U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
,;/
AIR POLLUTION IN THE
NATIONAL CAPITAL AREA
An appraisal made at the request of the
District of Columbia Department of Public Health
with the cooperation of the
Maryland State Department of Health and the
Virginia Department of Health
by
Gene B. Welsh
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Division of Air Pollution
Technical Assistance Branch
Washington 25, D. C.
PHS Pub. No. 955
July 1962
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington 25, D. C. - Price 35 cents
Table
TABLES
1 Population Growth and Densities in the Washington
Metropolitan Area
2 Washington Metropolitan Area Employment,
October, 1959
3 Employment in Manufacturing Industries
Washington Metropolitan Area, October, 1958
4 Seasonal Percent of Nighttime Cloud Cover and
Wind Speed, Washington, D. C., 1950-1954 . .
5 Normal Monthly Degree Days for Washington
Metropolitan Area, 65 F Base (1921-1950) . . .
6 Summary of Refuse Disposal Practices, Washington
Metropolitan Area
7 Summary of Metropolitan Washington Major Manu-
facturing Industries and Their Contributions to
the Air Pollution Problem . . .
Concentrations of Oxidant and Sulfur Dioxide,
1953-1954 Study
9 Suspended Particulate Pollution in Washington, D. C.
as Measured in the National Air Sampling Net-
work 1953-1959
10 Comparison of Suspended Particulate Pollutants for
Several Urban Stations 1957-1958
11 Seasonal Variation of Particulate Pollutants in
Washington, D. C., 1953-1959
12 Local Air Pollution Control Activities, Washington
Metropolitan Area
ir pollution, in the Washington Met-
.tan Area may be expected to increase
y, unless adequate control measures
ken. The Washington Metropolitan
anticipates rapid and continued pop-
n. growth, particularly in the urban-
,reas adjacent to the District of
ibia, where sixty -two per cent of the
s 2 million people already live. This
h rate - Area population more than
5d since 1940 - favors higher pollu-
;vels in the future because of in-
ing pollutant emissions.
e spite topography and prevailing
:onditions generally favorable to
rsion of air pollutants, incidents of
rritating smog, visibility reduction,
.ant damage have been experienced
Area evidence that photo -chemi-
r pollution is becoming a serious
;m. One or two prolonged periods
gnating air masses, usually during
ummer and fall, may be expected
rear, with a subsequent accumula-
f air pollutants.
r aste disposal operations such as
rators, backyard burning, open
ig dumps, the burning of leaves and
s of construction and demolition are
ificant contribution to the total air
ion problem, as are motor vehicle
ions, the combustion of coal and
r heating, power generation, and in-
al processes. And the use of nat-
as, although lesser in magnitude,
.o emissions of certain gaseous
ants present at levels higher than in
other cities of similar population,
though previous studies indicate
ic atmospheric particulate loading
shington is lower than in most
of comparable size, excessively
oadings do occur. All the named
es add to the total atmospheric
n and may be expected to become
isingly important as the Area con-
to grow.
nforcement of zoning laws in the
.ngton Metropolitan Area has not
;d the inter mingling of residential,
.ercial, and industrial land uses and
nted some localized air pollution
problems which otherwise would have oc-
curred. This fact, along with the limited
extent of manufacturing operations, has
kept the industrial air pollution problem to
a minimum. Nevertheless, each govern-
mental jurisdiction has localized industrial
areas that are significant from an air pol-
lution standpoint. These small industrial
areas are responsible for a large portion
of the nuisance complaints made by the
public to the respective governmental agen-
cies, primarily concerning dusts, fumes,
smoke, and odors from specific sources.
Local interest in air pollution already
exists among officials and the general
populace and to judge by newspaper reports
is steadily increasing. Except for limited
smoke abatement activities, the air pol-
lution control program in the various local
governmental jurisdictions is directed
primarily toward investigation of nuisances
and complaints. At the request of the Dis-
trict of Columbia Department of Public
Health and with the cooperation of the Mary-
land State Department of Health and the
Virginia Department of Health, the Public
Health Service conducted an appraisal of
factors relating to air pollution in the Wash-
ington Metropolitan Area. This appraisal
was undertaken to determine the extent of
the existing and potential air pollution
problem and control activities, and to de-
velop general recommendations for activi-
ties to meet present and future air pollution
problems. This report is an analysis of in-
formation collected relating to sources of
pollutants, indications of pollution levels,
and status of local activities in the air
pollution field.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are
made on the basis of this appraisal and the
general available knowledge relating to
air pollution. A limited amount of data on
atmospheric pollution levels was available
from the National Air Sampling Network,
from some limited studies conducted sev-
eral years ago, and from a one -week pilot
study that was recently conducted by the
District of Columbia Department of Public
Health and the Public Health Service.
e adjacent to the District of Columbia.
visions can be made.
The District of Columbia
1. Considering the nature and magni-
le of the present and potential air pol-
:ion problem within the District of Co-
nbia, it is recommended that a com-
ehensive air pollution control program
established. Such a program should
ovide not merely for smoke control,
at present, but for comprehensive air
Llution control. The program should
:lude:
a. Routine air quality monitoring to
determine specifically the nature
and extent of air pollution -within the
District.
b. An inventory of air pollution
sources to provide current data on
the quantity and types of air pollu-
tion emissions. Detailed sampling
and evaluation of certain sources
may be necessary to fully define
specific emissions.
c. A public education program to
disseminate complete and accurate
information about the nature, effects,
and costs of air pollution in the
District.
d. A permit or registration system
for the identification and control of
non-combustion sources of air pol-
lution. (Such a system exists for
combustion sources.)
e. Investigation of air pollution
complaints and, when indicated, in-
itiation of appropriate abatement
measures.
f. Implementation of additional air
pollution abatement programs when-
ever new information indicates a need
for them.
2. Necessary budget, personnel, and
oratory facilities should be provided to
>port the comprehensive air pollution
itrol program outlined above.
4. Appropriate consideration should
be given to planning and zoning activities
to minimize the intermingling of industrial
and residential areas.
5. An interdepartmental committee or
council should be organized to coordinate
the total air pollution program within the
District of Columbia. This group should
include representation from all of the Dis-
trict of Columbia governmental agencies
directly concerned with air pollution
control.
6. A Metropolitan Air Pollution Ad-
visory Board or Council should be organized
to provide leadership and cooperation for
the development of coordinated efforts
toward the study or control of air pollution
in the Washington Metropolitan Area. This
advisory group should include at least one
representative from the agency responsible
for air pollution control in the District of
Columbia, in each of Montgomery and Prince
Georges Counties in Maryland, and in Arling-
ton and Fairfax Counties and the city of
Alexandria in Virginia. Representatives of
interested Federal and State governmental
agencies should also be included.
The Suburban Areas
1. In view of the present and potential
air pollution problems in the suburban areas
of Maryland and Virginia that are adjacent
to the District of Columbia, it is recom-
mended that modest air pollution control
programs be developed within the local gov-
ernmental agencies. These programs should
initially consider the following:
a. Investigation of air pollution com-
plaints and initiation of abatement
measures when indicated.
b. Public education activities to dis-
seminate complete and accurate in-
formation about the nature, effects and
costs of air pollution in the Washington
suburbs .
c. Surveillance of air pollution problems
means of periodic air sampling
.d identification of major air pol-
tion sources.
Implementation of additional air
llution abatement programs when-
er new information indicates a need
r them.
Collaboration with other local
vernmental jurisdictions in the
ganization of a Metropolitan Air
Dilution Advisory Board or Council
r the coordination of efforts toward
e study and control of air pollution
the Washington Metropolitan Area.
It is recommended that the in-
il programs develop long-range
.ves for a comprehensive air pol-
control program that would expand
.ctivities to include:
Routine air quality monitoring.
Inventory and identification of air
llution sources.
c. Ordinances or regulations spe-
cifically for air pollution control.
d. Adequate budget, personnel, and
laboratory facilities to support a com-
prehensive air pollution control program.
3. It is recommended that enabling leg-
islation be obtained in Maryland and Virginia
to allow the formation of inter juris dictional
air pollution control districts. This would
permit the establishment of a coordinated
and unified air pollution control program in
the Virginia portion of the "Washington Metro-
politan Area and another in the Maryland
portion.
4. It is recommended that, contingent
on the enactment of such legislation, the
local governmental jurisdictions in Mary-
land and Virginia that are a part of the
Washington Metropolitan Area seriously
consider the formation of air pollution
control districts within their respective
States.
^ Area
Washington, D. C., capital of the United
tes and seat of the Federal Government,
situated between Northern Virginia and
.them Maryland on the east bank of the
:omac River about 100 miles above its
uth. The City of Washington is coexten-
e with the District of Columbia and has
ital area of about 69 square miles, of
.ch approximately 8 square miles are
ered by water. (1) The altitude ranges
m about 10 to 500 feet above sea level.
As defined by the U.S. Bureau of the
isus, the Washington Standard Metropoli-
Area consists of Washington, D. C.,
ntgomery and Prince Georges Counties
vtaryland, Arlington and Fairfax Counties
/irginia, and the independent Virginia
.es of Alexandria and Falls Church. (2)
z term Washington Metropolitan Area, as
:d in this report, means the standard
tropolitan area as defined above. Wash-
ton, D. C., and the immediately adjacent
ianized areas of Maryland and Virginia
gure 1) comprise the area of particular
srest because they contain practically all
:he metropolitan area population and in-
try. The outlying areas of Montgomery
[ Prince Georges Counties in Maryland
[ Fairfax County in Virginia are primarily
al with a population density less than 1000
square mile.
established to promote the control of
obnoxious noises, smoke, and fumes from
automotive equipment operated within the
Washington Metropolitan. Area. As a result
of several committee meetings and other
activities, the District of Columbia Board
of Commissioners in July of I960 proposed
that the District of Columbia Fuel Burning
Equipment Regulations and the Traffic and
Motor Vehicle Regulations be amended to
require reduction of air pollution from
certain sources. Following public hear-
ings, the Traffic and Motor Vehicle Regu-
lations were amended in September I960
and the Fuel Burning Regulations were
amended in April 1961.
In July of I960 the District of Columbia
Department of Public Health requested that
the Public Health Service Regional Office
in Charlotte sville, Virginia, conduct a study
of the total environmental health problems
and programs in the District of Columbia.
The Technical Assistance Branch of the
Division of Air Pollution completed that
portion of the environmental health study
pertaining to air pollution. It was later
agreed that in addition to complying with
the original request the air pollution study
should be expanded to provide a general
appraisal of the total air pollution problem
in the Washington Metropolitan Area and
general recommendations for the guidance
of local officials.
:al Interest in Air Pollution
During June 1959 the Washington Metro -
itan Area experienced a four day episode
sye irritating smog. The following Decem-
a local newspaper published a series of
2 informative articles dealing with the air
lution problem, especially that due to
omobile exhaust, in the Washington Metro -
itan Area.
In May of I960, the Engineer Commis-
ner for the District of Columbia and the
tropolitan Area Traffic Council organized
Automotive Nuisance Abatement Com-
;tee of that Council. This Committee was
The Study
In accordance with the amended re-
quest, this appraisal of air pollution prob-
lems in the Metropolitan Washington Area
had three objectives:
1) To review and evaluate the existing
and potential air pollution problems of the
Metropolitan Area.
2) To review briefly air pollution con-
trol activities presently being conducted by
the respective local governmental agencies.
- 1 -
WASHINGTON METROPOLITAN AREA.
- URBANIZED DISTRICTS AS OF
I960 CENSUS* 2 )
\
MOW
x<
X
i
FALLS
\CHUR c
:TON.
FAIR
A X
LEGEND
Districts with population
density of 1,000 persons or
more per square mile shaded.
"V >M^
R
s s.
Figure 1
" Wt "~
3) To develop recommendations for
;uidance of local officials in meeting
ing and future air pollution problems.
The scope of the study was limited to
ideration of available information re-
ing air pollution, including: activities
h cause pollution, evidence of pol-
n. levels, meteorological and topo-
hical influences on dispersion of
:tants, local air pollution control
Ity, and other relevant community
acteristics. In view of these limita-
this report should be considered a
.minary appraisal of air pollution
lems in the National Capital Area.
An engineer from the Technical As-
.nce Branch, Division of Air Pol-
Q, collected the data and prepared
report. Valuable assistance was
i by personnel of various agencies
e District of Columbia Government,
.c health officials from suburban
inia and Maryland, trade associa-
, official and unofficial business and
strial organizations, and interested
cies of the Federal Government.
Lfic acknowledgment is made to the
ronmental Meteorological Research
ects of the U.S. Weather Bureau
heir assistance in preparing the
orological and climatological data
bis report.
JENERAL FACTORS AFFECTING
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution levels in any community
cid principally on the quantity, type,
rate of discharge of pollutants to the
sphere and the ability of the atmos-
e to disperse these pollutants. In
ion, some air pollutants are the re-
of reactions that occur between con-
nants in the atmosphere.
