of flight and general gracefulness of move-
ment, etc., should be encouraged.

Collections of objects of natural beauty, such as shells,
butterflies, feathers, should be available ; if not the teacher
might by degrees with the help of the scholars build up
such a collection. The objects will be available for simple
lessons designed to develop the artistic sense-appreciations
of form and colour. The simpler objects can be drawn
and coloured, the more difficult, such as butterflies, can be
used for purposes of verbal colour description and for
lessons in recognition particularly of the commoner
examples.

III. OBSERVATIONAL WEATHER STUDIES :

For this grade these will be of a fairly simple character.
A daily opinion of the kind of weather should be got, say,
in the afternoon and a simple record kept by the teacher :

Spring : Number of good days (fine, dry, warm),

„ „ bad days (cold, wet),

and so on for each season. Notwithstanding the fact that
a complete record for the year is not likely to be obtained
(owing to holidays, etc.), the teacher will not have much
difficulty in comparing seasons as to amount of heat in
each, and in associating the season of greatest heat with
greatest abundance of life.

Pupils at this stage should be taught to recognise gener-
ally the direction of the wind, and to name the simpler
cloud forms.

Fact grasped by the child : Dependence of plant life upon
the Sun.

SCHOOL COURSES. 23

IV. CALENDARS :

A pictorial calendar typifying month by month the out-
standing natural occurrences which are familiar to the
children, and suggested by themselves, and including in
writing also. their outdoor observations, should be kept in
connection with this class. Particulars as to the keeping
of such a calendar are given at page 8. It is understood
that the work is to be distributed over the year on a
seasonal basis.

GENERALISATIONS :

The teacher will find that to secure good results a fair
amount of revision is necessary. Pains must be taken to
maintain interest at such a time. The form of the lesson
should be varied, and even new examples taken. This can
readily be done when it is borne in mind that in the main
we are seeking to develop an appreciative spirit and to
impart to the child mind a grasp of fundamental principles.
The work can be well done only if the teacher clearly keeps
these principles in view. The aims of the present course
may here be summarised :

(a) To develop an appreciation of nature on the aesthetic
side. This is the chief aim at this stage.

(&) To make clear to the youngest children the following
great facts :

I. Plants are living things ;

II. Plants, in order to live, require sunshine (light and
heat), air, soil, moisture ;

III. Animals are dependent upon plants ;

IV. Animals are active feeding, breathing (it is noted

in connection with the aquarium studies that
some animals have to seek air as they seek
food), playing (in youth). In other words,
Animals in order to live require Food, Air,
Exercise.

24 SCHOOL COURSES.

COURSE II. — For pupils of ages eight to nine.

I. PLANT STUDIES :

Plant recognition. — It will be found that the work of
the previous year will be again undertaken with zest, and
pupils will be found eager to renew their acquaintance
with the flowers identified then and to add to their number.
In the course of the spring and summer other twenty
flowering plants may without difficulty be recognised,
and some distinguishing character noted for each. This
character should be illustrated by means of a blackboard
drawing. Other points as noted for the previous course
should be continued. Suitable examples are : —

Chickweed, GTorse, Dog Violet, G-olden Saxifrage, another
Buttercup, Shepherd's Purse, Lady's Mantle, Sweet Briar,
Eed and White Deadnettles, Yetch, Sweet Pea, Lady's
Fingers, Birdsfoot Trefoil, Lesser Stitchwort, White and
Red Campion, etc.

A beginning might be made in noting distinctive situa-
tions for particular plants, e.g. Lesser Celandine, G-oldeu
Saxifrage, Wood Sorrel. But clear cases only should be
taken. In a few instances lessons of a more extended
nature, including some reference to the history of plant
names or plant legend, should be given.

Plant functions. — A restatement to be got from the
scholars of the prime functions of the parts — root, stem,
leaf, and flower. The experiments may be repeated, if
necessary. Not much advance in the way of detailed
explanation of these functions should be attempted, either
experimentally or orally. As a guide, however, to the
understanding of the relation of the plant to moisture and
to the soil, the following experiments will not be found too
difficult.

Experiment. — Procure four tumblers of large size. Cut two
pieces of cardboard a size suitable to cover the mouths of two of the
tumblers. Bore a hole in one of the pieces of cardboard and insert

SCHOOL COURSES. 25

a small portion of the stem of garden cress with a few leaves upon
it. Thoroughly dry one of the tumblers and fill up another with
water. The sprig with the cardboard is to be placed in the water
and the dry tumbler inverted over it. A similar arrangement is to
be made with the two remaining tumblers, but in this case no plant
is introduced. The whole to be placed in a good light and moder-
ately warm place. Compare results after a time. The scholars
will draw the apparatus and write out :

Water passes through the plant from below upwards,
coming out again at the leaves.

Experiment. — Repeat the above experiment on another occasion
with a pot plant. Water the soil carefully. Slit the cardboard
and pass it round the stem, afterwards gumming the slit, and closing
the opening around the stem with vaseline. Invert a dry tumbler
and await results. As in the foregoing experiment set up a control
pot in which there is no plant. Scholars will again draw the appa-
ratus, and after satisfactory verification will write out :

Water, from the soil, passes through the plant, coming
out again at the leaves.

Fact grasped by the child : The transpiration of plants.

A further step may now be taken by an appeal to the
child's knowledge of the fact that water dissolves many
substances, e.g. sugar or salt, and a demonstration may be
given to show that it dissolves various mineral salts found
in the soil. The inference may therefore be suggested that
some substances are carried up from the soil in the water
passing through the plant. The proof that these sub-
stances do not pass through with the water must be left to
a later period.

Examine some early plants such as Snowdrop, Daffodil,
Hyacinth, as illustrations of an easily observed modifica-
tion of a part ; in this case, the leaves forming the bulb.
Cut up an onion so as to demonstrate the parts, in par-
ticular the thickened, colourless, fleshy,* food-containing
leaves. A comparison may be made with an ordinary leaf
bud. Suggest the value of storing food for future use.
Note in particular early flowering plants which store :—
Early Purple Orchis, Lesser Celandine, Crocus, and the
others named above, with a demonstration in each case of

26 SCHOOL COURSES.

the storage organ. Eecall other storage organs the scholars
are already familiar with, e.g. carrot, potato, turnip.

Pupils in this grade might undertake the rearing of a
plant from seed. This might be done out of doors in a
school garden, if circumstances admit of it, or indoors in
pots. The supervision of the teacher will be required in
the matter of planting, watering, and general tending of
these plants, but such an exercise will afford many oppor-
tunities for developing interest on the part of the pupils.

Trees. — The list of trees to be recognised by foliage
should be extended. The leaf should be drawn by the
teacher, and in each instance all characteristic features
distinguishing each type, such as nature of surface, colour,
general arrangement of veins, exact shape, etc., should be
got from pupils. The following will afford good examples
for discrimination : — Beech, Elm, Lime, Willow, Hawthorn,
Oak, Rowan, Horse-chestnut, Ash, Larch, Scots Pine.

Flowers of common trees should be included in the list
of flowers for recognition, and these may be grouped as
noticeable, e.g. Horse-chestnut, Hawthorn, Cherry, Lilac,
and not readily noticed, e.g. Elm, Sycamore, Ash. Note
the meaning of this, and also of their odour in relation to
insect visits.

Fruits of Trees. — A commencement has been made with
these in the previous course, in which fruits edible by man
have been looked at. The scholars should now recognise
as fruits the following : — " Hips " and " Haws," Acorns,
Beech-nuts (complete fruit), Horse-chestnut (complete
fruit), Lime-fruit, Eowans, Elm, Ash, and Sycamore fruits.

A set of drawings of these fruits should be made.
Exhibit seeds and seedlings of familiar trees.

In cases where trees can be conveniently watched the
development of the flowers and fruit may be followed.

Fact to be grasped : From a seed may grow a tree.

Collections of autumn leaves should be made by this
class and some work done in drawing and colouring.

SCHOOL COURSES. 27

II. ANIMAL STUDIES :

The work detailed under this heading in the previous
course (Section II.) ought to be repeated this year with
such amplification or change as the circumstances call for.

III. WEATHER STUDIES:

A continuation of the work of the previous course, with
the addition of a simple chart to illustrate the rise and fall
of the thermometer as observed daily. The scholars should
be taught to take the reading. The teacher will keep the
chart, which should be drawn upon a large scale, and show
the relation between its rises and falls and corresponding
fluctuations of temperature.

IV. CALENDARS :

Similar work as for previous course, with a change of
illustrations.

SUMMARY OF AIMS :

These are as for the previous course, with the addition
of some details as to Nature's methods in Plant and
Animal Nutrition, general functioning, and Adaptation to
Environment. It need scarcely be pointed out that GREAT
FACTS can be learned by very young children although
their ears are not fit to hear the high-sounding terminology
we find necessary for ourselves. But here also our chief
aim is, through knowledge, to foster a love of NATURE.

28 SCHOOL COURSES.

COUESE III. — For pupils of ages nine to twelve.

(A Two Years' Course.}

I. PLANT LIFE:

Continuation of Plant identification studies — from 30
to 50 new plants ; talk about simple recognition marks ;
more particular notice of colour, odour, shape, and size of
flower.

Census of colours of flowers within the different seasons.
Some notice of conspicuous and inconspicuous flowers.
Conspicuousness of inflorescences of some small flowers,
e.g. Queen of the Meadow or Clover. Eecall the function
of flowers (to produce seed), and revise the importance to
the flowers of colour, scent, size, etc.

Eecognition of two noticeable types of flower-form —
avoid Actinomorphic and Zygomorphic as terms and speak
rather of Symmetry of two kinds, radial and bilateral,
taking numerous illustrations. A talk here about symme-
try of living things in general is appropriate, contrasting
the symmetry of the inorganic (e.g. Crystals). A general
appreciation of form and colour, associated with drawing
and painting.

Parts of the flower. — This should be touched on, simply
as far as is required to make the functions of the flower
quite clear. The names of the parts may be taught in-
formally as they are required with simple explanations of
their use, e.g. —

Sepals . . Protecting.

Petals . . Attracting.

Stamens . . Fertilising (pollen-producing).

Carpels . . Ovule-producing.

Some comparative work on the number of parts in different
flowers, but no suggestion of floral formulae to be made.
Some talk on nectaries, with study of special illustrations,
e.g. Buttercup, Violet, Pea, Clover. Eecognition here of

SCHOOL COURSES. 29

different types of insects found visiting flowers, e.g. flies,
beetles, wasps, bees, butterflies, moths.

A beginning should be made with floral lists, such as

Wayside plants ;

Plants of shady, damp regions (by shaded streams,

ditches, woods, etc.) ;
Seashore plants ;
Moor plants ;
Plants of fields ;
Marsh plants ;
Aquatic plants ;

and some time should be devoted to noting the special
characters of good examples of adaptation to these situa-
tions.

Fruits. — What is sought at this stage is not a scientific
classification according to structure, but rather a recogni-
tion of the different means of dispersal, ensuring the
continuance of each species. Hence particular attention
should be given to the parts specially adapted for this
purpose, e.g. —

Winged fruits and seeds ;

Seeds jerked from fruit by wind ;

Explosive fruits scattering seeds ;

Fruits dispersed by animals, actively and passively.

A beginning should, however, be made in following the
development of the fruit observationally in familiar cases
to show its relation to the parts of the flower. G-ood
examples for this purpose are G-ooseberry, Strawberry,
Buttercup, Bramble, Pea. .

Leaves. — Revision of points made clear in previous
course. Study of a typical foliage leaf ; its shape ; surfaces,
how lighter below, meaning of surface gloss ; veins ; simple
experiments to illustrate the passage of moisture through
the leaves, and other leaf functions. Drawings of leaves

30 SCHOOL COURSES.

upon plant to illustrate relation to each other and to the
light. Some clear cases of leaf mosaics, e.g. Nettle, Plan-
tain, Daisy, Simple illustrations of leaf arrangements on
the stem. Leaf forms.

Eecognition by leaf of familiar plants, e.g. Dandelion,
Dock, Sheep Sorrel, Daisy, Primrose, Celandine, Clover,
Wood Sorrel, Oak, Beech, Poplar, Lime, Sycamore, etc.

Eelation of leaves to buds on the stem. Recognition of
leaves by their position as well as by form.

Simple modifications of leaves, e.g. spines and tendrils.

Storing leaves. Detailed examination of a bulb. Value
of reserve stores to a plant.

Some clear cases of leaf development after flowering, e.g.
Coltsfoot and Butterbur. Significance of this.

Study of autumn leaves. Comparison of leaves of same
type of tree but at different stages. Comparison of leaves
of different kinds of trees. The commoner colours and
their distribution on the leaf. General appreciation.
Drawing, painting, and making collections.

In the foregoing plant studies the principles which should
be set forth for recognition by the pupils are: —

The diversity of forms adapted to similar ends (seen
in flowers and in leaves) ; the wealth of
Nature's forms;

The biological significance of flowers, and their
value in human life; this latter is an illus-
tration of secondary values acquiring great
importance ;

The prime labours of the plant — food making and
seed producing illustrated in the work of
leaves and flowers respectively ;

Competition amongst plants for room and light.

SCHOOL COURSES. 31

II. ANIMAL LIFE :

In connection with flower studies there should be given
a series of lessons upon four common types of insects
visiting flowers : — beetles, flies, bees and wasps, butterflies
and moths. Eecognisable distinguishing marks should
be noted and the relations to the flowers visited made
clear. Note should be made specially of those insects with
short jaws (beetles and flies mostly), with jaws of medium
length (bees and wasps), with long jaws (butterflies and
moths). What the insects get in each case, and how they
serve the flower.

Study of the main activities in a bee-hive. Life history
of humble-bees.

Rearing of insects in school — observational work on their
habits and life histories. The following types make pro-
fitable subjects of study, viz. : —

Butterflies and Moths — various species.

Beetles — procure " Meal-worms " (larvae of Tene-

brio molitor) from bird dealers and rear in

bran.
Crane Flies — rear larvae in soil, feed with grass

roots, or sow corn and allow them to feed on

the roots. This can be done in a box.

General facts learned from the study of insect life :

Complex inter-relations seen in structural adapta-
tions between flowers and insects; between
the members of a bee colony, illustrating the
principle of division of labour. The same
principle illustrated differently in insect life-
histories — the larval period for feeding and
growth, i.e. the individual interest ; the adult
period, usually short, for race interest, i.e. the
continuation of the species.

32 SCHOOL COURSES.

General Lesson List

from which selections may be made according to circum-
stances, season, etc. The list of course is only suggestive.

Structure and habits of Earthworms.

General structure of Insects.

Life Histories of Insects (insects reared in school).

Insects from Aquarium — habits and structural adapta-
tions.

Structure and Life History of Crab.

Common Animals of the Garden, with facts regarding
habits and life histories.

Slugs and Snails.

Shells, interpretation of their markings, studies in
form.

A talk about Pearls.

The structure of a Fish ; how a fish swims.

Life History of the Eel.

Frogs, Toads, and Newts ; life histories and habits.

The Covering of Birds ; talks about feathers.

A lesson on Eggs of Fish, Frog, and Bird.

Talks about migration and other habits of birds.

Characteristics of twenty common birds.

Common Mammals : Lessons on structure and habits —

Stoat and Weasel ;
Rabbits and Hares ;
Mole and Hedgehog ;
Bats, etc., etc.

General facts learned from these studies:

A gathering of nature lore of interest and practical
use;

Realisation of inter-relations and adaptations illus-
trating the struggle for existence.

SCHOOL COURSES. 33

Aquarium Studies:

Continuation with more precision of the Life Histories
of the commoner inmates, Frogs, Newts, Gnats, Water
Beetles, Water Bugs, Pond Snails, etc. Observational
exercises on their behaviour, accompanied by drawings
illustrative of typical habits, etc., e.g. —

The respiratory, locomotor, and feeding habits of

Larval G-nat ;

Stages in the life-history of the Gnat ;
Changes in the respiratory methods of the Tadpole.
Changes in size and external form of Tadpole ;
Larval and adult form of Newts ;
Carnivorous habits of Water Beetles ;
Adaptive features in Water Beetle for locomotion,

and for respiration ; etc.

The properties of the surface film and the animals which
use it.

The conditions of life in an aquarium or fresh water
pool.

III. WEATHER STUDIES:

Practice should be given in the reading of instruments
and in the recording and charting of the readings. Distin-
guishing the various cloud forms, and direction of wind
should also be practised. Further work under this head
is included in the general scheme for Nature Calendars.
Pupils at this stage should be beginnm'g to show some
capacity for appreciating the connection between the
appearance, luxuriance, and decline of life upon the earth
and the seasons, i.e. the weather. See also Physical Study,
p. 39. It should also be borne in mind that one of the
chief interests in weather study lies in comparisons which

N. 8, 3

34 SCHOOL COURSES.

may be made, e.g. as between the different months of the
year, the same months in different years, neighbouring
counties or districts of different altitude or configuration,
and so on. Teachers in differently situated localities
might supply each other with their weather records for
comparison. The pupils should be taught to make graphs
to illustrate such points as these.

IV. KEEPING OF CALENDARS :

Pupils of this grade to share in the general work of re-
porting observations for insertion in the calendars kept in
school and details of which have been already outlined.

V. G-ENERAL :

Throughout, practice in description should be given,
verbally and by means of writing and drawing ; the teacher
should take every opportunity by quoting from nature
literature of the best kind and by causing suitable selec-
tions to be learnt by heart to enrich the memories of the
pupils with lofty sentiment and to cultivate an appreciation
of the aesthetic aspects of nature. It will be suitable also
at the close of this stage that the teacher should sum-
marise with the pupils the more important generalisations
in Biology which have been prominently illustrated in the
studies of the previous years. (For these see conclusions
formulated at the end of the several sections in the fore-
going Courses.)

SCHOOL COURSES. 35

COUESE IV.— Senior Pupils.

The principles laid down for recognition in the previous
course will now receive further illustration and amplifica-
tion. Pupils will now be better able to realise seasonal
influences, and this factor therefore receives more promin-
ence. Within the seasons the studies are in the main
arranged with some attempt at logical continuity of theme
rather than under the distinct sciences, botany, zoology, etc.
It is intended that this arrangement should be followed ;
so far from causing confusion, it will help towards a much
desired realisation of what has been so fitly termed the
"web of life," as well as of other interrelations of the
nature complex.

SPRING COURSE.

This course may begin very appropriately with the study
of early flowering plants. Pupils who have gone through
the lower courses will already be familiar with a good many
types. It will be found, however, that the interest of find-
ing anew and examining old friends is unfailing, and
further, that new facts continue to emerge. Work on the
following lines should be carried out : —

OUTDOOR STUDIES.

Flowering Plants. — A list to be made of the flowering
plants growing wild in the district. The date of first time
seen in flower and situation to be noted in each case.
In order to illustrate the special relation to spring of the
plants found, some grouping should be attempted on these
lines :

(a) Hardy, flowering all the year or nearly so — e.g.
Groundsel, Shepherd's Purse, Daisy, Chickweed ;

(6) Hardy, flowering early— e.g. Grorse, Purple Dead-
nettle ;

36 SCHOOL COURSES.

This will entail a close and discriminative examination of
each kind of plant which cannot but have instructive
results.

Appropriate literature reference : Wordsworth's " To the
small Celandine," to be read or learnt by heart. Note the
message of the early spring flowers :

" Telling tales about the sun,
When we've little warmth, or none."

Trees. — This stirring of dormant life, sign of spring's
appearing, is also to be followed upon the trees. A definite
course of study upon trees continuous through the year
should be undertaken, of which the following may be taken
as the portion appropriate to spring.

Keep a watch and record the order of unfolding of buds
of all the common trees in the neighbourhood. A con-
tinuous record of this for successive years to be kept in
school.

Note and record those whose flowers appear before their
leaves. Give dates of appearing of flowers.

Animal Studies. — Note further spring awakenings: —
Insects appearing ; some from winter sleep, e.g. queen
humble-bee ; various caterpillars, some from winter chry-
salids ; look out for first butterflies and moths.

Awakening of hibernators : — Bats, hedgehogs, squirrels,
field voles.

Only some of these awakenings may possibly come
under observation. But there is no harm in recounting
others.

Eeturn of migrant birds — mating and nesting.

If near a river, look out for the march of the elvers
(young eels).

Note the repeopling of the fresh water pools — gnat
larvae, water fleas, etc. Stock the school aquarium. See
p. 182 for details of lessons,

Collect frog spawn,

SCHOOL COURSES. 37

Much of the work noted here will consist of records for
the Nature calendars (see p. 7). The pupils should be
led to realise the seasonal importance of these observa-
tions and the necessity for their being accurate. But the
teacher will utilise the opportunities afforded by the obser-
vations made out of doors by the pupils and by the
materials collected to formulate definite school studies.

Now is the time to make spring phenological observa-
tions. A watch should be kept for the first flowering of
particular plants, the arrival and song of birds, etc. See
p. 110.

Fact emphasised: Spring is a season of awakening life.

SOME INDOOR STUDIES :

1. Flowering plant identification and examination. For

detailed study during the three months of spring, a
selection should be made.

The entire plant should be examined in each case. Note :
Adaptations to spring flowering (as already sug-
gested) ;

Adaptation to situation (Wood Anemone, Lesser
Celandine, Golden Saxifrage, Scurvygrass, Whit-
lowgrass, etc.) ;

The more obvious characters distinctive of the
Natural Order in each case.

2. Trees and Shrubs. Eecognition and examination of twigs.

Draw stages of opening of buds. Pupils must not be
allowed to wantonly tear branches from trees. The
teacher should bring in twigs, which should be placed
in water; pupils should make daily observations.
Note the effects of sunshine and heat.

Study a section of a twig, e.g. Horse -chestnut, interpret-
ing the parts as regards use.

Look for seedlings of trees ; bring in early, e.g. those of
Sycamore, and note all stages of development for
some weeks. Draw stages.

SCHOOt COURSES.

Study some catkins, e.g. Hazel, Alder, Goat Willow,
Birch, Oak, distinguishing male and female ; draw ;
note visits of humble-bees to willows, find the nectaries
within the flowers.

•^"

Fig. 2. — Altitude of the Sun at the latitude of London, in different seasons.

Detailed examination of Flowers of Elm, Beech, Goose-
berry, Currant.

SCHOOL COURSES. 39

3. Germination of Beaus, Cress, Wheat, etc.*

4. Examination of Pupae ; drawing and colouring.

5. Physical study : Cause of the Seasons.

After the pupils have realised the close dependence of
life upon the seasons, a study as to their immediate
cause is appropriate. The following should be made
clear : —

The sun is the source of heat upon the earth.

Owing to the inclination of the axis of rotation of the
earth the distribution of solar heat upon the earth
varies at different times, thus producing the seasons.

Exactly how this is brought about should be demon-
strated upon the school globe ; observations should
be made on the sun's altitude now and at each
season. Show the effect of obliquity on the sun's
rays, e.g. when this is great the heat is spread over
a larger area, a greater depth of atmosphere has
to be traversed, and thus more heat is absorbed
(see Eig. 2). A comparison of the average tem-
perature (taken from the school records) of the
three months of winter with the three months of
spring should be made, and the fact that more
heat is now being received from the sun should be
demonstrated in this way.

6. Meteorological studies : Various Charts. See p. 317.

7. Animal studies : see list in the previous course ; it will

probably be found that the aquarium will provide
abundance of material for animal studies at this
season of the year.

* Teachers who wish to carry out experimental work on seeds and
seedlings will find many useful suggestions in Cavers' Plant Biology,
or in the same author's Life Histories of Common Plants (Clive).

40 SCHOOL COURSES.

SUMMER COURSE.

As already indicated, the aim of the courses outlined in
this work is to maintain a real correspondence between the
work organised as Nature Study as a school subject and
the more or less conscious impressions received by the
pupils from Nature direct. If in the spring the domina-
ting impression is that of awakening, may we not say of
summer that it speaks of growth, vitality, abundance of
life?

Opportunities for study crowd upon us now, and it is
insistent that as many as possible should be taken advan-
tage of. Consequently, as already stated, it is most
strongly advocated that time-tables should be drawn up
allowing for more work in Nature Study in summer. It
is not suggested that the time be taken from other work,
but that more work be apportioned to summer and corre-
spondingly less to autumn and to winter. This scheme is
drawn up on this basis. It is not likely that the whole of
the scheme here suggested can be undertaken in any one
case, but the contents will permit of choice. Similarly
local circumstances may determine the inclusion of some
things not here set down.

OUTDOOR OBSERVATIONS :

A summer course ought to lay great stress upon out-
door observations. As already laid down, it is not neces-
sary that numerous organised rambles be undertaken. In
the school garden opportunities will be afforded for outdoor
class work, and they should be utilised to the full.

The following specific observations are suggested : —

(a) The usual weather records (charting, making of averages, etc.,
to be included under indoor studies).

(6) Recording the dates of agricultural operations on observational
farm.

SCHOOL COURSES. 41

First flowering of horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum).

,, ,, hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha).

,, ,, white ox-eye (Chrysanthemum leucanthe-

mum).

,, ,, dog rose (Rosa canina}.

,, ,, black knapweed (Centaurea nigra).

,, ,, hare -bell (Campanula rotundifolia).

,, ,, greater bindweed (Convolvulus sepium).

Swallow (Hirundo rustica), first seen.
Nightingale (Daulias luscinia), first heard.
Flycatcher (Muscicapa grisola), first seen.
Orange tip butterfly (Anthocaris cardamines), first seen.
Meadow-brown butterfly (Epinephile janira), first seen.

(d) List of flowering plants in the neighbourhood (see note under

spring list).

(e) List of ferns and mosses.
(/) List of weeds of the garden.

(g) List of weeds of cultivated fields.
(h) List of mammals, birds, insects, etc.

(i) List of animals of garden, classified as beneficial, indifferent,
harmful.

(j) List of wild animal visitors to cultivated fields — beneficial and
harmful.

(k) General nature notes of particular interest.

INDOOR STUDIES:

Weather. — The daily observations upon the weather will
in the first instance be recorded in tabular form (see table,
p. 319) ; from these records a chart in graphic form should
be prepared to show daily temperatures, maximum and mini-
mum, and weekly averages. Monthly diagrams of the wind
direction should be made, and from these in course of time
the direction of the prevailing winds for the district should
be made out. Directions for this work are given in the
chapter on Weather Observations. See also p. 33.

42 SCHOOL COURSES.

Plant Studies. — It will be understood that in the making
of the list suggested [see (d), p. 41] opportunities will
arise for notes and habitat, structure, etc., of the plants
found. Besides these, lessons should be given on selected
species to illustrate the aspects enumerated on p. 30.

Insects visiting flowers should be noted, and some good
cases, e.g. primrose, violet, clover, pea, and their insect
visitors should be clearly understood. Some attempt
might be made at the grouping together of flowers visited
by the same kind of insect, e.g. butterflies and moths, and
the situation of their nectaries compared with that in
flowers visited by other insects, e.g. beetles and flies. A
grouping of insects visiting flowers according to the length
of their feeding apparatus might also be made. Flies and
beetles have short mouth appendages, in bees we have an
intermediate graded series, whilst in moths and butterflies
the appendages are relatively long.

Rearing of Insects. — All stages in the life history of the
various types of insect which are reared should be closely
followed and drawn. Careful and complete lessons upon
the structure of caterpillar and butterfly or moth should
be given. Lessons upon the commoner types of insect
structure, e.g. bee, fly, butterfly, beetle, grasshopper, are
appropriate to the present season. A particular case to
be demonstrated is that of the bee, whose special adapta-
tions for the collection of pollen and honey and the making
of wax are of interest. See lesson, p. 171.

Other Animal Studies. — Some cases of insects visiting
field or garden plants should be observed and understood.
The life histories of aphides (green fly), magpie moth,
V moth, currant saw fly, crane fly, and turnip beetle are
examples from which a choice may be made.

The life of slugs, centipedes, millipedes, earwigs, woodlice,
and their relation to cultivated plants might be followed.

Aquarium Studies. — The more advanced lessons stated
under this head should be given. See p. 183.

General fact to be emphasised. — Summer is the season of
growth, activity, and abundance of life. '

SCHOOL COtJRSES. 43

AUTUMN COURSE.

The season in wliich the fruits of the summer's wealth
of life and energy are reaped. Harvesting and preparation
for winter generally are the dominant activities.

I. PLANT STUDIES :

Fruits. — Kevise facts noted in previous course.

Interpretation of parts of the fruit in relation to the
flower.

Definition of Fruit: "All the parts around the seeds
which have undergone modification with the fertilisation
of the ovules."

Distinctive characters of Berry, Drupe, Nut, Pod, etc.

Classification of these.

Collection and study of Wild Fruits.

Grain : Fruits eaten by man.

Special note of adaptations for distribution.

Seeds. — Their dispersal. . Some note of numbers in
relation to modes of dispersal and other factors, e.g. the
" waste " of seed — Nature " knowing that of fifty seeds
she often brings but one to bear."

[Practical studies in germination to be carried out in
spring.]

Leaves in Autumn. — More detailed study. Children will
gather leaves and bring them to school.

A general examination, children's preferences as regards
colour to be noted — Arrange according to tree — Compare
trees as to time and order of shedding leaves — Study of
colours of each kind of tree — Yellows, Browns, Reds —
Mode of change — Causes — Distribution of colour on the
leaf — Mechanism of fall — Relation to seasonal agencies.

Drawing and colouring of different kinds.

Some studies of late summer flowers, or of garden
flowers.

In schools situated by the seashore sea- weeds might be
collected, named, and pressed* Drawing and colouring of

44 SCHOOL COURSES.

these should also be done. Elementary facts of life
histories explained.

Classification of the regions for storing reserves in
plants: tubers, roots, bulbs, rhizomes, etc. Clear recog-
nition of the true nature of the organ in each case.

II. ANIMAL STUDIES:

Examples appropriate to autumn are — animals which
harvest and store — Squirrels, Foxes, Field Mice, Eats,
Voles, Bees (Hive), Ants, etc.

Migration of Birds : Keview of the facts known, with
classification of Birds (quoting as many instances as
possible of each kind) into residents, summer visitors,
winter visitors, birds of passage, stray visitors.

Slugs, spiders, and other small animals which may be
available. Study of structure and general habits.

Craneflies are in evidence at this season — their general
structure should be gone over and questions asked as to
the meaning of their remarkable form. Eeview also their
life history.

House flies may be captured, and if suitable conditions
can be arranged for their preservation, these would form
an interesting autumn study. It has recently been shown
that these flies may be got to hatch out even in winter.
See Local Government Board Report* for details of the
experiments, which are not beyond the powers of an
enthusiastic teacher. Such a study of course is easily
performed in summer, but it may well be deferred to the
autumn when less material is available.

Insects generally are scarcer, but winter pupae, e.g. of
cabbage butterfly, may be collected, drawn, and set aside
for hatching in the following year. These might be kept
under various conditions as to light and heat and the
effect noted in the times of hatching and possibly in the
colouration or markings.

* Report to the Local Government Board on Public Health and
Medical Subjects (New Series, No. 5, 1909), price 2d.

SCHOOL COURSES. 45

III. WEATHER STUDIES as for the other seasons. Here
some of the comparative studies suggested at p. 33
might be carried out.

IY. SUITABLE CALENDAR RECORDS, e.g. harvesting opera-
tions ; fall of leaf, giving trees in approximate order ;
migratory movements of birds, etc.

V. PHYSICAL STUDIES, e.g. Equinoxes, Measurement of
the Sun's Altitude at September 22nd, Study of
the Moon's phases, Characteristics of the Harvest
Moon.

VI. STAR STUDIES as in Winter Course.

WINTER COURSE.

From the nature of the work for this season it is not
convenient to set it out under separate heads of indoor
and outdoor. It will be seen that the logical continuity is
best maintained by following the lines adopted below.

We pass naturally from the Fall of the Leaf (Autumn
Study) to a study of

LEAF MOULD, in connection with which a demonstra-
tion on Processes of Decay should be given (see p. 277).
Devise experiments to show the action of Bacteria. Grow
moulds experimentally. Study Mushrooms and Toadstools
— their mode of growth, structure, and their means of dis-
semination. Dry and char some toadstools. The residue
is mainly carbon. Enquire as to whence it comes and
what becomes of it.

Note the formation in soil of Humic Acids, CO2, and
disappearance of carbon from the soil except as carbonate,
which remains longer. Incidental to the experimental
demonstration of the presence of Bacteria in the Air, give
a talk on the Hygiene of Fresh Air in relation to disease-
producing germs.

From leaf mould we make the transition to SOIL con-
tents generally. Classify these.

46 SCHOOL COURSES.

I. Vegetable Matter :

Dead : yielding Humic Acids, C02.

Seeds.
Living :

( Bulbs.

I Ehizomes, Eoots.
\ Tubers, Corms.

Lesson : The plant world in winter. Where stores are
kept.

Lessons on characteristics of the above.

II. Animal Inhabitants :

Earthworm.

Mole.

Hibernating Mammals : Hedgehogs, Shrews, Voles.

Hibernating Eeptiles : Lizards and Snakes.

Hibernating larvae and pupae.

Beetles, Bees, and Wasps.

Ants.

Centipedes, Millipedes, Spiders.

Wood lice.

Slugs and Snails, etc.

/ Eabbits.
Burrowers ] Badgers.

( Foxes.

A general lesson on the Winter Life of Animals ; also
detailed studies of particular examples of the foregoing,
particularly those materially affecting the soil, e.g. Earth-
worm and Mole. See pp. 131, 176.

This classification of vegetable and animal constituents
should be worked out on blackboard and in note-books by
teachers and pupils as a study in itself.

SCHOOL COURSES.

III. Earthy or Mineral Constituents :

(a) An inquiry as to the origin and some changes under-
gone :

Experimental study of Denudation : —

Enumerate first the commoner agents forming soil —
Rain, Frost, Eunning Water, Wind, Vegetation, Animals.

Explanation of mode of action of these.

Examine the extent of weathering on old buildings and
tombstones, the dates of which are known.

Note crumbling of stone walls and growth of moss and
lichen on these.

Note also the farmer's operations, Ploughing, etc.,
seeking the assistance of Nature in the work of further
disintegration.

Fig. 3. River-Loops in an Alluvial Valley. The dots mark points
of deposition.

An Illustration : The Work of Running Water : —

Some things to be done and observed are : Examine
streams swollen after rain, take samples in a glass vessel,
note the muddy condition, set aside and j-ecord the time
taken for the water to become (relatively) clear. Note
the different layers of sediment, and their times of settling.

Estimate the rate of flow of the stream. This may be
done roughly by timing floating objects in, say, the middle
of the stream, covering a distance measured from the
bank. By this means discover how far the different layers

SCHOOL COURSES.

are likely to travel.* Keep for use at other times sealed
samples of the stream in different conditions.

Note the formation of alluvial plains, if such occur in
your district.

Study and make sketches of river bends, noting how
islands are sometimes formed (Fig. 3).

Action of sea — eating away of cliffs, blown sand, and
action of sand-binding grasses illustrate changes on the
sea- shore.

Fact to be grasped by pupils : Denudation is a reality.

It has gone on for innumerable ages : appeal to sedi-
mentary rocks which by elevation may have become exposed
to view.

(fc) Simple Analyses :

1. Separation of the Or-
ganic and Inorganic Con- -
stituents.

2. Separation of the Solu
ble and Insoluble Constitu- «
ents.

Take a small quantity of
garden soil, dry, weigh, in-
cinerate till all blackness and
smoking is gone, cool and
weigh again. Loss of weight
k = organic constituent.

Take a fair quantity of soil.
Soak it with 1 per cent, solu-
tion of Citric Acid, whose
action may be regarded as
equivalent to that of the root-
let sap upon the soil. Filter
k and evaporate the filtrate.

The filtrate contains the readily soluble mineral matter
which may be regarded as available for plants.

* The results obtained in this way are only roughly approximate,
since we are assuming the rate of deposit in still water to be the
same as that in runinng water. But our main point is to emphasise
the/actf of transport.

3. Mechanical by means ^

SCHOOL COURSES. 49

Mechanical analyses may
be made by means of sieves
(2 millimetre)f or the rougher
particles, and by sedimenta-

tion in water for the finer.

But exact experimentation
of this kind is rather outside
the limits of the elementary
school course.

Quartz, Mica,

Felspar, Sandstone,

Limestone, etc.

Study of their distinctive characteristics (see p. 282).
Name the rocks of your own district.

PLANT STUDIES :

Lessons on Evergreens, e.g. Spruce Tree, Holly, Snow-
drops, Christmas Roses, Mistletoe.

WEATHER STUDIES :

Continue the work prescribed for the other seasons of
the year. Incidentally, Snow Crystals should be studied
and from these the transition to a study of Crystals in
general may be made. See p. 64.

STAR STUDIES :

•

Indoors the teacher should figure the constellations
most readily observable at the time of study and pupils
should be encouraged to identify these at night. As an
aid to teachers, Philip's "Planisphere" will be found of
value.

N. s. 4

50 SCHOOL COtTBSES.

KURAL COURSE.

For those teachers who are required to conduct nature
studies which shall have some bias towards the agricul-
tural industry, the following subjects are suggested. The
Course is drawn up for senior pupils, since only in the
higher grades is it desirable that specialised studies be
submitted. What is given here need not of course consti-
tute the whole course. There should be added studies for
the seasonal groups given under Course IY. The details
necessary for the lessons will for the most part be found
in subsequent chapters.

I. Weather Studies (as already detailed for other
courses, emphasising dates of agricultural, etc.,
operations).

II. Calendars (see p. 7).

III. Study of the Soil. See details in Winter Course

for Senior Pupils (Course IV.). Identification
of the chief mineral ingredients. History of
some common rocks.

IV. Study of Farm Crops. Life histories.

V. Study of Common Weeds, and their mode of pro-
pagation.

VI. Simple Cross Breeding Experiments by artificial
pollination, e.g. with Sweet Peas. (Enquiry :
Verification of Mendel's Law.)

VII. Insects in Relation to Plant Life. Cross pollina-
tion of flowers. Study of Pea, Violet, Prim-
rose, etc. Useful and injurious insects : Life
history — relation to plant and animal life of
the farm, e.g. Crane Fly, Wireworm, Flea-
Beetle, Carrot Fly, Ox Warble Fly, Sheep's
Nostril Fly, Surface Caterpillars, etc.

SCHOOL COURSES. 51

VIII. The economy of a Beehive. A school observa-
tional hive might be kept. Lessons on Insects
and other animals of the garden.

IX. Characteristics of five Common Insect Orders:
Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenop-
tera, Orthoptera, studied on common examples
of each kind.

X. Study of twenty common British Birds of direct
importance in agriculture and horticulture, etc.
The following are suggested : — Eook, Jackdaw,
Magpie, Starling, Blackbird, Thrush, Cuckoo,
Swift, Chaffinch, Bullfinch, Yellowhammer,
Skylark, Swallow, Lapwing, Wood Pigeon,
Black-headed Gull, Green Linnet, Blue Tit,
Kestrel, Sparrow Hawk, Owls. Notes on their
identification marks, feeding, nesting, and other
habits.

XI. Life and Habits of Field Mice, Rats, Yoles,
Moles, Hedgehogs, Weasels, Stoats, etc.

CHAPTER IV.

NATURE STUDY IN THE TOWN.

IT will probably be felt by town teachers that some of
the suggestions given in this work, whilst capable of being
acted on in the country, are not appropriate to town con-
ditions. There is much force in this objection. The
teacher in the town school labours under disadvantageous
circumstances as regards this subject. There is no doubt,
of course, that the teacher who is personally well equipped
can and does overcome his adverse surroundings, often
with remarkable ingenuity and success. But we must
think of the individual who is more or less of a beginner
at this work.

In the first place it may be laid down as a general
principle that the governing bodies of city schools must
make reasonable provision in the matter of school equip-
ment. The teacher should not be asked to make bricks
without straw; he should not be reduced to that most
pitiable condition of teaching lessons on flowers, birds, or
beasts, and such like, by an appeal to the imagination
alone. Nor is that state of affairs an ideal one in which
the teacher under town difficulties lives, as it were, from
hand to mouth, in the matter of class supplies.

Many teachers cheerfully find the necessary materials,
but many on the other hand cannot spare the time required
to collect such. The practice of finding supplies through
the medium of the pupils may work satisfactorily in the
country ; it has undoubted limitations in the town. It is
not suggested that the teacher should stand aside and do

NATURE STUDY IN THE TOWN. 53

\ nothing. An enthusiastic teacher will never lose a good
' opportunity of finding lesson material, and the best lessons
will always be taught from that which has cost some
trouble. At the same time official assistance is an absolute
necessity for first-class work in the vast majority of cases.

To meet the difficulties of town schools the following
suggestions are made : —

1. The Making of Collections.

Natural History collections should be gradually built up.
Country teachers can to some extent assist their town
brethren in such matters, and School Boards should be
approached for the means to provide others. For a list of
useful objects see p. 335.

2. Aquarium Studies.

In spring several glass jars should be stocked with
fresh water animals, which will provide studies for a
considerable part of the year.

3. Birds of the Town.

The birds of the town should all be identified, and their
life history and habits investigated. Winter feeding affords
an excellent opportunity.

4. Flower Cultivation.

On the plant side a fair amount of flower cultivation in
boxes or in pots can be engaged in at small cost.

f>. The use of Public Parks, etc.

Something should certainly be done in the way of visits
to parks in the city, and occasionally to* suitable places
near it. In each district there are local natural features
which the teacher ought to make his or her business to be
intelligently familiar with ; pupils should be taken to these
at. the most suitable times of the year. Coast towns, for
example, are favourably situated for the study of marine

54 NATURE STUDY IN THE TOWN.

life ; in other places the geological features may supply the
subject-matter. But the teacher must be careful here not
to attempt anything of a difficult nature.

With reference to the public parks, an arrangement
between the park authorities and the schools for the supply
of leaves, twigs, etc., for detailed study is quite practicable
and should be come to. Large supplies are not needed at
any one time in a school, and they may be made to serve
several classes. The study of trees in some towns can be
made a special feature.

6. Weekly Wild Flower Studies.

At least a single wild flower might be studied each week
of the spring and summer. Pupils and teachers alike can
share in the finding of these.

7. The School Garden.

Practically all difficulty with the town school is overcome
if a garden is attached. Not many town schools have
these, although they may be set down here as an ideal to
be aimed at. But even a single plot may be of great
service if the teacher but know how to lay it out to best
advantage.

8. Weather Study.

The school should be supplied with instruments for the
study of the weather (p. 337) ; in the town also something
can be done with star studies in winter.

9. Calendars.

The making of Calendars, too, will prove a potent factor
in developing the interest of the town pupil in the wider
fields of Nature.

In town, too, it will be found that the spring and summer
yield more opportunities than the autumn and winter.
Time-tables of nature work should be drawn up with this
in mind. There is no reason for adhering to a routine

NATURE STUDY IN THE TOWN. 55

arrangement of a uniform amount of time each week
throughout the year ; on the other hand it will be found
more satisfactory not to do so.

The foregoing hints need not be regarded as exhaustive.
Other points will occur to thoughtful teachers. There are
many aspects of nature noticeable in a town which are
special to it, such as the stones with which its houses
are built and its streets are paved, or the soil beneath
these. There are the domesticated animals upon the streets
and in the houses, articles for sale in shops, and even the
fog which sometimes hides the sun at noonday. But we
have avoided reference to these, which, though admittedly
capable of yielding studies of great interest, in that some
at least are special to the town or to artificial conditions of
life, need not find a place amongst studies designed specially
to interest the pupil in the free and open fields of Nature
rather than in the town. But a wise judgment will save
the teacher from making any serious mistakes either way.
Everything here will depend upon the manner and spirit
in which the lessons are taught.

Whilst freely acknowledging the special circumstances
of the town teacher, and submitting the foregoing hints to
meet these, it is hoped that a careful study of the Courses
outlined in this work will prove suggestive and helpful.
From these, together with the lesson hints to be found
throughout the book, most town teachers should find it
possible to frame satisfactory schemes of work such as will
tend towards the realisation of the best ideals in Nature
Study.

CHAPTER V.

COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT.

A SIMPLE LESSON ON COLOUR.

LET this lesson be, in the first instance, an appeal to
the innate appreciative faculty in the child for colour.

Do we need to ask whether they prefer things plain to
things coloured ? Some preliminary questions may be
asked as to things liked by the pupils on account of their
colour. Flowers will almost certainly be placed first, then
perhaps fruits, e.g. rosy apples, cherries, strawberries, etc.
(We need not stop to inquire into the complex of qualities,
of which colour is only one, which may really determine
the iiltimate choice of any of these things. It is sufficient
to exercise for a little the child's discriminative faculty
amongst coloured objects falling within its experience.)
Pictures, toys will be in the list, and the teacher will more
than likely get surprises.

Next we may ask for some general colour impressions.

1 . The Seasons.

Winter ... White.

Spring ... Green.

Summer ... A wealth of colours.

Autumn . . . Brown ^ Earth ; Leaves,

Red I Fruits.

Yellow ) Grolden grain.

There should be some talk as to the reasons for the
colour chosen. (This point arises in connection with the
making of illustrated nature calendars, p. 9.)

COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT. 57

2. Living Things.

Vegetation. — Green; assented to universally. Chlorophyll
may be spoken of to the senior pupils.

Animals. — If we wish to get a parallel to chlorophyll, we
must guide the pupils away from the thought of externals,
and suggest a vital substance, which in all higher (verte-
brate) animals is of the same colour, Eed (i.e. blood).
The colour is due to Haemoglobin.

3. The Sky.

Blue ; again a universal assent. It may not be possible
to give a reason to pupils, but it may stimulate the imagina-
tion if it is stated that fine dust in the air has to do with
it. To those who understand that white light is composed
of a number of colours, it may be possible to explain that
the fine dust particles are able to scatter more of the blue
rays than of the other colours owing to their shorter wave
lengths, and that hence the sky appears blue.*

THE NATURE OF COLOUR.

To what is colour due ? If circumstances prevent a full
answer we can still give a partial one. We may begin by
showing that white light can be made to yield a series of
colours — red, yellow, green, blue, violet. This may be done
by means of a glass prism or by an appeal to the rainbow.
From this we may pass to the statement that white light
is not simple, but a combination of different kinds of
light (Fig. 4).

Objects appear coloured to us when they absorb some of
the rays of white light and reflect others. The greenness
of a leaf is due to the substance absorbing all the rays of
the spectrum except green. If no rays are absorbed but
all reflected, then the object appears white. Examples of
such objects are snow, white hair and feathers, powdered
glass. In all of these cases a gas of some kind is enclosed
between the constituent particles.

* Recent researches appear to suggest that the dispersal is due to
molec ujoir ju o v emeu jL

COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT.

At tliis point pupils might be asked to name common
coloured natural objects, whose colour is due to these ob-
jects absorbing certain rays of light and reflecting others :
Examples : Flowers, vegetables, fruits, butterflies, feathers,
birds' eggs, etc.

Amongst the examples given there are likely to be some
whose colour is due to the structure of the object on which
the light falls. In this case the colour will vary as the
object is moved in the light (it varies with the angle of
incidence of the light). This will be best understood by

UUTRA-VIOLET

VIOLET

INDIGO

BLUE

G/*EEN

YELLOW

ORANGE

RED

INFRA-RED

Fig 4.— White light passing through a prism is broken up into its
constituent elements.

citing more examples and comparing with those already
quoted : Pearls or mother of pearl, many feathers, e.g. the
tail feathers of the magpie or breast feathers of the
starling, the metallic colours exhibited by many beetles,
the cuticle of an earthworm, the iridescent scum upon a
stagnant pool.

It will not be difficult for the pupils to understand that
in some cases the colour of an object may be due to both
causes combined, viz. a substance absorbing certain light
rays and at the same time, owing to the structure of its
surface, producing a play of colour by means of the rays
which are reflected. Some of the instances quoted, e.g.
feathers showing reflections (starling, magpie) , are of this
nature,

COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT. 59

Sum up all by again commenting on the variety of colour
in our surroundings, i.e. in nature. Eun over with the
pupils the^colours in the landscape as seen from the school
doorway or window, or in any suitable view, and give the
pupils some practice in naming the colours of different
objects around them.

In all descriptive exercises pains should be taken to make
the records of colour as precise as possible. This is admit-
tedly not always easy, as the beginner will find who tries,
for example, to describe in detail the plumage of a bird or
the colour of birds' eggs.

SYMMETRY IN NATURE.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS ON FORM.

We commence with a simple classification.

The pupils' attention has probably first been drawn to
the subject by noting the symmetry of flowers. But we
shall begin this really important subject more simply with
the familiar grouping of all things mundane as vegetable,
animal, or mineral. Pupils will assent to this classification.

The next step is more difficult. Our question now is —
with regard to the form of the bounding surfaces of
objects belonging to these groups — What fundamental
agreements or differences are observable ? Take concrete
illustrations, say a flowering plant, an animal, and a piece
of granite. The answer of course is that the organic —
buttercup and weasel are our examples — is bounded by
curved surfaces and the individual constituents of the
granite by straight lines. Try to educe this difference
from the pupils. If only a partial assenfc is given we may
proceed.

There is not much difficulty with the organic. Plants
and animals are bounded by curved surfaces, and the
human mind in infancy finds gratification in this, probably
before it appreciates straight lines,

COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT.

The Symmetry of Flowers.

Let us take easy examples. In flowers the bounding
lines are symmetrical. That is to say, there is (nearly)
always one line which drawn through the flower divides it
into two parts which are counterparts of each other ; one is
the mirror image of the other. Commonly in flowers there
is more than one such line. In our buttercup there are
five.

Draw a buttercup on the board viewed from above,
and pass a straight line across the middle of a petal and
along the space between the two petals opposite. You see
that this can be done five times always with the same
result — two and a half petals on one side, and two and
a half exactly similar petals on the other. (For sim-
plicity's sake we neglect all reference
to other parts, stamens, etc. We are
dealing with the plan of structure.)
Such symmetry as is here illustrated
may be termed Eadial Symmetry
fi f? P\A¥? (actinomorphic of botanists), and as

I &j$ if stated above it is the commonest form
I p^\ JT\ jPj of flower symmetry. Examine a few
^\N^ ^/// flowers with regard to their symmetry.
Now take another example, this
time a Violet flower. Draw a surface
view, or, what is perhaps better, a
floral diagram (Fig. 5). We see at
once that in this case there is one
line only which can divide the flower
into two counter parts. When such
is the case we speak of Bilateral Sym-
metry (zygomorphic of botanists).
Test this rule upon one or two cases, e.g. Primrose and
Wallflower. The former shows radial symmetry. What
of the latter ? Draw the floral diagram of the Wallflower
(Fig. 6) . This presents an interesting case. A line drawn
so as to divide the two groups of long stamens and have
a short stamen on each side ( A B in Figure) gives the true
line of bilateral symmetry, and np other line gives the

SPUR.-.

Fig. 5. — Floral Diagram of
Violet. The line of bi-
lateral symmetry is the
line passing across from
the spur to the odd
sepal at the top of the
figure.

ColOtfE, fOESi, ANO ftOtBMEN*.

Fig. 6.— Floral diagram of Wallflower.

same kind of division. But a transverse line still gives
a division jnto two equal parts (the line CD) . It divides
each of the two stamens
into two parts, and sepa-
rates the two groups of
long stamens, see Figure.
But the two halves thus
got are not similar to
the halves got in the
first division. We may
call this latter dividing
line a secondary halving
line. The Wallflower
shows bilateral symme-
try. Note that we must
reckon with the stamens
in this case as they enter
individually into the plan
of the flower. This is not
the case where the number of stamens is indefinite.

The Symmetry of Animals.

Let us turn now to animals. All higher animals exhibit
bilateral symmetry. They have right and left sides.
Think, for example, of Mammal, Bird, Frog, Fish, Insect,
Crab, etc. G-et examples of animals from pupils. Animals
far more than flowers show bilateral symmetry. The
animals which show radial symmetry, e.g. jellyfish, sea
anemones, starfish, are lower in the scale of being, and
there is good reason in this for believing that the bilateral
symmetry is the higher type. For with the bilateral
symmetry in animals is associated always a definite brain
of some sort, marking out the head end.

It has been suggested with some show of truth that the
appearance of varieties of life amongst radial forms, e.g.
perhaps certain lowly types of worm, which exhibited one
part of their radial margin more sensitive than the rest
led the way to forms in which this small beginning
developed into a brain — a definite ascent.

COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT.

The Case of the Starfish.

The starfish deserves further notice. An example of the
common variety has five similar rays regularly arranged.
There are five cuts which seem to give an equal division,
and all the pairs appear the same. But on close examina-
tion we find that on the central disc there is a definite
rounded plate opposite the angle between two rays. It is
rather small, but it is certainly not trivial ; it is a definite

Fig. 7.— Starfish. The larger figure shows the under, the smaller the upper side.
M, the madrepore, the spot referred to in the text which gives the line of
bilateral symmetry. Other references are m, mouth ; £./., feet ; a.g., the ambu-
lacra! groove on underside of the ray.

organ leading into the water system of vessels, and it
destroys after all the radial symmetry. A line through
this plate and through the odd ray opposite gives the true
dividing line of bilateral symmetry. But while emphasis-
ing a point like this, we need not minimise the undoubted

COLOtTR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT. 63

fact that the starfish is radial in form. It behaves as
a radial animal. Whether this radial form has in the
course of evolution been superimposed upon a bilateral
type is a difficult question, the answer to which cannot be
discussed here (Fig. 7).

