From the collection of the
o PreTinger
JJibrary
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San Francisco, California o-
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ALASKA TODAY
Juneau, the capital of Alaska, is situated on narrow Gas-
tineau Channel. Here is the Alaska Historical Library and
Museum, with its many interesting exhibits, and the great
Alaska Juneau gold mine. The bridge leads to Douglas.
(Courtesy Alaska Steamship Co.)
Alaska Today
by B. W. Dentson
AND ASSOCIATES
The CAXTON PRINTERS, Ltd.
CALDWELL, IDAHO
1949
Foreword
THIS is a book for persons who believe that life in a new
environment may offer more opportunity than their present one.
Alaska unquestionably is a land of opportunity for people of
initiative and energy for the simple reason that in Alaska the pro-
portion of area and resources to population is greater than in any
other division of the United States.
Proof of this is found in these pages. Specific illustrations of suc-
cessful careers are given in Chapter 24, "Who's Who in Alaska."
In studying these biographical sketches, the reader will readily per-
ceive that so-called pioneer life in America's last frontier is merely
active participation in recognized pursuits common to any indus-
trial, agricultural, or urban community in the States.
Evidence of a new and stronger economy in Alaska is indicated
by the initiative and activity of its residents in many phases of
economic life, such as ground and air transportation, enlarged
tourist facilities, and the lumber industry. These are all favorable
signs, pointing to the day when Alaska's economy will be controlled
by its permanent residents with lessening control by "outside"
interests and capital.
Alaska is a good place, a country of opportunity for anyone
willing to work wholeheartedly for the development of the land
of his choice.
E. L. Bartlett
Congressional Delegate for Alaska
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENT v
FOREWORD vii
1 THE LIVING LAND i
2 COME AND GET IT! 7
3 DIVIDED LIKE GAUL 15
4 PEOPLE AND PASTIMES 24
5 THE COST OF LIVING *3
6 THE ALASKA HIGHWAY 39
7 A COUNTRY ON WINGS 57
8 FARMING 69
9 GREEN PASTURES 89
10 CASH CROP NO. i 9<$
1 1 WILDLIFE by Frank Dufresne 1 3 2
12 FUR FARMS 149
13 THE SILVER MILLIONS by Ward T. Bower 159
14 A COLOSSAL INDUSTRY 168
15 THE FOREST PRIMEVAL 177
1 6 MINING 190
1 7 MEAT FOR THE WOLVES 203
1 8 THE HOME OF MILADY'S SEAL COAT
by Edward C. Johnston 2 1 4
19 ALASKA'S ROADS 226
20 RAILROADS AND RIVERS 240
21 A HOME FOR THE ASKING 248
22 THE NATIVE 256
23 ALASKA'S SCHOOLS 275
24 WHO'S WHO IN ALASKA 290
25 SOURDOUGH SECURITY 316
26 GOVERNMENT AND TAXES 323
27 THE DISCOVERY AND HISTORY OF ALASKA
by William H. Haas 336
INDEX 357
List of Illustrations and Maps
PAGE
Juneau, the capital city of Alaska Frontispiece
Klahini River, Tongass National Forest 3
Part of the herd of Alaska's buffalo 5
Alaska's ubiquitous porcupine 9
Glacier Highway, leading out of Juneau 1 1
Forest ranger scaling a raft of spruce logs . 1 3
Alaska, transposed on a map of the United States 16
Pastoral scene of river flats near Juneau 18
Taku, one of Alaska's largest glaciers 20
A typical beach garden in southeastern Alaska 2 1
Eskimo skin jumping; a favorite sport 25
The Douglas ski bowl, near Juneau 27
A typical Alaska dog team 30
Owner of Salmon Creek farm, dressing broilers 34
Women showing rabbits raised for meat market 37
Scale map of the Alaska Highway 40
Robert Service, poet of the Yukon, in front of cabin 43
Whitehorse, prosperous center of gold rush days 45
Temporary bridge across Peace River, Alaska Highway 47
Temporary bridge made permanent on highway 48
Army engineers rescue ditched truck 52
Novel system of loading truck on the highway 54
Map of Alaska aviation fields 58
Shipping ton of butter clams by aeroplane 6 1
Navy Seabees' plane landed at oil reserve 64
Seabees leveling ground on Adak Island 66
Large strawberry vines near Juneau 70
Native Indian boy displaying huge rutabagas 73
Map of main agricultural regions 75
xi
XU LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS
PAGE
The "Butte" district, Matanuska Valley 77
Farm view, taken near Fairbanks 79
Experimental farm at the University of Alaska 8 1
Tenth anniversary celebration, Matanuska farm colony 83
Typical cabin, built at opening of Matanuska colony 85
Garden patch at Auke Bay ranch, near Juneau 87
Alaskan sheep; photo by Mr. Anderson, Farm Security
Administration 90
Dairy cattle grazing on flats near Mendenhall Glacier 91
Butchering Aleutian sheep by band saw 93
U. S. Navy men on Adak Island, Aleutians 94
Alaska Steamship Co. boat in the Wrangell Narrows 97
Ketchikan, known as Alaska's "first city" 99
Totem poles, rejuvenated by U. S. Forest Service 101
Rainbow trout caught in Ketchikan area 102
Petersburg, one of the principal fishing towns 103
Map of Ketchikan recreation area 105
Baranof Hotel at Juneau 108
Map, Glacier Highway recreation area in
Skagway, famous seaport on the Lynn Canal 1 1 3
Cordova, a city visited by many tourists 1 1 5
Valdez, coastal terminus of the Richardson Highway 1 1 8
Wrangell, important town in southeastern Alaska 1 19
Seward, coast terminus of the Alaska Railroad 1 20
Map, Cook Inlet, Anchorage and Chugach Mountains 1 2 2
Map of Kenai Peninsula and Gulf of Alaska 1 2 3
Anchorage, Alaska's largest and leading city 1 2 5
View of Mt. McKinley across Wonder Lake 1 26
Pacific kittiwakes photographed at Walrus Island 133
Observatory built for safe view of bears 136
Alaska's famed wild Dall sheep 1 37
Band of caribou swimming across the Yukon River 1 39
Muskox, once common animal in Alaska 141
Short-tailed albatross, photographed in Aleutians 142
California murres, summer nester in western Alaska 143
Tufted puffin, strange bird found in Aleutians 1 44
The rock ptarmigan, valuable food source in Alaska 145
Avaricious bald eagle, not liked very well in Alaska 147
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS Xlll
PAGE
Feeding blue foxes on an island ranch 1 5 1
Typical fur farm in Tongass National Forest 152
Prize male mink, product of Yukon Fur Farms 155
Salmon leaping over falls en route to spawning ground 160
Fishing for salmon with a purse sein 162
Unloading salmon from scow at Ketchikan 1 64
Boys repairing fishing nets at cannery, Annette Island 166
Vincent Creed, displaying giant king crab 171
Herring purse sein boats at Crab Bay, Alaska 175
Native spruce trees, Bond Bay, Tongass National Forest 179
Aerial view of main camp of Alaska Spruce Log Program 1 80
Sitka spruce logs en route to Puget Sound mills 182
Floating camp used by Alaskan lumbermen 1 8 3
Typical mountain lake, revealing Alaska's waterpower sites 1 84
Map of southeastern Alaska, showing principal timber areas 187
Dredge working for platinum ore 191
Map of mining areas in the Alaska Railroad belt 192
Alaska Juneau gold mine, one of the world's largest 195
Sourdough panning for gold in a mountain stream 197
Thawing frozen gravel beds by means of pipes 199
Huge drill rig used by Seabees on oil reserve . 201
J. Sidney Rood, long time reindeer supervisor in Alaska 204
Hornless reindeer; head held by two Eskimos 206
Reindeer grouped in large range corral 207
Herding reindeer to chutes by use of long blankets 210
Wolves killed from an airplane to protect reindeer 2 1 2
Part of huge fur-seal herd on St. Paul beach 2 1 5
Six "wives," in a typical seal harem 221
Aleut workers removing seal blubber, St. Paul Island 224
Map of principal Alaska road system 228
Hazardous work on the Richardson Highway 230
Looking west on Glenn Highway; Matanuska River at left 233
Grading on the Glenn Highway, near Palmer 234
Clearing ice in Thompson Pass, Richardson Highway 235
Stretch of rolling road on Haines cut-off (highway) 237
Loading freight on the dock at Whittier 242
Diesel engines speeding supplies to interior of Alaska 245
Steamer fleet operated by the Alaska Railroad 246
XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS
PAGE
Native baseball team on St. Paul Island, Pribilofs 258
Women making sea-grass baskets, Attu Island 261
George Aden Ahgupuk, Alaskan artist, and son 264
Carved ivory paper weight made by King Island Eskimos 265
Eskimo girls kissing in native style 269
Aleut boys treated on their return to Unalaska 272
Juneau grade school; homes in background 276
Indian day school, Douglas, Alaska 279
Students preparing salmon for use in Eklutna school 282
Indian boys carving miniature totem poles 284
Aerial view of the University of Alaska at College 286
Nellie Neal La wing and Harriet S. Pullen 293
Governor Ernest Gruening and Earl N. Ohmer 297
B. Frank Heintzleman and Judge Anthony J. Dimond 300
Col. O. F. Ohlson and Frank Dufresne 303
Cap Austin E. Lathrop and Dr. Charles E. Bunnell 306
Edward L. Bartlett and Kenneth E. O'Harra 309
Noel Wien, early day aviator of Alaska, and his plane 3 1 2
Lew M. Williams, Secretary of Alaska 3 1 3
The Pioneers' Home at Sitka 3 17
Sitka, the former capital under Russian rule 338
Old Russian log fortress at Sitka 341
William Henry Seward who negotiated for purchase of
Alaska 342
Miners returning to Seattle with "a ton of gold" 344
The steamer Excelsior starting for the Klondike 347
Front page of Klondike News, published at Dawson in 1898 349
Old-time steamer towing miners' scows up Yukon River 352
Facsimile of poster advertising route to gold fields 354
o ~
CHAPTER I
The Living Land
THE END of World War II saw Alaska "standing at the
opening verse of the opening page of the chapter of endless pos-
sibilities." By the grim magic of war, the erstwhile Cinderella of
Empire had been transformed into a princess, tendering her favors
her wealth of resources to a battle-scarred but ambitious post-
war world.
Her own wounds had not healed. Per capita, Alaska lost more
sons in the air, on the sea, in the jungles of Guadalcanal, and in
the foxholes of the Aleutians than did any other part of the United
States. At Okinawa she lost her greatest defender, Lieut. Gen.
Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr., who previously had left his native Ken-
tucky in favor of the "Great Land."
Alaska did not complain about her sacrifices. Instead, year after
year, she exceeded her quota for war bonds by a higher mark than
most sections of the American empire. Emerging from a static
prewar condition, Alaska gave evidence that she is inhabited by
a virile people who were determined to follow through on war-
time development of the country. Washington politicos took cog-
nizance of that determination. Congressional committees and de-
partment heads toured the Territory, discovering potentialities that
the sourdoughs, for seventy-five years, had been heralding and
struggling to develop.
Not all of Alaska's influential visitors conceded that she is ready
for statehood; sparse permanent population and lack of territorial
revenue were cited as reasons for withholding the recommenda-
tion that would set in motion machinery leading to statehood.
But it is the consensus of the highest national authorities that Alaska
has demonstrated her ability to become one of the most useful par-
ticipants in the Union.
I
2 ALASKA TODAY
Regardless of dissenters, the day is not far off, as time is measured
by men of vision, when that part of the continent north of 54 40'
will rank high in agriculture and manufacture of essential indus-
trial products as well as in fishing, mining, forestry, and furs. It is
even possible that there is more wealth of natural resources in
Alaska than in all the land south of the old Mason and Dixon's line.
Alaska may be producing coal when Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and
Illinois are scraping the bottom of the bin. The hidden mineral
wealth of the Northland is an enigma as yet unsolved but, on the
basis of what has already been disclosed, the speculative balance is
on its side.
In only a few years, Alaska has proved that she can yield ores
found nowhere else in North America. Some minerals recently
discovered have been known heretofore only in remote corners of
the Old World. Virtually all the platinum mined under the Amer-
ican flag comes from one little sector of northwestern Alaska.
Jade, formerly considered indigenous only to China, is being taken
out of the valley of the Kobuk River in great quantities.
In the bare stretches of the Arctic are small lakes of pure seepage
oil. Although seepage oil does not always indicate deep subsurface
oil, experts declare there is plenty to be found. The United States
Navy owns 35,000 square miles of land of which these potential
oil fields are a part and has controlled the reserve for twenty-two
years. Recent drilling for oil has received encouraging reports.
Alaska is without steel mills but there is no reason to doubt that
she will have them. Near the point where the Alaska Highway
leaves Canada for United States territory, according to Father Ber-
nard R. Hubbard, the "glacier priest" who for twenty-six years
has explored all parts of Alaska, there is a mountain on the Alaska
side which contains heavy deposits of manganese ore.
This intrepid Jesuit priest, whose knowledge of Alaska neither
scientists nor old-time sourdoughs question, is definitely enthu-
siastic about many of its phases. He has done as much to publicize,
at his expense, the vast possibilities of Alaska as has its press and
its development board. To millions of Americans in the last six
months of the war, Father Hubbard pictured, in brilliant techni-
color, the Territory's outstanding possibilities and achievements.
In his latest film, he showed farm scenes that would stir the heart
of any agriculturist: cabbages so big that an eight-year-old child
A solid mass of trees on either side of the mouch of the
Klahini River, Burroughs Bay, Tongass National Forest.
(Courtesy Pulp and Paper Industry Magazine US Forest
Service.)
could scarcely lift them; strawberry plants as high as the child's
waist; potatoes in fields that yield 15 to 20 tons an acre!
West Coast farmers consider these "spuds" the best obtainable
anywhere as seed potatoes. They have bought the entire output
of the experiment station at the University of Alaska and two po-
tato specialists have sent scouts among Alaskan farmers to buy up
all available stock.
These are not myths. The camera does not lie. Nor does per-
sonal investigation of Alaska's increasing agricultural ventures and
its growing markets coincide with reports of the hardships and
difficulties that beset the Alaskan farmer. Understatement of the
Territory's agricultural potentialities as well as overstatements con-
cerning the hazards of marketing produce have deterred farm set-
tlement in Alaska. Improvement in roads and airplane transporta-
tion and particularly the rapid development of cold storage facili-
ties have had insufficient publicity.
Nature molded Alaska to be one of the greatest of fur-producing
countries. Early Russian explorers spurned the Territory's gold;
mining was forbidden because it was believed to interfere with
3
4 ALASKA TODAY
the fur industry. Prior to the war, there were 300 licensed fur
farmers in Alaska, 12,000 in Norway and Sweden. But the Scan-
dinavian countries, including Finland, are not so large as Alaska,
nor do they produce fur of as good a quality. Just before World
War II, Alaskan mink pelts sold in London for a fourth more than
did those from Scandinavia or Greenland. Land for fur ranches in
Alaska can be obtained for very little money. Some is free. Fish,
the chief food of -pen-raised mink and foxes, is more plentiful here
than anywhere else. Marketing of pelts and breeding stock has
been simplified by expansion of air transport and by reduction in
air express rates.
Alaska's forests, of spruce, hemlock, and cedar, covering 30,000
square miles of virgin territory, can supply, in perpetuity, one-
fourth the pulp needed for newsprint in all the United States. At
present the United States is buying one-half its newsprint from
Canada. Because in the past it has been considered less costly to
cut and process timber in Canada than in Alaska, the conclusion
does not follow that such a condition will always prevail. In-
creased permanent population in Alaska should make labor a re-
liable factor, more plentiful, and possibly cheaper than labor im-
ported from the States. Lumbering has never progressed in Alaska,
partly because of the high cost of transporting labof.
So far as the relative location of forests and water transporta-
tion is concerned, and the abundant natural forces for power-
swift streams and falls Alaska is conceded to be favored. In two
of the war years it was demonstrated that moving spruce timber
from Alaska to Puget Sound for use in the manufacture of air-
planes was practicable and profitable, as well as necessary. For cer-
tain purposes, Alaska's Sitka spruce is better timber than almost
any found in Canada east of the Rockies. There are large quanti-
ties of the cheaper kinds of wood used for pulp and there seems
little doubt that the industry will soon find a way to make the
handling of it feasible.
The broad picture of Alaska is one that can be viewed only
through the eyes of prophets men of vision and faith. The North-
land is the personification of power. Down its mountains rush
streams that will eventually turn the wheels of great industries
at low cost. The earth's surface, its subsoil, its natural channels for
transportation and the airways above are a challenge to man's
THE LIVING LAND
. oi'O- ^ U - '.
5
Part of the herd of buffalo that have increased from 23 to
more than 400 on Alaska's luxuriant grass. (Courtesy Fish
and Wildlife Service.)
ingenuity. His petty triumph over nature is still in an embryonic
stage. As his knowledge and enterprise advance, he will have to go
far to find a more fertile field for them than the Great Land.
Many scientists envision the Northland as "the Living Land."
Inherently, disease of both man and mammal seems less prevalent
in colder climates than in warmer ones. In fact, many of the ail-
ments of the northern natives were brought from warmer zones
by white men. The virgin North today is beckoning to man, in-
viting him to face its challenge and seize the opportunities it offers.
And it is not a defiant challenge. Life in Alaska is not one long
battle against a hostile wilderness, as it frequently has been painted.
There are vast stretches of earth whose surface has scarcely been
scratched by humans. This is an appealing feature to some; to
others it is not. For those who want some civilization mingled with
their pioneering efforts, Alaska's towns offer as much inducement
6 ALASKA TODAY
as similar towns in the United States. Robert Service's old dogma
that one must be a superman to thrive in the North has long been
discounted. "That surely the Weak shall perish, and only the Fit
survive" might just as well have been written of New York or any
other place as of the Yukon. Under the impetus of the struggle
to preserve mankind and to maintain a friendly world, the real
Alaska has finally become known to the world. As a result, the
population will probably increase from thousands to millions.
Aside from the universal tragedy of war, in which she shared
heavily, the Great Land was definitely benefited through war ac-
tivities. The two billion dollars or more which the United States
spent in Alaska had a salutary as well as a protective effect. It
opened new highways and harbors; built bridges, tunnels, airports,
communication channels; made vital improvements on the Alaska
Railroad; trebled agricultural production; utilized the Territory's
vast forests; and developed new enterprises in mining and fisheries.
In short, war set Alaska on her feet economically.
Important alike to Alaskans and newcomers, the Territory's high
cost-of-living specter was gone with the wind. The Office of Price
Administration was partly responsible, but competition between
the States and home industry proved a strong factor in lowering
prices. Almost everything but wages came down in price. Food
and drink were cheaper; rents were equalized; coal and gasoline
costs were reduced. Even liquor prices were set at a sane level.
Airplane transportation rates to the Territory, and within it,
were cut for both freight and passengers. Boats, planes, new stream-
lined buses, and the rejuvenated railroad competed.
Ghost towns were reborn and became thriving villages.
Overnight, Alaska became a good place to live.
Indicative of the interest in Alaska is the fact that the War De-
partment published an educational manual called the G.7. Round-
table. Subjects discussed were: "Should I go to Alaska? Should I
take my family? How do I get there? What kind of climate does
Alaska have? Who built Alaska? How is it governed? How do
Alaskans make a living? Women in Alaska; education and health;
entertainment and amusement; religious and social life; transporta-
tion and communication; Alaska's neighbors; Alaska's future."
It is the aim of this book to answer similar questions now being
asked by thousands of civilians.
CHAPTER 2
Come and Get It!
IF YOU are a pioneer at heart and are willing to work
hard for your just reward of health, happiness, and fortune, come
and get it\
These words, in effect, are the message of the Alaska Develop-
ment Board created by the legislature as the era of postwar progress
approached.
The new group, composed of one representative from each of
Alaska's four judicial divisions with the governor as a fifth mem-
ber and chairman, went into action at once. Its motto is: "Do some-
thing then do something more; let others take care of the plan-
ning." In a prepared statement as. to what awaited newcomers, it
declared, "There is ample opportunity for livelihood and for a suc-
cessful future, provided one is a hustler."
The board emphasized that both old and young were welcome
to Alaska. Apparently age is no handicap, for many untired old
men are at .the helm of important affairs. The future forty-ninth
state has high regard for experience. Its richest man, who made
four or five millions without digging for gold, is eighty. Alaska's
best-known leader in the fishing industry is sixty-three. The man
who ran the Alaska Railroad for eighteen years became a colonel
in World War I. Foremost pioneers in the mining industry are
well advanced in age.