Population, general character of in-
:y and employment, and land use are
eneral factors that are directly re-
. to the discharge of pollutants to the
sphere. The ability of the atmosphere
sperse the pollutants is directly re-
. to certain meteorological and topo-
hical factors.
Population
Daily activities of the general public
are responsible for the emission of certain
pollutants to the atmosphere. Activities
such as combustion of fuels for space and
water heating, cooking, transportation, and
the burning of rubbish and other waste ma-
terials contribute a significant amount of
pollution each day. The amount of air pol-
lution contributed by any one individual is
very small, but collectively, the total emis-
sions may reach enormous proportions. In
sparsely settled areas these emissions are
dispersed into the atmosphere and readily
assimilated, but as the population density
increases more pollutants are discharged
and it becomes increasingly difficult for the
atmosphere to disperse them. Population
estimates are an index of future pollution
levels, since a population increase is ac-
companied by an increase in pollution
emissions, both from the activities of the
general public and the accompanying in-
creased industrial -commercial activity.
The I960 census reported the popula-
tion of the Washington Standard Metropoli-
tan Area as Z, 001, 897, a- net increase of
537,808 over the 1950 census even though
the population of the central city decreased
about 5 percent. (2) Approximately 62 per-
cent of the Metropolitan Area population
lives outside of Washington, D. C. Popula-
tion density for Washington, D. C., is high
in comparison to other cities in the United
States but the population densities for sub-
urban Maryland and Virginia are relatively
low. (Figure 1)
The Washington Metropolitan Area has
shown a consistent growth over the last
thirty years. Since 1930 population has
approximately tripled, a growth rate sur-
passing all other metropolitan areas among
the ten largest in the United States. (4) The
growth of the Washington Metropolitan Area
from 1940 to I960 is shown by Table 1.
The suburban areas of Maryland and
Virginia have shown tremendous growth in
recent years. The population of Fairfax
County, Virginia, has tripled in the last ten
years and in Montgomery and Prince Georges
Counties in Maryland the population has
doubled in the last ten years. It is anticipated
- 3 -
1940
I960
(2)
YEAR
WASHINGTON
D. C.
SUBURBAN
MARYLAND
SUBURBAN
VIRGINIA
TOTAL
1960A/
763,956
698,323
539,618
2,001,897
1950JL/
802,178
358,583
303,328
1,464,089
1940JL/
663,091
173,402
131,492
967,985
POPULATION DENSITY - I960
Land Area -
61
979
448
1,488
sq. miles
Population
12,525
715
1,205
1,345
density C/
A/ Final I960 Census Figures
B/ U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of 1940 and 1950
C/ People per square mile
that practically all of the future growth in
the Washington Metropolitan Area will oc-
cur in the suburban areas of Maryland and
Virginia. Estimates indicate a continued
substantial growth for the Washington Met-
ropolitan Area, with a population of about
2,750,000 by 1970 and 3,500,000 by 1980.
(4) Air pollution levels will increase ac-
cordingly, unless steps are taken to con-
trol the emission of pollutants, because the
greater the population the greater the
activities that contribute to air pollution.
General Character of
Employment and Industry
The business life of the Washington
Area is determined largely by the fact
that it is the location of the nation's Capi-
tol. Also, the area is fast becoming one
- 4 -
of the world's leading science centers with a
larger portion of its population employed in
scientific and professional effort than any
other large metropolitan area in the United
States. The area has limited manufacturing
and other industry but does have a flourishin
retail trade and ranks high as a retail tradin
center.
Table 2 shows the total employment in
the Washington Metropolitan Area as of
December I960. (4) The limited manufactur
ing employment is offset by the high Federal
Government employment in the area. The
Federal, State, District of Columbia, and loc
governments and the military services ac-
counted for approximately 40 percent of the
employment in the Washington Metropolitan
Area as of December I960. As may be ex-
pected, the second highest percentage of the
total employment is directed toward providir
necessary goods and services.
W
W
w
EH
<
%
CO
W
H
n
O
o
H
W
O
H
O
I
pq
W
(M
w
pq
H
H
O
O
pq rt
O
H .
O O
H
CO
Q
Z
o
o
o
o
O
O
o
o
<U
s
a
M
0)
>
o
o
"rt
rH
0)
T)
fc
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
r-
tvj
o
o
CM
vO
o
o
o
o
(M
00
00
ID
o
OO
o
O
o
O
o
O
o
O
^
^
o
O
o
o
O
o
O
LO
tM
O
O
(M
O
00
^r
oo
a
o
ffi
rt
Jj
H
and Re-
Wholesa
ary Service
n5
bJO
O
S
O
CO
o
to
0)
s
o
Q
8
;
r-
oo
ro
ro
r-
oo
*
CO
O
N
r-
*
CO
r-
vO
c\]
sO
co
r-i
co
ID
w
r I
fd
-i->
o
EH
- 5 -
O
w
-HOOcMOOt N -OvOC > OrO'-'
CO
w
EH fH
CO O
P H
QU
2 W
is
> ^
S
i-i w
PQ
co
H
PH
H
O
H
mm
00
W
O
O
W
<!
H
co
O
Q
2
O (U
s
r" ^
HO
ni M
U
3
O
a.
00
W
- 6 -
[n 1954 there were 854 manufacturing
jlishrnents in the Washington Metro -
an Area (5), and in October 1958 there
944, as shown by Table 3. (6) Princi-
ndustries are printing and publishing,
irical machinery, and food and bever-
. Based on the 1958 data these three
stry classifications account for 52 per-
of the industrial plants and 71 percent
e industrial employees in the Wash-
n Metropolitan Area.
Use
Most of the land in the Washington
opolitan Area is useful. There is no
t expanse of swampland or other
e-land. The land use pattern for the
opolitan area shows that the District
jlumbia and the immediately adjacent
ons of suburban Maryland and Vir-
are primarily concentrated residen-
ireas, with relatively large areas
ted to parks and governmental uses,
i 1955 more than 42 percent of the
area in the District of Columbia was
d by the Federal Government. (8)
mgh the exact proportion has not been
rmined, it appears that the Federal
rnment land ownership in suburban
s of Maryland and Virginia that are
:ent to Washington, D. C., may also
Dach this magnitude. In addition to
arge areas of Federally owned land
are devoted to parks and recreational
the State and local governments have
provided large areas of land for these
DSes.
The industrial sections of the Wash-
n Metropolitan Area are located
.arily along the Potomac and Ana-
.a River water fronts, along the rail-
tracks, and along the main North-
i Highway. The main concentration
dustries is located in the Alexandria -
i Arlington area of Virginia and the
heast sector of the District of Colum-
A wide variety of industries is present
e Washington Metropolitan Area, but
neral they are classified as light
stries.
Several new industrial parks are being
Loped in Suburban Maryland and Vir-
of the new industrial parks. They range in
size from several acres to several hundred
acres, and are generally located in outlying
suburban areas. (9) All of these sites are
generally protected by adequate zoning reg-
ulations as well as by restrictions and
performance standards regarding the types
of industries permitted.
In general, the land use pattern of the
Washington Metropolitan Area has not per-
mitted the intermingling of industrial and
residential areas. In some cases, the de-
velopment of industrial areas adjacent to
residential areas preceded the development
and enforcement of adequate zoning and
land use planning. This appears to be the
case in some of the older sections of the
metropolitan area such as Georgetown and
Alexandria. A land use pattern that permits
the intermingling of industrial and resi-
dential areas promotes the occurrence of
air pollution problems because it brings
major pollution sources into close proximity
with susceptible receptors.
DISPERSION OF POLLUTANTS
Topography
The Washington Metropolitan Area is
located at the western edge of the middle
Atlantic Coastal Plain, 35 miles west of the
Chesapeake Bay and far enough inland from
the ocean to escape the sea breeze effects
that normally occur along the coast during
the warmer months. The Blue Ridge
Mountains, rising to an elevation of 3,000
feet or more, are about 50 miles west of the
Washington Metropolitan Area, and the
orographic effects of these mountains is one
of warming and drying of westerly winds
reaching the area.
The terrain to the east of the Washington
area is generally flat, with elevations being
less than 100 feet above sea level. To the
west, gently rolling hills, with elevations of
200 to 500 feet above sea level, extend to the
Blue Ridge Mountains. Consequently, the
topography in the vicinity of the Washington
area generally allows free air movement
with little channeling effects.
Meteorological Factors in Air Pollution
WASHINGTON METROPOLITAN AREA
MARYLAND
LEGEND
.State Boundary Lines
County Boundary Lines
Railroads
Highways
New Industrial Areas
Figure 2
into which pollutants are emitted is directly
proportional to wind speed and the concentra-
tion of airborne pollutants is inversely pro-
portional to wind speed. However, high winds
are not always beneficial, since local inci-
dences of high pollution can result from aero-
dynamic downwash of stack effluents. In es-
sence, wind speed and direction data yield
an index to horizontal transport and diffusion
of airbonre material, and thus indicate a
rate of ventilation.
Of equal importance is the extent of
vertical mixing in the atmosphere, implied
by the temperature distribution with height.
When there exists a large decrease of tem-
perature with an increase in height, the air
is unstable, and turbulence and vertical ex-
change of material occur readily; however,
when there is a small decrease or increase
(inversion) of temperature with an increase
in height, the air is stable with little or no
turbulence. The effect at the ground surface
usually depends on whether the stable layer
is at the surface or aloft. If aloft, pollutants
may rise and accumulate under the temper-
ature "lid," only to be brought to the ground
surface in high concentrations when convec-
tive heating processes occur in a vigorous
mixing of the air between the surface and
the elevated stable layer. Such "fumigation"
processes usually occur shortly after sun-
rise. If the stable layer extends from the
ground surface upward, which is the usual
situation for nocturnal inversions, diffusion
of pollutants is restricted in the vertical
so that they tend to spread horizontally.
Such low -level stabilization is usually ac-
companied by calm or light winds, thereby
giving rise to a condition of poor ventilation
and limited vertical mixing and thus to a
limited volume of air for pollutant dispersion.
In urban areas there are parameters to be
considered which may promote some dilution.
Heat sources such as buildings, automobiles,
etc., can provide energy for convective mix-
ing, and a light wind flow over the irregular
surface of a metropolitan area can enhance
vertical mixing. Hence, marked vertical
stratification of polluted layers is probably
more frequent in suburban and nearby rural
areas than "downtown." Topographic fea-
tures may influence diffusion processes; how-
ever, such influences are not necessary in
order for stagnant weather conditions to
occur. This can be exemplified by the
Greater London smog episode of December
5-9, 1952. Because of their combined ef-
fect on temperature profile, air drainage,
and radiation, valleys may influence the
diffusion processes. Some of the river
valleys in the Washington area may have
local effects on atmospheric diffusion.
The effects of moisture content of the
air and condensation processes on atmos-
pheric pollution are not so direct. Since
precipitation is usually associated with
unstable weather regimes, and thus with
good diffusion, the potential washout
process is usually of no concern. The
role of fog in air pollution is also indirect,
since the meteorological circumstances
which favor poor diffusion also favor the
formation of radiation fog. To the extent
that fog may attenuate solar radiation read
ing the surface during daytime hours and
thus restrict convective mixing processes,
its presence may enhance poor diffusion.
Stagnant Weather Conditions
While short -duration diffusion anomali
are common to most areas and can cause
pollution problems, the most dramatic and
by far the most insidious community prob-
lems involving atmospheric pollution are
those resulting from prolonged stagnant
weather regimes, which are usually en-
hanced by topographic influences. Large
scale atmospheric stagnation was respon-
sible for most of the well-known disastrous
episodes, such as those of the Meuse Valley
Donora, and Greater London. Although the
simultaneous occurrence of light and vari-
able winds, great stability in the lower at-
mosphere, and often fog, causing a build-uj
of high pollutant concentrations, is not un-
usual, the persistence of such weather con-
ditions for several consecutive days rarely
occurs in most areas, other than those
dominated by semi -permanent high pres-
sure systems, such as the Pacific High off
the California coast.
In the United States, east of the Rocky
Mountains, stagnation periods lasting for
several consecutive days are generally as-
sociated with slowly moving or quasi-sta-
tionary high pressure systems. Subsiding
air from aloft, associated with these high
pressure systems, causes a warming of th<
air in its descent and an inversion is estab
lished at levels from about 800 to 3,000 fee
- 9 -
above the surface. This "subsidence inver-
sion" persists throughout the day and night
and acts as a lid to vertical mixing during
daylight hours. The combination of light
wind speeds at the ground and aloft gives
rise to a low rate of ventilation and restric-
ted vertical mixing. This results in a
greatly reduced volume of air into which
pollutants are emitted, causing pollution
concentrations higher than usual.