Unsymmetrical animals are rare. There is the familiar
snail, carrying its shell containing many important organs
upon its right side. We cannot divide this animal by a
single straight line into two symmetric halves. But the
snail in this feature exhibits a turning back. It is at
bottom bilaterally symmetrical, but this symmetry has
been lost

Symmetry of the Inorganic.

We have already suggested that the contrast in surface
bounding lines between living matter and mineral is that
of curved lines and straight lines. We go on now to state
the difference more exactly. G-eologists recognise that
matter — apart from organic matter — exists in two main
conditions.

(a] Amorphous, having no definite internal structure,
and consequently no characteristic external shape of its
own, but taking the form of the cavity or space in which
it originated. This is not the place in which to consider
the causes leading to matter appearing in this condition,
but it may be pointed out that in some cases the assuming
of the amorphous state is due to the conditions of forma-
tion (e.g. too rapid cooling), and is not an inherent pro-
perty of the substance itself. Examples of amorphous
matter are natural glasses, e.g. obsidian and pitchstone.

It has been suggested that amorphous bodies are really
made up entirely of matter in the condition of irregularly
arranged crystals of microscopic size.

(&) Crystalline, where the substance has a definite
internal structure, which usually finds expression in a
definite external form, which is not lost unless the sub-
stance be subjected to external forces. One reason why

64 COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT.

crystals are not more obvious to the ordinary observer than
they are is that they are so frequently broken by mutual
pressure, etc.

We have taken a piece of granite to exemplify the con-
dition of mineral matter, and in it we may see crystalline
structure. Not, certainly, in the simplest form in which
it might be seen ; still a close examination will reveal
the straight lines of innumerable crystals inextricably
mixed up.

If our pupils wish to see a simpler case, it may be
possible to exhibit a large quartz crystal which has had
room to grow, and consequently displays its angles and
faces perfect. In this connection we may appeal for a
closer examination of the fern-like tracery of the frost
figures on the window pane, or an examination of the
snowflakes as they fall upon us out of doors. And above
all we must give effective point to the lesson by growing
crystals.

What are the simpler characters of crystals which may
be pointed out to our pupils ?

1. They are bounded by straight lines, not curves.

2. They have flat surfaces, termed faces.

3. In crystals of the same substance the angle between
corresponding faces is constant, whether the crystal be
large or small.

4. There are different types, distinguished by the number,
length, and position of their " axes."

Some Common Crystals and their Appearance.

1. Snow. — Snow crystals have six rays. They consist of
" solid rods or flat scales, each with six sides, others are
six-sided pyramids, the most common are six-pointed
stars." The six rays constitute three lateral axes, and
there is a very short vertical axis in the centre. They are
white because of the large amount of air enclosed between
their numerous points (Fig. 8).

COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT.

An ordinary snow flake consists of many of these crystals
in a loose entangled mass. They are delicate and are

Fig. 8. — Examples of snow crystals.

frequently broken in their fall through the air; yet
although they melt quickly as we examine them closely, it
is not difficult to get a view of perfect examples.

2. Quartz. — Quartz crystals con-
sist of six-sided prisms, topped
by six-sided pyramids. They are
known as rock crystal ; perfect
examples are found where they
have grown in cavities. The
number and arrangement of the
axes is the same as in the snow
crystal (Fig. 9). Quartz occurs in
granite and sandstone, but per-
fect crystals cannot be seen in
these ; it is the commonest mineral

in the earth's crust. Fig ^ of Quarte

o A^ AT j. IT showing crystals.

3. Alum. — Alum crystallises
in regular octahedra. There are

three axes of the same length, intersecting each other
at a right angle. Exhibit a crystal or draw one.

66 COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT.

4. Common Salt crystallises in cubes. Here the number
and arrangement of the axes is the same as in aluin.
This should be demonstrated by means of a diagram.

5. Copper Sulphate. — In this type of crystal all the
axes are unequal and are placed obliquely to each other.

Growth of Crystals.

The experiment of growing crystals should be performed.
The teacher should make a saturated solution in water of
any of the three foregoing substances or of any other he
may find more serviceable to his purpose, by dissolving as
much as the hot water will take up. Keep the water near
boiling point, continuing to add more of the solid as it dis-
solves. In the case of common salt a very large quantity
of substance will dissolve in this way, but as it is readily
available in quantity it should be taken for this experi-
ment.

When the solution is saturated, which will be indicated
by the liquid ceasing to dissolve any more solid, it should
be poured into another clean vessel. A quite shallow
vessel with a wide opening is best, and if all the liquid is
not used the excess may be put aside for future use. In
the shallow vessel as cooling and evaporation proceed the
dissolved substance will reappear in crystalline form.

If the crystals are not too crowded, perfect forms may
be picked out. They may be separated from each other
with the point of a needle. In this way small but perfect
cubes of common salt will be got. In the case of the alum,
if the small crystals can be kept apart from each other and
turned from time to time so that the faces may grow equally
quite large crystals may be obtained. So also with copper
sulphate, but this substance being poisonous is not so con-
venient for school use.

If these experiments are successfully performed, and with
care and patience they may be, it will be well in conclusion
to compare the growth of a crystal with that of a plant or
animal. The teacher should make clear the fact that

COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT. 67

although crystals grow they do so by the addition of par-
ticles of the same substance to the outside — growth by accre-
tion— whereas plants and animals grow by the addition of
substances which are dissimilar and by addition from the
inside — growth ~by assimilation.

Summarise the studies on form by appealing for appre-
ciation of nature type forms, particularly animal and plant.
But scenery should not be neglected. This appreciative
spirit should run through all nature studies — its develop-
ment tends to the culture of aesthetics.

THE SWIMMING FISH.
A STUDY OP MOVEMENT.

We have before us in a large glass bowl some golden
carp. Let us watch them for a little. As with the bird in
the air, so with the fish in the water, we cannot but admire
the ease of movement, the mastery of the medium in which
the creature lives. Our fish may not be the best to typify
the various activities of fish in general which we might
have, but at the moment they are the most convenient.
The gold fish are slow, trout in captivity even show more
activity ; for dash and perfect grace of movement the
salmon or any of the more active sea species, e.g. the
spotted dogfish, afford in their natural haunts a very fine
sight.

Let us, however, watch our gold fish. Lazily they move,
sometimes suddenly dashing forward, at 'other times they
poise stationary, they rise, they fall. We become conscious
that movement is effected with slight effort. What are
the special adaptations fitting them to live in water ?
And while we seek to enumerate some of them we shall
think not only of the gold fish before us, but of fish in
general.

68 COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT.

We note (a) their form — spindle or wedge shape,
(6) their surface — smooth,
(c) specific gravity — that of the water,
(c?) great muscular development,
(e) fins,
(/) air bladder.

Form. — We shall study this in some detail.

Draw the outline of a fish as seen from above.

It is a double wedge, with the broadest part a little way
behind the front (Fig. I()A) . The head forms a short blunt

wedge in front, and the
body a long tapering
wedge behind. It is not
unlike the general shape
of a bird's body. A
consideration of the fish
shape with reference to
the inward pressure of
the water upon the body
will show that this tends
to push it forward on
the slightest muscular
effort (see Fig. 10).

The pressure on the
long wedge tends to pro-
duce forward slipping,
whilst the small wedge
presents a cutting edge,
removing the resistance
which would otherwise
be offered in its absence

Fig. 10.— Diagram to show the effect of the
pressure of the water upon the body of a
typical fish. The median vertical arrows
indicate the direction of the resultant pres-
sure. See text for full explanation.

(compare A and B) .

Note also the absence of all projecting parts or breaks
in the even continuity of the body outline. And here
it is of interest to recall how animals of fundamentally

FORM, AND MOVEMENT. 6$

terrestrial structure which have taken to the water approxi-
mate to the fish form. All stages are observable. Com-
pare, for example, with regard to loss of neck constriction,
reduction or loss of ear pinna, modification or loss of hind
limbs, the following series: — Water Vole, Otter, Seal,
Dolphin or Whale.

In all of these the neck is thickened, and there is practically no
constriction. In the water vole the ear pinna is covered with rather
long hair and lies flat against the head ; in the otter the pinna is
greatly reduced in size, and does not project upon the head ; in
seals, dolphins, and whales it is entirely absent. As regards hind
limbs, in the semi-aquatic forms these limbs are of normal size ; in
seals they are directed backward in the line of the body and are
most useful as swimming organs ; in the others — entirely aquatic
mammals — they are lost, save for vestiges concealed within the body.

Surface. — Though scaly, the body presents a smooth
surface. Mucus glands are present in the skin, and in
some fishes it is kept in an extremely slimy or slippery
state by the products of these glands. An excellent
example of this is the small " butterfish " so common in
the pools around our shores, although here the slipperiness
has the additional protective value of rendering the fish
extremely difficult of capture. It is worth while here also
comparing the "set" which is assumed by the hair upon
the aquatic mammals, e.g. otter and seal.

Specific Gravity and Centre of Gravity. — It is well
known that dead fish float. Their specific gravity is about
equal to that of water. Their centre of gravity is high up
on the body a little way behind the head. These points
might be verified on a dead fish. Bearing this in mind, it
will be readily seen that, were it not for, the action of the
fins, the balance of the fish would be easily upset. But
with balance maintained, the result of these arrangements
is that a minimum of effort is sufficient to effect movement.
The support given to the body is such that fish of this
shape do not require to lie down in resting. A little watch-
ing of the fish will help to make these things clear.

70 COLOUR, FORM, ANt> MOVEMENT.

Muscles. — The proportion of muscle to the total body
weight in a fish is considerable. The amount of space
occupied may be demonstrated by pointing out that if we
except the cavity on the lower side of the body containing
the viscera, and the backbone and fins, practically all be-
hind the head consists of muscle. The outline of these
muscles may be seen through the skin in some fishes, e.g.
the haddock. That fishes are capable of long-continued
muscular effort we know from what has been learned
regarding their migrations ; for example, those of the eel
(see p. 73).

Fins. — The fish should be carefully and patiently watched,
and an endeavour made to interpret the action of the
several fins. To begin with let us enumerate these. Dis-
tinguish median fins in the middle line of the body, dorsal,
ventral, and tail. Fill these in upon your drawing. The

df*

Fig. 11.— Diagram illustrating the externals of a Fish (Haddock).
na nasal pit; b, barbule ; op., operculum or gill cover; br. m., branchial
membrane, lower part of gill cover ; p.f., pectoral fin ; pvtf., pelvic fin ; u.ff.a., body
apertures ; d/."2tn, dorsal fins 1 . 2 . 3 ; a./. "S ventral fins 1 and 2 ; <?/., tail-fin.

number, size, and position of dorsal and ventral fins vary
in different types of fish. (See description of a fish, p. 77.)
There are also two sets of paired fins. These are compar-
able to the two pairs of limbs in higher animals.

Consider the dorsal and ventral fins. We recall the un-
stable equilibrium of the fish and note that these fins will
help to maintain an even balance. As we watch the fish

COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT. 71

we see that they are raised and lowered at will. These
fins have been removed from fishes, when it has been found
that a straight course could not then be followed. In
some fishes, e.g. pipe fishes, sea-horses, and sticklebacks,
the dorsal fin by means of rapid undulations along it is
used to propel the fish.

Tail Fin. — The action of this fin should be closely studied.
It should not be difficult to note that this is the propelling
organ. Two principal movements can be observed — the
bending of the tail to the side preparatory to the making
of the stroke, and the backward effective stroke. In fishes
with a large lobed tail fin, one can readily see that in the
bending preparatory stroke the fish by a graceful undula-
tory movement of the fin presents its edge to the water
suggestive of the feathering of an oar. In the extending
stroke, on the other hand, the flat surface is presented to
the water and effective propulsion is the result. In the
two movements there is in effect a slipping through and a
gripping of the water.

An excellent illustration of the force there is in the
stroke of a fish's tail is seen when the fish in a nearly
vertical position by a single movement of this organ throws
itself out of the water, e.g. the trout after fly, flying fish
when chased by their enemies, or salmon in climbing weirs,
etc. No better testimony to the effectiveness of the stroke
of a fish's tail can be got than this last. Salmon of very
large size are known to readily effect a six-foot leap.

Besides propulsion the tail fin is on occasion, by bending
to the side, made to act as a rudder.

It is of interest here to note two common recognisably
different tail forms.* There is the type seen in bony
fishes in which the upper and lower lobes are of the same
size, and that occurring in sharks and dogfishes in which
the upper lobe is much the larger. This* latter type of tail
is the more ancient.

* This does not exhaust the list of tail types, of which there are
four amongst living fishes.

72 COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT.

Paired Fins. — There are two pairs of these, and we may
note in passing their interest as the precursors of the fore
and hind limbs of other vertebrate animals. They are
placed, one larger pair upon the sides near the head and
the other smaller pair further back and lower down on the
body.

In some fishes, e.g. members of the cod family, the hind
pair has been transferred to a position in front of the fore
pair. This arrangement doubtless assists in keeping up
the head end, which is necessary owing to the position of
the centre of gravity and which is one of the uses of the
pectoral fins.

Both pairs also act as side keels, maintaining steadiness
and preventing overturning. This is not difficult to under-
stand in the light of what we now know of the other
adjustments in the fish body.

Another important service performed by these fins, which
may be discovered by watching the fish, is that of steering.
It will be noticed how frequently the fins of one side act
independently of those of tha other. A backward stroke
of a pectoral fin turns the fish towards that side, and other
turning movements are similarly effected. Lastly they are
in some cases used as propelling organs. Sticklebacks
may be observed using their pectoral fins for this purpose.

Air Bladder. — An interesting structure possessed by
many fishes is the air bladder. This sac lies below the
backbone ; it is very variable in form and size ; it may
open into the gut or be closed. It is undoubtedly a hydro-
static organ in the first instance, though in many cases it
has other functions.

Its use seems to be to adjust the specific gravity of the
fish to that of a particular plane in the water, which is
called the plane of least effort. If the fish rise far above
this plane, or go far below it, special effort will be required
to maintain the new position until by an internal adjust-
ment of the amount of gas in the bladder a new specific
gravity is attained, and the bladder is contracted or dis-
tended. This adjustment is effected by blood glands in
the air bladder, and also by the duct liberating gas in

COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT. 73

those which are open. The air bladder is probably of
use in the longer migrations, when it may help to keep
the fish relatively at the same depth in the course of the
journey.

Throughout, the attempt should be made to maintain
this lesson on observational lines, by, as has been suggested,
close watching of the different movements made by the
fins, and noting the result of these movements ;

e.g. raising and lowering of median body fins ;
action of tail fin ;
action of paired fins, together and separately.

MIGRATIONS OF THE COMMON EELS.

As a particular illustration of the powers of fishes, the lessons on
the swimming fish might be followed by the teacher recounting the
outstanding facts narrated below regarding one of the most familiar
of fishes occurring in fresh waters.

Until a few years ago it was necessary in speaking of the
life-history of the common eel to refer to it as a mystery.
To-day much of the mystery has been removed, and in its
place we have a tale of remarkable interest.

The " march of the elvers " or young eels up the rivers
from the sea in the spring or early summer has long been
an event of interest and wonder. It is an event to be
looked for by those within reach of the banks of a river or
smaller stream. The time varies with the stream, but in
general it is later in the south than in the north.

The young eels on leaving the sea spend their time in
the fresh water, feeding and growing, sometimes leaving
the water and crossing the fields to another stream ; in
this way they live for about four or five. years, when a
return migration down the streams to the sea takes place.

It is a matter of some importance to note that eels at
this later stage have assumed a different appearance from
the ordinary. They present a silvery metallic appearance.
Their eyes are larger and are placed closer to the top of the
head; their sense of smell has become more acute, as is

74 COLOUR, FORM, AND MOVEMENT.

evidenced by the greater development of the smelling organ.
Another sensory organ whose development is accentuated
is the lateral line, a structure whose function appears to
be of the nature of a chemical sense or to have something
to do with the appreciation of pressure in the water.
Further, there is much fat accumulated on the body, the
muscles are exceptionally well developed, and the breast
fins are increased in size. Notwithstanding these changes,
very suggestive of the fish being in the pink of condition,
the eels are not mature.

What do these changes signify ? The eel is starting
upon a very long journey, upon which it does not stop to
feed. Many of the characters assumed are those of deep
sea fishes, e.g. the large eyes or well-developed lateral line.
The eel is in reality a deep sea fish and this migration is a
return to the ancestral home to spawn.

The journey is not simply to the sea. The eels of the
streams and rivers of the east coast of Great Britain, for
example, do not spawn in the North Sea nor in the waters
of the Baltic. No eggs, nor young, nor mature eels have
ever been found there. Nor do any fully grown eels ever
return to the fresh waters. The spawning beds of the eels
of the north-west of Europe are situated in the North
Atlantic at one thousand fathoms depth and at least one
thousand miles from fresh water.

The eels travel at the rate of eight to ten miles per day,
at which rate it will be seen they must spend several
months on the journey. By the time they reach their
journey's end they have become mature, and the eggs are
probably spawned in the spring time. From these there
develop after more than one larval period the elvers which
appear the following spring in our rivers and which there-
ore must be a year old. The parent eels are believed to
die after spawning.

The migrations of the eel illustrate a remarkable instinct.
They are difficult to explain, except on the ground that the
migrations have been evolved in the past through changes
in the distribution of land and water, in which the fresh
waters to which the eels had betaken themselves for feed-
ing have through the ages been further and further removed

COLOTTE, FORM, AND MOVEMENT. 75

from the spawning place. If this be the case, then the eels
have inherited the double instinct of returning to their
ancestral home to spawn and die, and what must be re-
garded as the more remarkable one of the young elvers, of
finding their way to the fresh waters many hundreds of
miles away along a route of which they have no previous
knowledge.

It will be well also to refer to the migrations of the
salmon, which are exactly opposite in character, since the
salmon frequent the fresh waters to spawn and return to
the sea, in which their principal growth takes place.

Compare the journeys of migratory birds.

By way of further development of the study of move-
ment the teacher should map out comparative studies on
the powers and modes of movement of some common
animals. Information which may be utilised in this con-
nection will be found in the Chapters dealing with Birds,
Frogs and Toads, Moles and Bats, Snail, and Earthworm.

CHAPTER VI.

EXERCISES IN DESCRIPTION.

THE fundamental exercise in indoor nature study is
description. It sets the seal in a precise way to observa-
tion, and pupils should frequently be set tasks of this kind
when sufficient specimens are available. The pupils, at the
commencement at all events of such work, should receive
some suggestion as to the order in which to proceed. As
a rule, both with plant and animal specimens, a descrip-
tion should commence first with a statement of the size,
general form, and colour. Subsequently the various parts
should be taken in order and described in detail. We give
here a description of a fish such as has been studied alive
in a previous lesson.

Illustration of a Description.

EXAMPLE. — A Carp, black variety.

This specimen is about five and a half inches long, the
form somewhat spindle-shaped — tapering gradually to
both ends, laterally compressed, thicker anteriorly, more
flattened in tail region. The trunk and tail are covered
with soft overlapping scales. Along the dorsal region of
the head and trunk the colour is blackish, laterally bronzed,
and ventrally, yellowish white. Head, trunk, and tail
regions are recognisable, but there is no neck.

The head is short, deeper than broad at its widest part,
tapering bluntly. At no part is it so broad as the anterior
region of the trunk. The roof of the head is the darkest

EXERCISES IN DESCRIPTION.

in colour of the whole body, and the whole head is scale-
less. The mouth-opening is terminal, and when closed is
crescent- shaped ; the nostrils, paired and valved, are situ-
ated anterior to and about the level of the dorsal border of
the eyes. These are black, with iris pale, slightly bronzed,
and tinged with amethyst. There is a row of [sensory]
spots on the under side of the lower jaw. Behind the eyes
are the relatively large, somewhat convex and composite
gill-covers, beneath which may be seen the gill-arches. The
ventral portion of the gill-cover on each side is supported
by a few curved bony rods.

Fig. 12.— The Carp (Cyprinus). Compare with Haddock (p. 70) as regards number
and arrangement of median fins, and position of paired fins.

The trunk is about three and a half inches long, its
greatest vertical depth, which is just behind the head, is
one and a half inches, and its least, at the junction with
the tail, about half an inch. The scales have a rounded
free border, and are always more darkly pigmented on the
exposed part. One taken from the side of the body is
bronze, dotted over with minute black specks, the covered
part is silvery white, and the innermost border is wavy in
outline. A distinct line of modified scales, running along
each side of the body and curving upwards anteriorly, is
observable. (This indicates a lateral sensory line.)

There is a median dorsal fin about the middle region of
the trunk, and a median ventral, smaller, both terminating
about the same distance from the caudal fin. Close to the

78 EXERCISES IN DESCRIPTION.

free borders of the trunk anteriorly, and near the ventral
side, are the paired pectoral fins [equivalent to fore-limbs]
somewhat fan- shaped. On the sides of the ventral line,
half-way between the head and the ventral fin, are the
pelvic fins [equivalent to hind-limbs], like the pectoral in
shape, but smaller. In all these fins the first ray is
stronger and firmer than the others. The anal aperture is
just in front of the ventral fin. The tail fin is relatively
large and symmetrical, with a rounded, broadly bilobed,
terminal border (Fig. 12).

It is desirable that pupils should have frequent practice
in descriptions such as the foregoing. After their pre-
liminary training they should carry out this work without
assistance. These exercises it should be understood are
meant to be quite distinct from descriptions which are
elicited from the pupils in the course of an observational
study such as is given, e.g., in the next chapter.

The following type objects may be set for description as
opportunity arises. They are arranged in approximate
order of difficulty of treatment ; the degree of detail
required must in each case be determined by the age and
capacity of the pupils.

Plants.

Leaves. — These will call for verbal descriptions of size,
shape, colour, and texture. Not until the pupils have
grappled with the difficulties of finding terms to correctly
indicate different shapes of leaves should the teacher supply
the recognised nomenclature, and this should for the most
part be done with the older pupils only.

Fruits. — Descriptions should include reference to size ;
shape ; colour ; nature of surface ; consistency (i.e. whether
fruit is hard, soft, pulpy, leathery, etc.) ; odour (pleasant,
if any associations suggested, etc.) ; taste, if edible.

Flowers. — Note size, giving approximate measurement
across top of flower, also length if this is marked ; shape,
with particular reference to symmetry ; colour of indi-
vidual parts ; arrangement of component parts ; odour.

EXERCISES IN DESCRIPTION. 79

Entire plants. — Pupils' descriptions of such are given by
way of illustration at p. 203.

Twigs. — For a description of a twig see p. 253.

These exercises may quite suitably be made the means of
gradually building up a knowledge of botanical nomen-
clature on the part of the pupils as far as descriptive terms
are concerned. This is probably the best way in which to
communicate such knowledge.

Animals.

Shells. — The usual order should be followed here also :
size; general shape; colour outside and inside ; general build,
such as thick, thin, strong, fragile, etc. ; nature of surface
details, such as markings outside and inside.

Eggs. — These form excellent tests of colour description.

Animal Types. — Examples of all the five chief vertebrate
groups should be included. The following are suggested : —
A gold fish, a frog or toad, a newt, a lizard, a snake, a
series of birds, all the ordinary domestic mammals as well
as any others which may be available, e.g. hedgehog, mole,
bat, squirrel, water vole, hare, rabbit, stoat, weasel. Since
these exercises are primarily intended to develop the pupils'
observational powers, it will of course be understood that
these subjects are suggested only if the appropriate mate-
rial is available. The small examples, fish, frog, etc., will
readily be found, and the live animals should be utilised for
the purpose. In all instances of dealing with live animals,
it need scarcely be pointed out, the greatest care is neces-
sary in ensuring their comfort and in avoiding anything
likely to encourage carelessness or cruelty on the part of
the pupils. For exercises on birds and mammals stuffed
specimens may be used, and in the country, at all events,
dead examples of both these types are at times available,
and such opportunities should not be lost.

CHAPTER VII.

FROGS AND TOADS.

OBSERVATIONAL STUDY OP A TOAD.

THE toad may be kept under observation in a glass
vessel, say under an in verted tumbler, or, better, a bell- jar.
It may be allowed to crawl some distance without any
likelihood of its escaping, and be again placed under the
bell- jar. It is much more manageable when subjected to
study than the frog. But the teacher should handle these
animals quietly and with confidence, when it will be
found that either frog or toad may be managed without
difficulty.

"We begin by sketching the animal, drawing it natural
size and representing it in various attitudes. As we note
its form, we recall Milton's simile

" Him there they found
Squat like a toad."

And to emphasise the attitude, if a frog is available the
contrast in the resting position should be clearly noted.
Next we may liberate the toad for a little in order to see
its mode of locomotion. It may leap or it may crawl. We
find, in captivity at all events, that it prefers to crawl. A
sketch with the leg extended as in crawling should be
attempted (Fig. 13).

Note next the colour. The skin is pigmented. The
colour may vary in different individuals, or in the same

FROGS AND TOADS. 81

individual under different conditions. These animals
possess some power of colour change. This may be proved
by keeping toads in light and dark places in turn, when
some response to the difference in the surroundings can
generally be made out. Think of the natural environment
of the toad, on the moor or amongst scones or grass,
and recall how in general it harmonises with its surround-
ings. But the toad has very few enemies likely to devour
it, and is further protected against interference, as we
shall see.

As we look at the toad resting in front of us, before
going on to study details, we may ask the question : What

Fig. 13. — The Common Toad (Bufo vulgaris) in the act of crawling.
A figure to suggest movement.

is our general impression of this creature ? Do we think
it is unattractive, awkward ? What is the justification for
Shakespeare's " toad, ugly and venomous," or is there any ?
Is anything in nature ugly, in its own place ?

Let us study the toad a little more closely. We take it
in the hand. How does it feel ? First, we observe it is
cold. Think of the impression received when we hold a
live bird as we may at some time have done. The one is
cold and the other warm — cold-blooded and warm-blooded.
We have other impressions, the skin feels clammy, not so
much so as in the case of the frog, but still distinctly
clammy. Exactly what is included in this expressive
term ? Cold, moist, slightly sticky.

N. S. 6

82 FBOGS AND TOADS.

Feel the rough or warty surface of the skin. These
warts are the seat of a bitter substance which is poured out
by the toad when it is taken in the mouth of any animal.
Snakes do not appear to heed this, but most animals reject
the toad because of this acrid secretion of the skin, which
the toad can pour out at will. This is its most effective
means of protection. If you look at the sides of the toad's
head behind the eyes you will see a pair of thickened
ridges like long pads beneath the skin. These are special-
ised regions of the skin for producing this protecting fluid.
Organs which produce special substances for the use of the
body are termed glands. Hence we may note the skin of
the toad as a glandular skin.

Further, it is of some importance to note that on this
skin there is no kind of covering or protecting growth.
This character is noteworthy, since if we look around us
we observe that backboned animals with naked skins are
remarkably rare. Of the animals likely to be familiar to
pupils, only relatives of the toad (e.g. frogs and newts) and
the river lamprey can be placed in the category of naked
skinned vertebrates. (Incidentally we might here digress
to name different kinds of skin outgrowths — hair, spine,
bristle, feather, scale, with examples.)

Next, gently lift the toad by the skin of the back, noting
how loose is the attachment to the underlying parts. This
feature is much more marked in the frog. Beneath the
skin are large spaces filled with lymph fluid, and in the
frog at the hinder end of the body may be seen the beating
of a pair of " lymph hearts," where the lymph fluid passes
into the veins.

One of the striking features of the Amphibian Class is
the various changes undergone in mode of breathing.
Early in the course of their life-history Amphibia breathe
by means of their skin, and notwithstanding the acquisi-
tion of other respiratory organs they continue to some
extent to make use of their skins for this purpose. In
hibernation the lungs are not used for breathing. Although
by a mere examination we cannot demonstrate the respira-
tory character of the toad's skin we must note this as one
of its functions.

FROGS AND TOADS

Before leaving the subject of the skin of the toad, we

summarise its numerous properties : —

(1) Cold.

(2) Moist or clammy.

(3) Naked.

(4) Warty.

(5) Grlaiidular.

(6) Nauseous.

(7) Pigmeiited.

(8) Loose.

(9) Respiratory.

We now examine the body in some detail. Commencing
at the head, we may describe it as in outline almost an
equilateral triangle, with the triangle rounded in front.
For such a large head, the vertical
depth is small. What are the out-
standing features ?

First, of course, the large mouth.
It stretches almost from ear to ear ;
its large size is probably originally an
adaptation to the habit of taking insects
on the wing, although toads take a good
deal of " creeping" food. The tongue
is fixed in front, but has probably not
the same free movement of eversion
that the frog's tongue has (Fig. 14).
Toads feed largely on creeping insects,
wood lice, slugs, worms, etc. They
have no teeth.

Note next the respiratory move-
ments, the opening and closing of the
nostrils, the falling and rising of the floor of the mouth,
the pulsation of the sides of the body. These movements
occur in an orderly series. Endeavour to follow it. Note
that the mouth is kept quite close in breathing.

Two things are worth noting in the eye. There is the
delicate transparent membrane which frbm time to time
sweeps across it from below. The ordinary eyelids are
mere ridges, this is the true functioning eyelid. Then we
note the golden red iris with the dark pupil. We recall,
of course, Shakespeare's reference to the toad, "which . . .
wears yet a precious jewel in his head."

Fig. 14.— View of roof
of Frog's head, Avith
tongue protruded.

84 FROGS AND TOADS.

If we could see inside a toad's mouth we would realise
how bulky the toad's eyes really are. They are the biggest
organs in its head. Make an outline drawing of a toad's
head, fill in circles to represent the eyes, allow a little space
in front for the smelling organ, and a small space for the
hearing organ at each side behind the eyes, and you will

Fig. 15.— The edible Frog (Rana escutenta).

discover how little room is left for the brain of a toad or
frog.

Behind the eyes are the large glands which form the
noxious substance which really protects the toad from
interference. On a dead toad this substance may readily
be made to flow out if the gland is compressed.

Try to find the drum of the toad's ear — a small circular
disc above the angle of the jaw. It is readily seen in a
frog, and easily missed in a toad. The drini of the ear is
at the surface of the head.

The head merges directly into the body without any neck
constriction intervening. The body is usually plump and
shows a very slight hump on the back. In the frog this
hump is very marked. This is the place where the hip

FROGS AND TOADS.

girdle is attached to the back-bone. Its peculiarity con-
sists in its being placed so far forward on the body, but
this position is of very great service in enabling the frog or
toad to leap when on land.

The fore limbs of a toad are short and weak, so are those
of the frog. On the other hand, the hind limb is remark-
ably long and strong. The length of the hind limb should
be measured and compared with the total length of the
body. Note that four divisions are recognisable in a toad's
hind limb.

Count these on the resting toad. There is the thigh
directed forward, then the leg turned backward. Next
downward or forward the very much lengthened ankle,
giving much added power to the leap ; lastly there is the
foot with its five true toes and an extra nodule on the
inner side of the foot termed the "calcar." You will
notice that there are no claws upon the fingers or toes of
these animals, that the toes are webbed, and that the fourth
toe is the longest.

Take a good look at the toad and then draw it from
memory.

Make a tabular comparison between frog and toad.

TOAD.

FROG.

Body plump, hump not promi-
nent.

Skin warty.

Glands, large, on body, irritant
(producing "phrynin").

Toothless.

Web of hind foot slight.

Largely terrestrial in adult
state.

Spawn in a slender gelatinous
cord, which swells in the
water.

Tadpoles black.

Body less plump, hump is
prominent.

Skin smooth in comparison.

Glands small, only slightly irri-
tant.

Teeth in upper jaw and in roof
of mouth.

Web of hind foot marked.

Frequents *wetter places than
toad.

Spawn not in a cord but in
irregular masses.

Tadpoles brownish with small
golden specks.

FROGS AND TOADS.

Toads and frogs hibernate in the mud of ponds and
ditches, waking in the spring, after which they spawn.
They then leave the waters. The male frogs croak noisily,
the sound emitted by the toads is more plaintive.

EXERCISE.

Contrast a newfc, both young and adult, with frog or
toad.

Make a detailed study of a newt on the lines suggested
above for the toad.

How TO STUDY THE FROG'S LIFE-HISTORY.

For this study the following points should be attended
to:—

Spawn should be collected in the early spring, as soon as
it appears. If frogs are collected before spawning, there
is a possibility that, though spawn is got subsequently, it
may not develop.

Fig. 16. — Spawn of Frog, newly shed, and a short
time afterwards.

Fig. 17. — Spawn of Toad,
newly shed, and a short
time afterwards.

Keep in a moderately warm place in a good light.
Place some healthy water weed in the same vessel as the
spawn. Call pupils' attention to all changes observed.

FROGS AND TOADS.

Note e.g. the rapid swelling of the jelly around the egg.
If got quite early pupils should be asked at once to examine
and draw the eggs, noting

1. The dark end, the animal pole or living end.

2. The white end — the yolk substance which is to be used

in the building of the tadpole's body.

3. The jelly, which keeps the eggs apart, preventing

collisions perhaps when the rough March winds
ruffle the pool, which certainly saves the eggs
from being eaten by all birds, save broad-billed
ones, and which may have other uses (Figs. 16
and 17).

The following stages should be watched for and dates of
their appearance noted. A record should also be kept for
comparative purposes in successive years
of the external conditions as regards ex-
posure, light, temperature, and food sup-
plied. A strict account of the mortality
might be attempted so as to arrive at some
notion of the proportion reaching the frog
stage : —

Stage I. — The mouthless stage. This is
first definitelv marked when the head

Fig. 18.— Tadpole
with external
gills.

Fig. 19.— Tadpole with internal gills.

and body can be made out clearly. Note that now,
just as in the egg stage, breathing goes on through
the skin.

Stage II. — Appearance of external gills (Fig. 18).

FROGS AND TOADS.

Stage III. — Disappearance of external gills. The in-
ternal gill stage (Fig. 19). Note the spout opening
on the left side. The tadpole is now fish-like in many
important structural and functional characters.

Fig. 20.— Tadpole with hind limbs.
It shows also the " spout" open-
ing on the left side.

Fig. 21. — Tadpole showing fore
limbs beneath the skin.

Stage IV. — Appearance of hind limbs (Fig. 20) .

Stage V. — Appearance of fore limbs. Note that the spout
opening is quite visible until the fore limbs begin to
bulge. With a good lens the fore limbs with out-
spread toes may be seen under the skin (Fig. 21).

Stage VI. — Tail entirely gone. Frog stage is reache^

FKOGS AND TOADS.

Mate a series of drawings to illustrate the gradual
disappearance of the tail (Fig. 22).

Fig. 22.— The tadpole in six successive
stages showing the gradual absorp-
tion of tail.

Fig. 23.— Tadpole showing the left
fore limb as it appears at first when
pushed through the spout opening.

Verify the following : —

The left fore limb breaks through the " spout-like "
opening (Fig. 23).

The head is actually broader before the fore legs have
come out than it is after they have appeared.

The mouth is still small after both pairs of legs have
appeared.

A tadpole with four legs and tail leaps at a quite early
stage in contrast to a newt (similar in form), which crawls.
Explain this.

90 FROGS AND TOADS.

Carry out experiments in rearing under different con-
ditions as to food (giving very minute particles of fish,
meat, bread, etc., respectively to different lots. Avoid
contaminating the aquarium jars by allowing excess of
food to decompose).

It is very important that all young frogs reared in
school should, on the completion of their metamorphosis,
be taken to the marshes or ditches and set at liberty.
Teachers should be specially careful with regard to this
point.

Endeavour throughout to lift the study above the
commonplace, to awaken and maintain a realisation of
the wonder and mystery of Life.

CHAPTER VIII.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

GENERAL BIRD LORE.

COMMENCE with recognition marks in Plumage, Song,
Nest, Egg of birds of the neighbourhood, gathering and
recording the information by degrees. Note the time of
appearance of migrants — Summer, Winter. With the
assistance of the pupils general lore will be accumulated
gradually. Boys, e.g., who know something of this subject
should be asked to tell the class or given the option of
writing accounts of habits of different species. Seek as
far as possible verification. Enter the facts which seem of
seasonal value in the Nature Calendar.

The teacher will find a field-glass of material assistance
in this study, especially in watching the feeding both of
adults and of nestlings. .

Important birds of the neighbourhood should be studied
specially, e.g. gather facts about habits of at least twenty
birds.

The methods for detailed study of particular subjects
connected with bird life are given at length in the re-
mainder of this chapter.

92 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

STUDY OF BIRDS' EGGS.

This subject may of course form part of a series of
lessons on eggs of different animal types or form a lesson
by itself. As birds' eggs show quite distinctive features
they deserve a series of lessons by themselves.

At the commencement it is well to strike a note of dis-
couragement of the practice of egg collecting amongst
pupils. Lessons such as these should aim at being
effective in creating an intelligent interest which is content
to view the eggs undisturbed within the nest. Where
schools are already provided with a supply of birds' eggs,
these of course will be available for use. Many different
kinds are not required in any case ; the lessons will stimu-
late the pupils to observe for themselves in the proper
quarters.

Whether we examine a general collection or appeal to
individual pupils as to what they already have observed, it
will not be difficult for the class to agree to one or two
general propositions. We appeal as far as possible to
experience.

(a) Birds' eggs are mostly coloured. This is in marked
contrast to those of the only other vertebrate group which
has shelled eggs, viz. reptiles. Some of the pupils may
have found the eggs of snakes or of lizards, and some may
have seen (e.g. in a museum) those of a turtle or of a
crocodile. These all have white eggs.

(b) Some birds have white eggs, e.g.

Sand martin. Dipper.

House martin. Owls.

Kingfisher. Wood pigeon.

How many of these lay their eggs in holes or concealed
places ? The wood pigeon is the only one whose nest may
be said to be " exposed."

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY. 93

(c) In many cases the colour renders the eggs difficult
to observe. To appreciate this fact one must view the eggs
in the nest in their natural surroundings. Objects such
as bright blue eggs which look conspicuous in the hand
may be readily overlooked in the confused light and shade
of a thick hedge. Further, there are some clear cases in
which the eggs closely resemble their immediate surround-
ings. Examples are those of the terns, which resemble
the pebbles of the beach amongst which, they are laid, or
the plovers whose olive-green eggs speckled with brown
are like the ground on which they lie. Both these birds
nest in exposed places.

(d) We also notice in many groups of birds a kind of
" family resemblance " in the colour of the egg. Take, for
example, the crow family — E-aven, Carrion Crow, Hooded
Crow, Rook, Jackdaw. The eggs of these birds laid side
by side are seen to be but variants of a greenish tint with
light brownish speckling or blotching.

The members of the G-ull family have eggs of different
shades of olive green with brownish black blotching. The
hawks exhibit a brick-red pigment in varying quantities
upon a light- coloured egg.

The various species of Tits have white eggs with reddish
spots. And other cases might be quoted, e.g. breeds of
domestic fowl. Investigation has suggested that the
colouring matter is derived from the blood, and is of the
nature of a waste product. If this is so, the family
resemblance which is recognisable in many cases is not
difficult to understand. The colour of the egg in such a
case may be regarded as a matter of family constitution.
But perhaps with our pupils it is best to be content simply
with a clear recognition of the facts.

(e) Note lastly that in some cases there is very great
individual variation in the matter of colouring, e.g. Guil-
lemot. (Incidentally note the marked constancy of shape
of this bird's egg.)

Before passing from this subject, the appearance of a
few of the commonest eggs of birds should be noted.

94 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

Exercises in description of eggs where these are available
form excellent tests of the pupils' powers of colour descrip-
tion. The eggs should be drawn and coloured. Where
clay modelling is practised this might be attempted. The
models should be covered with white enamel paint, and the
ground colour and markings painted over this.

STUDY OF AN EGG IN DETAIL.

Take an ordinary fowl's egg. Note the following points.
The shape ; it is quite distinctive. We find it described in
books as "ovoid,5' that is, egg-shaped. Usually an egg has
one end broader than another, but some eggs, e.g. those of
some owls, tend to be almost spherical. The shell consists
of carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime, and animal gluten.
Some eggs are smooth in texture, e.g. those of aquatic
birds. Such eggs do not wet readily. A fowl's egg is
coarser grained. The shell is porous, admitting the passage
of oxygen inward and of carbon dioxide outward for the
respiration of the growing bird. Evaporation of the con-
tents also goes on through the pores after the egg is laid.

The size of an egg generally has some relation to the
size of the bird laying it, but there are some interesting
cases. The cuckoo, a bird about twelve inches long, lays a
small egg scarcely an inch in length. The guillemot, a
bird about the size of a rook, has an egg about three inches
in length, whilst the apteryx, a flightless nocturnal bird of
New Zealand about the size of a small fowl, lays an egg
about the size of that of a goose.

What is the weight of an ordinary hen's egg ? About
two ounces, but pupils might be asked to guess by testing
in the hand.

Within the egg, just beneath the shell, lie the shell
membranes. Pupils will be familiar with one membrane,
perhaps not so familiar with the fact that there are two.
Demonstrate at the broad end of a hard boiled egg the two
membranes, one against the shell, the other lying against
the white of the egg. Note the "air space" between.
Shell and membranes protect in part what lies within from

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

interference from without, but chiefly serve to maintain
heat within and to regulate evaporation.

The colourless almost fluid substance which coagulates
to a white solid on boiling consists of albumen, a substance
containing six chemical elements, Carbon, Oxygen, Hydro-
gen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulphur. It is in three layers,
which may be observed flaking apart on cutting a hard
boiled egg. Within the albumen we are familiar with the
yolk enclosed by a delicate membrane from which there
passes towards each end of the egg a thickened twisted
cord of albumen. The cords or chalazae which end in the

Fig. 24.— Diagram to show the parts of a fowl's egg as seen in longitudinal
section. The parts represented are the shell and its membranes, air
space, albumen in which may be seen the thickened cords (chalazae),
yolk in layers with the position of the germ indicated by the dark
patch at the top.

middle layer of albumen, suspend the yolk ; they prevent it
spinning rapidly when the egg is rolled or turned quickly,
and they act as buffers to the yolk in the event of its
receiving sudden jolts.

The yolk, golden yellow in colour, wjhich consists of
several organic substances, serves to nourish the developing
bird within the egg. It is not of uniform composition,
the inner contents being lighter. Just above where this
lighter mass comes to the surface of the yolk, there lies
the germ. Owing to this arrangement, no matter how
the egg lies, the yolk rotates on the chalazae so that the

96 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

lightest part with the germ above lies towards the upper
side, that is nearest to the warmth of the hen's body
during incubation (Fig. 24) .

At this point it is well to emphasise the distinction
between the germ on the one hand — microscopic, living,
essential ; on the other — all the rest, bulking large, but
after all, not living, accessory.

Lastly, a brief note might be added on the breathing of
the chick within the egg by means of a special structure
which lies against the shell, on the use of the air chamber
where the chick first fills its lungs preparatory to " break-
ing out" and on the "egg tooth" (a limy nodule on the tip
of the bill) by means of which some birds effect their exit.

In calling attention to the structural arrangements
enumerated above it ought to be possible to educe from
the pupils their significance in a good many instances.
Questions should be asked, e.g. upon the following points :
— The use of the shell — why eggs are narrower at one
end — why egg-shells are porous — the uses of the shell
membranes — the use of the yolk — the uses of the chalazae
— why hens turn their eggs — how chicks breathe within
the egg.

STRUCTURAL STUDIES.

For senior classes the adaptational features in a bird's
body will be found to yield an admirable series of lessons.
For this purpose the pupils under the guidance of the
teacher should mount upon a card examples of different
types of feather from various regions of the body. Cards
of the plumage of different kinds of birds should be made
as opportunity arises, and the best of these retained for
the school collection. A series of different types of bill
and foot might also be got together in course of time.

A preparation of the wing of a bird, say of rook or
wood pigeon or of any small bird available, should be
made in the following way. On a flat board stretch the
fresh wing out fully, inner side downward. Endeavour to
keep the feathers unruffled and in their natural positions.
A small staple should next be driven through into the

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOB BIRD STUDY. 97

board around the bone of the uppermost part, and also
near the free end. The small " thumb wing " should be
drawn outward and a tack placed so as to keep it in the
outward position. The wing may be left to dry and
stiffen. In a week or two it may be removed from the
board, when it will be found ready for use. Care should
be taken in removing the wing from the body to remove
the bone of the upper arm entire, and to cut away any free
flesh adhering to the wing.

All clean bones of birds — not cooked bones, as they are
apt to be oily and discoloured — which can be obtained
should be kept to illustrate lessons. In fact an entire
skeleton of a moderately large bird such as a rook, pigeon,
or fowl is desirable, and dealers supply these beautifully
cleaned and set on stands at a reasonable price. Failing
an entire skeleton, the teacher should endeavour to possess
some or all of the following bird bones : —

A Breastbone.

Bones of the wing, fastened together in correct positions

Bones of leg. A Backbone.

Adaptations.

In all our structural studies our point of view is that of
adaptation or fittedness of the whole and of its parts to
the conditions of life under which the organism is placed.
That is to say our inquiries are directed towards noting
the suitability of the parts examined to the uses to which
they are put or to the conditions under which they act.

It should be understood that whilst in many cases we
are able to apply the principle of adaptation with great
clearness, we cannot always do so. This is probably
mainly because of our ignorance of all the facts bearing on
the point. Sometimes it is because we are apt to forget
that organisms have all a very long past history and what
we see at present can only be correctly interpreted by
remembering that it has a meaning with reference to
the past as well as to the present. This past history is
often the explanation of a seeming want of adaptation, and
it should be borne in mind.

N. S. 7

98 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOE BIRD STUDY.

External Features.

With this preliminary caution we may proceed to
examine the body of a bird for adaptational features.
Birds are creatures of the air. Their bodies are heavier
than air, yet they maintain themselves in it, often for very
long periods, with grace, ease, and comfort. Kecall the
long migrations performed in amazingly short periods of
time. It is well to recall these things with the children
before familiarity with aeroplanes has killed all wonder
and done away with the mystery of the birds' mastery of
the air.

What is the shape of a bird's body ? Look at the birds
perched on the fences or trees. If a stuffed bird is avail-
able, examine it closely. Best of all try to catch glimpses
of a bird from below as it sails gracefully overhead.
Watch the gulls wheeling above you at the estuary, on the
rocks, or around the ploughed fields ; or the rooks with
heavy flap of wing high overhead wending their way home
at even. Here a fieldglass will help you to answer with
conviction the question : What is the shape of a bird's
body ? A bird's body is spindle or torpedo shaped. It is
long, rounded, tapering evenly to both ends. Here you
may enlarge on the suitability of such a form to rapid and
easy progress in air, how it is calculated to reduce friction
and offer a minimum of resistance. At this point refer to
remarks in lesson on the Swimming Fish (p. 67).

Feathers,

Note next the covering of the bird's body. You may
have in your hand a freshly killed bird, which may have
been the occasion of your taking a bird's body as your
theme, or a stuffed specimen may stand in front of you,
or a live bird in a cage. Of course you will not talk about
details without the material at hand for examination and
verification.

Birds are feathered. This feature alone separates them
from all other types of life. Feathers are outgrowths of
the epidermis. Feathers are light, proverbially §o ; they

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY. 99

keep up the temperature, being bad conductors they retain
the body heat ; they give an even contour to the body
which is of service in flight. They usually contain colour-
ing matter, and are often iridescent as well. White
feathers have no pigment, but contain gas in their internal
spaces.

Separate lessons should be given on feathers.

LESSON I. — The kinds of feathers found on an ordinary
bird, e.g. Pigeon. We may divide them into two large
groups in the first instance.

(a) The feathers which give the regularly rounded
shape to the bird's body.

Contour Feathers. — Emphasise the appropriateness of
this name by contrasting the contour of a live bird with
the angularity of a dead plucked one. These feathers
vary in size and texture, some are soft and almost downy,
others are more compact and firm. They are mostly
curved.

(6) Quill Feathers. — These are the large feathers of
importance in flight. The " rowers " of the wings, and
the " steerers " of the tail. Make use of the spread wing
to show the " rowers " ; expand the tail to show the quills
clearly.

There are other types to be found on closer study.

Meantime we return to the contour feathers. We shall
not discuss all the grouping of these on the body as recog-
nised by the skilled ornithologist, beyond noting the larger
and stronger looking ones amongst them which cover the
bases of the quills. These are known as coverts, and we
recognise upper and under wing coverts, upper and under
tail* coverts. There are also back coverts, and in many
birds a distinct tuft covering the ear-hole, known as the
ear coverts. These things are marked on the diagram
(Fig. 31). The teacher should draw the outline of a bird
upon the board and fill in the details as they are verified.
A knowledge of these simple terms will be found useful in
writing out descriptions of birds.

100

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

. 25.— Types of Feathers.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOB BIRD STTOY'. ' lOl

Further reference to the quill feathers may be omitted at
this stage. They are dealt with later in a study of the wing.

When the body of the pigeon is divested of the contour
feathers, we discover beneath them a set of very delicate
hair-like feathers. These are so small that they cannot be
plucked by hand. The familiar practice of singeing a bird
— passing it through the flames after plucking — has for its
object the removal of these hair-feathers or " filo-plumes."
The filo-plumes have a delicate tuft at their tips (Fig. 25 F).

Besides filo-plumes young feathers in various stages of
growth within a sheath will be found. If these are re-
moved a semi-fluid substance, perhaps mixed with blood,
will be found oozing from the base. This is the nourish-
ing substance from which the feather is built up.
Compare the dry base of the fully grown feather.

The general development of a feather might be out-
lined if not considered too difficult, but that is best con-
sidered after the structure of the fully developed feather
is understood.

Although down feathers do not occur on the pigeon, for
the sake of completeness they ought to be mentioned
(Fig. 25 D).

LESSON II. — The Wing of a Bird.

On the wing of a bird we can feel three divisions.
When the wing is closed these three parts lie folded
closely together, arranged like the parts of the letter Z.
If a fresh wing is available it should be spread out and
closed in turn until the relations of the parts are clearly
grasped. Next the pupils may be asked to note the three
divisions of their own arm. These are the upper arm
(above the elbow), the lower arm (from elbow to wrist),
and the hand. Pupils should endeavour to fold their
arms as a bird does its wings — upper* arm downwards,
lower arms upward alongside, hands downward. This
last cannot be done, but the exercise will help to make
clear some points of interest.

A bird's wing consists of upper arm, lower arm, and
hand. (Both birds and human beings have got a wrist in

SOME SUGGPJSTiO'NS FOR BIRD STUDY.

addition, but reference to it is omitted for the sake of
simplicity, as the bird's wrist is reduced and cannot be
demonstrated as a " region " by the method of external
examination alone.) It is true that the bird's " hand "
looks very unlike the hand of man. In the bird the hand
is adapted for bearing the strong quill feathers of flight.
Two of the fingers have disappeared, two have become
united beneath the skin, and the third, the "thumb"
reduced in size, remains free. Eepeat the attempt to fold
the arm after the manner of a bird, and note now how the
thumb points outward from the hand. Examine the wing
at this place and discover the bird's thumb, feel close down
to the base so as to find the bone, and note the tuft of

Fig. 26.— The wing of the Pigeon, showing the bones and the principal feathers.

feathers borne on this part. This tuft is termed the
" thumb wing."

The teacher might here tell the story of the extinct bird
Archaeopteryx, which had separate fingers with claws as
well as feathers upon its wing; that the thumb of birds
often bears a claw, or that the fingers of the unhatched
ostrich are clawed.

Examine again the outspread wing, feeling the skin
across the bend forming the elbow joint. This skin forms
a kind of web, giving an outspread surface enlarging the
area upon which the feathers are spread. Note the upper
and under coverts of this area, and also upon the upper arm.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOB BIRD STUDY. 103

Note next the quill feathers. On the pigeon's wing
there are twenty- three. Eleven of these rest upon the
hand. They are unsymmetric, the outer web of the vane
being narrower than the inner. The remaining twelve are
termed secondaries. Their bases are supported by the
stronger of the two bones of the lower arm (the ulna).
They are mostly symmetrical.

Lastly, note the lightness of the whole wing. Move the
dried expanded wing swiftly through the air and note the
resistance given to the stroke. Draw the figure of a wing,
with and without the feathers (Figs. 26 and 27).

Fig. 27. — The bones of a bird's wing.

77, Humerus ; 72, Radius ; £7, Ulna, it supports the secondary quill feathers ;
C, Cai-pus, of which there are only two free elements, the remainder having fused
with the fingers ; 1, 2, 3, Bones of the fingers.

LESSON III. — Study of a Quill Feather.

Each pupil should be supplied with a good sized quill
feather from a fowl or other large bird. Notes should be
made upon its lightness, and any special feature of colour
or iridescence.

Distinguish shaft or central axis and the vane. Draw
the shaft, noting the translucent, hollow, more or less
cylindrical lower part, the quill ; and the somewhat quadr-
angular, tapering, opaque part surrounded by the vane.
These facts of shape, etc., should be elicited observationally
from the pupils. Let them draw quill and upper shaft in
cross section.