After stating a preference for pioneers with brain and brawn
and the desire to use them, the development board mentioned that
a well-filled wallet might aid in some fields. To such adventurers
Alaska's invitation read, not "Come and get it" but "Come and
bring it!" Prospective settlers were warned that fortunes were not
likely to be made overnight. They were cautioned against an-
other rush like that of 1898, which netted hardship as well as gold.
7
8 ALASKA TODAY
Interested persons were advised to write to acquaintances in Alaska
or, in lieu of that, to correspond with chambers of commerce. Bet-
ter still, they were invited to "come up and look the field over."
Any pioneer venture into the Great Land will be aided by exam-
ining the results of personal investigations, but a summary of the
development board's findings may also be helpful.
The development board foresaw openings "through expansion
of current industry and development of new." Agricultural call-
ingsdairying, truck gardening, poultry and rabbit raising, and
general farming will prove profitable.
The recreational field, in view of the certain rush of postwar
visitors, offers opportunities to those who like to operate resorts,
dude ranches, or cheery roadside inns. Such an inn would have
wide rock fireplaces, over which would hang the heads of moose
or big-horned mountain goats. On the mantelpiece there might be
a stuffed rainbow trout, 30 inches long, while in the stream, only
a few hundred yards away, there would be a thousand like it,
alive and ready to lunge at the fisherman's lure. In the yard, shaded
by towering spruce trees, a cute little bear cub would beg for a
lump of sugar.
. There are ^Iso openings for persons who can conduct sight-
seeing tours to such historic spots as Chief Shakes' house at Wran-
gell, with its blue, red, and yellow ancestral totem poles and war
canoes. The cabin of Dan McGrew and the saloon where he was
shot by a lover of "the lady that's known as Lou" would make
good show places. But that would be stepping out of bounds, for
Dan lived across the border in Canada.
To do a good job, the new Alaskan guide would have to rehearse.
He would have to cruise over a few thousand square miles of
tundra, lakes, mountains, and national parks. At Skagway, for-
merly the famed gateway to gold at the start of the old Chilkoot
Pass, he would say:
"Here, ladies and gentlemen, is the very spot where vigilante
Frank Reid plugged that notorious badman Soapy Smith, the Al
Capone of Alaska. And here (skipping 500 miles) is Denali, 'home
of the Sun.' Someone renamed it Mt. McKinley, but the Indians
had the happier designation. And there is Mt. Foraker, Denali's
wife, with a snow-white cap she wears summer and winter. The
smaller peaks in the distance ML Russell and Mt. Dall are their
Alaska's ubiquitous porcupine, quite a food source for pio-
neers. (Courtesy Fish and Wildlife Service.)
10 ALASKA TODAY
children. That, my friends, was the picturesque legend of the
Athapascan Indians.
"Look! See that animal crossing the road? That's a McKinley
Park wolf. For a late supper he'll have lamb chops from the baby
mountain sheep you see up yonder or maybe this will be his night
for caribou steaks. There's never a meat shortage for the wolves
of Mt. McKinley National Park, because this is a game sanctuary
for all animals that can thrive in it.
"Watch out for that porcupine, ladies; his quills are sharper
than your husband's razor blade. Oh, there's a grizzly! Walk right
up and pet him, or take his picture. Alaska bears are friendly. They
never attack tourists, farmers' livestock, or moose calves. Later,
we'll hop over to Kodiak and take a look at the famous brown
bear, the largest canivorous animal on earth!"
Moving down the west coast to Valdez, start of the Richardson
Highway, the guide would continue: "We take the boat here and
in a few minutes I'll show you Alaska's greatest glacier the Co-
lumbia, 4 miles wide and 300 feet high enough turquoise-blue ice
to fill every old-fashioned refrigerator in the world for years.
"Next, we'll take a ride up the Richardson Highway. It's a won-
derful scenic route, leading to the new military road at Big Delta.
If we're lucky, I'll be able to show you a herd of wild buffalo that
have multiplied on Alaska's lush grass faster than our famous mos-
quitoes.
"Here we are! Nearing the $140,000,000 Alaska Highway now.
It's a masterpiece of engineering, but some West Coast politicians
say it isn't worth a dime to Alaska and oh, look up, quick! There
goes a Douglas Skymaster heading for Fairbanks. Seems out of
place in this primitive land, but we can't be behind the times. Like
the muddy Yukon, as big as your Mississippi, we just keep movin'
along."
The guide would then look at his watch and say, "It's near mid-
night, my friends. Have to close the sight-seeing shop now. It
won't be dark for an hour, but we observe union rules. Midnight
sun or no midnight sun, it'll soon be another day and I have to
punch the clock at twelve. The unions are strict here. Everyone's
protected: guides, bus drivers, pilots, fishermen, farm hands, rein-
deer herders, and even the ivory carvers on King Island. This is
Alaska, ladies and gentlemen. We've got everything you've got,
Glacier Highway is a gravel-surfaced road, leading out of
Juneau. Although only 44 miles in length, it is heavily used
by the suburban residents and outdoor recreationists. This
scene is on the Fritz Cove section which skirts the shores
of Auke Bay. (Photo by U.S. Forest Service.)
and more of it. We're modern from A to Z. See you tomorrow,
and here's hoping the northern lights don't keep you awake!" (No
danger of that, Mr. Guide. You know very well that the aurora
borealis observes union rules, too, and works scarcely at all in
summer.)
The transportation field, in the expansion of airline facilities, of
steamboat operation on the rivers, and of passenger service and
freight trucking on the improved highways, provides many op-
portunities for newcomers. Increased tourist travel and additional
industries naturally mean more use of the roads, the development
board pointed out. Some ventures of this kind might require con-
siderable capital; others would suffice for individual occupations or
for small company groups.
Although pulp and paper plants are the most important of
Alaska's timber industry, many smaller activities can be profit-
able. More plywood production and a greater variety of wood-
working plants are needed. Both skilled and unskilled labor can
be used in lumbering and processing. In all forms of the wood in-
dustry the field is broad; Alaska, despite its extensive forests, has
been importing annually four million dollars worth of lumber,
I T
12 ALASKA TODAY
finished wood, and paper products, exclusive of supplies brought
in for the armed forces.
Until quite recently, only a few small factories have manufac-
tured office and home furniture; unquestionably there is room for
fifty such. The forests of white birch near Anchorage offer ex-
cellent material for the manufacture of fine furniture, fixtures, and
trim. These trees, which are abundant in the Territory, compare
favorably with those in the hardwood sections of the States. Not
all timber enterprises demand heavy investment; some can be
treated as a family or small partnership undertaking. There is need,
also, for big-scale operations such as plants for preservative treat-
ment of marine piling, railroad ties, and other structural materials.
Exploratory work in fisheries has not only created need for
more employees but also extended the length of the fishing season.
The king crabs and shrimp, formerly taken from Alaskan waters
and canned extensively in Japan, are available in great numbers.
New canneries are being built for sea products which until now
had not been handled commercially; new processing plants for
fishery by-products, once sold almost exclusively to fur ranchers
but now intended for human consumption, are in operation.
Alaska announces to farmers that the expansion of agriculture
is one of the Territory's biggest jobs. Mining, aviation, railroad-
ing, fur ranching, and highway construction also offer inducements
to settlers. Chances for livelihood in Alaska are more varied than
they were in the West, the pioneer land of a century ago. The
Territory is a potpourri* of past and present. One man wears a
lumberjack shirt and pursues the job that goes with it; another,
near by, dresses in a snappy tailored suit and sells ladies' fine lin-
gerie or Eskimo curios. There are good opportunities among the
professions. Doctors, nurses, and dentists are needed, especially the
latter; there are openings in the retail trades and services ^business
training schools would succeed in the larger towns. Builders and
contractors are none too numerous. ManylEelds are open to the
right sort of people.
After the Alaska Development Board had said all the good things
it could, pointing out scores of occupational opportunities, it
put in a word for local newspapers and magazines, naming some
members thought well suited to enlighten the prospective settler.
The Alaska Sportsman of Ketchikan, a good magazine with broad
Forest ranger scaling a raft of Sitka spruce saw logs, Tongass
National Forest, Alaska. The ranger's launch is in the back-
ground. (Photo by U.S. Forest Service.)
national circulation was recommended, as w 7 as the Anchorage Daily
Times, one of Alaska's liveliest newspapers. Printed on high-gloss
paper and profusely illustrated, the Sportsman is a mirror of
Alaskan activities in homesteading, farming, prospecting, and lum-
bering, as well as in fishing, trapping, and hunting.
The Alaska Life, a magazine published in Seattle, was also sug-
gested as a medium which reflects the Northland's progressive
spirit.
The old Alaska Weekly full newspaper size is printed in Seat-
tle. It has correspondents throughout Alaska, plus a pair of sharp
shears which it admits using freely. It covers a wide field, botn in
Alaska and the Yukon, is read by sourdough alumni throughout
the States, and is an able guide to the Northland's affairs.
13
14 ALASKA TODAY
All sizable Alaska communities have dailies, triweeklies, or
weekly newspapers. Among them are the Ketchikan Daily Chron-
icle; the' Daily Alaska Fishing News; the Wrangell Sentinel,
owned by Lew Williams, the Secretary of Alaska; the Nome
Nugget, started in 1898; the Daily Alaska Empire of Juneau, owned
by the daughters of a former governor; the Alaska Press of Juneau;
the Gateway of Seward; the Cordova Times; the Fairbanks Daily
News-Mmer, the property of Cap Lathrop, Alaska's number one
millionaire; Jesseii's Weekly of Fairbanks, an enterprising sheet;
the Kodiak Mirror; Petersburg Press; Sitka Sentinel; the Valdez
Miner; and the Farthest North Collegian, edited by students of the
University of Alaska.
There are several school and trade papers, as well as publications
of religious organizations. But strangely enough, in a land often
having perpetual daylight, no one has so far thought of starting a
daily "Midnight Sun"!
CHAPTER 3
Divided Like Gaul
LIKE GAUL, Alaska is divided into three parts by rea-
son of its geography, climate, and social life.
There is a cold Alaska; a dry, temperate Alaska; and a compara-
tively warm, moist Alaska; three-fourths of the Territory is in the
north temperate zone, barely one-fourth being north of the Arctic
Circle.
Few persons realize the extent of Alaska, north, south, east, and
west. They do not stop to consider that such a large territory
must naturally have a wide range of temperature, precipitation,
and other climatic conditions.
The map of Alaska superimposed on that of the United States
is virtually a trademark of the Great Land, far better known than
is the country's official flower, the timid little forget-me-not. (Why
rugged pioneers chose this meek symbol is one of Alaska's mys-
teries.) From east to west, Alaska covers a dimensional area equiva-
lent to that extending from South Carolina to California. North
to south, it would reach from Canada to the Gulf Coast. It is one-
fifth the area of the entire United States twice as large as Texas.
Alaska's coast line is longer than that from northern Maine to Key
West, Florida.
The warm Japan current (Kuro Shiwo), flowing up from semi-
tropical waters along the Aleutians and southern shore of the
Alaska Peninsula, then down the southeast coast of Alaska, influ-
ences climate as much as does the better-known Gulf Stream of
the Atlantic. As a result, the Panhandle, and the southwest coastal
regions have mild winters, similar to those in Arkansas but with
more moisture.
The favorite parallel for most commentators on Alaska's climate
is the Scandinavian countries, Sweden, Norway, and Finland. The
15
i6
ALASKA TODAY
Alaska, transposed on a map of the United States, is about
one-fifth the area of the States. The southern shore line
would reach from South Carolina to California.
comparison is apt for interior Alaska, the greater part being in
the same latitude, but not for the Panhandle. The more rugged
pioneers of Fairbanks, and even Anchorage, scofTIngly refer to
southeastern Alaska as the "Banana Belt." About one-third of
Alaska's people live in this long narrow strip which extends south
to 54 40'.
It is as difficult as it is unfair to try to pin down Alaska's variety
of climate and terrain to explicit comparisons with the other parts
of the world. The Great Land has every type of climate except
tropical a fact of which the people are proud.
In addition, climate and precipitation vary in different years,
just as elsewhere. If a certain locality in Alaska has an extremely
cold winter or a particularly wet spring it is immediately set down
in the mind of the chance visitor as being a bitterly cold or terribly
DIVIDED LIKE GAUL IJ
wet place. In the coastal town of Cordova on Prince William Sound,
it rained nearly every day in the summer of 1931; but in 1933, when
many of the residents left to attend the World's Fair in Chicago,
the weather was ideal. Compared to its annual precipitation of 140
inches in a year, the area virtually suffered from drought.
The Matanuska Valley farm colony in south central Alaska,
well north of the Panhandle, has a mean temperature for January
of 1 1 .9 degrees Fahrenheit. Yet Mrs. Victor Johnson, one of the
original settlers, wrote to her mother in northern Wisconsin: "We
are enjoying our first Christmas here with a temperature of 40 de-
grees above zero." The reply was: "I certainly envy you in your
new home; our Christmas Day was spent indoors. It was 32 de-
grees below."
A more recent comparison: In Chicago at 10 a.m. on February
i, 1945, it was 2 degrees above zero. In Ketchikan, Alaska, it was
49 degrees above at 10: 30 a.m. the same day. Ketchikan, of course,
is one of the warmest and wettest spots in Alaska, but even more
northerly Alaskan areas are not frighteningly cold. London, with
as much fog as the Great Land, has a population a hundred times
greater than all Alaska, yet few complain about the weather.
Ketchikan's rains, in fact, are largely responsible for its fine sport
fishing. They also promote the luxuriant growth of spruce and
hemlock, making the town an important lumber center, with re-
sulting jobs for lumberjacks and mill workers.
The Panhandle includes a narrow mainland strip on the seaward
side of the Coast Range, together with a group of large and small
islands. Officially, the section is designated as the Alexander Archi-
pelago. Most prominent of the larger islands are Baranof, 1,610
square miles; Admiralty, 1,500; Prince of Wales (southernmost of
the big islands), 2,800; Chichagof, 2,140 square miles; and Revil-
lagigedo, 1,120, on which Ketchikan is situated. The name of the
island, a tongue twister that balks both "cheechako" and sour-
dough, is the full name of its Spanish discoverer, Revilla Gigedo,
combined to form one word.
The mainland and islands are indented and separated by a net
of waterways, some extending far inland, giving the coast its fiord-
like character, famous the world over for scenic beauty. The coast
line affords good harbors where the largest steamers can land
their cargoes. Motor-driven launches and planes are used to reach
This pastoral scene, except for the snow-capped mountains
in the distance, might have been taken in Arkansas. It shows
the river flats near Juneau. (Ordway's Photo Service,
Juneau.)
outlying points. It is generally conceded that the waterways of
the Panhandle should have a system of ferries boats large enough
to carry autos and heavy supplies but like many other obvious
necessities this form of transportation has been neglected in Alaska.
Clearly it affords opportunity for a new enterprise.
North of Ketchikan, where rain and snow total 153.66 inches
annually, precipitation decreases rapidly. In Juneau, halfway up
the Panhandle, the average is 82.29 inches. At Skagway, in the
northern end of the strip, the fall of rain and snow is only 29.39
compared to an average of 42.99 in New York City. The climate
of Skagway is about as fine as can be found in Alaska. Its mean
temperature for January is 21 degrees, for July, 58 degrees. Situ-
ated at the head of the beautiful Lynn Canal, the town frequently
18
DIVIDED LIKE GAUL 19
has high winds, but the residents approve of them because they
blow away the mosquitoes.
Carbonated, sulphur, and hot mineral springs, some of which
were used for their medicinal qualities many years ago by the In-
dians, dot Alexander Archipelago and the southernmost tip of the
mainland as well as the interior. These springs, which are not widely
known to nonresidents, are scattered over the Great Land's 586,400
square miles: Chena Hot Springs, Circle Hot Springs an estab-
lished resort near the Yukon River Manley Hot Springs, Serpen-
tine Hot Springs, and Pilgrim Springs. In all, there are about 65
springs of importance.
On Bell Island, 45 miles from Ketchikan, the natural mineral
hot baths have recognized therapeutic value. A live company could
make the minor resort, now thriving there, world famous. Cabins
with hot mineral water piped right into the bathtubs are avail-
able for nominal sums. A resort proprietor in one of the better
establishments of the United States would laugh at the low rates
for various accommodations at Bell Island. The place now is pa-
tronized mostly by hunters and fishermen.
At present, Bell Island is important merely because it harbors
the only resort of its kind near Ketchikan, first stop for the boats
from Seattle. Transportation to the island from Ketchikan is by
launch or plane. It is a remote and beautiful spot, the jungle over-
growing the fringes. The hot springs bubble into cement tanks
from which the water is piped into the buildings. The odor is like
that at French Lick, Indiana, or at Hot Springs, Arkansas. The set-
ting is primitive; there is no electricity, nor any of the other services
of a modern resort. Cabin lodgers are their own cooks. But the place
is crowded in the hunting season, from the first of September until
after Christmas.
Many sportsmen like accommodations such as Bell Island affords,
but some day a clever airline operator will put half a million dol-
lars into improvements. Then the rich, bringing with them their
excess weight, indigestion, and other failings of wealth, will crowd
the hunters and fishermen farther back into the wilds, and Alaska
will boast a winter resort.
Manley Hot Springs (the first springs recorded -in the postal
guide, and called merely "Hot Springs") is approximately 80 miles
by air from Fairbanks, not far from the Arctic Circle. It displays
Taku, one of the Territory's largest glaciers, is only 40 miles
from Juneau, and but half that distance from the pastoral
scene shown on page 18. (Ordway's Photo Service,
Juneau.)
the many strange quirks of nature in Alaska. The springs were dis-
covered when J. F. (Dad) Karshner, an old sourdough prospect-
ing for gold, saw hot water bubbling from the ground. The earth
for many yards around was warm to the touch. Dad threw away
his miner's pick and bought a farmer's hoe. He homesteaded a piece
of the good earth the first homestead in Alaska. That was in 1902,
four years after the height of the Klondike gold rush.
J. W. Farrell, a resident of Hot Springs for thirty-nine years,
in speaking of Karshner and of the town's past fame, said, "When
I came here in 1906 there were no roads; just a narrow mule-pack
trail. Hot Springs was a miners' camp of five hundred men and a
few women. Now, with onry about a hundred inhabitants, we
have a fine local landing field. Freight and passenger planes are
based here the year round. We're modern; still my name for Hot
Springs is Sweet Auburn II."
20
DIVIDED LIKE GAUL 21
Karshner farmed at the springs for five years. First, he had a
truck garden. In the early fall, when the ground elsewhere was
frozen, Dad's garden was free of frost. Snow melted as fast at it
fell.
"The following year," Farrell continued, "Karshner raised
w^heat, oats, and barley. He got 300 bushels of spuds an acre, worth
$7 a bushel. He grew fine tomatoes, melons, and squash, vegetables
that seldom thrive in Alaska. He produced cabbage, cauliflower, and
A typical beach garden occasionally found along the for-
ested shores of southeastern Alaska. A smokehouse for
salmon is at the right. (Photo by U.S. Forest Service.)
excellent root crops. He sold celery at 50 cents a bunch and melons
at $i each. Miners who had come into the district had plenty of
money and were eager buyers.
"Among those who struck it rich was Frank Manley who, in the
summer of 1907, took over Karshner's farm. Manley had a quarter
of a million dollars, and he spent it freely. He built the big steam-
heated and electrically lighted Manley Hotel, at that time one of
the finest in Alaska. It had a swimming pool, hot baths, and good
rooms.
22 ALASKA TODAY
"Manley enlarged the farm to 100 acres, importing a herd of
Guernsey cattle, 500 chickens, horses, and additional implements.
He hired landscape gardeners as well as farm hands. The place was
beautiful, and the hotel and farm prospered."
In 1911, according to Farrell, the hotel burned. That same year
the heat of the gold rush was off. Manley had little insurance, be-
came discouraged, and sold out. "But," Farrell continued, "he sure
upset a lot of ideas about Alaska being an icebox."
The springs are still there, and a small roadhouse is operated on
the site of the once pretentious hotel. Five acres are cultivated as
a garden. Vegetables of the kind that Manley raised still flourish.
In addition, sweet corn matures nicely, although it is not consid-
ered a practical crop elsewhere. Not all farms have hot springs
bubbling underneath.
But far more indicative of the trend of the times is the ghost
town that was turned into a thriving village overnight. Latouche,
on the island of the same name off the Kenai Peninsula, once was
an active mining town with a population of three thousand. But
when copper ore, for which it was noted, began to run too low a
grade, the mine, owned by the Kennecott Copper Company, was
closed, and the town gradually faded into oblivion. Only a few
families remained, one of them that of Wallace Bailey. The Baileys
finally moved, too, but through the years they retained their in-
terest in the ghost town, with its admirable location and climate.
Bailey and other enthusiasts tried to buy the village. But not un-
til 1942 did they succeed. They became owners of 1,470 acres,
which included the town site and water rights. The Bailey family
went back to Latouche to fulfill their dreams of the town's future.