Recent studies (10,11) of these stag-
nant episodes show that over a 21 -year
period the Washington area experienced 144
days of stagnation and 30 stagnation epi-
sodes with at least 4 consecutive days of
stagnation. This averages about 7 stagna-
tion days and 1.5 stagnation episodes per
year. Such stagnation periods usually oc-
cur during the summer or fall months, with
August, September, and October the months
having the highest frequency in the "Washing-
ton area.
General Climatology
The Washington area climate has the
seasonal and daily variations characteristic
of the eastern seaboard, with moderate
winters and frequent intervals of high hu-
midity and oppressive heat in the summer.
The winter season is generally shorter and
milder than in cities located to the north and
west. This affords reduced heating require-
ment during the winter. During the summer,
high temperatures may average in the upper
eighties, but temperatures of 90 F to 100
F are not uncommon. (12,13)
The average annual precipitation is
about 41 inches, with no pronounced wet or
dry season. While the annual snowfall aver-
ages about 20 inches, greater amounts can
be expected in nearby western and northern
suburban areas.
Surface wind roses by months are shown
in Figure 3. During the colder months of
the year, winds from the northwest quadrant
are most frequent, while winds from the
south and southwest prevail during the sum-
mer season.
The frequent movement of cold polar
and Arctic air masses into the Middle At-
lantic States from Canada result in a pre-
vailing northwest flow of unstable air in
Washington from late November through
April. The unstableness and relatively
high wind speeds attending these air
masses result in good atmospheric dilution
conditions. These good diffusion regimes
are interrupted for only brief periods, oc-
casioned by nocturnal radiation inversions
when skies are clear and winds subside, or
by light southerly flow which brings warm
moist air into the region preceding cold
frontal passages. In general, the winter
and spring months constitute the period
of most frequent unstable weather in
Washington, i.e., storminess and high
winds, and thus result in good atmospheric
dilution and good ventilation in the lower
atmosphere.
The summer and fall months are
characterized by a reduction of wind
speed and the prevalance of southerly
winds. These months also have a higher
frequency of cloudless and light wind con-
ditions during nocturnal hours, permitting
a higher frequency of radiational surface -
based inversions to form. This is shown
by the cloudcover and wind speed data for
nighttime hours in Table 4. Consequently,
the summer and fall seasons constitute the
periods of lowest ventilation and highest
potential for atmospheric stagnation for
the Washington area.
As pointed out previously, atmospheric
stability is an important aspect of air pol-
lution. Vertical temperature gradient data,
obtained from upper air soundings made
twice daily at nearby Silver Hill, Mary-
land, give percent frequency values of in-
versions based below 500 feet above ground
that are compatible with other stations in
the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain. In gen-
eral, the Washington area has low -level
stability on about 40-60 percent of the
nights in any season, a frequency similar
to most inland areas of the eastern United
States.
The potential for atmospheric disper-
sion of pollutants can be generalized as
follows: 1) The Washington area topography
does not restrict the dispersion of airborne
pollutants; 2) The area is too far inland to
be directly influenced by the sea breeze
effect; 3) The Washington area may exper-
ience several stagnant weather episodes a
year, which may contribute to the buildup
of airborne pollutants; 4) Stagnant weather
- 10 -
JAN
WASHINGTON METROPOLITAN AREA
SURFACE WIND ROSES BY MONTHS
FEB MAR. APR
MAY
AUG.
LEGEND
The solid radial bars :maseaa show the average percentage of time the win<
blows from each direction; the figure in the center shows the average per-
cent of the time the wind is calm. The hatched radial bars: \YYV\ show the
average wind speed from each direction, in miles per hour.
Figure
TABLE 4
SEASONAL PERCENT OF NIGHTTIME CLOUD COVER
AND WIND SPEED ( 13 >
WASHINGTON, D. C. 1950-1954
WINTER
SPRING
SUMMER
FALL
LOCAL STANDARD TIME
Cloud Cover
(0.3 or less of sky
covered by clouds)
1600-0600 1800-0500 2000-0400
42.7
37.7
48.7
1800-0500
53.3
Wind Speed
0-3 mph
0-7 mph
14.0
37.3
13.3
37.3
21.7
58.3
21.3
54.0
conditions, persisting 3 to 5 consecutive
days, are most likely to occur during the
summer and fall; 5) Unstable weather, and
thus good atmospheric dispersion condi-
tions, prevails much of the time during
winter and spring; 6} Low-level nocturnal
inversions occur on most nights having rela-
tively clear skies and light winds, with higher
frequency in the suburban and rural areas
than over the central city. In general there
is nothing particularly adverse about the
diffusion climate of the Washington Metro-
politan Area.
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Pollution From Fuel Usage
Pollutants in the form of gases, solid
particulates , and liquid droplets are released
to the atmosphere by the combustion of fuel
for heating, power generation, transportation,
and industrial process needs. The type and
quantity of pollutants are related to the type
of fuels used, condition of the firing equip-
ment, firing practices, load demands, and
the use of pollution control measures.
Typical pollution rates from various
fuel uses are given in the Appendix.
Coal During I960, about 2,800,000
tons of coal were consumed in the Washing-
ton Metropolitan Area, broken down as fol-
lows: 1) about 2,190,000 tons for steam-
electric generation; 2) about 360,000 tons
used by the Federal Government primarily
at central plants for space heating of Fed-
eral Buildings; and 3) about 250,000 tons
for residential space heating and other com
mercial and industrial uses. (14)
Practically all of the coal is obtained
from the bituminous coal regions of West
Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. This
coal generally contains about 20 to 40 per-
cent volatile matter, 5 to 1 percent ash anc
0.9 to 3 percent sulfur. (15,16) The two
central heating plants operated by the Fed-
eral Government are equipped with under-
feed stokers. Electrostatic precipitators
and mechanical collectors are used to pre-
vent dust emission. The Capitol Power
Plant is equipped with spreader stokers
and electrostatic precipitators for dust col-
lection. The Naval Weapons Plant has both
underfeed and spreader stokers with elec-
trostatic precipitators provided on the
spreader stoker units. (16)
The four steam-electric plants oper-
ated by the local utility company all feed
pulverized coal. (15) Three of the plants
are equipped with electrostatic precipita-
tors and mechanical collectors. The fourth
plant has only mechanical collectors.
The total coal consumption in the Wash-
ington Metropolitan Area should remain at
about the same level in the future. The
amount of coal used for space heating and
ijmmercial and industrial purposes is
lasing but this is offset by increases
! amount used for steam-electric
ation.
Hscharge of particulate matter from
jmbustion of coal may be reduced by
low volatile coal, changing combus-
: quipment and firing practices, or by
ling high efficiency collection systems.
r dioxide, a major gaseous pollutant
the combustion of coal, can be effec-
reduced by using low sulfur content
Because most of the coal is consumed
/eral large installations, control of
sions should be easier than if there
a multitude of smaller plants.
)U. Consumption of fuel oil in the
ict of Columbia has been reported as
00,000 gallons for I960, about evenly
sd between distillate fuel oil and resi-
!uel oil. (17) It has been estimated
he suburban areas consumed about
00,000 gallons of fuel oil during I960.
This would indicate a total fuel oil
.mption of about 307,100,000 gallons
:>0 for the Washington Metropolitan
?he combustion of fuel oil releases
ydes, oxides of nitrogen, sulfur ox-
organic acids, other organic mate-
and ash. For the practically smoke -
operation of oil burning equipment it
>ential that the equipment be properly
ned, adjusted, maintained, and oper-
n he use of fuel oil in the Washington
)politan Area is gradually increasing,
irily in the residual fuel oils that are
for space heating in the larger office
.ngs, hotels, and apartments. (18)
oil consumption in this area is not
dered a major smoke problem, but it
be considered as a source of air pol-
. in the form of organic substances
ulfur and nitrogen oxides.
jas Gas usage during I960 amounted
800,000 thousand cubic feet (MCF) (19)
jd by general usage as follows:
residential & Commercial
with Heating 38,400,000 MCF
residential & Commercial
Public Authorities
1,250,000 MCF
\x/iH-irmt W^atnnrr
000
Industry uses practically no gas except
for certain limited space heating require-
ments. About 55 percent of the total volume
of gas used during I960 was used solely for
residential and commercial space heating
purposes. (19) Nearly all new homes being
built in the Washington Metropolitan Area
are equipped for both gas space and gas hot
water heating. In addition, gas cooking
equipment is predominant in newly con-
structed homes and apartments. Since 1950
the total gas consumption in the Washington
Metropolitan Area has increased by almost
250 percent. (19) It is anticipated that with
the continued population increase and the
availability of gas in the growing suburban
areas the total gas consumption will continue
to increase at the rate of about 20 percent
per year.
The combustion of gas does not produce
visible smoke, but it does produce pollutants
such as aldehydes, nitrogen oxides, organic
acids, and other organics which add to the
total atmospheric pollution.
Residential Use of Fuel In 1950 the
predominant fuels for residential heating in
the Washington Metropolitan Area were oil
37.8 percent, coal 30.8 percent, and natural
gas 25.5 percent. (20) Since 1950 the use
of coal has declined and the use of gas has
greatly increased until present estimates
indicate that fuel usage, excluding coal for
steam-electric generation and that used by
the Federal Government principally for
central heating plant operation, may be sum-
marized as approximately 59 percent natural
gas, 39 percent oil, and 2 percent coal (on a
potential BTU basis). The general trend has
been toward the use of fuel oil for heating
the larger apartment buildings and gas for
the individual residences, along with the
conversion in older buildings from coal to
either fuel oil or natural gas.
It is not expected that the increased
use of gas and oil for residential fuel will
create a major smoke problem. It should
be realized that the use of fuel oil at the
larger apartments, office, and hotel buildings
may create a smoke problem unless the firing
equipment is properly maintained and operated.
The principal air pollution contribution from
gas and oil is in the form of organic sub-
st.PmrfS anrl nviHpc; nf siil-fny anrl -m' f- r r\ n o n
Seasonal Variation in Fuel Consump-
tion -- The use of fuel for space heating
purposes is related to the heating degree
dayc {Table 5). Approximately 73 percent
of the space heating contribution to air pol-
lution occurs during a four month period,
December tnroagh March.
Because a large percentage of the gas
is used for heating purposes the monthly
consumption varies markedly. During
August I960, 1,510,000 MCF of gas were
used, primarily for cooking, hot water
heating, air conditioning, and commercial
uses. (21) During December I960, 8,700,000
MCF of gas were used, largely for heating
purposes. (21)
Because of its fuel use pattern, the
Washington Metropolitan Area does not
have a great problem of smoke and fly ash
such as is normally associated with the
widespread use of coal for heat and power.
This does not mean that the combustion of
oil and gas for heating purposes is not a
part of the community air pollution prob-
lem, on the contrary, it must be considered
a significant part of the total air pollution
problem.
Pollution from Transportation
Motor Vehicles Motor vehicles are
considered a very significant source of ain
pollution in large communities throughout
the country. Motor vehicles discharge
significant quantities of hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides and
relatively smaller quantities of aerosols,
oxides of sulfur 1 , aldehydes, ammonia, or-
ganic acids, and other organic compounds.
Gasoline additives such as tetraethyl lead,
boron, and phosphorous compounds as well
as motor oil and their additives also cause
specific air pollutants. (See Appendix.)
In I960 there were about 185,000 auto-
mobiles, 19,000 trucks, and 1,800 buses
registered in the District of Columbia. In
addition, it is estimated that about 24,000
automobiles, owned by military personnel
and other Federal employees, are located
and operated in the District of Columbia
but are registered in other States. This
indicates a total of about 230,000 motor
vehicles owned and operated by people liv-
ing in the District of Columbia. (24)
In I960 there were about 280,000 moto
TABLE 5
NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL DEGREE DAYS FOR
WASHINGTON METROPOLITAN AREA, 65 F BASE
(1921-1950) ( 22 >
Month
J anua ry
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Degree Days
871
762
626
288
74
33
271
519
834
Percent of
Heating Load
20.6
18.0
14.8
6.8
1.8
0.8
5.2
12.2
19-8
Total
4,224
100.0
.cles owned and operated in suburban
yland and about 175,000 in suburban
;inia. (25) This indicates that a total
bout 685,000 motor vehicles are owned
operated in the Washington Metropolitan
A 1959 traffic survey indicated that
it 667,000 motor vehicles entered or
the District of Columbia during an
rage 24 -hour period, 263,000 going to
rom Virginia and 404,000 going to or
n Maryland. It has been estimated that
number of motor vehicles entering or
ing the District of Columbia has more
. doubled in the last 10 years. A certain
:entage of the motor vehicles entering
eaving the area is due to through traffic
F.S. Highways 1, 29, 50 and 240, especially
F.S. Highway 1, a main north -south truck
e, passing directly through the District
olumbia. Of the motor vehicles oper-
g in the District of Columbia on an
rage day, about 49 percent are regis-
d in the District of Columbia, 24 per-
: are registered in Maryland, 19 percent
stered in Virginia and 8 percent regis-
d in other States, including through truck
tourist travel. (25)
The movement of more than half a mil-
motor vehicles per day into and out of
District of Columbia emphasizes the
1 for a metropolitan area approach for
reduction of emissions from motor
.cles. Improvement of highways and
.ges, along with continual population
vth, will certainly increase the volume
lotor vehicle movements in the Washing -
Metropolitan Area. Because of the many
irnmental jurisdictions involved, how-
r, reduction of motor vehicle emissions
prove difficult.