Find next the opening at the base of the quill, through
which the nourishment passed to the growing feather (the

104

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

so-called inferior umbilicus). Within the quill can be
seen the shrunken pith. If a feather be carefully slit
along the quill this pith will be found to be arranged in a
series of cones overlapping each other (Fig. 25, 5).

At the base of the vane will be found a few detached
straggling barbs. They are apt to be overlooked, or at
all events regarded as of no significance. But in some
feathers these form a definite second shaft with vane,
which is sometimes, e.g. in the Emu, as long as the main
feather. This is called the after- shaft. Note the after-
shaft of the Heron's covert shown in Fig. 25, 3. Other birds
which show the after- shaft clearly are Parrots and Gulls.

We come now to
the vane or web. It
consists of a close-set
series of lateral rays
growing out from the
upper shaft. Let the
pupils discover exact-
ly from what part
these lateral rays
arise. They are
termed barbs (Fig.
28). Pupils will add
a set of barbs to their
drawing of the shaft,
filling them in at in-
tervals sufficient to
give the correct outline to the whole feather. Let them
examine the barbs closely, using a pocket lens if such is
available. They will note of course that in a quill feather
the barbs are not free, that in fact the adherence of the
barbs of the quill to each other is the property which
gives to the feather its effectiveness as an instrument for
striking the air in flight.

A close examination shows that the barbs have them-
selves lateral offshoots, repeating the structure of the
main feather. Pupils will fill in these lateral offshoots on
some of the barbs in their drawing. How do these bar-
bules, as the secondary barbs are termed, adhere to each

Pig. 28.— Portion of a feather.
#, shaft ; B, barbs ; &, barbules.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOft BIRD STUDY.

105

other ? We cannot with the naked eye see what the
arrangement is, but from the result, i.e. a coherent web,
we must conclude that the barbules are hooked and that
the hooks of adjacent
barbs are linked together
(Fig. 29).

Note how by pulling
gently the hooks release
their hold and the feather
tears. Note also how we
may imitate the action of ^

Fig. 29.— Diagram of barbs and barbulea
with hooks.

the bird when it draws

the feather through its

bill and relinks the hooks

again. We may do this

by passing the severed

part between the thumb

and forefinger, when it will be found that the feather

can be repaired.

Other External Features of Note.

Sill. — Birds are toothless, but it may interest the pupils
to learn that this was not always so. A further reference
to Arcliaeopteryx, which was toothed, may be made, or to
Hesperornis, a North American toothed fish-eating bird,
long since extinct. The function of the lost teeth is in
part fulfilled by the horny sheath which covers both upper
and lower jaw. Some note should be made of adaptations
in the bill to different types of diet. That of the Hawks,
e.g. is strong, sharp-edged, notched, and hooked (Fig. 30),
suited for the tearing and cutting of flesh. Other types
which might be noted in relation to the principal items of
diet are, e.g., those of the finches and similar birds, short
and conical, or of insect-eating birds Jike swallow and
swift, short and broad, or broad and flat as in the ducks,
and so on.

Nostrils. — These are small openings near the base of the
bill. In the pigeon they are slit-like.

106

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

Cere. — This is the soft whitish fleshy patch behind the
nostrils. It is an organ of touch, and is of interest iu

Fig. 30.— The Beaks of Birds.
1, Stork ; 2, Parrot ; 3, Sparrow ; 4, Pigeon ; .% Eagle ; 6, Duck.

being the only soft part of the body of a bird which is
exposed, except the eyelids.

Eyes. — Of interest is the third eyelid, the membrane
with which the bird cleans its eye ; it passes down over
the eye beneath the outer eyelids (Fig. 32).

Ears. — Concealed beneath the feathers just behind the
eyes are the quite large ear openings. There is no outer
lobe, but in Owls the openings are not only very large,
but their edges are raised into a kind of ear lobe. The
hearing of owls is very acute.

It is of interest to note that all the specialised sense
organs of birds are located in the head.

Feet. — A pigeon has four toes, and no bird has more
than four, though some have fewer. Some attention should
be paid to the ways the toes are arranged in birds of

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY. 107

different habit. Usually the first toe is turned backward,

Fig. 31. — Diagram of externals of a Falcon,
urn, mandible ; c, cere ; N, nosti'il ; -ff.C^ear covert ;
th.w.t thumb wing; d, back coverts; <?, wing upper
coverts ; <S, secondaries ; P, primaries ; R, rectrices (tail
quills) ; A, ankle ; Alt, tarso-metatarsus ; /, first toe.

Fig. 32.— Eye of a
Bird, showing the
Third Eyelid.

but sometimes also the fourth, e.g. Owls, Woodpeckers,
Cuckoo. In the swifts, whose feet are very short, all four

108

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

toes are turned forward. They walk badly, but can cling
readily to walls and such like. The feet of birds are
covered with scales and are clawed (Fig. 33).

Fig. 33.— The Feet of Birds.
1, Eagle ; 2, Pigeon ; 3, Woodpecker ; 4, Duck.

Preen gland. — On the top of the tail is a small gland, a
structure producing the substance with which the bird
preens or oils its feathers. It can easily be seen on a
plucked bird.

General Structure.

There are many other points of interest which might be
referred to in the general structure of birds, e.g. the long
flexible neck may be regarded as compensatory to the loss
of the fore limbs for all purposes save flight ; the large and
heavy breast muscles which are required to move the
wings in flight ; the presence of numerous air sacs within
the body, and in some cases within the bones (humeri) of
the wing, greatly contributing to thorough efficiency in
respiration ; the high temperature probably related to
this ; the arrangement of the heavy organs within the
body so that the bird is very stable in the air as well as
on land; and numerous skeletal peculiarities, some of
which are stated below.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOB BIRD STUDY.

109

Skeleton of Birds.

Note and verify as far as possible the following
points : —

(1) The bones are light, being hollow or of spongy
texture.

(2) Where rigidity
is required, parts which
are free in other ani-
mals have been united
in birds. Examples of
this are seen in the fol-
lowing : —

(a) Backbone, which
behind the shoulder
is practically rigid
throughout. This ob-
viously gives leverage
to the wing stroke
which an ordinary
flexible back could not
supply.

(6) Hand portion of
the wing, separate fin-
gers are not required,
rigidity being of more
service. The thumb
is distinct, and photo-
graphs of birds in
flight show that some
of them make indepen-
dent use of the thumb
wing.

(3) Loss of parts. The loss of fingers in the wing has
already been referred to.

Fig. 34.— Skeleton of the Pigecn.

110 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOE BIRD STUDY.

(4) Breastbone in flying birds is prominently keeled.
This gives a large surface for attachment of the big
muscles of flight.

(5) The shoulder girdle rests upon the breastbone.
This arrangement gives resistance to the downward wing
strokes and greatly adds to the stability of the body in
flight.

Some of these points may be regarded as beyond the
capacity of the pupils to appreciate. This will be so if
too much is presented at one time. But they should be
clearly grasped by the teacher in the first instance so that
he may be in a position to effectively apply some or all of
them, not at one time but as a gradual process of instruc-
tion in the fundamentals of bird life.

Notes on the feeding, nesting, and other habits of a few
selected birds are given in a succeeding section.

MIGRATION.

This is best studied in school observationally.
Commence, e.g., by noting :

(1) Birds in evidence in the district throughout the
summer ; appeal for facts to the scholars. Draw up a list
with dates, when and where seen, etc. (Compare plant

lists.)

(2) A similar list of those seen in late autumn and in
winter, noting birds missing and additions. Do not assume
that all those missing have migrated from this country.
(Teacher may consult books for well ascertained facts.)
Feeding the birds in winter will help in this work.

(3) A spring list of new appearances: note dates and
average temperature for week and month each year.

(4) Meanwhile ask some simple questions as to what
birds get and do in summer and winter while in this
country. Elicit in particular two areas for a large number.

A Northern Colder area for Breeding.

A Southern Warmer area for Feeding and Growth.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY. Ill

(5) We may now group the birds found in our islands as

Residents. — Even amongst these there is much migration
of a kind. The redbreast, for example, migrates from one
part of the country to another. Blackheaded gulls breed
on inland marshes and migrate to the sea-shore in winter.
The curlew and dunlin perform a similar movement.
Oyster Catchers move from river to shore and vice versa.
And there are many other less definite comings and goings.
Thrush, Blackbird, Tits, Hedge- sparrow, Sparrow, Linnet,
Bullfinch, Yellow Hammer, Chaffinch, Starling, Crow,
Jackdaw, Magpie, Skylark ; Barn, Long Eared, and Tawny
Owls ; Sparrow Hawk, Merlin, Kestrel, Lapwing are
amongst the commonest of our smaller resident birds.

Summer Visitors. — Eedstart, Nightingale, Spotted Fly
Catcher, Swallow, Martin, Sand Martin, Swift, Cuckoo,
Wheatear, Corn-crake are some of the most familiar.

Winter Visitors.— Fieldfare, Eedwing, Snow Bunting,
Woodcock, Jack Snipe, Little Auk are the most familiar
members of this group. Many members of the duck tribe
are also winter visitors. There are various other birds
which may strictly be described as resident in the North,
but which are only winter visitors in England.

Birds of Passage or Migrational Visitors. — These are
birds passing northward or southward and visiting the
British Isles on their way. They belong chiefly to the
family of Waders, e.g. Turnstone, Sanderling.

Stray Migrants or Wanderers. — These are birds not
regularly visiting our islands, but which appear irregularly
from time to time, e.g. White and Black Storks, Pallas's

Sand Grouse, Crane.

•

(6) Times of Coming and Going.

If the pupils are being taught to report the outdoor
occurrences observed, records will be got of the times of
appearance and departure of the more familiar of our

112 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOB BIRD STUDY.

migrants. A comparison of dates in successive years will
throw light on the interesting question of their punctuality,
which is said in many cases to be marked irrespective of
unfavourable weather conditions. So also with regard to
place ; it is well established that, in spite of the very long
distances travelled, the same birds come back in successive
years to the same nesting place.

(7) The distances travelled cannot of course be verified.*
But some well certified facts may be quoted, e.g. the
swallow may come to England from Natal in ten days,
the Sanderling migrates from Iceland to Cape Colony;
the Knot travels from the Arctic Circle to Australia ; the
Turnstone from Greenland to Australia, New Zealand, and
to South America ; the G-olden Plover is known to have
travelled 1,700 miles at a stretch.

The order of travel is interesting. In spring, the adult
males arrive first, followed by the females, and last of all
the young. In autumn, the order of departure is reversed,
the young going first. An exception to this is the case of
the Cuckoos, whose young are left to follow alone. From
the fact that the young are able to do this, there seems
little doubt that migration is at bottom an instinct, an
inherited faculty. That this instinct may be aided l>y the
intelligence of the birds, or by their possessing an extra
sense, i.e. a " sense of direction," is, however, very probable.
It is also likely that the reasons for its performance are
bound up with the past history of birds themselves in
relation to climatic changes upon the earth.

* In this connection, however, it might be suggested that those
who have opportunity might assist in a work designed to throw
light upon bird migration problems generally. Professor J. Arthur
Thomson of Aberdeen University is conducting an inquiry by means
of placing numbered rings upon the feet of birds captured and set
free again. The hope is that if large numbers are ringed, an appre-
ciable proportion will be heard of again from other parts of the
world. Any one willing to ring birds (e.g. nestlings) is invited to
apply to Professor Thomson, who will gladly supply rings for this
purpose.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY. 113

SOME COMMON BIRDS.

Appended are brief notes upon a few common birds,
selected mainly on account of their relation to agricultural
life. These notes are not exhaustive descriptions of the
birds ; only the most outstanding structural characters
are named. But it is hoped the notes on feeding habits
will be of some value, since definite information of this
kind is exceedingly scarce. Lessons may quite readily be
given upon those birds which are known to the pupils
observationally in the neighbourhood of their homes or
of the school. Such lessons should be taught orally, by
question and answer, if specimens of the birds are not
available, and the knowledge of the pupils supplemented
by such information as is given below. The aim should be
to stimulate observation of the habits of the birds under
consideration.

In the following notes the letter R. denotes Resident, and
the letters S.Y. denotes Summer Visitor.

ROOK (R.)« The rook is readily distinguished in the
adult condition from the other members of the crow family
by the abraded condition of the part of the head around
the base of the bill and of the throat. The male is about
19^ inches from tip of bill to tip of tail, female about 18|
inches. The colour is black, with purple and steel blue
reflections. The young are without the bare patch, and
less glossy. Rooks are gregarious, living mostly in large
companies, nesting together forming rookeries. They feed
mostly on land under cultivation, and it continues to be a
debated question as to whether their feeding habits are
mainly inimical to the interests of the farmer.

There appears to be no doubt that they levy a more than
fair toll upon seed corn, potatoes, and? turnips, pecking
holes in these last and rendering them unfit for use. Some-
times they take fruit, e.g. apples and pears. But it must
be borne in mind that these attacks are limited to parts of
the year only, while on the other hand the rook is a per-
sistent feeder upon insect life, very largely of the injurious
N.S. 8

114 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOB BIRD STUDY.

type, throughout the whole year. Their chief diet consists
of crane fly larvae ("leather jackets"), wireworms, chafer
grubs, etc., and the young are fed chiefly on suchlike fare.
The young hatch early in April.

Fig. 35.— Heads of Rook (above) and Carrion Crow (below).

Nest in trees, composed of sticks lined with fibrous roots,
bulky. Eggs four or five, nearly two inches long, light
greenish blue, spotted brownish.

The rook should be identified in the fields by means of
the naked patch under the bill (Fig. 35) .

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY. 115

CARRION CROW (E.). This bird is frequently confused
with the rook. It is a slightly larger bird, without the
abraded patch under the bill. The bill has bristly feathers
along its base above. The plumage is very glossy black,
reflecting purplish above, greenish below. In contrast to
the rook its habits are more solitary, although it is occa-
sionally gregarious. It builds a rather bulky nest in trees
or on rocky places. The eggs are about If inches long,
light bluish grey, spotted brownish, four to six in number.
In habits the carrion crow resembles the raven rather than
the rook, frequenting moors, hilly pastures, seashore, and
occasionally the fields. It feeds on small birds and mam-
mals, worms, insects, mollusca and carrion generally. " It
is a great poacher of game and poultry, and will even attack
lambing ewes " (Aflalo). (Fig. 35).

Make a drawing of a rook's head and a crow's head,
side by side.

JACKDAW (E.). This member of the crow family mea-
sures about 14 inches long, is greyish black in colour, grey
at the neck. The head, wings, and tail are dark and
glossy. Bill and feet are black. Jackdaws generally nest
in companies, favouring old buildings, towers, etc., about
which they spend much of their time throughout the year.
They are fairly noisy birds, with quite distinctive " caw."
They feed chiefly on insects — " wireworm " and " leather
jackets " — but sometimes take eggs or fruit. The nestlings
are fed on insects. On the whole they are generally
regarded as beneficial birds.

Eggs four to seven, an inch and a half long, bluish white
with small round dark brown spots.

MAGPIE (E.). A bird of about 18, inches in length.
Head, neck, and forepart of breast black, glossy, with but
slight reflections. Back black, interrupted by a greyish
band in front of the rump. Hinder part of breast is
white, the legs and feet are black. Wings with a large
white patch next the body, secondaries with marked purple
and green reflections, primaries brown on outer and white

116 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

on inner margin. The tail, which is 9 to 10 inches long,
shows very fine green and purple reflections.

This bird is " extremely shy and vigilant when molested,
it is much less so in unfrequented places. It walks like the
crows, but occasionally leaps in a sidelong direction, emits
a chattering cry when alarmed, flies rather heavily, and
nestles in trees or bushes, forming a large nest of twigs,
covered over or arched, with an aperture on one side. The
eggs, from 3 to 6, 1^ inch long, ^ in breath, pale
green, freckled with umber brown and light purplish grey,
but varying in their tints." (MacG-illivray.)

It is very destructive to eggs and young birds, levying
its toll upon the game preserves. Newstead (The Food
of some British Birds) reports : — " 7 contained insects of
the injurious group ; 4 beneficial group ; 4 indifferent

foup ; 1 wheat and oats ; 1 acorns ; 1 a holly berry ;
a field vole ; 2 pellets of sheep's wool. ... I saw this
species rob the nest of a song thrush of its young, but
I cannot say if this habit is at all general. The young
thrushes were only a few days old, and were carried off in
the direction of the magpie's nest and were probably fed to
the young ones." The bird is sometimes tamed ; it has a
great weakness for carrying off glittering objects.

SONG THRUSH (E-.) . This bird is about nine inches long,
yellowish brown above, the head faintly reddish, neck and
breast yellowish white, feathers of breast tipped with a
triangular brownish spot. It feeds on snails, insects,
worms, but is also a great destroyer of fruit. A resident
bird and a delightful songster. Lines its nest neatly with
mud. Eggs generally five, about 1J inches long, blue,
sparsely spotted with blackish brown. Spots large or
small or almost absent.

BLACKBIRD (R.)- In the male, which is about 11
inches long, the bill is yellow, and there is an orange-
coloured ring around the eye. Colour black. The female
is slightly smaller, bill dusky, plumage brownish above
and lighter below. A persistent robber of garden fruit,
but takes also worms, snails, etc. Song rich and mellow,
may be heard from early spring to middle of July. Nest

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY. 117

of fibres and grass lined with mud, usually placed in a
hedge. Eggs aboub 1 J inches long, five in number usually,
pale greenish blue, speckled with light brown, sparsely, or
so thick as to obscure the ground colour.

STERLING (B,.). This bird is about 9 inches long,
dark in colour, with marked purple and blue reflections.
In the male the feathers on the head and neck are very
narrow and tapering. On the other parts all the feathers
are tipped with a triangular greyish speck, which in the
male is small. The bill is long, pointed, and angular, pale
yellow, the feet are reddish brown. In the female the
feathers are broader, with broader specks at tip. The bill
is dull coloured. The nest is placed in various odd situa-
tions, disused chimneys, under eaves, crevices in rock, holes
in turf or in trees, etc. The eggs, four to six, are about
1J inches, narrow and somewhat tapering, pale blue.
Starlings are gregarious; they feed chiefly on a varied
insect diet which includes all the more important agricul-
tural pests, " daddy long legs " larvae, wire worms, etc.,
also worms and snails. Their nestlings are fed almost
entirely on insect diet.

The following record of observations by Newstead are of
great interest. At intervals during several days he watched
a pair feeding their nestlings. " During a total period
of 17 hours, representing approximately the hours of one
day during which food was collected for the young, 169
journeys were made to the nest. It may be interesting to
note that three birds (two males and one female) were
seen on four occasions to bring food to the young. Of
this I am absolutely certain, as all three birds arrived at
the nest almost simultaneously. As a rule, however, the
birds paid alternate visits, and there was an irregular
interval between them.

"An approximate summary of the* food brought in
during the 17 hours may be tabulated as follows: — 269
insects of the injurious group ; 4 of the beneficial group,
2 of the indifferent group ; 30 earthworms ; 14 slugs
and snails (molluscs) ; 1 centipede ; 1 wood louse ; 2
harvest spiders (Phalangids) ; 23 lots of bread ; 19 lots of

118 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

garbage (?) from kitchen midden ; 10 lots of unidentified
insects."

On the other hand, it is clear that starlings do consider-
able harm to fruit when ripening, e.g. cherries, apples, and
pears. They also are blamed for destroying young wheat,
and in winter they may do considerable damage to stacked
corn. On the whole, however, these birds must be con-
sidered of a decidedly useful type from the point of view
both of forestry and of agriculture.

BLUE TIT (E.). A small bird, 4J to 4| inches long.
The bill is short, black, and pointed. The crown of the
head is light blue, encircled with a white band. Nape
and shoulders a darker blue, with two bands of the
same colour passing, the upper one across the eye, the
lower around the neck, and forming a triangular patch
almost black beneath the bill. The cheeks are white. The
back is yellowish green, flushed with blue, with a whitish
patch behind neck. Wings bluish, with a white transverse
band. The breast is pale yellow, mixed with whitish, with
a blue patch in middle. The tail is bluish ; narrow. Female
duller than male.

The Blue Tit feeds on small insects such as green fly and
scale insects ; the young are fed on grubs and caterpillars.
It attacks fruit buds and is very fond of pears. On the
whole, though destructive to certain kinds of fruit, blue tits
are serviceable birds in the garden, keeping down the
smaller types of insect pest.

This bird, if supplied with a lump of suet or coco-nut
suspended from pole or tree, to which it comes readily in
winter, makes an interesting study. It frequently makes
use of nesting boxes placed in the garden ; ordinarily it
nests in holes of a tree, wall, etc. The eggs, which may
be over ten in number, are about f inch long, whitish,
speckled with light reddish brown, which may be mostly
massed at the broad end.

There are six different species of Tits occurring in
Britain and all are useful as destroyers of garden insect
pests, especially of the smaller forms and their eggs,
which are apt to be overlooked by larger birds.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY. 119

BULLFINCH (E..). This finch is about 6 inches long,
rounded and plunip-like in body. The bill is black, very
short, and slightly hooked above. The male bird is glossy
black on top of head, the black continued from the outer
margin of the eye around the bill on to the throat. The
wings, upper tail coverts, and tail are of a similar colour ;
the back is slaty grey ; the rump is white ; throat, breast,
and sides brick red. In the female the back is greyish
brown, the under parts greyish red. The young resemble
the female.

The bullfinch feeds on the seeds of various weeds (self-
heal, dock, composites, nettles, etc.), but is also very
destructive to fruit buds in orchards and gardens.

The nest, of twigs, fibre, and moss, is built on a bush or
tree. The eggs, about f inch long, are pale greenish blue
with reddish brown or purplish grey speckling at the broad
end. The speckling is sometimes in the form of a ring, a
not uncommon feature in the eggs of various species.

LINNET (R.)- This species is about 5 inches long.
The male is yellowish brown above streaked with dark
brown, the upper part of the head is crimson in summer,
duller in winter ; the rump, under parts, and sides of neck
are carmine in summer, rump duller in winter. The female
is without crimson on the rump ; in summer the fore part
of the head is crimson. The linnet nests in bushes, utilising
twigs, grass, moss, hair, etc. The eggs, four to five, f inch
long, pale bluish green, with brown spots at the broad end.

The linnet is a gregarious bird, forming sometimes
enormous flocks in the winter, when it feeds largely
upon seeds of weeds upon cultivated lands. Charlock,
self-heal, composites, dock, and dandelion are amongst its
diet, especially the first-named. It also visits the farm-
yard and the vicinity of towns. In summer it occurs
more commonly in wilder parts, e.g. hilly regions or waste
ground. It is the sweetest songster amongst the finches.

CHAFFINCH (R>.). This attractive little bird is about
6 inches long. The male is reddish brown on the back,
greenish on the rump. The neck and top of the head are

120 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

greyish blue. The breast is reddish. The female is lighter
in colour, dark greyish above, light grey on the breast.
The male " in the breeding season has the black of the fore-
head and the greyish-blue of the head, unmixed, the red of
the back brighter, and the breast of a much lighter tint.
The bill, which in winter is pale reddish brown, also be-
comes of a fine leaden blue " (MacG-illivray ) .

The Chaffinch appears to be maintaining its numbers,
and is not uncommon in the outskirts of towns. It feeds
largely on seeds of weeds in winter and on more mixed diet
in summer. The nestlings are fed upon insect diet. The
nest is a small, extremely compact, and neat structure com-
posed of moss and lichen, lined with feathers, wool, etc. It
is placed in a low tree or bush. The eggs, 4 to 5, are
f inch long, greenish blue with brown spots and streaks.
The spots are generally paler at the margin, becoming
reddish and spreading diffusely. The egg is sometimes
covered with this reddish brown tint so that the ground
colour is obscured. Sometimes the egg is pale blue without
any spotting.

SKY LARK (E.). The Lark measures about 7 inches in
length. The bill is nearly half an inch long. The top of
head, back, wings, and tail are dark brown ,well streaked
with light reddish brown. There is a light band over the
eye. The throat is whitish, speckled with small brownish
spots, the breast is pale reddish with strong brown streaks,
abdomen whitish. The claws are strong, that of the hind
toe longer than the toe itself, curved and sharply pointed.
The lark is well known for its power of rising to a great
height whilst pouring out its delightful song, which is of
remarkable duration.

Larks feed chiefly on seeds in winter, often gathering in
large flocks on the stubble fields In summer the diet is
more mixed, including insects.

The nest is formed on the ground in open pasture or
amongst corn or hay. It consists almost entirely of
withered grass loosely put together. The eggs, 4 or 5,
are about | of an inch long, greyish, thickly speckled with
light brown, variable in size and colour

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOE BIED STUDY. 121

CUCKOO (S.V.). A bird about 14 inches long, of slender
and shapely build, bluish grey above, front and sides of the
neck lighter, under parts of the body bluish-white with
narrow transverse bars of brown. Quills brownish, inner
webs barred with white, tail feathers dark grey spotted
along the shafts and on the inner web, white at tip. The
bill is slender, with a slight downward curve. This bird
arrives in this country in the end of April and leaves in
July or August. Its cry, "coo-coo," is well known, as is
also its habit of depositing its egg in the nest of another
bird.

Some notes with regard to its egg-laying habits may here
be given. Its egg is small in proportion, being scarcely an
inch in length. It is greyish white, reddish white, or very
pale light green with greyish brown ; sometimes it is plain
blue without speckling. It is in fact somewhat variable
as regards colour. The egg is laid on the ground and
carried in the bill to the nest of some other bird. This
nest is frequently that of the Meadow Pipit, Hedge
Sparrow, or Bullfinch, but a great many different birds are
victimised.*

In the Fenton Collection of Eggs at Aberdeen Univer-
sity 101 different clutches occur in which a Cuckoo's egg
has been found, and in these 57 different kinds of birds
are represented. These include Song Thrush, Blackbird,
Eedbreast, Garden Warbler, Swallow, Skylark, Goldfinch,
Wren, Hedge Sparrow, Meadow Pipit, Bullfinch, etc. An
analysis of this collection shows : —

(1) The Cuckoo's egg has considerable range of colour
variation, i.e. in a series. There is also what may be
termed discontinuous variation, e.g. the plain blue egg.
While this is so, there is some evidence to show that the
eggs of individual cuckoos probably do not greatly vary.

* In certain localities the Cuckoo shows a preference for certain
birds' nests, probably because these are numerous and readily found.
Mr. Fen ton informs me that "in Pomerania the common wren is
the usual victim ; at Evesham, in Worcester, the reed warbler ; at
Clitheroe, the yellow wagtail ; and in the western islands of Scot-
land, the twite."

122 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

(2) Sometimes (in 24 cases) the normally- coloured
Cuckoo's egg resembles generally the egg of the foster bird.
It is, however, usually easily recognised at first sight by
the size.

(3) In 12 cases extreme variants of the Cuckoo's egg
resemble the foster bird's eggs. This includes one blue egg
in a Eedstart's nest.

(4) 65 cases are indifferent : that is, there is no notice-
able resemblance between the Cuckoo's egg and those of
the foster parent.

The egg is laid early in the incubation period and the
foster parents hatch it out. The young Cuckoo early (on
the second day) ejects the other occupants of the nest,
eggs or young. The foster parents feed the intruder, con-
tinuing to do so sometimes to the point of sheer exhaustion,
so exacting are the demands of the big, black, repellent-
looking creature. The young Cuckoos are left behind by
their parents and follow them, migrating in October.

The adult Cuckoo feeds on caterpillars, e.g. those of the
tiger moth and magpie moth.

SWALLOW (S.Y.). This summer visitor is a small bird
of about 8 inches in length. The throat and front
part of head above the bill are deep rusty red ; the top of
head, back, and shoulders are steely blue ; quills of wings
and tail bluish green, but with concealed white patches on
inner sides of all the tail feathers except the central pair.
Front part of breast metallic blue, hinder parts rusty white.
In the female the red above the bill is less marked and the
breast lighter. The tail also is shorter. In the male the
two outer quills are prolonged about an inch and a half
beyond the others. The bill is short with wide gape ; the
feet also are short.

The Swallow nests about buildings, under a ledge or
projection of some kind, sometimes in chimneys, and it is
said even exceptionally in the forks of trees. The nest is
shallow, open above, consisting of mud, straw, and feathers.
The eggs are 4 to 6 in number, \ to f inch in length, white,

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

123

spotted with brown. There are two broods in a season.
The northern range of the
swallow may extend as far as
Iceland, Spitzbergen, and Nor-
thern Bussia. In winter it is
found in India, Burma, Malay,
and Africa. The young birds
migrate from this country
about September, and are fol-
lowed later by the old birds.

The diet of the Swallow con-
sists of insects caught mostly
on the wing. They devour
large numbers of moths, crane
flies and other diptera.

The number of swallows
appears to be decreasing, and
this is attributed to their
slaughter in S. Europe for
millinery purposes and to the
ousting habits of the spar-
rows, which drive them from
their accustomed nesting
places.

MARTIN (S.V.). This bird
is frequently confused with
the Swallow, whose habits and
time of appearance in this
country are similar. It is of
quite distinctive appearance,
and may readily be distin-
guished on the wing by its
showing the dash of white on
the rump as it flashes past

beneath the level of the eye. Fig. sc.-Maie swallow, and tan
It is about 5^ inches long. of female.

The upper parts of the body

are of a glossy steel blue, the rump is white and also the
under parts of the body. It is feathered to the toes. The

124

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOB BIRD STUDY.

fork of the tail is not so marked as in the Swallow.
The nest is placed in the upper corner of a window or
similar sheltered situation, and is composed of mud, grass,
and feathers. Unlike the Swallow's, it is built close up,
with only a small hole left for entrance and exit. The
eggs, 4 to 5, are pure white, about f inch long.

Fig. 37.— Figure of Martin, to show proportions of wing and tail,
also type of bill.

The feeding habits of the Martin are similar to those of
the Swallow, and the remarks made with reference to their
decrease in numbers apply here also.

The Sand Martin, which nests at the end of burrows in
sand banks, is rather smaller than the foregoing. Its
distribution is more local. It is greyish brown above,
brownish white below. Eggs rather smaller, also white.

SWIFT (S.V.). This summer visitor, recognised by its
sweeping flight, long scythe-like wings and screaming-
voice, is about 7^ inches long, from tip to tip of wing

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

125

about 16J inches, is brownish black in colour with a slight
dull greyish white patch at the throat. Swifts are insect
feeders. They arrive about the beginning of May and
leave about the end of August. They nest in holes under
eaves of houses, in towers, steeples, etc. The eggs are
pure white, about one inch in length, two or three in
number.

Fig. 38.— Swift. Note the very long scythe-like wings.

The Swift is readily distinguished even on the wing
from the Swallow by the great sweep of the scythe-like
wings and the uniformly dull colour (Fig. 38).

Make drawings to show the outline of Swallow (male
and female), Martin, and Swift. Note the general resem-
blance in the shape of bill.

WOOD PIGEON (E.). This bird, which is known under
a variety of names, Eingdove, Cushat, •etc., is about 18
inches long. The head and fore part of neck is slaty blue ;
neck at back greyish with green and purplish-red reflec-
tions ; on each side of the neck is a large whitish patch.
The back is greyish brown anteriorly, slaty behind. Breast
reddish, abdomen light coloured, wings brownish to slaty

126 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

with white longitudinal stripe anteriorly, primary quills
with narrow white outer edge. Tail greyish, black at tip
with broad white band below.

This bird occurs in large numbers over wooded and
cultivated regions, and the numbers are largely augmented
by visitors from the Continent in autumn. They feed
almost exclusively upon grain, peas, grasses, clover, turnip
leaves, beech mast, and acorns, causing each year very con-
siderable loss to agriculturists. Notwithstanding frequent
crusades against them, their numbers do not decrease. The
nest is placed in tall trees, and consists of coarse twigs,
loosely put together. The eggs are two, 1-| inches long,
pure white and glossy. " The male in spring struts and
cooes, rises in the air, strikes the points of his wings
against each other, descends, rises again, and performs
various gambols." The note, which may be heard echoing
through the stillness of the woods, resembles the syllables
coo-roo-coo-coo.

LAPWING (E.). This bird is about 12 inches long.
The top of the head is blackish green with a fairly long
crest of the same colour. The back and upper parts of the
wings have metallic green reflections on the upper fore
parts of wings. The tail has three broad bars, chestnut at
base, white next, and purplish black at tip, except the
outer feathers, which are white. Outer wing quills like
tip of tail, outermost with whitish patches near the tip.
Under parts of neck whitish, chest greenish black, breast
white.

A common bird in Scotland and Ireland, less so in
England. It nests on the ground in fields in any natural
hollow in turf, simply adding some grass, etc. The eggs
are four, sometimes five in number, about 1| inches long,
olive greenish, with dark brown blotches. April and May
are the usual incubation periods. " The female runs
silently from her nest when approached, and it is the male
which indulges in such frantic swoops and twirls, accom-
panied by noisy cries ; though when the young are hatched,
both parents practise every artifice to allure man or dog
from their brood. The ' false ' nests often found are

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY. 127

scraped out by the cock in turning round, when showing
off to the female." — (Saunders.)

This is one of the most useful birds frequenting culti-
vated lands. Its food consists in great measure of " wire-
worms " and crane-fly larvae.

BLACK-HEADED GULL (E.). This Gull is about 16
inches long. The back and wings are of a light slaty-grey
colour, the under parts white. In winter the head is
greyish, with a black crescent in front of the eye and a dark
grey patch behind it. In summer the head and throat are
deep sooty brown, the under parts rose-tinted. These
seasonal changes take place in the feathers themselves and
are not the result of moulting. The bill and feet
are red.

This bird occurs along the shore, especially at estuaries,
and is common also inland, where it feeds abundantly on
crane fly, wireworni, and other insect diet, disposing of
enormous numbers of these agricultural pests. In spring
they frequent inland marshes, where they form " gulleries,"
breeding in large companies. The nest consists of rushes
and sedges. The eggs, two or three, about two inches in
length, olive green to light brown with dark brown blotch-
ing. When the young are able to fly they migrate with
the old birds to the sea shore.

THE SPARROW HAWK (E.). A bird of somewhat vary-
ing plumage, in general recognised by the marked length of
the foot (metatarsus), which is yellow in colour, the middle
toe long and slender, and by the lightish under parts barred
transversely with reddish brown. The upper parts are
bluish ; tail has from three to five dark bars ; the wings are
short. The cere is greenish yellow and the eyes orange.
The male is about 12 inches long, female, about 15 inches.
The Sparrow Hawk is widely distributed, nesting in trees,
building a nest of its own or in some cases utilising the
discarded nest of another bird, e.g. Wood Pigeon, adapting
it to its own purposes, especially when rearing its young.
The eggs, 4 to 6 in number, about 1 J inches long, pale blue,
almost white, blotched and smeared with reddish brown.

128 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR BIRD STUDY.

Fig. 39.— Sparrow Hawk.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOB BIRD STUDY.

129

The Sparrow Hawk feeds on small birds, devouring
them upon the ground, usually in th>3 shelter of a hedge.
It is a troublesome enemy of young game and poultry
(Fig. 39).

KESTREL (K.). This is the commonest of the British
birds of prey, occurring all over the United Kingdom. In

Pig. 40.— The Kestrel.

Scotland in winter numbers migrate southwards into
England. It is frequently termed the Windhover, from
its practice of hovering almost motionless in the air, head

130 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOB BIRD STtDT.

to wind. The plumage differs in the two sexes. In the
male the back is light reddish with small black markings ;
the other upper parts bluish grey. The under parts buff
with black markings, tending lengthwise. The wings are
relatively long. The cere and feet are yellow. Length
about 13 inches. The female is darker above with black
transverse bars. The tail has several black bars, the last
of which is broader than the others. Length about 15
inches.

The Kestrel does not build a nest, usually depositing its
eggs about cliffs, hollow trees, or in the discarded nest of
other birds such as the Crow or Wood Pigeon. The eggs
are about 1 J to 1^ inches in length, often so deeply covered
with reddish brown as to conceal the pale ground colour
below.

The feeding habits of the Kestrel have been the subject
of much controversy, but there is now no doubt but that
as far as game and poultry are concerned the Kestrel is
practically harmless. It feeds largely upon mice, young
rats, beetles, and other insects, and is therefore a bird of
distinctly useful type, which should on this account, if on
no other, be left unmolested (Fig. 40).

CHAPTER IX.

SOME COMMON MAMMALS.

NOTES FOE SCHOOL STUDIES.

THE MOLE.

MOLES are frequently abundant in certain districts, and
are not difficult to obtain. When the opportunity arises a
lesson should be given upon the mole's adaptive characters.
Moles are borrowers ; we are familiar with the earth thrown
up by them, i.e. "molehills," in the course of their excava-
tions.

With a dead mole before us we notice, as we draw it
through our hands, its remarkable approximation to the
cylindrical form. There are here none of the undulations
which mark the contour of mammals in general. By con-
trast we think of the arched back of the mouse or squirrel,
the sinuous curves of the weasel or the stoat, and note that
the mole — fitted to life in cylindrical burrows — has a body
of a similar shape.

We stroke the fur of the mole, noting its greyish-black
colour ; we feel its delicate, oily-like softness. So marked
is this that we look at our hands again to make sure that
the fur is not oily. The mole's fur has been described as
soapy to the touch, and the value of this property is that,
though rubbing continually against the soil, the latter does
not adhere. The fur, so long as it is dry, remains clean.

131

132 BOMB COMMON MAMMALS.

We also notice, as we turn over the fur, that it does not
possess the property known as " set." That is, it stands
almost straight out from the body, and brushes readily in
any direction. It is not difficult to understand the mean-
ing of this in a creature moving constantly in a narrow

burrow. A " set " to
the fur would be al-
together unnecessary.
The structure of a
mole's hair is unusual
(Fig. 41).

The cylindrical body
has deprived the crea-

Fig. 41.— Hairs of Mole, showing the regular i -• , ' -t ,

variations in thickness. A magnified por- head tapers almost

tion of a hair is shown below. suddenly in front of

the body; it exhibits

several peculiarities of interest. The snout, tapering down-
ward at the tip, is long. Within there is an extra bone
strengthening it, as it assists the claws in pushing the
earth aside. The mouth below is suitably some distance
behind the tip. It is like a long narrow JJ, the margins
are thin, and that of the upper jaw forms a close covering
to the teeth, an effective curtain shutting out grit.

The teeth are sharply pointed, the canines in particular
are long and sharp, and well adapted to dealing with the
wriggling earthworm upon which the mole feeds. The
tongue is long and narrow like a strap, very useful also
we imagine in dealing with the earthworms. Around the
snout there are numerous sensory bristles, both above and
below. All these things should be pointed out to the
pupils.

Our next interesting quest is for the mole's eyes. By
blowing aside the fur, we disclose the tiny jet-black eyes.
The mole is not blind, though its vision is blurred. It can
see moving objects, if it does not see them clearly. The
mole depends on its other senses more than upon its eyes.

The ears are without an external lobe, and, further, are
situated at the end of quite a long narrow tube. By blow-
ing aside the fur which conceals it, this tube may be seen.

SOME COMMON MAMMALS. 133

A pin should be inserted by the head end so as to show its
length. There is no doubt that the hearing organ is thus
specially protected from contact with the soil. Moles hear
very acutely ; as Shakespeare has it :

"Pray you, tread softly, that the blind mole may not
Hear a foot fall ! "

But it is extremely probable that the sensitiveness of the
mole is in great measure due to its feeling the vibrations of
footfalls through the solid earth.

Perhaps the most noteworthy modification of the mole's
body to suit its subterranean life is that of its fore paws.
The whole fore limb looks extremely short, yet it is set so
closely to the head that when the limb is stretched forward
it reaches in front of the snout. It is turned outward more
than downward. These limbs do the excavating — not the
sensitive snout, which probably simply pushes aside the

SICKLE BONE RADIUS

^^l^

- HUMERUS

WRIST ULNA

Fig. 42.— Fore limb of Mole.

broken earth. The upper region seems buried in the body,
it is very short, and the bone within it (humerus) is greatly
flattened and otherwise altered in form to allow of attach-
ment of the excessively developed muscles required for the
hard work of excavation (Fig. 42).

The paw itself is broad and flat, the palm very tough and
leathery, and its inner margin is extended and strengthened
by the presence of an extra bone not found in the fore paws
of other animals, which on account of its shape is known as
the " sickle " bone. The claws of the five digits, which are

134 SOME COMMON MAMMALS.

nearly all of the same length, are very strong and sharp.
Altogether the limb shows remarkable adaptations to the
special work it performs, and a.11 these points should be
verified by the pupils.

In this connection it should be mentioned that the
breastbone is ridged, thus supplying additional surface for
attachment of the strong muscles which move the limbs.
We recall of course the keel in the breastbone of flying
birds, which serves the same purpose. The great develop-
ment of this fore limb is further emphasised when we
note the sleuderness of the hind limbs of this remarkable
creature.

The mole has a short and somewhat insignificant-looking
tail.

The teacher who is interested in the subject might endea-
vour to procure a skeleton of a mole, the further study of
which will reveal other peculiarities.

Pupils should be asked to make drawings illustrative of
the following : —

The shape of the body.

The under surface of the head, to show

position of nostrils and sensory hairs,

position of mouth,

pointed teeth with protecting " curtain."

The fore paw.

BATS.

There are twelve species of Bats occurring in the British
Isles, and at least two others are reputed to have been
found here. All the bats of this country are insect feeders,
but the larger species occurring in tropical regions, such as
India and Madagascar, are fruit-eating. Bats are for the
most part nocturnal or twilight animals ; they hibernate
usually in large companies in church towers, old ruins, and
other deserted places, generally hanging by the feet with
head turned downwards. Their sleep is deep, and they

SOME COMMON MAMMALS. 135

often 'die if awakened out of it. They sometimes waken
and fly abroad in mild weather, but this does not appear
to happen often.

A teacher friend has sent me a long- eared bat. It is
one of the commoner species, and I have had it drawn and
figured (Figs. 43, 44). Let us examine it. What is a bat?

WRIST

THUMB

"FINflERS

Fig. 43.— The long-eared Bat.

Let this be our first question. A live bat held in the
hand is felt to be a warm-blooded, furry animal. We know
that they bring forth their young and suckle them with
milk. Bats are therefore mammals. Zoologists place them
in an Order of mammals to which the name Cheiroptera is
given (Cheir = hand ; Pteron = wing) . They are mam-
mals with hands modified to serve as wings.

Our bat has extraordinarily long ears, thin, translucent,
and transversely folded, extremely delicate and sensitive
structures. No doubt its hearing is extremely acute.
Bats are great moth-hunters, and it is quite possible they
may detect the sound of the fluttering of the moth's wings.
The membrane of the ears is doubtless extremely sensitive.
Some bats have folds upon their noses (nose-leaved bats)

136

SOME COMMON MA.MMAL8.

greatly resembling in structure the ears of the long-eared
bat, and these also are highly sensitive.

The most remarkable structure about the bat, however,
is undoubtedly the flying apparatus. Let us unfold the
so-called " wing." Its delicacy is remarkable ; exquisitely
soft to the touch and folded in innumerable creases is the
flying membrane stretched between the bones of the hand,
arm, and leg. There is also a similar membrane stretching
between the legs and tail. These membranes are so extra-
ordinarily sensitive that they are sufficient to guide the
bat clear of obstacles, independently of sight. So much is
this the case that they are credited by some observers with
a sixth sense. Bats fly well, and guide their movements
with great skill, the steering being effected
by the tail and its associated membrane.

Note the large expanse of these mem-
branes. The length of this bat's head and
body is less than two inches, and if we add
the tail it is three and a half inches. But
the wing extent from tip to tip is ten
inches. This great expanse of wing surface
is brought about by the great elongation
of the bones of the arm and fingers, which
serve as supports or act as a kind of frame-
work upon which the flying membrane is
stretched. Four of the fingers are in-
volved as well as the arm bones. And the
membrane stretches across the inner bend
at the elbow, just as the skin is stretched
in the same place in a bird's wing.

The " wing " serves not only as an organ
of flight, and as a sensory apparatus, but
is used as a wrap or mantle in which the bat sleeps and
in which the female holds and shelters her young. And
some bats use the membrane between the hind limbs as
a kind of sac into which they strike the moths during
flight. The bat's thumb is free and carries a strong claw
It is used in walking and in climbing, and proves service-
able also when bats fight, as they not uncommonly do
How does the bat dispose of its wings when walking ?

Fig. 44.— The Bat's
foot, showing the
toes of equal
length and with
long claws, by
means of which
the animal sus-
pends itself when
Bleeping.

SOME COMMON MAMMALS.

137

There are five toes in the hind foot ; they are all of the
same length, and have sharp claws, bent like
hooks. The bat suspends itself by these
when it goes to sleep or hibernates (Figs.
44, 45).

These things should all be pointed out
to the pupils. They should draw a wing
and a hind foot.

The voice of this bat has an interesting
peculiarity. It is singularly high pitched,
so that it is audible only to certain indi-
viduals.

The structure of the Mole and the Bat
illustrate well the principle of adaptations.
They are modifications towards opposite ex-
tremes in relation to specialised modes of life of the
ordinary terrestrial mammalian type.

STOATS AND WEASELS.

Of the British wild beasts, applying the term in the
restricted sense to the terrestrial Carnivora only, Stoats
and Weasels are probably the best known. This is because
they are the commonest. Specimens are not difficult to
procure ; they may be obtained from keepers, who mostly
regard it as their business to keep the numbers down.
Except that the Weasel is absent from Ireland, they occur
throughout the British Isles.

We shall here write down some notes which may be
utilised as lesson points.

We have not many wild animals in our islands. Let us
name them. After the Stoat and Weasel, we may think of
the Pole Cat and Pine Marten. These may be but names
to most of the pupils, they are so rare. The Badger is
more familiar, but probably only by hearsay. The Otter
is commoner ; it is of course semi-aquatic. The Fox will
be well known, but he too would undoubtedly be scarce
were he not preserve^ for sporting purposes. We finish

138

SOME COMMON MAMMALS.

our list with the Wild Gat, which is slowly but surely
being driven into the wilder and more remote parts of
Scotland. But we ought not to pass over the Grey Wolf,
which occurred in England up to the end of the fifteenth
century and for 150 years longer in Scotland and Ireland.
It still occurs on the Continent, in Russia, Spain, and even
in Germany and France.

It is interesting to note that of all the animals in this
list — it is not a long one — those which are most numerous
to-day are the smallest of them all. This is probably be-
cause man in his war of extermination has taken less notice

Fig. 46.— The Stoat in its winter coat.

of the small than of the large species. But at present he
wages pretty constant warfare upon these small species
and their numbers do not greatly diminish. Also the life
of the Weasel is becoming better understood and intelligent
man is staying his hand with regard to it.

Let us suggest points to be noted in the structure of
these creatures.

The Stoat measures to the base of the tail about 10
inches in length and is about 2 \ inches high at the shoulder.
Its tail is about 3J inches long. In summer its coat is red-
dish, with a black tip to the tail. The head is low and
flattened, the ears are small. It is a keen and alert

SOME COMMON MAMMALS. 139

creature, active on foot, progressing sometimes with side-
long leaps.

The most interesting feature about the Stoat is its
change of coat from the red in summer to white in winter.
The tip of the tail remains black. The change is really
a change of fur. Here are two problems. Why the change
of coat ? And why the persistent black tip to the tail ?
We know that the Stoat, were it red at this season, would be
more readily seen upon the snow by its natural prey, which
thus would be warned in time. The whitening is a winter
adaptation in favour of the Stoat. In high altitudes, where
the snow lies through a greater part of the year, the Stoat
is always white (Fig. 46).

The black tip is not so easily " explained." But it may
be a recognition mark amongst the members of the
species. Stoats attack rabbits, young hares, water voles,
and rats. Their depredations upon the poultry run and.
game preserve are notorious. They also climb trees,
taking eggs and young birds. Stoats have 5 or 6 young
in the spring.

The Weasel is generally about the same size as the
Stoat, but the female is subject to considerable variation.
It is reddish brown above and white below. It may
always be distinguished from the Stoat by its short tail,
which is less than half the length of that of the
Stoat, and is of the same colour as the upper parts of
the body. Its neck is longer and the body is arched.
Sometimes the Weasel undergoes a winter change of
coat, becoming white. But this is only an occasional
occurrence. The Weasel has a litter of from 4 to 6 young
each year.

The diet differs in important respects from that of the
Stoat. The usual prey consists of voles, rats, mice, moles,
and small birds. Weasels frequent farm buildings for the
sake of these vermin usually. They occasionally kill chicks
or ducklings, but it is generally admitted by those who
have given attention to the subject that the good done by
Weasels in killing young rats and other vermin more than
balances the mischief sometimes wrought in the poultry
yard (Fig. 47).

140

SOME COMMON MAMMALS.

The slender body enables the Weasel to follow its prey
into holes and crevices, through corn ricks as well as
hedges. Its keen scent guides it even when its prey is out
of sight. It kills more than it eats, biting its prey through
the skull.

Sometimes the Stoat or Weasel is itself attacked, becom-
ing the prey of hawks. But the remarkable agility and
fierceness of these creatures renders them dangerous to
meddle with. For if by any means they can reach their
captors with their teeth they may bring them ignominiously
to earth. Such an occurrence has been witnessed in which

Fig 47.— The Weasel.

Stoat or Weasel has brought down a bird of prey bleedin^
fatally.

In the study of the life of these creatures we witness in
its most literal aspect the " struggle for existence." Here
at all events we see " Nature . . . one with rapine."

The teacher should take every available opportunity of
studying examples of various other common mammals of
our country and preparing lesson notes upon these. He
should aim at securing a certain amount of first-hand

SOME COMMON MAMMALS. 141

acquaintance with, in addition to the foregoing, the
structural features and general habits of the following :

Insectivora : Hedgehog and Shrew.
Rodentia: Squirrel, Eat, Mouse, Water Vole, Bank or
Field Vole, Hare, Eabbit.

The list of British mammals is not a long one and the
foregoing includes nearly all the smaller types. Teachers
in the country at all events should not find it difficult to
obtain specimens of most of these in course of time.

CHAPTER X.

THE STUDY OF SHELLS.

Introductory. — The attractions of the sea-shore are many
and varied. There is the sea itself, heaving, restless ; its
ever-changing colours, its varying moods, its fresh salt-
laden breezes; there is the far-off horizon; there is the
sand or the rocks, the birds, the animals, and weeds of
the pools, the shells flung up by the tide. The sea-shore
is a place rich in physiological and intellectual quickening
for the mature ; a place full of ever new delights and
interests to the child.

The shells are amongst the first objects which interest
the child. Although shells are to be found on land, and
in the fresh waters, it is generally on the sea- shore that
they first attract particular notice. And here we note
what has been already emphasised, that objects of definite
form and colour have for the child mind an interest sui
generis. On such material the child unconsciously exer-
cises his or her undeveloped aesthetic faculty, hence we
may regard shells as suitable objects for " nature study."

Another element of some significance here, which to the
older children at any rate heightens the interest, is the
mystery with which they are enwrapt. Shells are, except
to the very young children, obviously incomplete things.
Not always, of course, for sometimes the owner is present
alive. But although this may remove in part the mystery,
it does not decrease the interest. But the empty shells on
the sea- shore do suggest mystery — if not, the teacher may
profitably suggest it. The child knows that they are cast
up by the sea, and may be guided to ask with interest
some questions as to the life of the creatures of which they
once formed a part.

142

THE STUDY OF SHELLS, 143

How TO STUDY SHELLS.

A collection of different shells should be available.
Teachers should take the opportunity of collecting shells
when on a visit to the sea-shore, or supplies may be got in
other ways.

The first thing to be done in the study of shells is to
devote some time to a general appreciative examination of
a collection. Drawings should be made, and in those
cases where the circumstances admit of it, these should be
coloured.

After the general preliminary study, some questions may
be asked.

What are shells ? An appeal may be made here to the
pupils' experience as far as it goes. They will be familiar
with terrestrial snails with spiral shells, perhaps with some
fresh water forms, e.g. in school aquarium, or with the
mussels, periwinkles, dogwhelks, limpet, and other common
molluscs of the sea-shore. The class should be guided to
arrive at the conclusion that shells are the hard outer
parts of animals, which otherwise have soft bodies. The
bodies of animals which possess shells such as these are
generally so soft that the shell is required to keep the parts
in position, e.g. oyster, mussel, snail, and also to protect
the delicate animal from attacks which otherwise would
certainly be made upon it.

Shells are supporting and protecting structures, and
being such constitute true skeletons. It will interest
pupils to learn that some creatures wear their skeletons on
the outside of their bodies. Such a skeleton is termed an
Exo- skeleton. (An internal one is usually described as
an Endo- skeleton.)

Here we may ask what are the names . of some enemies
of these soft-bodied creatures. One of the greatest
enemies of the terrestrial snails is the thrush, who breaks
the shell upon a stone. Sea birds attack shore molluscs,
either breaking the shell upon the rocks or swallowing it
whole. And there is an interesting fish which may some-
times be seen in fishmongers' shops exhibited as a curiosity,

144

tHB STUDY OF SHELLS.

the wolf fish, the inside of whose mouth is paved with
rounded blunt teeth as with cobblestones for crushing the
strong shells of such creatures. But from most creatures
living near them, the molluscs are very secure, the shell
being truly protective.