Thirty homes were rehabilitated, a large hotel was rebuilt, and a
cold-storage plant was constructed. Latouche now is a boom town.
The storage plant, one of the largest of its kind in Alaska, has a
freezing capacity of 40 tons of fish a day and storage for i ,000 tons.
In the spring of 1946, thirty families were living there. Many
others wrote that they would like to join in the resurrection of a
ghost town. Latouche is typical of the enterprise that showed it-
self in the Northland as the close of the war approached. Even
though the fanfare for statehood died down after a bit, shrewd in-
dustrial leaders hurried to get in on the ground floor while the Ter-
ritory was still relatively free of taxes.
DIVIDED LIKE GAUL 23
At Fairbanks, Alaska's so-called "Golden Heart," centrally situ-
ated in the heart of big placer gold-mining operations, the climate
and living conditions are somewhat similar to those in northern
parts of the United States. There are July days when the ther-
mometer registers 98 degrees in the shade. More than one old-timer
has collapsed from sunstroke. Most visitors from the States, how-
ever, find nothing in the climate to distress them.
Nome, slightly farther from the Arctic Circle than Fairbanks
and 500 miles to the west, also has warm days, with a record of 84
degrees. Some of the USO girls from Hollywood took along their
fur coats when they went to Nome with entertainment troupes.
Among them was Helen Parrish of Universal Studios, who headed
her own troupe in the Northland, with Nome the first stop after a
flight via Edmonton, Alberta. She said, "I sent my furs back to
mother, bought a bathing suit, and wore it about half the time I
was in Nome."
Nome does not have such extremes in temperature as Fairbanks,
its coldest winter reading was 47 degrees below in contrast to
Fairbanks' 65 below. The weather relationship between these two
cities is one of the commonest misconceptions of outsiders. Most
people think of Nome as being farther north than Fairbanks and
much colder, whereas the opposite is true. Other variations in the
climate and geography of Alaska are as interesting.
CHAPTER 4
People and Pastimes
THE LIFE of the Alaskans in work and play is peculiarly
attractive because it is dynamic. The tendency to fraternize is
strong, as in most small cities in the States. But discussion at group
meetings is usually on a more ambitious scale than that of the av-
erage Main Street community, for among other things, Rotarians
in Alaska discuss the problems of statehood. Apparently, too, Alas-
kans have more to gripe about than most people. The cumbersome-
ness of the administrative machinery in some of the many Federal
bureaus is a constant source of peppery imbroglios.
The Territory is a happy hunting ground, not only for sports-
men, but for club forums; it is a fertile field for newspaper editorial
writers who are keen on topical and national affairs. After a long
absence, visits of various congressional committees bore down on
the Great Land in the summer of 1945 and supplied new fuel for
contention. The official report and comment by at least one of the
committees was not pleasing to the sourdoughs. "He loves me, he
loves me not." mused some Alaskans of Uncle Sam, as they figura-
tively picked daisy petals. They looked longingly, too, at their
national flower, the forget-me-not. There was a feeling that, fol-
lowing the hectic activities of war days, the Territory was destined
to fade from the national scene and again become a forgotten dis-
tant colony. That, however, was not the situation so far as com-
mercial opportunists were concerned. Large corporations, par-
ticularly those who derive revenue from transportation, foresaw
busy- days ahead. The stay-at-home "builders" in Alaska, such as
Austin E. Lathrop, also pressed expansion programs based on an ex-
pected increase in visitors as well as in permanent population.
But many who had the time and could afford the fare joined an
exodus to the States. Bookings on the boats and airlines doubled.
From the governor down, sourdoughs migrated here and there in
H
One of the favorite sports of the Eskimos is skin jumping.
A walrus hide is stretched and held by twelve or fifteen per-
sons, and the performer stands in the center of the skin. The
tossers heave three times, then give the toss that sends the
jumper higher than the house tops. The trick is to keep one's
balance and land feet first on the skin. This picture was
taken at Nome. (Courtesy Edna Walker Chandler.)
26 ALASKA TODAY
autumn like the wild fowl that annually fly south. One newspaper's
perennial news feature carries the stock heading "Sourdoughs on
the Wing." A perusal of it raises a question m the reader's mind
whether there are enough people left in Alaska to carry on the busi-
ness of the day.
The penchant for traveling is inherent with Alaskans. The homes
of their ancestors are scattered all over the United States, with not
a few of them in Europe. So when sourdoughs visit relatives they
usually cover vast distances. As a class they are the transport com-
panies' best customers. Their first port of call is Seattle; then Wash-
ington, D.C.; after that, the universe. One is likely to run into an
Alaskan in Cairo, Illinois, or Casablanca. In winter, notable Alas-
kans can always be found in the lobby of the New Washington
Hotel in Seattle. Alaskans apparently travel to Seattle to find a new
partner at bridge, or to see Bing Crosby's latest picture a year ahead
of its showing in Anchorage. Hotel business in Seattle is slow any
week that an Alaskan group is not in town for a reunion.
Alaska made Seattle, but Westerners think it is the other way
around. They look upon our vast possession in the Northwest as
their adopted child and feel it incumbent to guard each step the
infant takes. The motive, however, is self-interest. Seattle's zeal for
Alaska is the same as that which motivates parents of a child mov-
ing picture prodigy. In brief, the Great Land is Seattle's meal ticket.
At home in Alaska there is plenty of action, too. The governor's
white colonial mansion in Juneau is the scene of much official and
social activity. There are many visitors; Alaska is proud of at-
tention from visiting dignitaries. Although the legislature has mem-
bers opposed to Gruening, the man, they go all out for Gruening,
the governor. With scarcely a dissenting voice the last legislature
appropriated $4,500 for entertainment at the mansion and $2,000
more for upkeep of the house and grounds.
Mrs. Gruening is a graduate of Vassar, where girls acquire a
liking for sports. She fitted easily into the Alaskan scene where
women handle a rifle or fly rod better than their sisters in the States
swing a golf club. She is considered by all factions as one of the most
gracious hostesses who ever occupied the governor's mansion.
Although Alaskans, old and young, are definitely sports-minded,
they do not care very much for golf. Only four cities have nine-
hole courses: Anchorage, Juneau, Seward, and Valdez. The capi-
tal's course, 3 miles from town, is built on debris from a gold mine
PEOPLE AND PASTIMES
2 7
and is under water at high tide. Nevertheless, avid fans make use
of it.
Thousands of Alaskans fish for sport in addition to those who fish
commercially. Among the younger set, skiing is the favorite winter
sport; sparse as is the population, probably a hundred persons ski
in Alaska to one in the States. Skating is popular, too, except in the
lower end of the Panhandle. The mean January temperature in
this section, in which lie the cities of Ketchikan, Wrangell, Peters-
burg, and Sitka, is just about freezing; when cold enough for ice
there is usually too much snow for skating. Juneau, 250 miles north
of Ketchikan," has a mild winter also, with an average January tem-
perature of 28 degrees above zero.
In central Alaska the story is different; ice abounds at Anchorage
and Fairbanks, but the snowfall is comparatively light. Sometimes
the skiing fraternity at Anchorage has to import snow from distant
localities. The Anchorage ski club has a rendezvous at Grandview,
about 50 miles south of the city and convenient to the railroad.
The Douglas ski bowl, directly across the Gastineau Chan-
nel from Juneau, reached by a three-mile trail. Skiing is
one of the most popular sports of the capital city residents.
(Courtesy U.S. Forest Service, William Paul, Jr.)
28 ALASKA TODAY
Special trains and buses bring hundreds of ski fans here over week-
ends. Both skiers and spectators can be sure of enjoying themselves.
The club owns a cabin where, around an open fireplace, teen-agers
and their elders sit in warmth and comfort, enjoying bean-feeds
and steaming hot coffee, with a more stimulating beverage at hand
for those who want it.
This is only one of many ski clubs in Alaska. In Juneau is the
Douglas ski bowl, built by the Forest Service across the narrow
Gastineau Channel. It is an attraction for work-weary Federal and
Territorial employees. Twelve miles from Seward there is a simi-
lar setup amid glacial ice-bound mountains of the Kenai Peninsula.
There is heavy snow at both Juneau and Seward. Alt. McKinley
National Park also has good skiing facilities, used rather sparingly.
Cordova is a skiing center; there the amateur who fails to keep his
feet is likely to find himself buried in 1 5 feet of soft snow.
Seasonal sports of all kinds have a big following in Alaska. Every
sizable town has its baseball team; some have half a dozen. Compe-
tition is keen among intercity leagues, Army and Navy post leagues,
high school teams, and those sponsored by commercial firms. Most
of the teams, both baseball and basketball, have typical Northland
names Moose, Beavers, Bears, and Malemutes.
Alaska's girls are sports-minded, but they spend most of their
spare time rooting at contests of boy friends. For active participa-
tion in sports, women turn to fishing and rifle ranges. Many are
crack shots. It would be difficult for an invader if women in Alaska
took up arms as they did in Russia. A few wanted to join "Gruen-
ing's Guerrillas," the wartime name of the Territorial Guard. But
threat of invasion on the mainland was not strong enough to war-
rant such a move, according to the governor.
Basketball, football, boxing, hockey, and tennis have hundreds
of participants. In basketball, especially, the players and fans are
legion. Bowling is a popular sport, indulged in by both men and
women. Many of Alaska's cities have good alleys, heavily patron-
ized in winter.
Young folks in some towns enjoy horseback riding. Saddle horses
can be rented from a few entrepreneurs who realize that Alaska is
going modern. But not many Alaskans own their own mounts.
Sourdoughs have always regarded horses as mere pack animals.
Equine stock, however, is higher than it was in 1898 when miners
bought horses in the summer and shot them in the fall rather than
PEOPLE AND PASTIMES 29
feed them. From an economic standpoint the owners could
scarcely be blamed; a ton of hay at Dawson cost about $200. (A
horse with a reasonable appetite will eat a ton of hay a month.)
Present-day Alaskans have progressed beyond the horse-shooting
era.
The country, however, will never have due respect for the
horse until someone builds a race track. In Ketchikan the climate
is ideal for the sport of kings. The frequent rains are just right for
owners of "mudders," and there would be a heavy track for fully
half of the meet. But it must be admitted that there is a drawback:
Ketchikan's soil is not muddy, it is watery muskeg. Hunters and
fishermen frequently sink knee-deep and a race horse would find
the going slightly hazardous. But, in a pinch, a floating plank race
track might be built. It could be overlaid with Alaska's famous peat,
of which there are millions of tons going to waste. Juneau would be
a good location, except that there is scarcely space for the sidewalks.
With enough capital, race track promoters could blow the top off
a mountain, or start another lode mine, pushing the tailings out into
Gastineau Channel until there was room for a half-miler.
In lieu of horse racing, Alaska has its dog and reindeer derbies,
the latter more or less obsolete. The huskies and malemutes still pit
their skill and endurance over courses of ice and snow. Heavy
wagers are made, the word of a bettor taking the place of mutuel
windows. The sport was suspended in the war days when even the
Fairbanks winter ice carnival was discontinued. But in February
after the war's close, dog derbies were revived under the direction
of Kenneth O'Harra, one of the Territory's leaders in transporta-
tion. Using his Santa Glaus lodge at Gulkana on the Richardson
Highway as a base, O'Harra staged three 44-mile races and one of
176 miles, run in four heats of 44 miles each. Cash prizes totaled
$1,500, together with engraved cups for the winners of the heats.
The contests brought out enthusiastic crowds, proving that Alaska's
sports followers still have a warm spot in their hearts for the heroic
sled dogs.
The Territory's biggest gambling venture, the Nenana Ice Pool,
was not called off during the war. G.I.'s participated in it, swelling
the purse to a new high. The stunt for which thousands of tickets
are sold at $i each is a huge lottery held on the date of the ice
break-up in the Tanana River at Nenana. Ticket holders attempt to
name the day, hour, minute, and second when the ice crack-up will
30 ALASKA TODAY
take place. No other institution is more typically Alaskan. An
elaborate system of wire is attached to a clock and a bell. The wire
breaks with the movement of the ice, the clock stops, and the bell
rings. In that second someone has won a hundred thousand dollars
or more!
The ingenious method for determining the lucky prognosticator
A typical Alaska dog team of mixed-breed animals huskies
and malemutes. The lead dog is part St. Bernard, probably
crossed with a malemute or wolf. The white dog behind
the leader is a Siberian huskie. In the derbies a team is usu-
ally composed of ten dogs and a leader. (Courtesy Frank
Dufresne, Fish and Wildlife Service.)
is this: a hole is cut in the ice, and a 25-foot pole sunk in the
river, while a tripod arrangement of other poles keeps the center
one in place. A red flag floats from the top of the pole, and below
the flag is a sign, "Nenana Ice Pool." A wire fastened to the end
of the pole is extended over a derrick on the wharf by means of a
pulley and is pulled taut by a weight attached to the loose end. A
string is tied to a small lever on an eight-day clock. The string is
PEOPLE AND PASTIMES 31
attached to the top of the derrick, and to the wire that extends to
the pole in the ice.
When the ice begins to move in the thaw, it carries the pole
down with it until the wire is stretched to its limit, and the string
tied to the clock snaps. This causes the lever to stop the clock; the
second marked at the stop is the official time of the break. The ice
usually moves about 100 feet before it breaks the string. Sometimes
it moves a few feet and stays in that position for days, giving inter-
ested onlookers a mild case of heart disease. Thousands gather to
keep constant watch, and side bets are made as to the time the clock
will actually stop. Excitement is just as intense as at the finish of a
Kentucky Derby.
Aside from the gambling feature, the final break-up is a spectacle
worth traveling miles to see. Huge cakes of ice shoot into the air,
then settle back, block on block. Some submerge while others
roll over and over like logs. The whole river becomes a mass of
churning, crunching ice, and the shouts of spectators mingle with
the din of the river's uproar.
Uncle Sam won a good share of the pool in 1945. Tom Ringen
and Rita Hardin of Anchorage held the lucky ticket, fifty-fifty.
The pool management sent them a check for $105,000, of which
$60,614 wen t to the internal revenue collector, leaving $44,386 to
share between them. Incidentally, this amount probably never had
to be divided, because, romantically enough, the two winners got
married.
A few of Alaska's high schools have good gymnasiums but there
is agitation for more. Governor Gruening has urged the building
of additional armories both for expansion of the National Guard
and for use as athletic centers for young people.
In the spring and in vacation time baseball is king. The game has
no competition in Alaska, as it has in the States, from horse racing
and important golf tournaments. There is no baseball commission
to lay down the law as to how many games shall be played at night
and how many in the daytime. Alaska's games "under the lights"
supplied by Old Sol are after supper at 7 or 7: 30 p.m.
On the twenty-first of June, Fairbanks plays baseball at mid-
nightby daylight. Sometimes it is necessary for the batter to
signal that a canvas must be moved up or down to keep the sun-
low in the northern sky at midnight out of his eyes. In the Arctic
32 ALASKA TODAY
the "daylight moon" serves the Eskimos for night football games.
They kick the ball all night, usually straight ahead, often traveling
miles from the village. In the morning, the parents go to their igloos
to sleep, and the children go to school, sleepy-eyed and dead tired.
Impetus was given to all sports in Alaska through participation
by the armed forces. The Army and Navy were not sparing of
money in setting up facilities for sports and social pastimes. Gym-
nasiums, as large and finely equipped as any in the country, were
hastily constructed in various parts of the Territory Ladd Field
at Fairbanks, Fort Richardson at Anchorage. These buildings were
used for dancing and other social recreation, as were similar struc-
tures on Kodiak Island and in the Aleutians. In addition to a huge
gymnasium at Fort Richardson, headquarters for the Army's Alaska
Department, an excellent outdoor ice rink for hockey and exhibi-
tion skating was maintained and lighted for night contests.
Never in the history of warfare did the word morale take on
such significance and never were there such vast expenditures to
maintain it. It was not all work and no play by any means, but at
this time even play brought rewards. American fighters had their
chins up. Their muscles were kept pliant and their spirits stiffened.
They fought to perpetuate a way of life exemplified by the very
things that some term luxuries. Athletic sports, together with the
better type of social indulgences, did a great deal to inspire a whole-
some outlook. All this was perhaps more apparent in Alaska than
elsewhere. War progressed in the Northland to the tune of the two-
step and rhumba amid plenty of hardship.
Alaska caught the spirit of these activities. Teen-agers began to
emulate the military. Recreation and social clubs were formed;
leading towns raised money to build centers where youngsters
could dance, act, play, read, study, and possibly debate statehood.
Even in the lonely Aleutians where opportunity and perhaps in-
clination for this social progress had not prevailed, a new spirit
was in evidence. At Unalaska, a score or more of native Aleut girls
formed a group called the Unalaska Girls Club.
This was the new Alaska, unmindful of rain and snow, impervi-
ous to cold and to vast distances. This was the phalanx of a second
gold rush whose army came from within as well as from without.
It was a young Alaska, finding itself through the vicissitudes and
glories of war an Alaska entering an era of peace with the surge
and ambitions of youth.
CHAPTER 5
Cost of Living
MANY ALASKANS use the high cost of living bugaboo
as farmers use scarecrows in their corn fields, or else they are
grossly misinformed about prices in other regions. No one will go
broke in Alaska because of the cost of food. One can buy a good
Sunday table d'hote dinner in Juneau or Anchorage for $1.50. It
would be difficult to match the menu anywhere else at that price.
Here is a sample of meals served at "The Anchorage Grill," to
which a sourdough may treat his wife if he feels that she needs a
rest from cooking:
"Tomato juice cocktail, cottage cheese salad, chicken noodle
soup. Choice of roast chicken with cranberry sauce, baked ham
with candied yams, breaded veal cutlets with country gravy,
sweetbreads sauteed with mushrooms, fried pork chops with apple-
sauce, roast lamb with current jelly, French lamb chops grilled
with bacon, fried eastern oysters with tartare sauce, Italian ravioli
and Parmesan cheese. Potatoes and Matanuska Maid vegetables.
Dessert: assorted pies, ice cream, jello. Tea or coffee."
Scarcely a starvation diet. Or, at Mrs. Luoma's boardinghouse,
Third and C streets, home-cooked meals, with homemade bread
and pie like mother made, everything served family style help
yourself, and a second helping $ i , with special rates by the week or
month.
Of course, if one is "asking for it," he can get a good stiff check at
some of the supper clubs and higher-priced cafes. On the other
hand, such indulgences would seem like partaking of free lunch
compared to a la carte prices on Chicago's Rush Street or New
York's 57th Street. Texas Guinan would have starved in Alaska.
While Alaska has an abundance of saloons and consumes a lot of
liquor, accounts of the drinking proclivities of its people have been
exaggerated. Except in the salmon fishing season, when there is
33
34
ALASKA TODAY
Mrs. Lucille B. Stevens, of Salmon Creek Farm, dressing
New Hampshire Red broilers for market.
much imported labor, police court records of intoxication cases are
lighter than in San Francisco or Chicago. Sourdoughs apparently
can handle their liquor.
Drinks are sold in many places other than saloons. Public card
rooms, frequently operated by women, dispense liquor, plain and
fancy, and about two-thirds of the restaurants sell drinks. Night
clubs and roadhouses dispense their share, as they do everywhere
else. Joe E. Brown's wisecrack when he landed in Anchorage to
entertain the post boys, "My, what a big saloon!" was circulated
throughout the United States. It went over so well that he used it
again at Sitka and Ketchikan. It is true enough that about half the
electric light signs in Anchorage advertise liquor dealers or saloons.
The explanation is that they remain open later than groceries or
haberdashers, which have no need of electric signs. The midnight
sun is their neon and Mazda in spring and summer. In winter they
reflect the glow from the neighboring bar.
COST OF LIVING 35
Retail food prices for housewives seem to be relatively higher
than restaurant prices. Fresh farm eggs in Juneau in January, 1 946,
were $i a dozen. In Anchorage they were 10 cents higher; in Fair-
banks, still another 10 cents higher. Milk was 25 cents a quart in
Juneau, and 30 cents in Anchorage and Fairbanks.
Food prices always had been considerably higher than on the
West Coast because of added transportation costs, but the per-
centage by which they exceeded costs in the States was materially
lowered toward the close of the war. The OPA established ceiling
prices for more than 2,000 grocery items. These flat prices speci-
fics, as they are called applied in all major towns. Naturally, in
remote places where food had to be carried by plane or dog team,
higher prices prevailed, but these were known as "f reeze-markups."
In actual dollars and cents costs, some food supplies are 25 to 50
per cent more in Alaska than elsewhere, but as a rufe wages are pro-
portionately higher. In Juneau, in the winter of 1945, most food
commodities averaged 25 per cent above prices in Seattle. In Fair-
banks, some food costs were 50 per cent higher than in the States.