In the District of Columbia, motor ve-
e registrations have shown an increase
n 195,000 in 1950 to 206,000 in I960. (26)
ing the same period of time motor
cle registrations in suburban Virginia
j increased from 100,000 to 175,000 and
uburban Maryland motor vehicle regis-
Lons have increased from 190,000 in
5 to 280,000 in I960. (24) It is antici-
d that the number of motor vehicle
strations in the Washington Metropolitan
a. will continue to increase, probably at
latively slow rate in the District of
imbia and at a rapid rate in the suburban
areas of Maryland and Virginia. This of
course will increase air pollution in the
Washington Metropolitan Area. It is cer-
tainly possibi->. that the number of motor
vehicles operated in the Washington Metro-
politan Area will approach 1,000,000 by
1970.
Approximately 195,307,000 gallons of
gasoline were sold in the District' of Colum-
bia and about 295,500,000 gallons were sold
in suburban Maryland and Virginia during
I960. (23) This indicates that a total of
about 490,807,000 gallons of gasoline were
sold in the Washington Metropolitan Area
during I960.
About 15,500,000 gallons' of diesel fuel
were sold in the District of Columbia during
I960, about 6,200,000 gallons were for on
highway use and the remainder for railroade
vessels, military and other miscellaneous
uses. (17) Actual figures for diesel fuel
sales in suburban Maryland and Virginia
were not readily obtainable but it has been
estimated that they are at least equal to
those reported for the District of Colombia.
This would indicate that approximately
30,000,000 gallons of diesel fuel were sold
in the Washington Metropolitan Area during
I960.
Internal combustion engines make a
significant contribution to the overall air
pollution problem in the Washington Metro-
politan Area. While emissions from motor
vehicles and other pollution sources may
not create a condition as severe as exists
in Los Angeles, it should be recognized
that the potential for a problem of that
type but of lesser intensity does exist in
the Washington Metropolitan Area. In fact,
past episodes of eye irritation and photo-
chemical smog in the Washington Metro-
politan Area have shown that the problem
may already exist to a limited degree.
Based on limited observations and
spot checks, about 5 to 15 percent of the
motor vehicles operated within the District
of Columbia emit excessive visible exhaust
smoke. (23) This is evidence that the
engines are in bad adjustment or a poor
state of repair. In either case, these
engines emit more unburned hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, and visible smoke than
engines that are properly adjusted and
maintained.
- 15 -
Odorous materials emitted from diesel
powered trucks and buses are a cause of
public complaints. The increasing use of
diesel fuel will lead to more complaints
regarding the odors created. This will be
especially true at bus terminals and along
heavily used bus and truck routes.
Shipping The port of Washington, D. C.
handles about 2,000,000 tons of freight per
year and the port of Alexandria, Virginia,
handles about 330,000 tons per year. (27)
In addition, a number of U. S. Navy ships
ply the waters adjacent to the Washington
Metropolitan Area. Most of these ships
are oil fired and, considering the overall
air pollution picture, the total contribution
from shipping is believed to be relatively
minor.
Rail Seven railroads serve the Wash-
ington Metropolitan Area. About 145 daily
passenger trains carry an estimated 35,000
passengers per day to and from the Nation's
Capital. (3) In addition a great number of
freight trains operate through Washington,
which is a strategic rail crossing of the
Potomac, to provide direct service between
the Northeast and Southeast. Most of the
trains are diesel powered, although some
are electric powered. A diesel unit (usually
3 or 4 units are used per train) burns about
2 gallons of fuel per mile, while diesel
switch units burn about 8 gallons of fuel
per hour of operation. While diesel loco-
motives do not contribute significantly to
the dust fall problem, the combustion of
diesel fuel does release pollutants to the
atmosphere (Appendix). Proper operation,
maintenance, and adjustment of diesel units
is essential to prevent smoke. The contri-
bution of diesel locomotives to the overall
air pollution loading in the Washington Metro-
politan Area is considered to be minor.
Airlines Washington, D. C. ranks
third among United States cities in the
number of air passengers. National Air-
port, which is located across the Potomac
River, about four miles from the heart of
the city, handles over 20,000 passengers
per day, with an average of about 800 ar-
riving and departing flights per day. (3)
Dne of the world's largest and finest air-
ports is scheduled to open in late 1962, 20
miles west of Washington. It is anticipated
that this new airport will be handling 4 mil-
Lion passengers per year by 1965 and 7 million
by 1970. There are also three military aii
fields; Andrews Air Force Base, Boiling
Air Force Base, and Anacostia Naval Air
Station. Emissions from all of these sourc
are considered a minor portion of the total
air pollution problem of the Washington
Metropolitan Area.
Pollution From Waste Disposal Operations
Refuse Disposal The method used fc
refuse disposal is an important factor in
controlling air pollution. The burning of
refuse on open dumps or on private premis
is the poorest method of disposal. Incom-
plete combustion of refuse results in pro-
duction of a wide variety of gaseous and
particulate matter including odors, smoke,
aerosols, aldehydes, organic acids and
other pollutants (Appendix).
The District of Columbia Division of
Sanitation burns about 1600 tons of rubbish
each day, about 1200 tons at three incinera
tors and about 400 tons at an open dump. (2
The open dump burning operation has been
used for quite a few years, due to inadequal
incinerator capacity. It is anticipated that
a new 500 ton per day incinerator will be
operated during 1962; this will provide
adequate capacity so that operation of the
open burning dump may not be necessary.
Some problems were encountered
several years ago with the Georgetown
incinerator, due to fly ash and other emis-
sions. This particular incinerator is
located lower than, but very near to, resi-
dential areas so that the top of the stack is
at about the same elevation as the surround
ing residential areas. Through a very care
fully controlled operating procedure the fly
ash and other emissions have been reduced
until practically no complaints are receivec
Most of the garbage from within the
District of Columbia is used for hog feed-
ing. Some of the garbage, which is not suit
able for hog feeding, along with incinerator
residue, street sweepings, ashes, and other
non-combustibles is hauled to a transfer
station, located a few thousand feet from
the Capitol Building, where it is loaded in
large tractor -trailer units and gondola
railroad cars for transport to sanitary
landfills. In passing enabling legislation
authorizing this installation, Congress wrot
>viso into the law that the structure be
>ped for odor and dust control because
> proximity to the Capitol. This resulted
system of cyclones, fiberglass filters,
:arbon absorption canisters which has
reported as 95 percent efficient in re-
ng odors and very effective in control -
;he dust problem. (29)
in the suburban areas of Maryland that
. part of the Washington Metropolitan
approximately 100 tons of refuse are
erated per day. The only incinerator
.s area is operated by the Washington
rban Sanitary Commission and serves
; 60,000 people. (30) Most of the other
Lential, commercial, and industrial re-
is disposed of at sanitary landfills
ed at various sites in Montgomery and
;e Georges Counties and operated by
active towns, cities, special taxing
icts and the county. (31) These oper-
s are periodically inspected by the
:y health agencies to enforce the re-
ive county regulations that prohibit
.ng at open dumps or landfills.
'.n the suburban areas of Virginia that
. part of the Washington Metropolitan
approximately 400 tons of refuse are
erated each day (300 in Arlington
ty and 100 in the City of Alexandria).
In addition, some refuse from Arling-
lounty and the City of Alexandria, as
as all of the refuse from Fairfax
ty and the independent City of Falls
ch, is disposed of at sanitary landfills
ed within their respective areas. (32,
'.n all of these areas, close supervision
ninimized the amount of burning -at the
ill sites.
Burning of combustible refuse in indi-
,1 backyard trash burners has been
.bited in the District of Columbia for
5. This practice, which results in the
targe of large quantities of gaseous
(articulate pollutants to the atmosphere,
rrnitted in the suburban areas of Mary-
and Virginia. Backyard burning is
icted to after 4 p.m. in Prince Georges
n airfax Counties during the spring
hs and in Montgomery and Prince
ges Counties during the fall months,
pt as indicated above, open burning in
uburban areas of Maryland and Virginia
rmitted during the daylight hours. Al-
the hours after 4 p.m. may be desirable for
fire prevention, this is the normal period of
light wind speed and poor ventilation during
the fall months, hence the least desirable
period for burning from an air pollution
standpoint.
The many trees in the Washington Metro-
politan Area produce great quantities of
leaves that are usually disposed of by open
burning. This results in the discharge of
large quantities of gaseous and particulate
pollutants to the atmosphere during the
season of the year in which most air stag-
nation episodes are experienced. The open
burning of a single pile of leaves is, not of
course, a major source of air pollution.
However, this practice should be seriously
questioned when it is conducted on a large
scale. Even though the burning of leaves
is prohibited in the District of Columbia
and restricted to certain daylight or even-
ing hours in other areas, dense smoke from
burning leaves may be experienced through-
out the entire Washington Metropolitan Area
during the fall months.
Practically all new apartment houses
in the Washington Metropolitan Area are
equipped with single- or multi -chamber
incinerators for the disposal of combus-
tible rubbish. In addition, many of the
newer commercial and industrial establish-
ments are also equipped with single- or
multi -chamber incinerators. Recent amend-
ments to the District of Columbia Fuel Burn-
ing Regulations require that multi -chamber
incinerators be installed in the District of
Columbia after October 1961. Single -chamber
incinerators, which produce greater quantities
of air pollutants per pound of material burned
than multi -chamber units, are still permitted
in other portions of the Washington Metro-
politan Area.
Because of the many construction proj-
ects for new buildings, highways, and resi-
dential areas the quantity of waste materials
from construction and demolition activities
in the Washington Metropolitan Area has
reached enormous proportions. Most of
these waste materials are disposed of by
opening burning. This produces significant
quantities of gaseous and particulate air
pollutants. Open burning of construction
and demolition wastes in Alexandria is done
under a permit system; however, this does
prohibit open bu] ning unless a very definite
need ..a.i be established and there is no other
practical method of disposal available. In
such cases a permit may be issued. These
new restrictions should greatly reduce, if
not eliminate, open burning of construction
and demolition wastes in the District of
Columbia.
The District of Columbia Department of
Highways burns dead, diseased trees, and
trimmings from its own activities and for
the National Capital Parks at the Poplar
Point Nursery grounds. Even though dis-
eased elm trees must be burned as a part of
the disease eradication program this activity
must be considered as contributing to the
total air pollution problem.
In summary, the Washington Metropoli-
tan Area disposes of about 1700 tons of
refuse per day at municipal incinerators and
about 400 tons per day at an open burning
dump. The remainder of the Metropolitan
Area refuse, consisting of several hundred
tons per day, is disposed of by back -yard
burning, apartment house incineration, and
sanitary landfills. In addition, quantities of
leaves, trees and waste materials from con-
struction and demolition activities are dis-
posed of by open burning in the Washington
Metropolitan Area. These activities result
in the discharge of a considerable amount of
atmospheric pollutants each day and are con-
sidered a significant contribution to air
pollution in this area. Table 6 shows a
general summary of the waste disposal
practices.
Sewage Disposal Complaints of odors
have come from the immediate vicinity of
some sewage treatment plants, especially
during the summer months when the day-
time temperatures and relative humidity are
quite high and there is little or no air move-
ment. In most cases, these odor problems
are experienced only in areas immediately
adjacent to the sewage treatment plants.
About 1,000,000 cubic feet of sewage
sludge gas is produced each day by the va-
rious sewage treatment plants in the Wash-
ington Metropolitan Area. (34) This gas is
used as fuel for certain types of engines or
for heating purposes, or is wasted by flaring.
The combustion or burning of the sludge gas
tants that contribute to the total community
air pollution problem.
Sewage disposal operations in the
Washington Metropolitan Area are con-
sidered a contributor to the total air pollu-
tion problem, but they are not considered
of major importance.
Industrial and Commercial Emissions
Emissions to the Washington Metro-
politan Area atmosphere from industrial
processes contribute to the total air pollu-
tion situation. Metropolitan Washington is
not a heavy industrial area and the emis-
sions from industrial operations are of the
type and quantity generally associated with
light industry and manufacturing and serv-
ice operations. Because exhaust stack
sampling and plant inspections were not
undertaken as a part of this evaluation, the
following discussion and Table 7 are of a
general nature. However, air pollution
problems normally associated with specif i<
types of industry are indicated.