There are several different kinds of shells, but only two
kinds which are at all abundant. Pupils will be able to
group an ordinary collection into these two natural divi-
sions. In one group the shell consists of a single piece,
which is usually, but not invariably, spiral in form, e.g.

BEAK

HINGE

ANTERIOR
-CLOSING
MUSCL.E
MARK

LINE

Fig. 48.— Left valve of Saucer Shell, showing markings on the inside.

periwinkle or whelk ; in the other the complete shell con-
sists of two separate valves which lie right and left of the
animal, e.g. oyster, mussel, cockle, etc. These are appro-
priately termed bivalves.

Let us take to begin with a shell of this latter type and
study it in detail. Any of the common bivalve shells of
the sea- shore will do ; a useful large example, known as
the saucer shell (Cyprina), is very suitable for our purpose.

One of the characteristics of animals of the class which
we are dealing with, is that from the back of the animal
there grows out a fold of skin which is so large that it
covers over and conceals all the rest of the body. Quite

THE STUDY OF SHELLS. 145

appropriately this fold is known as a Mantle. It lines the
inside of the shell, adhering to it some little distance back
from the edge. Examine the inside of the shell and dis-
cover the mantle line (Fig. 48).

Two questions may be suggested here. How has the
shell come to be as large as we see it now ? It is a hard,
insensitive, dead thing, yet it must have grown. It was
not always as large as we now see it. How has it grown ?
Shells without living animals within them do not grow.
And when we remember that the mantle is the part of the
animal which lies against the shell, it is not difficult to
realise that the mantle produces or makes the shell,
adding to it along the outer edge.

Look now at the outside of the shell. Observe the
succession of ridges which pass round it, marking succes-
sive additions to the shell. These may be termed lines of
growth. By tracing them backward we arrive at the oldest
part of the shell. Let the pupils find this part. It will
be seen to be turned downward, and nearer to one end of
the shell than the other. This part is termed the beak,
and it is turned towards the front end of the animal.
This is a quite general rule, so that by noting this fact we
can tell from the shell where the head end of the animal lay.

Here is a simple exercise. Let each pupil hold a half-shell.
How can we tell whether it is a right half, or a left half ? First,
let us name the regions we know. We have just determined the
anterior or front end. The opposite end is of course posterior.
The free open edge (growing edge) of shell is the under side (ventral
side), hence the part where the valves join (hinge region) lies next the
back (dorsal side). Now let pupils apply the following rule. Hold
the half-shell in the hand with the front end directed upward and
with the inside of the shell towards your own body. Next move the
shell towards that side of your body which will cause the growing
edge to be directed forward, and the hinge margin towards your
back. You will occupy the same relative position to the shell
which the animal did when living, and if the shell is a right half
it will be held at your right side, and if a left half, at your left.
Repeat the exercise with several different shells.

Note next the layers of the shell. On the outside we
can recognise a dark coloured horny-like covering. Differ-
ent kinds of shells examined will show that it is strong in
K.S. 10

146 THE STUDY OF SHELLS.

some and very thin in others, and in shells which have
been dead a long time it may be all rubbed off. This sub-
stance, known scientifically as conchin, may also be called
" shell stuff." Viewed from the inside the shell shows a
third layer, limy but having distinctive properties. The
surface of this layer shows a certain amount of glossiness,
which in some shells produces a marked iridescence. This
is known as the mother-of-pearl layer, and it is from this
part that various useful and ornamental articles are manu-
factured, e.g. buttons, knife handles, etc. In the saucer

A B

Fig. 49. — A common sea shell ( Venus gallina).

A, the right valve ; note the beak directed forward. In B both valves are seen
as from the front. Under the beaks the two valves form a depressed heart-shaped
area, very characteristic of this type of shell.

shell it is an opaque white. Between the two layers named
there is a middle limy layer.

An examination of the shell shows that it is thicker in
the older parts than in the newer. This is because the
mantle not only adds to the shell along the edge but to its
inner surface also, and it is to the innermost layer that the
addition in thickness is made. It is owing to this property
of the surface of the mantle that the occurrence of pearls
inside shells is due.

When bivalves are found alive, their shells are tightly
closed. We may appeal to the experience of the pupils,
some of whom have probably seen live oysters, mussels, or
clams. The shells are closed so tightly that it is found

THE STUDY OF SHELLS. 147

impossible to open them without the aid of a sharp instru-
ment. Bivalves are provided with powerful muscles
passing across from shell to shell, by means of which they
pull the two halves of the shell together. Oysters and
clams have only one such muscle, but most others have two.
Examine the inside of the saucer shell and find at each
end of the mantle line an elliptical scar (Fig. 48). This
marks the place of attachment of the shell-closing muscle.

In some shells it will be seen
that the posterior end of the
mantle line is indented into a
kind of bay (Fig. 50). Com-
mon shells showing this are
the " fool's mussel" (Mactra
stultorum), the Venus shell
(Venus gallina), and the large
well-known sand mussel (Lu-
traria elliptica). This bending
of the mantle line is due to the

presence Of a respiratory tube cle marks and indented inuntlb

ill these animals. This tube

projects from the hinder end

of the shell and can be more or less retracted within it.

It is used as a means of conveying water into and out

of the shell. The presence of a " bay " on the mantle line,

therefore, is an indication that its owner possessed a

respiratory tube.

Lastly, the interlocking teeth forming part of the hinge
joint of the shell should be noted.

Pupils should learn the names of at least a dozen com-
mon shells. Examples which will well repay a close ex-
amination in detail are the clam or scallop (Pecteri), which
has only one adductor muscle mark; ttue oyster, whose
left valve is deep and whose right is flat and which also
has but one adductor mark (the posterior) ; the razor shell
(Soleri), on which all the usual markings may be found,
but altered in shape; the common mussel; the wedge shell
(Donax)\ etc.

143

THE STUDY OF SHELLS.

SPIRAL SHELLS.

Take a common shell, e.g. the shell of a garden snail.
Make a drawing of it so as to show the various parts —
mouth, spire, apex. Note that the spiral is right-handed.

To determine this, look
down upon the apex of
the spire, and follow the
coils downwards with the
finger. The finger will
move in the same direction
as do the hands of a watch.
Fig. si.-spirais; that to the left is left- Some shells have

handed, to the right is right-handed.
(In following the spiral, commence at
the inner end.)

Spiral,

a con-

i.e. they are

T>mw <i

JJiaW a

and a right-

trai'V
] ,,
leit-

left-handed
handed spiral side by side (Fig. 51).

When the outer wall of a shell is broken, we can see a
pillar inside. To this pillar the snail is attached, so that
it cannot be pulled
out of the shell.
The pillar is some-
times hollow — in
part at any rate —
and has an open-
ing to the outside.
Find the pillar
opening on the
shell of the gar-
den snail. (It lies
on the inner mar-
gin of the mouth
opening.) This
opening is some-
times covered over
in part by the folded edge of the shell.

The shell of the snail is a turreted spiral. Some shells
have long turrets and others have very short ones. Com-
pare such shells as the whelk, a common sea-shore form,

Fig. 52.— Shell cut to show pillar (C).
M, mouth ; A, apex.

THE STUDY OF SHELLS.

149

with a long turret, and such a shell as the cowrie, a short
turret, both with a similar number of turns in the spiral
(Fig. 53) . How is the difference explained ? If we break
a cowrie shell, the greater part of
the earlier turns of the spiral will
be found overlapped by the later
ones, and the last turn covers all
except the tips of all the rest. In
old shells the spiral may be ob-
literated on the outside, but of
course it persists within.

As far as spiral shells are avail-
able, compare as to the number
of turns and amount of overlap-
ping. Draw a series of types.

Some special cases of interest
are the ram's horn shell (Planor-
bis) found in fresh waters, whose
spiral is flat, not turreted; the
ear shell or "oriner" (Haliotis),
whose spiral is so open that there
is 110 pillar, and which is greatly
drawn out to one side ; the limpet
(Patella) cap-like, whose spiral is
present only in the youngest stages. The fresh-water
limpet (Ancylus) is a small helmet-like form occurring in
ditches, etc., which may be compared with this last.

Fig. 53. — Cowrie shell broken
to show the parts o? the
spiral concealed within.

CHAPTER XI.

THE SNAIL (Helix Aspersa).

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY FOR PUPILS.

As a preliminary to the experimental study of the snail,
the pupils should note its general structure, discovering
the position of the mouth, eyes (at tip of long horns),
breathing opening (under the shell at the right side).
The yellowish region surrounding the opening of the shell
is the thickened margin of the "mantle" which is con-
cealed beneath it. This region is usually termed the collar.
The flat muscular region on which the snail creeps is
known as the " foot." Snails and slugs which crawl on
the under side of their bodies are known as Gasteropoda.
(Gaster = belly ; pous ~ foot). The GTasteropoda form a
sub-division of the soft-bodied animals termed MOLLUSCA.

Place the living snail upon a slate or sheet of paper — or,
best of all, a piece of glass.

Observe first its mode of locomotion — an apparent
gliding motion upon a flat sole extending the whole length
of the animal. Calculate its rate of motion in inches per
minute. With the snail upon a piece of glass, when it
commences to move observe the mechanism from the lower
surface. Describe what you see. Compare this mode of
movement with that of an earthworm. Remark on the
presence or absence of variations in length of the body
in motion. Cause the animal to retreat into its shell and
leave it until it emerges. Repeat this experiment several

150

THE SNAIL. 151

times without unduly annoying the animal. Meanwhile
observe an orderly series of movements, and record what
they are.

Make any other observations on its movements that
occur to you.

Discover how the animal is breathing. Note the open-
ing and closing of the pulmonary aperture (under the shell
on the right side). Leave the snail to itself and observe
whether this opening and closing occurs at regular inter-
vals, whether frequently or seldom. Study next some
snails feeding on lettuce leaves. Write down what you

Fig. 54.— The edible Snail (Helix pomatia).

An unsymmetrical type, p.ap, pulmonary aperture ; /, foot ; g.ap, genital
aperture ; m, mouth ; s.h, short horns ; e, eye.

see and hear. (The teacher will explain the presence of
a toothed ribbon in the mouth on which the food is
rasped.)

Special senses : Sight. — Examine the organs of vision.
Note their situation and how they are protected. What
happens when the animal retracts its * horns " ? Deter-
mine by experiment the range of vision. This may be
done by carefully approaching the eyes with a pencil or
fine brush. Note how near it is possible to come before
the eyes are retracted. Test the response to moving and
stationary objects.

152 TME SNAIL.

Hearing. — Test some snails and determine whether their
powers are good in this respect. Note if they respond to
noises made close to them when they are expanded.

Touch. — Discover by the experiment of gently irritating
the body in different places whether one part is more
sensitive than another.

Smell. — There is some evidence that in the snail and in
related forms it is a strong sense, e.g. marine gasteropods
are usually attracted to crab-pots containing stale fish.
Devise an experiment to test this sense.

Observe how the animal protects itself when unduly
alarmed — excess of a slimy substance is excreted all over
the body.

Drawings of the snail in different positions should be
attempted.

CHAPTER XII.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOE THE STUDY OF
INSECTS.

CATERPILLARS.

THE rearing of caterpillars in school forms a profitable
part of Nature Study work. Their feeding and other
habits will become familiar to the pupils by direct obser-
vation, and with the senior pupils simple experiments may
be devised to show the effect of differences in diet and
surroundings. Drawings should be made freely, and the
opportunity should be taken of making clear to the pupils
all important noticeable features in the caterpillars them-
selves and in their behaviour.

A common hardy caterpillar available in the spring and
summer is that of the Magpie Moth (Abraxas grossu-
lariata). In a fruit garden harbouring these insects they
will be found as soon as the foliage of the gooseberries or
currants is unfolded. This caterpillar is hatched in the
autumn and feeds on the gooseberry or currant leaves for
a short time, but it soon ceases its activities and conceals
itself in the soil or in crevices in the bark or cracks in
walls, etc., for the winter. These small^ caterpillars may
also be found amongst the dead leaves lying in the forks
of the branches. When spring arrives they come out of
their retirement, ascend the branches, and attack the
leaves. This is the time to collect them. They should be
placed in the insect cages and supplied with gooseberry

153

154 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

leaves. If practicable it will be found profitable also to
study them along with pupils at the bushes in the garden.

A series of drawings to illustrate the general life habits
of this insect should be made by the pupils. In order that
this may be done satisfactorily, a lesson should be given on
the structure, and of course it is not possible nor desirable
that the whole series should be attempted in one lesson.
Time must be given the pupils to assimilate the significance
of what they see.

The caterpillars should be watched and their general
appearance and behaviour noted. Pupils should begin by
describing its colour. Some variation in this respect will
be noted, and pupils should be encouraged to look for this.
Black is abundant in large spots along the back and in
smaller ones upon the sides ; there is cream and orange red
occurring between. Sometimes an example occurs which
is almost or completely black. As the pupils watch the
insects they will gradually become conscious of some of
the values of the colours of this caterpillar, and of cater-
pillars in general.

This insect when fully grown is about 1J inches in
length. Its body consists of a series of divisions or seg-
ments. Pupils will count these, and discover that thirteen
can be made out. They can distinguish the head, which
is black in colour and horny -like. With the help of a lens
very short " feelers " can be distinguished and also two
groups of minute black spots, the simple eyes. On the
under side are the jaws, with which the leaves upon which
they feed are cut.

The three segments following the head are very similar
to those that succeed them except that they are provided
each with a pair of black-clawed feet (Fig. 551). These
three segments must be thought of collectively as a distinct
region of the body termed the thorax. They retain this
distinctiveness through the whole of the insect's life and
constitute the thorax in the adult ; their legs are the rudi-
ments of the six legs of the adult.

The remaining segments constitute the abdomen or hind
body, the tenth segment (counting from the head) carries
a pair of stumpy sucker feet (Fig. 551), and so does the

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOE THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 155

last.* 'The last segment differs slightly in shape from the
others. All these points will be seen clearly as the pupils
make their drawing.

On the sides of the caterpillar's body may be seen minute
oval areas, whitish in colour. In some species they appear
quite conspicuous, although they are never very large. In
the caterpillar we can see a pair of these on each segment
behind the head except the last two of the thorax. These
should be looked for. They are of interest, since they have
slit-like openings through which the caterpillars breathe,
air passing in and out with the movements of the body.
The caterpillar should be drawn with body extended
(Fig. 55').

Having become familiar with the leading external
features, we may proceed to watch the caterpillar moving.
Our next drawing must show how it progresses. Releasing
its hold by its sucker feet it draws its body into a loop,
placing segment ten close behind segment four (Fig. 552).
Next, releasing the hold of the thoracic feet, the body is
raised (Fig. 553), stretched forward, and laid down fully
extended, a hold being taken again by the thoracic feet.
Once secure, the hind part is released, the body arched as
before, and so the process is repeated, the creature pro-
gressing by a series of looping movements. Caterpillars
belonging to this family are popularly known as " loopers "
on account of this habit. Pupils may be able also to see
the appropriateness of the scientific name of the Family —
Geometridae or " earth measurers."

A common experience, which doubtless will be shared
by pupils when collecting, is to find that the caterpillar
disappears as the hand is put out to remove it. They are
usually more or less concealed amongst the foliage ; fre-
quently they rest against the leaf stalk. In the act of
reaching towards the caterpillar we inevitably shake the
bush and the caterpillar falls. Usually* the actual fall is

* Caterpillars mostly have more sucker or stump feet. The
maximum number is ten stump feet for a true caterpillar (see
Fig. 164, p. 306).

156 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

not observed, and until we gain more experience of its
ways the caterpillar has a good chance of escaping.

It has not fallen to the ground. In the momentary

Fig. 55.-^The Caterpillar of the Magpie Moth.
The series 1-5 illustrates its characteristic behaviour (see text).

period available it has fixed the end of a silken thread to
the twig or leaf stalk, and in the act of falling has spun
out the thread several inches in length. Here the insect

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 157

dangles in the air while we search the ground or amongst
the leaves for the caterpillar we are sure we saw. The
thread is extremely slender, and we may handle the bushes
so roughly that it is broken ; it will not stand all sorts of
usage, but in the main it serves its end.

The caterpillar hanging by its thoracic feet and jaws upon
its cord commences the return journey, and its progress up-
ward is well worth watching (Fig. 554). With hind body
stiffened out behind, and head alternately thrown back and
then forward to grip the silken cord by the jaws, the
acrobat at length reaches the shelter of its leaf. Pupils
should be made to observe the whole process. The cater-
pillars can be got to fall off the end of a pencil and climb
up again.

There is no doubt that this habit is effectively protec-
tive, and that caterpillars which are able to do this, in a
large number of cases will escape capture by their bird
enemies. Our particular caterpillar is a well protected
type in this and in other ways, as we shall note further on.

Sometimes the creature falls to the ground. What
happens ? Hold one in the hand and cause it to fall
on the table. It doubles itself, head close to tail, but
with the last segment projecting, and lies motionless
(Fig. 55s). This is a quite definite piece of behaviour.
Many other caterpillars do the same kind of thing. They
have learned, somehow, the advantage of keeping still;
that movement attracts attention, and that to be seen may
mean death. Many animals through stress of life have
discovered this. Our caterpillar in a short time if undis-
turbed will slowly turn over and proceed to crawl away,
but there are some creatures which lie still so long that
they are apt to be regarded as dead. The larva of the ant
lion, a predaceous insect feeding on ants, is an adept at
this kind of " death-feigning." The fox is credited with
the same kind of behaviour. •

The pupils should add another to their series of draw-
ings, that of the caterpillar as it lies folded motionless
upon the ground.

Our caterpillars are remarkable for the variety of ways
in which they are protected from attack. Besides the ways

158 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

noted above, we observe further that they are not easily
seen. In the confused light and shade of a currant bush
the black and creamy pattern of their skins renders
them difficult of observation. One has to look upward to
find them, as they occur generally on the under side of the
leaves. Keen -eyed birds may see them more readily than
the eyes of men do, just as young children
will find them quicker than men will. But
keen-eyed small birds will not touch them
on account of their nauseous taste. The
only bird which appears to take them in
numbers is the cuckoo (Sparrows attack
the adult insects).

When the caterpillars are fully grown,

Fig. 50.— Leg of -T ji i» T JT

Caterpillar, «-6. about the month ot June, they pass

into the pupa or chrysalis stage. This
transformation should be watched in the
rearing cages and a description of it written out by pupils.
They will note the soft yellowish appearance at first,
becoming transformed into the glossy black and gold banded
colour in a short time. The pupae should also be figured,
and it is important that the pupils should distinguish the
chief parts of the body upon it, recognising in particular
the wing rudiments, head, thorax, and
hind body. .

What is the significance of these two 'Jjt/ >/\\|i
stages? Jv>/l<'v

Caterpillar Stage. — It will have become
obvious to the pupils that the life of a Fjg. 57.— pro-ieg Of
caterpillar is devoted entirely to feeding, a Caterpillar.
with growth as a result. Attention should
also be called to the moulting consequent upon growth.
Why do caterpillars moult ? What is thrown off when they
moult ? The outer layer of their skins. A tough cuticle
(composed of the substance chitin), which, being simply a
non-living product of the skin, cannot grow. Hence it
must from time to time be thrown off from the body
growing beneath it. This is the answer to our question
why they moult.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 159

Pupa or Chrysalis Stage. — In this stage our insect does
not feed or move about, but lies quite passively (Fig. 58) .
This is the almost universal rule (but we may note in
passing the pupae of gnats and some other insects which
retain their powers of locomotion, but do not feed). Yet
we know that under the stiff outer shell important changes
are going on. There is a breaking down of the caterpillar
organs and a building up of new ones. And when this is
completed there emerges from the cuticle of the pupa,
which is cast aside, the winged adult insect — in
the present instance, a beautiful moth.

At this point it is well to summarise the out-
standing facts.

We have seen that caterpillars are only a
stage in a life history. When young animals
which feed themselves are unlike their parents
in general habits and structure, they are usually
termed larvae. Caterpillars are larvae.

Their life consists in feeding and growing.

The pupa is a stage in which preparation
is made for the adult condition. It exhibits neither
feeding nor growth. The teacher should inquire the mean-
ing of the terms pupa and chrysalis. If possible the
pupae of the small tortoise-shell butterfly (Vanessa urticae)
should be obtained — (its caterpillar feeds upon the nettle)
— in order to show the appropriateness of the latter term
(Chruseos = golden). Many of the pupae of this common
insect exhibit a remarkably fine metallic lustre.

It is desirable that some comparisons be made of
different common caterpillars, e.g. as regards the number
of pro-legs; the colour in relation to that of the food
plant, whether resembling it, or conspicuous upon it;
and some observational work might be attempted out of
doors with a view to discovering what common types are
taken or rejected by birds.

The winged insect is considered in the following lesson.

160 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

THE MAGPIE MOTH.

We have here an insect, the magpie or currant moth,
common in gardens in the months of July and August.
Let us begin our study by gratifying for a little our
aesthetic sense. As our lesson proceeds we shall become
familiar with the details of its external bodily structure ;
meantime let us note the short somewhat blunt body, the
large wings outspread as the creature rests, the slender

feelers, poised with
slightly incurved tip
in front of the head.
Let us draw the moth
in outline (Fig. 59).

In colour the moth
is extremely pretty,
exhibiting creamy
white, black, and
orange colours. As
we look over a num-
ber of examples we
discover these colours
are constant, charac-
teristic of this creature. We also find a general arrange-
ment of colour giving a definite pattern, variable in detail,
yet conforming to a type. Let each pupil guided by the
teacher now write out a description of the colour arrange-
ment of the wings and body.

Commencing with the fore wings, we note a ground
colour of creamy white. Around the posterior margin
there is a row of black semi-lunar or oval spots ; a little
way in front of this a double row of closely set larger
spots, also black, sometimes confluent, undulating in a
double curve ; the space between the two halves of the row
is orange in colour. In front of this the markings are less
regularly arranged, but about the middle of the anterior
border of the wing a triangular black patch occurs followed
across the wing by three or more black spots. At the

Fig. 59.— The Magpie Moth (Abraxas
grossulariatd).

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 161

anterior border there is a short set of black markings in a
double row with orange between.

The under wing, which is but slightly exposed when the
moth is at rest, has also a cream white colour with a border
of black semi-lunar markings. In front of this there is an
irregular line of small black spots, while in the anterior
region of the wing there are a few scattered spots of the
same colour. There are no orange markings.

The body itself is of a rich orange colour, having a single
row of black spots on the upper side and a double one of
smaller spots below. There is a larger black mark upon
the thoracic region, i.e. between the place of attachment of
wings to body. The wings are symmetrically marked and
the body markings form a median set fitting in well with
their pattern.

There is no doubt that here we have an arrangement
and combination of colour which is pleasing to the eye, and
a few minutes devoted to a close examination and com-
parison of different specimens are well spent. We may be
struck with the fact that these insects are so conspicuously
marked, or at any rate they appear to be so. But it is one
thing to see them as we perhaps are doing, i.e. indoors or
in the hand at close quarters away from their natural sur-
roundings, and another as they rest upon a wall or against
the trunk of a currant bush. Here they are much less
readily observed. Further reference to the significance of
colour is made below.

The pupils should here make a coloured drawing of the
moth.

It cannot but be noted that the moth at rest spreads its
wings flat so that the upper surfaces are exposed, the front
wings overlapping all but a small portion of the inner and
posterior borders of the hind pair. These and similar
details will be verified in the making of the sketch, which
should not be omitted. *

We become very familiar in handling the moth with the
delicate nature of the surface of its body. It rubs off all
too readily, and if we shake on to a glass slip a little of the
fine dust of the wings, we discover it is made up of a great
variety of exquisitely formed and delicately ridged and

N.S. 11

162 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

fluted scales. A lens is required to see this. Certainly
the scientific study of the wing of the moth or butter-
fly does not destroy our appreciation of its beauty
(Fig. 60).

Let us now watch the moth in active movement. It can
run well, although it is not much given to this mode of
locomotion except shortly after emerging from its pupal
case. If at this particular time it is disturbed or interfered
with, it will run very quickly. Its wings are small and in-
capable of flight (Fig. 61). If these moths are reared in
school this feature should not be missed, nor should the

Fig. 60. — Scales from the wing
of the Cabbage Lutterfly,
magnified.

Fig. 61.— The Cabbage Butterfly
as it emerges from the Chrysalis

rapid way in which they expand to the full size be over-
looked.

On the wing the moth is active. Watch its rapid flight.
How do we describe its course ? Straight or uneven ? Can
we suggest a meaning in the seemingly erratic and more or
less aimless course it follows ? Does this make it easier
for moths and butterflies to " dodge " their natural enemies,
the bats and the birds ? It is probable that this is so.

It may be noted in passing that this fluttering irregu-
larity of flight exhibited by butterflies and moths has
suggested to certain writers the idea of aimlessness in life.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF -INSECTS. 163

Hence the term " frivolous butterfly." No doubt it is
daintily put :

* ; 0 pretty painted butterfly, what do you do all day ?
I roam about the sunny fields and nothing do but play.
Nothing do but play ! 0, silly painted butterfly to waste
your time away."

But this is not quite fair to the butterfly, as we shall see.

In the course of examination of the moth, pupils will be
able to identify the regions noted in the caterpillar — head,
thorax, and hind body. It will be most profitable if in
this study we make a comparison between the larva and
the adult in detail.

We note on the head in the winged insect —

(1) Longer and finer antennae. They should be

examined at close quarters.

(2) Quite new eyes, large and compound in character.

(3) The mouth parts are transformed. The biting

jaws of the caterpillar have become long suck-
ing jaws in the adult. These jaws will be seen
on the under side of the head coiled up like a
watch spring (Figs. 62, 63). The moth has
complete control over this slender coiled tube,
straightening it at will and inserting it into
flowers when feeding.

On the thorax we observe —

(1) The legs are longer and adapted for supporting

the insect whilst it rests or is feeding or is
depositing its eggs upon the food plant.

(2) The adult insect has two pairs of wings ; the

caterpillar has none.

On the abdomen we note —

The stump legs have disappeared.

Lastly the whole body is smaller and lighter and the
arrangement of colour is different.

164 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

These changes can best be understood by a consideration
of the distribution of the functions of the insect over the
whole period of the life-history. In many insects, e.g. in
the moth we are at present study in or, the prime functions
of life are set in apposition in different life stages with
marked definiteness. In the larva, feeding is the dominat-
ing function. It is accompanied by growth. We see in it
a period given over to the Individual Interest. In the
adult, feeding is quite a subsidiary function, being sub-
servient to that of egg-laying, i.e. the continuance of the

Fig. 62.— Head of Magpie
Moth, showing coiled
sucking jaws.

Fig. 63. — Head of Cabbage
Butterfly showing clubbed
antennae and coiled mouth
parts. (Cf. Fig. 62.)

species. Adult insects do not grow. This period is given
over to the Race Interest.

A detailed examination of the various parts of the insect
in the light of these facts is not possible here, but some
points should be touched on, and some of them may profit-
ably be suggested to senior pupils.

Antennae or feelers are, as experiment has shown, also
important as organs of smell. The caterpillar hatches
from the egg upon its food plant and commences to eat
right away, and on the whole abundant supplies are

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 165

generally well within its reach. It may spend its whole
larval existence on the same spot. The parent butterfly
on the other hand is equipped so as to disseminate the
species. It must go on depositing eggs upon food plants
in widely distributed areas and must find these plants
mainly by its sense of smell. This function is therefore
more acute in the adult.*

The food of a caterpillar is solid, and biting jaws are
required to deal with it. A great deal must be eaten to
extract a small amount of nourishment. Since as already

Fig. 64.— The Tiger Moth.

indicated the adult insect must travel some distance in the
performance of its prime function, it is important that its
body should be light and also that time should not be lost.
Lightness is gained and time saved in the change of diet
from solid to concentrated liquid food. Some insects
indeed do not feed at all in the winged state.

The presence of wings and the disappearance of hind
body legs are to be explained with reference to the same
needs. The wings of the moth (as well as other parts of
the body) are covered with minute scales of different
colours, and it is the grouping of these* scales that yields
the colour pattern already described. Moths and butter-

* The significance of the antennae in enabling the two sexes to
meet need not be raised with children, although it is a very import-
ant illustration of our point.

166 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

flies are classed in an Order of Insects termed Lepidoptera,
which means " scaly winged."

Very frequently the colours and patterns produced by
these scales have protective significance. We may note
here just one general point. In those Lepidoptera which
rest with the upper sides of the wings exposed (moths) the
brightest colours are concealed and the exposed parts
frequently harmonise with the normal background (e.g. a
tree trunk). In those Lepidoptera which rest with the
wings erect over the back so that their under sides are
exposed, the showy pattern is on the upper (i.e. the hidden)
side (butterflies).

ORDERS OF INSECTS.

In our previous study we became familiar with certain
general facts of insect structure. As a contribution
towards the definition of an insect let us enumerate the
more important of these.

(1) The body is divided transversely into segments.

(2) Three divisions (constituting groups of segments)

are recognisable in the adult, viz. Head, Thorax,
and Hind Body or Abdomen.

(3) The head carries one pair of feelers or antennae.

(4) There are three pairs of legs upon the thorax (one

pair to each of its segments).

(5) Wings are usually present, but not invariably

(Fig. 65).

In a revision lesson all these points should be verified on
a new type, e.g. a Bee, Cranefly, or Butterfly, or Grass-
hopper. In some types, e.g. Flies, the antennae are small,
but the other characters are readily made out.

The variety of form amongst insects is very great.
Hence the group is subdivided into Orders, and of these

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOB THE STUDY OP INSECTS. 167

a few embrace a large number of the commonest types.
We shall classify the most familiar examples. For our
purpose we shall confine our notes to outstanding features

Fig. 65. — Cockroach, diagrammatically displayed to illustrate the external
features of Insects.

only, indicating the nature of the wings, the character of
the jaws as throwing light upon the nature of the food,
and the type of life-history as shown in the form and
habits of the young insect.

Butterflies and Moths.

We have already studied an example, but their characters
may be summarised here. *

They have two pairs of scaly wings.

Their mouth parts are adapted for sucking juices of
plants.

Their young are Caterpillars.

They belong to the order Lepidoptera (scaly winged).

168 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Flies.

E.g. House-fly, Blue Bottle-fly, Cranefly (Daddy Long
Legs), G-nats, Midges, Warble-flies, Bot-flies, Biting-flies
of Horses and Cattle.

These insects have one pair of wings only, and behind
them a pair of short knobbed stalks termed halteres or
balancers.

Their mouth parts are adapted for sucking vegetable and
other juices, and in some cases for both piercing and sucking,
e.g. Gnats and Biting-flies.

The young of Flies are worm- shaped ; head rudimentary
or absent ; legless ; with biting jaws — termed a Maggot.

The larvae of Flies which are aquatic are, however,
greatly modified.

Flies are classed in an Order termed Diptera (two-
winged). Fig. 662.

Bees, Wasps, Ants, Sawflies, Gallflies, Ichneumon Flies.

These insects have two pairs of wings, which are mem-
branous in texture (they are absent in worker Ants). The
wings resemble those of Flies, but in these latter, as noted
above, there is one pair only.

The mouth parts are adapted for biting and sucking, or
for biting alone.

The young is in most cases a soft Grub. For our pur-
poses we may describe a grub as the young of an insect,
which is caterpillar-like in form, but has no hind body
legs, or at most a clasping or rudimentary pair at the tip.
The larvae of Sawflies are caterpillar-like in form and are
known as " false caterpillars." The number of the stump
feet varies, but is never so few as ten.

These insects are classed in the Order Hymenoptera
(membrane winged) .

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 169

Beetles.

E.g. Ladybirds, Weevils, Chafers, Ground Beetles, Black
Beetles, Turnip Beetles, Water Beetles. Some are best
known in their larval stage, e.g. Wireworms, Mealworms.
Beetles have two pairs of wings, but the anterior pair
is not used in flight. This pair is greatly hardened and
thickened and serves as a sheath, covering the hind pair,
which are used in flight.

The jaws are biting organs.

The larvae are grubs, sometimes soft, in other cases
hard. In some the legs are very weak and rudimentary.
Aquatic larvae are modified. Fig. 663.

This Order is known as Coleoptera (sheath winged).

The insects of the foregoing Orders all undergo a trans-
formation or complete metamorphosis in the course of their
life-history. There are larval, pupal, and adult stages.
But this is not always the case. In some insects there is
only a gradual change from the young to the adult con-
dition, so that it is customary to speak of direct develop-
ment as opposed to metamorphosis. As examples of these
we may quote

Grasshoppers, Crickets, Cockroaches.

There are two pairs of wings, the fore pair the stronger.
The veins upon the fore wings run in straight lines.

The jaws are biting organs.

The chief observable difference between young and adult
is in size, and in absence of wings in^the former. It is
customary to term such a young form a Nymph. It arrives
at the adult condition by a series of nioultings ; there is no
passive pupal period.

These insects belong to the Order Orthoptera (straight
veins on wings).

Fig. 66.— Types of Insect Life History.

1. Larva, pupa, and adult of GoatMoth(Cossws ligniperdd). 2. Larva, pupa, and
adult of Blue Bottle Fly (Musca vomitoria). 3. Larva, pupa, and imago of Water
Beetle (Dyticus marginalis). These last show " adaptations " to life in water.

170

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 171

Greenfly or Plant Lice,

Wings delicate and transparent, with few veins, but
winged forms occur only periodically.
Needle-like piercing and sucking jaws.
Young similar to parents.
These insects are classed as Hemiptera (half winged).

Simple exercises in identification of insect types might
be given as far as classifying those belonging to the
common Orders. This should be done in particular with
all insects seen visiting flowers. Drawings should be made
of all the types. It will be found that a very large propor-
tion belong to the Orders just enumerated. The teacher
who wishes to carry identification further should consult
works on Entomology.

THE HIVE BEE.

The general life of Hive Bees forms an appropriate sub-
ject of study. This can be done ideally in an observational
hive such as dealers supply. This, however, is available
only to the few, hence we suggest other methods. A suit-
able starting point is the Worker Bee, seen in the open
visiting flowers. With a little skill a Bee may be captured
by inverting over it a plain glass tumbler whilst it is busy
in a flower, at the same time closing the mouth of the
tumbler with a piece of cardboard. The risk of being
stung is slight, and the experiment, resulting in no harm
to the Bee, is worth the trouble.

The Worker Bee.

What can be learned from such a capture ? Slip beneath
the cardboard a small. piece of moistened sugar, and while
waiting for the Bee to discover it, examine the Bee itself.
Its general aspect does not call for much comment, but
one or two special features may be noted. There is the
" hairiness " of the back and legs. Look for adhering
pollen on these places. In particular examine the hindmost

172 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

pair of legs. The joints towards the extremity will be seen
to have the appearance as figured (Fig. 67). Two of the
joints are greatly flattened.

On the inner side of the lower of these (fifth from the
tip) the stiff hairs are arranged in close set rows which act
effectively as a comb for gathering the pollen from the various
parts of the body (b in figure). It is quite possible that

Fig. 67.— Portion of Hind Leg of Bee^
a indicates the pincers used in re-
moving the wax from the abdomen ;
6, the division (tarsus) with comb-like
hairs for brushing out pollen. The
division above a is the shin and con-
stitutes the pollen basket.

a, mandibles which

mould the wax in comb-making ; 6, the
tongue which gathers the nectar.

this grooming process will be seen whilst the Bee is under
observation. The pollen is next combed out by the bristles
on the hinder margin of the anterior broad joint (shin, sixth
from tip) and collected into a "basket" formed by the
hollow outer face of this shin- joint, together with the
bristles along its border. Bees may be seen returning to
the hive with their pollen baskets filled.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OP INSECTS. 173

On the under side of the bind body grooves between the
segments will be seen. In these grooves wax is formed in
thin plates. From these grooves the wax is removed and
cut by means of the pincer-like gap between the two broad
segments already referred to (Fig. 67 (a)).

When the Bee finds the sugar it will commence to suck.
If the sugar is slightly moist, it will
be attacked with vigour, and then the
whole action of sucking will be seen
with great clearness. Pupils will also
see the remarkable length to which the
central portion of the complex mouth
apparatus may be extended, also its
hairy character, which greatly assists in
the gathering of honey (Fig. 68).

The sting of the bee is situated at the
posterior tip of the body. Its point may
be seen protruded. A figure of the sting
with poison gland attached is given
(Fig. 69). Worker Bees are modified
females, and their sting consists of the
egg- depositing apparatus modified for
the purposes of defence. When the Bee
has been examined it should be liberated.
Although" the Bee may have been carried
some distance from the spot at which
it was captured it will be able to find
its way back to the hive. Eecent experi-
ments on the " homing " faculty of Bees seem to prove
that they possess a " sense of direction " more or less
comparable to that of Carrier Pigeons.

The ftueen and Drones.

We may now proceed to consider the* queen, who is the
mother of the colony. She is larger than the workers and
has a more slender body. The duration of life of a queen
is from two to three years. Her sole function in the hive
is that of egg-laying, which office she fulfils at the rate of
between two and three thousand in 24 hours. Her wants

69. — Sting of
Bee, with poison
gland (dark body in
ligure) attached.

174 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOE THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

are attended to by the workers. The drones, which are the
male members of the colony, are produced at will by
the queen. They hatch out in 25 days, and in about a
fortnight afterwards they engage in the nuptial flight with
the young queens. They are subsequently killed off by the
workers before the end of the season.

Functions of the Workers.

The workers make the cells from the wax which is
secreted in thin plates in the joints of the abdomen. Cells
for the worker grubs and honey are smaller than those

Fig. 70.— Bees and Comb.

D, Drone comb ; W, Worker comb ; Q, Queen cells,
d, Drone ; w, Worker ; q, Queen.

intended for the grubs of the drones. The cells are of the
usual hexagonal type. The queen cell is irregularly oval in
shape, and about one inch long by § broad. It is made of

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 175

a mixture of wax and pollen. The workers remove the wax
from their bodies by means of the nipping joint between
the shin and the first tarsal joint, and knead it into flat
plates about | inch in thickness, in which the hexagonal
" cells " are moulded upon both sides (Fig. 70).

The workers, besides making cells, collect nectar and
pollen, with which they feed their queen and grubs. When
newly hatched they serve as nurses to the grubs for a time
before going outside the hive. A worker grub takes about
three weeks in which to hatch out.

Eventually the hive becomes overcrowded and " swarm-
ing " becomes necessary. This may take place about the
end of May or the beginning of June. The first swarm is
headed by the old queen. The new queen then kills off the
other queens remaining within the hive. Should she be
prevented by the workers from so doing there may be a
second swarm.

The colony persists through the winter.

In the Hive Bee we see the highest stage of sociality
exhibited by Bees. The two most important features of
this society are the division of the labours of the colony
amongst queen, workers, and drones, and the provision
whereby the colony is continued from year to year. In
this latter feature especially the Hive Bees show an advance
upon the Humble Bees.

CHAPTER XIII.
THE EARTHWORM.

A TALK WITH YOUNG PUPILS.

NOTE. — For the purposes of this lesson, there should be
provided a box or glass vessel, with glass cover, containing
earth and some worms ; also a pocket lens.

THE Earthworm is a small and delicate creature. When
we look at its wriggling body as it is turned up amongst
the soft earth by the spade, we may not at first think it a
very interesting animal. If we are willing, however, to
study it for a little, we shall learn some things about it
which show that it is a wonderful and important creature.

Let us put a little earth in which we have found some
worms into a pot or glass vessel, pressing it down gently
and placing the worms on the top. Now we shall watch
their behaviour. Observe how freely and easily they move.
We see them wriggle, and twist, and turn, and crawl.
Watch one as it crawls along. You see that the end which
is moving in front is stretched out very long and thin. It
is next shortened and thickened. This takes place all
along the body, but is best seen at the front end. The
result is that the worm moves forward ; the parts which
produce the motion are long muscles which reach from
end to end, and lie very closely all round its body. They
are very powerful, and it is by their help that the worm
pushes its way into and through the soil.

176

THE EARTHWORM. 177

If we cover our vessel with a piece of glass, so that we
can still see them, and also prevent them from climbing
over, we shall not have long to wait before we view them at
work. Observe how they insert the finely stretched- out tip
of the body between the particles of soil. Note that this
part is then made thicker by the drawing up of the portions
within and behind, so that the creature, using its body as
a wedge, bores its way through the ground. In a short
time, if we have not packed the earth on the top too firmly,
the worms will all disappear below.

Perhaps you wonder why they go underground so
quickly. Of course their home is below, and they are
usually ill at ease in the light. They do not like the light.
At night or in the dark they will remain much longer
above ground. They have no eyes to tell them ; they do
not see the difference — they/eeZ it.

Now take one of the worms in your hand, and, without
hurting it, draw it gently through the tips of your fingers.
Do you feel that there are two rows along the body near its
lower side which are rougher than any other part ? This
roughness is caused by very fine stiff bristles, which stick
out along these rows. We cannot see them well without a
magnifying glass, but there are really four rows, two on
each side, set closely together. The worm uses these
bristles to grip the ground as it crawls along, and to hold
by the sides of its burrow. So that when we know this,
and also remember that it can thicken its body and make
it quite tight in the burrow, we are not surprised that the
Blackbird has to pull very hard to drag it out of the earth.
Indeed, the worm often grips so firmly that it is broken in
two in the struggle.

The bird, of course, eats its share. But the wonderful
thing is that the part left in the earth does not always die.
There grows upon it a piece exactly like the bit which the
bird ate. A tail-end grows a head-part, and a head-part a
tail-end. What happens, then, when the gardener acci-
dentally cuts one with his spade ? If the worm was well
and strong at the time, it is likely that two worms will
result. Eemember that this should never be done wilfully,
since tlie worm feels.

N. S. 12

178 THE EARTHWORM.

Sometimes a more wonderful thing happens. I once saw
a worm injured by a spade ; its body was torn at the side,
but not cut in two. At the broken part a new tail grew,
so that it had three ends. It lived a long time, though it
could not move very feely. It dragged its tails behind it.

What do the worms do below the ground ? We have
seen that they can make burrows for themselves by push-
ing the earth aside. Wherever they go, air and rain

Fig. 71.— Earthworms at the surface of the ground in the night.

follow. The air and the rain change the soil in such a way
that plants can feed more richly upon it. This is why the
farmer turns over or ploughs the soil. Where there are
many worms, therefore, the soil is made better for plant-
life.

While they are burrowing they swallow large quantities
of earth. Their bodies are long slender tubes surrounding

THE EARTHWORM. 179

an inner narrower tube, which is open at both ends. The
outer one does the moving and feeling, and the inner is
used for feeding. The earth taken into the body is passed
along the inner tube, being first grasped by a lip which
hangs down at the very tip in front, and acts like a finger.
You should look for this small "finger" on a good-sized
worm.

Amongst the earth swallowed there are little bits of
decaying plants, and this is the food of the worm. The
rest is passed on, and leaves the body as " castings." You
may see these on a lawn or garden-path in the early morn-
ing. Or you may have noticed those of the Sand- worm,
whose habits are similar, on the sea-shore. They are left
on the surface by the Earthworm, so that you see this
creature not only lets the air down into the soil, but also
brings the soil up to it. But this is not all. In the same
manner as the soil is altered by the air and rain, it is
changed by juices in the worm's body. Many of the little
bits of soil, too, are ground down in a gizzard which forms
part of the inner tube, and made so much smaller and finer
that they become very useful to plants.

There are many other interesting things to learn about
Earthworms. Perhaps when you are older you will read
some of the books which have been written about them, or,
what is better, study them yourselves.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS.

IT will be best in dealing with this subject here to
confine our attention to the animals likely to find a place
in a small fresh- water aquarium or school collection.

And first it seems desirable that in the teacher's mind
at all events the mixed company of the aquarium inmates
should be reduced to order. To facilitate this the follow-
ing facts of classification are submitted.

CLASSIFICATION.

AMPHIBIA. — Newts, Frogs, Tadpoles belong to Class
Amphibia. Cold-blooded Vertebrate animals, naked skin-
ned, breathing by gills in young state (i.e. aquatic),
possessing lungs as adults (i.e. with power of terrestrial
respiration). Limbs have clawless fingers and toes.

PISCES. — Sticklebacks, Minnows, Carp, etc. Class
Pisces (Fishes). Cold-blooded Vertebrate animals, scaly,
breathing by gills ; limbs are fins.

MOLLTJSCA. — Pond Snails, e.g. Lymnaea, Planorbis, Ancy-
lus (lung breathing) ; Paludina (gill breathing), Uni-
valves of Class Mollusca. Soft-bodied Invertebrates,
without appendages, with mantle and foot; limy shells.

180

THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS. 181

INSECTA. — The following belong to the Class Insecta:
Water beetles, Whirligig beetles. Order: Coleoptera.
Though aquatic these beetles breathe air directly from the
atmosphere ; they are carnivorous.

Pond skaters belong to Order Hemiptera or Bugs.
They have a long needle-like boring and sucking append-
age below the head; it is pushed into dead insects, etc.,
and juice extracted therefrom. Water Boatmen belong
to this order of Bugs.

Griiats. These are true flies. Order: Diptera. These
spend their larval and pupal stages in the water ; their
adult life is aerial. All stages have aerial respiration.
(For characters of the foregoing Insect Orders see
p. 166.)

Caddis-fly larvae. Order: Trichoptera. These larvae
usually inhabit cases made of twigs, leaves, sand grains,
etc. They have aquatic respiration. The adults have
four hairy wings ; the fore wings are usually longer and
narrower than bind wings.

Stone-fly larvae. Order : Platyptera. These larvae have
usually paired tufted gills upon the hind body. Found on
stones in running water.

Mayfly larvae. Order: Plecoptera. Older larvae with
paired gills upon hind body. Younger stages breathe by
skin. In muddy bottom of streams, etc. Adults do not
feed.

CRUSTACEA. — Water- fleas, Fresh- water Shrimps. These
are members of the Class Crustacea. In fresh-water pools
there are three common types of water -flea, all of which
are likely to occur in school aquaria, viz. Cypris, Cyclops,
Daphnia. The popular name "flea" is probably due to
the jerky movement by which they progress in the water
as well as to their small size ; they are, as already indi-
cated, not insects. They have two pairs of feelers, one
pair of which is used in swimming. The fresh-water
shrimp (Gammarus) is a higher type of Crustacean. It has
a laterally compressed body and breathing appendages on
its legs.

182 THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS.

ANNELIDA. — In the mud at the bottom of aquarium
jars may be found a slender reddish worm, known as
Tubifex. It belongs to the same group as the earthworm,
viz. Annelida, or ringed worms.

These are only a few of the commonest inmates of
ponds.

Besides these, many minute or microscopic forms of life
will undoubtedly be present in aquarium jars. But
as these require, for satisfactory observation, the use
of a compound microscope, they are not further referred
to here.

AQUARIUM STUDIES.

The following lines of study of aquarium animals are
suggested. They do not exhaust the possibilities, and
teachers should be able to plan others. The distribution
of the lessons over the different school grades will be
found to be indicated in the several courses which are
given in another part of this work. Here they are sum-
marised.

1. The study of young animals. A simple study for the
youngest pupils, which may consist simply in watching
the behaviour of larvae, e.g. gnats, cadisses, water beetle
larvae, tadpoles, embryo trout, etc. Hints may be given
as to what young animals chiefly do — i.e. feed, grow, move
about a great deal (the restlessness of growth ; excess of
energy resulting in play in higher animals ; play as train-
ing for life. But this last scarcely applies to larvae in
pools).

2. The study of life-histories. For older pupils. Atten-
tion should be called at the outset to the large number of
creatures whose appearance and life are quite different
from those of the adult, and also to those which resemble
their parents. The main facts in each life-history should

THE STUDY OF FRDSH-WATfiR ANIMALS. 183

be followed as far as possible on the aquarium inhabi-
tants. Points of importance which should be emphasised

are :

Is there a metamorphosis in the life-history ?
Are all stages aquatic in habit ?
Compare breathing organs in young and adult.
Compare locomotor organs in young and adult.
Compare feeding habits of young and adult.
If a terrestrial type, what adaptations to aquatic life are
apparent ?

3. Study of activities of the inmates, e.g. of their
methods of locomotion, respiration, feeding, etc. (This is
in part dealt with under 2.)

4. Relation of inmates of the pond to each other, e.g.
as hunters and hunted. This may be studied incidentally
in connection with the consideration of their feeding
habits, e.g. in noting the carnivorous forms. In general
there are three types, viz. Carnivorous, Vegetarian, and
those feeding on dead or decaying stuff, viz. the scavengers.

5. Relation to, or effect of diverse physical conditions,
e.g. light, or temperature; show how alterations disturb
the balance of life, or rate of growth. Illustrations of
simple experiments under this head are the keeping of jars
of small animals, e.g. water-fleas or tadpoles in light and
warm places, and dark and colder places respectively.
Care must be taken that all other conditions, food, water,
etc., are the same. After a time compare growth in the
case of the tadpoles, numbers in the case of the water-
fleas. Similar experiments may be performed with the
feeding of tadpoles or other young animals. Different lots
of tadpoles may be fed on vegetable matter, particles of
fish, bread, or flesh, and the results noted in the growth
and in the time taken for the complete metamorphosis.

6. Lastly, pupils also should classify the inmates of the
aquarium.

184

THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS.

STUDY OF A LIFE-HISTORY.

The Common Gnat
(Culex pipiens).

We commence at the stage at which this insect is likely
to be observed first, viz. the larval stage. In early spring
when the aquarium jars are being stocked, these larvae
should be obtained. Most boys in the country know them
under the name of "wrigglers," because of their jerky
movements in the water. They double themselves into a
loop, suddenly straightening themselves again, and in this

way they rise to the
surface. They may
be seen falling pas-
sively (Fig. 72).

If the jar in which
these wrigglers are
pub is kept under
observation the
wrigglers will be
observed to be grow-
ing in size rapidly,
especially if food is
plentiful and the
room is not too cold.
In the vessel may be
noticed, after a time,
floating near the
top, whitish ghost-
like shadows of the

gnats. These are their moulted skins (cuticles) which
they shed from time to time as they grow. The larva
when fully grown may be half an inch long.

After some weeks the form changes to that of a little
but bulkily- shaped creature like a comma. This is the
pupa, which although it does not feed is active when

Fig. 72. — Larva, pupa, and egg raft of Common
Gnat (Culex pipiens). (The eggs are drawn
upon a larger scale.)

THE STUDY OP FRESH-WATER ANIMALS.

185

disturbed, swimming off quickly by the lashing of its flipper-
like tail (Fig. 72). On this pupa may be seen with a
lens the outline of several of the organs of the adult
insect. In about a fortnight or less the pupal stage is
completed. Soon after the gnats are seen to be entering
the pupal stage, a piece of muslin should be tied over the
mouth of the jar, and each morning the jar should be
examined for the adult insects, or for their emergence
from the pupa.

This latter sight is interesting and should be watched.
The skin of the pupa splits at the back, and through the
opening the back of the
winged insect is pushed
up into the air. Next
the head, wings, legs, and
tail are withdrawn until
the insect stands at the
surface of the water upon
its former pupal husk.
Here it rests for some
time, until its wings are
stiffened and it has
gathered strength. Then
it flies away. About
the time the gnats are
hatching, if a cover has
been placed over the
vessel to prevent their
escape, numbers will be
found every morning resting upon the glass.

The winged insect is equipped with a boring and sucking
apparatus for feeding purposes (Fig. 73). Male insects
suck the juices of plants, but the females attack animals
or men, sucking their blood. After a time these females
return to the water. They do not enter it, but resting on
grass or leaves at the edge of the pool they deposit their
minute eggs upon the surface where they float in a cluster.
The eggs in due time open on the under side, and from
them there pass out the larvae with which we started our
observations. The eggs, owing to their minute size, are

Fig. 73.— Adult female Gnat. Note tbe
blood-sucking proboscis in front.

186 THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS.

rather difficult to find, but all the other stages can be
readily followed in the school aquarium.

Pupils, having followed the life-history, should make a
set of drawings representing all the stages.

Some of the structural adaptations of the gnat will be
found described below (pp. 186, 187).

For another life-history study see p. 86, " The Life
History of the Frog."

ADAPTATIONS IN FRESH-WATER ANIMALS.

Two of the most important adaptations worthy of a little
study in school are those for breathing and locomotion.
This is especially the case with insects, which are abundant
in fresh waters. And naturally so, since insects living in
water are in a sense " out of their element." The
presence of insects in fresh waters is probably due to the
success of those ancestral types which invaded this region
in the search for food.

Respiratory Adaptations.

All living things respire. They require oxygen to main-
tain life. Let us inquire how some of the inmates of a
pool obtain it.

Gnats. — G-nats are air-breathers throughout the whole
of their existence. Although the larval and pupal stages
are spent entirely in the water, the insect has never
acquired the power to use dissolved oxygen. Note how the
larvae hang in large numbers at the surface of the pool.
Near the tail they have a long tube with five folding plates
at the tip. These plates converge to a point, which the
larva pushes through the surface film of the water. The
plates are then spread outward so as to lie upon the film
and support the larval gnat. Whilst the creature hangs
here its respiratory system is opened through the medium
of this tube to the atmosphere above, enabling breathing to
go on.

THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS. 187

The position of the breathing tube close to the tail is
noteworthy. A close examination of the larvae as they
hang suspended on the surface film will show that mean-
time they are not otherwise idle. Under the head a pair
of brush-like structures may be seen in constant action,
sweeping the water and sucking towards the mouth the
smaller organisms falling within the currents they create.
While the larvae, by taking advantage of the supporting
properties of the surface film, hang without effort breath-
ing there, they are still able to feed in the pool.

When the larva enters the pupal stage it ceases to feed,
but must continue to breathe. It is therefore interesting
to find that it is now supplied with a pair of respiratory
funnels and that these are placed just behind the head, so
that the pupa rests with its thorax at the surface of the
water (Fig. 72). It should be possible for pupils to tell
correctly the real significance of this change of position.
When the adult insect emerges it must pass directly into
the air without getting wet. In the new position taken up
by the pupa this is quite easy. The thorax splits just
behind the respiratory tubes upon the back, and through
the opening the gnat rises into the air above. Of course
the process should be watched in the aquarium.

Water Beetles. — The larva of the water beetle (Fig. 663L)
is equipped with a pair of finely fringed appendages at the
tip of the tail. These are pushed through the surface film,
and by their means the insect is suspended. It has a pair
of breathing openings at the tip of its body, which are thus
brought into communication with the atmosphere. There
are spiracles too upon the sides of the body, but these are
closed until during pupation. When the adult beetles are
watched they will be seen to rise passively to the suiface
from time to time, the tail end slightly tilted upward.
When doing this they are renewing their air supply. They
are lighter than water (as are the larvae also), and the tail
end more so than the rest.

The tips of the wing covers on being pushed up into the
air are slightly diverged, and it will be seen that the beetle
carries a supply of air beneath them. The dorsal surface

188

THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS.

of the abdomen by means of its hairs entangles air at the
surface of the water, which is shut into an air-tight chamber
on the insect's back by the closing of the wing covers.
The spiracles are situated on the back of the abdomen, and
thus the insect whilst in the water continues to breathe
from this supply. The beetle may be seen from time to
time rising to renew its supply. Small beetles may often
be seen carrying down a bubble of air at the tips of their
tails for the same purpose.

Water Bugs. — Nepa, the water scorpion, has a long tube
made up of two halves uniting longitudinally, which is
pushed to the surface so as to take in an air supply
(Fig. 74).

The breathing of the water boatman, Notonecta, is
interesting. It may be seen to float
upward, pushing the tip of the ab-
domen above the water, thus bringing
the hind spiracles into direct com-
munication with the air. But further
it may be noticed that the under side
of the body which is nearest to the
surface is keeled and fringed with
hairs arranged in parallel rows, so that
air is entangled here. The oar-like legs
may be seen sometimes brushing the
entangled air forward towards the
spiracles upon the thorax.

It will be noted that all of the fore-
going use oxygen obtained directly
from the atmosphere. Other creatures
use the oxygen dissolved in the water.
The adaptations of such creatures as
caddis flies, which cause the water to
flow through their tubes over the tuft or hair-like fila-
ments upon their bodies ; of the alder flies (abdominal
filaments) ; may flies or stone flies (gill tufts or flattened
gill plates) , should all be looked for, and their action as
far as possible understood.

Fig. 74.— The Water
Scorpion (Nepa).

THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS.

189

Crustacea. — Water fleas and fresh- water shrimps breathe
dissolved air by means of appendages upon certain of their
swimming feet.

Newts. — The larvae breathe by tufts of external gills
(compare tadpoles) ; the adults by lungs obtaining the air
from the atmosphere.

Locomotor Adaptations.

The limbs of all aquatic insects should be examined/
Note in particular the following : —

Water Beetles (Dyticus) . Larvae creep on the bottom ;

Fig. 75.— Water Beetle (Dyticus\
In the lower figure the hind limb
with its swimming bristles is
drawn on a larger scale.

Fig. 76.— Water Bug
(Corixa).

thoracic legs clawed, fringed with hairs for swimming;
rise to surface passively. Adults, hind pair of legs longer

190

THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS.

than others, flattened and fringed with hairs, acting as
paddles (Fig. 75).

The water bugs, Corixa and Notonecta, have the hind pair
of legs greatly enlarged, flattened, and fringed with hairs,
forming very effective swimming organs. These are the
chief locomotor organs in each. In Notonecta the middle
pair is not used in swimming, but in mooring the insect or
in clambering amongst weed. In Corixa all the legs are

Fig. 77. — Cyclops, a common water flea.
The example is a female, carrying egg
sacs. The antennae are^used in swim-
ming.

Fig. 78. — Daphnia, a com-
mon water flea. The
antennae on head are
locomotor.

furnished with swimming hairs, although the last pair is
undoubtedly the chief rowing organ. The legs of Nepa
are used for walking, not for swimming, Note the active
"doubling " movements of the legless larval gnats. Note
also the swimming feet of Gammarus and swimming
antennae of water fleas (Figs. 76, 77, 78).

THE STUDY OF FRESH-WATER ANIMALS. 191

The creatures walking or running upon the surface film
should be noted, and the peculiarities enabling them to do
so should be carefully studied. Whirligig beetles have
the two hind pairs of legs very broad and fringed, by
which means they paddle themselves both upon the
surface and below it. The fore legs are used more parti-
cularly for prehension and holding prey, etc. Pond snails
and flat worms creep upon the under side of the surface
film. Pond skaters skate or jump upon it.

The properties of the film, enabling these animals to use
it as they do, should be explained to the pupils.

Other adaptations which might be investigated are those
connected with feeding, e.g. note the perforated sucking
jaws of the water-beetle larva, the knife blade-like fore
limbs of the water scorpion, the water- sweeping " brush "
of the gnat, etc.

CHAPTER XV.

ANIMAL LIFE AND WINTER.

THIS lesson should be taught as much as possible along
the lines of an appeal to the knowledge already possessed
by the pupils, and supplemented by the teacher only for the
sake of giving the necessary completeness to the survey.
It is a lesson in fact-grouping or classifying in illustration
of a general principle.

The key-note to the understanding of the facts summar-
ised is the question :

What are the conditions under which terrestrial animals
live in winter ?

We elicit from the pupils : —

It is cold.

Snow covers the ground, frost hardens it.

The day is short, i.e. there is less light in which to

find food.
Both vegetable and animal foods are scarcer.

By writing this out we shall make clear that the condi-
tions are the hardest of all the year, for terrestrial animals
as for mankind. In the sea, we note in passing, the
seasons do not affect life in the same way.

How do these conditions affect animals more particularly?

(1) There is a general slowing up of activity. The cold
checks the vital functions, and we note all grades of this
from the dormant-like inactive state to which small animals

192

ANIMAL LIFE AND WINTER. 193

in the soil are reduced, e.g. that of many insects, both in
the larval and the adult state ; of worms, snails, and slugs ;
of some fishes, e.g. chub, roach, mudfish ; to the well-
defined hibernation of frogs, toads, newts, snakes, lizards,
tortoises, hedgehogs, bats, dormouse, etc.

While there is in general a correspondence between the
severe conditions of winter and hibernation, it will be well
to notice that the habit of hibernation is instinctive ; that
is, it is part of the inherited qualities in the animal
practising it, and has meaning with reference to the past
history of the type in the first instance. This will help to
explain how it is that bats, for example, may hibernate
quite early when food is plentiful and the weather is mild.
But in general it is probable that the actual cold is the
immediate inducing cause. In any case it is clearly of
value as a life-prolonging arrangement.

(2) Some provide for winter by laying up stores in
autumn. Squirrels are our best illustration of this habit.
Pupils may sometimes have found their "hoards" at the
foot of trees. Hive bees also will be thought of. Arctic
foxes lay by stores, and some others, but on the whole
remarkably few creatures are endowed with the faculty of
providing for more than present needs.

(3) Then there is the interesting case of those which flee
from winter, our migratory birds. Note in particular the
case of those birds which visit us in winter, e.g. fieldfare,
redwing, hooded crows, wood pigeons, etc. Also the resi-
dent birds which go from one region to another. Their
quest is the same as that of those who leave us at this
time, viz. easier conditions of climate and more abundant
food.

(4) Notice next those who by structural adaptations are
fitted to meet the more rigorous conditions, those animals
which change colour, becoming white, There are three
such animals in G-reat Britain, the stoat or ermine, the
mountain hare, and the ptarmigan. The stoat is en-
abled to stalk its prey upon the snow with more likelihood

N. S. 13

194 ANIMAL LIFE AND WINTER.

of success, the hare and ptarmigan are more likely to
escape observation than they possibly could in their
summer dress when snow is on the ground.

But we must remember that this also is a hereditary
quality which appears at a particular time, and sometimes
is present when snow is absent. The ptarmigan, for
example, may sometimes be seen in late autumn as con-
spicuously white objects upon their native hills, which as
yet are bare of snow.

" The ptarmigan that whitens ere his hour
Woos his own end." (Tennyson.)

But although this adaptation may thus fail in some years,
there is no doubt whatever but that for the saving of the
race at large it also is effective.

(5) To a great many creatures, particularly invertebrate
types, winter brings death to the individual, but the race
survives in the eggs, which pass the winter in a dormant
state. Such are rotifers, fresh-water sponges, various
insects. Many insects are creatures only of a year or less.

(6) Lastly, there are a great many who face the winter
and make the best of it. Some of them do not survive, for
winter is a great eliminator. Others live through it — an
illustration of the survival of the fit. Our resident birds
are the best example of this group.

CHAPTER XVI.

PLANT IDENTIFICATION.

As will be seen by reference to the courses already out-
lined, the recognition of plants already receives a prominent
place. There is no doubt as to the value of exercises of
this kind. The power to name plants at sight is an
achievement upon which even skilled botanists pride them-
selves, and there is no doubt that it gives to pupils a sense
of satisfaction. A feeling of " ownership " is acquired with
reference to the plants named, which is the best guarantee
of continued interest. It is also the case that pupils are
stimulated to recognise out of doors the plants they know,
and thus their observational powers are cultivated. Doubt-
less the gain is not great if pupils are allowed to rest
content with mere naming of specimens, but we aim at
more than this.

The question for us at present is : How is the teacher
who is unfamiliar with plants himself to qualify for this
kind of work ?

No doubt most teachers are familiar with the appearance
and know the names of a few of the common wild flowers,
but unless they are prepared to extend their knowledge
in this direction, difficulties will early #rise. Pupils soon
evince a keenness for asking names and will be found eager
to bring fresh subjects for recognition.

It is no immediate solution of the present difficulty to
ask the teacher to master the details of systematic botany.
This is the sound course to recommend, if time is no object.
In due course such knowledge will be built up, but we

195

196 PLANT IDENTIFICATION.

must assume that a comparatively rapid means of gaining
a certain amount of information is desired. As a beginning
the teacher should master the names of the chief parts of
a flowering plant and their functions (see p. 207). When
these are understood the teacher should next examine any
common wild flowers which are available, the names of
which he knows. The natural Order to which the plant
belongs should be ascertained from a text-book, the specific
characters of the plant should also be looked for, and as far
as possible verified upon the specimen in hand. The parts
of the plant (flowers especially) should then be drawn.
(See also p. 197.)

Some little time spent in this way upon even a few plants
will be of more value than many hours of reading. The
teacher should possess a good pocket lens and a couple of
needles mounted on handles with which to dissect the
flowers, etc. It will also be desirable to have some good
work on botany for consultation.*

For a beginner's needs Professor Cavers' Life Histories of
Common Plants (University Tutorial Press) will be found
very useful. Another work which can be recommended for
practical service in identification is Fox's How to Find and
Name Wild Flowers (Cassell). If a commencement is made
with this work in the spring when the wild flowers are not
too numerous, and identification practised by its means, an
encouraging start will be made. Although the arrange-
ment in Part I. of this work is artificial, this book meets
the beginner's needs better than any other we have seen.
The teacher should keep a list, with dates and localities
where found, of the plants identified by himself. Special
attention should be paid to trees as well as flowers. In
rural schools the common weeds also should all be identified
and classified.

* It may as well be clearly pointed out here that the study of
plants and plant life as far as "Nature Study" is concerned should
be confined to observational work such as is possible to the private
student with ordinary equipment. The teacher may of course read
botanical works and accept statements as to microscopic structure,
functions, etc. , although they cannot be verified.

PLANT IDENTIFICATION. 197

There is no reason why teachers should not help each
other in a matter of this kind. It is suggested that county
or district associations of " Nature Study " teachers might
be formed, and one of the members, skilled in plant identifi-
cation, appointed to deal with matters of this nature. An
arrangement might be made whereby members may send
specimens to him for naming and receive replies by post-
card. There should be no difficulty in such matters, and
the work need not of course be confined to plants, bu.t
should include identification of natural history specimens
generally.

Once the trouble of identification is over the teacher
should pursue the course suggested above. Teachers should
understand that knowledge can be gathered only by degrees
and be content to learn slowly. There is, further, no reason
why teachers who are beginners should not learn along with
the pupils. Many excellent teachers are continually doing
this.

IDENTIFICATION EXEECISES.

It is possible for a beginner of intelligence to acquire
in a comparatively short time by a little persistent applica-
tion some mastery of the leading parts of a good many
flowering plants. With a view to leading teachers on
towards a commencement, the following list of spring
flowers is submitted for study. Spring is undoubtedly
the best time in which to commence, since the flowers are
not too numerous ; the plants named are nearly all common
and widely distributed, and a good many at least are likely
to be known at sight. As each flower is obtained the
teacher should definitely perform the exercises suggested
below.

LIST.
Ranunculaeeae, •

Wood Anemone (Anemone nemorosa), woods.

Marsh Marigold (Caltha palustris), marshy or wet

places.
Lesser Celandine (Ranunculus ficaria) , damp places.

198 PLANT IDENTIFICATION.

Cruciferae.

Shepherd's Purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris), waste

places, etc.
Wall-flower Cheiranthus cheiri), garden walls, rocky

places.

Fumariaceae.

Common fumitory (Fumaria officinalis), cornfields, etc.

Violaceae.

Sweet Violet (Viola odorata), banks, roadsides, woods.
Dog Violet (Viola canina), woods, banks, etc.

Caryophyllaceae.

Common Chickweed (Stellaria media), waste ground,

etc.
Greater Stitch wort (Stellaria holostea), woods, shady

places.
Red Campion (Lychnis diurna), damp copses, banks.

Geraniaceae.

Herb Eobert (Geranium Rolertianwri), waste places,

banks.
Wood Sorrel (Oxalis acetosella), damp woods and

shady places.

Leguminosae.

' - .«-

G-orse (Ulex europaeus), heaths, etc.

Rosaceae.

Barren Strawberry (Potentilla frag aria strum), banks

and shady places.
Water Avens (Geum rivale), by streams, damp places.

PLANT IDENTIFICATION, 199

Saxifragaceae.

Golden Saxifrage (ChrysopJenium oppositifoliuni) ,

damp places.

Eed Currant (Eibes rubrum), fruit gardens.
Black Currant (Eibes nigrum), ditto.

Compositae.

Groundsel (Senecio vulgarii), waste places.

Daisy (Bellis perennis) , fields, etc.

Butterbur (Petasites vulgaris),wet> places, river banks.

Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) , fields, roadsides, etc.

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), roadsides, etc.

Primulaceae.

Primrose (Primula vulgar is), woods and banks

Scrophularineae.

Ivy-leaved Speed well (Veronica hederifolia') , banks, etc.

Labiatae.

Ground Ivy (Nepeta glecTioma), waysides, etc.
Red Dead-nettle (Lamium purpureum) , ditto.
White Dead-nettle (Lamium album), ditto.

Orehidaceae.

Early Purple Orchis (Orchis mascula), fields, heaths.

Irideae.

Purple crocus (Crocus vernus), cultivated ; naturalised
in meadows : Notts., Suffolk, Middlesex.

200 PLANT IDENTIFICATION.

Amaryllideae.

Daffodil (Narcissus pseudo-narcissus), Cultivated;

locally, moist woods.

Poet's Narcissus (Narcissus poeticus), cultivated.
Snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis), cultivated ; locally,

woods.

Aroideae.

Cuckoo Pint, Lords and Ladies (Arum maculatum),
woods, shady places.

The plants having been identified, the teacher should
write out descriptions. There is absolutely no doubt as
to the value of this exercise in ensuring close and definite
examination. The first difficulty will undoubtedly be with
regard to the nomenclature of parts. Eecourse will be
necessary for a time to botanical works, but if the plants
under examination are studied in the light of the descrip-
tions given in any of the standard botanical works of re-
cent date, familiarity with the terms and the structures
to which they apply will rapidly increase. These descrip-
tions are intended to develop knowledge along two
different lines.

1. The structural features noted are to be read in the
light of Classification so that the teacher may become
acquainted with the parts and their arrangements which
determine the Natural Order to which a plant belongs.
This being so, as suggested above, the teacher should com-
pare the plant under examination with the Ordinal descrip-
tion. It has to be borne in mind that a given plant in an
Order may not show all the characters of that Order ; it
may even show exceptions in some particulars. But the
beginner must rest content if he is able to verify the main
facts and to gradually familiarise himself with the distin-
guishing features of the commoner Orders, so that he may
eventually be able to judge without reference to a book from
the general aspect of a plant the Order or even genus to
which it belongs.

PLANT IDENTIFICATION. 201

In his descriptions, then, whilst writing out a detailed
account of the naked eye appearance (with the assistance
of a pocket lens where necessary), the observer should in
particular pay attention to the following : —

The venation of the leaves, whether netted or parallel
veined, and along with this whether the showy parts of
the flower are recognisable as sepals and petals distinct,
or not distinguishable but all of one colour. Parallel
veins in leaves along with a perianth (outer part of flower)
not separable into two groups (sepals and petals), and not
5-partite, indicate the large " Class " MONOCOTYLEDONS.
On the other hand netted venation indicates the " Class "
DICOTYLEDONS.

Amongst netted veined flowering plants note whether
flowers are complete or incomplete. That is whether all
the parts, calyx (sepals), corolla (petals), stamens, ovary
(carpel or carpels), are present. (In the foregoing list
there are no incomplete flowers ; in the list of trees, p. 258,
there are several.)

Note also whether the petals of the corolla are all separ-
ate from each other (free) :

Examples — the Orders Eanunculaceae, Cruciferae,
Violaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Geraniaceae;

or whether the petals are more or less united (connate)
into a two or more lobed corolla :

Examples — the Orders Compositae, Primulaceae, Scro-
phulariaceae, Labiatae.

Other points of importance in classification to be noted
in a description are whether the stamens are inserted on
the top of the flower stalk and free from the calyx and
corolla (hypogynous) or whether on the calyx or disc
(perigynous or epigynous). Also whether the ovary is
below the insertion of the outer floral parts (inferior), or
above these (superior). The form and arrangement of the
leaves, e.g. whether placed opposite or alternate ; whether
radical (i.e. in a rosette-like arrangement close to ground ;
whether leaves have stipules (blade-like outgrowths at

202 PLANT IDENTIFICATION,

the base of the leafstalk) or not ; whether leaves, simple
or compound ; entire ; edged or toothed ; lobed ; stalked ;
or sessile (without stalk) ; etc. Form of stem— cylindrical
or quadrangular; existence of bulbs, tubers, corms, etc.,
smooth or hairy ; whether subterranean, etc. Eoot of tap
variety ; or branching (adventitious), etc.

2. The descriptions should also have in view functional
or adaptive characteristics. For example, it should be
borne in mind that all the foregoing plants flower early in
the year. Consequently students should try to understand
the various reasons for this. Some of them may be viewed
as plants of hardy constitution growing with a limited
supply of heat. Shepherd's Purse, Chickweed, Daisy,
Groundsel are hardy in this sense.

It ought to be noted also how many of the foregoing plants
grow in shady situations, e.g. Wood Anemone, Butterbur,
Greater Stitchwort, Dog Yiolet, Wood Sorrel, Primrose.
These may be said to be hardy as regards small amount of
light. But it must be borne in mind that the shade is less
in spring than later in the year. Others again flower
early in wet situations, e.g. Marsh Marigold, Lesser Celan-
dine, Water Avens, Golden Saxifrage.

It must also be borne in mind that some of the fore-
going as well as others in the list are supplied with reserve
stores of food from the previous year, e.g. Coltsfoot and
Butterbur, whose leaves grow big and develop great
activity, making reserves after the flowering period is
over. Wood Anemone has reserves in an underground
stem, Lesser Celandine in root tubers, Water Avens
in underground stem, Crocus in corm, Snowdrop in
bulb, etc.

Not many in our list arise from seeds ; most are peren-
nials arising from rhizome, corm, tuber (underground
stems), or bulb. These notes have reference simply to the
spring flowering habit, but in plant studies generally other
functions to be borne in mind are relations of nectaries,
colour and odour to insect visits ; structural adaptations
for insect visit or for seed dispersal ; protective arrange-
ments in vegetative organs — spines, prickles ; adaptations

IDENTIFICATION. 203

to particular situations for room and for light, to dry situ-
ations, to the sea-shore, etc.

While many adaptations are in general clear enough, the
beginner will be wise to interpret cautiously and to seek as
much external aid as possible. Pure description faithfully
carried out is the first step ; the rest will suggest itself in
due time to the thoughtful teacher.

A student's description of two plants is given below.

DESCBIPTIONS.

A. — THE BARREN STRAWBERRY.

(Potentilla fragariastrum.)

I examined specimens on the 4th May.

There is a perennial underground branching stem, woody
in texture, and of an irregular " knotty " appearance.
From it arise the adventitious rootlets the main branches
of which are woody. Leaves arise in a tuft around the
tip of stem. These are stipulate ; the stipules are large
and membranous, adnate, but the tips are free. The leaf
stalk (petiole) is comparatively long, l^inch or so, and
hairy, the blade is 3-lobed, roundly ovate and toothed.
Both surfaces have silky hairs. The venation is " penni-
iierved." Branches bearing flowers arise in the axil of the
foregoing leaves. They are cylindrical, solid, reddish
brown, and covered with soft hairs. Leaves here generally
resemble those on underground stem but are distinctly
smaller. Buds are developed in their axils, bearing flowers.
These have short pedicels.

The Calyx is 5-lobed, lobes free and have bracteoles
alternating. The sepals are acute. Petals, 5 in number,
are free, alternating with sepals ; white, broadly ovate,
1 -notched, with short claw. Stamens .are indefinite in
number, the pistil consists of many carpels, free, with
filamentous styles and glandular stigma. The carpels are
mature before the stamens (proterogynous).

Runners originate at the end of the root stock, and on
these buds arise which give oft' adventitious rootlets.

204 PLANT IDENTIFICATION.

Habitat, etc. — Dry sandy banks in shady places. The
only special point regarding nutrition I have observed is
that the leaves arising on the underground stem mostly
have long stalks, a common arrangement for bringing the
foliage into a favourable position for carrying on the work
of the plant. I found the plant growing under crowded
conditions. Further, as the burden of " elaboration " falls
upon these leaves, the blades are much larger than are
those found upon the flowering branches. Besides pro-
pagation by means of seeds, there are runners which give
rise to fresh buds in a vegetative manner.

B. — THE TORMENTIL.
(Potentilla tormentilla.)

This is a perennial herb. It has slender fibrous rootlets
arising from a thickened branching underground stem.
From the axils of brown scales on the underground stem
arise slender branches 6 inches to 10 inches, bearing simple
leaves and terminating in flowers. From the axils of the
leaves other branches may be developed, and these also
terminate in single flowers. Branches are reddish below,
green above, cylindric, firm, and solid. Leaves divided,
three segments, wedge-shaped, three or five toothed, petiole
is very short, and there is a pair of large green leaf -like
stipules. These are lobed, and are shorter and broader
than the leaf segments.

Flowers are solitary, |- inch or so in diameter, may be even
f inch, upon slender hairy pedicels 1 to 2 inches long. Be-
ceptacle is somewhat expanded, and on its margin are the
sepals. These are normally 4 in number, free with
epicalyx of 4 simple pointed, ovate, lanceolate segments
as long as sepals. I find the number of parts in the several
whorls may vary. In the epicalyx the parts grade off
from having one or two teeth to deeper lobing, ultimately
forming separate segments giving five or six parts. This
increase in parts here is sometimes continued uniformly
through the different whorls. The floral formula is appa-
rently 4, 4, 16, 8, but 5, 5, 20, 16 I have found frequently.

PLANT IDENTIFICATION. 205

There is greatest tendency to variation in the number of
stamens, this ranging from 13 to 20.

Petals are yellow, free, 4 in number normally. Carpels
generally 8, free, superior with stigma curved, achenes in
fruit. There are nectaries on top of receptacle at base of
stamens.

Habitat. — Grows abundantly on moor-lands, roadsides,
and on banks of streams. Pollination. — Cross pollination
is effected by the aid of small beetles and flies. There is
a double provision for the perpetuation of the species in
the production of seeds and by the perennial underground
stem-
Such exercises are desirable for the training of the
teacher, if he is successfully to guide pupils towards seeing
the significance of the structure of some of the commonest
flowers and trees of the waysides, fields, or woods. As
already indicated they are of fundamental importance to
the pupils (see p. 266).

CHAPTER XVII.

A LESSON ON BUTTERCUPS.

WHILE we may find it necessary for the understanding
of plant life to direct our attention temporarily to an
individual specimen, let us not distract our attention
or that of our pupils from the wider outlook. As we
examine the individual in detail, let us not forget the
buttercups in the fields and by the waysides. When out
of doors we should endeavour to see them with the precise
vision of our early childhood, when we gathered them
because in those days we saw the buttercups and not the
fields ; but we should seek to see them now with under-
standing, and to help cur pupils to do so also.

Our first point is : For ourselves and for our pupils we
wish to make real the facts that plants are alive, and to
learn a little at least of what this means, and of how the
vital process goes on.

THE COMMON MEADOW BUTTEECUP.

(Ranunculus acris.)

Let us draw it, learning the names of the chief parts as
we proceed, and at the same time noting their uses. The
functions of these chief parts should be educed as far as
possible from pupils (see Courses, Chapter III.), and at
quite an early stage they should have a clear grasp of these.

206

A LESSON ON BUTTERCUPS. 207

GENERAL FACTS BEGARDING FUNCTION.

The Root.

We omit all details of structure at present. What are
its functions ?

(a) It holds the plant in the soil. Obviously fixation is
an important function of the root. Notwithstanding the
fact that there are plants endowed with powers of loco-
motion, and animals that are fixed and sedentary, we come
at the outset to one of the biggest contrasts in mode of
life, in method of reacting to environment, between animals
and plants. Plants are in general habits stationary
organisms.

(6) Secondly, the root is absorptive. It absorbs mineral
ingredients dissolved in water from the soil. This is also
an important fact distinctive of plant life.

These are the chief uses of roots, but we may mention
one other which although a subsidiary one is of common
occurrence in some other plants, but is not noticeably so
here.

The Stem.

(a) Plants have direct relations with the sun, and the
first function of a stem undoubtedly is to hold up the parts
of it which deal in sunlight, viz. the leaves. They also
need air (carbon dioxide), and here again the stem, by
means of its length and its branching, spreads out to the
atmosphere the leaves which are more especially reacting
to it. And the flowers must not be forgotten, which in
most cases must for fulfilment of their functions be
exposed to insects, to wind, or to other fertilising agents.

But here also some secondary functions may be noted.

203 A LESSON ON BUTTERCUPS.

(fc) Along the stem of necessity there passes the crude
sap absorbed by the roots from the soil. This passes to
the leaves, returning along the stem again as elaborated
sap (food) to the whole plant.

(c) Sometimes the stem of a plant is used in a more or
less specialised form to store reserves of food stuff, e.g. as
tubers and conns.

(d) Also in some cases for the multiplication of the
plants as runners, either above or below the ground, e.g. the
creeping buttercup (E. repens).

The Leaf.

As already mentioned the leaf

(a) decomposes carbon dioxide in sunlight ;

(6) elaborates food, building up organic substances —
starch, sugar.

The Flower.

The production of seed is the primary function of the
flower.

The Seed.

The function of the seed is the continuation of the
species.

Summarising at this point we may say that the life of a
plant such as our buttercup is manifested in its reacting
(in a characteristic manner) to

Moisture,
Minerals,
Oxygen,
Carbon dioxide,
Sunlight.

A LE88OK OX BUTTERCUPS. 209

It is a remarkable fact that the numbers of plants are
so great and their distribution often so crowded that there
is competition for these universally disseminated elements
(" struggle for existence ",. It seems strange that air and
sunshine, for example, in which the world is bathed should
be denied or restricted in amount to any living thing. Yet
nothing is easier to understand than how plants may put
each other in the shade and in this way impair their power
of using the air in food-making. In the struggle for the
best places multiplicity of " adaptations " will be found to
exist, and some of these we seek to understand.

DETAILS OF STRUCTURE.

Let us now examine the buttercup in more detail.

The root consists of spreading fibrils, being of what is
known as the adventitious type. There are delicate hairs
on the parts nearest to the growing points, and to these the
soil adheres. These should be looked for with a good lens.
The stronger fibrils moor the plant in the soil, the root
hairs do the work of absorption.

The stem is long and slender and of firm consistence. It
is nearly smooth, hollow, but solid at the nodes, reddish at
the base. There are several nodes at the base undeveloped,
but the others up the stem are fully so. Branches similar
in appearance to the stem arise in the axils of the leaves at
the nodes. The stem terminates in a single flower, as do
also the branches.

At the base of the stem leaves consist of sheath, leaf-
stalk (petiole), and blade. The sheath is more or less mem-
branous, but, except at the edges, fairly firm. The leaf
stalk has a furrow on the upper surface and is hairy. The
blade is three or five-lobed, the lobes are deeply segmented,
and the plan of venation is palmate. The surface is hairy.
Further up the stem the leaf stalk becomes progressively
shorter, ultimately disappearing, whiLt the lobes become
almost lanceolate with short lateral segments. The arrange-
ment of the leaves upon the stem is alternate (Fig. 79).

N.S. U

210

A LESSON ON BUTTERCUPS.

The flowei stalk (peduncle) is mostly longer in those
flowers arising from the lower portion of the stem than in
those arising higher up. Its surface is brownish green and
slightly hairy. In section it is solid. The flower is valvate

Fig. 79.— Meadow Buttercup. Sheathing leaf from base of stem to the left.
Upper part of stem to the right.

in the bud. There are five free, whitish green sepals, mem-
branous at their edges. The five petals are free, yellow,
and sometimes notched at the margin. They have a
nectary with overlapping scale at their base. There is an

A LESSON ON BUTTERCUPS.

211

indefinite number of stamens and of seed vessels (carpels) .
The seed vessels have a short curved style (Fig. 80).

Some notes may now be made of an interpretative cha-
racter. It need scarcely be said here that care must be
taken not to force explanations. Our conclusions must be
limited to those of a general character until the field of our
observations has been widened. It is wiser to be content
with detailed observation alone than to misinterpret. This
must be borne in mind.

What is the significance of a root of the adventitious
type such as we have here ? It is advantageous both for
fixation and in giving a large surface for absorption.

ANTHER SAC

STIGMA
STYLE
OVARV

OVULE

RECEPTACLE

PETAL -<^^^ NECTARY

SEPAL
Fig. SO.— Diagram of parts of the flower of Buttercup.

A hollow stem is both strong and pliant, so that it sways
in the wind without breaking. The stem is long, since in
the situation where this buttercup grows there is an upward
competition for light amongst all the plants. In a section
through the stem, demonstrate the conducting channels
(fibro-vascular bundles) . With a good lens the two regions
of these bundles may be made out, viz. the woody vessels
towards the centre of the stem (upward conducting
channels, containing crude materials) and the bast towards
the circumference (downward conducting channels, con-
taining elaborated materials).

212 A LESSON ON BUTTERCUPS.

Leaves. — Note the length of the stalk at different levels
and interpret this with general reference to the normal
situation of the plant ; so also the alternate arrangement,
general dissected character of lower leaves, sessile and
linear type of upper leaves. All these may be regarded as
adaptations to a situation in which room is scarce and
many shadows are cast. Microscopical examination shows
that the stomata (openings for transpiration of moisture)
occur mostly on the under side. This is a quite general
arrangement which tends to check too rapid evaporation of
moisture. The hairs on the surfaces of the plant may
also be interpreted in this case as having the same signifi-
cance.

Flowers. — The presence of nectaries in this flower sug-
gests that it may be visited by insects, and an examination
of the flower out of doors will show that this is so. These
nectaries are exposed and easily got at, hence they are
visited by various types of insect. Flies are common
visitors. The pollen is also abundant, and the flowers are
visited for the sake of it also, e.g. by small beetles.

THE WATEE CEOWFOOT OE BUTTEECUP.

(Ranunculus aquatilis.}

In contrast to the meadow buttercup, taken as an aver-
age illustration of a terrestrial flowering plant, we now
examine another member of the same genus, in this case
of aquatic habit. Here we need refer only to the special
features which may reasonably be interpreted as adapta-
tions to the habitat in question. And first let us note that
even within the species we shall find specialised features
according to whether the plant grows in a rapidly running
stream or in sluggish or stagnant water.

Let us contrast the conditions. We have just described
the terrestrial type, noting its needs as regards support in
soil, strength above ground for parts bearing flowers and
leaves, etc. Now let us look at the water buttercup.

A LESSON ON BUTTERCUPS.

213

The root will be found to be in general only moderately
developed. Its function is chiefly that of fixation, and
root hairs are scarce because the other submerged parts
share in absorption. The stem is smooth, almost cylin-
drical, hollow, solid at the nodes. Short rootlets are given
off at the nodes. Leaves arise here and in their axils occur
branches which repeat the structure of the stem. Portions
broken off are capable of rooting and growing fresh plants.

If the stem is sectioned it will be
found that the inside tissue (paren-
chyma) is loosely arranged, having large
intercellular spaces. A ring of vas-
cular bundles is present, but the woody
vessels are few. No stomata are pre-
sent. The whole stem lacks the robust
character of the terrestrial type, and
out of water it cannot stand erect. In
the water it is of course buoyed up.
From the water all the necessaiy
mineral salts, carbon dioxide and oxy-
gen are obtained direct, hence the re-
duced nature of the wood vessels and
the absence of stomata.

In plants growing in swiftly running
streams the leaves are all more or less
submerged. The leaf sheath is large
and membranous, enveloping the young
buds ; in most cases the leaf stalk is
undeveloped or only slightly so. The
blade is very much divided up — dis-
sected type — being reduced to a bundle of filaments.
These filaments have an abundance of green corpuscles
(chloroplasts) in the epidermis, as may be seen in section.
Also the conducting vessels are quite rudimentary. There
are no stomata. G-ases and mineral salts pass into the
plant by absorption.

It is quite apparent that the clearly defined differentia-
tion of functions of the organs — root, stem, and leaves — is
largely obliterated in the water buttercup. The form of
these persists but the functions are generalised, stem and

Fig. 81.— The Water
Crowfoot, showing
floating and sub-
merged types of
leaf.

214 A LESSON ON BUTTERCUPS.

leaves acting more or less similarly in doing the work of
roots and leaves both.

In the type growing in sluggish or stagnant water, a
second type of leaf occurs, viz. the floating leaves. Here
the leaf stalk is long and slender, the blade orbicular and
lobed, the under side is covered with short hairs, the upper
side is smooth. There are no stomata on the under side,
but on the upper they are very numerous.

The most noteworthy adaptation here is, of course, the
situation of the stomata. These leaves function as ordi-
nary foliage leaves and transpiration is possible only into
the atmosphere, hence the stomata occur only on the sur-
face which is above water. It is an interesting fact that
i ntermediate types of plant exist showing more or fewer of
either type of leaf depending on situation as regards
amount of water. The plant sometimes grows in marshy
places when all the leaves are of the aerial type.

The flowers, which have smooth cylindrical stalks, are
borne above the water. The petals are whitish, but other-
wise there is nothing distinctive. Whilst we note much
modification of all of the vegetative parts of the plant in
relation to changing environment, we must contrast with
this the relative constancy of the floral parts.

These two types have been considered in some detail,
not only that these lessons may be repeated along with the
pupils, but also that the beginner may be helped to grasp
the principle of adaptation to environment (science of
Ecology). If he cares to follow up the subject as a mat-
ter of training which will help in interpretation, he should
take the opportunity to describe in detail other species of
buttercup, of which there are several, noting carefully the
general situation in which the species occurs and its time
of appearing.

If he makes use of a compound microscope, and cuts
thin sections of the various parts with an ordinary razor,
and takes the trouble to draw them, the work will be cor-
respondingly more valuable. For it will have been noted
already how much a study of internal structure reveals
important adaptive peculiarities.

A LESSON ON BUTTERCUPS. 215

This work, however, must also be pursued along other
lines out of doors. In all collecting of wild plants the
teacher should understand the importance of noting the
situation where found, the kind of substratum generally, as
well as the mere identification of the species. It is desirable
that he should recognise well defined " regions " such as
" wayside," " field," " moor," " wood," etc., and also the
kind of soil, sandy, clayey, etc., for plants, and that he
should record the plant under these headings.

Pupils should be taught never to hand in a plant without
stating the kind of situation where found. From the lists
built up in this way, in course of time, " plant associations "
or groups of plants of the same type of habitat may be
drawn up. For detailed guidance with regard to studies
of this kind teachers should consult Plant Biology by
Cavers (University Tutorial Press).

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE STUDY OF LEAVES.

FOR this study specimen leaves of different types should

be provided.
It may be assumed that in general the functions of the

leaf are understood (see p. 208). To aid in interpretation
of the structure of the leaf the facts
should be revised.

Pupils should be supplied with a
few typical leaves for drawing, e.g.
a blade of grass, plantain, daisy,
clover, laurel, sycamore, lime, horse
chestnut, etc. At this stage the
names of the parts should be learned.
The most general character observ-
able in them all will be readily
noted, viz. the flat blade (lamina).
Other features common to all are the
veins, and of course the colour.

Differences may now be looked
for. The following may readily be
educed : —

LEAF-BASE

LAMINA

PETIOLE- -

Fig. 82.—.

A Typical

,1 Simple

1. Outline of blade. Differences
here are very noticeable, and a lesson
or lessons may well be given on the
shapes of leaf blade alone. Special cases to note are
blades with pointed tips and those of leaves from the
same plant — this difference to be interpreted with reference
to position on stem.

216

THE STUDY OF LEAVES.

217

2. Presence or absence of a leaf stalk. The shapes of
those leaves without stalk to be noted.

3. Differences in length of leaf stalk in leaves from the
same plant — to be interpreted with reference to position
on stalk.

4. Differences in degree of greenness. Particular case
is those leaves equally green on both sides as compared
with those which are lighter on the under side.

Fig. 83.— Leaf of Fig. 84.— Leaf of the Beech. Fig. 85.— Whorled

the Privet. Leaves.

5. Presence or absence of hairs, etc.

6. Differences in texture, glossiness, efc.

7. Differences in venation — parallel veins and netted
veins.

8. Simple and compound leaves.

218

THE STUDY OF LEAVES.

Having examined a collection of leaves and noted the
foregoing points, we may now ask some questions. Why
are leaves flattened in form ? Bearing in mind the fact
that the leaf is the part of the plant whose special function
it is to react to sunlight and air, we may readily suggest
the answer : that the expanded leaf is a means of obtaining
a large amount of these.

The limits to success with such an arrangement will be
clear when it is noted that a large leaf intercepting light
casts a large shadow which may cut off the light from
another part of the same plant. The arrangements of

leaves upon plants to avoid
this should therefore be
considered, clear cases only
being taken in the first
instance. Some of these
arrangements have already
been incidentally noticed,
e.g. on the same buttercup
we saw that the leaves
lower down the stem have
longer stalks than those
above ; where vegetation is
thicker, as in a meadow,
the leaves are divided up
so that they are better
able to spread themselves

out in spaces which are much divided. The lobing of
leaves in general and the existence of compound leaves
may be explained with reference to the same point (Fig. 86) .
On plants where the leaves are opposite the successive
pairs on the stem stand at right angles to each other so
as not to intercept the light, e.g. stitchwort, nettle, etc.
(Decussate). A. common arrangement of the leaves upon
the stem is a spiral one, so that there is ensured some
distance between leaves which stand directly over each
other (Alternate). Verify this, and note different types of
spiral, relatively close and open.

An examination of trees and shrubs as well as herbaceous
plants from this point of view will reveal many instances

PINNATE

Fig. 86.— Formation of Palmate and
Pinnate Compound Leaves by the
gradually increasing incision of
Lammas with Palmate and Pinnate
Venation respectively.

THE STUDY OF LEAVES. 219

of mosaics ; that is, of dispositions of the leaves upon
branches so that they do not intercept the light from each
other, and an arrangement of the branches so that there
are " gaps " as it were permitting light to reach the leaves
on a lower level. The general shape of a tree also fits in
with this plan. The teacher should give some attention

Fig. 87.— Arrangement of Veins in the Leaf of the Pear.

The Principal Veins only are shown on the right side, and the smallest

Veinlets at C.

to this point out of doors, cultivating an eye for seeing
mosaics which are apt to pass unnoticed otherwise. In
general it may be pointed out that, while the arrangement
of leaves of a particular tree is such that they must not
interfere with each other, they actually do so with those of
other individuals. This is a phase of the struggle for

220

THE STUDY OF LEAVES.

ALTERNATE

A demonstration of mosaics out of doors upon trees is
desirable. Branches should be studied in detail ; in this
way we may explain, e.g. the unequal lobing of the leaf of
the lime or elm. Spread out a branch of a lime tree and
the effect of the unequal lobing as a factor in the mosaic
arrangement will be clearly seen.

The case of linear leaves of grasses should be interpreted
with reference to their crowded situations.

A set of drawings of
good examples of mosaics
should be framed by the
pupils, e.g. the rosette mo-
saics of daisy and plantain,
the mosaic of the nettle
(view the nettle plant from
above), sycamore, lime, elm,
ivy, etc.

Whilst in the main the
shape is " adapted " with
reference to the light, other
influences may of course
affect the leaf. For exam-
ple, the pointed tip of many
leaves is suited to the carry-
ing off of rain. The surface
gloss upon evergreens due
to the presence of a thick
cuticle is well adapted to
causing the snow to slide off
the leaves, avoiding break-
age of branches ; a specially thick cuticle is also of service
in checking too rapid transpiration of moisture.

How are leaves in general lighter on the under side than
on the upper ? Are there any leaves which are light green
above as well as below ? Without the aid of a microscope
we cannot in any very direct way demonstrate the cause of
most leaves being darker on the upper than on the under
side. If the teacher possesses one he may do this very
easily. Take a portion of a fairly strong leaf, e.g. ivy,

DECUSSATE
CYCLIC

WHORLED

Fig. 88. — Types of leaf arrangement
on stem.

THE STUDY OF LEAVES.

221

box, or laurel, place it in a slit made in a piece of pith and
cut thin sections by means of a sharp razor, keeping the
razor wet with alcohol. Place the sections on a glass slip
in water and examine, selecting the thinnest parts for
study. Similar sections may be obtained by rolling up a
large leaf, e.g. rhododendron, and cutting without pith.

A study of such sections shows that the tissue of
the leaf is much more closely packed towards the upper

GLAND-HAIR-.

LOWER _

EPIDERMIS

-- SHEATH

WOOD-VESSELS

BAST

-SHEATH

Fig. 89. — Portion of a leaflet of Broad Bean, magnified so as to show the arrange-
ment of its parts.

than the lower side. The arrangement is as shown in
Fig. 89.

Immediately beneath the upper " skin " (epidermis)
there is a layer of cells which lie close together and which
are arranged with their long axis across the thickness of
the leaf (palisade cells), while beneath these the cells are
arranged loosely in columns so that there are numerous
interspaces (spongy tissue). By stripping off the lower
epidermis — a small fragment is sufficient — and examining
with the microscope a very large number of openings
(stomata) leading into these spaces will be seen. Similar

222

THE STUDY OF LEAVES.

Fig. 90. — Branch of Barberry, show-
ing transition of Foliage Leaves
into Spines.

PETIOLE
TENDRIL*

SUPPORT

Fig. 91.— Leaf stalk of Woody Night-
shade modified for support.

FLOWER'

, -'STIPULE

LEGUME--A

PRICKLE LEAFY ^

STIPULE ^ \\\ B

STEM-''

Fig. 92. — A, Compound Leaf of Rose, with five Leaflets and Stipules ;
B, Compound Leaf of Pea, with terminal Leaflets modified into Tendrils.

THE STUDY OF LEAVES.

223

openings may be found in the upper epidermis, but
ordinarily in much smaller numbers.

The difference in the arrangement of the cells of the
upper and lower regions of the leaf is the cause of the
difference in the colour. It is owing to the presence of
air spaces below that the leaf is lighter here. In the
clover leaf light patches occur in the upper side which are
due to the presence of air. On placing the clover leaf in
boiling water the
light colour disap-
pears by the expul-
sion of the air.

A s the green
colouring matter of
the leaf is thus
massed for the most
part towards the
upper side, we may
describe the upper
as the assimilating
surface and the
lower as the tran-
spiring surface.

It is important
too to notice the
structural relations
between buds and leaves. Buds arise in the axils of
leaves. Pupils should examine a number of plants to
verify this point. They will then appreciate leaf modifi-
cation, e.g. spines, and will distinguish, by reference to
relative positions on the plants, spines which are modified
leaves and spines which are modified branches (Fig. 90) .

Other modifications, such as tendrils, should also be
pointed out (Figs. 91, 92). Note may also be made of
the presence or absence of stipules — blade-like expansions
at the base of the leaf stalk, and their degree of develop-
ment. Note e.g. the small adnate stfpules in rose, the
large leafy ones in pea tribe, including those of the Yellow
Vetch which take the place of the aborted leaf blade
(Figs. 92, 93).

LEAF-TENDRIL

Fig. 93.— Leaves of Yellow Vetch (Lathyrus aphaca)
modified as tendrils. Stipules function here as
leaves.

224 THE STUDY OF LEAVES

AUTUMN LEAVES.

In this study we must not omit to call the attention of
our pupils to the leaves while they are upon the trees to
delight our eyes with the autumn tints, to encourage pupils
to watch the changes upon individual trees, and generally
to cultivate appreciation of this aspect of nature.

For indoor study, collect leaves newly fallen or about to
fall from the trees.

Examine these so as to see the various colours whilst
the leaves are fresh. Select the prettiest for drawing and
colouring. Get from the children an expression of their
preferences.

Next we may proceed to arrange according to the trees.
Compare a number of each kind, Sycamore, Poplar, Lime,
Horse-chestnut, etc.

What colours does each kind exhibit ? Note, for example :

Yellow in Poplars, Lime, Willow, Horse-chestnut, and

many others.

Brown in Oak, Beech, Service.
Eed in Mountain Ash (Eowan), Ehododendron.

What parts of the leaf retain the green colour longest ?
Parts close to the veins frequently.

What is the nature of the change taking place ? In
the simplest cases the change consists in a dissolution of
the chloroplasts, exposing a yellow pigment (xanthophyll) .
But there are usually complications owing to the forma-
tion and unequal distribution of other pigments.

According to Miss Newbigin there are three main
factors : " (1) the disappearance of the chlorophyll green,
(2) the increasing prominence of the lipochromes, and (3)
the development of anthocyan. Other changes of minor
importance also occur. Thus the general effect is often
heightened by the dull brown colours assumed by the
leaves of such trees as the oak and the beech. These
colours are produced by the oxidation of the tannins of
which these trees contain such an abundant supply. These

THE STUDY OF LEAVES. 225

substances are probably useless and are got rid of in the
falling leaves and the bark."

What is the cause of the change ? Two facts may be
noted. There is in general the regularity of its occur-
rence at each returning autumn, and there is the great
diversity as to the particular time for the same kind of
tree in different parts of the country or in different situa-
tions. There is in fact much individual variation as to the
time and rate of progress of the changes involved in the pro-
duction of the autumn tints.

The period over which autumn leaf changes extend
may reach from August to November. Teachers might
collect evidence on this point. There is no doubt that the
inducing cause is seasonal — failing light and temperature
perhaps, or frost, and that the immediate cause is chemical
change with the transference of some of the products to
other parts.

Can we attribute any significance to the colours in the
life of the tree ? Are they of any direct service to the tree
in its external relations ? We know of nothing. They
are the outward manifestations of an inward process.
They delight the eye of man, but do not seem — as colour —
to serve the tree any more than the brilliant pigments of a
deep-sea starfish serve that animal in the darkness of its
natural environment.

The Fall of the Leaf.

The mechanism of the fall may be described. At the
base of the leaf there grows a layer of cork tissue which
cuts off supplies between leaf and stem. Behind this part
towards the leaf there usually grows a layer of soft tissue
which liquefying enables the leaf with a slight breath of
wind to detach and fall to the ground.

N. S.

CHAPTER XIX,

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

WITH the youngest pupils in school, flowers are dealt
with from the point of view of their colours, scent, and
other attractive features. Observational work may be
encouraged also at this • stage with reference to the visits
of insects to them, and also to the fact that they give place
in due time to the fruit and seeds.

In the next stage, whilst continuing to cultivate general
appreciation by means of drawing and colouring, our sug-
gestions with regard to the meaning of flowers must now
direct attention more definitely to details. There comes a
stage when it is profitable to dissect a flower — a practice
which need not often occur in our Nature Studies. We
may take a common wild or garden flower of simple struc-
ture, e.g. Wallflower. Pupils should learn the uses and
names of the different parts.

Sepals — protective, especially in the flower bud.

Pupils will see also that they hold the petals in

position.

Petals — attractive by colour and scent.
Stamens — pollen producing for making seeds fertile.
Carpels — producing ovules which give rise to seed.

The nectaries which in the Wallflower occur at the base
of the outer stamens occupy different positions in differ-
ent flowers. Attention should be called to these as of

226

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

227

importance, since they constitute the chief attractions of
the flower to insects (Fig. 94).

It should not be difficult to get from pupils the seed
producing as the primary function of the flower, to which
the functions of colour, scent, and nectar producing are
subsidiary. It might be well also to emphasise this in
another way, viz. by representing the parts of the flower in
two divisions —

Stamens and Carpels — principal parts.
Sepals and Petals— subordinate parts

LONG STAMEN STIGMA

SHORT STAMEN

NECTARY ^J

Fig. 94. — Vertical section of Wallflower, showing the parts and their relations.

A survey of the fact that very large numbers of plants
have flowers which may be regarded as designed to attract
insects (other animals also, e.g. birds and bats in tropical
lands) will serve to emphasise the fact .that cross pollina-
tion conveys an advantage to the plant, e.g. more vigor-
ous seed. It also probably tends to produce variations.
It would be well here to appeal for examples, e.g. of
large brightly coloured flowers (Poppy) ; medium sized
flowers, sweetly scented (Wallflower) ; small flowers but

228

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

conspicuous, because in close set inflorescences (Umbelli-
ferae) ; flowers clustered in " heads " (Clover and Com-
positae); with conspicuous sterile flowers surrounding
" head " (Cornflower) ; and so on. By this means pupils
may be encouraged to observe more closely the intimate
relations between insects and flowers.

The secretion of nectar and in some cases excess of
pollen, together with the production of scent and the dis-
play of coloured petals, etc., are facts which may be grouped
together as arrangements inviting insects to the flowers.

5— POST. PETAL

(STANDARD)

.-_. LATERAL PETAL
(ALA)

-•ANT. PETALS
(KEEU

STIGMA

STAMINAL TUBE

, POST. SEPAL
POST. STAMEN

OVARY

Fig. 95.— Section of the Pea Flower.
The staminal tube is formed by the lower parts of the united stamens.

In many cases these arrangements are backed up by further
devices ensuring that the visiting insects shall render some
unconscious service in return. The simpler instances of
this kind should be examined as opportunity offers.
Examples are here indicated.

The most familiar is undoubtedly that of the Pea family
(Leguminosae), all the British examples of which have
papilionaceous flowers. Examples are Broom, G-arden Pea,
Rest Harrow, Vetches, etc. Flowers of this type should be

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

229

examined. They are brightly coloured, scented more or
less, and many possess nectar. On dissecting the flower, it
will be seen that the stamens are united together at the
base, either ten together or nine together and one free. At
the base of the ovary enclosed by this sheath of stamens
will be found the nectar which the bee seeks. Pupils
should taste the liquid.

The general shape of the flower and arrangement of its
parts should next be noted. It will be seen readily

LATERAL
PETAL

/-/POST. PETAL

STIGMA CUP /

SPUR OF

ANT. PETAL
APPENDIX

OF ANT. STAMEN

SHUTTER OF STIGMA

Fig. 96.— Section of Heart's-ease flower.

that when a comparatively heavy insect, such as a bee,
alights on the flower, it must rest upon the lateral petals.
These are thus depressed, the keel (anterior petals) which
encloses the stamens and style being dragged down also.
Stamens and stigma are released and strike the under side
of the bee's body, which in this way is dusted with pollen.
Meantime the bee is licking up the nectar. If the bee has
already visited a similar flower it will be already dusted
with pollen, so that when the stigma strikes its body it will

230

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

receive some of this and thus cross pollination is effected.
See Fig. 95.