Freight is carried to Juneau directly by boat. Freight to Fair-
banks has to be taken 1,200 miles by boat where wharfage charges
are paid, then it is transported nearly 500 miles by rail. Throughout
Alaska the government allows Federal employees a 25 per cent
higher wage scale than it does those in the States. The legislature, in
its last session, increased by 1 5 per cent the salaries of most Terri-
torial employees.
Defense work laborers received from $300 to $350 a month, and
members of skilled trades still get as high as $500. The minimum
for farm hands, the few who were available, has been $ 1 50 monthly
with board. Remuneration for other workers has been on a similar
scale. Bank deposits have increased, proportionately, more than
those in the United States. A bank in Anchorage had to spend
$30,000 in adding to its safe deposit boxes.
About one white person in eight in Alaska owns a car. Regular
gasoline at Juneau has been 22 cents a gallon, ethyl 24 cents, all
taxes included. License plates cost about one-half that paid in the
States $10 for private cars and trucks, $15 for public carriers.
Clothing costs in the higher price lines are about the same in
Juneau as they are in Chicago or New York. Here again cost in-
creases as one goes farther north. Rents are no higher in Juneau than
36 ALASKA TODAY
in Seattle, but comparable accommodations in Anchorage and
Fairbanks are higher.
Prices for services vary. Dry cleaning and shoe repair are a little
higher than elsewhere, but laundry services in the Panhandle are
not much more than on the West Coast, where they admittedly
are lower than in the Middle West or the East. Hair cuts are gen-
erally $i, or only 15 or 25 cents more than in large cities in the
States. When averaged, the volume of hair cuts and shaves in an
Alaskan town of 6,000 nets the barbers no more than in the States.
Sourdough barbers charge more, but they also eat the dollar-a-
dozen eggs and so they keep their money in circulation.
With its bizarre reputation for two-dollar-a-dozen eggs, five-
dollar lamb chops, and exorbitant hotel charges, Alaska has been a
Utopia for traveling salesmen who misuse the country's reputation
for high living costs as an excuse to pad their "swindle sheet."
Hotel rooms are priced at about the same as those in major cities
in the States $2 to $4 single, $3.50 to $6 double. Second-rate and
third-rate hotels have lower prices. Accommodations of any kind
are difficult to get without advance reservations.
The reasons for Alaska's higher cost of living, such as it has been,
are to be found, probably, in seasonal peaks and falls in the Terri-
tory's business, liberal extension of book credit, absence of chain
store competition, high labor costs, the necessity of carrying heavy
inventories, and the high cost of the purchasing function in the
States; also, of course, transportation from the east across the
mountains, or up the length of California and Oregon to Seattle,
thence 1,000 to 2,000 miles by ship, lighterage at many ports such
as Nome, or railroad into interior Alaska, all adding 50 per cent or
more to the wholesale cost of imported goods.
Some of these expenses, as noted, already have been cut, especially
plane transport charges. Competition is vastly keener than it was
before the war. Processing of raw material has been begun within
the Territory, making competitive the wholesale costs of many
commodities.
At the height of the meat shortage, last spring and summer,
Alaskans turned to poultry. Chicken dinners were featured more
than steak dinners. One restaurant in Anchorage advertised a
chicken potpie as "something new for Alaska."
The Territory, despoiled of its thick steaks, became poultry-
COST OF LIVING
37
While their husbands were in the armed services, Helen
Dorris (left) and her sister Lucille Stevens rented a fifty-
acre ranch on Salmon Creek, a few miles from Juneau, and
raised rabbits and poultry for the Juneau market. They
built their own hutches, also brooders for baby chicks, find-
ing "pioneer" life in Alaska profitable and not hazardous.
More workers like these young women would knock living
costs in the Territory down another peg.
minded. Enterprising small farmers began to raise broilers. Pan
American passenger planes were crowded with baby chicks which
needed a temperature of 72 degrees Fahrenheit en route. That heat
was deplored by traveling sourdoughs who had to be appeased by
pretty stewardesses tendering cooling drinks, at a dollar a highball
or thereabouts.
The meat shortage prompted housewives and women farmers to
raise chickens and rabbits. Lucille Stevens and her sister Helen
38 ALASKA TODAY
Dorris, started the Salmon Creek Farm on Glacier Highway, near
Juneau. While their husbands were at the front, these young ladies
developed a profitable business. With hammer and saw they built
with their own hands modern hutches and chicken coops. In a
greenhouse, already installed on a leased fifty-acre ranch, they
nursed early tomatoes and cucumbers. For their New Hampshire
Red broilers, dressed according to the best feminine style, they re-
ceived a dollar a pound, and were paid 90 cents a pound for their
bunnies. They did this with no guide save a book on farming.
Salmon Creek abounds in trout and salmon. Bear, deer, wolves,
and coyotes are occasional visitors to the ranch, but the dogs gen-
erally keep them at a safe distance. Mrs. Stevens has a side line; she
raises pedigreed Doberman pinschers, getting as high as $100 for
the pups. The parents are good watchdogs. Salmon Creek Farm,
operated successfully by two inexperienced young women, con-
tradicts many a Chamber of Commerce warning about the hard-
ships of the Great Land.
CHAPTER 6
The Alaska Highway
ALASKA, here we come! More than 4,000,000 Americans
will steer their new de luxe sedans or their old jalopies over the
Alaska Highway today and tomorrow. This wilderness road, the
engineering feat of the century, is ready to provide transportation
facilities for the greatest army of sight-seers in history.
So much for the highway's critics who lambasted the Army's
supreme accomplishment in building a "life line" to the great North-
west! It is still a life line, not for the preservation of life and prop-
erty, but for the preservation of the pioneer spirit of those who
long for far horizons.
The Alaska or Alcan Highway as it was originally called, was
approximately 1,600 miles long when 10,000 U.S. Army engineers,
backed by 6,000 civilian workers, pronounced it ready for traffic
on November 20, 1942. When the Public Roads Administration
took over, modernizing the highway, building high steel bridges
instead of wooden ones, they removed a lot of the kinks and curves,
shortening the road until it is now 1,523 miles of firm gravel high-
way from Dawson Creek, British Columbia, to Fairbanks, Alaska.
In most places the road is 26 feet wide; the autoist can drive 50
miles an hour with safety and in comfort. Interesting stops en route
approximately a dozen are equipped to sell not only automotive
supplies such as tires, gas, oil, but also food.
The Chicago Motor Club, after checking for a year on the plans
of postwar drivers, found that 19 per cent of 23,000,000 persons
contemplating trips expressed a desire to travel over the Alaska
Highway. That is more than forty times the number of persons
residing in Alaska, including the Eskimo, the Indian, and the so-
ciable, but fast-disappearing Aleut. If Alaska is all that sourdoughs
think it, a great many tourists traveling up the Alaska Highway
39
ALASKA HIGHWAY
may decide they want to remain in the Great Land, or return to
it later. This alone may bring about a sizable increase in Alaska's
population.
Hie stations are seldom more than 150 miles apart. Starting at
Dawson Creek, a friendly frontier town in the Peace River country,
one can stock up on a few essentials and move on with a feeling of
security on the long trail north;. no Indians lurking in the brush to
scalp the women and children; no masked desperadoes of stage-
4 o
THE ALASKA HIGHWAY 4!
coach days; just smooth road winding through prairie and wilder-
ness. At this stage, the highway runs through wheat country, as
huge barn-red grain elevators along Dawson's railroad tracks
testify.
Forty miles north is Peace River, nearly half a mile wide and
crossed by a 2,000-foot swinging bridge built in 18 weeks in sub-
zero weather. A few miles farther is Fort St. John which was head-
quarters for the engineers when the road was begun in the spring
of 1942.
Farmlands and prairie give way to wilderness; to swift, trout-
laden streams; to virgin forest, with outlines of the Canadian
Rockies jutting into the horizon. An hour's drive from Fort St.
John, the bold pioneer driver pulls into Blueberry, one of the first
camps the Army built. This former relay service station is equipped
with necessary facilities for refreshing the car and its occupants.
There is a garage, a mess hall, and a place to bunk for the night.
But the ambitious driver will be interested only in hot dogs or bear
soup, and a supply of gas. It is 100 miles from Blueberry to Trutch,
the second Army post, now dominated by the Imperial Oil Com-
pany which has half a dozen stations between Dawson Creek and
the international line. All these stations have electric lights, hot
water, and modern housing equipment, even to inner-spring mat-
tresses. There is also a telephone system, so that one can call the boss
or relatives back home and tell them about the hardships of life in
the wilds. After hanging up the receiver, he will probably sit down,
not to bacon and beans, but to a delicious caribou steak, or one
from a fat Canadian steer.
The next stop is Fort Nelson, peopled mostly by Indians and a
few traders and trappers. It is only 300 miles from Dawson Creek;
at 50 miles an hour, a driver will make the station before dark if
he leaves the "end of steel" town in the morning. (Dawson Creek
is the terminus of the Northern Alberta Railway, running 420
miles north from Edmonton.)
At Fort Nelson, the Alaska Highway turns northwest, heading
for the distant mountains. The smooth graveled road begins to
climb until it reaches Summit Lake, 3,900 feet above sea level. The
100 miles between Summit Lake and Muncho Lake, also near peak
elevation, is one of the most primitive and beautiful stretches along
the highway. Midway between them is Toad River, another small
42 ALASKA TODAY
camp, formerly a post for the 4yyth QM Truck Regiment. The
emerald-green waters of the Toad River swarm with grayling.
Here is a place the fisherman will revel in, and if he fails to pull out
an 1 8-inch trout or two for a campfire dinner it will not be because
they are not there, waiting for the hook. Moose meat can be had
from the Indians who are not too particular about game laws. But
have a care, for the Mounties are patroling the life line to Alaska,
and they can smell moose meat frying if they are a mile away.
Do not look for the famous scarlet coats of the technicolor master-
pieces. Modern Royal Mounties on duty wear coconut-brown coats
and yellow-striped trousers. The resplendent red regalia is reserved
for dress affairs.
Beyond the shimmering waters of placid Muncho Lake, the
cheechako autoist comes to the big steel bridge over the Liard
River. On the far side of this stream are hot springs that bubble
from some subterranean furnace, never freezing, not even in winter
temperatures of 60 degrees below.
Beyond the Liard River is the Coal River, then Watson Lake, a
pretentious station with a big air base. A short run south from the
main highway is a town of considerable interest to the tourist-
Lower Post site of one of the Hudson's Bay Company trading
posts, most of which are now modern department stores instead
of crowded one-room log cabins. But Lower Post's store is not yet
one of the de luxe trading centers. It is still in a primitive state, sup-
plying gasoline and the ordinary staples of a small trading post.
Surrounded by towering snow-capped mountains, is a camp at
Swift River, 100 miles northwest of Watson Lake. Another 100
brings one to the little Indian Village of Teslin, a few hundred
yards off the highway. Here there are two trading posts and a log
cabin lodge, built by Robert McCleary over a period of four years,
for the tourists he knows will some day be traveling over the high-
way.
In the village proper, a semigovernment and mission Indian
settlement, travelers are permitted to visit the mission and churches.
Between the highway and this settlement, the Royal Canadian
Mounted Police have a station. Their mounts are no longer the
champing steeds of the movies. The Mounties get their man these
days with a pick-up truck, used the same as a city squad car; if the
snow is too deep in winter, they use dog teams. The Mounties dis-
THE ALASKA HIGHWAY
43
placed the U.S. Army Military Police nearly a year before Canada
officially took over the Canadian part of the road.
The next stop is Brooks' Brook, a place named by Negro troops
who built this part of the Alcan route. Brooks was a lieutenant in
the company. About 8 miles north of Brooks' Brook is Johnson's
Crossing. At this point the Canol Road from the Canadian oil
country at Norman Wells meets the Alaska Highway. It was a busy
center in war days when Colonel Frank M. Johnson had charge of
the famous pipe line carrying crude oil from the Mackenzie River
to the highway. The project, which worried U.S. congressmen to
Robert Service, poet of the Yukon, in front of his shack
at Dawson. Wanderlust led Service all over the world, and
he caught the spirit of the vagabond in verse perhaps better
than any other man. (Rolphe Dauphin photo, Canadian
Pacific Railway.)
46 ALASKA TODAY
They represented a true cross section of the United States. There
were clerks, farmers, merchants, lawyers, doctors, professional
soldiers, sailors, truck drivers, miners, mechanics, accountants-
men from every trade and profession. Few had ever had more than
rudimentary training in road construction. Some of the companies
were white, others colored, and among the groups were a sprinkling
of Mexicans, Chinese, and Indians. They came from every part of
the country, drawn into the Army by the Selective Service law.
Some came from hot weather camps in the south.
"To these men, mostly in their twenties, the road savored of high
adventure. It was pioneering of the type many of their forefathers
had faced in the winning of the West. The environments they were
to live and work in were ones dramatized in movies and pulp maga-
zines. They approached the task with enthusiasm and anticipation,
and with little conception of the hardships and discomforts ahead.
"When the first contingent arrived at Dawson Creek, it was zero.
In the' next two weeks the temperature dropped to 47 below and
in this period the young engineers worked day and night to make
the move to Fort Nelson. The completion of this work, before the
thaw, constitutes an outstanding tribute to the men's endurance.
They met the hardships of the near-Arctic weather with high
spirit.
"The days that followed were no whit easier than this beginning.
With spring came mud and rain cold, raw days and nights and
then summer, with the plague of mosquitoes, black flies, and gnats.
In spite of all this, after a grueling winter, the men never wavered.
They kept up their spirit with a typical brand of 'kidding.' Road
signs cropped up recalling scenes at home advertising known
products, parking lots, roadhouses, and distances to various places
in the United States. All in all, it was an accomplishment of which
Americans can be proud, as demonstrating that the present genera-
tion have all the essential qualities of their forebears."
When the first troops rolled through Edmonton on the night of
March 10, 1942, they received a grand reception. Later, at Dawson
Creek, the Northern Alberta Railway's special train puffed into the
little station on a world-important mission. American soldiers set
foot on soil that was theirs for the duration. At the "end-of-steel
town" hundreds turned out to give the doughboys their second
royal welcome. The drawling accent of the soldiers from the Deep
THE ALASKA HIGHWAY
47
In a race against the time when rivers in the north be^in
to break, the U.S. engineers building the highway to Alaska
placed planks across the Peace River, 40 miles north of Daw-
son Creek. Trucks and tractors pulling road equipment
moved across these planks.
South brought laughter from the northern girls but they liked
the U.S. boys and their breezy manner.
The troops established their camp and made ready for the en-
gineers coming the next day. Trucks and jeeps were unloaded and
soon were familiar sights on the streets. The larger multiple-
wheeled trucks were built for just that type of terrain and made
their way about with little difficulty. Shipments of road-building
machinery poured in and were routed to Edmonton, then to Daw-
son Creek. Headquarters later moved to Fort St. John, then to
Whitehorse.
It was a race against time. North of Dawson Creek toward Fort
St. John there was a government-surveyed dirt road. Beyond Fort
St. John and north 250 miles there was a winter road, crossing 150
miles of muskeg a swamp bog gathering for centuries in drained
A temporary pontoon bridge spanning a river on the high-
way is pictured above. The permanent bridge built to re-
place it is shown below.
THE ALASKA HIGHWAY 49
lake and river beds from 5 to 40 feet deep. In summer the muck
became soggy and soft so that a man could scarcely stand on it.
Rivers between Fort St. John and Fort Nelson were not bridged,
nor were there any ferries. The idea was for the engineers to rush
through to Fort Nelson with trucks, and to keep going back and
forth as long as the road was usable. They beat the thaw and spring
break-up of the rivers, but only with the intervention of a high
officer General Jack Frost! Old-timers had said the ice would
break up on April 10. Joe Clark, trapper and famed weather proph-
et, predicted the thaw would come even sooner. He was wrong. It
came at 8: 29 a.m. on April 22.
Just as the rivers looked ready to heave and toss, General Jack
Frost came to the rescue. He froze the road so hard one could
scarcely break it with a pick. Ice cracks in the river were closed
and officers danced with glee. It meant they would have time to
reach designated points. Civilian trucks as well as military trans-
ports moved over the road in never-ending line. One pilot who'
flew the route said: "At night that stretch to Fort Nelson looked
like Fifth Avenue to me, it was so lit up with headlights of cars."
The workers were not in contact with the outside world except
by plane. They ate dried fruits and vegetables. Later, as the camps
became established, fresh meat was obtained from wild game cari-
bou and bear.
As the engineers moved northward, Army reconnaissance planes
scouted the countryside, carrying topography experts who charted
maps as they flew. Trappers and bushmen were pressed into service
and dog teams set out with engineers to examine ground conditions.
When all the information w r as obtained, it was pieced together and
the i,6oo-mile route to Alaska was selected.
At the beginning, the project was under direction of Brig. Gen.
William M. Hoge, holder of the Distinguished Service Cross for
bravery in France. Later, Hoge was transferred to the northern
sector and Brig. Gen. James A. O'Connor was placed in com-
mand of the central and southern divisions. Brig. Gen. Clarence
L. Sturdevant, assistant chief of the Army Engineers, had the task
of bringing up equipment and supplies to the road.
Much of the road was surveyed to dodge the muskeg, but in
places it could not be avoided. Where the bog was not more than
12 feet, the Army boys, with powerful road shovels, scooped it
A temporary pontoon bridge spanning a river on the high-
way is pictured above. The permanent bridge built to re-
place it is shown below.
THE ALASKA HIGHWAY 49
lake and river beds from 5 to 40 feet deep. In summer the muck
became soggy and soft so that a man could scarcely stand on it.
Rivers between Fort St. John and Fort Nelson were not bridged,
nor were there any ferries. The idea was for the engineers to rush
through to Fort Nelson with trucks, and to keep going back and
forth as long as the road was usable. They beat the thaw and spring
break-up of the rivers, but only with the intervention of a high
officer General Jack Frost! Old-timers had said the ice would
break up on April 10. Joe Clark, trapper and famed weather proph-
et, predicted the thaw would come even sooner. He was wrong. It
came at 8: 29 a.m. on April 22.
Just as the rivers looked ready to heave and toss, General Jack
Frost came to the rescue. He froze the road so hard one could
scarcely break it with a pick. Ice cracks in the river were closed
and officers danced with glee. It meant they would have time to
reach designated points. Civilian trucks as well as military trans-
ports moved over the road in never-ending line. One pilot who'
flew the route said: "At night that stretch to Fort Nelson looked
like Fifth Avenue to me, it was so lit up with headlights of cars."
The workers were not in contact with the outside world except
by plane. They ate dried fruits and vegetables. Later, as the camps
became established, fresh meat was obtained from wild game cari-
bou and bear.
As the engineers moved northward, Army reconnaissance planes
scouted the countryside, carrying topography experts who charted
maps as they flew. Trappers and bushmen were pressed into service
and dog teams set out with engineers to examine ground conditions.
When all the information was obtained, it was pieced together and
the i,6oo-mile route to Alaska was selected.
At the beginning, the project was under direction of Brig. Gen.
William M. Hoge, holder of the Distinguished Service Cross for
bravery in France. Later, Hoge was transferred to the northern
sector and Brig. Gen. James A. O'Connor was placed in com-
mand of the central and southern divisions. Brig. Gen. Clarence
L. Sturdevant, assistant chief of the Ajrmy Engineers, had the task
of bringing up equipment and supplies to the road.
Much of the road was surveyed to dodge the muskeg, but in
places it could not be avoided. Where the bog was not more than
12 feet, the Army boys, with powerful road shovels, scooped it
50 ALASKA TODAY
out. Where it was deeper they laid trees and bushes, then covered it
with gravel. When the corduroy makeshift sank, they repeated the
work. Frequently, the same work had to be done seven or eight
times.
At the start, crossings of rivers and lakes were made on ice. But
this ice was full of dangerous air pockets and had to be planked
to keep trucks from falling through. In temperatures of 40 degrees
below zero, the Army brought in its own portable sawmills and
made the planks. The men cut boards for barracks, tool sheds,
barges, culverts, pilings, and bridge timbers. There was no importa-
tion of modern bridge and ironwork the first six months. It was
wood, wood, wood!
In late spring and in summer swift-flowing glacial rivers were
spanned in two or three days; sometimes by pontoons, with the use
of empty oil drums; sometimes by timber bridges, most of which
were later replaced by steel. Two hundred streams were bridged.
Negroes starred in this work; young colored soldiers from the
Sunny South, some of whom had never before seen snow, plunged
neck-deep into icy rivers to lay the pontoons or drive piles. One
regiment built a bridge over a wide mountain stream in forty-two
hours.