Table 7 gives a summary of the major
industries and their contributions to the
community air pollution problem. Some
are of minor significance, some are of a
localized nature, and others are considerec
significant contributors. This indicates
that industries in the Metropolitan Wash-
ington Area are an important part of the
total air pollution problem even though the^
are not the most significant group of pollu-
tion sources.
Dust arising from construction opera-
tions, particularly highway construction, is
a frequent source of public complaint.
Complaints about commercial operations
are usually associated with emissions such
as hydrocarbons from petroleum bulk stor^
age and retail filling stations, smoke and
odors from scrap or salvage yards, odors
from restaurants and markets, and smoke
and odors due to laundries and dry clean-
ing establishments. The last are especial!
important in the Washington area because
of the great number of small laundry and
dry cleaning plants. Hydrocarbon losses
from petroleum handling and storage also
contribute to the overall pollution load on
ffl
<J
H
d
o d
^ , ^
"d"
^^
4-* ^ <U
Mtj
bJD
ao
M o.
bfl
&0 ,"^
O ' +J
rj .j-l CQ
S S
"
M ijj
d
H
d
^H
d
H
d
(H
d ij
r-l -i-l
d 5
M .S
d
rH
d
M
1 1
1 ^
m^
d
CQ
d
PQ
d 1
d
d
5
Q
1 1
T>
Oj
Hi
Other
Residenti
Area
Burning
Prohibits
Limited
(Leaves)
Leaves
Limited
(Leaves)
Leaves
Leaves
CO
W
U
CO
*.%
h- 1
R <
nJ r; nJ nj
>- CD h
CO
en
(0
to
u w
< rt
rM TJ ^ CD
d^.S
o
2
CD
Z
cu
cu
<
OQ CD O
DH
Cd d
*"
<1 H
CO I-H
k.^
O J
!-l i-l
DH O
rt CM
co
co
CO
CD .
CO
CD
W &
'"3 ^
0)
(D
CD
CD
cu
CU
QO
rt rt
>-"
!x
|x
|x
><
K*
tf
CO J
W H
co u
^ S
h ^
M nJ
S*
CU
CD
CD
cu
CD
tf O
0^
2
CL S d CD
O d Q fl
ffl
H
o
o
d
o
d
O
Z
d
O
Z
d
o
Z
d
o
2
PM CO
<j <
ID ^
ID
CO
fi.7
o
oO
1 1
o
o
1
CD
d
Z
o
OO
CU
d
o
Z
o
o
<! u o
"o
"d
^ .
cti
'- 1 tti
'rS
e
d
,-t
o
U
s>_
cti
H
n)
CD
S-<
"o
u
M-f
o
o
1-1
H
ntgomery Coi:
Maryland
.nee Georges
Maryland
lington County
Virginia
Lrfax County <
Falls Church
:y of Alexandl
Virginia
CO
ft
o
* r-i
fn
rd
tn
Q
S
DH
<
h
u
CO
d
"d
d
cr
cu
o
d
co
cu
O
Q
- 19 -
INDUSTRIES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
TO THE AIR POLLUTION PROBLEM
Industry
Total
Plants
Contributions to Air Pollution Pro
Food & Kindred Products
107
Odors - coffee roasting and anima
rendering plants - localized com-
plaints - minor contribution
Lumber & Wood Products
62
Burning wood wastes, saw dust, sp
paint mist, and creosote odors - n
work, prefabrication, and containe
manufacturing - localized complai
minor contribution
Printing & Publishing
339
Solvent odors - printing processes
localized complaints - minor
contribution
Chemical & Allied Products
32
Dusts, sulfuric acid mists, fluorid
and odors - fertilizer, insecticide,
paint manufacturing - localized co
plaints - significant contribution
Petroleum & Coal Products
11
Dust and oil fumes - asphalt pavin
plants - many localized complaints
significant contribution
Stone, Clay & Glass Products
81
Dusts - ready -mixed concrete and
concrete or allied products - loca]
complaints - significant contributi
Fabricated Metal Products
78
Gases and dusts - spray painting,
degr easing, and grinding - alumlm
doors & windows, structural and
ornamental steel products - no coi
plaints - minor contribution
Electrical Machinery
43
Gases and dusts - spray painting,
degreasing and grinding - no comp
minor contribution
Primary Metals
4
Gases and particulates - steel tube
production and gray iron castings
localized complaints - minor con-
tribution
- 20 -
Certain j? eaerai uovernment operations
as the Naval Weapons Plant, Govern-
Printing Office, and the Bureau of
ing and Engraving are considered as
trial operations. Several years ago
were emissions from the Naval Weap-
lant due to metal plating and forging,
int emissions from the plant are due to
i electric generation, incineration of
ustible wastes and occasional open
ng of certain scrap products. The Gov-
ent Printing Office and the Bureau of
ing and Engraving are basically print -
ngraving and publishing operations.
; activities generally do not produce
leant quantities of air pollutants, other
some solvent odors. Altogether, the
trial type activities conducted by the
al Government in the Washington
ipolitan Area contribute to the total air
Ion problem, but they are considered
nor significance.
[iscellaneous sources of air pollution
Dmmon to most metropolitan areas
D attempt was made to evaluate their
dual contributions to the Washington
air pollution problem. Their total
Lbution is considered of minor sig-
nce in the total air pollution problem.
:aphic Distribution of Industrial Sources
'he Metropolitan Washington Area is
vely free of major industrial air pollu-
ources. The problems encountered
sually due to nuisances from specific
or dusts in limited areas. Most of the
tries are located along the Potomac and
>stia Rivers, and along the railroad
s and major highways. The industrial
are dispersed and generally separated
residential sections. These factors,
with the nature and limited extent of
dustries help to minimize the effect of
:rial pollutants on the total air pollu-
roblem.
In 1931-1933, atmospheric pollution
was studied in 14 of the largest cities of
the United States, including Washington,
D. C. (35) This study reported dustfall
rates for Washington, D. C. as 26 tons per
square mile per month during the winter,
24 tons per square mile per month during
the summer, and 24 tons per square mile
per month for the entire year. The study
also reported that the average amount of
suspended matter in the air during the
winter months in the 14 cities was 510
micrograms per cubic meter of air. The
Group III cities, which included Washington,
D. C., averaged 350 micrograms per cubic
meter. The study indicated that if the de-
gree of atmospheric pollution during the
winter months for all of the cities com-
bined was taken as 100, the Group III
cities would have a value of 56. Thus it
would appear that in 1931-1933 the air
pollution situation in Washington, D. C.,
was better than that in many other large
cities in the United States.
During 1953-54, oxidant and sulfur
dioxide were measured in 10 cities, in-
cluding Washington, D. C. (36) Sampling
was done for only a few days in each city,
but a variety of weather conditions oc-
curred, including a few days of smog. The
Washington, D. C. oxidant level, as mea-
sured by the potassium iodide method,
ranged from a high of 0.078 ppm (parts per
million parts of air) to a low of 0.003 ppm,
with an average of 0.039 ppm. Although
atmospheric oxidant measurements usually
include all oxidizing substances, ozone is
one of the most important oxidants found in
the air. Ozone is a highly reactive, unique
form of oxygen that may be produced in the
atmosphere by the action of sunlight on
organic material in the presence of nitro-
gen dioxide. Sulfur dioxide concentrations
ranged from a high of 0.12 ppm to a low of
less than 0.01 ppm, with an average of 0.04
ppm as measured using the alkaline iodine
- 21 -
D. C. and the maximum and minimum values
for all 10 cities included in the study. The
resu h s indicate that oxidant concentrations
in Washington were higher than the average
for the 10 cities, in fact Washington was
third highest in this respect, and the sulfur
dioxide values were about average.
Plant Damage
As is true with many large metropolitan
areas, symptoms of smog injury to vegeta-
tion have been found in the Metropolitan
Washington Area. Such occurrences indicate
the existence of an air pollution problem.
Although estimates of economic losses in the
Washington area due to plant damage by
smog have not been made, it is known that
economic losses in tens of millions of dollars
have been experienced in other areas . No
attempt has been made to complete a fre-
quency-severity survey of plant damage in
the Washington area.
The occurrence of plant damage in the
Washington Metropolitan Area has received
considerable attention in the last few years.
It has been shown that the "weather fleck"
injury to tobacco plants at the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture Plant Industry Station,
Beltsville, Maryland, was probably the re-
sult of atmospheric ozone, which is one of
the most important atmospheric oxidants.
(37) It has also been postulated that the high
ozone levels (peak values of 0.31 to 0.50 ppm
as measured by the buffered potassium io-
dide method) observed at Beltsville, which
may have caused the plant damage, were the
result of air pollution from the Washington
Metropolitan Area. (38) Studies of the ozone
injury problem are continuing and the sever-
ity of fleck in the tobacco at Beltsville con-
tinues to correlate with atmospheric ozone
levels. Studies done in fumigation chambers
at Beltsville using known ozone concentra-
tions have confirmed the idea that fleck can
be caused by ozone. Ozone levels required
to produce the injury correlate with the at-
mospheric ozone concentrations found on
days when flecking of tobacco occurs in
plants exposed to ambient air.
The general symptoms of ozone injury
on other crops has been reported. (39)
Studies at Beltsville indicate that ozone
There is little doubt that the Wash
ton Metropolitan Area is the source of
least one phytotoxicant with a potential
inducing serious economic loss in vege
tion. While a complete assessment hai
been made, it is evident that vegetatior
damage does occur and deserves serio
attention.
The National Air Sampling Network
Washington, D. C. has participated
the National Air Sampling Network of t
Public Health Service since 1953. Sarr
of air are collected for a 24 hour peric
using a high-volume sampler, on a pre
termined schedule, by representatives
the District of Columbia Department oj
Public Health. The samples are sent t
Public Health Service's Sanitary Engin
ing Center in Cincinnati, Ohio, where t
are analyzed. Data are available from
through 1959 for suspended particulate
matter, organic pollutants, reflectance
radio activity, and certain inorganic pc
tants. (40,41)
Since 1953 four separate sampling
cations have been used, including area:
classified as commercial, residential,
a combination of commercial-resident]
(Table 9). The results reflect conditio
in the different areas.
Particulate Matter - Washington, J
had an average particulate pollution lo;
of 132 micrograms per cubic meter of
during the period of 1953-1959. Table
shows the results for the four separate
sampling sites that have been used dur
the six-year period and the total resull
for this period. The values obtained di
ing 1955-1956, which are higher than f<
other years, were probably influenced
dusty play fields and other activities a1
high school, public recreation center, i
versity, and large stadium that are all
cated nearby. Table 10 shows a comp^
of suspended particulate matter concer
tions results for Washington, D. C. anc
several other large cities. These rest
indicate that Washington's particulate ]
lution levels are less than the national
average but higher than some other lai
cities; however, it also shows that the
- 22 -
CO
w
PQ
H
W
Q
M
X
o
I I
Q
H ID
Z H
<; co
HH
V ^
o
o
o
I I
h
<;
h
12:
H
U
O
U
0)13
Q B
,. o
CO
CO
ro O O
O O O
V
^ o o
o o o
V
00 -H O
moo
o o o
V
00 rO s
r- o 00
O O O
O O O
O O sD
oo o CM
i O O
U
Q
fl"
o
6 fi
H 5 <o
c 2 M
u
o
- 23 -
o
uTi
O -
^ .."
M
1 o
w ^
i W
O
CO
W j
< ^
^2
U H
Q
CO
.
r-
rO
p
<
r-
t <
o
o
i-H
on
r-H
o
H
U
o
X
vfl
0^
00
r 1
PH
rt
N
un
un
(M
M
^
w
"^
ram
ao
o
1-1
C
5j
H
^O
o
i i
00
CO
-0
r-
on
en
rH
o
o
i-H
i__ fi
"*
f~
-*
un
o
(M
2; rt
co
[fi
O
fn
uT)
un
i
un
un
i
^
(U
IT)
s
sD
un
CO
un
on
un
O
i i
i-H
11
, i
11 '
rt
ffj
I
1
<D
a
O
U
U
H
bfl
h
0)
-i->
60
T3
0)
&
rt
0)
i i
cq
H
to
o
a3
N .
U
4->
U
J
i
o W
"81
^ ^
rt o
. 73
o <u
H
* ^1
I-"
' M
O . H
<
H
O
Zffi
Z U co
2 ffi
ZQ
H
o
O
U
w
nj
CQ
CU
r-H r 1 i H i 1 i 1 r 1 r 1
4->
Q)
O
CO
H
U
l
f-<
X
CO- ii ifOtMrf'^TticO
<tl
A
rd
LTl O vO LO CO ' i CO CO t*
^
ft
S
CMCOCOCVJCOCOLOCOO
3
H^^ft
I-} 1
ams
O 00
H
&">
O
H '
O
S"
< o
rt
2
J^
S '
U -
.