Another well-known example is that of the violets or
pansies. Take, for example, a flower of the Heart's-ease
(Viola tricolor). Let pupils suggest the significance of
the "spur" upon the anterior petal. This should be
opened and the nectar-producing appendages of the two
anterior stamens observed.

ANTHER

POST. LOBE
-STIGMA

LATERAL LOBE

ANT, LOBE

COROLLA

OVARY '

~-RING OF HAIRS
f" CALYX
NECTARY

Fig. 97. — Flower of White Dead-nettle (Lamium album] in section.

Stamens are mature before stigma. Nectary is protected by ring of hairs

from small insects. Humble-bees pollinate.

The position and form of the stigma should next be
noted. The end of the style is globular and has the stigma
in a depression on the anterior face, whilst it bears a pro-
jecting " shutter" beneath. The stamens are lower down
within the flower. As the insect pushes its head inward
it rubs on to the stigma any pollen it may be carrying,
whilst as it withdraws its proboscis the " shutter " protects
the stigma from receiving pollen from the same flower.

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

231

STIGMA.

There is thus here an arrangement preventing self- as well
as one ensuring cross-pollination (Fig. 96).

Other examples which will reward study are Columbine,
Monkshood, Larkspur, and White Dead-nettle (Fig. 97).

Arrangements preventing self-pollination are frequent.
Some of these are here enumerated, and it is suggested
that pupils be given opportunities for examining illustra-
tive types.

The most familiar illustration is that in which stamens
and stigma mature at different times. The commonest
case is that in which sta-
mens ripen earliest (pro-
tandry), e.g. Harebell,
Crane's Bill, Compositae,
Umbelliferae, etc. If a
series of buttercups be
examined some will be
found whose outer stamens
have shed their pollen,
whilst the inner ones are
still curved inwards to-
wards the carpels which
are not yet mature. In
this case the carpels gener-
ally ripen as soon as the
inner stamens, so that
there is an overlapping
period when self-fertilisa-
tion is possible.

There are some interesting cases in which the stigmas
of a flower ripen before the stamens (protogyny). Plan-
tains (Plantago) are a good example of this (although,
except in some special cases, this is not an insect-pollinated
flower). If the spikes are examined when their lower parts
show the protruding stamens with their pendulous anthers,
it will be seen that the stigmas in this region are already
withered, whilst in the upper parts the stigmas are mature
and the stamens are not yet extruded (Fig. 98).

The Figwort (Scrophularia nodosa) is another interest-
ing case. In the young flowers the stigma may be seen

BRACT

Fig. 98.
A, Spike. B, Flower of Plaintain.

232

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

STYLE

Fig. 99.— Figwort (Scrophularia nodosd).

a, young flower ; b, the same in section ; ft, older flower with stamens ripe and exposed ;
style with withered stigma.

THRUM-EYED PIN-EYED

Fig. 100.— Sections of " thrum-eyed" and "pin-eyed" flowers of Primrose.

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

233

protruding from the flower, whilst the unripe stamens are

curled up below with

the anthers directed

inward. By the time

these have ripened

and have been turned

outward in the mouth

of the corolla the style

has withered (Fig.

99).

~ -STYLE

Heterostyly.—The ^ ^V \a»^. —STAMEN

case of the Primrose
should be understood.
If a collection of prim-
roses be examined
two types of flower
will be found, viz.
those in which the
pin- like stigma is seen
just in the throat of
the corolla (pin-eyed),
and others where no
stigma is visible but
instead the stamens
("thrum - eyed").
Further examination of the
flowers shows that the former
type has a long style and
short stamens, and the latter
a short style whose stigma
stands at the same level as
the stamens of the other
type, and stamens at the top
of the tube on a level with

,, ,. P xl . -, Fig. 101.— Section of Iris. On the right

the stigma or the pin-eyed J styie is cut in half lengthwise,

tvnp flTicr lOfh showing its relation to the stamen

type <*lg. 1UUJ. which may be seen below. The style

In thlS Case CrOSS-f ertlllSa- on the left is shown entire.

tion " is rendered more cer-
tain by the fact that insects in visiting the flowers touch

234

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

correspondingly placed sexual organs with the same
portions of their body" (Strasburger).

In some cases self-fertilisation is rendered impossible
by the form of the style, e.g. in Iris, where it is large
branched and petaloid — and conceals the anthers below.
No pollen can reach the stigma unless by the agency of
insects (Fig. 101).

Lastly we must mention those cases of insect-visited
flowers without conspicuous floral parts which nevertheless
are visited by insects, viz. the Willows. These have two
kinds of flowers, staminate and pistillate, arranged in cat-
kins, and each has a honey gland. The staminate catkins
are bright yellow, whilst the pistillate catkins are green.

INCONSPICUOUS FLOWERS.

In contrast to flowers which are conspicuous by reason
of their more or less brightly coloured petals, large inflor-
escences, etc., we must note the many flowers which are

ANTHER

Fig. 102.— Spikelet and flower of the Oat. Note the extruded anthers and
feathery style.

inconspicuous. These are, for example, the flowers of
grasses, of cone-bearing trees, and most of our common

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

235

forest trees, Poplar, Alder, Birch, Hazel, Beech, etc. A
study of these will reveal the fact that they do not produce
nectar and have none of the usual attractions for insects.
Pollination in such cases is effected by the wind. Examina-
tion of particular cases will repay study. Here the more
general facts regarding wind-pollinated plants may be set
down. Verification is expected as opportunity arises.

Fig. 103.

A, male catkin of Willows ; B, male flower ; C, female flower of ditto ;
D and E, female and male flower of Poplar.

Abundance of Pollen. — In Coniferae (Pine, Larch, etc.)
pollen is produced in enormous quantities. The pollen is
dry and powdery, and in many cases each grain is provided
with a pair of air sacs which serve to float the grain in the
air. Abundance of pollen is a necessity with all wind-
pollinated flowers.

Extrusion of Anthers. — This also is general, and is well
seen in Grasses, whose anthers are pendent (versatile) from
long swaying filaments (Fig. 102).

236

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

PERIANTH

Fig. 104.— Flower of Elm.

A, Flower. B, Ovary with
two stigmas ; these are ma-
ture before the stamens and
are wind-pollinated usually.

BRACT

Fig. 105.— Birch.

A, Female flower in axil of bract ;
B, fniiting scale with 3 fruits; C,
stamen from male flower.

Fig. 106. — The Pine, showing cone
and male flowers.

. 107.— The Larch,
with cones.

Fig. 108.— Male and female flowers
of Dog's Mercury.

Fig. 109. — Female and male flowers
of Nettle.

THE STUDY OF FLOWERS. 237

Feathery or hairy styles to which pollen readily adheres,
e.g. Grasses, many forest trees, e.g. Birch,
Hornbeam, Hazel, etc.

Unisexual Flowers. — Conifers, Poplars,
Birch, Alder, Hornbeam, Beech, Oak, Ash,
etc, (Figs. 103 to 109). These flowers
are grouped in staminate (male) catkins
and carpellary (female) catkins, or in the
case of many of the conifers male and
female cones. In connection with obser-

,. it -T T ,• Fig. 110. —Flower or

vations made by pupils regarding times lab, with two «t»-

of flowering of trees, notes should be ^fft^^nSi

made regarding the order of ripening of mas. The Ash

the female and male flowers and of those Sxulf flowTrs

cases where flowers mature before the on the same tree,
leaves unfold. The significance of this
in relation to pollination by wind is of course obvious.

AESTHETIC VALUE OF FLOWERS.

The flower having been studied from the point of view
of a race-preserving organ, we would once more seek to
emphasise its aesthetic value. Man delights in flowers
all through life, and this aspect must find a place in
nature studies in school.

An excellent way of giving prominence to this is to
emphasise their decorative value by having flowers in
pots and also cut flowers in the schoolrooms as much as
possible. Flower-growing indoors by the pupils, as well as
flower-growing in the school garden, should form a definite
part of the work as an end in itself, as distinct from ex-
perimental growing for instruction. It is also appropriate
that some of the references to flowers either in general or
to particular cases occurring in literature form part of the
memory work of the pupils. Teachers should take some
pains to find suitable subjects appropriate to some of the
flower studies engaged in in school. See The Greenwood
Tree (Arnold).

CHAPTER XX.

STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS.

WE pass from the flower to the consideration of the fruit.
Indoors this subject should be dealt with observationally.
In the first instance, i.e. in the youngest classes, as indi-
cated in the courses outlined, nothing particular should be
attempted in the way of "explaining" the parts of the
fruit. The fundamentally important point, viz. that fruits
enclose seeds, should be educed from an examination of a
number of different kinds, and this will incidentally exclude
some edible products which are not fruits. Facts regard-
ing shape and colour, numbers of parts, and corresponding
parts in different fruits will all yield subject-matter of
profitable comment.

The fruits can be drawn and persistent parts of the
flower may be noted in simple cases, e.g. the calyx in a
gooseberry or strawberry may form the subject of sug-
gestive comment, the one occurring above the fruit and
the other below. The chief thing for the teacher is to
raise points of real significance which will be developed in
later studies. Even here some of the commoner wild
fruits may form the subject of study, being admitted
because they answer to our elementary test, viz. the
presence of seeds.

The next step may suitably be a study of fruits with
reference to their dissemination and the dispersal of the
seeds. Pupils will readily see the necessity for scattering
when the numbers of seeds produced by a single plant are
noted. A profitable preliminary exercise is one in which
each pupil is asked to count the seeds in all the fruits

238

STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS. 239

from any single plant. The particular plant to be chosen
is a matter of convenience ; it should not be one with very
small seeds. A stem of wheat or corn does very well, and
it can be examined in this way before the seed is actually
formed. The teacher, after tabulating the results obtained
by the class, should write upon the board the conclusion :

Scattering of seeds is a necessity.

Fruits should now be examined with a view to determin-
ing modes of dispersal, and in order that pupils may
receive some guidance as to how to examine the fruits and
as to what to look for, lessons on a collection of fruits
exhibiting typical modes should be given. Subsequently
all fruits found or brought to the notice of the pupils
should be examined from this point of view, as well as
of course others.

DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS.

There are four chief ways in which seeds are scattered.
We may begin our consideration of the subject with the
action of the wind.

Seed- scattering by the agency of the wind is the one

WING

PERIANTH
Fig. 111.— Fruit of the Elm. Fig. 112.— Fruit of Sj'camore.

most likely to be noticed first by the children. Have they
not all at one time or another blown from the globe of
Dandelion fruit the " fairy arrow," or chased the thistle-
down as it floated on the lightest air? A beginning
should be made with these, and pupils should draw the

240

STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS.

fruit with its parachute-like pappus. With these might
be classed the seeds of Willow or of the Willow herb, which
are also floated by means of a tuft of hair. Cotton seeds,
it may be noted, are covered with hair, which grows to a
considerable length and which constitutes the cotton of
commerce.

Wing-like expansion of Seeds or Fruits.

Pine-tree seeds are borne on the wind by a lateral mem-
branous wing. Pupils should extract these winged seeds
from ripe pine cones (Fig. 113).

FRUITS

— SEED

* TESTA
-ENDOSPERM
-COTYLEDONS

--RADICLE
B

Fig. 113. — A, Seeds of Pine upon
scale (Placenta). B, Section of
seed showing young plant.

Fig. 114. — Fruit of Lime with
adherent bract.

Winged fruits occur upon the Ash, Sycamore, Elm,
Birch (Figs. 105 B, 111, 112). All of these should be

STUDY OP FRUITS AND SEEDS. 241

examined. In the Ash the spiral twist upon the " wing'*
should be noted. Some observations ought also to be
made in the neighbourhood of these trees, when it will be
found that large numbers of the fruit fall quite close to
the parent tree. But it is to be observed how the fruits
after they have fallen are liable to be stirred by the wind
from time to time and eventually carried some distance.

NUT

Fig. 115.— Fruit of Hornbeam.

If Ash and Sycamore fruits are looked for in the early
spring many will be found caught in loose soil by the
wing sticking in the ground, so that it sometimes acts as a
holdfast until the seed has germinated. These wings are
outgrowths of the wall of the fruit itself.

In the Lime there is a large lanceolate bract attached
to the flower stalk on which the fruits (nuts) are borne
(Fig. 114). In the Hornbeam fruit also a broad wing-like
bract is attached (Fig. 115).

Another familiar example is the fruit of the Dock, which
has three keel-like expansions which are of service in the
scattering of the fruit.

Before leaving the subject of wind dispersal a note
should be made that here also as in many other of Nature's
processes relative success is sufficient to maintain the
various species. Many seeds fall in unsuitable places, yet
the species continue. This point should be verified by the
pupils.

N. S. 16

242

STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS.

Animal Agency — Passive.

Some fruits are prickly, so that they adhere to the bodies
of passing animals. Pupils will mostly be familiar with
the G-oosegrass or Cleavers (Galium aparine), in which not
only the fruit but the whole plant is covered with small
hooks. In the Wood Avens (Geum urbanum) the style is
hard and hooked, and in the Corn Crowfoot (Ranunculus
arvensis} the individual carpels are rough and prickly.
These are interesting cases which should be examined, and
there are many others of this kind. Sometimes fruits or
seeds of aquatic plants adhere to the feet of water birds in
mud, and are distributed in this way.

Animal Agency — Active.

Another familiar example is that of the Mistletoe berries,
which are very sticky. They are eaten by birds which in
wiping their bills on the branches of trees leave the seeds
adhering, and there they subsequently germinate.

SEED

Fig. 116.— Section of the
Cherry ; 1,2, 3, layers
of the seed vessel
(pericarp).

BRACTS

* <JAND

9 FLOWERS

Fig. 117.— Fruit of Fig cut lengthwise. Here
the succulent portion consists of the ex-
panded head of the flower stalk which
encloses the entire inflorescence. The
"seeds" in this case are really the fruits.

The seeds of many succulent fruits are scattered by
birds and other animals which feed upon the fruit. Hence
the attractions of juiciness, sweetness, and such like have a

STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS.

243

direct bearing on the seed distribution. Very frequently
the seeds pass unharmed through the bodies of the animals
Most cases of succulent fruits will repay individual study
from this point of view.

Berries : e.g. Gooseberry, G-rape, Tomato. Here the
enveloping parts of the fruit (pericarp) are all, except the
" skin," soft and juicy.

WALL '
OF CARPEL\

OVULES | \

RECEPTACLE

Fig. 118.— (a) Fruit of Apple cut vertically;
(b) Young Ovary cut transversely.

Drupes : e.g. Cherries, Easpberries, Plums. In this case
the innermost layer of the fruit next the seed is hard and
stony (Fig. 116).

Other fruits to be classed here are. Strawberry, Fig,
Apple, etc. (Figs. 117, 118).

244

STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS.

FUNICLE;

(STALK)
OF SEED

VENTRAL

SUTURE
<- PLACENTA)

STYLE

CALYX

Fig. 119.— Pod of Pea. It splits along both margins.

STIGMAS

Fig. 120.— Fruit of the
Geranium.

Fig. 121.— Fruit of
Wallflower.

Fig. 122.— Fruit of
Monkshood (Folli-
cles). The follicle
splits along the
edge to which the
seeds are attached.

STUDY OP FRUITS AND SEEDS.

245

Dispersal by Plants themselves.

The commonest case is by the sudden splitting of the
dry carpel (explosive fruits), by which means the seeds are
thrown some distance away. This is quite audible in some
cases, e.g. Broom. Violet seeds are also scattered in this

PERSISTENT
CALYX

Fig. 123. — Capsular fruit of Stitch wort,
which splits lengthwise into a num-
ber of teeth at top, permitting the
seed to escape when the plant is
shaken by the wind.

VALVE

Fig. 124.— Fruit of Poppy

(Capsule).

The seeds are shaken out
through the pores.

way. In Geraniums the style splits into a number of one-
seeded pieces (Fig. 120), curling up and throwing out the
seeds. In other cases the seed vessels split open and the
seeds are shaken out by the wind. Pods, Follicles, Cap-
sules (Figs. 119, 121 to 124).

Dispersal by Water.

This occurs chiefly in connection with water plants, in
which case there is sometimes a special adaptation, e.g. in
the Water Lily (Nymphaea) there is a growth (arillus)
outside the seed coat, and between these an air chamber

246 STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS.

which thus serves to float the seed. The fruit of the Alder,
which grows by the banks of streams, is frequently borne
on the water.

The lessons given on fruits generally are intended to

.PETAL

Fig. 125. — Section of Flower of Gooseberry.
The berry develops below the calyx-tube.

stimulate observation out of doors and to lead to question-
ings. Whilst the foregoing represent a few of the more
noticeable adaptations for dispersal, it will be found that
there are cases which do not admit of any special inter-
pretation, and the dispersal of the seeds in such cases
appears to be left largely to chance.

A series of studies on fruits should be drawn up to show
the relation of the fruit to the parts of the flower. This
can readily be done by the botanical student, but care
should be exercised in the selection of examples. In some
cases it will be found profitable to trace the development
experimentally by examining the fruit at different stages.
In this connection the study of edible fruits will pro-
bably be found most interesting, e.g. Gooseberry, Apple,
Strawberry, Pea (Fig. 125). (See also Figs. 116 to 118.)

STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS.

247

STUDY OF SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS.

The study of seeds is most appropriately carried out in
spring.

This study must of necessity be almost entirely experi-
mental. The chief points to be aimed at are a clear
demonstration of the functions of the seed, of the con-
ditions necessary for their fulfilment in the production of
a plant, and the different arrange-
ments within the seed for the
carrying out of these functions.

It will on the whole probably
be better that at the outset the
teacher do not confine attention
to a single type. Seeds of various
plants, big and small, might be
germinated first of all on clean
soil under normal conditions of
moisture, heat, and light. The
essential can be differentiated later
on from the non-essential, and
while the advanced botanical stu-
dent may commence the study of
seedlings by arranging artificial
conditions right away, it is prob-
ably more desirable for elemen-
tary pupils that they should
commence with a study of the
conditions under which seeds actu-
ally germinate in nature.

Seeds of various weeds, cereals,

garden flowers, fruit trees, etc., should be mixed and
sown in boxes such as may be obtained at the grocer's
shop. Make a list of the seeds sown. In other boxes
(controls) the seeds of the various types should also be
sown apart in rows and labelled, so that the seedlings, if
unfamiliar to the teacher at first, may be readily identified
in the mixed sowing.

Fig. 126.— The Germinating
Bean — two stages.

248

STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS.

PLUMULE

Keep a record (1) of the aspect of each type as it
appears above ground, the number of cotyledons, size,
etc. ; (2) of the order of appearance above ground of the
different seedling types ; (3) of the average time taken to
germinate by each type under the heat, etc., conditions of
the experiment. Repeat the ex-
periment, varying the conditions
as regards heat, depth below sur-
face, etc. In one mixed sowing a
fixed number of each kind might
be used and the whole thing left
to flower, or seed. The numbers
of each kind successful in pro-
ducing seed should be counted
and tabulated. In such experi-
ments as these the teacher will be
able to demonstrate the effect on
various types of the struggle for
light and room, of the advantages
of particular habits of growth, and
so on.

Particular note should be made
of what comes above ground as
distinct from what is seen to grow
afterwards. Examples of the
different kind of seedlings should
be carefully removed from the soil
and drawings made. It will not
be difficult to indicate that in
general there emerge from seeds
under normal conditions a root
(radicle), a shoot (plumule), seed-
leaf or leaves (cotyledons).

Individual seeds may now be
appropriately examined with a
view to discovering how much of
this is already formed in the seed. Beans, being of con-
veniently large size, are generally used for this purpose.
They may be opened after soaking for some time, when
the radicle and plumule may be demonstrated, and also

---RADICLE

Fig. 127.— Young Seedling of
Maize in longitudinal section.

STUDY OF FRUITS AND SEEDS. 249

the thick modified storing cotyledons. Or, what is better,
the teacher might dissect after soaking in water for some
time a seedling of the Sycamore, exhibiting the long coiled
cotyledons, the radicle, and plumule. Examination in this
way of other seeds, e.g. the Ash, or Maize, will show that
the parts seen in the young seedling are present in some
form in the seed, and that in most cases a food store
can be demonstrated in addition.

The same points should also be demonstrated by growing
the soaked seedlings in glass cylinders (lamp chimneys)
or in glass jars. Place the seeds between the glass and
blotting-paper kept in position against the glass by filling
the chimney with damp sawdust or moss. In this experi-
ment a series of stages should be drawn showing the order
in which the parts appear, the downward direction of
growth of radicle, upward of plumule, bent form of
plumule, etc.

By modifying the conditions of this simple experiment
in various ways the teacher should prove the conditions
required for successful germination, viz. living seed, mois-
ture, air, heat. By growing in light and darkness the
relation to light may also be shown. The teacher might
prepare the pupils for the result of such an experiment by
reminding them of the conditions under which seeds
germinate in nature, i.e. in the soil (in darkness). The
relation to the soil should also be made out, by showing
how after a time (usually) growth stops when seeds are
germinated out of the soil. A further suitable experiment
is that of growing a plant from the seed in a culture solu-
tion containing the mineral salts usually found in the soil.

The teacher desiring to develop experimental work with
seedlings will find a large number of experiments detailed
in Professor Cavers' Plant Biology (Olive).

CHAPTER XXI.

THE STUDY OF TREES.

VARIOUS suggestions for the study of trees will be found
in the Courses already outlined ; and incidentally in other
studies (e.g. of leaves). Here the main points desirable for
a unified scheme of study of trees are submitted.

The work must of course be practical in the sense that
individual trees in the neighbourhood of the school should
form, in the first instance, the subjects of observation.
These should be studied throughout the year with reference
to the following points: —

In spring examine shoots of the trees before the buds
are unfolded, during and after opening. This examination
is to be accompanied by careful drawings in the case of the
unopened and fully opened buds. Drawing of the opening
buds may prove too difficult in some cases. Attention
should be drawn to the delicacy of the texture and colour-
ing of the spring leaf, mode of folding in bud, special
features of bud leaf, e.g. silkiness, etc. Shoots should be
developed in water indoors.

Note the time of flowering in each case. Examine and
draw the flowers. Determine the order of ripening — if
female flowers before male flowers. Distinguish wind and
insect pollinated trees, and trees with conspicuous and in-
conspicuous flowers. Keep a record with dates of the order
of flowering of different trees in successive years.

250

THE STUDY OF TREES. 251

Identification of trees in their summer foliage.

Identification by trunk in distinctive cases. Drawings
of these.

Identification of fruits and their mode of dispersal.

The foliage in autumn. (See lesson on autumn leaves,
p. 224.)

The appearance of the tree in winter. Examination, with
drawings, of the winter twigs. Special notes on Ever-
greens.

Study of the structure of a twig in relation to its
functions.

The parts of the work outlined here, which are of a
detailed character (e.g. examination of twigs), are suited
only to the higher grades in school. In general it may be
suggested that the emphasis be laid upon recognition
studies, accompanied by drawings in the lower classes, and
interpretation work in the higher.

Care should be taken not to develop the work along too
intensive lines. The study of twigs, for example, may be
overdone, so that interest is killed rather than heightened.
Of course the quite distinctive appearance of the twigs of
trees should be illustrated by reference to good examples,
and the lesson may be capped with apt quotation, e.g.

i ' Kate, like the Hazel- twig,
Is straight and slender, and as brown in hue
As Hazel-nuts, and sweeter than the kernels."

( Taming of the Shrew. Act II. , So. i. )

Alice's hair is —

>
"More black than Ash buds in the front of March."

(Tennyson, The Gardener's Daughter.)

There is the " ruby -budded lime," a quite distinctive
feature of the twig in spring. Some of the best examples

252 THE STUDY OF TREES.

for detailed study are Ash, Birch, Beech, Horse -chestnut,
Alder, Elm, Lime.

There should be an attempt made to form general impres-
sions of the various trees, especially of those of more dis-
tinctive habit. The teacher, at all events, can appreciate
such descriptions a,s Lowell's of the Birch tree, with

"Foliage, like the tresses of a Dryad,
Dripping about thy slim white stem."

And again,

" Thy shadow scarce seems shade, thy pattering leaflets
Sprinkle their gathered sunshine o'er my senses."

Or Wordsworth's of the Mountain Ash, which

"No eye can overlook, when mid a grove
Of yet unfaded trees she lifts her head,
Decked with autumnal berries that outshine
Spring's richest blossoms."

And he should phrase for himself his impressions, e.g. in
contrast to the Birch we think of the spreading splendour
of a Horse-chestnut in full glory, or of the dark and gloomy
interior of the Holly, the blood-red glory of the Copper
Beech in spring, and so on.

Then, also, as pointed out elsewhere, the tendency to
form " mosaics " should be noticed ; the effect of trees as
elements in landscape ; their climatic and economic import-
ance are also features a skilled teacher can bring before his
pupils with good results.

THE STUDY OF TREES.

253

CORK

THE STUDY OF A TWIG.

It may be pointed out at the commencement that twigs
may be regarded as small stems, since their functions are
in general the same. The most satisfactory times at which
to study them more particularly are probably spring and
winter.

We hold in our hand a Winter twig of a Sycamore tree.
What can we do with it ? What can we learn from it ?

First let the pupils draw the twig natural size, colouring
it, and filling in markings, etc. Pupils should be encou-
raged to perform this exercise reflectively, mentally framing
questions to be raised later.

Next let us frame a verbal description. What is the
general habit of our twig ? The twig is straight, cylin-
drical, robust, about

a quarter of an inch EPIDERMIS LOOSE CELLS
in diameter in its in-
ternal section. What
is its colour? My
twig is ten inches
long, and I recog-
nise a terminal por-
tion about 4J inches
lighter than the rest.
This terminal por-
tion is brownish in
colour, with a dis-
tinct suggestion of

greenness. I peel off a little of the bark here, and find
that it is light brown with 110 green. Beneath it, however,
the tissue of the twig is green. The other portion of the
twig is darker brown, with no perceptible greenness, and
here we see the bark is thicker, so that .the green under-
lying tissue does not show through.

There is a little gloss upon the bark, but this is not
uniform ; it is thickly dotted with lightish spots, which
form little elevations in shape longer than broad,
examine these with a pocket lens. On the older parts of

CORTEX
Fig. 128.— Section through a lenticel, magnified.

254

THE STUDY OF TREES.

the twig these have a distinct slit in the middle, in the
younger parts the slits are not so noticeable. Are these
accidental scars ? What reason can we give for think-
ing that they are not ? They are too constant in shape,
and their appearance suggests some relation to the interior
of the twig. That is, we are quite sure they are not im-
pressions made on the twig from the outside.

Fig. 129.— Twig of Sycamore. B to E, stages in opening of bud.

Were we able to cut microscopical sections we would
obtain further proof of this. We do not find these struc-
tures on leaves for example. But on leaves there is no
bark such as we find on twigs and stems. The little scars,
our microscopical section shows us, are places where the
cork which forms the most important part of the bark shows
little breaks. The skin (epidermis) is here broken also, so
that the soft tissue within is in direct contact with the
outside air. If a twig is dipped in boiling water air will
be seen to issue from these scars, which are known as

THE STUDY OF TUBES.

255

lenticels, and their use is to permit of the passage of gases
to the interior of the twig. When the activities of the
plant are almost at a standstill in winter, these lenticels
are closed by the growth of ordinary cork tissue across
them (Fig. 128).

On the terminal section of the twig are a number of
buds ; they occur in pairs, and each pair is placed at right
angles to the pair below. There is also a bud at the tip of
the branch. All the buds are enclosed in brownish red
or reddish green scales. All this is easily verified.

Beneath each of the paired buds a pale somewhat cres-
ceiitic scar is visible. On this pale scar a row of darker
coloured dots occurs.
Can we tell what these
scars are ? They
mark the place where
this year's leaves were
attached ; their pale
surface is due to the
layer of cork which
cuts off the leaf in
autumn, and the small

, , -i Fig. 130. — Portion of Sycamore twig : a, pith ;

dots represent the nOW b, wood; c, region of growth (cambium);
Closed Channels (fibrO- d» cortex > e» epidermis ; f, lenticel.

vascular bundles)

along which the fluids passed to and from the leaf.

In the lower portion of the twig in place of buds we
observe short side twigs. These are paired, and generally
are miniature representations of the main twig. They
stand in the same position as do the buds, and have leaf
scars below them ; they themselves have small paired buds
with leaf scars and a terminal bud.

Just above the place where the first (counting from the
tip) of these side branches come out, the main twig shows
a number of close set ring scars. These^ are evidently the
scars of a number of leaves (scale leaves). On a long twig,
if we trace backward from the tip, we find that ring scars
of this type occur at regular intervals, although they
become less distinct with age. Pupils on reflection may
be able to suggest that these ring scars mark the position

256 THE STUDY OF TREES.

of terminal buds of successive years. Or a tree may be
marked by having a string tied around beneath the
terminal bud of the year, when in due course the correct-
ness of this suggestion will be proved. The ring scars are
the marks of the bases of the scales which protect the buds
through the winter.

Having verified this, we are now in a position to tell the
age of any given section of a twig, provided the ring scars
can be recognised. We note also on examining a large
twig that there are many buds which remain quite small
and do not become branches. Can we suggest their signi-
ficance ?

We may now examine the cut end of the twig. In a
section of a twig of the present year's growth, I can distin-
guish with the help of a lens the following : —

An outer skin, which is also seen upon the surface
(Fig. 130, e).

A greenish layer, which is soft and easily penetrated by
a pin (d).

A harder layer, which offers distinctly more resistance to
the entrance of the pin. It is pale green in colour,
and is bounded by a very thin dark line (b, c) .

A central soft layer intermediate between the other two,
somewhat spongy in texture (a).

This is not, of course, the best method of examination,
but if we supplement it by now peeling off the outer layer
at the place where it yields easiest, we may be able to
understand more readily some things about the twig. We
find that separation takes place along the dark green line
referred to above. It is easy to tell now from the texture
of the cylinder remaining that it consists of wood, and that
in the centre of the wood is the soft spongy substance
known as pith. We might now profitably compare our
section with one of a fairly stout branch when we find that
the pith has gone and that the wood here extends to the
centre. This is what happens to the pith in woody branches
— it is crushed out.

THE STUDY OF TREES. 257

We need not at this stage follow the section further in
detail. If a similar twig is peeled in the spring in the way
we have done, it will be found to be somewhat wet and
sticky just against the wood. There is much sap here at
this time, because this is the region where growth in thick-
ness is going on, and although we cannot see it, this is the
layer known as the Cambium. Just next to it on the out-
side (the dark ridge we noticed in our first section of the
twig) is the region known as the Bast, down which the
elaborated food passes from the leaves. The water
with mineral salts in solution passes up the later made
wood.

There are other things to be seen in a section of a twig,
but we may leave these undescribed at present.

The foregoing points having been noted on a twig, others
of different trees should be gone over and similar observa-
tions made. Pupils should also write down the distinctive
characteristics of each. The following should be included
in the description of a twig.

Season examined :

General habit of twig, i.e. diameter ; slender, stout,
straight, angled, smooth, rough, or downy ; colour ;
odour, if any ; etc.

Markings on bark, i.e. lenticels, longitudinal or trans-
verse, large, small; leaf scars, size, shape, arrange-
ment (opposite, alternate, close, far apart) ; ring scars,
distance apart ; etc.

Buds. Size, shape, colour, and any other distinctive
feature.

N.S. 17

258

THE STUDY OF TREES.

THE FLOWERS OF SOME COMMON TREES.

In the following list the trees are given in approximate
order of flowering. The notes refer chiefly to the flowers
and their mode of pollination.

Hazel (Corylus avellana). — Male and female catkins
formed in the autumn both on the same plant, the female
protected by the bud- scales through winter ; they are mature
early in spring (February or March) before the leaves

appear. Female cat-
kins much smaller
than male ; stigmas
crimson, spreading.
Wind - pollinated.
Fruit a nut, en-
sheathed in the leath-
ery bracts. Leaves
alternate, broadly
ovate and pointed, ser-

-'-STIGMA

rate. Bark
smooth.

brown,

SCALE SCARS
OF A BUD

Fig. 131.— Male and female inflorescences of
the Hazel.

VEGETATIVE
BUD

Alder (Alnus gluti-
nosa). — Male and fe-
male catkins formed
in the autumn both
on the same plant;
ripen early in spring
before the leaves. Fe-
male catkins globose,

become woody, persisting after the seed is shed. Wind-
pollinated. Leaves obovate, serrate without tip, sticky when
young. Bark rough, fissured. Buds flattened on one
side — ruddy brown. Habitat — by streams. Seeds fre-
quently distributed by water.

Wych Elm (Ulmus montanaj. — Flowers bisexual, sepals
or petals 4 or 5, stamens 4 or 5, in clusters ; ripen early in

THE STUDY OF TREES.

259

STAME-NS

BRACTS

Fig. 132.— Hazel, a, male flower ; b, diagram of same.

I. PERIANTH
H^L!--. INVOLUCRE'

- BRACT '
Fig. 133.— Two female flowers of Hazel (note the long stigmas) and diagram of same

Fig. 134.— Young Hazel
shoot.

Fig. 135. — Alder. The male catkins are long, the female
short. The female ones to the left are i« the fruiting stage.

260

THE STUDY OF TREES.

the spring before the leaves. Wind pollinated. Fruit
single- seeded, with membranous expansion all round
(samara). Leaves alternate, ovate, unequal lobed, pointed,
serrated, veins prominent. Bark rough, longitudinally
fissured.

Goat Willow (Salix caprea). — Male and female catkins
upon separate plants. Male catkins golden yellow; each
flower consists of a bract, two stamens and a nectary ;

Fig. 136.— The Elm, with clusters
of fruits.

Fig. 137.— The Willow, with male (lower)
and female (upper) catkins.

female catkins greenish, flowers also with a nectary.
Flowers ripe before the leaves. Pollinated by humble-
bees and moths chiefly in April. Fruit a capsule. Buds
silky. Leaves ovoid, elliptical or lanceolate.

Black Poplar (Populus nigra). — Male and female catkins
on separate plants. Stamens numerous (12-20), stigmas
branching. Flowers ripe before leaves appear. Wind-
pollinated. Fruit a capsule. Leaves on long stalks flat-
tened, broad, tapering, sometimes almost triangular, smooth
texture tough, Bark rough, grey.

THE STUDY OF TREES. 261

Ash (Fraxinus excelsior'). — Flowers in clusters, complete
or male and female separate. Both kinds or one only on
the same tree. Stamens reddish purple, pistil greenish
yellow. In the complete flowers the pistil is mature
before stamens. Leaves appear after flowers. Wind-polli-
nated. Fruit termed " keys " in bunches each with a long

Fig. 138.— The Poplar— twig and
catkin.

Fig. 139.— The Ash with a cluster
of fruits.

narrow " wing " with a slight twist. Leaves large, com-
pound ; leaflets four to seven pairs and one terminal, ovate,
lanceolate. Branches stout, twigs curved upward at tip
in winter. Bud scales black. Bark greyish, rough, longi-
tudinally fissured.

Oak (Quercus robur}. — Male and female flowers separate,
male flowers in detached clusters in catkins, greenish;
female singly on short erect stalks, flower surrounded by a
number of overlapping scales (bracteoles) which become
the " cup " of the fruit. Fruit an acorn. Leaves appear
along with fruit. Leaves with sinuous margins. Bark
rough, fissured.

262

THE STUDY OF TREES.

Birch (Beiula alba). — Male and female catkins separate
on same tree. Male pendulous at tips of shoots, formed in
autumn. Female catkins erect. Appear along with leaves.
Wind-pollinated. Fruit, single- seeded, winged (samara).
Three such occur on a single bract. Leaves long- stalked,
triangular, serrate. Bark silvery, with brown patches and
streaks.

Beech (Fayus sylvatica). — Male and female flowers on
same tree. Male flowers in purplish brown, clusters at

end of long drooping stalk
(compare Oak, in which the
male flowers are clustered
along the stalk). Female
flowers clustered in two to four
in a cupule of overlapping
scales which becomes hard and
woody later. Wind-pollinated.
Leaves along with flowers.
Fruit a nut, occurring two
within a cupule. Leaves ovate,
glossy, thin. Bark smooth,
greyish.

Fig. 140.— The Oak, with flouers.

Hawthorn (Crataeyus oxya-
cantha*). — Flowers bisexual in
clusters (corymbs) , petals white
(or pink), stamens pink, frag-
rant. Appearing after leaves.
Insect-pollinated. Fruit popularly termed " Haws," of the
same type as the Apple (Pome). Leaves wedge-shaped,
lobed. Bark reddish grey, scaly.

Mountain Ash or Rowan (Pyrus aucuparia). — Flowers
bisexual like hawthorn but smaller, in creamy white clus-
ters (corymb). Fruit a Pome like Hawthorn, scarlet, the
rowan. Leaves large, compound; leaflets serrate. Bark
smooth, scarred transversely.

— BUD-SCALES

STIGMAS
BRACT •

Fig. 141. --Oak. A, male; B, female inflorescences; C, male flower; D, female
flower in section.

Fig. 142.— Birch twig, si owing male ( $ ) and female ( ? ) catkins.
263

264

THE STUDY OF TREES.

Maple (Acer campestre). — Flowers greenish in erect
racemes. Fruit in pairs broadly winged. Leaves five-
lobed, bluntly toothed. Bark brownish, scaly.

Pig. 143.— The Beech, showing Fruit.

CUPULE

Fig. 144. — Beech. A, male inflorescence
B, male flower; C, female inflorescence
D, cupule with nuts.

Sycamore (Acer pseudo-platanus) . — Flowers greenish in
pendulous racemes. Fruit in pairs — broadly winged.

Leaves more finely toothed
than in Maple and larger.
Bark scaly, brownish grey.

Horse - chestnut (Aesculus
liippocastanum) . — Flowers bi-
sexual complete, petals white
with crimson markings, in
conspicuous erect racemes.
Fruit globular, splitting into
three valves, thick and spiny.
Leaves aDpear first. Leaves
compound, long - stalked,
large; leaflets of different

sizes, five or seven usually. Bark smooth at first, becoming

scaly.

Pig. 145.— The Sycamore.

THE STUDY OF TREES.

265

Hornbeam (Carpi-mis beiulus}.- — Male and female catkins
separate, greenish, male pendulous from axillary buds,
female usually terminal. Fruit a nut attached to a three-
lobed persistent bract serving for wind distribution.
Leaves alternate, ovate, pointed, serrate. Bark smooth,
grey.

Fig. 146.— The Horse-chestnut—leaf, flowers, and fruit

Fig. 147. — The Hornbeam, with cluster of fruits.

Fig. 148.— The Lime— leaves and
flowers.

Lime (Tiliavulgaris). — Flowers small, bisexual, yellowish
green, in umbel-like clusters, attached to middle of the
surface of a long bract which serves in the distribution of

266 THE STUDY OF TREES.

the fruit. Fruit a nut. Leaves thin, tender, rounded
with pointed tip, serrate, unequal sided. Bark smooth,
dark in colour.

PUPIL'S DESCRIPTION OF A HAWTHORN TREE.

I examined a woody shrub or tree which I pass on my
way to school. It is about fifteen feet in height; the
trunk is about ten inches in diameter at the base. Its
bark is scaly and of a reddish grey colour. Branches
arise apparently in an irregular manner from quite near
the ground. (I understand that buds sometimes occur on
the roots.) The branches bear others again in turn, all of
which give rise to short reduced leaf -bearing branches, the
leaves of which have flower buds in their axils. The large
branches are all woody, the reduced ones are softer but
have a covering of brownish bark at their lower extremity.

The branches bear spines for protection. These are
woody, sharp, about half an inch in length. They are

Fig. 140.
Series of leaf stalks of Hawthorn, showing grades of variation of stipules.

modified branches, and arise between two of the short leaf -
bearing ones already referred to or alongside one of them.
After these have fallen away, the spine frequently length-
ens and produces short leaf -bearing branches itself, thus
clearly showing its true nature.

The leaves are simple, alternate, and have stipules, which
are very variable. On the younger leaves they are large
and leafy, and a gradation may be traced through almost

THE STUDY OF TREES. 267

linear forms to mere brown specks. They are also fre-
quently unequal in size (Fig. 149).

The leaf -stalk is slender and has a median groove on its
upper surface. The blade is cuneate and is lobed, three
and five lobes being the usual number, but seven is also
common. Gradations may, however, be traced from the
undivided blade (Fig. 150).

There are a few soft hairs on the under side of the blade ;
the upper surface is smooth.

The flower clusters are of the type described by botanists
as a corymb. Those flowers in the centre of the cluster
are furthest advanced, and those on the outside least so.
The flower stalks are short and their tops are expanded
into a cup on the edges of which are the five small tooth-
like sepals.

Fig. 150.
Outline of blade of leaf of Hawthorn, showing gradations of lobing.

There are five free white petals, imbricate in the bud,
arising on the edge of the aforenamed cup. They are
roundish in form with an irregular margin. There are
about twenty stamens with pink anthers turning brown as
they ripen. Within the cup are the seed vessels, one or
more in number. The stigma on the ,top is slightly ex-
panded and is sticky. The cup is hairy around the base of
the style, and the whole inner surface seems modified as a
nectary. The anthers split inwardly and tend to curl
inwardly when ripe. The stigma is ripe before the anthers.
The flowers have a pleasant odour.

268 THE STtfDY OF TREES,

THE SPR.TJCE FIR (Picea excelsa).

The Spruce Fir is probably most familiar to pupils as a
Christmas tree. But many will also know it as a forest
tree, e.g. in the north of Scotland. It is a tree which
grows well in high situations ; it is the principal forest
tree in the higher districts in Germany, and on the Alps it
grows at heights approaching 6,500 feet.

The lesson may be given about Christmas time, when
most pupils will have an opportunity of examining a tree.
It will of course be a young one, if used in connection
with Christmas festivities, but that will not matter much.

What are our general impressions of the tree ? First,
may we not note its greenness in winter ? Most trees in
our country shed all their leaves every year, but the Spruce
tree is an example of another type, which is never bare of
leaves — it is an evergreen. Do evergreens never shed any
leaves ? This question is not difficult to answer. Of
course they do. Are we not familiar with the thick felt
of "pine needles" which form a spongy carpet beneath the
trees in Pine woods ? And if we look under a Holly tree,
another evergreen, we are sure to find dead leaves here
also. Evergreens do not shed all their leaves at one time.
If we look at the inner parts of the branches of the Spruce
Fir we shall see the scars left by the fallen leaves. These
scars will be seen to be arranged in an orderly series of
spirals around the branch.

Our second general impression is, I think, its shape.
It is a very symmetrical tree. Its branches, if they have
not been broken off, come out quite low down the tree,
and there is a very regular gradation in size upwards, so
that a marked pyramidal or conical form is produced.
This symmetry is a mark of a very regular growth, and
may also be regarded as an indication of the natural
hardiness of this tree. Exposure on any one side does not
seem to affect the form as it does on many other trees.

Some details are worth noting. For example, there is
the shape of the trunk. It also tapers very evenly ; it is,
in fact, a greatly elongated cone. Note also the droop of

THE STUDY OF TREES. 269

the main branches, a downward curve due to the weight
and a rise again at the growing end. The side branches
also show a similar droop. The uppermost branches stand
more erect. These features are very noticeable in the
firs.

Thirdly, we notice its smell. It has a pleasant resinous
odour.

Let us examine a small twig ; verify the following. At the
end next the branch there are brownish scales. At the free
end there is a small bud covered with similar scales. The
former are evidently the scales of the bud, out of which
the twig developed There are also in the twig I am
examining several lateral buds in the a.xils of leaves near

Fig. 151. — Twig of Spruce Fir with cone attached. Below, a winged seed drawn
upon a larger scale is figured.

the tip. The terminal bud and some of the lateral ones
will develop new shoots the following spring. The leaves
are arranged in close set spirals round the twig, they
are linear, four-cornered in cross section, and show on
their surface minute whitih specks, which are drops of
resin.

270 THE STUDY OP TREES.

When a grown tree is examined cones are found upon it.
The Spruce, Pine, Larch, and a number of other trees are
known as conifers or cone- bearers. What are these cones ?
If we examine an ordinary cone on a Spruce tree we find it
hanging at the tip of a branch. It may be as long as five
or six inches ; it is brown in colour and consists of a
number of strong, not very thick, overlapping scales.
They are arranged in spirals. Pupils should trace the
spirals round the cone.

If we examine these cones in the spring we will find
that the scales stand slightly apart. With a little trouble
we can cut out one or two when we find that beneath
each there are two small seeds each with a thin mem-
branous wing-like attachment. We thus see that a cone
is a kind of fruit. It is important to notice that it is an
open fruit ; that is, the seeds are not shut in as they are
in most fruits we know (a gymnosperm). We also under-
stand the significance of the wing-like expansion, when we
recollect the various winged fruits we know (p. 239) . But
it is important to notice that here the seed is winged, not
the fruit. Let the pupils draw a cone and a scale with its
two " winged" seeds in position.

What is the history of a cone ? If the teacher has
access to a growing Spruce Fir in the month of May or
early June, he should endeavour to find the young cones.
Those bearing the ovules (potential seeds) grow at the
end of the previous year's twigs. They stand erect, are
nearly two inches long and of a beautiful red colour. On
the upper surface of the scales of the cone the ovules with
their wings may be seen.

Amongst the leaves of other branches on the same tree
are to be found the male cones. They are not terminal but
lateral; they are smaller and green in colour. Beneath
the green leaf-like covering are the red stamens, and on
their under side may be seen the pollen sacs. When mature
these pollen sacs split and the pollen is borne on the wind
to the female cones, where it reaches the ovules and pollin-
ation thus takes place. The pollen grains are of special
interest because each grain has a pair of small air-bladders
attached which float it on the wind.

THE STUDY OF TREES. 271

These grains with their bladders are too small to be
seen with the naked eye, but the teacher should take some
trouble to obtain the young male and female cones in
season and to let the pupils examine them.

Let the pupils write out as many facts as they are
familiar with which show how the wind is a great maker
of seed and a planter of trees.

CHAPTER XXII,

ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF FERNS.

FERNS may be grown successfully in school for orna-
mental purposes. A place may also be found for them in
any warm, moist, or shady corner of the school garden.
Pupils will also be familiar with their occurrence in woods
and other shady situations.

The following brief notes are given as suggestive of
lines of simple study which might be followed with a view
to developing intelligent interest. Let us ask our pupils a
few questions. Have they ever seen flowers upon ferns ?
Most will answer no ; but some one may have seen or
heard of the "flowering fern." Ferns are non-flowering
plants, and we shall for the moment put aside the question
of the so-called "flowering fern."

Our next question is : What are the parts of the fern
we are familiar with ? The large green leafy " fronds."
What are fronds ? The fronds are the leaves. But we
shall note that some of them serve a purpose not served
by the foliage leaves of flowering plants. From what do
the fronds arise? If we dig up an ordinary bracken
fern out of doors or any of the usual ferns grown in pots,
we shall see that the long stalks of the fronds arise from a
somewhat stout dark-coloured " rootstock " underground,
but near the surface. This rootstock is really an under-
ground stem and from it there pass down into the ground
fibrous rootlets.

Let us return to the fronds. Have we ever noted how
they arise in the spring, or how they are folded in the

272

ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF FERNS,

273

Fig. 152.— The Male Fern.

bud ? The frond stalk is in most cases coiled in a flat
spiral, like a bishop's crosier. If ferns are grown in
school, endeavour to get drawings of the unfolding of the
frond .

Make a series of drawings
of the shapes of the frond
in as many ferns as are
available. Some are simple,
e.g. Hart's - tongue. The
common Polypody has a
simply lobed frond (the lobes
are termed pinnae) ; other
ferns with comparatively
simple fronds are the Hard
Fern (Lomaria spicant) and
the Royal or flowering fern
(Osmundia regalia).

In most other cases the
frond is very much divided.
For example, in the Bracken
(Pteris aqiiilina) near the

tip the frond is cut into simple segments (pinnae), lower
down these pinnae repeat the main structure and are them-
selves divided into segments or lobes (pinnules) ; still
lower on the frond the pinnae are stalked, a foot or more
in length, and again pinnate, the pin-
nules about 1 inch in length. All these
points should be verified upon a frond.
On the backs of some of the fronds
will be found small brownish masses,
varying in size, position, and shape in
different ferns (Fig. 153). These masses
are clusters (sori) of spores. These
spores are sometimes wrongly termed
seeds. In the Royal fern some of the
fronds bearing these spore masses are
altered and contracted so that the groups of spores
are clustered together forming a brownish red mass,
resembling an inflorescence of a flowering plant. This
is the supposed " flower'' of this fern. But if we
N. s, 18

Fig. 153.— Pinnule of
Male Fern with sori.

274

ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF

examine it closely we shall see that it is not a
flower.

What are spores? These bodies, when sown under

VEIN

/
^SPORANGIA

Fig. 154. — Sporangia of Male Fern.
Transverse section through a pinnule and sorus. The spores are within the sporangia.

.SPORE

ANTHERIDIA

RHIZOIDS '

Fig. 155. — Germination of Spore and Development of Prothallus of Fern (A and B).

The archegonia and antheridia are the female and male elements respectively.

C, Under side of Prothallus.

suitable conditions of soil, moisture, heat and light, give
rise to very small heart- shaped green blades, known to
botanists as prothalli (Fig. 154). The prothallus is the

ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF

275

part in the life-history of a fern which may be compared to
a flower of a flowering plant, because it bears on its under
side the organs corresponding to pollen and ovules, and it
is from the under side of this prothallus that the leafy fern
arises (Figs. 155 and 156).

The arrangement of these spore masses is very definite
in the different ferns and is made the basis of classifica-
tion. Pupils might verify some of the following points.

(a) The groups of brownish
spore masses (sori) are not covered
by a membrane (indusium) in the
common Polypody, Oak fern, or
Beech fern.

(6) The spore clusters (sori) are
on the under side of the pinnules
and are covered by an indusium.
Examples : Male fern, (indusium

is kidney -shaped).
The Bladder fern (indusium,
bladder- like) .

(Q) The spore clusters (sori) are
on the back of the fronds, linear in
form ; the indusia are scale-like.
Examples : The Lady fern, with
many small sori, variously curved
in outline ; the Maiden- hair spleen-
wort, with numerous short sori,
crowded and becoming COM fluent,

the indusium pale brown, free, with entire edges ; the
Hart's-tongue with linear sori parallel at right angles to
midrib.

(d) The spore clusters (sori) are upon the margin of the
frond, which is recurved upon them. Examples : Maiden-
hair fern, Hard fern, and Bracken.

(e) In the Moonwort and Eoyal fern the spore clusters
are grouped in inflorescence-like masses.

Fig. 156.— Young Fern still at-
tached to the Prothallus,
growing from an arche-
gonium.

276 ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF FERNS.

A simple comparison might profitably be made between
the ferns and the mosses by showing how the leafy fern
which bears the spores corresponds, not to the leafy moss,
but to the stalk and capsule borne upon it, thus —

Leafy fern with spores =. stalk and capsule with spores,
arising on prothallus arising upon leafy moss by

a sexual process.
Prothallus of fern = leafy moss.

CHAPTER XXIII.

PROCESSES OF DECAY.

(AN AUTUMN OR WINTER STUDY.)

THE decay and disappearance of vegetation in the
autumn, as well as the death of many forms of animal life,
suggests an inquiry into the agencies at work in the dis-
integration of organic bodies.

Our first question to our pupils in introducing this
subject might well be, What becomes of the leaves which
fall from the trees in autumn ? The answer is, they decay
in course of time. What is decay ? In terms which our
pupils will understand we say it is the breaking up of the
substances which at one time formed part of a living body
into simpler substances until out of them ordinary con-
stituents of soil and air are formed, viz. carbonic acid,
water, and ammonia. And the work of decay is carried
out by microscopic plants known as bacteria, aided to
a small extent by larger plants, the moulds, toadstools,
and mushrooms (Fig. 157).

We cannot see the bacteria, but we may very easily
demonstrate their effects. We perform the following
experiment.

Experiment. — Take two small thin glass flasks, into
which place some organic stuff, e.g. fruit juice, or chopped -
up autumn leaves. To both add a little water. If fruit
juice is used the demonstration will be made more effective

277

278

PROCESSES OF DECAY.

by filtering the juice free from all sediment. Label the
flasks A and B, and note the date of the experiment.

Take flask A and boil the contents for some time.
While the flask is boiling prepare from clean sterilised
cotton wool (supplied by the chemist) a small plug with
which to stopper the flask. When the liquid is boiling
and while the steam is issuing from the flask, insert the

plug of cotton wool,
screwing it in tightly.
Flask B, which contains
the same substance as A,
is to remain open. Set
the flasks aside and com-
pare the contents from
time to time.

If the experiment is
properly performed, the
substance in A will re-
main perfectly fresh for
years, whilst that in B
will decompose owing to
the presence of bacteria
and the spores of moulds,
etc. By boiling, all bac-
teria adhering to the in-
side of the jar, or present
in the water or in the
organic substances, are
destroyed, and the cotton
wool acts as a filter, keep-
ing those outside from

getting in. The spores of some bacteria are not readily
killed, and sometimes it is desirable to repeat the boiling
after a few days, but usually in an experiment of this
kind one boiling gives convincing proof that the agents
of decay have been destroyed.