Even more perilous than the bridging of streams was the con-
struction through mountain passes. In one place the road was vir-
tually hung on the side of a cliff that rose perpendicularly above
the workers' heads. Men were suspended on ropes to plant dyna-
mite charges.
Summer months brought mosquitoes and gnats, the latter the
tiny kind that Indians had dubbed "no-see-ums." The engineers
had trucked in 400 gallons of antimosquito oil, but that was not
enough. Sloughs and damp areas had to be sprayed with old fuel
oil. Most of the workers wore nets over their heads.
Just before the formal opening of the road, Secretary of War
Stimson summed up the accomplishment when he declared that
10,000 soldiers divided into seven Army Engineer regiments and
6,000 civilian workers under direction of the Public Roads Admin-
istration completed the job in slightly more than six months. They
pushed forward at the rate of 8 miles a day, bridged 200 streams and
rivers and laid a roadway 24 feet between ditches.
The dedicatory ceremonies were held at Soldiers' Summit, over-
THE ALASKA HIGHWAY 51
looking beautiful Lake Kluane, on November 20, 1942. E. L. (Bob)
Bartlett, then acting governor of Alaska, and Ian MacKenzie,
Canadian minister of pensions and national wealth, cut the red,
white, and blue ribbon held by four enlisted men of the U.S. En-
gineers. While a band played the national anthems of the United
States and Canada, a convoy of trucks departed for Fairbanks.
Thus began the overland movement of war supplies vital to the
strength and safety of the United States and Canada. Thousands
of tons of food and other essentials have since been moved from
camp to camp in relays and on to Ladd Field near Alaska's "Golden
Heart."
In a short span of months the United States Army had built a
land route to Alaska, a feat that Japan's war lords had thought would
take years. History may record that among the great achievements
of millions of men, who gave their all to keep the world livable
for peace-loving humanity, the building of the Alaska Highway,
which foiled Nippon's submarines, was supreme.
With crews of the Public Roads Administration following in the
wake of the Army, laying permanent surfaces, widening the road,
constructing culverts, balustrades, and more enduring bridges, a
road for peace as well as war loomed for postwar travelers.
Toward the end of the war, after the Japanese menace had been
dispelled, West Coast politicians began to clamor for abandonment
of the highway, but their attacks were futile. Canadian officials de-
clared their intention of maintaining their portion of the Alaska
Highway in perpetuity. In October, 1945, bus lines for civilians
started operating on the road from Dawson Creek to Whitehorse,
and from Whitehorse to Fairbanks.
The determined fight of Alaskans to obtain an overland life line
to the Northwest was an uphill battle. After it was agreed that
there should be a road, much time was consumed bickering over the
route. The West wanted it to start at Seattle; to proceed north
through Prince George, British Columbia, to Whitehorse in the
Yukon Territory; and from there to follow much the same line to
Fairbanks, Alaska, as the present route does.
This was the so-called A Route, which had the backing of
Congressional Delegate Dimond, Senator Magnuson of Washing-
ton, Governor Gruening of Alaska, and of Donald MacDonald,
pioneer Alaska engineer, who had fought for a highway for many
5 2
ALASKA TODAY
A novel system of loading dirt in the absence of shovels.
The truck backs into the depression and is loaded from
above by a bulldozer.
years. Their arguments were that a road over this route would en-
counter fewer obstacles in construction, that it had already been
partly surveyed, and that eventually it would unite Seattle with
Juneau, Alaska's capital. The same arguments for a road over this
route were advanced to President Truman toward the close of the
war.
Opposed to advocates of the A Route were the Army and the
Middle West. Congressman Charles R. Robertson of North Dakota
pointed out that some day shipment of supplies to Alaska would
come chiefly from the Middle West. He said it would be folly to
route them west to Seattle, thence north to Alaska two sides of a
triangle instead of on a direct line through Chicago, Minneapolis,
and Edmonton, Alberta.
The attack on Pearl Harbor brought the argument to a close.
THE ALASKA HIGHWAY 53
It was obvious that a highway near the West Coast would be more
exposed to enemy bombers than one farther east, protected by high
mountain ranges. The route chosen by the Army, called the
Prairie Route its official name, the C Route was selected.
A potent argument advanced for the road as presently situated
was that it would serve as a ground base for Canadian airports
used by the U.S. Army Air Corps. The Army believed that con-
necting landing fields, hewn out of the wilds, were an essential of
any overland route to Alaska. The existence of this wilderness air-
way in Canada was not widely publicized and its importance ap-
parently had been lost sight of by Alaskans. Col. J. K. Tully of the
War Department General Staff said: "It is desired to have a road
as a trace for our airmen to fly along, and to put landing strips along
that road." Such emergency strips had been speedily established
and, upon the completion of the highway, fliers forced down in
the Canadian wilds were near food and shelter.
As thousands of tons of defense supplies began passing over the
Alaska Highway, complaints against the C Route ceased. Few
Canadians had championed the road through Prince George. The
old "we're first" Seattle crowd, however, remained adamant in its
demand for a route farther west. Even after V-E Day, Governor
Gruening and Judge Dimond joined the westerners in urgent sup-
port of a highway over the A Route. The Anchorage Daily Times
said the A Route road would mean nothing to Alaska, and indi-
cated that the wool had been pulled over Alaskans' eyes by calling
the proposed road an Alaskan project.
Col. O. F. Ohlson, then head of the Alaska Railroad, declared
that such a road would do nothing but accommodate a few tourist
cars in summer. He added that the big Seattle boats could carry
autos to Ketchikan or Juneau quicker and for half the cost.
Dimond, though convinced that the western link from Seattle
is essential for heavy trucking as well as tourist cars, did not criti-
cize the Alaska Highway as Senator Magnuson did toward the
close of the war. The Washington senator was quoted as declaring
that the Army had made a vital mistake in selecting Route C, that
it had wasted money, and that the Alaska Highway wasn't "worth
a dime to Alaska." Had he dared say that when the Japs were in
the Aleutians he might have courted trouble.
To show how favorable Canada is to the Alaska Highway in its
54
ALASKA TODAY
Army engineers help pull a truck out of a ditch. Accidents
like these were unavoidable on the rough snow-covered
terrain near Fort Nelson.
present location, read the statement of its minister of trade and
commerce, the Hon. James A. MacKinnon:
"No man," MacKinnon said, "can fully realize just what this
Alaska Highway will mean. Estimate of its potential value would
have to include the value of forests, the mineral wealth, the pro-
ductive possibilities of the land, and the lakes and streams.
"To attempt an estimate of its true worth, however, one must
take the larger view, examine the maps of the north country, and
then the whole picture from the air. Only when flying over this
country a mile or two up can one fully realize the extent of the
area that has now become accessible. It must not be overlooked
that Canadians pioneered this route by air and faced hazards be-
cause of a vision in which they believed. Their efforts bore fruit
with the establishment of up-to-date airports by the Federal de-
partment of transport, and the linking of these airports was a pri-
mary consideration in the final routing of the road.
THE ALASKA HIGHWAY 55
"Accessibility is the first essential of development. Through these
early airlines, limited areas were opened to us, but without a high-
way the great northwestern portion of the country could not have
been successfully explored. Now, the highway extends through
a country hitherto practically unknown except to the trapper and
the prospector. It is a means of access to a vast storehouse of wealth
which in turn will open up many possibilities of development.
"With its military need fulfilled what then? Can this road be
made to serve a useful purpose and bring to reality the dreams of
the hardy explorers of our great Northwest? I believe it can.
"In the view from the air can be seen potential agricultural areas,
tremendous storehouses of forest wealth, rich mineralized regions
and places where there are great deposits of coal. There are lakes
and rivers teeming with fish. There are streams that when the need
arises can supply electrical energy by the hundreds of thousands
of horsepower wealth in its raw state to a value of which can
hardly now be even estimated.
"But here lies another source of income for us a land which will
attract a steady flow of money, to serve this country without de-
nuding a single acre of forest or the use of a ton of mineral ore.
"I refer to the sharing of the scenic value of this area with those
tourists who long for new worlds to conquer by means of their
motor cars. Here is everything that the most ardent tourist could
desire nature in all its grandeur, snow-clad mountain peaks and
verdant valleys, fishing to satisfy the most enthusiastic angler, hunt-
ing as a man desires, from the game bird to the lordly moose."
That was Mr. MacKinnon's view of the Alaska Highway seven
months after it was completed, and he has the same view today. He
was one of the strongest advocates of modernizing the 420-mile
farm road from Edmonton to Dawson Creek, constituting the es-
sential connecting link from the highway system of the United
States, through Canada, to Fairbanks, Alaska.
The Canadian Parliament at its 1944 session arranged with the
United States Government to pay for all permanent works in con-
nection with the highway, together with lines of communication
on and along the Alaska Highway.
In November, 1945, Mr. MacKinnon expressed the opinion that
"Anyone who says the Alaska Highway has few attractions for
the tourist is definitely wrong. It runs through a country of mag-
56 ALASKA TODAY
nificent scenery with lakes and rivers and beautiful views, and it
is a sportsman's paradise. The road will be maintained."
The Dominion Government assumed responsibility for that part
of the Alaska Highway in Canada, and started maintenance of the
road on April i , 1 946, when the Americans withdrew. Canada was
committed to such maintenance for two years. "But," said Mr.
MacKinnon, "there is every possible likelihood that we will con-
tinue this policy of maintenance indefinitely."
Prior to improvements made on the southern end of the high-
way, autoists at times shipped their cars over the Northern Alberta
Railway from Edmonton to Dawson Creek.
In December, 1945, Judge Dimond said that he was still con-
vinced there should be a road from Seattle to Whitehorse. The
speech he made in Congress on January 12, 1942, was vital and
accomplished its purpose. It was more of a debate than a speech,
with seven or eight congressmen pinning the Alaskan to the mast,
as it were, and getting in return a steady flow of enlightening an-
swers that showed a life line to Alaska was the one important move
to forestall Japanese invasion of the Northwest. The Alaskan dele-
gate won his fight; he deserves a high place in the hall of fame for
far-seeing American patriots.
CHAPTER 7
A Country on Wings
"THE PLANE from Manila and Tokyo has just landed.
. . . One for Calcutta and Bombay will leave in ten minutes. . . .
Passengers from Moscow are in the customs room, clearing luggage.
. . . The Chicago-Edmonton ship reports it will be half an hour
late. ... All aboard for those leaving for the Orient! "
This is the announcer's voice over the loud-speaker system: The
place, Elmendorf Field, Anchorage, Alaska; the time 8 a.m. in the
very near future. The airport is one of the best in the world!
A smartly dressed young woman steps to the radiophone booth,
calls Miami and says: "I'll meet you at the Copacabana at mid-
night."
What a change since Alaska's heroic flier, Col. Carl Ben Eielson,
first flew the mail from Fairbanks to McGrath in a jittery single-
engined Stinson, or since Noel Wien made the first round trip to
Asia in a Hamilton metal plane!
Progress in aviation has been so rapid in Alaska that prophecy
concerning its future knows no bounds. The country's strategic
location, however, has already established it as one of the important
crossroads of world flights for sky giants of the coming age. Defi-
nitely, it will be the focus for ships traveling a Great Circle route
to the Orient because from the larger cities of the East and Mid-
dle West, both Anchorage and Fairbanks are nearly 500 miles closer
to points in the Far East than is San Francisco or Seattle.
Alaska is also important as the jumping-off point for transpolar
aviation. Some of the stiflest problems are yet to be solved: naviga-
tion in the polar areas where magnetic compasses go awry; opera-
tion of radar in such zones; weather forecasting; analysis of such
forces as the northern lights, magnetism, and the effect of the moon
on tides The University of Alaska, at Fairbanks, maintaining a
57
A COUNTRY ON WINGS 59
geophysical institute for investigation of some of these mysteries,
asked Congress for a $ i ,000,000 appropriation to further the work.
The per capita use of airplanes in Alaska is seventy times that
in the United States. In this respect, the Great Land has long ranked
first in the world. Its central location for world flights has become
recognized by commercial companies just as General "Billy"
Mitchell predicted it would be twenty-five years ago. Alaska to-
day is truly a country on wings.
Air transport service to Alaska did not develop until years after
it had been well established within the Territory. Small planes used
for local flying were shipped into Alaska by steamship, but many
intrepid fliers flew their planes up the coast or over the uncharted
regions of western Canada. The demand of air-minded Alaskans
for air service from Juneau to Seattle resulted in eighteen survey
flights by Pan American in 1938 and 1939. The U.S. Weather Bu-
reau made forecasts for these flights, marking the first time it offi-
cially made regular flying forecasts for areas beyond the limits of
the United States. The route selected was along the coast, and fly-
ing boats were used. It was soon found, however, that the weather
was too hazardous for these contact flights. Instrument flying re-
sulted, with planes similar to those used in the States. Pilots were
able to fly above much of the bad weather. The primary route from
Seattle to Alaska now is along the coast. Two alternate routes are
occasionally used, one over the interior via Prince George, British
Columbia, and the other, over the ocean 50 to 100 miles west of
the coast. The route from the Middle West is via Chicago; the
Twin Cities; Edmonton, Alberta; Whitehorse, Yukon Territory;
and from Whitehorse either to Juneau, Anchorage, or Fairbanks.
Before the end of the war, development of air transport to
Alaska, and within the Territory, had been more rapid than in the
States. As aviation's greatest era loomed, Alaska had more than
200 landing fields, an increase of 100 over prewar days. Nearly
all these airports had been enlarged and modernized.
Merrill Field, at Anchorage, ranked fifth in continental United
States in daily landings and take-offs, including those of private
flyers. Pan American was making three round trips daily from
Seattle to Alaska, flying 2 1 -passenger planes as far as Fairbanks and
Nome and planning for larger ships and more flights. It started
semiweekly flights to Alaska in June, 1940.
60 ALASKA TODAY
Alaska Airlines also expected to be certified for the Alaska-
Seattle route. Ketchikan, Juneau, and Anchorage had the benefit
of the service, either through direct stops or through connection
via Alaska Airlines, the latter using big DC-3's obtained from the
War Surplus Board and converted into modern passenger ships,
with stewardesses and all the de luxe trimmings.
Pan American's plans called for four Constellation transport
planes with 6o-passenger capacity and a cruising speed of 300 miles
an hour. Four other planes, equipped for longer flights, would
operate via Hawaii to the Orient. Anchorage would be the hub of
two operations the only Alaskan city in which the Territorial
and Oriental operations met. Fairbanks would be the Alaska ter-
minus of Russian ships flying over Siberia.
Air travel at this period has brought Alaska so near the United
States in point of time that people on the West Coast are eating
trout and salmon from the Territory on the same day they are
caught. In the near future, residents of New York, Chicago, and
Atlanta will be doing the same.
At this same time, G.I's and "brass hats" were flying from Ed-
monton, Alberta, to Fort Richardson at Anchorage in 7 hours.
From Anchorage to Seattle (1,500 miles), they were flying over
glaciers and mountains on a trip just long enough to eat a leisurely
meal, read a newspaper, and enjoy a good smoke 5 hours, to be
exact. The time, bettered by 4 hours the commercial planes, but
not for long! About a year later, civilian service was just as rapid,
in Northwest Airlines planes still under Army operation.
One of the most interesting developments in Alaskan aviation
toward the end of the war was the transporting of fishery and agri-
cultural products by air, especially the fresh vegetables from the
Matanuska and Homer farm belts. Sixty thousand baby chicks
were carried to Alaska from Seattle in passenger planes. Big cargo
ships brought tons of wool from the Aleutians.
Late in July, 1945, Nome was enjoying crisp lettuce, cabbages,
and cauliflower; Pan American and Alaska Airlines had brought
them from southern farm areas in a few hours. Not only urban
centers but out-of-the-way settlements and camps had their first
taste of Matanuska Maid garden delicacies, received the same day
they were picked.
The first of Alaska Airlines' new ships, with a crew and pas-
A COUNTRY ON WINGS
6l
Part of a ton of butter clams carried by plane from the
Homer fishermen's and farmers' co-op to Anchorage, no
miles north. They are delivered about an hour after being
caught. Planes make daily trips with fresh fish or vegetables
in season. (Courtesy Alaska Airlines.)
senger capacity of twenty-five the "Starliner Juneau" was chris-
tened by Mrs. Ernest Gruening, wife of the governor, in July,
1945. Other planes followed, each named for one of Alaska's lead-
ing cities. Their advent marked a lively era in Alaska's aviation
progress.
Theodore Law, Oklahoma millionaire oil man, then president
of the company, presided at the ceremonies in Juneau. Marshall C.
Hoppin, Civil Aeronautics Administrator for Alaska, made the trip
from Anchorage on the new plane, as did Raymond W. Stough,
director of the Alaska office of the Civil Aeronautics Board. Hop-
62 ALASKA TODAY
pin later became president of Alaska Airlines, succeeding Law.
Alaska Airlines began as McGee Airways in 1932 with one Stin-
son. Operation was in the area adjacent to Anchorage, and in the
Kuskokwim Valley, lower Yukon, and Bristol Bay. By 1935, Mc-
Gee Airways was operating three Stinsons and two Bellanca Pace-
makers. In 1933, Star Airlines was formed, with one Curtis Robin;
and in 1934, Mirror Air Service was organized, covering the Seward
Peninsula and lower Yukon River area. At about the same time, the
Pollack Service came into being, covering the territory adjacent
to Fairbanks. Lavery Airways started in 1938, also covering the
Fairbanks sector.
In 1935 McGee Airways sold out to Star Air Service whose fleet
then totaled fifteen planes. The following spring, Star Air Serv-
ice purchased Alaska Interior Airlines, and in 1937 Star Air Service
became Star Air Lines. The latter was changed to Alaska Airlines
in 1942. During the "grandfather" period of the Civil Aeronautics
Act, Alaska Airlines, Mirror Air Service, Pollack Air Service, and
Lavery Airways operated routes covering all of Alaska north to
the Arctic Circle and west of Valdez. The companies maintained
a fleet of thirty airplanes, serving the needs of every town, trad-
ing post, mining camp, and fish cannery.
Radio stations, fields, and service facilities were constructed at
various points including Fairbanks, Anchorage, and Nome. In 1941,
consolidation of the companies was begun, and Alaska Airlines'
scheduled operations are now conducted over routes from Juneau
through Anchorage to Nome, from Fairbanks through Anchorage
to Homer and Naknek, and from Fairbanks through McGrath to
Bethel. In addition, the company is covering routes radiating from
Nome, Fairbanks, and Bethel, carrying passengers, mail, and ex-
press; and from Naknek, carrying passengers and express.
By the end of the war, freight rates for air transport in Alaska
had been reduced. They were computed on the basis of one-half
the air fares. In other words where a $50 fare was in effect, the
freight was 25 cents a pound for straight air express. For ship-
ments of over 100 pounds on a deferred time basis, the rate was
50 per cent less or 1 2 1 / 2 cents a pound. It was anticipated that at
this rate all perishable goods, and much clothing and machinery
parts, would go by air.
Companies in addition to Pan American and Alaska Airlines,
A COUNTRY ON WINGS 63
operating within the Territory, were the Pacific Northern Airlines
of Anchorage, servicing the Kenai Peninsula, Kodiak, Juneau, and
Bristol Bay; the Wien Alaska Airlines, Inc., pioneer line of Fair-
banks and Nome; Alaska Coastal Airlines; and a score of others.
The rapid spread of airline freight service almost marked the
doom of the West Coast middleman, so far as distribution of perish-
able edibles was concerned, but it paved the way for quick expan-
sion of agriculture.
As important as it is, commercial use of the airplane, in Alaska
is only half the story. The Territory, always keenly air-minded,
now has really taken to the clouds. As peace neared, additional
flying schools were opened and private flying clubs mushroomed.
Girls as well as men rushed to join them. Large groups of young
enthusiasts and a few older ones took to the air as readily as
the Canadian wild geese that annually wing their way between
the Arctic and the south.
Anchorage was first with its "Polar Prop Busters," a carefree
assembly of air-minded amateurs with seasoned fliers on their ad-
visory board. These youngsters, eighty in number, thought, talked,
and rode in the clouds. They made group flights in all types of
planes to points 40 to 300 miles away. Officers announced the pur-
pose of the club: "To stimulate interest in flying; to improve field
conditions and landing facilities; to establish a feeling of unity
among pilots; and in general to better private flying throughout
Alaska." Commercial operators and flight instructors were barred
from holding office in the Prop Busters. But they were eligibile
for the advisory board whose duty, among others, was to impose
fines on members for traffic violations and other boners. The club
took an active part in improving auxiliary airfields so that they
could be used for more than mere emergency land strips.
Other cities organized similar clubs and it is highly probable
that among these youngsters there will be developed other famous
fliers like Jimmy Doolittle, an Alaskan boy, who grew up in Nome.