PARTI
AT IONS
ti
H
S
i * to O^ CV3 O*^ s 00 %O r "~ l
vO vO 00 f^J 00 ""^O t 1 "^ OJ **^
P H
HCO
F SUSPEND
AL URBAN
co
HH CD
O ,_|
O H
^^ i-H LO '""^ O^* f-- ^ O^ ^D C)
fO
ID
ISON O
SEVER
2 oj
CO
MPAR
FOR
O
U
fl
H CO
O
H
m ' ' fl
.r- rt Q
rt
U ^ U '^j
i i
o |
c i 9 J ftf
O TJ o * "H iii "^
Pn
OCO CUO ii vO OcO > i r^Lf) r l 1 '* 1 . W
1-1 eS(
"^j,_7 *" pj tUDC\T Sco" .o" ^O hun" T)^H" <i
oi
cu
do St^- <i **" lxi tx " oo r co tv- rQ'^ 1 .j^ 00 ,_(
In
coro 4Jr-< mN o ^ro M^ >^H ^(vj -^ ^
^ PQ J CO CO O P-< . OH H
- 25 -
w
J
CQ
CD
C
^ *
u "o 4
^ CD *
i i
CN]
0) r-4
s s *
rQ 'fl *
M r-H tyQi |
m
i i
CD O fn '
pq co Q
CO
H
% u
C r-H -H -^.
O r O Q
r _ t
tn
j ^
o 'o M ^
oo
CM
Oo
<] CO Q
SI
co
I 1
JJ
rD ^
ni
y m
"rt ^ ^^
t^
f-
H ^
^ y "*
'vf
o
cd ^
H '^ "^
<] fj
rt
h Q
rJH
RIATION O
SHINGTON,
CO
CD CD
CJ CD
c\a
M
o
2
<r <r
CD W)
> ^
^ Q
T
<^ I-H
O
CO
t-t
W
co
co
HJ
ri
!
o
o
1
^
o
rt
Z
^
bO
C
rt
CO
rt
ti
(U
CD
H
i
co
4-*
C
CD
O
ffi
organ:
CD
.
r-H
rO
CO
O
H
r-H
O
CO
tuO
.
CD
rH
J_4
a
o
O
CD
H
rd
"CD
fl
CD
o
CD
JM
SI
4*^
"^
ti
^
CO
CD
CD
rd
rn
H
"0
CD
CO
rt
fH
-3
O
T)
CD
CD
a
CD
"rH
O
CD
(H
CD
co
i i
CD
rH
1
4J
CD
CO
CO
CD
6
CD
r-H
CJ
(H
CJ
CO
CD
JJ3
in
r-
i-O
CD
CJ
i i
m
r-H
MH
J_^
m
CU
CD
j*
rH
a
r-H
CD
to
r r
r-H
&
6
rd
r 1
M
(U
f^
O
j
W)
O
4-3
fH
rH
O
r-4
O
H
O
CD
CM
<2
H
if
5f
#
r-H
35-
-;}
- 27 -
Reflectance - The average light re-
flectance value of the Washington, D. C. high
volume filter samples is 16 percent. Re-
flectance is used as a measure of the soiling
properties of the collected pollutants. The
lower the reflectance value the dirtier or
grimier is the particulate matter in the air.
Variation in reflectance readings can occur
due to variations in composition of the par-
ticulate matter collected on the sample as
well as variations in the amount of material.
Inorganic Pollutants - The National Air
Sampling Network samples have been ana-
lyzed for a wide variety of inorganic solids.
Many of these inorganic materials can be
related to specific industrial processes and
operations and they can sometimes be used
to determine sources of pollution. The re-
sults of these analyses pertaining to Wash-
ington, D. C. for 1953-1957 have been pub-
lished and, therefore, a detailed review will
not be undertaken in this report. (40) Aver-
age values for specific inorganic solids found
in the Washington air samples are about the
same as the national average values.
Seasonal Variation - If the year is
divided into a "heating season" (November
through April) and a "non-heating season"
(May through October) a significant differ-
ence is noted in the atmospheric pollutants
measured at the network station (Table 12).
The primary reason for this difference is
ascribed to the increased use of fuel for
space heating. Pollution levels are higher
in winter even though, as previously pointed
out, the meteorological conditions are gen-
erally more favorable for atmospheric dis-
persion of pollutants during the November -
April period.
Pilot Sampling Project
In December I960 a seven day pilot air
sampling project was completed by the Dis-
trict of Columbia Department of Public Health
and the Public Health Service. The maximum
values obtained during this period were: 0.25
ppm oxidant (which includes ozone), 0.40 ppm
nitrogen dioxide, 0.70 ppm nitric oxide, 6.7
ppm carbon monoxide, 5.5 Cohs per 1000
linear feet for "smoke" (small sized par-
ticles, largely from combustion operations),
and 445 micrograms per cubic meter for
nitrogen dioxide, and nitric oxide indicate
that photochemical smog is a problem in
Washington. The values obtained for
"smoke" and suspended particulate mate-
rial were also significant. The maximum
oxidant level of 0.25 ppm equalled the leve
at which some people experience eye irri-
tation; in fact, several cases of eye irrita-
tion were reported during the study. This
study indicates that among others, "smoke
and motor vehicle emissions are two majo
factors in the Washington air pollution
problem.
Past Episodes
Photochemical air pollution is char-
acterized by eye irritation, visibility re-
duction, cracking of rubber products, and
results from the oxidation of hydrocarbons
(primarily gasoline vapors) in the presenc
of nitrogen dioxide and sunlight.
The Washington Metropolitan Area hai
recently experienced three separate epi-
sodes of eye -irritating smog, June 8-11,
1959, September 23-27 , I960, and Decem-
ber 5-6, I960. The 1959 episode occurred
when a high pressure air mass existed
and the I960 episodes during atmospheric
temperature inversions. A portion of the
population experienced eye -irritation and
other discomforts during these episodes,
visibility was noticeably reduced, and nu-
merous complaints were made to local
governmental agencies. These recorded
eye-irritating, visibility reducing, smog
episodes are a definite manifestation of
the photochemical air pollution problem of
the Washington Metropolitan Area and war
of more serious future problems.
Complaints
The public certainly is not without
cause for complaints concerning odors,
smoke, and dusts from certain industrial
operations which cause nuisance condi-
tions. Some complaints regarding vegeta-
tion damage and glass etching have been
received in certain areas of the Washingto
Metropolitan Area. To a great extent the
complaints involve air pollution due to
odors, dust, fumes, or smoke in the area
immediately adjacent to a specific source
of the air pollutant.
- 26 -
e Police Department recently entered
i of air pollution control through en-
ent of amendments to the Traffic and
/chicle Regulations. These regula-
rohibit motor vehicle exhaust emis-
arker than Ringelmann No. 2. Opera-
motor vehicles producing excessive
are given a police notice to appear at
he Department of Motor Vehicle In-
n Stations for further observation.
bund in violation of the regulation
en 10 days to obtain necessary repairs
court action. In addition, the Depart -
Motor Vehicle Inspection Stations
or excessive exhaust smoke as a part
equired annual inspection of all motor
s registered in the District of Colum-
icse combined activities should tend
ce the number of motor vehicles that
cessive exhaust smoke and thus con-
more than their proportionate share
Dtal air pollution load.
ier Reorganization Plan No. 5 of
s amended, the District Department
Lc Health was given responsibility
srvising- adherence to proper stand-
hygiene for occupations, work places,
aterial, work conditions, and related
i concerning city planning; heating,
, ventilation, aerial pollution, noise,
lie health nuisances related to vacant
:cupations, and work places; and
Lazards associated with work mate-
L conditions. In addition, under vari-
tions of the amended Health Ordi-
the District Department of Public
aas authority to investigate and have
ed nuisances due to noisome odors
DUS gases .
3 District Health Department is re-
le for (1) the investigation of air
n complaints of a non-combustion
(2) operation of the Public Health
National Air Sampling Station; and
Issuance of permits for the fumiga-
Duildings and facilities. This pro-
; handled on a part-time basis by
employees who are primarily re-
le for other activities. The National
ipling Network Station activity con-
periodically collecting samples of
Late and gaseous materials and for-
j them to the PHS Sanitary Engineer -
ter at Cincinnati for analysis and
on. Complaint investigations are
source and in past years have numbered
about 5 to 10 per year. The fumigation
permit issuance activity requires periodic
inspections but does not require any ap-
preciable professional time.
The District of Columbia Commis-
sioners recently delegated authority to the
Department of Public Health for developing
an air survey and monitoring program to
determine the extent and causes of air
pollution. The D. C. Health Department
was also directed to work with other de-
partments in preparing specific proposals
that will provide the necessary organiza-
tion and budgetary arrangements to effect
a sound air survey and monitoring program
that would lead to an air pollution control
program for the District of Columbia.
Suburban Maryland
In Montgomery County, air pollution
control activity is handled by the health
department and primarily consists of in-
vestigation of complaints. If possible, the
complaints are handled by the health de-
partment staff but, if complex problems
are encountered, assistance may be ob-
tained from the Maryland State Department
of Health. It was reported that about 20 air
pollution complaints are investigated each
year. The County does not have a smoke
abatement program but the County ordi-
nances and regulations establish perform-
ance standards for all incinerators and
prohibit open burning of leaves and other
combustibles during certain hours of the
day.
In Prince Georges County a very
limited air pollution control program is
conducted by the health department. This
program primarily consists of investigat-
ing complaints. It was reported that about
20 complaints are investigated each year,
excluding numerous complaints pertaining
to the open burning of leaves and rubbish.
The health department normally handles
the air pollution complaint investigations
but may obtain assistance from the Mary-
land State Department of Health on special
studies or complex complaints. The County
does not have a smoke abatement program
but county regulations establish perform-
ance standards for all incinerators and
prohibit open burning at dumps and sani-
Potential Health Effects
Apart from the specific findings of this
survey, continuing research conducted or
sponsored by the Public Health Service is
adding steadily to the body of circumstantial
evidence which links air pollution to certain
cardio-respiratory diseases such as chronic
bronchitis, asthma, emphysema, and lung
cancer. For example, close correlations
have been found very recently between at-
mospheric levels of sulfur dioxide and the
frequency and severity of asthmatic attacks.
Of course, the avoidance of needless risks
to human health adds a most cogent reason
to those developed in this report for a more
efficient and more comprehensive air pollu-
tion control program in the Washington
Metropolitan Area.
STATUS OF LOCAL ACTIVITY
IN AIR POLLUTION
District of Columbia
In 1935 Congress enacted Public Law
279 > District of Columbia Smoke Law, which
prohibits the discharge of dense smoke from
any building, stationary or locomotive en-
gine, or motor vehicle, place or premises
within the District of Columbia. This law
also requires that all ashes, cinders, rub-
bish, dirt, and refuse be removed to a proper
place and that cinders, dust, gas, steam, or
offensive or noisome odors shall not be dis-
charged from any building or place to the
detriment or annoyance of other persons.
The law further authorized the Commis-
sioners of the District of Columbia to prom-
ulgate, alter, amend, or rescind regulations
as they deem necessary. Enforcement of
the law was made the responsibility of the
Commissioners of the District of Columbia.
They may direct the police department,
health department, or any other officer or
employee of the government of the District
of Columbia to perform such services as
necessary for enforcement of the smoke
law. Limited modifications and revisions
have been made to the smoke law, but for
the most part it is basically the same as it
was when originally enacted.
The Department of Licenses and In-
spections is responsible for administration
of the Smoke Law. This responsibility
includes: (1) Examination of building plans
for the construction, installation, recon-
struction, alteration or repair of stacks,
incinerators, boilers or furnaces; (Z) is-
suance of permits and certificates for in-
stallations; (3) maintenance of records
regarding applications, permits, plans,
violations and complaints; and (4) investi-
gation of complaints, observation of smoke
conditions, and inspection of all equipment
for which a permit has been issued. In
general, single family homes are about the
only installations that are not covered by t
regulations.
The smoke abatement activities of this
department are conducted by two different
sections. The plan review portion is han-
dled by the Engineering Branch of the de-
partment and all of the field inspections
are handled by the Smoke and Boiler Sec-
tion. Only three smoke inspectors are
presently employed although authority exis
for five smoke inspectors. Because of buc
get limitations, the low starting salary, an
the lack of available candidates, difficultie
have been experienced in hiring and retain
ing competent smoke inspectors. This has
resulted in fewer smoke observations and
inspections being made, thus reducing the
effectiveness of the smoke abatement
program.
During 1959 three smoke inspectors
made 6,379 smoke inspections and 771 ob-
servations of smoke, and handled 237 com
plaints and 322 smoke violations. Insofar
as possible, complaints are given priority
and are followed up, by the smoke inspectc
who personally contacts the individual who
made the complaint. Most of the smoke
violations are due to improper operating
procedures. Necessary corrections are
usually brought about by a discussion be-
tween the smoke inspector and the equip-
ment owner or operator of the reasons for
the violation.