Following this demonstration it is appropriate to refer
to the widespread occurrence of bacteria, some of which
enter the bodies of living human beings and animals,
causing disease, and to the necessity o£ fresh air in

MYCELIUM

Fig. 157. — Mycelium and spore-producing
branch of a common mould (Eurotium).

PROCESSES OF DECAY.

279

dwellings and clean bodies and clothes. Bacteria are more
numerous in ill- ventilated rooms than in fresh air.

Other demonstrations of decay processes which may be
given are the growing of moulds on damp bread or jam
kept in a close atmosphere, e.g. in a closed tin vessel or
under a bell jar. Pupils may be familiar with the occur-
rence of a fungus disintegrating wood, and sometimes
causing serious damage in houses — the Dry Eot fungus.

MYCELIUM

Fig. IM.— Mushroom. The spores are borne on the lamellae or gill-like
plates below the cap (Pileus).

A note should be made of the appearance of toadstools
in the woods amongst decaying leaves or tree stumps. A
lesson should be given on the part's of a toadstool or
mushroom (Fig. 158). The following experiment should
be performed : —

Experiment. — Gather some toadstools, cut them up,
and placing them in a clean porcelain vessel, char over

280 PROCESSES OF DECAY.

a spirit lamp flame or Bunsen burner. When all moisture
has evaporated, cool and note the black residue. This is
carbon.

From what source did the toadstool obtain the carbon ?
From the atmosphere ? No, because these plants do not
have any green colouring matter, without which carbon
cannot be obtained from the air by plants. From the
soil ? Yes, from dead vegetation chiefly. Eventually the
great bulk of the toadstool becomes subject to bacterial
forces, but some of it lives as spores, which scattered by
the wind and other agents sporulate upon other dead
vegetation, and thus continues the work of disintegration.

In conclusion these lessons should be summarised thus :
Note the circulation of matter.

Soil and air constituents are built into the bodies of
plants. Plants decay or animals feed on them: event-
ually animals decay. In decay plants and animals are
decomposed and disintegrated into the compounds carbon
dioxide, water, ammonia, etc. These again are made use
of by living plants and the cycle is re-commenced. Were
decomposition not to take place a time would eventually
come "when all the carbon and nitrogen would be im-
prisoned in dead plants. Thereupon all life would cease,
and the whole earth would be one great bed of corpses "
(Kerner) . Beneficent bacteria !

CHAPTER XXIV.

ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF SOME COMMON ROCKS.

GRANITE.

THEORETICALLY, perhaps, the expert teacher of nature
study should cull his lessons from the material most ready
to hand about the school. But in actual practice there is
no question that the most effective geological lessons will
be taught from carefully chosen material — selected with a
view to its fitness for clear instruction wherever it comes
from. Local material may of course be discussed during
excursions or when pupils bring it in, but it does not
necessarily make suitable material for indoor lessons merely
because it is local.

Now a lesson on Granite should be given off specimens
of as coarse-grained a granite as is procurable. Fairly
good types are the well-known granite of Shap (Westmor-
land) or Colcerrow (Cornwall) ; they may easily be got
from any dealer, or by writing to the quarries direct. Still
better is the " giant granite " (Pegmatite) found in veins
traversing granite quarries, and used in some localities
for building rockeries. Each child should, if possible, have
a specimen. The lesson may be conducted as follows : —

1. Emphasise the difference between a mineral and a
rock. It would be well for this purpose to procure a
tolerably big specimen of each of the three minerals,

281

282 ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF SOME COMMON ROCKS.

quartz, felspar and mica, and show them to the class as
individual mineral types. Point out that a mineral is a
single substance, with uniform * characters throughout its
mass, such as colour, hardness, transparency, lustre, and
so on. On the other hand, rocks like granite are mix-
tures of minerals. This is more especially true of igneous
rocks.

2. This leads to an enquiry as to how many con-
stituents are present in the granite that is being studied.
In normal granites the characteristic ingredients are three.
They can be identified, and their leading characters be
determined by the pupils themselves, if they are guided to
look for the following points : —

(a) Quartz — glassy, shapeless, colourless or less com-
monly brownish, not scratched by pin-point or
knife however hard pressure be applied, trans-
parent, broken faces rather rounded or shell-like,
unaffected by a drop of acid laid on it.

(&) Felspar — frequently two differently coloured fel-
spars are present, the commonest tints being a
flesh-red and a white or bluish- grey, shape less
rounded than quartz leaning to four-sidedness,
lustre more pearly than glassy, opaque, very hard
but not quite so hard as quartz, breaks in some
directions with nearly flat faces, unaffected by a
drop of acid.

(c) Mica — a mineral familiar to children as " sheep's
silver." In a granite there may be two micas, a
black and a silvery white ; both are very soft, easily
scratched with a pin, they split (" cleave ") into
very thin scales which are flexible. The flat faces
are very bright and shining. The shape is six-
sided, but it is only sometimes possible to see this
in a rock.

* This is only approximately correct.

ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF SOME COMMON ROCKS. 283

Besides these three normal constituents of granite, other
minerals will at times be detected, which may be recorded
but they need not be discussed in detail, unless the teacher
himself happens to know them.

After a careful study of the individual constituents, the
general characters of the rock may be discussed — the
colour as a whole, generally determined by the felspars,
the coarseness or fineness of grain, the size of the indi-
vidual constituents, the relative proportions of the in-
gredients in a square inch surface, and any other points
the teacher may see fit to raise. The general crystalline
character of granite may be emphasised by comparing it
with a bit of clay or chalk or other sedimentary rock.

The question of the origin of granite is one that must
be left to the discretion of the teacher. Perhaps it is too
difficult a subject to discuss in any detail. But the atten-
tion of the children may be called to the industrial uses of
the ingredients of granite and of granite itself. Thus
mica, which is mined in huge sheets in Russia, India and
elsewhere, is used in lamp-chimneys, in glossing wall papers,
and so on. Quartz is used in making "pebble " spectacles
and in other ways, and its coloured varieties form the
amethyst, the cairngorm, and other gem stones. The uses
of granite itself will be familiar to most pupils.

Attention may be directed to the weathering of granite
on hillsides into artificial-like masses — " tors."

CLAY AND SLATE.

Material. — One or more specimens of clay for each pupil.

„ slate ,,

An indoor lesson on rocks may eitlieu take the form of a
purely observational exercise, or the exercise may be made
the text of a subsequent lesson in which the history or
the uses of the rock may be explained to the pupils. The
time at the teacher's disposal will determine the method
he adopts. But the pupils' interest will be best secured if

284 ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF SOME COMMON ROCKS.

the latter aspect is not entirely omitted. For an isolated
specimen of a rock may not have much to arrest attention,
but its history or its use may at once supply the required
stimulus to intellectual interest. " Clay " is not, to most
people, a particularly inspiring theme, but the history and
the uses of clay and slate are both interesting and in-
structive.

(1) An exercise in observation.

The pupils may be put through a series of simple
tests as follows : —

Clay — its colour — its fine grain — its crumbly , meagre
feeling in the fingers — its earthy odour when breathed
upon — its power of adhering to the tongue — its soft-
ness under the knife or any sharp edge — its glossy
surface when cut — its absence of lustre as compared
with glass — its willingness to split or cleave — its degree
of porosity, how far it admits water — its plasticity
when wet — its purity, that is, how far it contains
foreign minerals like " sand " and mica — its behaviour
with hydrochloric acid — its rate of sedimentation in a
jar or test tube, as compared with sand.

Slate — as compared with clay : — Same fine texture
— often same colour — but relative hardness under knife
or pin-point, though easily scratched — its greater com-
pactness— its flatness — its remarkable proneness to
split (" cleave ") in one direction — the varying glossi-
ness of its surface — the bands or stripes sometimes
seen on flat faces. A slate may be powdered down
and the characters of the powder compared with those
of clay.

These are all points which the pupils, with judicious
guidance, may be led to find out for themselves. But
there are some things a child may wish to ask about,
which cannot be readily answered from an examination of
the specimens before him.

ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF SOME COMMON BOOKS. 285

(2) The origin of clay.

The question is one that cannot be fully discussed
with children. But the teacher can easily procure,
say from one of the clay pits in Cornwall (St. Austell),
a specimen of granite, showing the decomposition of
the felspar into white Kaolin (China clay).

This will demonstrate to the class clearly enough
that clay, or at any rate some kinds of clay, arise
from the decomposition of one of the constituents of
granite.

The cause of the decomposition is an inquiry be-
yond the limits of the school course.

(3) The origin of slate.

It has been abundantly proved that slate is just
clay hardened and altered by pressure. Slates are
commonly found on the flanks of mountain ranges
where tangential pressure has been great.

It can be shown experimentally that if wax, for
example, be mixed with iron filings and subjected
to severe tangential pressure, the filings take up a
position with their flat faces perpendicular to the
direction of pressure. This illustrates what has hap-
pened in the production of a slate.

The pressures of mountain-making cause the par-
ticles of an original clay or shale to rearrange them-
selves perpendicular to the direction of pressure and
therefore with their flat faces all parallel, and hence
slates split or "cleave" readily parallel to these flat
faces.

Of course in nature the process takes place on
a great scale and extends over long periods of time,
and the slate may undergo other changes.

The teacher will find the origin of slate described
in any elementary text-book of Geology.

Again, attention might be directed to the different

286 ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF SOME COMMON ROCKS.

(4) varieties and uses of clays.

There are many different kinds of clay :

China-clay (used in porcelain manufacture),

Brick-clay (used for bricks and tiles),

Fire-clay (used for fire-bricks and anything that has

to resist high temperatures),
Terra-cotta-clays, pipe-clay, Fuller's earth, and so on.

It is the commonest things in nature that are the most
useful.

SAND.

Material. — One or two samples of sand for each pupil,
laid out in a watch-glass or on a slip of paper.

Sands are easily gathered and easily stored; they are
clean and easily handled and in other ways very suitable
for lessons with children. The teacher will find, if he once
begins to make a collection of them, that they vary re-
markably in appearance and character. Some are rough
and gritty (Peterhead, etc.), some are rather finer (Aber-
deen) and show nearly the same constituents as granite,
some are crowded with broken or complete shells and
other organic contents (St. Andrews), some contain bits
of limestone, ironstone, etc. (Scarborough), some have
abundant fragments of flint (Yarmouth), some are re-
markably varied in colour (Alum Bay, I.W.), some are
rich in heavy metallic ores like tin (St. Ives), some have a
proportion of very round grains like little balls (Soudan).

The leading constituents of most sands are quartz
(glassy, often clear) and felspar (opaque, more pearly,
red and other colours), but not a few contain white mica,
and some sands even in this country are nearly entirely
made of calcareous matter, and therefore dissolve away in
hydrochloric acid.

If the teacher is not disposed to collect samples during
the holidays, he can easily procure them from friends who
live in coast towns, or through dealers.

ELEMENTARY STUDIES OF SOME COMMON EOCKS. 287

(1) A simple exercise is to ask the children to describe
the one or two samples placed before them. They will
note such points as the colour of the sand as a whole —
the coarseness or fineness of the grains — the degree of
rounding or angularity of the grains — the number of
different ingredients — the most abundant constituent —
transparent grains and opaque grains — the presence of
shells, spines of sea-urchins or organic constituents of any
kind — whether any grains are attracted by a magnet
(magnetic iron-ore) — whether the light or the dark grains
sink fastest in a test-tube with water — whether acid affects
any grains — the difference between the grains of sand and
of clay when rubbed on glass, and so on.

All these points can be discussed though the teacher
knows nothing of the composition or characters of the
minerals that make sands. But for his own comfort of
mind it would be better that he should have an elementary
acquaintance with minerals.

But too much of this type of exercise might become
tedious. The teacher should vary the work and interest
the children by referring to other aspects of sands. Two
illustrations will here suffice.

(2) The drifting of sands, and the formation of dunes.
Eeference may b'e made to the destructive action of

dunes, exemplified in so many places along our coasts,
where sand hillocks are gradually encroaching upon agri-
cultural lands and have even been known to bury villages
(Eccles, Norfolk).

(3) A comparison of sand with sandstone.

The child should be told, or led to find out for himself,
that sands and sandstones are essentially the same thing.
Crush a sandstone and you produce sand. Sandstones
are simply ancient beds of sand compacted into solid rock.
This opens out a wide field of inquiry about stratified
rocks and their history, into which the teacher may wander
as far as he dare.

CHAPTER XXV.

THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

AN important adjunct to the nature work is the school
garden. It has a place in education which is quite dis-
tinctive, especially in rural schools where the industrial
aspect of it receives prominence. Apart from this, the
school garden is most appropriately an important centre of
interest both for teachers and pupils alike who are engaged
in nature studies. It is a place in which horticulture is
practised and the art acquired in such a way that pupils
obtain an understanding of nature's processes and of the
effect of varying external conditions upon vegetable life.
School gardening wisely taught ought to foster an intel-
ligent interest in country life.

Incidentally the garden should also -be used for general
nature work. It may be used as a place in which to study
the interrelations between plant and animal life as well as
those of the plant and its inanimate environment. It
ought also to prove a fruitful source from which to draw
materials for detailed examination and study indoors. In
town schools in particular, where the best type of nature
study is admittedly difficult, the school garden goes a long
way to solve the problem.

Local circumstances will generally determine the par-
ticular form the work in school gardening is to take. In
most cases emphasis is naturally laid upon the practical
aspect of such work, and whilst this is no doubt a sound
principle to go upon, the aesthetic value of gardening
should be recognised. It is possible so to arrange a garden
that flower-beds, trees, and shrubs give it a pleasing aspect

288

THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 289

without interfering with the cultural plots worked by the
pupils.

For the guidance of teachers whose duty it may be to
introduce or work a school garden the following hints,
quoted by the kind permission of the authors, are sub-
mitted. The Beport* from which the extracts are taken is
the result of an inquiry into the general practice followed
throughout Great Britain.

" On behalf of school gardening it is maintained that,
apart from its purely educative value, it gives to boys
backward at bookwork an opportunity to excel, and
awakens in them a keener desire for general improvement.
In some cases it has been found that the arousing of the
interest of the duller boys by gardening has resulted in
better attendances and an improved moral tone in the
schools.

Types of School Gardens.

The following types of gardens are to be found in differ-
ent parts of the country : —

(1) The Common Garden, where the pupils co-operate
in working the whole garden according to the direction of
the teacher.

(2) The Plot Garden, where the garden is divided into
plots and two or three boys are allotted to each plot.

(3) The Individual Plot Garden, where each boy of the
class is given a plot.

(4) A combination of the Common Garden and the
Individual Plot Garden.

Each of these types has its advantages, but there is
much to recommend a further modification of the Common
Garden (1) and the Plot Garden (2).

* Report to the Governors of the Aberdeen and North of Scotland
College of Agriculture, by R. H. N. Sellar and G. G. Esslemont.

N.S. 19

290 THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

Plan and Size of Garden.

A School G-arden is commonly a rectangular area en-
closed by a simple fence, and as a rule is in a corner of a
field near the school. The size of the garden varies with
the number of pupils and with the system adopted. In
general from one-eighth to one-fourth of an a.cre is suffi-
cient, and where there is a difficulty in getting ground
gardens are even smaller,

In the plot systems, which have been most generally
adopted, the garden is divided into rectangular plots
varying in size from about one rod or square pole (ten
yards by three yards) in the case of individual plots, to
one and a quarter or two rods where the plots are worked
by two or three boys. Experience has shown that smaller
plots, besides being too small to furnish scope for the
pupils' energies, are likewise too limited to provide a suffi-
cient variety of crops and give a useful quantity of produce
— a most important point when the produce is sold.
Usually a gravelled path runs the length of the garden, on
either side of which the plots are arranged. A space of
one and a half to two feet divides each plot.

For a modified type of garden, as already suggested,
from one-seventh to one-eighth of an acre would be suffi-
cient for a class of twenty pupils.

The plan on page 291 illustrates a garden of this type
for a class of twenty boys.

Garden Crops.

Gardening, as seen a-t the different centres, is mainly
confined to the growing of the ordinary vegetable crop
suitable to the district. In most cases the boys are en-
couraged to grow a few hardy flowers in their plots, and
occasionally a herbaceous border forms part of the common
garden. So far there has been little done in fruit culture.

Teachers with experience are much against complicating
the work by too great a variety of crops and by manurial
tests.

THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

291

Plan to illustrate School Garden for Twenty Pupils.
(Two Boy Plot System.)

Fence.

Tool House.

Fence.

6ft.

Common Plot.

9ft.

Common Plot.

Space li ft.

Space 1J ft.

Flower Border.

Space 1| ft.

Space 1 £ ft.

Plot for two pupils.

o~
2

Plot for two pupils.

Space 1| ft.

Space 1£ ft.

do.

Border

do.

Space 1£ ft.

Space 1J ft.

do.

Flower

do.

Space 1J it.

Space 1 J ft.

do.

Space 1| ft.

do.

10 yds.

Gate.
-21 yds. -

10yds.

Total area of garden for twenty pupils, 630 square yards.

292 THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

Although individuality is encouraged in this work it is
generally found desirable to insist on the same crops being
grown in the same order in each plot. Otherwise the
greatest difficulty is found by the teacher in maintaining
discipline, arranging the lesson for the day, and supervising
the class at work. This arrangement also facilitates order
and tidiness in the garden.

The disposal of the produce rests with the teacher. In
some instances the boys sell the produce of their plots and
the money thus obtained goes towards the annual upkeep
of the garden. Very often the produce is given to the boys
as a reward.

Plan and Size of Plot with Crops.

The plan on page 293 illustrates two adjoining plots,
suitable for two pupils each, with a suggested scheme of
cropping for a School Garden in the North of Scotland.

The Work of the Garden.

Instruction and practice in the use of tools is a necessary
preliminary to work in the garden, which embraces such
operations as : The manuring and digging of plots in
autumn ; the preparation of the soil for seedlings in
spring ; the sowing of seeds ; the thinning of seedlings
in beds and of crops generally ; transplanting ; weeding ;
hoeing and the stirring of soil ; the care and management
of crops ; the proper harvesting of crops when ripe ; the
storing and useful disposing of crops ; the weighing of
crops ; general tidying of the garden, etc.

In addition each boy keeps a note-book provided for the
purpose, in which he draws a plan of the garden to scale
with his own plot distinctly marked, usually by a light
wash of colour, and enters an account of the work as it
proceeds, with dates of the more important operations, such
as seeding, planting, thinning and harvesting of crops, etc.
Coloured drawings of plants and parts of plants grown in
the plots are also made in these books.

THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

293

Plan to illustrate a Suggested Scheme of Cropping for a
School Garden.

No. I Plot.

No. 2 Plot.

£ Beans.

<?i

Beans.

«S Cabbages.

Cabbages.

£ Carrots.

Carrots.

& Parsnips.

Parsnips.

J£ Peas.

Peas,

Potatoes
(four varieties).
£ Curled Kale
to follow
early varieties.

Potatoes
(four varieties).
Curled Kale
to follow
early varieties.

£ Radish. Leeks. Lettuce.

Radish. Leeks. Lettuce.

<w Onions and Shallots.

Onions and Shallots.

£ Turnips.

Turnips.

£ Beet.

Beet.

£ Brussels Sprouts. Broccoli.
„ Cauliflower.

Brussels Sprouts. Broccoli.
Cauliflower.

Individual. Individual.
Flowers.
Senior Pupil. Junior Pupil.

Total area of the plot, 30 feet by 9 feet with intervening
space of 1^ feet.

294 THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

The artificial germination of seeds sown in the plots,
water and pot cultures of the same, with a study of the
progress of growth, the estimating of seeds required per
acre, and the yield per acre of any particular crop, also
serve to show how the work of the garden may be trans-
ferred to the schoolroom, when the weather makes outdoor
work impossible, and how it may be linked to other school
subjects.

Since garden operations are so dependent on the weather
it is found impossible to adhere rigidly to a time-table as
in the case of indoor subjects. Teachers are allowed con-
siderable liberty in this respect.

Equipment and Annual Upkeep.

The initial equipment of a school garden embraces —

(1) A set of tools for each pupil consisting of a spade,
fork, rake, Dutch hoe, draw hoe, trowel and dibber, at an
approximate cost of 8s. to 10s. per pupil.

(2) A tool -shed to cost from =£3 to <£5.

(3) A barrow, two watering-cans, lines, etc., to cost
£15s.

(4) Fencing to cost from £2 to d£3.

(5) Assistance in the heavier work of laying out the
garden to cost <£!.

The total initial cost of a garden thus equipped for a
class of twenty boys is about d£18.

The annual upkeep including seeds, manures, rent, etc.,
of such a garden seldom exceeds c£3.

In England, where the County is the Educational autho-
rity, tools are supplied free. The pupils are taught to take
every care of these, and an inspection of tools is made from
time to time by a County Official. Where there is a work-
shop in connection with the school the boys make many
useful articles for the garden and also repair their tools.

THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 295

This is done on wet days and at other times when work in
the garden is impossible. So many articles that are dear
to buy but quite easy and inexpensive to make are con-
tinually being wanted for the garden, that a workshop is
an absolute necessity to its economical working.

The Instructor.

The Instructor is usually the head teacher or a member
of the school staff, but there are instances where a practical
gardener is employed. As a rule, the trained teacher who
has a fair knowledge of the subject is the most successful
instructor."

FIELD AND GARDEN WEEDS.

The study of weeds is a study in the struggle for exist-
ence. Cultivation may be viewed as an interference on the
part of man with the balance of nature. He attempts to
favour particular plants which if left to maintain them-
selves would in most cases be ousted from the field in a
short time. The wild plants which are continually seeking
hold in the soil prepared by man for the growth of his
crops he terms weeds.

First of all let us note a few typical weeds, occurring in
gardens or in the fields.

Shepherd's Purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris}. — Common by
roadsides, garden ground, fields, etc. Flowers throughout
most of the year. An erect annual, with small white flowers
in a raceme ; sepals 4, petals 4, stamens 4 long and 2 short.
Fruit a triangular " pod " (silicula). Rosette of simple
leaves, deeply cleft (pinnatifid) at base, stem leaves sessile,
toothed, arrow-shaped. Order: Cruciferae.

Chickweed (Stellaria media). — This is the commonest of
the various " chick weeds." It also flowers throughout
most of the year. A plant of rapid growth, spreading fast,
and seeding abundantly. May be distinguished by the

296 THE SCHOOL GARDEff.

single line of hairs running along the stem ; small white
starlike flowers, sepals 5, petals 5 deeply cleft, stamens
5-10. Leaves opposite. Stem procumbent. Order: Caryo-
phyllaceae.

Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris). — Common in neglected
gardens and waste ground. Flowers throughout the most
of the year, and each plant continues flowering over several
months. Seeds distributed by the wind. Small yellow
flowers in short cylindrical heads. Stem furrowed, leaves
long, sessile, and irregularly lobed (pinnatifid). Order:
Compositae.

Daisy (Bellis perennis). — Flowers through most of the
year. Has a perennial underground stem with runners by
means of which it spreads effectively as well as by means
of seeds. The " rosette " arrangement of radicle leaves is
an adaptation securing both light and room for the plant.
Order: Compositae.

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). — This is another plant
which flowers early (March) and persists through the
greater part of the year. A perennial with storing tap-
root giving rise to fresh shoots each year, and which buds
new shoots when cut. Seeds distributed by the wind.
Leaves generally a radicle rosette. Order : Compositae.

Docks (Eumex acetosa, R. acetosella, E. crispus, etc.). —
The docks are mostly perennials with strong storing roots,
which like that of the dandelion give rise to buds when cut.
Cutting the roots is therefore ot no avail in attempts at
eradication. Fruits 3-sided. Order: Polygonaceae.

Thistles. — Of these there are several occurring on culti-
vated land, e.g. the Spear Thistle (Cnicus lanceolatus) and
the Creeping Thistle (C. arvensis).

The former plant is a biennial producing a rosette of
radicle leaves the first year. In the second year a tall,
stout, erect winged stem from 2 to 4 feet high is produced.
Leaves pinnatifid, sessile, spiny. Flowers purple with

THE SCHOOL GABDEN. 297

spiny bracts. Seeds furnished with feathery pappus are
wind-distributed. On production of seeds the plant dies
down.

The Creeping Thistle is a perennial which spreads from
a branching root below ground as well as by means of
seeds carried by the wind. It is a troublesome weed, diffi-
cult to eradicate. Stem erect, flower heads light purple,
numerous, of two kinds on separate plants, male globular,
female ovoid. Leaves narrow, pinnatifid. Order: Corn-

Charlock (Brassica sinapis). — This is one of the com-
monest weeds in cornfields. It is an annual with rough
stem of 1 to 2 feet, usually branched. Upper leaves rough,
toothed or lyrate, sessile ; the lower stalked, ovate or lobed.
Flowers pale yellow, -J-f in. diam. Sepals 4, narrow,
spreading ; petals 4 ; stamens 4 long and 2 short. The fruit
a siliqua from 1 to 2 inches long, with three faint veins on
the valves, and with cylindrical straight beak. Order :
Cruciferae.

Charlock germinates early in spring, and besides being
a prolific and troublesome weed, is indirectly the frequent
cause of loss to agriculturists in harbouring the fungus
causing " finger and toe " disease in turnips. By main-
taining this parasite in the years intervening between the
turnip crops, it renders the disease difficult to eradicate.

Charlock further serves in the spring to maintain the
turnip beetle (" turnip fly," " flea- bee tie ") before the
turnips are sown. This is a critical time for this beetle,
which on awakening to activity in the spring flies to the
charlock and related plants where it feeds. These small
beetles, on the turnip -seed leaves appearing above ground,
forsake the charlock for them, and when numerous they
may eat these up before the ordinary foliage leaves have
time to appear. If such happens the turnip plant is
killed (Fig. 159).

Besides the foregoing weeds pupils should be set to
identify others which are common in their neighbourhood,

298

THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

and a list made of all which from their numbers on culti-
vated land may be regarded as important.

It may be well at the next stage to elicit from the pupils
the various ways in which weeds do harm. Such an

Fig. 159.— Turnip Beetle (Phyllotreta nemorum), adult, pupa, and larva.

The beetles figured on the leaf above are slightly less than natural size. The larva
burrows in the soft tissue of the leaf between the iipper and under sides.

enumeration will but emphasise the needs of all plants
in order that they may successfully maintain existence.

Weeds rob the cultivated plants of room. This involves
loss of food material from soil, including fertilisers ; from
the atmosphere, light and carbon dioxide.

THE SCHOOL GARDEtf. 299

Some special adaptations to note here are the rosette
leaves of Daisy and Dandelion for securing light and room
for themselves. Sometimes, e.g. amongst corn crops when
tall weeds are numerous, the corn is apt to draw to length,
and is thus liable later to fall over. The presence of weeds
in numbers also tells particularly upon slow growing crops,
which naturally suffer most, e.g. clovers.

Weeds which climb, e.g. Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis],
are apt to drag down the cereals amongst which they grow,
and by winding around them impede the leaves from proper
functioning.

In being mixed up with cereal and other crops weeds con-
taminate the seeds of these, lowering their market value, or
being sown with these perpetuate the mischief.

Lastly, weeds may serve as centres of dissemination of
fungus pests amongst cultivated plants, e.g. Charlock and
" Finger and toe," or serve to maintain insect enemies of
crops, e.g. Charlock and turnip beetle.

Some of the special adaptations favouring the commoner
weeds should be emphasised. Note from the foregoing list
and from others not included in it :

Plants appearing early in the year and persisting for a
long time.

Plants with special modes of seed distribution, e.g. by
wind.

Plants with rootstocks which bud — vegetative propaga-
tion.

Plants which seed over long periods of the year.

Perennials which store reserves.

Plants which germinate quickly.

Any other adaptations for perpetuating the species.

300 THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

SOME ANIMALS OF THE OAEDEIST.

Our garden is a common one, in which there are flowers,
vegetables, and fruit bushes and trees. We cannot hope to
deal with all the animals which may be found there either
as welcome or unwelcome guests, but we aim at becoming
familiar with the commoner examples ; we seek to discover
something of their life and habits, and to learn more
exactly the effect of their presence.

ANIMALS IN OR ON THE SOIL.

Underground as we turn over the soil usually the first
animal we meet with is the Earthworm. We have already
had a talk about this remarkable creature (p. 176).

Centipedes. — Another common type of animal we dis-
cover early is the Centipede, of which we may quite likely
find two or more different kinds. These animals are
readily identified by the large number of feet they possess
(Fig. 160). They may be an inch or nearly two inches
long, golden yellow or brown in colour, and run actively
when disturbed. Their bodies are flattened, and they
should be clearly distinguished from their relatives the
millipedes.

Centipedes do not interfere with the growth of cultivated
plants. On the other hand they attack ground insects,
snails and slugs and such like, most of which are destruc-
tive in the garden. Indeed so carnivorous are their tastes
that the male of a certain common genus (Lithobius) will
devour the eggs laid by his mate. To prevent this she
rolls the egg, which is sticky, in earth as soon as it is laid,
so that it becomes coated and resembles a particle of soil.
Lithobius is about an inch long and about one-eighth of
an inch broad. A longer and more slender form is
Geopliilus.

THE SCHOOL GAUDEN.

301

Millipedes. — The Millipedes, which occur in the soil, also
possess numerous feet. They are rather darker in colour
and are mostly rounded in the body, not flattened. They
feed on all kinds of roots, bulbs, and tubers, and may
frequently be found within them. They coil themselves up
when disturbed. A very destructive millipede, known as
Julus pulchellus, is about half an inch long, of a pale
pinkish colour, spotted with purple or crimson. It may be

Fig. 160.— A Centipede.

Fig. 161.— Millipedes. The upper one
is coiled in the characteristic man-
ner of this animal.

found attacking bulbs or potato tubers. There is one
species of flattened millipede (Polydesmus complanatus)
which may also be found engaged in* the same kind of
destructive work.

When any of these creatures are observed they should
be captured and examined with the help of a lens at first,
so that their exact nature may be made out. A comparison
of the diagrams (Fig. 160, 161) will show that apart from

302 THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

shape a millipede differs from a centipede in having two
pairs of legs to each joint of what may be termed the hind
body. Since the habits of these two animal types are so
opposite in character, the question of their recognition is
one of importance. They are not difficult to distinguish.

Earwigs. — Concealed under stones, in crevices, especially
in untidy places, earwigs abound. They are also to be
found about plants, e.g. concealed in the floral disc of sun-
flowers, chrysanthemums, etc. They are vegetable feeders
and are frequently destructive to flowers, fruit, and leaves.
Earwigs are insects, usually classed amongst the grass-
hoppers, cockroaches, etc., i.e. as Orthoptera, although it
is likely they should be grouped as a separate Order. The
young are very similar to the parents.

The manner in which the wings, in those examples which
possess them, are folded is well worth study. A common
earwig dropped from the hand will sometimes spread its
wings in falling, when the hind pair will be seen to be quite
large and fan-like. On reaching the ground the fan is
closed, then folded transversely and tucked away under the
fore wing, which is quite small though firm in texture. The
forceps or shear-like organs are used in defence and pro-
bably in attack also, for earwigs are said sometimes to feed
on other insects. They are not of the nature of poison
fangs, but appear to be adaptations of the filament-like
structures seen at the tail of various insects.

Surface Caterpillars. — Many insects winter in the soil,
and by digging around the stems of fruit bushes we may
find both larvae and pupae. We have already noted the
occurrence of the larva of the magpie moth. In cabbage,
carrot, and other vegetable beds surface caterpillars may
also occur. These are the larvae of the turnip moth and
heart and dart moth. These hide below the surface of the
soil ; they usually attack the parts of plants just below or
at the surface, feeding at night. These caterpillars are
brownish or greyish, with longitudinal bands. The moths
have brown fore wings and white under wings. They are
inconspicuous -looking insects.

THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

303

Beetles. — Various beetles will be found in the soil. Of
these we can note only the so-called ground beetles (Card-
bus). See Fig. 162. These
beetles are active nocturnal
creatures, hiding under stones,
etc., during the day and hunt-
ing in the night. They mostly
attack other insects and small
animals, a,nd are on the whole
of service to man. When inter-
fered with they squirt a dis-
agreeable smelling fluid from
the hind body. The rove
beetles, of which both large
and small ones may be found,
are interesting. In these the
wing covers are short and leave
the hind body exposed. They
may also be readily recognised
by their habits of rearing their

tails (compare earwigs) when alarmed. A well known
large form is the Devil's Coach Horse (Ocypus olens),
which also discharges an offensive-smelling fluid when
excited.

Fig. 162.— A Ground Beetle
(Cardbus).

Bees. — An interesting type which should be looked for
is the burrowing bee ( Andraena) . In the spring or early
summer these bees attract attention by their activity upon
the ground. When watched they are seen tunnelling into
the soil, where they deposit their eggs along with pollen,
on which the young bees feed when hatched. (For an
admirable account of these and other wild bees see House,
Garden and Field, by L. C. Miall.)

Wood-lice or Slaters. — In damp mouldy places, amongst
stones, decaying wood and rubbish, these creatures also
abound. They are sure indicators of untidiness, although
they cannot be regarded as harmful. They belong to the
Crustacea, the vast majority of which are aquatic animals.

304 THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

Snails and Slugs. — The garden snail is a familiar sight,
sometimes occurring in very large numbers. This species
(Helix aspersa) has a somewhat rough brownish shell,
which to be seen to advantage should be washed and
examined wet. The snail itself is over two inches long,
being the largest to be met with in gardens in this country.
Snails are vegetarian in habit, and when numerous may be
very destructive. They hibernate in companies, closing
the mouth of their shells with a dried mucus-like secretion.
Some snails form a porous limy plate, like the shell of an
egg, which they use for this purpose.

Snails make interesting objects of study, and some
should be kept under observation in school. They are
very hardy and live quite well in captivity. They may be
kept in a box and fed with ordinary vegetables or weeds,
e.g. lettuce, cabbage, dandelion, etc. The atmosphere of
the box should not be allowed to become too dry.

For a practical study of a snail see p. 150.

Amongst slugs, the most familiar in gardens is the grey
field slug (Limax agrestis), about four-fifths of an inch long,
which should be compared with the snail as regards struc-
ture. Slugs have no spiral shell, but most have, embedded
in the oval patch known as the mantle, just behind the
head, a thin plate-like structure or detached limy granules.
The breathing opening of a Limax is situated in a notch of
this area at its posterior right side. Another slug some-
times found in gardens, although oftener about ditches or
in damp woods, is the fine large black slug (Arion ater).

Slugs are fond of damp, they lie concealed during the
day, coming out at night to feed ; they are frequently to
be seen, however, after a shower of rain, if the weather is
mild, during the day.

Slugs are mostly injurious animals in the garden, the
greatest amount of harm being done in wet seasons. There
is one type, known as Testacella, which is carnivorous,
feeding on worms and insect larvae in the soil, which on
the whole may be looked upon as beneficial. Testacella is
readily recognised by the cap-like shell it carries at the
posterior tip of the body.

THE SdiiooL GARDEN. 305

Pupils should make drawings of two groups of the small
animals inhabiting garden soil — a useful, and an injurious
group. Teachers will do well to make a collection of such,
and with the help of a lens to examine the various types.
Familiarity with the detailed appearance is the first step
towards fuller knowledge regarding them.

ANIMALS FOUND ON VEGETATION.

Caterpillars. — Caterpillars are scarcely ever absent from
a garden. We have elsewhere (p. 153) dealt with the struc-
ture and habits of these ; here we append notes of a few
of the commonest — apart from the surface caterpillars
named above.

All types of caterpillar found in the garden should find
a place in the rearing boxes. Before removing examples

Fig. 163.— The Cabbage Butterfly— female, natural size.

of new kinds from the garden, care should be taken to
discover their nature (Fig. 163). ,

Caterpillars of the large white butterfly, Pieris brassicae.
The eggs of this caterpillar are laid usually in clusters on
a cabbage leaf. They may occur elsewhere, e.g. nastur-
tium leaves. The caterpillar is a familiar one and scarcely
needs description. Above it is greyish green, below green.
N. s. 20

306

THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

There are longitudinal yellow bands. The skin is warty,
with short whitish hairs. Two genera-
tions of this caterpillar occur in the year,
in June and July and in September,
consequently we may find both summer
a,nd winter chrysalids. (The chrysalis is
angular, greyish green, with black and
yellow markings. It occurs fixed, usually
in a horizontal position, to walls, under
roofs or doorways, etc.) (Fig. 164.)

Caterpillar of the small white butter-
fly : Pier is rapae. This caterpillar, which
also occurs on the cabbage leaves, is
about 1J inches when fully grown. It
is of a dull velvety green above, paler
below. There is a deep orange line along
the back, and orange spots on the sides.
In this case the eggs occur separately.
There are two generations here also.
The magpie moth caterpillar has al-

Fig. 164. -Caterpillar ready been described (p. 153).

Sometimes beside a dead caterpillar or
the chrysalis of the large white butterfly

may be noticed a heap of small yellowish cocoons. These

are the cocoons of an

Ichneumon fly (Micro-

gaster glomeratus) which

deposits its eggs inside

the body of the cater-
pillar. The larvae feed

upon the substance of

the caterpillar and are

ready to become pupae

about the same time.

They bore through the

skin and pupate. The

caterpillar usually dies ;

even if it should succeed

in entering the pupa

stage, the adult butterfly is not formed (Fig. 165).

and Chrysalis of the
Cabbage Butterfly.

Fig. 165.— The Ichneumon Fly of the Cabbage
Butterfly, magnified.

THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 307

Various caterpillars or caterpillar-like creatures will be
found upon currant and fruit bushes, trees, etc. As
already suggested, if their real nature is unknown, speci-
mens should be transferred to the insect boxes in school
and the development traced.

Green Fly or Plant Lice (Aphides'). — These insects
are extremely common; they occur on fruit, peas, roses,
as well as upon various field crops. They belong to the
order of Bugs (Hemiptera), and if they are turned
over and examined with the help of a lens, the long
pointed boring snout which they insert into the plants
they infest can be seen. By means of this borer they
suck up the juices of the plant, and since they occur
in considerable numbers they are capable of a large
amount of destruction. They also injure the plant in
other ways, e.g. they excrete a sugary fluid (honey dew)
which coats the surface of the leaves, making them sticky,
clogging the stomata and thus further injuring the
plant.

These insects have a remarkable history. It will be
observed that most plant lice are wingless ; only occasion-
ally are winged examples to be seen. The winged forms
appear chiefly when the host plant is overcrowded, and
these fly away to a new plant and there start a fresh series
of generations. Throughout the season there are no males,
only a succession of generations of females. In the
autumn, however, males appear. These mate with females
and the eggs subsequently laid remain dormant all winter.
In the spring there develop from these a generation of
females, which give rise to young, also all females, and
this is continued throughout the summer. " There are
species in which each female bears from eighty to one
hundred young, and nine to sixteen generations succeed
one another in the year " (Ritzema Eos).

The Aphides thrive best and multiply to the greatest
extent in dry warm weather. Spraying the bushes as
soon as they are noticed with some destructive fluid is the
usual method adopted for their removal, e.g. a mixture
of paraffin water and soft soap. Even liberal spraying

308 THE SCHOOL GARDEN.

with water from a garden hose regularly will be found
effective as a check.

These Aphides have various natural ene-
mies. The small almost hemispherical spot-
ted beetle, known as the ladybird, and its
larva feed on these (Fig. 166). So also do
the larvae of Hover flies — starlings and spar-
rows are also said to attack them.

Ladybird.

For notes upon some of the commoner
birds which visit our gardens see p. 113.

CHAPTER XXVI.

SOME INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.

FLIES OP THE FARM.

AMONGST the insects abounding in the neighbourhood of
cultivated fields or domestic animals, flies are probably of
chief importance. From the characters given on p. 168 it
will not be found difficult to distinguish flies from all other
insect types.

In general it ought to be noted that flies are of con-
siderable economic importance everywhere. Mosquitos,
so abundant all over the world, are important as trans-
mitters of malaria ; tse-tse flies in Africa communicate the
dread disease of sleeping sickness as well as analogous
diseases to domestic animals ; the house fly, although not
a biting fly, from its indiscriminate visits to all sorts of
places and substances, including human food, is an ever
present danger to health.

We shall not here attempt to enumerate more than a
few of the flies which may be in evidence on the farm in
the warmer seasons of the year. And we shall classify
them according to their habits.

1. Biting Flies, i.e. Blood-sucking. f

(a) The Stable fly. — Superficially very like the house fly,
and so termed by the uninitiated. It is most readily dis-
tinguished from house flies by having a black slender pro-
boscis projecting in front of the head and visible from
above. This is the blood-sucking organ. It is common,

309

310 SOME INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.

about farm buildings and fences, etc., around fields from
August to October. It sucks the blood of horses, cattle,
and human beings. The bite is painful.

(b) The Cleg or Brimp. — A well-known fly attacking
horses and cattle during the warmer months. Only the
females are blood- sucking. This fly has dusky spotted
wings, body flattish and blunt behind. The head is much
broader than long, and somewhat cresceiitic. A pair of
feelers stand out in front, the terminal parts of which
curve slightly outward. The fly of course does not sting
when handled. The proboscis is not visible from above.

(c) The Gad or Breeze fly. — Very similar to the fore-
going but larger. Head is even more crescentic, and
antennae shorter than in the former, but with a distinct
notch and curved tip. They bite cattle severely. Common
near woods.

2. Parasitic Flies.

(a) Bot flies. — These are medium sized, hairy flies
which deposit their eggs on the fore parts of horses.
When the maggots emerge, the horse licks the place and
swallows the maggots. These on reaching the stomach
attach themselves, feeding and growing ; they live here for
about ten months. At the end of this period they pass to
the outside along with the undigested food and pupate on
the ground. In the course of a few weeks the adult flies
emerge from the pupal cases and the life cycle recommences.

(b) Sheep's nostril fly. — A similar fly attacks sheep,
depositing its eggs on the nose or face. The maggots
creep into the nostrils, and in the upper spaces live for
about the same time as the bot flies in the horse, feeding
on the secretions of the cavity in which they lie. Their
presence may cause difficulty in breathing, giddiness, and
often a high stepping gait in the sheep. When the larval
period is over the sheep is able to snort them out upon the
ground, where they complete the pupal period in a few
weeks. Sometimes the health of the sheep deteriorates so
much that slaughter becomes necessary.

SOME INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. 311

(c) Warble flies. — These deposit their eggs on the
cattle. The maggots also are licked into the mouth
and pass to the gullet. They do not, however, pass direct
to the stomach, but bore through the gullet walls, migrat-
ing throughout the body. They eventually arrive at the
tissue just under the skin in the neighbourhood of the back-
bone. They thus live within the ox for about ten months,
when they find their way to the outside through the skin.
The larva falls on the ground, pupates, and in a few weeks
becomes an adult. The hides are thus injured by the exit
of the fly and are known as " warbled hides." The losses
entailed through the activities of this fly are very consider-
able.

3. Flies attacking Crops, etc.

There is a long list of these, the most important of
which is undoubtedly the Crane fly or " Daddy-long-legs."
Its life-history is outlined below.

The Crane Fly or Daddy-long-legs.

There is more than one species of fly of this type to be
met with, but the habits of the two commonest are very
similar. They may be seen on the wing from May to
September, one species appearing early and the other later.
A specimen should be caught and examined.

It will be found to be a true fly, i.e. it has one pair of
wings only. Behind these there is a pair of slender,
knobbed, rod-like bodies. These take the place of the
wings occurring here in most other insects, and are known
as " halteres " or balancers. Other structures worth noting
are the large greenish compound eyes and slender feelers
on the head, and the three pairs of long " spidery " like
legs. Two kinds of insect will be noticed. In one the tip
of the hind body tapers to a fine point. This is the female
insect. In the male, which is smaller, the tip is blunt and
appears slightly upturned.

These insects may be seen flying about pastures or by
roadsides where long grasses abound. Sometimes they

312

SOME INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.

are extraordinarily abundant. The eggs, which are laid iu
late summer and autumn, are deposited on the ground or
upon grass close to it. The females may be seen engaged
in the operation, when they seem to progress on their hind
legs and tail, vibrating their wings meanwhile. With
their long slender bodies and legs they appear to make
rapid progress amongst long grasses and to get quite close
to the ground with their abdomen. They probably lay
a few eggs here and there as they move along.

The larvae which hatch from these in about a fortnight
pass the winter in the soil, and in the spring and early

Fig. 167.— Crane Fly (Tipula) and larva ("leather-jacket"), slightly less than
natural size.

summer feed upon the grass or corn crops chiefly, but
they attack all sorts of vegetable substances. They are
sometimes present in enormous numbers and prove extra-
ordinarily destructive to cereals. They are known under
the names of " leather- jacket," " grub," " tory worm," and
possibly others (see Fig. 167).

When fully grown this larva, which structurally is a
maggot, is about an inch in length, blunt at both ends,
greyish brown in colour with two pale lines along its body.
There are no legs nor true head. When it enters the
pupal stage, curved horn-like parts appear on the head,
and small spines on the body. By means of these last the

SOME INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. 313

pupa wriggles itself to the surface of the soil when the
adult is about to emerge. When emergence takes place
the pupal husk is left sticking out of the ground. Books,
gulls, starlings, lapwings, etc., feed largely on the larvae
in the soil.

Since the Crane fly is an important agricultural pest and
the relation between it and the leather- jacket is not clearly
understood in many parts of the country, rural teachers
may profitably utilise it for demonstrating the life-history.
The larvae should be obtained in the spring. They may
be kept in soil in a box. Corn should be sown in the box
and the effects of the larvae noted. When the pupae
appear above ground a cover should be placed on the top
so that the adults may not escape.

Click Beetles and Wireworms.

These beetles are so termed because of the habit they
have of throwing themselves into the air with a clicking
sound when laid upon their backs. If one of these beetles
is examined on the under side of the body, just behind
the first pair of legs a pair of spines
may be seen, fitting into a groove in front
of the second pair. If laid on its back
the beetle will bend the body so as to
withdraw the spines, and then suddenly
jerk them back so that the upraised part
of the back strikes the ground and the
beetle rebounds into the air. When it
alights, it does so on its feet.

Amongst these beetles there are several
of economic importance, the best known
of which is the striped click beetle Fig. IGS. — Click
(Agriotes lineatus). This insect has a magnmedifthnes!
length of about f of an inch and a
breadth of about Jth. It is brownish in colour, and its
wing cases have longitudinal parallel lines. It is widely
distributed under stones, amongst pasturage, and on vege-
tation generally. They lie in concealed places during

314 SOME INSECTS OP ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.

winter and in spring they emerge and egg deposition
takes places (Fig. 168).

The larva is known as a wireworm and is a very destruc-
tive pest. It grows to nearly an inch in length, and is of a
yellowish colour. .The three pairs of thoracic legs are
very short, and there is a pair of very rudimentary feet
upon the last segment of the body. These wire worms
have biting jaws with which they attack the underground
steins and roots of cereals and various
other crops. They live a long time
in the soil, the larval period extend-
ing from three to five years, conse-
quently they are capable of doing
very great damage. The pupal stage
lasts only a few weeks (Fig. 169).

Lapwings, jackdaws, rooks, and
starlings are amongst the chief
natural enemies of the wireworms.

Both beetles and wireworms should
be collected and examined. The
latter are good examples of true
grubs.

An important point to note in
connection with attacks of these flies
is that the larva is the active in-
jurious agent. There are insects
which attack onions, carrots, man-
golds, celery, cabbage, etc. ; in each
case a distinct species of maggot
feeds upon the plant.
In cases of insect attack upon field or garden crops the
recognition of the larval type is therefore of importance.
The presence of maggots indicates a fly as the insect type
which lays the eggs upon the plant. In all cases of doubt
the larvae should be reared in captivity and the adults
captured for examination when they hatch out.

CHAPTER XXVII.

SUGGESTIONS FOR WEATHER STUDY.

IN a previous chapter general hints are given with regard
to weather study chiefly from the seasonal point of view,
and with reference to the compilation of local calendar
records. We shall now here summarise the more important
ways in which the various observations may be tabulated
and examined indoors, and indicate how the wider study
of the weather may be encouraged amongst the senior
pupils.

As a preliminary exercise there should be explained to all
grades of pupils of suitable capacity, the latitude and alti-
tude above sea level of the school itself, the directions
N.,S.,E.,W., the altitude and direction of any hills, large
plantations, lakes, etc., within a five-mile radius of the
school. This information can be got from an Ordnance
Survey Map of the neighbourhood. Such a map upon a
reasonably large scale should hang upon the school-room
wall. Pupils in senior classes should reproduce a fairly
large plan drawn to scale of the relative positions of such
points as are suggested above. If thought desirable con-
tour lines might be introduced showing altitudes. *

* There are many excellent suggestions which are on the best
lines as recognised for Nature Study to be found in Text-books on
Geography as taught by modern methods.

315

316 SUGGESTIONS FOR WEATHER STUDY.

A further preliminary is the encouragement amongst all
grades of pupil of the following : —

(a) A. general impression of the kind of morning gathered
on the way to school. The weather description as given in
the Beaufort Scale, which is within the capacity of the
pupils, should be adopted in their records as affording
a ready and standard mode of description. This scale
(abridged) is as follows :

Blue sky, recorded

in school charts simply as b.

Clouds (detached)

,, ,, c.

Drizzling rain

Fog

Dark, gloomy

Hail

Hoar frost

h. *.

Lightning

Misty or hazy

Overcast

55 55 0.

Passing showers

Rain

Squally

Snow

,, ,, s.

Thunder

Visibility, unusual

trans-

parency

51 55 V«

Ugly, threatening

Dew

Degree of intensity may be distinguished by the figures
0 and 2, the former indicating " slight" and the latter
" strong," e.g. f° — slight fog ; s2 — heavy snow.

(b) Determination of the wind direction and force.
Force is somewhat difficult to express, but some agreement
should be come to with teacher and pupils as to the degree
signified by the following terms : — calm, light breeze,

SUGGESTIONS FOR WEATHER STUDY. 317

moderate breeze (corresponds to a velocity of 14 miles per
hour), strong breeze (25 miles per hour), moderate gale
(31 miles per hour), storm (64 miles per hour).

(c) Clouds, their identification, proportion, direction of
movement, height. Pupils will require with regard to this
to receive definite instruction from the teacher. Photo-
graphs are not needed by the pupils. The teacher should
seize the opportunity as it arises of demonstrating the
various simple types.

Those which should be pointed out first are the Cirrus
and Cumulus. The former, popularly known as mare's
tail, is a very high cloud (from 27 to 50 thousand feet),
white, long-curled streaky bunches, feather-like. The Cirrus
is a cloud of ice. The Cumulus is the familiar thick heavy
banked-up cloud, dome- shaped above and white, generally
darker underneath. It is known also as wool-pack cloud.
Its height is given as from 4,500 to 6,000 feet. The next
in point of simplicity and ease of recognition is probably
the Nimbus or rain cloud. This cloud is dark, and from it
continued rain or snow generally falls ; its height is from
3,000 to 6,400 feet. The Stratus also, a low flat cloud, "a
horizontal sheet of lifted fog," below 3,500 feet, is not diffi-
cult to recognise. After the pupils are expert in recog-
nising these, other more complicated forms may, if desired,
be added to their list.

The school should be equipped with the following instru-
ments of as satisfactory quality as possible : — Barometer ;
Thermometers, wet and dry bulb, and maximum and
minimum; Eain Gauge. The classes to which work in
reading of instruments and recording are allotted should
have work assigned to them at regular intervals of plotting
in graphic form such items as the daily temperatures for
each month, maximum and minimum, the daily barometric
pressure, diagrams of the wind direction for each month.
These again might be utilised for the making of a compo-
site wind diagram for twelve months, and from the results
of a series of years the direction of the prevailing winds
would in course of time be exhibited on the charts (Fig. 170).

318

SUGGESTIONS FOR WEATHER STUDY.

The total rainfall for each month should be noted and
comparative tables of the same drawn up.*

The teacher will be able in course of time to indicate
from a study of the charts, besides the direction of the pre-
vailing winds already noted, such points as a relation

S.E.

Fig. 170.— Wind Star : it records 2 days N., 5 days N.W., 6 days W., 1 day S.W.,
4 days S. wind. (Adapted from F. Mort.)

between rain and certain directions of the wind, or between
certain types of cloud and certain kinds of weather. But
these things can only be arrived at after continued ex-
perience of a district, and conclusions should not be
forced.

* The teacher will find many useful suggestions in Hints to
Meteorological Observers, prepared under the direction of the Council
of the Royal Meteorological Society by Wm. Marriott, F.R.Met.Soc.
London : Edward Stanford.

| S 1 8

*s
f

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pd
43

1 a
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0 6 o'S

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6 °' 6

<73 O ^
02 £

Temperature.

0 IQ 1Q *Q

n O C5 GO

jc co e

OJ J^

III

c^ fl O

+ i i

4_5

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Tft Oi Tt<

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Barometer.

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CO O O

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CO TlH IO

319

320 SUGGESTIONS FOR WEATHER STUDY.

Cyclones and Anticyclones.

For senior pupils exercises in the charting of the weather
over a large area should be given. This kind of exercise
is valuable in demonstrating to the pupils the existence of
cyclones and anticyclones, and in rendering them familiar
with the general basis upon which weather forecasting is
carried out. Two exercises of this kind are appended, one
to illustrate the existence of a cyclone, and the other of an
anticyclone.