Alaska has contributed many famous pilots both to commercial
>mpanies and to the Army and Navy. Among her aces in World
r ar II was Griffon Quinten, an Anchorage newsboy who became
a radio operator, then an air cadet. Shortly after the start of the
war, Quinten flew a B-iy across the Atlantic and his completed
missions over Europe won him several decorations. Arnold Lorent-
ALASKA TODAY
f....
To uncover oil reserves in Northern Alaska which might
be available in case of a national petroleum emergency,
Navy Seabees, led by Captain Bart W. Gillespie, CEC,
USNR, set out from Tacoma, Washington, in two ships
loaded with 8,200 long tons of freight, including some of
the world's heaviest construction machinery. Amphibious
landings were made on the northern tips of Point Barrow
and Cape Simpson. (Official U.S. Navy photograph.)
zen had a similar record. Bud Branham came from the woods near
Anchorage and advanced rapidly to a lieutenancy in the Navy for
his work in the Aleutians and in the Barrow Area. Bill Geyser, a
bookkeeper for the Anchorage Daily Times, took three flying les-
sons at Merrill Field. When the war started he joined the Roy a!
Canadian Air Force, transferring to the U.S. Army when the
A COUNTRY ON WINGS 65
United States entered the conflict. For his part in bombing the
Japs out of Kiska he was promoted to major.
Alaska bush pilots were to be found in all parts of the world
with the Air Transport Command and Army Air Corps. In Alaska
they taught Army fliers many tricks of the trade in mastering fly-
ing conditions peculiar to that region. They also learned plenty
themselves.
The present peak of aviation in Alaska stems from the flying of
sourdough or bush pilots. Twenty-five years ago they traveled over
frozen lakes and snow-covered tundras much easier and faster than
dog teams. These venturesome fliers, in antiquated biplanes, landed
in unbelievable places: in dense forests on the sides of icy moun-
tains and on mushy tundra moss, using pontoons in summer and
runners in winter. Any small beach, frozen stream, or lake served
as a finished airport for the bush pilots. Lonely pioneers and pros-
pectors depended on the plane for necessities, comforts, and con-
tact with the outside world. They still do, and the Alaska pilots
never let them down.
The bushers invaded backwoods settlements, carrying news-
papers, food, medicine, ammunition, machinery parts, clothing,
shoes for the baby and occasionally the doctor or midwife. They
maintained these contacts regardless of weather. Fogs over the blue
lakes and along the coast, squalls, williwaws, or blizzards never
daunted them. The names of these daring fliers would fill a book.
There still are many small planes, but the Alaska Aeronautics
and Communication Commission put new rules into effect. The
board called for two-way radio facilities, emergency food and
cooking utensils, matches, a pocket compass, an ax, fishing equip-
ment, a rifle or shotgun and ammunition, signal devices, and, in
areas where the temperature might go below freezing, a sleeping
bag for every three persons, and at least one pair of snowshoes.
The new era is quite different from the old days when some an-
cient crate, patched with wire and cord, used all available space
for freight.
While flying in Alaska today with new airports, beacons, and
weather stations is a far cry from former years, the air currents
and fogs have not changed. Wilderness is all about, and very close
to the large communities. In some localities the grasshopper plane
still prevails and will continue to do so for many a day. But the
Seabees leveling the rough ground on Adak for a landing
field. Work of this kind paved the way for modern trans-
portation facilities on the Aleutians. (Official U.S. Navy
photo.)
helicopter and flying jeep will take the place of the old-timers and
do a better job wherever it is necessary to land and take off on a
dime.
Manufacturers of small private planes, cognizant of the big sales
field in Alaska, have given special attention to the models desirable
there. One of the first small ships manufactured by Taylorcraft
Aviation Corporation is called "Model 15 Alaskan Special." It is
a four-place plane, built primarily for family use, the cabin carry-
ing a pilot, three passengers, and 100 pounds of freight. Operated
on wheels, skis, or floats, it is particularly adapted to the Terri-
tory and is used commercially in feeder-line operations as well as
for pleasure trips.
The Bell helicopter also is popular because of its ability to do
things impossible for any other type of aircraft. It is especially
useful on mercy missions.
66
A COUNTRY ON WINGS 67
Despite the fact that the use of planes is so common, air pas-
sengers rate daily mention in Alaska's press. Often the name of the
pilot is included. The majority of the commercial fliers are young
Alaskans, well known in their home towns. Often a pilot is a mem-
ber of the city council, the chamber of commerce, or he may even
be the mayor.
The Army gave Alaskan aviation a tremendous boost. It pro-
vided money, men, and material in abundance and in a hurry. It
built new airports and quickly altered others to accommodate big
ships. Take-off runs at many airports were lengthened to 4,000
feet, with a width of 500. Thousands of tons of gravel, cinders,
and cement were used to concrete fields that had only turf or gravel
surfaces. A power paver laid a strip 2 1 feet wide by i ,400 feet in
a day. About 50 major landing fields were added, with as many
more small ones.
While it built airports all over the Territory, the Army did par-
ticularly heavy work on the Seward Peninsula in northwestern
Alaska from Nome to the Arctic Ocean. Little was heard of these
airports or of the bases along the Arctic Coast. The importance
of the latter was emphasized by Maj. Gen. Harold H. George,
chief of the Air Transport Command, U.S. Air Forces. He was
proud of the work done by American airmen in the Arctic zones,
where some of the weather stations are so remote that the crews
have to be dropped by parachute.
"When the full story of the ATC can be written," General
George said, "the engineering work done in building major Arc-
tic bases will make construction of the Panama Canal look small."
Farther south in Canada, but still a part of both military and com-
mercial strategy in the Northwest, Canadian Pacific air services
were strongly intrenched at the start of the war. They purchased
feeder lines established by bush pilots, and the line's network em-
ployed one hundred large Lockheed and Douglas transport ships
with a flying and ground personnel of more than a thousand men.
The services controlled an important air transport industry, ac-
counting for millions of pounds of freight in a year.
Shortly after the close of the war, Canadian Pacific Air Lines
started daily (except Sunday) round-trip flights from Edmonton
and from Vancouver to Fairbanks via Whitehorse.
Before Alaska became a combat zone, the United States and
68 ALASKA TODAY
Canada had thousands of men in training for pilots or ground-
work. Postwar activities were still further broadened.
All transport development in Alaska has been advanced by Fed-
eral and Territorial aid as well as by commercial activities. In 1925.
the legislature appropriated a small sum for aviation field construc-
tion and has continued its support, especially where work con-
cerned progress in mining.
Alaska, however, did not encourage the farmer by offering
money to stimulate transport of agricultural products. That was
left to the initiative of commercial companies largely to Alaska
Airlines, at the start.
Not all development of large airports was rush work done by
the Army. Modern fields had been constructed as far back as 1939.
At that time, Marshall C. Hoppin, later Alaska director for the
Civil Aeronautics Administration, went to Alaska with a million
dollars, building good airways from Ketchikan to Juneau and
from Anchorage to Fairbanks. In 1941, the government gave Hop-
pin an order for a large military airport. As manager for the CAA,
he installed still other fields.
The building of an air transportation system was aided by the
Aeronautics and Communication Commission, which made regula-
tions designed to safeguard aircraft and passengers. In one of its
reports the commission said: "Postwar planning places Alaska as
the hub of world aviation operations. The Great Circle route to
Manila, Hong Kong, Calcutta, Bombay, and Tokyo is by way of
Alaska. Technical developments predict a large volume of private
flying in addition to the expansion of commercial air transporta-
tion facilities. We have every reason to expect a great aeronautical
future for Alaska."
CHAPTER 8
Farming
ALASKA, reputedly a nonagricultural country, has rapidly
developed into a promising farming region. Almost everything
raised in the States except corn, semitropical fruits, tobacco, and
cotton thrives in the Great Land. Wheat, oats, barley, and rye
are grown successfully, just as they are in most of the northern
states. Potatoes are usually free of disease. Potato specialists on the
West Coast buy all the Alaska seed potatoes they can get.
Grasses and annual legumes do well. In the north central part
of Alaska, known as the Tanana Valley farm belt, there is virtu-
ally no winter kill of alsike clover because of the feathery snow
cover that remains most of the winter. Vetch and peas do well.
Yellow blossom alfalfa withstands the cold but does not produce
much seed and is not considered a good hay crop.
All parts of Alaska where agriculture is practiced have proved
adaptable to the raising of dairy cattle. The chief drawback has
been the difficulty in curing hay, but this handicap has been over-
emphasized, for with sufficient enterprise it can be overcome. In
the States, methods have been perfected for drying hay in the barn
immediately after it is cut. The hay is chopped and scattered over
wooden or metal casings in which fans, operated by electricity,
dry it in an hour or two. If the weather is good, the hay is left in
the field, cured in the sunshine, stacked and baled. If clouds threaten,
the drying process is performed in the barn. Alaska farmers can do
the same, if they are backed by the agricultural department of the
Territory and by machinery dealers. The majority of Matanuska
Valley farms have electricity. Those that do not could use a kero-
sene motor to operate a hay-drier.
For the prospective Alaskan farmer, the chief consideration is
that there is in Alaska today more agricultural land than in the
ALASKA TODAY
Strawberry vines half as tall as the boy farmer, at V. C.
Spaulding's ranch near Juneau. (U.S. Forest Service photo.)
Scandinavian Peninsula and in Finland, which support about 6,000,-
ooo farmers. Alaska has 300. Furthermore, Alaska's rich alluvial soil,
60 feet deep in some plaices, is newer and more productive than
that of Norway, Sweden, or Finland. It is better than land being
farmed in many parts of the States. Markets are expanding.
Alaska's vegetables exposed to the sun cabbage, lettuce, and
cauliflower are crisp, succulent, and delicious. They grow larger
than in most states. Root crops are also famous for their size.
When the wild bush berries of various kinds, abundant in Alaska,
are domesticated, they attain a size and flavor unsurpassed. Straw-
berries in the Homer area are as large as bantam eggs, meaty and
sweet. Blueberries are a staple native crop as far north as the Arctic
Circle. So are raspberries. Alaska could export enough canned,
frozen, or dehydrated fruit to offset all her imports of semitropical
fruits and juices. Some day the export of berries may pay a part of
Alaska's $6,000,000 liquor bill.
FARMING 71
The importation of $1,000,000 worth of beer annually is un-
called for because barley raised in Alaska will make as fine a beer
as Milwaukee's best. Ketchikan formerly had a good brewery, but
West Coast brewers drove it out of business.
Alaska's advancement in agriculture, like its progress in other
fields, was enhanced by the war. It was simply a case of necessity
being the mother of accomplishment. Since the boats and planes
couldn't carry enough food for the armed forces and civilians, the
farmers got busy. They w r ere inspired by the demand for their
products. The war broke the stranglehold of West Coast commis-
sion merchants on foodstuffs for Alaska and helped the local
farmer prove that he could deliver the goods. He had known it
for fifty years, but Seattle, the guiding spirit of Alaska, had not
been convinced. West Coast merchants had continued to ship to
Alaska great quantities of potatoes, beets, cabbages, and carrots
which grow bigger and better there and in much less time than
in California, Oregon, or Washington.
W T hen the Army and Navy moved in they said to Alaskan farm-
ers, "Let's get going. We need the space on the Seattle boats for
other supplies than food." Local agricultural products trebled the
second year of the war. Then the home folks began to realize just
how delicious Matanuska celery and lettuce really were and are.
The Gargantuan cabbages, cauliflower, and rutabagas were just as
good as the crisp radishes. Fresh Grade A milk began to find a place
in households in which the evaporated product in cans had for-
merly been acceptable.
Many a white lie w r as told by the Alaskan hostess entertaining
"brass hats" when she said, "Oh, of course, we get all our vegetables,
berries, poultry, and eggs right from Palmer!" (Palmer is head-
quarters for the Matanuska farmers Co-op and the Alaska Rural
Rehabilitation Corporation.) Now, don't think the Alaskan house-
wife wasn't loyal to home farmers. She gladly would have patron-
ized the ARRC and the MVFCA (Matanuska Valley Farmers
Co-operative Association), but local agricultural products, like
feminine dancing partners in Alaska, were hard to get.
The Seattle middleman had said to the Alaskan merchant, "Buy
from me the year round, or you don't buy at all." Forced con-
tractual arrangements prevented the Alaskan storekeeper from
patronizing the near-by farmers as much as he would have liked,
72 ALASKA TODAY
especially as the season of productivity in Alaska is short. This hand-
icap has now been largely overcome by increased capacity of cold-
storage and quick-freeze plants which keep perishable vegetables
two or three months.
The use of greenhouse^ for early vegetables has helped, too. At
Ladd Field, the Army's transport and cold weather training sta-
tion near Fairbanks, the fliers built hothouses and raised in a year
more than 10,000 pounds of tomatoes, cucumbers, lettuce, and rad-
ishes. It was not a new idea, for a few Tanana Valley farmers had
been using greenhouses before the Alaska Railroad came through
with tons of canned goods. The hothouse business is one that
Alaska's development board overlooked in its array of announced
opportunities. Wood and native coal are available for operating
greenhouses at reasonable cost.
While the output of potatoes and vegetables was trebled in two
years, production of poultry and meat lagged. It takes longer to
raise a yearling steer or a 3oo-pound hog than it does a 5-pound
turnip, and "short orders" were filled first. Animal husbandry in
Alaska is expanding now, and the yield of dairy products is nearly
double that of 1941. The demand for milk, however, is still about
twice the capacity of Alaska's cows.
Milk has been retailing in Juneau and other Panhandle cities at
25 cents a quart; in Anchorage, at 30 cents. Fairbanks, where prices
generally are higher than in Anchorage, has two large modern
dairies, each equipped to handle eighty cows or more, and bottled
milk delivered to stores has been selling at 30 cents a quart. In
Nome, to which milk is carried from Palmer by plane in paper car-
tons, the retail price is 70 cents a quart.
All this indicates a substantial market for farm products. The
hue and cry falsely raised about the lack of markets in Alaska has
done much to retard settlement by new farmers. But now, with the
West Coast shippers' propaganda exposed, and with the incentive
to meet the demand for home products, Alaskan farmers will say,
"Let's keep going! We helped to meet the war demands for food,
but let's do something more! Let's build and develop our peace-
time farms."
The Northwest Pacific Study, prepared by George Sundborg
after two years of painstaking investigation and issued in 1944,
concludes that Alaska will stand a threefold or fourfold expansion
A native Indian boy at Matanuska with rutabagas about one-
third larger than those grown in the States. (Courtesy
Father Bernard R. Hubbard.)
74 ALASKA TODAY
in farming. Mr. Sundborg and Alaska's agricultural experts con-
cede that the demand in Alaska will continually increase; as the
military personnel departs, they will be replaced by new settlers
and tourists.
Dr. Charles E. Bunnell, president of the University of Alaska,
a land-grant college, concerned with the promotion of agriculture,
wrote in the Alaska Weekly: "A very definite challenge has been
presented to every resident of Alaska. We must know, if we are
willing to pay attention to the facts, that we are not going to be
on the receiving end of an unlimited supply of food produced in
the States . . . for forty-five years the undersigned has been one
of those favored individuals, by reason of his good fortune to be
a resident of Alaska, who has been privileged to buy the very best
food that the Pacific Northwest can produce, of which, saving
such items as liquors and tobaccos, 75 per cent can and ought to
be produced in Alaska.
"It is an economic waste to ship to Alaska what we can produce
for ourselves. If today there were from 100 to 150 more farmers
engaged in diversified farming with the co-operation of the dis-
tributors, there would be no scarcity in Alaska of the hardier
vegetables, the four grains wheat, oats, barley, and rye milk, but-
ter, cheese, ham, bacon, pork, beef, mutton, eggs, and poultry.
"Even though the University of Alaska has met with formidable
opposition in its efforts to secure funds, both Federal and Terri-
torial, with which to extend its efforts to develop agriculture in
Alaska, its duty and its pledge as a land-grant school are to use
every reasonable means at its command to meet the challenge."
Alaska is estimated to contain approximately 41,000,000 acres of
tillable land, with an additional 22,000,000 acres available for sum-
mer grazing. Such a very small part of this area is in use that, with
the most optimistic estimates of possible increase in population-
varying from 100,000 to 5,000,000 in the next decade or two there
is enough potential farm acreage in Alaska to feed them all.
In agriculture, as in climate, geography, and people, there again
appears in Alaska the inevitable division into three parts: central
Alaska; the Alaska Peninsula and adjacent southwestern islands;
and the southeastern archipelago. Central or interior Alaska also
requires a breakdown into three sections. The Tanana Valley, the
largest single sector, comprises roughly 3,840,000 acres of farm-
land. Not one one-hundredth of that area is in use.
FARMING
75
> \ i ..--" i. jmninnuniiui.i
.*OATATS,J, j ---\-'"T ' REGIONS
Climatic conditions in the Tanana Valley more closely approach
those of the north central states than do any other parts of Alaska.
The area has rather light precipitation, varying from 9 to 1 5 inches
in different localities and in different years. The winters are cold
and the summers hot as is generally the case in the main farm belts
in the States. The range in central Alaska, however, may be more
extreme than in the States.
At Fairbanks, the chief market, the mean temperature for Janu-
ary is 1 1 degrees below zero, and for July, 60 degrees above. The
annual total snowfall at Fairbanks averages a little over four feet.
It is a light snow, remaining virtually throughout the season. Win-
ter winds are negligible. What few there are cause no perceptible
drifting. Nor is there alternate thawing and freezing that would
ruin seeding. When spring comes in May, it is spring; not summer
one day, winter the next, and spring the day following.
The Land of the Midnight Sun has extremely long hours of day-
light in spring, summer, and early fall. Not everyone considers,
however, what they mean to the farmer, both from the standpoint
j6 ALASKA TODAY
of maturing crops and of long working hours. One sees in Alaska
no bobbing lights from tractors used at night as he saw in the
States when the farmers were asked to double wartime produc-
tion. In the planting season, the Northland farmer can work a day
or night shift, or both. He can do the same at harvest time. Given
the manpower and modern machinery, Alaska could raise enough
food in one season to sit back and laugh at locusts.
In July the 6o-degree mean temperature in the Fairbanks region
is scarcely representative of the ripening season. There are many
days in July and the first week of August when the thermometer
registers 80 degrees or more. Neither is the 10- or i i-inch precipi-
tation representative of soil conditions. Much of Alaska's uncul-
tivated earth is permanently frozen one or two feet below the sur-
face. When cultivated, it thaws to a depth of from 30 inches to 8
feet, the thawing process providing a subsoil irrigation that takes
the place of overhead precipitation. Most of the rain falls in the
latter part of July and August so that there is scarcely any inter-
ference at planting time. The growing season is from 90 to no
days. The difficulty experienced with moisture in harvest season
is not so noticeable in the Tanana Valley as it is farther south.
To be sure, markets farther south are larger, but Fairbanks is a
rapidly growing city. Ladd Field also is heavily manned. The lo-
cality gets less than half the milk it needs. Local markets consume
all the potatoes, which are the main cash crop. With the installa-
tion of the military post, the production could not meet the de-
mand for potatoes.
In the various available documents on Alaskan agriculture, sel-
dom is a definite conclusion drawn or specific advice given as to
a choice of localities. The man considering Alaska for an agricul-
tural venture is told the facts. Climatic and soil conditions are
thoroughly described, since experiment stations run by expert
agronomists and livestock authorities have been operating for
nearly fifty years. But the prospective agriculturist must also con-
sider many other points, transportation and markets being as im-
portant as density of timber stands, moisture, the growing season,
and the good earth itself. It is suggested that the would-be farmer
look over the field. But it is a rather large field, and if one wanted
to cover it, he would have to plan on a two-year jaunt.
Small grains wheat, barley, oats and rye grow well and could
The "Butte" district, Matanuska Valley, with Pioneer Peak
in the background. The timber line here meets the snow at
1,500 to 3,000 feet. (Courtesy I. M. C. Anderson.)
be raised on a scale large enough to supply other parts of Alaska
now importing concentrates from the States. Reduced Alaska rail-
road rates should make moving of grain practicable. Both mer-
chants and farmers have apparently overlooked the fact that the
Alaska Railroad runs both ways south as well as north and that
if it can bring up four-fifths of Fairbanks' food, from Seward and
Whittier ports, it can carry back potatoes and grain to south cen-
tral Alaska and the coast. Also, Fairbanks -and southeastern Alaska
are now connected by a highway over which grain, hay, and live-
stock could be trucked.
The greater part of the land in the Tanana region is hillside or
old river bottom. The former is preferable for some varieties of
crops, those on the southern slopes maturing readily. The lowlands
77
78 ALASKA TODAY
are productive also, affording good forage when cleared of moss or
willow growth. They are prevailingly sandy but much of the soil,
intermingled with decaying vegetable matter, is fine for grasses. In
general, soils in the Tanana Valley are less acid than those of Mata-
nuska.