Since 1936, this program, through its
inspection of plans and issuance of permit;
for fuel burning equipment, has had a grea
influence on the abatement of smoke and
improvement of conditions which might
cause nuisances. Through its adherence
to proper engineering design and installa-
tion practices, the smoke abatement pro-
gram has assured that, with proper opera-
tion, fuel burning equipment installations
would not create nuisances or violate the
smoke law. This has been very important
during the past 25 years, when thousands
of new or modified installations have been
completed.
- 28 -
adding steadily to the body of circumstantial
evidence which links air pollution to certain
cardio-respiratory diseases such as chronic
bronchitis, asthma, emphysema, and lung
cancer. For example, close correlations
have been found very recently between at-
mospheric levels of sulfur dioxide and the
frequency and severity of asthmatic attacks.
Of course, the avoidance of needless risks
to human health adds a most cogent reason
to those developed in this report for a more
efficient and more comprehensive air pollu-
tion control program in the Washington
Metropolitan Area.
STATUS OF LOCAL ACTIVITY
IN AIR POLLUTION
District of Columbia
In 1935 Congress enacted Public Law
279, District of Columbia Smoke Law, which
prohibits the discharge of dense smoke from
any building, stationary or locomotive en-
gine, or motor vehicle, place or premises
within the District of Columbia. This law
also requires that all ashes, cinders, rub-
bish, dirt, and refuse be removed to a proper
place and that cinders, dust, gas, steam, or
offensive or noisome odors shall not be dis -
charged from any building or place to the
detriment or annoyance of other persons.
The law further authorized the Commis-
sioners of the District of Columbia to prom-
ulgate, alter, amend, or rescind regulations
as they deem necessary. Enforcement of
the law was made the responsibility of the
Commissioners of the District of Columbia.
They may direct the police department,
health department, or any other officer or
employee of the government of the District
of Columbia to perform such services as
necessary for enforcement of the smoke
law. Limited modifications and revisions
have been made to the smoke law, but for
the most part it is basically the same as it
was when originally enacted.
The Department of Licenses and In-
spections is responsible for administration
of the Smoke Law. This responsibility
includes: (1) Examination of building plans
for the construction, installation, recon-
struction, alteration or repair of stacks,
gation of complaints, observation of smc
conditions, and inspection of all equipme
for which a permit has been issued. In
general, single family homes are about 1
only installations that are not covered b]
regulations .
The smoke abatement activities of t
department are conducted by two differe
sections. The plan review portion is hai
died by the Engineering Branch of the de
partment and all of the field inspections
are handled by the Smoke and Boiler Sec
tion. Only three smoke inspectors are
presently employed although authority e:
for five smoke inspectors. Because of I
get limitations, the low starting salary,
the lack of available candidates, difficull
have been experienced in hiring and retc
ing competent smoke inspectors. This t
resulted in fewer smoke observations ar
inspections being made, thus reducing tt
effectiveness of the smoke abatement
program.
During 1959 three smoke inspectors
made 6,379 smoke inspections and 771 o
servations of smoke, and handled 237 co
plaints and 322 smoke violations. Ins of c
as possible, complaints are given priori
and are followed up, by the smoke inspei
who personally contacts the individual w
made the complaint. Most of the smoke
violations are due to improper operating
procedures. Necessary corrections are
usually brought about by a discussion be
tween the smoke inspector and the equip
ment owner or operator of the reasons f
the violation.
Since 1936, this program, through ii
inspection of plans and issuance of perrr
for fuel burning equipment, has had a gr
influence on the abatement of smoke and
improvement of conditions which might
cause nuisances. Through its adherence
to proper engineering design and instalL
tion practices, the srnoke abatement pro
gram has assured that, with proper ope:
tion, fuel burning equipment installation
would not create nuisances or violate th
smoke law. This has been very importa
during the past 25 years, when thousand
of new or modified installations have be
completed.
- 28 -
The Police Department recently entered
the field of air pollution control through en-
forcement of amendments to the Traffic and
Motor Vehicle Regulations. These regula-
tions prohibit motor vehicle exhaust emis-
sions darker than Ringelmann No. 2. Opera-
tors of motor vehicles producing excessive
smoke are given a police notice to appear at
one of the Department of Motor Vehicle In-
spection Stations for further observation.
Those found in violation of the regulation
are given 10 days to obtain necessary repairs
or face court action. In addition, the Depart-
ment of Motor Vehicle Inspection Stations
check for excessive exhaust smoke as a part
of the required annual inspection of all motor
vehicles registered in the District of Colum-
bia. These combined activities should tend
to reduce the number of motor vehicles that
emit excessive exhaust smoke and thus con-
tribute more than their proportionate share
of the total air pollution load.
Under Reorganization Plan No. 5 of
1952, as amended, the District Department
of Public Health was given responsibility
for supervising' adherence to proper stand-
ards of hygiene for occupations, work places,
work material, work conditions, and related
matters concerning city planning; heating,
lighting, ventilation, aerial pollution, noise,
and public health nuisances related to vacant
land, occupations, and work places; and
health hazards associated with work mate-
rial and conditions. In addition, under vari-
ous sections of the amended Health Ordi-
nances, the District Department of Public
Health has authority to investigate and have
corrected nuisances due to noisome odors
or noxious gases.
The District Health Department is re-
sponsible for (1) the investigation of air
pollution complaints of a non-combustion
nature; (2) operation of the Public Health
Service National Air Sampling Station; and
(3) the issuance of permits for the fumiga-
tion of buildings and facilities. This pro-
gram is handled on a part-time basis by
regular employees who are primarily re-
sponsible for other activities. The National
Air Sampling Network Station activity con-
sists of periodically collecting samples of
particulate and gaseous materials and for-
warding them to the PHS Sanitary Engineer-
ing Center at Cincinnati for analysis and
tabulation. Complaint investigations are
primarily concerned with localized situations
that involve odors or dusts from a specific
source and in past years have numbered
about 5 to 10 per year. The fumigation
permit issuance activity requires periodic
inspections but does not require any ap-
preciable professional time.
The District of Columbia Commis-
sioners recently delegated authority to the
Department of Public Health for developing
an air survey and monitoring program to
determine the extent and causes of air
pollution. The D. C. Health Department
was also directed to work with other de-
partments in preparing specific proposals
that will provide the necessary organiza-
tion and budgetary arrangements to effect
a sound air survey and monitoring progran
that would lead to an air pollution control
program for the District of Columbia.
Suburban Maryland
In Montgomery County, air pollution
control activity is handled by the health
department and primarily consists of in-
vestigation of complaints. If possible, the
complaints are handled by the health de-
partment staff but, if complex problems
are encountered, assistance may be ob-
tained from the Maryland State Departmenl
of Health. It was reported that about 20 ai:
pollution complaints are investigated each
year. The County does not have a smoke
abatement program but the County ordi-
nances and regulations establish perform-
ance standards for all incinerators and
prohibit open burning of leaves and other
combustibles during certain hours of the
day.
In Prince Georges County a very
limited air pollution control program is
conducted by the health department. This
program primarily consists of investigat-
ing complaints. It was reported that about
20 complaints are investigated each year,
excluding numerous complaints pertaining
to the open burning of leaves and rubbish.
The health department normally handles
the air pollution complaint investigations
but may obtain assistance from the Mary-
land State Department of Health on special
studies or complex complaints. The Count
does not have a smoke abatement program
but county regulations establish perform-
ance standards for all incinerators and
prohibit open burning at dumps and sani-
tary landfills.
- 29 -
Lution activities are handled by the Depart-
ment of Inspections. These activities are
primarily directed toward the inspection and
Licensing of boilers and incinerators. It was
reported that one or two air pollution com-
plaints are received each year and they are
referred to the Virginia Department of
Health for investigation. Reports are sent
back to the local department. County regu-
lations limit the times when leaves and other
combustibles may be burned in the open.
In Fairfax County and the City of Falls
Church all the air pollution control activities
are under the supervision of the Virginia
Department of Health. It has been reported
bhat no complaints regarding air pollution
have been received in years. The County
recently passed a zoning ordinance which
established performance standards for the
emission of smoke and other air pollutants.
In Alexandria, the local health depart-
ment investigates complaints and makes
some limited investigations of specific
problems, with assistance from the Virginia
Department of Health. It was reported that
about 5 air pollution complaints are investi-
gated each year. The smoke abatement
activities are handled by the smoke and
boiler inspector. Activities include plan
review and inspection of boilers, stokers,
and incinerators. Individual backyard in-
cinerators are permitted and private open
burning of leaves and other combustibles is
allowed. Disposal methods for construction
and demolition wastes is controlled by a
permit system.
Table No. 12 gives a summary of local
air pollution control activities in the Wash-
ington Metropolitan Area, The lack of air
Zoning Regulations
Zoning provisions are often used as a
means of controlling air pollution, either
by establishing performance standards or
by separation of industrial and residential
areas. In general, the respective zoning
ordinances in the "Washington Metropolitar
Area have prevented many major air pol-
lution problems. In some of the older are
of Washington, and to some extent Alexan-
dria and Arlington, the industrial areas
were developed adjacent to residential
areas prior to the establishment of effecti
zoning requirements. These situations ac
count for a large proportion of the air
pollution complaints received in the spe-
cific areas. The zoning regulations in ef-
fect in the various local governmental
areas, through the use of performance
standards and the separation of major air
pollution sources and residential areas,
have minimized the extension of air pollu-
tion problems into rural areas and pre-
vented the intermingling of industrial and
residential properties.
The District of Columbia Zoning Regu
lations prohibit the discharge of objection-
able amounts of cinders, dust, fly ash, or
noxious, toxic, or corrosive fumes or
gases from buildings or structures locatec
in manufacturing districts. Periodic sur-
veys of commercial and industrial areas
are conducted by the Department of Liceni
and Inspections to determine compliance
with provisions of the zoning regulations
that pertain to external effects and the dis
charge of objectionable materials. This
has tended to eliminate some potential air
pollution problems.
- 30 -
H
'co d
d S
, i
0) Oj
rd 14
o
o
O
o
s
cu bo
f-i O
2;
Z
2
Z
Z
o
c* n
u
B "
o
d
O
o
H
-P
r 1
1 1
o
1-4
H
CO
W
0>
P O
d *rH
|H | '
H
O
rtj (Xi
CQ
m
CO
en
M
CX-rH
CU
cu
CD
o
0)
M <j
fi
:*
K*
K^
jz;
K 1 - 1
n w
< ^
O CD
-S
82
Z &
,_,
tj
T)
OH
<U O
(D
CO
^l M
CO
-4-J
4-1
D **<
o -y
(U
o
2:
O
rH
1
o
R POLL
NGTON
co u
J
^ CO
U
T3
O
d
-1
"
rH
nj
nj
^
ret
Rj
rH
rd
'5
H
rt
^
P
i-i
bO
'bO
H
d
d
1-1
H
H
bo
d
ft)
-p
o
^ >
H
CO
U
d
U
>.
^
^
Q
o
O
!>.
CO
cu
JLj
-p
d
g
-P
H
P
d
Washington
Montgomer;
Prince Geo:
U
d
o
bO
H
i 1
Alexandria
Fairfax Cou
- 31 -
2) U. S. Bureau of the Census, "Final
I960 Census Figures".
3) Washington Board of Trade, "It's a
Capital Idea", Sixth Edition, March
1961.
4} Personal correspondence with the Eco-
nomic Development Committee, Wash-
ington Board of Trade, June I960.
5) U. S. Bureau of the Census: "1954
Census of Manufacturers" Volume II.
6) Industrial Directory of Washington
Metropolitan Area, Washington Board
of Trade, February 1959.
7) National Capital Planning Commission,
Land Use, 1955.
8) Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. 9, 1958.
9) Potomac Electric Power Company,
"Profit by the Prestige of a Capital
Plant Location".
0) Korshover, Julius, "Synoptic Climatol-
ogy of Stagnating Anticyclones East of
the Rocky Mountains in the United
States for the Period 1936-1956".
Tech. Rep. A 60-7, Public Health Serv-
ice, Sanitary Eng. Cen., Cincinnati,
Ohio.
1) Nierneyer, L. E., "Forecasting Air
Pollution Potential," Monthly Weather
Review, 88, No. 3, U. S. Weather Bu-
reau, March I960.
2) U. S. Weather Bureau, "The Climatic
Handbook for Washington, D. C.,"
Weather Bureau Technical Paper No.
8, Washington, D. C., 1949-
3) U. S. Weather Bureau, "Local Clima-
tological Data with Comparative Date
for Washington, D. C.," National Air-
port, 1953.
4) Personal correspondence with Potomac
Electric Power Company, U. S. Gov-
ernment General Services Adminis -
facturers Association.
(15) Personal correspondence with Po-
tomac Electric Power Company.
(16) Personal correspondence with Gov-
ernment Fuel Yard, General Services
Administration.
(17) Personal correspondence with Min-
eral Industry Surveys, Bureau of
Mines, U.S. Department of the
Interior.