Maps for the purpose of weather charting on these lines
may be bought very cheaply from the Meteorological Office,
63 Victoria Street, London. Their official designation is
M.O. Form 227.

Fig. 171 represents this map — reduced to a scale of f,
with some of the details omitted. It shows the various
meteorological stations in Western Europe where the
records are taken of height of barometer, direction and
force of wind, etc., from which the weather forecasts are
prepared. The direction and force of the wind are indi-
cated on the chart by means of various types of arrows as
shown in the "explanations " on Figs. 172, 173.

Exercise.

From the data supplied on p. 321 fill in upon the map in
clear figures and symbols the barometric pressure, direction
and force of wind at the stations shown. Connect by
isobaric lines the regions of equal pressure. The lines need
not be carried directly through the stations upon the map,
but when the general line of equal pressure has been de-
termined by a careful examination of the figures entered
on the map it should be indicated by a sweeping curve
along it (see Figs. 172, 173).

SUGGESTIONS FOR WEATHER STUDY.

321

Barometric Readings, Direction, and Force of the wind as
registered at the Stations named on the dates mentioned. The
barometric readings have been corrected to 32° F. and to mean sea-
level. For key to the figures indicating Force of Wind, see map.

Station.

14 January, 1901. 8 a.m.

3 August, 1908. 7 a.m.

Barometer.

Wind.

Barometer.

Wind.

Direction

Force

Direction.

Force.

Inches.

Haparanda

29-36

S.E.

29-88

Hernosand

29-06

S.E.

29-93

N.E.

Stockholm

23-80

29-88

N.W.

Wisby ... ' ...

28-86

s.w.

29-87

N.N.W.

Karlstad

28-68

30-03

—

Bodo

28-96

29-99

Christiansund ...

28-62

E.S.E.

29-95

—

Skudesnaes

28-54

30-13

W.N.W.

Sumburgh Head

28-33

N.E.

30-09

Stornoway

28-49

N.W.

30-27

Malin Head ...

28-69

W.N.W.

30-37

Blacksod Point...

28-91

N.W.

30-42

S.S.W.

Valencia

29-02

30-44

—

Holyhead

28-85

80-41

w.s.w.

SciJly

29-25

30-40

N.E.

Aberdeen

28-43

W.N.W.

30-24

S.S.E.

North Shields ...

28-63

S.W.

30-33

S.W.

Yarmouth

28-89

w.s.w.

30-40

N.N.W.

Nottingham

28-84

s.w.

30-40

London

29-00

w.s.w.

30-39 -

The Skaw

28-72

30-04

W.S.W.

Fano

28-90

S.S.W.

30-20

N.W.

Cuxhaven

29-04

s.s.w.

30-25

N.W.

Brussels

29-17

s.w.

30-37

N.E.

Berlin

29-30

S.W.

30-15

Frankfort

29-37

30-32

N.E.

Munich

29-63

s.w.

30-28

N.W.

Brest

29-43

N.W.

30-39

N.E.

Rochefort

29-73

w.s.w.

30-20

N.E. •

Biarritz

30-00

w.s.w.

30-11

Paris

29-43

30'36

N.E.

Belfort

29-62

w.s.w.

30-23

E.N.E.

Lyons

29-85

30-20

N.N.W.

Nice

29-99

N.W.

30-01

—

Perpignan

29-99

S.W.

30-04

—

Lisbon

30-32

s.w.

29-92

N.N.E.

N. S.

322 SUGGESTIONS FOR WEATHER STUDY.

On the completed map note the following : —

Cyclone. — Chart of 14th January 1904.

As we follow the general directions of the wind as indi-
cated by the arrows, we note they move anti-clockwise
with an inward bias. This is the characteristic type of
wind in a cyclone. The differences in force of the wind as
indicated by the different types of arrow are due to local
factors at the various places, but it will be noted that the
general trend is not altered.

Next we observe that the lowest pressure is in the
centre of the area swept by the isobaric lines and that the
pressure increases regularly outward. This is the second
distinctive feature of a cyclone. At the centre there is a
dead calm. In this particular case the isobars are very
close, indicating a steep gradient of pressure. In a cyclone
the air rises ; in cooling by expansion, water vapour is
condensed and rain falls. As it progresses over an area,
the wind gradually changes its direction, and after the
centre is passed the weather clears (see Fig. 172).

" The succession of the weather is the same in each
cyclone ; but the intensity of it depends on the gradient
of pressure. If of very great size and the diminution of
pressure in the centre very slight, gentle winds and light
showers only will be produced. If the cyclone is of small
dimensions (less than 100 miles across) and the diminution
of pressure in the centre is great, terrific winds and de-
luges of rain result." (Mill.)

Anti-cyclone — Chart of 3rd August 1908.

Following the general wind directions we see here that
their trend is opposite to that of the cyclone ; that is, they
move in the directions of the hands of the clock. Further,
the arrows tend to point outward from the centre.

Secondly, the highest pressure is in the centre, whilst
there is a regular fall outward. In this particular case
the gradient is much less steep than in that of the cyclone
quoted above. As to the weather characteristic of an anti-
cyclone we cannot do better than quote from Mill. In an

SUGGESTIONS FOE WEATHER STUDY. 323

M.O. Form 227 (slightly modified and greatly reduced).

BOD

EYDISFJORD

CHRISTIANSUND,
{JTHORSHAVN

HAPARANDA

HERNO

ARLSTAD

SUNBURGH HP? SKUDESNAEsJs '
' *

STORNOWA£yv~p> THE*

MALIN HD,

VALENCIA'

BRUSSELS ^FRANKFURT

CORUNN

LISBOU

•MUNICH
•BELFORT

LYONS

BIARRITZ IfERPIGNAI^j °'X

FIG. 171. — Map showing principal stations at which meteorological data are collected
for British Meteorological Office. Such a map should be drawn upon blackboard
and the exercises on D. 320 earned out. For the oorrmlet.fid charts see Ficra. 172. 173.

324

SUGGESTIONS FOR WEATHER STUDY.

•36

EXPLANATION
•»— ^violent gale: * — >gale:

afresh to strong: ocalm.

Alight to moderate: J

FIG. 172.— Weather Chart for 14th January, 1904, showing barometric pressure,
direction and force of the wind at the principal stations in Western Europe.
Chart compiled from data given on p. 321. An illustration of a Cyclone.

SUGGESTIONS FOB WEATHER STUDY.

325

299

9-88

30-0

EXPLANATION
•»— >violent gale: >- — >gale:

->fresh to strong: o calm
^ light to moderate:

Fro. 173.— Weather Chart for 3rd August, 1908. Compiled from data given on
p. 321. An illustration of an anti-cyclone.

326 SUGGESTIONS FOB WEATHER STUDY.

anti-cyclone in summer " the weather is brilliant, hot,
calm, with haze at night or heavy deposits of dew, on
account of great cooling by radiation." In winter " an
anti-cyclone is calm and clear, and by intense radiation the
land cools down greatly at night and the temperature of
the air falls. This is the condition required for long spells
of frost, and in large towns and over lakes and estuaries it
produces dense, low-lying fogs."

With regard to weather studies to be made in connection
with times of leafing, etc., of trees, habits of animals, agri-
cultural operations, etc. (phenology), see pp. 10, 41.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

SCHOOL EdUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT.

AESTHETIC SURROUNDINGS.

WE have emphasised as an important aim in these
studies the cultivation of an appreciation of the aesthetic
aspects of nature. This aim is to be attained in a measure
by passive means, and of these aesthetic surroundings play
an important part.

Outside the school, if there is a garden, let it be as far
as possible a garden beautiful, with trees, shrubs, and
flower-beds well kept. In planning such a garden, how-
ever small it may be, try to plan it so that the practical
experimental plots do not occupy too obtrusive a place.
In school gardening cultivate an interest in flowers as well
as vegetable?.

Within the school grow ferns and flowers in pots and
have cut flowers in season. Pains should be taken to rear
healthy and beautiful plants. Further, as already sug-
gested, it is important that such plants be used for lesson
purposes, and that the pupils should learn, something of
their nature and general life-history. These objects will
thus be noticed more closely, and are thus more likely to
exercise a beneficent influence upon the pupils. The ideal
under this head should be the existence of an aesthetic
atmosphere about the school, or at all events about certain
of the classrooms which are more especially devoted to
nature work.

327

328 SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT.

AQUARIUM.

Under this somewhat high sounding title is here indi-
cated the vessel or vessels in which fresh-water animals
and plants are kept. According to circumstances it may
mean simply a moderately sized glass jar in which there is
a supply of water, sand or mud from a neighbouring pond
or ditch — selected in spring time in the first instance,
perhaps because of the minute animal life seen to abound

Fig. 174. — Various types of Aquarium Jars.

1, consists of wooden frame, slate base, glass sides, and lid of wire gauze. Within
are some rough stones rising above the level of the water. Change of water is
effected by siphon. This type is suitable for newts, sticklebacks, water beetles, etc.
Size about 28 by 18 by 18 inches. 2, glass jar for gnats, etc. ; 3, younger tadpoles ;
4, frogs' spawn ; 5, older tadpoles ; 6, water fleas.

in it. Some of the water weed growing in the pond or
ditch should also be included. Of course, if it is so desired,
a large tank, which in such a case should be more or less
ornate externally, may be used.

The writer has found that for teaching purposes a series
of ordinary glass jars of various sizes, preferably with flat
sides, has many advantages, and that such an arrangement
is by no means detrimental to the inmates. For a beginner
they are certainly most suitable. Such a series is figured
above (Fig. 174).

In these jars the following animal types may be success-
fully kept. For particulars of lessons to be taught see
p. 182.

SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT. 329

Newts. — If these cannot be conveniently obtained out of
doors in the school neighbourhood, they may be obtained
at a small cost from naturalist dealers. Newts should be
kept in a fairly large vessel containing water with a muddy
or sandy bottom. A quantity of moss should be placed
in the water. This must be so arranged that the newts
can swim in the water or leave it and creep amongst the
moss at will. A moderately sized flat stone, on which the
animals can rest out of the water, is also useful. In the
same vessel may be kept a few water beetles, but in all
cases overcrowding must be avoided (Fig. 1741).

Feed the newts by placing from time to time a few
tadpoles in the water. Watch how the slow-moving newt
stalks and eventually captures its youthful and much more
active relative. When tadpoles are not available the
newts may be fed upon a small (live) earthworm. Dangle
quietly the worm over the snout of the newt ; if hungry it
will seize it. Should the worm not be taken after a
reasonable interval do not leave it in the water ; take it
away and try again the following day. Guard against
overfeeding, and do not allow dead flesh of any sort to lie
long in the jar. If water beetles are present, these will
attack such flesh, but the presence of much material of
this kind must be avoided. A few examples of the so-
called fresh-water shrimp (Gammarus) might also find a
place in this jar, especially if the bottom is at all muddy.

Frogs' Spawn, Tadpoles. — In the spring a dish of frogs'
spawn and another of toads' should be obtained. Spawn
keeps well in a shallow dish such as an enamelled basin or
pie-dish shape, of size about 12" x 8". Some water weed,
e.g. duck weed (Lemna minor) or starwort, should be placed
in the vessel. The spawn should be kept in a moderately
warm place and in a good light. In its early stages it
may be given direct sunlight for a shoj-t time daily. It
must of course not be neglected so as to become dry. The
hatched embryos may be left in this dish until they become
free swimming tadpoles requiring to be fed. Then they
may be removed to a taller vessel with a muddy bottom
containing pond water rich in minute vegetable and animal

330 SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT.

life. Some weed, e.g. Canadian pond weed, water starwort,
should be growing in the vessel.

In their later stages tadpoles may be given very small
particles of meat, bread or fish, but great care must be
taken that such is not left to rot and pollute the contents
of the vessel. Have some fresh- water shrimps (Gammarus)
present. After the hind limbs have appeared the tadpoles
will thrive better in a shallow dish which contains moss or
stones, enabling the tadpoles to rest with their nostrils
above water. When the frogs are developed, and their
final changes from the tadpole stage demonstrated, they
should be taken to the side of a ditch or pond and set at
liberty. This is a point of great importance, and should
on no account be omitted.

Water Fleas. — These can usually be found in great
abundance in pools on moors or marshy places. A jar
containing a supply of these constitutes a pleasing centre
of observational interest and study. For observational
purposes they are best kept in a flat jar of the shape shown
in Fig. 1746. Mud should be placed at the bottom, and
from time to time the "fleas" should be given a little
direct sunlight. Examine with the help of a magnifier
mounted on a handle.

Gnats, Pond Skaters, Whirligig Beetles. — A jar exposing
a large surface of water and of moderate depth is best for
these. A sandy bottom with weeds growing out of the
water around the margin is also conducive to success with
these and also give an attractive appearance to the vessel.
The surface of the water should be some distance from the
top of the jar. Such a vessel containing larval gnats, pond
skaters, whirligig beetles, pond snails, affords excellent
opportunities for the study of the properties of the surface
film of water, and of the various uses small animals make
of it. This jar should have a wire gauze (small mesh) or
muslin cover, to prevent the escape of the inmates.

Various other common inmates of pools may be found
by the enthusiastic collector, such as water boatmen, water
scorpions, water spiders, water mites, flat worms, pond

SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT. 331

snail of various types, and so on. These, along with water
fleas and fresh-water shrimps, may be kept together in a
vessel similar to the foregoing.

In general aquarium jars should be kept away from
direct sunlight, e.g. in a north window. They should all
contain water weed, of which a variety of kinds should be
kept. The weeds not only render the vessels more attrac-
tive-looking, but they act as a shelter from too strong
light, and to some extent enable hunted creatures to escape

Fig. 175.— Salmon or Trout Boxes.

In the bottom of each box there is a layer of clean sand. A piece of wire gauze
covers the opening (on the inside) of each outflow pipe, preventing the escape of
the young fish. A constant drip of water is sufficient.

when pursued. They further serve the important purpose
of aerating the water, and in some cases also serve as food
to the inmates of these artificial pools.

The foregoing remarks apply exclusively to fresh-water
aquaria. Marine aquaria are a little, more difficult of
management, but for schools situated near the sea these
difficulties can be overcome. Teachers desirous of equip-
ping a marine aquarium should commence by growing the
commoner and more attractive-looking sea- weeds. When
these have established themselves, animals such as sea

332 SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT.

anemones, Crustacea, molluscs, small fish, may then gradu-
ally be introduced.

In schools where a supply of running water is available
a series of boxes arranged as shown in Fig. 175 affords
opportunities for the rearing of young trout or salmon, the
keeping of caddis-fly, may-fly, and stone-fly larvae, and
other forms of aquatic life which thrive best in running
water. Trout or salmon larvae may be purchased quite
cheaply and the development can be followed for some
months, and constitutes a fascinating study (Fig. 176).
Such a set of boxes should have a bottom of clean sand or
gravel for trout or salmon rearing, for caddis and other
larvae material from the bed of the stream whence the
larvae have been taken is best.

Rearing boxes of this kind are well suited for work in
town schools where the water supply is abundant, but in the
country a tub or fair- sized barrel, not too deep, set below a
dripping tap and having a sandy bottom will be found excel-
lent, and numerous forms of aquatic life will be found to
thrive well in such an " aquarium."

INSECT REARING CAGES.

The rearing of insects is now so much practised in school
that little advice is required on this subject. Various
types of cage have been devised, illustrations of which are
given below. These are all intended for Lepidoptera.

Besides Lepidoptera, it is desirable that one or two other
types of insect life should be studied in this particular
way. As an illustration of a beetle life-history an excel-
lent case is that of the "meal worm" (Tenebrio molitor).
The larvae may be had from bird and animal dealers, who
use them for feeding purposes. A dozen or two of these
should be placed in a clean glass vessel amongst clean
bran.

If the vessel has flat sides and is not too wide, the move-
ments, feeding, etc., of the larvae will be under observation.
They may also be kept in a cardboard or wooden box. In
any case the stages in the life-history can be followed

Fig. 176.— Stages in the development of the Salmon which may be followed in
rearing boxes at school.

1, the egg ; 2, the egg just before hatching ; 3, the newly hatched salmon ; 4 and
5, stages of growth illustrating the gradual absorption of yolk ; 6, the young salmon
with yolk all used up ; only now does it commence to feed. From stage 3 to 6
occupies about six weeks. The small figures at the side Indicate the natural sizes
(y.s. = yolk sac).

333

334 SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT.

without difficulty by turning the contents out on to a dish
from time to time. The opportunity should be used, of
course, to point out the structural differences in all three
stages — larva, pupa, imago — observable externally between
beetle and butterfly, and these stages should be drawn.
Care should be taken not to allow the adult beetles to
escape.

A third type of life-history may be followed in the crane
fly or " daddy-long-legs." The larvae of these may be

Fig. 177.— Cage for the pro
tection of Caterpillars
reared out of doors.

Fig. 178.— Cage for rearing of
Insects indoors.

found in old pastures and in cornfields feeding on roots of
grasses and cereals. If got in spring they may be kept
amongst soil and the experiment tried of growing oats
therein. It will be found that they feed upon the roots
of the growing corn. Endeavour to complete the life-
history by keeping them supplied with food — grass and
corn roots.

SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT. 335

The soil may be turned over from time to time and the
increase in size of the larvae noted. Here again the
structural feature of the three stages should be compared
with other types. The adults may appear any time be-
tween June and September, depending upon the species,
weather, and other circumstances. This study is an im-
portant one for a school situated in an agricultural district,
since the destructive nature of the crane fly or " daddy-
long-legs " is not sufficiently well known (see p. 311).

Observational beehives or formicaria. — These may be
obtained from various dealers, and where they can be
afforded are most interesting objects of study.

COLLECTIONS.

When once the enthusiasm of pupils and teachers has
been aroused it will not be found difficult to make a col-
lection of natural objects suitable for lesson demonstrations.
Such collections will be found useful when weather con-
ditions are unfavourable for outdoor work or when fresh
lesson materials are scarce. They are of special importance
in town schools. As illustrations the following are men-
tioned as of value, but of course this is a case where oppor-
tunities will largely determine the nature of the collections
made.

Teeth.

Set of molar teeth (one of each type) — of dog or cat,
(flesh cutting or bone crushing), horse (grain or herb
bruising), ox (herb bruising or teasing), rabbit (herb
bruising), pig (omnivorous type), man (omnivorous
type). Such a group might profitably be extended to
include incisors and canines as well.

This collection is useful as illustrating the structural
adaptations in mammals to different types of diet.

336 SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT.

Coverings of Animals.

(a) Hairs and their modifications. — Fur of mole (bur-
rowing type) ; piece of hedgehog's skin with
spines (specialised protective type) ; skin of
weasel (ordinary f ur) ; skin of stoat, summer
and winter varieties (seasonally adapted type) ;
wool of sheep ; bristles of hog ; fur of rabbit,
hare, or squirrel ; seal's skin ; skin of porpoise or
dolphin (aquatic type).

(&) Feathers. — Set of pigeon's feathers from different
parts of the body mounted on a card. Large quill
feather dissected on card to show different parts.
Wing of pigeon, dried expanded on a board, and
then displayed to show arrangement and kinds of
feathers on this organ. Set of feathers to show
brilliance in colouration.

(c) Scales. — An interesting object, if it can be obtained,
is the moulted scales (slough) of a snake. This
is sometimes to be found on the moors or hillsides.
It may be more readily obtained from an animal
dealer.

To complete such a set, a few scales of dif-
ferent fishes might be mounted on a card with a
glass front.

Collections of shells. — Such a collection, owing to its
value in different ways, should be part of the nature study
equipment in all schools. Foreign shells often exhibit
great beauty of colour and sculpturing, and these are not
difficult to obtain, but an endeavour should be made to
secure a set of British examples, both marine and terrestrial,
such as are referred to in the lesson on shells. See p. 147.

Collections of butterflies and moths. — These can be built
up in part from the types reared in school. An interest-
ing set can be made of a large number of individuals of
the same species, e.g. of tiger moth or magpie moth. These
are useful to illustrate the important fact of variation.

Other natural objects, e.g. common minerals, stuffed
mammals or birds, etc.

SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT. 337

METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The school should certainly be supplied with a good baro-
meter with thermometer attached, a wet and dry bulb
thermometer, and rain gauge. A maximum and minimum
thermometer will also be found useful. The barometer
should be placed in a secure position about five feet from
the ground, away from any source of artificial heat likely
to affect the readings unduly. The thermometer should
be fixed at a convenient height for reading facing the
north out of doors. The rain gauge must be placed in an
open space, clear of all buildings, and fixed in the ground
so that it cannot be overturned. A useful and attractive
adjunct is a series of water-colour drawings of the typical
cloud forms. These should be of a good size and hung in
a good light in the school-room.

THE TEACHEE.

There are some rare individuals, generally spoken of as
born naturalists and teachers, whose presence and conver-
sation are sufficient to impart to their pupils an interest
in the subject of their discourse. They carry with them
all the charm of nature. They may not really be born
naturalists : only a few of them are. But they have pon-
dered much over Nature's ways, they have drunk of her
spirit, they have probed her secrets, and have fought their
way to a clear understanding of them. With leaf or
flower, insect or pebble in hand, out of a mind enriched
with nature lore they can attract attention, quicken the
intellect, impart knowledge, create abiding interest.

In treating of school equipment it is well to emphasise
the importance of the attitude of the teacher to his subject.
Enthusiasm is essential to the highest success in teaching
generally ; without it " Nature Study " is in danger of be-
coming " stale, flat, and -unprofitable." Let the teacher
N. s. 22

338 SCHOOL EQUIPMENT AND ITS MANAGEMENT.

cultivate an enthusiasm born of first-hand acquaintance
with the facts and phenomena of which he has to speak,
let him learn if need be along with his pupils. Let him
cultivate the fine art of seeing ; next, that of appreciating,
not forgetting to appreciate the beautiful ; once begun, he
will pass to wonder, that is to inquiry. If he ask questions,
if he seek to understand, and especially if he put his
questions to Nature directly, he will gain that authority
which is born of understanding and that love of his work
which commands success.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN
THIS WORK.

The terms included here are exclusively such as it has been found necessary to
use in the foregoing work. The list embraces all likely to puzzle the average reader
unfamiliar with Biology. Some have been incidentally explained in the text and
are again included here. The list may be taken as representative of the minimum
of terminology necessary for those engaged in Nature Study, and it is hoped that
teachers to whom the expressions are unfamiliar will take pains to master their
exact significance.

achene: a dry single- seeded non-
splitting fruit.

aetinomorphic : rayed in form,
i.e. with radial symmetry.

adnate : applied to the union of
unlike parts, e.g. stamens and
petals. •

adventitious : generally applied
to roots or buds developed on
unusual parts of the plant ;
adventitious roots may in the
absence of a taproot develop
from the base of the stem.

ala : wing ; alate : winged.

angiosperm : a plant in which
the ovules are contained with-
in closed carpels, in contrast
to gymnosperms, where the
ovules develop in an exposed
position.

Annelida : a class of ringed or
segmented worms.

anther : the portion of the stamen
in which the pollen is formed.

antheridium : the organ pro-
ducing male elements in the
group to which ferns and
mosses belong.

anthocyan: a type of pigment
widely distributed amongst
higher plants.

archegpnium : the organ produc-
ing female elements in ferns,
mosses, and liverworts.

arillus : a growth upon a seed,
commonly fleshy or hairy, e.g.
the fleshy cup upon the seed
of the Yew.

assimilation : the process in
living bodies in which food
materials are transformed into
living substance.

awn : a bristle-like structure
occurring in the flowers of
certain grasses.

bast : the tissue in the fibro-
vascular bundles which serves
to conduct elaborated food
materials.

berry : a fruit in which all the
parts around the seeds except
the skin become fleshy.

bract : a leaf in the axil of which
a flower or flowering branch
arises.

bracteole : a small bract some-
times found on the flower-
stalk of plants (secondary
bract).

bud : an undeveloped shoot.

339

340

GLOSSARY.

bulb : a reduced underground
shoot whose leaves are thick
and fleshy with stored food.

calcar : a small nodule occurring
on the inner side of the hind
foot of frogs and toads.

calyx : the outer whorl of a
flower, viz. the sepals.

cambium : the layer between
the wood and bast in which
growth resulting in increase
in thickness of stems and
roots takes place.

capsule : a dry fruit opening
when ripe to allow of the
escape of seeds.

carina : a keel ; applied to the
ridge upon the breastbone of
a flying bird. Also to the an-
terior petals in a papiliona-
ceous flower.

carpel : the part of the flower in
which the ovules develop (see
ovary).

catkin : a close -set, more or
less elongated inflorescence in
which the flowers are uni-
sexual.

cell : the unit of living matter,
plant or animal. It consists
of at least a nucleus and sur-
rounding plasma.

chalaza : the thickened cords of
albumen to be seen in a fowl's

egg-
chlorophyll .: the green colouring

matter in plants,
chloroplast : the small proto-
plasmic bodies in plants con-
taining chlorophyll,
chrysalis : the stage between
larva and adult in lepidop-
terous insects in which meta-
morphosis takes place,
cocoon : the case of silky hairs
which encloses the pupa of
many insects. Also applied

to the cases in which the eggs
of spiders and other inverte-
brates are enclosed.

conidia : non-sexual reproduc-
tive bodies occurring in cer-
tain moulds.

Coniferae : cone-bearing trees.

cork : an impermeable tissue
arising under the epidermis in
stems and roots.

corm : a reduced swollen under-
ground stem containing food
reserves.

corolla : the inner whorl of floral
parts, next to the calyx —
usually coloured, — the petals
(see perianth).

cortex : the layer of tissue in a
stem immediately below the
epidermis.

corymb : a flat-topped inflores-
cence, in which the individual
flower-stalks arise at different
levels (contrast umbel).

cotyledon : the leaf or leaves of
the embryo within the seed.

Crustacea : a class of Arthropod
animals, almost entirely aqua-
tic, whose cuticles contain
carbonate of lime and which
have thus a hard shell-like
exterior.

cuneate : wedge-shaped.

cupule : a cluster of bracts (in-
volucre) united to form a
kind of cup investing certain
fruits, e.g. acorn.

cuticle : a layer secreted upon
the outside of epidermal cells.

decussate : an arrangement of
leaves in pairs crossed at right
angles to each other.

dicotyledon : having two embry-
onic or seed leaves.

drupe : a fleshy fruit whose in-
nermost layer (endocarp) is
hard and stony.

GLOSSARY.

341

ecology : the branch of study
•which considers the relations
of organisms and their envi-
ronment.

embryo : the young plant or
animal prior to the stage at
which it feeds itself.

endosperm : a nutritive tissue
occurring in some seeds and
absorbed by the young plant
at germination.

epicalyx : a ring of bract-like
leaves occurring on some
flowers just outside the true
calyx.

epidermis : the outermost skin
layer.

epigynous : a type of flower in
which the head of the flower-
stalk grows around and above
the ovary uniting with it, so
that the remaining parts of the
flower arise upon its margin.

fertilisation : the union of male
and female elements which
results in the development of
a living organism.

fibro- vascular bundles : the sys-
tem of vessels which conduct
nutrient materials in all higher
plants, including ferns, etc.

filament : the slender portion of
the stamen which bears the
anther.

floral diagram: a diagram to
illustrate the relations of the
several parts of a flower to
each other.

floral formula : a formula to illus-
trate the numbers of the parts
of a flower and their relations.

follicle : a dry fruit consisting
of a single carpel, which opens
when ripe along the ventral
or seed-bearing margin.

frond : a leaf of a fern.

funicle : the stalk of the ovule
or seed.

germination : the commence-
ment of growth of the embryo
within a seed.

gland : an organ which produces
(secretes) a substance or sub-
stances of use to an animal or
plant.

glumes : the scales or bracts
enclosing a grass spikelet.

gymnosperm : a plant in which
the ovules develop in an ex-
posed position (e.g. Coniferae),
in contrast to angiosperms
where the ovules are contain-
ed within closed carpels.

haemoglobin : the red colouring
matter in blood.

heterpstyly : applied to flowers
which exhibit styles of more
than one length, e.g. primrose.

hypogynous : the type of flower
in which the whorls occur in
succession upon more or less
elongated receptacle, the ovary
being uppermost, i.e. superior.

igneous : of fiery origin.

imago : an adult. Generally
applied to the mature insect
after metamorphosis.

imbricate : overlapping, e.g. se-
pals or petals in bud.

indusium : the membranous
covering of the sporangia in
ferns.

inflorescence : the whole part of
a plant upon which flowers are
borne.

invertebrate : without backbone.
Invertebrates have no bones of
any kind.

involucre : a close -set series of
bracts around inflorescence or
flower-head, e.g. Dandelion.

isobars : lines of equal barome-
tric pressure.

342

GLOSSARY.

lamina : the thin flattened por-
tion of a leaf ; the blade.

lanceolate : narrow and pointed ;
lance- shaped.

larva : the active young of an
animal when it is in structure
and habits unlike the parent,
e.g. caterpillars or tadpoles.

lateral line : a line which may
be seen on the side of a bony
fish's body. It is sensory in
function.

legume : see pod.

lenticel : a place in the bark of
a tree where the cork cells are
loosely packed, permitting in-
terchange of gases.

lipochrome : a group ot pig-
ments occurring in organ-
isms. They vary from red to
yellow.

lymph : that part of the blood
plasma which conveys nourish-
ment to the tissues. It is the
intermediary between the tis-
sues and the blood.

Mendel's law : a law of inherit-
ance according to which
mated individuals exhibiting
certain mutually exclusive
characters give rise to off-
spring amongst which these
characters are distributed in
definite proportions.

metamorphosis : the change of
form undergone by some
animals before reaching the
adult state.

mollusca : soft-bodied inverte-
brate animals, mostly with
limy shells, e.g. Snail, Oyster.

monocotyledon : having only one
seed leaf (sometimes a second,
in a vestigial condition, is pre-
sent).

mycelium : the substance of a
fungus distinct from repro-

ductive parts, consisting of a
mass of interlacing branching
threads (liyphae}.

nectary : a part of a plant pro-
ducing sweet stuff for the
attraction of visitors.

nut : a dry non-splitting fruit
having woody walls, and con-
taining a single seed..

obovate : a reversed ovate form ;
broadest at free end, e.g.
leaves of Alder.

orbicular : rounded, approaching
the circular in outline.

ovary: the hollow part of the
carpel or carpels in which the
ovules develop.

ovate : approaching the shape of
an egg in outline. Applied to
leaves which ar*e rounded,
longer than broad, and broad-
est towards the base.

ovule : the developing seed, prior
to fertilisation.

palea : the scale or bract ad-
jacent to the flower in a grass
(the glumes occur outside the
palea).

palisade layer : the close - set
layer of cells, longer than
broad, lying below the upper
epidermis of a leaf.

palmate : shaped like the palm,
with spreading lobes.

pappus : the circlet of soft hairs
seen on the fruits of many
compositae, e.g. Dandelion.
It represents the calyx.

pectoral : relating to the breast,
e.g. pectoral muscle; pectoral
fin.

pedicel : the stalk of a single
flower.

GLOSSARY.

343

peduncle : the stalk or axis of an
entire inflorescence.

pelvic : relating to the hip girdle,
e.g. pelvic fins of fishes.

pendulous : drooping, e.g. many
catkins.

penninerved : a type of leaf
having the veins arranged like
the barbs in a feather.

perennial : persisting for three
or more years.

perianth : the outer parts of a
flower, a term generally used
when calyx and corolla cannot
be separately distinguished.

pericarp : the wall of the fruit.
It generally consists of three
layers — epicarp, mesocarp,
endocarp.

perigynous : a type of flower in
which the receptacle is flat or
cup-like, and the sepals, petals,
and stamens are placed apart
from the ovary.

petals : the parts of the corolla
usually showily coloured.

petiole : leaf -stalk.

phenology : the study of the
periodic appearances of plants
and animals in relation to the
seasons.

pinnae : the lobes into which
fern fronds are usually divided.
They may be simple or them-
selves divided into pinnules.
Also the external ear lobes of
mammals.

pinnate : a type of leaf in which
the lobes or leaflets are ar-
ranged in serial pairs.

pinnatifid : a type of leaf having
slight lobes cleft in series like
the parts of a feather. The
notches between the lobes
extend about halfway to the
midrib.

pinnule : the lobes into which
the pinnae of fern fronds may
be cut.

placenta : the part of a plant on
which the ovules develop.

plumule : the young shoot which
emerges from the seed at ger-
mination.

pod : a dry fruit, consisting of
a single carpel, which opens
along both ventral (seed-bear-
ing) and dorsal margins.

pollen : the fertilising substance
of flowering plants.

pollination : the application of
the pollen grains to the stigma.

pome : a succulent fruit whose
fleshy part is formed from the
receptacle, e.g. Apple, Rowan.

prickles : sharp spiny structures
arising from the epidermis of
plants. They do not contain
wood. Contrast spines.

proboscis : a general term ap-
plied to the mouth parts col-
lectively of insects.

procumbent : applied to stems
lying along the ground but not
rooting.

prolegs: the temporary loco-
motor structures occurring
upon the hind body (abdomen)
or insects.

proterandry : male elements
maturing before female.

prothallus: the body which
bears the sexual organs in the
fern and allied plants. The
sexual generation.

protogyny : female elements ma-
turing before male.

pupa : the stage between larva
and imago in which meta-
morphosis in insects takes
place. It is of more general
significance than the term
chrysalis.

raceme : an elongate inflores-
cence in which the flowers are
borne on simple stalks.

344

GLOSSAET.

rachis : the main axis (midrib)
of a compound leaf or of an
inflorescence. Also applied to
the shaft of a feather.

radicle : the root of the embryo
plant which emerges from the
seed on germination.

receptacle : the top of the flower-
stalk from which the parts of
the flower arise.

rhizoid : the structures which
perform the work of roots in
mosses and in the prothallus
of ferns. They are not true
roots.

rhizome : an underground stem
or rootstock giving rise above
to buds and leaves, and to
adventitious roots below.

runner : a creeping shoot grow-
ing along the surface and
rooting and giving rise to
buds at the nodes.

samara : a dry, non-splitting
winged fruit, e.g. as in Ash,
Elm, Birch, etc.

sepals : the parts of the outer-
most whorl of the flower, i.e.
the calyx.

serrate : toothed like a saw.

sessile : without stalk.

silicula : a short and broad
fruit of the siliqua type, e.g.
fruit of Shepherd's Purse.

siliqua : a slender pod-like fruit,
whose two valves split off
leaving the seeds attached to
the margins of a middle mem-
branous partition, e.g. fruit of
Wallflower.

sorus : a cluster of spore -con-
taining capsules (sporangia)
occurring on the fronds of
ferns.

spine : a sharp woody structure ;
a modified branch, leaf, or leaf
stalk.

spiracle : an opening leading
into the breathing system of
insects.

sporangium : the spore -contain-
ing capsules on the fronds of
ferns.

stamen : the essential male
structure in a flower. A sta-
men consists of a stalk (fila-
ment) which bears an anther
(pollen-producing part) at its
tip. The filament is continued
up the back of the anther as
the connective.

ctigma : the part at the ter-
minal portion of the style
which is modified for the re-
ception of the pollen grains.

stipules : leaf-like appendages
at the base of the leaf stalk,
characteristic of certain plants.

stomata : openings upon the
epidermis of leaves and young
stems for gaseous interchange
and transpiration of moisture.

style : the upper part of the
carpel or carpels, usually
elongated, which bears the
stigma.

tarsus : the ankle region in
vertebrates. The terminal
joints in the legs of insects.

testa : the coat of the seed.

thorax : the chest region. In
insects the middle division of
the body consisting of three
fused segments.

transpiration : the giving off by
leaves of water absorbed by
the roots.

tuber : a portion of an under-
ground stem or adventitious
root thickened with food store.

umbel : a flat- topped inflorescence
in which all the flower-stalks
arise at the same level, laterally
from a reduced main axis.

GLOSSARY.

345

umbilicus : a term applied to
the pillar-opening in univalve
shells ; also to the openings
at the base and top of the
quill of a feather.

valvate : an arrangement of the
outer parts of the flower bud
where the edges meet but do
not overlap.

venation : the arrangement of
the veins in a leaf.

versatile : a mode of attachment
of anther to filament in which
the former has free movement
and swings readily, e.g. an-
thers of grasses.

vertebrate : the division of the
animal kingdom which is
characterised by the posses-
sion of a backbone.

whorl : a circle of similar struc-
tures, e. g. leaves or floral parts,
arising at the same level.

xanthophyll : a yellow vegetable
pigment occurring in associa-
tion with chlorophyll.

zygomorphic : divisible in one
plane only into two similar
parts, i.e. showing bilateral
symmetry.

INDEX

Abraxas, 153, 160.

Actinomorphic, 28, 60.

Adaptations in birds, 97.

„ in fresh-water ani-

mals, 186.

„ in plants, 24, 37, 202,

212, 214, 299.

Aesthetics, 3, 22, 23, 34, 67, 237,
288, 327.

Agricultural operations, 10, 40.

Agriotes, 313.

Air bladder in fishes, 72.

Air sacs in birds, 108.

Alder, 246, 258.

Alder flies, 188.

Altitude, 38, 39, 315.

Alum crystals, 65.

Amaryllideae, 199.

Amphibia, 180.

Analyses, 48.

AncyluSj 149.

Anemone, Wood, 11, 197.

Animal activities, 23.

Animal inhabitants of soil, 46.

Annelida, 182.

Antennae, 164.

Antheridium, 274.

Anthers, 234, 235.

Anticyclone, 322.

Ants, 168.

Aphides, 307.

Apple, 243, 246.

ApteryXy 94.

Aquarium, 328.

„ animals, 21, 180, 329.

Aquarium studies, 33, 182.
Archaeopteryx, 102, 105.
Archegonium, 274.
Arion, 304.
Aroideae, 199.
Ash, 26, 237, 241, 251, 261.
Autumn leaves, 26, 30, 43, 224.
Avens (wood), 242.

Bacteria, 277.

Barberry, 222.

Bast, 211, 257.

Bats, 134.

Bean, 247.

Beaufort Scale, 316.

Bee, 11, 31, 168, 171, 229, 303.

Beech, 26, 217, 262.

Beetles, 31, 169, 191, 212, 298,

303, 313.
Berry, 243.
Bill of birds, 105.
Birch, 236, 252, 262.
Birds, 51, 91.

„ of town, 53.
Biting flies, 309.
Blackbird, 116.
Blackthorn, 11.
Bluebottle fly, 170.
Blue tit, 118.
Botfly, 310.
Bract, 235.
Broom, 245.
Bulb, 44.
Bullfinch, 119.
Butterbur, 30, 35.

346

INDEX.

347

Buttercups, 60, 206.
Butterflies, 11, 12, 31, 167, 336.

Cabbage butterfly, 44, 162, 305.
Caddisfly, 181, 188, 332.
Calcar, 85.
Calendars, 7, 8, 10, 23, 27, 33, 45,

54.

Calyx, 201.
Cambium, 257.
Carbon, 280.
Carp, 76.

Carpels, 28, 211, 226.
Carrion crow, 115.
Carrot, 26.

Caryophyllaceae, 198.
Caterpillars, 12, 153, 167, 302,

305.

Catkins, 38, 237.
Celandine (lesser), 25, 197.
Census of colours, 12, 28.
Centipedes, 300.
Centre of gravity of fish, 69.
Cere, 106.
Chaffinch, 119.
Chalazae, 95.
Charlock, 297.
Cherry, 26, 242.
Chickweed, 35, 198, 295.
Chitin, 158.
Chrysalis, 159.
Classification of plants, 200.
Clay, 283.
Cleg, 310.
Click beetles, 313.
Cloud, 9, 317.
Clover, 28, 223, 228, 299.
Cockroach, 167, 169.
Coleoptera, 169, 181.
Collections, school, 22, 335.
Colour, 3, 9, 56.

„ change, 81, 193.

„ of birds' eggs, 92.

„ of magpie moth, 160.

„ of toad, 80.
Coltsfoot, 11, 30, 35.
Competition, 30.
Compositae, 199, 228, 231.

Conchin, 146.

Conifers, 270.

Convolvulus, 299.

Copper sulphate, 66.

Corixa, 189, 190.

Cornflower, 228.

Corolla, 201.

Correlation of studies, 5.

Courses, 15.

Cowrie, 149.

Craneflies, 31, 44, 311, 334.

Crickets, 169.

Crocodile's egg, 92.

Crocus, 25.

Crops, garden, 293.

Crowfoot, Corn, 242.

Cruciferae, 198.

Crustacea, 181, 189, 303.

Crystals, 64, 66.

Cuckoo, 11, 12, 94, 107, 112, 121,

158.

Culex, 184.
Cyclone, 322.
Cyclops, 190.
Cyprina, 144.

Daffodil, 25, 200.

Daisy, 35, 296, 299.

Dandelion, 239, 296, 299.

Daphnia, 190.

Dead-nettle, 35, 230.

Death-feigning, 157.

Decay, 45, 277.

Decussate, 218.

Denudation, 47.

Description, 59, 76, 94, 200, 203,

266.

Dicotyledons, 201.
Diptera, 168, 181.
Dispersal of fruits and seeds, 239.
Division of labour, 31.
Docks, 296.
Dog's Mercury, 236.
Dolphin, 69.
Domestic animals, 21.
Donax, 147.
Drupe, 243.
Dyticus, 189.

348

INDEX.

Earthworm, 176.

Earwigs, 302.

Eels, migrations, 73.

Eggs, 92.

" Eggtooth," 96.

Elm, 26, 236, 239, 258.

Elvers, 36, 73.

Equinoxes, 38, 45.

Equipment, 327.

Evergreens, 20, 49, 220, 268.

Excursions, 12.

Fall of leaf, 225.

" False caterpillars," 168.

Feathers, 98, 336.

Feeding of fresh-water animals,

183.

Felspar, 282.
Ferns, 272.

Fibro-vascular bundles, 211.
Fig, 242.
Figwort, 231.
" Finger and Toe," 299.
Fins, 70, 77.
Fish, 67.
Flies, 168, 309.
Flight of butterflies, 162.
Floral lists, 29.
Flowering fern, 273.
Flowers, 18, 78, 226.
Form, 3, 56, 68.
Fresh-water animals, 180.
Frogs, 80.

„ , life history, 87.
Fruits, 20, 26, 29, 43, 78, 238.
Fumariaceae, 198.
Fumitory, 198.
Functions of plants, 207.

Gadfly, 310.
Gallflies, 168.
Gammarus, 181, 190.
Garden, school, 288.
Garlic Hedge Mustard, 11.
Geometridae, 155.
Geophilus, 300.
Geraniaceae, 198.
Geranium, 244, 245.

Geum, 242.

Gills, 87, 88.

Glands, 82.

Gnat, 33, 184, 186, 330.

Goat moth, 170.

„ Willow, 260.
Gooseberry, 243, 246.
Goosegrass, 242.
Gorse, 35.
Granite, 65, 281.
Grasses, flowers of, 234.
Grasshoppers, 169.
Gravity, centre of, 69.

,, , specific, 69.
Greenfly, 171, 307.
Groundsel, 35, 296.
Grub, 168, 169.
Guillemot, 93, 94.
Gull, 127.
Gymnosperm, 270.

Haddock, 70.
Hair, 336.

„ of mole, 132.
Haliotis, 149.
Halteres, 311.
Harvesting animals, 44.
Hawthorn, 26, 262, 266.
Hazel, 11, 251, 258.
Heart's-ease, 229.
Hedgehog, 141, 193.
Helix, 150, 304.
Hemiptera, 171, 181.
Hesperornis, 105.
Heterostyly, 233.
Hibernation, 36, 86, 193.
Hive bee, 171.
Hornbeam, 241, 265.
Horse-chestnut, 26, 264.
House fly, 44, 309.
Hover fly, 308.
Humble-bee, 12, 31, 38.
Hyacinth, 25.
Hymenoptera, 168.

Ichneumon flies, 168, 306.
Individual interest, 31.
Indoor studies, 13, 37, 41.

INDEX.

349

Indusium, 274.
Insect orders, 51.

„ rearing, 21, 42, 332.

visitors, 29, 31, 42, 50.
Insects in spring, 36.

„ , study of, 153.
Instinct in birds, 112.

„ „ eels, 74.

Instruments, Meteorological, 317,
Irideae, 199. [337.

Iris, 234.

Jackdaw, 115.
Julus, 301.

Kestrel, 129.

Labiatae, 199.

Ladybird, 308.

Lamium, 230.

Lapwing, 126.

Larch, 26, 236.

Lateral line of fishes, 74 77.

Lathy rus, 223.

Leaf mould, 45.

Leafing of trees, 11.

Leaping of salmon, 71.

Leather jacket, 312.

Leaves, 18, 20, 29, 30, 78, 216.

Leguminosae, 198.

Lenticel, 253, 255.

Lepidoptera, 167, 332.

Lesson list, 32.

Life histories, study of, 182.

„ history of frog, 86.

„ „ of gnat, 184.
Lilac, 26.
Limax, 304.

Lime, 26, 240, 241, 251, 265.
Linnet, 119.
Litholius, 300.
Live animals, 79, 80.
Lizards' eggs, 92.
Local lists, 12.
Locomotion, 189.
Looper caterpillars, 155.
Lutraria elliptica, 147.
Lymph hearts, 82.

Mactra, 147.
Maggot, 168, 314.
Magpie, 115.

„ moth, 153, 160.
Maize, 248.

Mammals, wild, of farm, 51, 131.
Maple, 264.
Marine aquarium, 331.
Marsh Marigold, 197.
Martin, 123.
May-fly, 181, 188, 332.
Meal worms, 31, 332.
Meteorological instruments, 337.
Methods, general, 6.
Mica, 282.
Microgaster, 306.
Migrants, 12, 44.
Migration of birds, 110.
Migrations of eels, 73.

„ of salmon, 75.
Millipedes, 301.
Minerals, 63.
Mistletoe, 242.
Modifications in plants, 25.
„ of leaves, 30.

Mole, 131.
Mollusca, 180.
Monkshood, 244.
Monocotyledons, 201.
Moon, 45.
Mosaics, 30, 219.
Mosquitos, 309.
Moss, 276.

Mother of pearl, 146.
Moths, 31, 167, 336.
Moulds, 277.
Moulting, 158.
Mountain Ash, 224, 252, 262.

„ hare, 193.

Movement, study of, 3, 56, 57, 75.
Muscles, 70, 108.
Mushrooms, 45, 279.
Nectary, 28, 212, 226, 235.
Nepa, 188, 190.
Nesting, 12.
Nettle, 236.
Newt, 33, 86, 189, 329.
Nostrils of bird, 105.

350

INDEX.

Notonecta, 188, 190.
Nut, 43.
Nymph, 169.

Oak, 26, 261.

Oat, 234.

Onion, 25.

Orchidaceae, 199.

Orchis, 25.

Orders of insects, 166.

Orthoptera, 169.

Osmundia, 273.

Otter, 69.

Outdoor studies, 6, 7, 35, 40.

Owl, 107.

Oyster, 147.

Palisade cells, 221.

Papilionaceous flowers, 228.

Passage, birds of, 111.

Patella, 149.

Pea, 228, 244, 246.

Pecten, 147.

Perianth, 201, 235, 236.

Pericarp, 243.

Petals, 28, 226.

Phrynin, 85.

Phyllotreta, 298.

Physical conditions of life, 183.

Picea, 268.

Pirns, 305.

Pine, 26, 236, 240.

Pisces, 180.

Planorbis, 149.

Plant lice, 171.

Plantain, 231.

Platyptera, 181.

Plecoptera, 181.

Plumage of birds, 96.

Poetry, nature, 20.

Pollen, 226, 235.

Polydesmus, 301.

Pond skaters, 191, 330.

„ snails, 191.
Poplar, 235, 260.
Poppy, 245.
Potato, 26.
Potentilla, 203, 204.

Preen gland, 108.
Primrose, 60, 233.
Primulaceae, 199.
Principles to follow, 17.
Privet, 217.
Pro-leg, 158.
Protandry, 231.
Prothallus, 274.
Protogyny, 231.
Ptarmigan, 193.
Public parks, 53.
Pupa, 159.

Quartz, 65, 282.

Queen of the Meadow, 28.

Race interest, 31.
Ranunculaceae, 197.
Ranunculus, 206, 212, 242.
Razor shell, 147.
Rearing of insects, 21, 31.
Recognition of plants, 18, 24, 28.
Resident birds, 111.
Respiration, 82, 87, 108, 151,

180, 186.
Rhizoid, 274.
Rhizome, 44.
Ringing of birds, 112.
Rook, 113.
Root, as food, 20.

„ function of, 18, 207.
Rosaceae, 198.
Rose, 223.
Rotifers, 194.
Rowan, 26, 224, 262.
Running water, 47.
Rural Course, 50.

Salmon, leaping, 71.

„ migrations, 75.

„ rearing, 332.
Salt crystals, 66.
Sand, 286.
Sandstone, 65, 287.
Sawflies, 168.
Saxifragaceae, 199.
Scales, butterfly, 162.
School garden, 54, 288.

INDEX.

351

Scrophularia, 231.
Scrophulariaceae, 199.
Seal, 69.
Seasonal occupations, 9.

„ studies, 15.
Seasons, 39.
Sections of leaf, 221.
Seed dispersal, 29, 43, 239.
Seedlings, 247.
Seeds, 20, 247.
Sepals, 28, 226.
Sheep's nostril fly, 310.
Shells, 3, 142, 336.

,, , description of, 79.
Shepherd's Purse, 35, 198, 295.
Shrew, 141.
Skeleton of birds, 109.
Skin of toad, 83.
Sky, colour of, 57,
Skylark, 120.
Slate, 283.
Slugs, 304.
Snail, 63, 150, 304.

„ , pond, 191.
Snakes' eggs, 92.
Snow crystals, 64.
Snowdrop, 25.
Soil, 45, 47.

,, , animal inhabitants, 46.
Solen, 147.
Sorus, 274.
Sparrowhawk, 127.
Sparrows, 158.
Spawn, 12, 86, 329.
Specific gravity in fish, 72.
Spines, 30, 223.
Spiral shells, 148.
Sponges, 194.
Spongy tissue of leaf, 221.
Sporangium, 274.
Spores, 274, 280.
Spring awakenings, 16.

„ flowers, 35, 197, 202.
Spruce fir, 268.
Squirrels, 141, 193.
Stable fly, 309.
Stamens, 28, 226.
Star studies, 45» 49.

Starfish, 62.
Starling, 117.
Stem, 18, 20, 207.
Stigma, 211.
Stipules, 201, 223, 2G6.
Stitchwort, 245.
Stoat, 137, 193.
Stomata, 221.
Stonefly, 181, 188, 332.
Storage organs, 26, 44.
Storing animals, 193.
Strawberry, barren. 203.
Struggle for existence, 32, 140,

209.

Style, 230, 237.
Summer visitors, 111.
Surface caterpillars, 302.
Surface film, 33, 191.
Swallow, 12, 122.
Swift, 12, 107, 124.
Sycamore, 26, 239, 241, 254, 264.
Symmetry in nature, 28, 59.

Tadpoles, 33, 85, 87, 88, 89, 329.

Teacher, 337.

Teeth, 335.

Tendrils, 30, 223.

Tenelrio, 332.

Testacella, 304.

Thistles, 296.

Thrush, song, 11, 116.

Thumb-wing, 97, 102.

Tiger moth, 165.

Time-table, 16, 40

Tipula, 312.

Tit, 118.

Toad, 80.

Toadstool, 45, 279.

Tongue of frog and toad, 83.

Tortoiseshell butterfly, small, 159.

Town, nature study in, 52.

Transpiration, 25.

Trees, 26, *36, 37, 250.

Trichoptera, 181.

Trout rearing, 332.

Tuber, 44.

Tulifex, 182.

Turnip, 26.

352

INDEX.

Turnip beetle, 298.
Turtles' eggs, 92.
Twigs, 37, 253.

Umbelliferae, 228.
Unisexual flowers, 237.

Vanessa urticae, 159.
Venus gallina, 146, 147.
Vetch, 223.
Violaceae, 198.
Violet, 60, 198, 230, 245.
Voles, 141.

Wallflower, 60, 198, 227, 244.

Warble fly, 311.

Wasp, 117, 168.

Water beetle, 33, 170, 187, 189.

bugs, 188, 190.

Crowfoot, 213.

fleas, 181, 190, 330.

Lily, 245.

scorpion, 188, 191.

vole, 69.
Weasel, 137.

Weather Studies, 22, 27, 33, 41,
45, 49, 50, 54, 315.

Weather Records, 10.
Weeds, 295.
Whale, 69.
Whelk, 149.

Whirligig beetles, 191, 330.
Whorled leaves, 217.
Willow, 26, 235,260. .'
Wind, 316.

„ pollination, 235, 237.

„ star, 318.
Wing of bird, 101.
Winged fruits and seeds, 240.
Winter and animal life, 46, 192.

„ visitors, 111, 193.
Wire worm, 313.
Wood Anemone, 197.
Wood pigeon, 125.
Woodlice, 303.
Woodpecker, 107, 108.
Woodsorrel, 202.
Woody Nightshade, 222.
Wych Elm, 258.

Young animals, 182.

Zodiacal signs, 9.
Zygomorphic, 28, 60.

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