It may seem surprising that there has not been more raising of
beef cattle in this area and south of it along the railroad, because
a strong market for meat prevails and a top sirloin steak on the
table in Fairbanks costs $3.50. The butcher pays 27 to 30 cents a
pound for choice carcass beef shipped in. A quarter of local beef
sells for 20 to 25 cents a pound. The answer is lack of manpower
and of the time required to raise beef. Dairying and 60- to po-day
vegetable crops bring quicker returns. In short, farming as a whole
in Alaska is based on the practice of "get it while the getting's
good."
Timber in the Tanana Valley is by no means as heavy as in the
coastal regions. Land can be cleared more readily and less expen-
sively than at Matanuska or on the Kenai Peninsula. Still, there are
enough trees for the farmer's use. In some localities spruce attains
a large size; Fairbanks is able to include lumbering among its in-
dustries. Birch also is plentiful.
Silt loam in the Fairbanks area is distinctly a slope soil. It is con-
sidered the best all-round agricultural soil in interior Alaska, con-
forming closely to that found in Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska,
and Wisconsin. It is well drained, yet retentive of moisture, easy
to cultivate, and productive.
Seeding of oats and barley, used both as grain and forage, is usu-
ally completed before the first of June. The crops are harvested
by September 15. Oats yield from 35 to 60 bushels an acre, with
an average of 45, which is higher than the crop average in Mata-
nuska, and higher than in some of the states. Early varieties of both
oats and barley seeded for grain can be depended on to mature in
ample time. Barley runs about 25 bushels an acre. Certain kinds
of spring wheat also can, be counted on as a safe crop.
The chief hay crop is a mixture of oats and field peas. Yields
on bottom land are from two to three tons. Drying hay in the
Tanana sector is sometimes a slow process, but the cool September
weather prevents mold. The hay has high color and is nutritious
feed for stock. Silage made from peas and oats proves a satisfac-
FARMING
79
Filling silo on the University of Alaska experimental farm
near Fairbanks. (Courtesy Lorin T. Oldroyd.)
tory substitute for corn silage of the States. Cows fed on hay and
silage in winter have maintained an even milk flow.
Even near the Arctic Circle, in the huge valley of the Yukon
River, there is ample evidence that Alaska has as reliable a climate
for legumes as have many of the states. This fact is well known to
George W. Gasser, heading Alaska's first department of agricul-
ture.
Dr. Gasser was dean of men at the University of Alaska and
teacher of agriculture at the college. The ratio consisted of one
boy studying farming to fifty boys studying gold and copper min-
ing. While he was a salesman for a nursery, Dr. Gasser studied agri-
cultural problems in Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado. He was one
of the earlier directors of Alaska's agricultural experiment station
at Rampart, on the Yukon, the town where Rex Beach, Jack Lon-
don, and others founded a literary colony in 1899, after they had
stopped shaking gravel in tin pans in quest of "colors." If they
had stayed in Rampart a year longer, they would have had a good
story about a development of more economic value to Alaska than
the discovery of gold. Alaska's agricultural experiment station was
8o ALASKA TODAY
started at Rampart in 1900; crops similar to those grown in the
northern states thrived.
Kitty Evans, who came from Rampart to be a pupil of Paul E.
Thompson in the native school of Eklutna, wrote about her home
village. Kitty's discussion of agriculture is of particular interest be-
cause Rampart is only 80 miles from the Arctic Circle. She wrote:
"The scenery at Rampart is very pretty, for our little village is
almost entirely surrounded by hills. There once was a government
experiment station across the river, but it is now uninhabited. The
alfalfa and hay still grows in big squares of lavender and yellow,
and these, added to the rose of the fields of fireweed and green trees,
make a colorful picture. Strawberries still grow on the farm and
are picked by the people."
This description was written in 1938. The experiment station
had been abandoned in 1925. Kitty added: "The weather is very
warm in spring and summer, but from November until late March
it is very cold. The coldest weather we have had was 70 degrees
below." (Kitty must have been caught in a blizzard. The January
mean temperature for Rampart is 16.3 degrees below.) She added
that the most interesting thing about her village was the cabin
built by Rex Beach (still standing), but the American farmer, read-
ing her naive account, would be more interested in the "squares
of lavender and yellow" hay blooming thirteen years without re-
seeding. A good cover of snow, with no alternate thawing and
freezing, made this possible.
Dr. Gasser went to Rampart in 1907. It was the most northern
agricultural station on the continent. He experimented with new
varieties of grain obtained from all parts of the northern world,
specializing in those from Scandinavian countries and Siberia. To
say that the greater part of the Alaskan farm belt is similar in cli-
matic conditions to those of Norway and Sweden is an obscure
comparison, meaning little to many American farmers. On the
other hand, Minnesota Swedes and Wisconsin Norwegians know
what is meant. The Danes, too, who are among world's best eaters,
and who know how to raise food, live in a country similar to some
sections of Alaska.
Dr. Gasser also practiced hybridization. A variety of barley,
obtained as a result of his experiments, is the standard in interior
Alaska today. Experiments were carried on with alfalfa and clover,
FARMING
81
Experimental farm at the University of Alaska, at College,
Alaska, near Fairbanks. (Courtesy National Park Service.)
as well as with a variety of grasses. The yellow-flowered Siberian
alfalfa (the pretty yellow flowers that Kitty Evans described), per-
fected at the time of those early experiments, has proved hardy
throughout Alaska even if it is not favored as a hay crop.
In 1921, Dr. Gasser was transferred to the station at College,
near Fairbanks, where he continued his work on grain and pota-
toes. He had established, however, the fact that the Yukon Valley
is a good agricultural belt. The Indians who inhabit these valleys
might have cultivated barley for their beer. But, according to Kitty,
they merely picked the strawberries that also flourished for thir-
teen years!
Long before the press and "slicks" in the magazine field abounded
with stories of the pros and cons of the government's colorful ex-
periment at Matanuska, the Alaska Railroad management, know-
ing that agriculture was no gamble in Alaska, began to finance a
colony of farmers near Anchorage, the seat of the road's interior
traffic. The New Deal has been credited with the great Utopian
\ colony experiment that brought indigent residents of three states
to the Matanuska Valley in 1935. The majority were not farmers
but they were human beings, and the venture did them and Alaska
82 ALASKA TODAY
no harm. Many succumbed to the rigors of pioneer life amid the
towering spruce and tougher birch trees. Space does not permit
rehearsal of the Matanuska farm colony's vicissitudes, but the few
real farmers among the two hundred families from Minnesota, Wis-
consin, and Michigan have prospered and are living in the Mata-
nuska Valley today.
In 1929, six years prior to the government's project, the railroad
initiated a program for farm settlement in the valley. It advertised
in the States for farmers who would come to Alaska for home-
steads, and it offered special inducements of low passenger and
freight rates. A representative in Seattle interviewed 300 farmers,
1 39 of whom migrated to Alaska. Of this group 55 developed home-
steads in the Matanuska area, 5 at Anchorage, 7 at Fairbanks, and i
at Hope on Cook Inlet. The remainder stayed and took up other
work in Alaska.
Most of these settlers, in contrast to those who came later, had
good reputations as farmers. Forty of this original group are still
farming in Alaska, the number being equivalent to that of the gov-
ernment's permanent colonists who had, however, much more aid.
This railroad group operated a co-operative community but when
the Federal colonists came, the first settlers dissolved and joined
forces with the new.
Col. O. F. Ohlson, as manager of the railroad, was chiefly re-
sponsible for the first influx of group agriculturists to Alaska. But
when the Alaska Rural Rehabilitation Corporation was organized
in 1935, the railroad project was swallowed up by the government.
Prior to Colonel Ohlson's group settlement move, some 400 lo-
cations had been made in Kenai Peninsula or just north of it, dat-
ing as far back as 1912. About 170 of these remained on the land
until they received patents, the majority having located in Mata-
nuska Valley or near Anchorage. They are the old-timers who
pioneered on their own, battling raw elements without financial
aid from an agency. Some are still there and celebrate Old Settlers'
Day, while the railroad's pioneers commemorate New Settlers'
Day of the vintage of 1930-1933.
There had been some rivalry among the various settlers, but all
buried the hatchet and joined in the grand anniversary celebration
of May 30, 1945, demonstrating that Matanuska today is the out-
standing farming community in Alaska. The colony played host
to meat-starved Anchorage folk who had greeted the bedraggled
FARMING
The best crop of all a scene at Palmer during the celebra-
tion of the tenth anniversary (May 30, 1945) of the found-
ing of the Matanuska farm colony. The youngsters grouped
near the American flag are real Alaskans, as they are all
ten years or younger. (Courtesy Anchorage Daily Times.)
colonists ten years earlier. The 200 trip-weary families with squall-
ing babies and crying mothers had stopped at Anchorage on their
way to the government colony, and Anchorage men and women
had trooped to the station with sandwiches, hot coffee, and a
friendly "Howdy!" Matanuskans never forgot that welcome.
When they invited Anchorage up to their grand celebration and
barbecue, they killed the fatted calves and steers and did them
up brown with French-fries and all the trimmings.
In the parade opening the ceremonies, a hundred children, all
potential farmers or farmers' wives, from babies in arms up to
sixth-grade youngsters, were in line. The picture was inspiring,
with the American flag, in the breeze of a warm spring day, flying
over enthusiastic tillers of Alaskan soil. Hundreds of their friends
came to acclaim them. This, then, was the Alaska of the future
the forerunner of the day when all the "ifs" and "ands" and "buts"
about farming in Alaska would be only a memory.
The Matanuska Valley, lying south of the great Alaska Range
84 ALASKA TODAY
whose towering mountain chain runs east and west across the
greater part of Alaska, has a milder climate than the Fairbanks re-
gion because it profits by the influences of the coastal region.
Matanuska is 125 miles due north from the coast and hence has
milder and more moist winters than that part of Alaska removed
from the coast. The January mean temperature at Matanuska is
1 1.9 degrees above zero; July is 58.4 degrees. Precipitation is light,
only about 5 inches greater than in the Tanana Valley. As in the
latter locality, most of it falls late in July, August, and September.
The growing season is from 10 to 20 days longer than in the Tanana
Valley.
Matanuska lacks the crisp clear days of the region north of the
Alaska Range. With more cloudiness, farmers experience more dif-
ficulty in curing hay. They overcome this, largely by poling the
hay in the field. That is, stakes with spikes through them are driven
into the ground so that the spikes are about 18 inches above the
surface. The hay settles down over the spikes but does not come
in contact with the earth, and air circulates through the mows,
preventing mold. This practice proves satisfactory but involves
considerable manual labor.
Most farmers in Matanuska Valley raise all their winter rough-
age and 60 per cent of their concentrates. They could produce all
of the latter they needed, except for the time element; the produc-
tion of potatoes and the succulent vegetables that the valley readily
yields proves more profitable than grain crops. Dairying, also, is of
prime importance, necessarily taking time from field work.
The Matanuska Valley Farmers Co-operative Association is a
full-fledged going concern at Palmer, a town of 2,500 population.
It operates a creamery, a community store, and a storage cellar for
sorted and graded' vegetables. Most of the Co-op's members have
modern electrically lighted barns with cement floors and all the
facilities for producing Grade A milk, for which they receive $7.20
a hundredweight on the basis of 4 per cent butter fat content. A
modern i ,ooo-gallon tank truck takes the milk to Anchorage, forty-
eight miles south on a good highway, where it is pasteurized and
bottled for store sales.
- Approximately 50 farmers in the valley do not belong to the
Co-op, preferring to operate independently, but it is generally
conceded that there is no more efficient farmers' co-operative any-
FARMING
A typical Rural Rehabilitation Corporation cabin built by
the colonists in 1935. Land for such pioneering effort is still
available. (Courtesy Father Bernard R. Hubbard.)
where. The Alaska Rural Rehabilitation Corporation, while it con-
trols the leases and sales of land, is not much more than a real
estate agency and bank so far as management of the colony is con-
cerned. It also rents machinery for clearing land.
The agricultural experiment station at Matanuska is under the
general direction of the university's experimental and extension
service, of which Lorin T. Oldroyd is the director. The agronomist
in charge continues experiments with grasses and legumes, fertili-
zers, silage, and domestication of Alaska's wonderful wild berries,
but the Co-op now has a county agent of its own, who tests land
for acidity and offers gratuitous advice to which the average ex-
perienced farmer merely listens politely.
There are about 8,000 acres under cultivation in the valley. No
more land in the immediate area is open for homesteading, but oc-
casionally there are farms for sale, both by the ARRC and by the
individual settlers. Some 6,000 acres west of the government colony
86 ALASKA TODAY
were opened f or settlement in 1945, and by November a large part
had been taken by ex-servicemen. Prices of settled farms, varying
according to the acreage cleared and the improvements, are from
$10 to $75 an acre. Inasmuch as Matanuska now is producing and
selling well above $ i ,000,000 worth of dairy products, meat, poul-
try, eggs, and vegetables in contrast to $150,000 in 1941, the top
price quoted for good farms is reasonable.
Crop failure because of drought is unknown in the valley. Plant-
ing is usually started the latter part of April and completed in May
or the first week of June, approximately two weeks earlier than in
the Tanana Valley. Harvesting of grain and hay is begun in Au-
gust and finished in September.
The Matanuska winters are not nearly so severe as those in North
Dakota or Minnesota, and they are milder than in almost any of the
north central states. There are rather strong winds, and snow cover
is not as reliable as farther north. Most of the Matanuska soil is
silt loam to loam in texture. Applications of barnyard and commer-
cial fertilizers are used, but to a lesser degree because the land is
newer than in many areas of the States. Another good agricultural
belt is the strip of land along Cook Inlet on the Kenai Peninsula.
Homer is its chief town.
Skipping the second division of Alaska's agricultural area
Kodiak and other islands and reserving them for a discussion of
livestock for which the islands are best suited, it will now be well
to consider southeastern Alaska, or the coastal region. Farms in this
section are small 5 to 40 acres with very little land under cultiva-
tion. Except for the flats or river deltas, most of the area is heavily
timbered in spruce and cedar. Small fruits and cranberries are cul-
tivated as well as vegetables and thrive in abundance in the mild
and very moist climate.
This part of Alaska, aside from its fisheries, is primarily a lumber-
ing and mining district. It is also sprinkled with fur farms whose
owners combine minor agriculture with ranching and fishing. But
what few cattle there are in the sector are pictures of health. They
look like the "contented cows" of the roadside murals.
At least one-third of Alaska's white population lives in this long
narrow coastal belt, composed of one island after another. Juneau,
north of the center of the Panhandle, is the largest city. Other
localities for marketing dairy and farm produce are Petersburg,
FARMING
A garden patch on V. C. Spaulding's ranch on Auke Bay,
near Juneau. (U.S. Forest Service photo.)
Wrangell, Sitka, Skagway, Craig, Hydaburg, Kake, Klawock, and
Ketchikan. This section is far removed from the main farm belts.
Transportation, except by boat, is so roundabout and difficult that
it has been impracticable to move agricultural products from the
central farm belts.
Although suitable level land in southeastern Alaska is limited,
and precipitation is unusually heavy, small farmers and truck gar-
deners prosper. Poultry farms and dairying, especially, are success-
fully managed near the town centers. Luxuriant native grasses on
the tidewater flats afford fine pasturage. Some meadows are seeded
to tame hay, but persistent rains make curing of hay really haz-
ardous. Small dairies that raise approximately 40 per cent of their
winter feed can afford to buy the remainder from Seattle. Boat
transportation ties with the States exist the year around, for Alaska's
beautiful Inside Passage is never ice-clogged.
Imported hay will cost the Panhandle dairyman $70 a ton or
88 ALASKA TODAY
more. Freight rates to Ketchikan (750 miles by boat) have been
$9 a ton; to Juneau, $10; and to Sitka or Skagway, $i i. Wharfage
and handling charges at both ends add about $4 to these costs.
Since the climate permits cows to be pastured from five to six
months, sometimes longer, and as fresh milk cannot be successfully
imported from the States, expansion of dairying in southeastern
Alaska is very possible. With the high cost of both hay and con-
centrates, however, the cows must be excellent producers if dairy
ventures are to pay. Dairies near Juneau have progressed so far
as to have a modern co-operative plant for pasteurizing and bot-
tling milk. They also supply ice cream to southeastern Alaska.
Aside from the recognized farm belts, valleys of the Yukon and
Kuskokwim Rivers contain thousands of acres of fine agricultural
land. But they are too far removed from present markets for the
newcomer to consider. Several hundred miles down the Yukon
from Rampart, the Catholic Mission at Holy Cross has a dairy and
truck garden, profitably conducted for years. Winter feed for the
cows is obtained from native grasses and cultivated crops. No feed
is imported.
Athapascan Indians who inhabit these interior regions, as well
as the Eskimos on the lower Kuskokwim, might use a hoe and a
spade to good advantage, but they would rather hunt and fish.
They exchange their spoils for canned food and the wherewithal
for home-brew. John W. Neihardt, director of information for
the U.S. Indian Service, headquarters in Chicago, can tell of many
farm projects by which Indians in the States have arrived at a fine
economy through modern methods of growing and harvesting
grain and the breeding of good meat on the hoof. But that is an-
other story.
CHAPTER 9
Green Pastures
RED MEAT and red liquor unquestionably are held in
high esteem in Alaska. Commerce figures sustain that statement,
showing heavy imports of both. A check by the Internal Revenue
Department on Alaskans' fondness for alcoholic drinks establishes
that more whiskey is consumed per capita in the Territory than in
any other division of the United States. Ella D. Smith of Juneau
who, as chairman of the legislative committee of Alaska's Federa-
tion of Women's Clubs, delved into the matter, goes further, re-
porting that Alaska consumes eight times more liquor per capita
than any other place in the world. There is agitation for more Ter-
ritorial control of liquor sales. So far as the tax is concerned, it has
about reached the saturation point, the last legislature having
boosted it from $ i to $ i .60 a gallon. Some criticized this move as
an attempt to collect minor sums from a molehill while ignoring
a mountain of revenue from salmon and gold.
At most, the liquor issue in Alaska is secondary to the problem of
red meat. What the Territory really needs is an import tax on sir-
loin steaks. High and low, Alaskans are big meat eaters. They have
been importing around $4,000,000 in meats and poultry products
annually. West Coast shippers have grown rich while the live-
stock industry in Alaska stagnates.
The Territory's lush grass and sedges cannot be surpassed as green
feed for cattle and sheep. But except for meat bought by Army and
Navy posts on Kodiak Island, it is doubtful if livestock raisers in
Alaska do $250,000 worth of business in a biennium. The Army and
Navy buy some reindeer meat, civilians but little.
There are some wild cattle on Chirikof Island, off the south coast
of the Alaska Peninsula. They have taken care of themselves since
1886 when two Holsteins two Jerseys, and two Shorthorns, plus a
8 9 '
9 o
ALASKA TODAY
Shorthorn bull were landed by an overloaded whaling vessel. Ac-
cording to I. M. C. Anderson, livestock expert and principal area
supervisor for the Farm Security Administration in Alaska, this
small herd has multiplied into one of approximately 2,000. The
cattle have had no feed but native grasses, nor have they had any
artificial shelter. The island has rough terrain; it lacks sheltered bays,
making it difficult for boats to land. A stockman, Jack McCord of
Kodiak, leases the island which obviously affords fine pasturage.
From time to time, some of the cattle, now much smaller in build
than the original stock, have been killed by fishermen or natives
merely for local use of their meat. Chirikof Island is one of many
south of the Peninsula where similar conditions as to climate and
natural feed prevail. These islands, including Kodiak and Afognak,
are Alaska's "green pastures" where a beef and sheep industry of
good proportions could be developed. Kodiak Island, much larger
than the others, is especially well adapted to livestock raising.
"Beach rye," a sturdy nutritious native grass, is available the year
round for grazing.
Shropshire sheep on a farm in the Matanuska Valley.
(Courtesy I. M. C. Anderson.)
Dairy cattle grazing on grass flats in the shadow of Men-
denhall Glacier, 1 2 miles from Juneau. Any farmer will rec-
ognize that these cows are in fine condition. These two
farms are not in the established agricultural belts, but both
are successfully operated. (U.S. Forest Service photo.)
E. E. Ball conducts the largest dairy in Alaska on Kodiak Island.
He maintains a hundred cows and supplies milk to the town, the
naval base at Woman's Bay, and to the Army post at Fort Greely.
Ball imports some feed, but his cows live chiefly on native grasses
and can be grazed twelve months of the year. Hay for feed is cut
in March and April as a safeguard against late snows, but snowfall
on Kodiak and islands to the south of it is negligible.