(18) Personal correspondence with the
Oil Heat Institute and the American
Petroleum Institute.
(19) Washington Gas Light Company, An-
nual Operating Report, I960.
(20) U. S. Bureau of the Census: "1950
Census of Housing," Vol. 1, Part 2.
(21) Personal correspondence with Wash-
ington Gas Light Company.
(22) Personal correspondence with the
Office of Climatology, U.S. Weather
Bureau, Washington, D. C.
(23) Personal correspondence with Dis-
trict of Columbia Department of
Motor Vehicles.
(24) Personal correspondence with Mary-
land Department of Motor Vehicles
and Virginia Division of Motor
Vehicles.
(25) Personal correspondence with Dis-
trict of Columbia Department of
Highways and Traffic.
(26) U. S. Bureau of the Census: "Statis-
tical Abstract of the United States,
I960."
(27) The World Almanac, I960, New York
Wo rid -Telegram.
(28) Personal correspondence with Dis-
trict of Columbia Department of
Sanitation.
- 33 -
(29) Xanten, W. A., Superintendent, Division
of Sanitation, Washington, D. C., "D.C.
Refuse Transfer Station A New De-
velopment in Large -Scale Odor and
Dust Control Produces Nuisance -
Free Refuse Handling Station." (41)
(30) Personal correspondence with Wash-
ington Suburban Sanitary Commission.
(31) Personal correspondence with Mont- (42)
gomery County and Prince Georges
County Health Departments.
(32) Personal correspondence with Alex-
andria City Health Department and
Arlington County Health Department.
(33) Personal correspondence with Fairfax
County Health Department.
(34) District of Columbia Department of
Sanitary Engineering, Report of Sew-
age Treatment Plant Operation, Fiscal
Year I960.
(35) Ives, J. E.,t_aJL: "Atmospheric Pol-
lution of American Cities for Years
1931 to 1933," U.S. Public Health Bul-
letin No. 224, 1936.
(36) Cholak, J., _et ajL: "Air Pollution in a
Number of American Cities", Archives
of Industrial Health U, 280, (1955). (46)
(37) Heggestad, H. E., and Middleton, J. T.,:
"Ozone in High Concentrations as
Cause of Tobacco Leaf Injury," Sci-
ence, 129, 208, (1959).
(47)
(38) Wanta, R. C., and Heggestad, H. E.,:
"Occurrence of High Ozone Concentra-
tions in the Air Near Metropolitan
Washington," Science, 130, 103 (1959).
(39) Ledbetler, M. C., Zimmerman, P. W., (48)
and Hitchcock, A. E., Contributions of
Boyce Thompson Institute, 20, 275,
(1959).
(40) "Air Pollution Measurements of the
National Air Sampling Network, 1953-
57." Public Health Service Publication
(43)
(44)
(45)
No. 637, United States Governr
Printing Office, Nov. 1958; 25S
Supt. of Documents, Washingto
D. C., $2.00.
Unpublished Data, National Air
pling Network, U. S. Departme:
Health, Education, and Welfare
lie Health Service.
Department of Public Health, I
of Columbia and U.S. Departm
Health, Education, and Welfare
lie Health Service,: "A Pilot S
of Air Pollution in Washington,
December 2-8, I960."
U.S. Department of Health, Edi
and Welfare, Public Health Ser
"The Louisville Air Pollution S
I960." (unpublished as of this
Chass, R. L., _et al_.: "Total Ai
lution Emissions in Los Angelt
County." J. Air Pollution Cont
Association, Vol. 10, No. 5,Oc1
Wohlers, H. C. and Bell, G. B. :
"Literature Review of Metropo
Air Pollutant Concentrations",
ford Research Inst., Menlo Pai
Calif., Nov. 1956.
Yocum, J. E., Gein, G. M. and
H. W.,: "A Study of Effluents I
Backyard Incinerators," J. Air
lution Control Association, Vol
No. 2, Aug. 1956.
Williamson, J. E. and Twiss, H
"Multiple Incinerator Design St
ards for Los Angeles County,"
Angeles County Air Pollution C
District, Los Angeles, Calif., c.
Eliassen, R.: "Domestic and IV
pal Sources of Air Pollution", i
Proceedings - National Confere
on Air Pollution, Nov. 18-20, 1
Public Health Service Publicati
654, United States Government
Printing Office, Washington 25,
1959.
- 34 -
Examples of Pollution Emission Rates
:a. presented in this appendix are of value only as general information on the
L and magnitude of pollution from several activities. They should not be applied
Lfic situation without due consideration of the many factors which affect pollution
- 35 -
CO
o
o
CO
CO
m
r-H
CM
r-H
o
o
o
X
X
B
o
O
rd
oo
CM
rd
q
q
^.^
^^.
q
q
q
*-*.
?H
B
r (
ti
o
CJ
o
o
o
o
u
rd
ations
^^
sO
M
**"**
O
m
CD
i i
CO
CO
*
00
o
(M
o
X
5f
m
r 1
in
o
i i
r-H
O
o
o
o
i-H
oo
(M
rd
o
rd
rd
o
o
o
bfl
^.4
CD
r-H
O
ti
o
ti
ti
o
o
o
o
'3^
CD
h
|
el
CO
rM
<]
SH *-H
ti
M
2"~7
i i
rd
O
CO
2 i Q
O
CO
CU
i-H
o J
j*
^ o
u .s
to
CO
X
rd
rn Ci
X
X
CM
o
r-H
o
r-H
O
fM
O
CM
O
O
rd
rd
rd
CD
O -H
i-H
o
o
O
o
O
O
*
ti
ti
CO
o '
rt r i
PH M
'o
CO
CU
4^
r-H
rd
*<M~
O
r\
a
O
ffi
o
(U
H
CO
H
CO
CO
u
CO
ffi
O
E
CO
CO
u
U
r )
Pollutant
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur Trioxide
Hydrogen Sulfide
Oxides of Nitrogen
Total Hydrocarbon
Inorganic Chloride
Fluorides (as HF)
Organic Acids (as
Aldehydes (as CH3
Ammonia
Parti culates
SH
r-H
CO
CO
i-H
II
CO
*
bJD
ti
cu
a
M-4
O
IT)
m
q
o
i i
rH
O
r 1
a
CO
bO
MH
i-H
rd
<L>
O*
1
rri
^
^
CD
i i
H
rd
O
O
1 1
5
>
jH
"g
bO
rd
bo
DO
H
rt
t>
tH
CU
H
0)
ofi
<u
*
-Jf-
CQ
<3
<J
<J
<;
<j
r-H
O
CO
m
i i
o
in
o
m
II
o
rH
o
.vO
o
in
o
W)
rt
'3
PQ ^"
r-l CO
rt to
O -H
ro" __,
"rti-
fn T) [34
S ^ "rl
P 4-> O
T3 CD
abD
d >-i
a
O -rt
M M rt
H
"+-) -r-t f^ 1
ti
4->
O
CD*
o
rt
0)
rt i 1
4->
o
?
O -H <H
'5 1
-H
cu
Pd
cu
3
MH
S ? CO
. H rt
TJ
0)
t*s
4-1
CO
es of Pa3
Acco:
Emissior
cu
M
d
M
cu
cu
- Dust I
Q
o
1
T i o
(U
<4H rQ
S
ti O
fi 0.
"rt *""
fi
rl
fn
H
CU
^
4->
CO
rt
^
O
trnac
CU
o
cu
o
"rt
o
U
^^
'S m
g cti
CO
w
T)
CU
S
to
CO
!-)
CO
TJ
CO
tO
nd to
CU
r 1
cu
CU
co
*r-t
h-l
t" 1
CJ
n
i-Cl
'"1
CU
o
rd
rti
co
CO
T)
Oj
1 1
o
CU
cu
r-H
<J <J
fl
fn
H
U
a,
CO
PH
CO
(2
3fr Jf-
- 37 -
nS
O
O
CO W
0) o g
a .2
CO
w
o
A
-*->
<u
2
bo
PS
in
r-H
O
in
N)
o i o
o
rt
W
O
5f
- 38 -
ti
^1
o
CQ <P.
ii.
i f
r 1
H-H
00
rH
9
vQ
o
^
rH
Cfl
nj
QbO
rH
O
cd
O
O
rH
CD
_j
CD
O
o
ti
O
o
o
O
_ti
CD
PH rrj
W
CO
d
CQ
CD
r- 1
ti s*
CQ
CD
i i
CQ
CO
O
o
CD
PJ B
tH
Q
ti ^
ti
.
' H
"<?
rl
w
CO
S^ ,*
ti
ti
nJ
n)
<D ^J*
M
... "Tr*
H
fj ^
si
to
CO
rH
a
i I
CM
m
ro
o
o
ID
o
o
rH
CO
rH
o
rH
rH
O
r
CD
CO rH
rt rt
o >
M
w
O 'H
M
ti
CD
O
o
N
O
o
o
"o
ti
a^
rti
1
MH 'd
CQ
CO -
ti
H
O
CQ
CO
CQ
H
CO
s
ti
CD
w
CO
nt
In-
Pollution
1
.
r-
c
p
3
3
-i
H
4
'Carbons
ydes ketones
organic gas<
n monoxide
ti
CD
O
H->
CQ
dioxide
CQ
3
cludes blowb
o
Aldeh;
Other
Carbo
0)
Sulfur
Aeros
T)
0)
CQ
- 39
Pollution Emissions from Single and Multiple
Chamber Incinerators
Gaseous compound
or group
Pollution emission in pounds
per ton of refuse burned
Single
chamber
incinerator(46)
Multiple
chamber
incinerator*
Methanol
9-23
< 0.05
Ethyl en e
8-61
< 0.05
Acetone
>8
<0.05
Methane
23-150
< 0.05
Acetylene
<4-73
<0.05
Alpha olefins (as propylene)
<6
< 0.05
Carbonyl sulfide
>3
<0.05
Benezene
>3
< 0.05
Acids (as acetic)
>4
<0.05
Phenols (as phenols)
>8
<0.05
Aldehydes (as formaldehydes)
5-64
^>0.3
Ammonia
0.9-4
< 0.05
Oxides of nitrogen (as NOz)
<0.1
^> 2.1
Carbon monoxide
197-990
< 0.05
Solid and liquid
emissions
Single
chamber
incinerator'"*''
Multiple
chamber
incinerator^'
Solids, gr./SCF, @ 12% COz
0.9
0.11
Volatile s, gr./SCF, @ 12% COz
0.5
0.07
Total, gr./SCF, @ 12% COz
1.4
0.19
Total, Ibs./ton of refuse burned
23.8
3.5
^Losses listed as < 0.05 Ibs./ton were below the detectable limit.
o cd
O CQ
o o
00*
g-
O -H
1 t ^J
CQ
h co
a.
CO CQ
|
a, d
M-l
t^ CD
o
00
o
if)
o
o
CM
O
o
o
o
FH
m
s-
o
CM
o
"^1
M
113 bo
CM
>-
a
^ fl
N 1
in
H
CO 'H
a
ex. ra
j
CQ
fQ
d
w
ti s
a
o M
OH S
<+H
o,
"d
0)
00
fH
cd
o
CQ
H
Q
CO
i i
rd
i
-4-*
o
fl
1
Is
o
u
CQ
id
CO
Estimate
Pollutants
Sulfur Oxides
Nitrogen Oxid
Ammonia
Aldehydes
CQ
O
rt
fl
cd
00
M
o
CO
'd
o
H
a
cd
bo
O
Solids
- 41 -
O
o
CM
in
T 1
CO
1 1
r 1
vD
*
o
o
i-H
rH
fc
O
1 1
O
00
CM
l-H
r-
CO
in
, 1
00
o
o
00
r-
co
sO
CO
o
co
r-
xO
CO
CD
h
t
CO
^
co
M
CD
o
o
vO
n
CM
m
ft
f"~
g
M
d)
EH
to
o
CM
00
CM
CM
o
o
m
CO
CO
CM
CM
CO
NO
to
o
o
CO
s
00
CO
-0
rH
CM
CM
in
o
o
00
CM
CO
i i
CM
CM
i i
i i
i i
a
to
o
"3 o
CO
rH
4->
<^ *"?
cd
ri
CO
vU
rt
4-1
CO
CD
O
ci
ri
H
a S
,0
14 fn
m nj
"o
EH
cd
rO-
'>
O
flU
CD
O
bO
rt
H
CD
0)
CO
ofl
. s
rt
.2-d
1 s
O co
^i
'<-* ri
i <
cd rt
rt
r^j nj
F 1
H
> cd
2
h EH
to
W H
CO
CO
CD
ft
rd
bJO
co
CD
rH
JH
O
%
I
cd CD
X Z
O ..
M
ft S
ft E
cd p.
ft
O
CO
cd
OJO
bfl
OB
rt
Public Health Service Publication No. 955
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11