Formerly, cattle near the town of Kodiak had free run; it was
not an uncommon sight to see a contented bull scratching his back
against the corner of the village bank, but an ordinance passed after
incorporation of the village deprived them of this privilege. Kodiak
residents have no fear of bulls, having to contend with fiercer ani-
mals in the Kodiak brown bears which are anything but a boon to
livestock culture in Alaska.
According to breeders, losses of beef cattle from attacks by bears
have been severe, despite reports of the Fish and Wildlife Service
to the contrary. Several pioneer cattle men Tom Felton, Sid Olds,
Tom Nelson, and the Wingfield brothers who have tried to build
91
92 ALASKA TODAY
up a commercial livestock business on Kodiak have lost from 5 to
20 head each season for six years. In one year Felton lost 26 Here-
fords of a herd of 101. Breeders from the States, cognizant of the
expanded market in Alaska, recently investigated possibilities for
an enlarged cattle industry on Kodiak. Among these was Amos
Lafron of Silver City, New Mexico, who decided that feed and
climatic conditions were ideal, but that until the depredations of
the brown bears were checked it would be fatal to attempt ranch-
ing on a large scale.
The Kodiak brown bears are an attraction to sportsmen, and
some Alaskans feel that as such they should be protected at all costs.
But there are vast areas in Alaska where bears can prosper while
cattle cannot. The consensus is that it is a shortsighted economic
policy to protect the huge carnivorous animals in a region eminently
adapted to livestock raising.
On the Aleutians, which are free of bears, there are approximately
5,000 sheep; the Aleutian Livestock Company of Ogden, Utah, has
about 2,000 head on Umnak Island. A similar number are grazed
on Unalaska Island. About 1,700 pounds of wool were shipped re-
cently from Chernofski on Unalaska to the Pendleon Woolen Mills
in Oregon. The Chernofski sheep average 1 3 pounds of wool a head.
They are sheared by Aleut laborers, but are unherded. They graze
throughout the year, controlled only by cross fences and natural
barriers. There are no trees on the island, but green grass grows
all the year; the weather is mild and snowfall infrequent. H. D.
Catron and his wife, who went to Chernofski in 1943 to superin-
tend the herd, have been successful and plan to stay indefinitely.
They have a comfortable home, a garden, trout from their fish
traps, and milk and butter from a herd of cattle which they tend.
Such ventures are proof that Alaska holds possibilities for pro-
motion of livestock industries, particularly with the steady im-
provement in cold-storage facilities and air transportation.
The armed forces on half a dozen of the Aleutian Islands were
interested in the propagation of livestock on a small scale, and their
efforts were successful. The Navy shipped food lockers and re-
frigerator units to the principal installations, and both sheep and
cattle are bred by the remaining G.I.'s.
Much of the soil is sour, but it responds to lime and fertilizer. The
latter is obtained from the sea brown kelp, or seaweed that decays
quickly and mixes with the earth with beneficial results. Lime
Aleutian sheep carcasses are butchered by band saw. Ma-
chinery is used wherever possible. (U.S. Navy photograph.)
may be obtained by crushing clam shells taken from the beaches.
While the Aleutians have been pictured as barren wastes, much
of the vegetation is luxurious and nutritious for livestock. Wild
flowers are seen everywhere. Sheep raisers have suffered losses from
the cold after shearing, but adequate shelter is all that is necessary
to offset that difficulty. Shelter has been supplied by many of the
structures built by the Seabees, including the Quonset huts. There
seems little doubt that with adequate transportation the Aleutians,
the Shumagins, and scores of other islands such as Sitkalidak and
Afognak will prove valuable for raising cattle and sheep on a much
larger scale.
Thousands of acres on the mainland, in addition to those in the
cultivated farm areas, are suitable for summer grazing. A small Gal-
loway herd was raised at the Kenai agricultural station years ago; it
did well on native grass which was also used for hay to carry it
through the winter. After a year, the cattle were removed to the
93
m
Adak Island in the Aleutians, where the late President
Roosevelt admired the lush grass and tasted the soil, pro-
nouncing it good for pasture. (U.S. Navy photograph.)
station at Kodiak because of poor transportation facilities on the
peninsula. Beef cattle driven up the Richardson Highway from
Valdez to Fairbanks remained in fine flesh, even gained weight en
route. The stockman who tried this venture intended to carry the
cattle through the winter, fattening them in Fairbanks, but a meat
shortage caused by a strike on the Alaska Steamship Company
prompted him to sell the animals at a good profit.
The Dunbar region between Fairbanks and McKinley National
Park is good cattle country. So is the Big Delta area on the Alaska
Highway, 100 miles south of Fairbanks. The foothills of the Tal-
keetna Mountains just north of Matanuska have a fine stand of
native grass and sedges roughage that a good Whiteface herd or
sheep would prosper on. The summer feed is there, but now it is
used only by wild Dall sheep and goats.
Much of interior Alaska north from Anchorage to Fairbanks
along the railroad belt is good for beef cattle or sheep ranches, and
some of the land can be homesteaded. While the law allows only
1 60 acres to one person, two families uniting in a project could get
320 acres, which would be a fairly good-sized area for base opera-
94
GREEN PASTURES 95
tions. Beyond that area, sheep or cattle could be grazed on public
domain. The distance from Seattle to interior centers 1,700 miles
to Anchorage and 2,055 niiles to Fairbanks with the high freight
on refrigerated fresh meat, would act as a protective tariff in favor
of the local producer. The region has a considerable population,
and a growing one. Even before defense activities in 1939, nearly
$500,000 worth of fresh meat was imported into the railroad belt
from the States each year. Increased settlement and industry, and
probable permanent occupancy of the more important Army bases,
means a consumption of fresh meat in the area far above this figure.
According to B. Frank Heintzleman, commissioner in Alaska for
the Department of Agriculture, interested stockmen would do
well to study the upper Cook Inlet-Matanuska region and the
Tanana Valley around Fairbanks, or south of it, as prospective loca-
tions for cattle or sheep ranches. Lands needed for summer grazing
in the mountains can be selected by the rancher and in the absence
of conflicting uses he will be given a twenty-year lease for their
seasonal use.
Farmers in the Matanuska Valley carry only about a hundred
head of beef cattle and, as noted, the Tanana Valley farmers to date
have found dairying too profitable to venture into beef production.
They have need of all the winter feed they can raise to maintain
their dairy herds. As in the States, a really successful rancher has
to devote himself to beef cattle alone. Whether Alaska is or is not
to be a cow country is not a question of feed but of willingness of
stockmen with some capital to take hold, keeping in mind that ap-
proximately $4,000,000 in meat imports is "something to shoot at."
Dr. Gasser's new Territorial department of agriculture may be
of help. It has barely taken hold and thus far has not had much
legislative support. The schools could aid by promoting the interest
of youngsters in livestock. The 4-H Club work, carried on through
the Agricultural Extension Service, is not neglected, but it runs
more to home economics, vegetable and flower gardening, and can-
ning, than it does to the raising of Hereford calves or Chester White
barrows. Lorin Oldroyd has had some success in making Alaskan
youths poultry-minded. The shipments of baby chicks to the Ter-
ritory last spring and summer were nearly double the 1944 amount.
But Alaskans really crave thick steaks or any meat that is red
and lusty. The way to get it, without paying twice what it is worth,
is to raise it.
CHAPTER 10
Cash Crop No.
THE TIME is not far off when Alaska will offer to tourists
winter attractions like those at Lake Placid or Sun Valley. Whib
the late fall and winter days are short, they are long enough for
the enjoyment of many outdoor sports; and those who have lived
in Alaska know that there are times when the air is crisp and clear,
as delightful as in early spring or summer. This is true not only of
the southeast archipelago, but of the interior within the north tem-
perate zone. Winter sports skiing, skating, sleighing, and hiking
are unsurpassed, and many people who love the rugged life of a
midwinter outing eventually will turn to the Great Land.
Resumption of sled dog derbies already has added stimulus to
winter attractions, and the development of some of the Territory's
hot springs is under way. In addition to lodges and ski cabins, there
is ample opportunity for modern hotels, offering quiet forms of
relaxation within doors as well as virile outdoor sports. Natural
vapor baths after a thrilling slide down a mountain over corn snow,
a cocktail, and dancing to a big-name orchestra would give Alaska
a reputation in the tourist world. But until such resorts are built
as they will be it is wiser to concentrate on the current attrac-
tions.
Anyone who has seen much of nature's handiwork as a scenic
artist will concede Alaska to be the big show. The Alps, the deserts,
the jungles of the Nile or Amazon,* the winding footpaths of An-
dalusia, and the bridge of San Luis have appeased the wanderlust
of millions. Still they must bow to the Northland, for it combines
the lures of various far horizons and adds something more of its
own. Reindeer and caribou in Alaska, roaming over thousands of
acres of wild tundra, are as fascinating as camels in the Sahara. A
herd of buffalo grazing near the Alaska Highway will excite the
9 6
CASH CROP NO. I
97
The Alaska steaming through the Wrangell Narrows in the
beautiful Inside Passage, en route from Seattle to Seward.
(Courtesy Alaska Steamship Co.)
urban visitor as much as a band of elephants in the Egyptian Sudan.
Alaska offers almost everything but boa constrictors; there is hardly
a snake in all her vast expanse.
The Great Land is a place of never-ending contrasts and
peculiarities. In Fairbanks, sweet peas grow to a height of 12 or
15 feet tall enough to bury a cottage. Pansies are as big as small
saucers. But in the Aleutians asters are not much larger than daisies.
The islands, however, have a great variety of flora and from July
to early September are aflame with color. The purple-blue lupine
and narcissus are particularly beautiful. All Alaska is a paradise to
the botanist and naturalist. Scenery and wild life satisfy the long-
ings of the most avid camera fan.
And Alaska is not averse to cashing in on nature's lavish gifts.
She receives the tourist and sportsman with open palm. She knows
that those who come to view her amazing scenery glaciers, snow-
98 ALASKA TODAY
capped mountains, evergreen forests, clear streams, lakes and rare
wild life leave a trail of gold and silver that remains. It is not for-
warded to absentee capitalists as are profits from a billion salmon
and the wealth of mines. By boat and plane, in ever-increasing num-
bers, lovers of the primitive and bizarre are finding the goal of their
dreams in America's last frontier. Already a stream of autoists are
following the new highways directly to Russia's back door.
Most vacationists still prefer the steamers that ply the winding
mountain-bordered sea lanes of the beautiful Inside Passage, a
voyage as enchanting as the scenic splendors farther north. The trip
from Seattle or the Middle West in fast-flying clippers is fine for
those who have limited time and many Alaskan commuters use the
airlines. But when they have the time they never tire of the mystic
isles, fiords, and narrow channels of the steamer routes.
Anyone going to Alaska for the first time should take the boat.
From the air one sees only the contour of the country; the full
beauty cannot be grasped. After landing at Ketchikan, first port
of call, Seward on Resurrection Bay, or at Whittier, the new port
in Prince William Sound, the ride over the Alaska Railroad in new
de luxe parlor cars is a second worth-while treat. But first comes
the metropolis of far southeastern Alaska, only 662 miles from
Seattle. Some tourists never get any farther than this alluring land
of virgin forest, myriad islands, abundant fish and game, and the
mysticism of Indian legend.
KETCHIKAN
After about two days' sailing through Canadian waters of the
Inside Passage, your steamer crosses Dixon Entrance. You're in
Alaska! You follow Revillagigedo Channel past Boca de Quadra
and Mary Island once the first stop in Alaskan waters past An-
nette and several lesser islands, and dock at Ketchikan on Revil-
lagigedo Island.
Ketchikan straggles for miles along Tongass Narrows, backed
by steep forested hillsides. Its main business and shopping district
is confined to a relatively small downtown section. Miles of salmon
canneries, marine ways, machine works, and corner groceries crowd
homes along the main waterfront street. The permanent population
Ketchikan, known as Alaska's "first city" because it is the
first stop for the West Coast boats plying the Inside Passage,
is one of the Territory's most progressive industrial cities.
(Courtesy Alaska Steamship Co.)
is 6,000, plus i ,000 transient workers in the fishing season. Included
in the city's trading area are the 10,000 persons of Hydaburg, Craig,
Klawak, Metlakatla, and other towns, predominantly fishing
centers.
The docks lining the city's waterfront can accommodate the
largest ocean-going vessels. Two mooring basins for small craft
are home port for the larger part of southeastern Alaska's fishing
fleet. When the fleet is in, it is interesting to see Thomas Basin with
its forest of masts and trolling poles rising from the little many-
colored gasboats. Tongass Highway, a smooth gravel road, extends
19 miles north and 9 miles south of the city. Year-round homes
and summer cottages are scattered along the highway. A short dis-
tance south of town is the U.S. Coast Guard Base. Bus service con-
nects suburban residential areas with Ketchikan. Some fishermen's
99
100 ALASKA TODAY
homes and a few small ranches are built on Pennock and Gravina
Islands across the Narrows.
The "first city" has never been a boom town, but has continued
to grow steadily since it was incorporated in 1900, fifteen years
before Anchorage was born. Fishing is foremost in Ketchikan, and
Ketchikan is foremost in fishing, being the salmon capital of the
world. The lumber industry ranks second, the town having been
the headquarters of the recent Alaska Spruce Logging Program,
in which 85,000,000 board feet of lumber were cut hastily from
Alaska's green forests, for the manufacture of war planes. The
Ketchikan Spruce Mills, one of the best equipped sawmills in
Alaska, cuts 200,000 feet of lumber a day. It has branches in An-
chorage and Fairbanks.
Although fishing is the lifeblood of Ketchikan, two-thirds of the
population engage in other enterprises. There are 3 3 manufacturing
firms, more actual productive enterprises than in all other Alaskan
towns combined, and 120 retail establishments, with annual receipts
of $3,000,000.
Ketchikan has three hotels, thirteen churches, two theaters, two
daily newspapers, the Daily Alaska Fishing News and the Ketchi-
kan Chronicle. The Alaska Sportsman, a magazine of international
circulation, is published in Ketchikan. The Fishery Products
Laboratory, a joint enterprise of the Federal and Territorial gov-
ernments, is devoted to research in new products of the sea and in
new methods of processing fish.
Water, telephone, and power services are municipally owned.
A building program at Beaver Falls is under way to accommodate
increasing demand for power. Most homes use electricity for cook-
ing, and some for heating, the rates being far below those in the
States.
A high school and two grade schools provide for 821 pupils,
and a Native Service school accommodates Indian children. A
modern public library houses a good collection of books. The
Catholic-operated General Hospital with a hundred beds and six
doctors, three dentists, and a Territorial Health Center serve the
medical needs of the city and its trading area. Social life is carried
on at a high pitch by various clubs, lodges, and fraternal organ-
izations.
Interesting to newcomers are the many stairways to homes
The U.S. Forest Service was instrumental in rejuvenating
Alaska's famed totem poles which are supposed to chron-
icle the family history of Indians in the southeastern Pan-
handle. These weird relics of native culture, in Ketchikan
City Park, constitute an important tourist attraction. Both
Governor Gruening and former Secretary of the Interior
Harold L. Ickes backed the move for revival of the totems.
102
ALASKA TODAY
perched high on hills or apparently on the brink of a sheer cliff.
One wonders how he could move a piano into such a house or how
the house got there! Boardwalks and planked streets of former
days have been replaced for the most part, by cement sidewalks
and paving.
Running almost through the heart of the town is Ketchikan
Creek, which most inlanders would class as a river. Four blocks
from the main steamer docks, tourists may watch thousands of
salmon swimming up the creek to spawn, and leaping the pre-
cipitous falls. In the various seasons this creek is literally alive with
trout rainbows, Dolly Vardens, and steelheads.
A few blocks farther up the stream is the City Park, a beauty
spot of wide green lawns, little rippling brooks, a wading pool,
well-kept flower gardens, tennis and archery courts, baseball dia-
mond, and totem poles of historic interest "leased" from the Haida
tribe on Prince of Wales Island.
Saxman, 2 miles south of town, is a Tlingit Indian village of
600 population, interesting to tourists because it is the site of the
It takes only a few hours to land a mess of gamy rainbow
trout like these. It's the fault of the fisherman in the Ketchi-
kan area if he doesn't pull 'em in 14 to 20 inches long.
Petersburg, one of the principal fishing towns in southeast
Alaska, is also the home of the experimental fur-ranching
farm of the Alaska Game Commission. (Courtesy Alaska
Steamship Co.^
largest totem pole collection in the world. At Mud Bight, 1 1 miles
north of town, are other fine totems and an authentic reproduction
of a Haida community house.
About 1 6 miles south of Ketchikan on Annette Island, site of the
famous Metlakatla colony, is the Army-built landing field which
serves Pan American as its nearest stop to Ketchikan. Passengers
are carried to and from the city by yachts or on Ellis Airlines float
planes. Ketchikan is planning to build an airport nearer town.
The city urges new settlers to start small industries in wood
manufacturing, ceramics, souvenir manufacturing, specialty sea
food products, garden truck, berry, and dairy farms, tourist lodges
and camps, and cruise services for visitors.
Ketchikan is not only the first port of call, but the "first city"
in point of rainfall. Loyal residents, however, boast of the pre-
cipitation, and tell you that it is responsible for the valuable salmon
industry, the luxurious forest growths, and the abundance of water
power.
Nor will the sports-seeking hunter or fishermen, who are the
104 ALASKA TODAY
chief stopover visitors, decry the moisture. For here is the fisher-
man's paradise. The heavy rains fall mostly in the late fall, winter,
and early spring. In May, June, July, and August, old Sol runs
Jupiter and his storm clouds a close race. In spring an abundance
of water, fresh and cold, flows down the evergreen clad slopes,
forming fast streams and clear lakes. As every angler knows, swift
streams afford the best sport.
Rainbow, cutthroat, steelhead, eastern brook, and Dolly Var-
den trout can be caught a few miles from Ketchikan. Within three
hours from town by boat is the best steelhead fishing in Alaska.
Thirty minutes by plane takes the angler to Wilson, Mirror, Or-
chard, Reflection, or any one of a dozen other lakes, some accessible
only by air. If the fisherman does not land his quota of fine cut-
throats within two hours, it is no one's fault but his own.
The trout most common to southeastern Alaska are the cutthroat
and Dolly Varden, but near Ketchikan the larger streams and lakes
offer limited catches of rainbows. If one's technique is up to par,
he can land them in lengths up to 24 inches.
The Dolly comes up the streams in early summer and waits for
the salmon runs. One can see them, in schools of literally hundreds,
lying in deep pools or at the bars of stream outlets. Local sports-
men regard the Dolly as a nuisance and seek gamer varieties, but
the cold-water specie are firm-fleshed, good eating, and game
enough for a thrill. The only restrictions are a limit of 20 fish a
day, or 15 pounds and an additional fish. If you have caught 14
pounds of trout and then hooked a lo-pounder, you can land him
with immunity. Possession limit is two bags daily.
Though Alaska's native fish are among the finest in the world
from the sportsman's point of view, Ketchikan imported seedlings
of the East's most famous catch the eastern brook. The Fish and
Wildlife Service stocked the streams and landlocked lakes near
Ketchikan with this smaller but tricky trout. The fingerlings were
raised in a hatchery near town and transported two years later to
the cold mountain waters.
As in most areas, late spring, summer, and early fall are the best
times for trout fishing. The short summer nights at this latitude
(55 20') give the angler a long day. Fishing parties frequently set
out Saturday nights for their favorite grounds, reach the streams
at dawn two or three o'clock and catch a mess of pan trout for
KETGHIKAN
RECREATION AREA
^~ TONGASS MrOMWAV
IO6 ALASKA TODAY
breakfast. After a full day of fishing, sight-seeing, and picture-
taking, they return home weary but happy in the late evening
twilight.
Fishing trips by plane are enjoyable, with the green hills, little
clear lakes, and salt-water arms slipping rapidly away, but the trip
by small boat is the one the sportsman will always remember the
"mug-up" in the galley as one leaves town; the short night in
a sleeping bag with the comforting throb of the gas motor pulsing
in your ears as you stretch out in a bunk or on deck under the stars.
If you really love the outdoors, this is the life; hitting the upstream
trail while the early morning light barely filters through the spruces;
the camaraderie of the "gang" cooking and eating in the galley;
these things take you away from your troubles, linger in your hap-
piest memories.
Fishing methods are much the same as elsewhere. Early in the
season, bait fishermen use salmon eggs either with or without
spinners, or fish belly, or any of a dozen artificial lures. Flies are
always in season, the black gnat, coachman, royal coachman, brown
hackle, parmacheene belle, cow dung, grayhackle, professor, and
dusty miller being the most popular.
The strike and reel-stripping runs of king salmon, prize game
fish of the Great Land, can nowhere be sought to better advantage
than near Ketchikan. King, spring, chinook, tyee by whatever
name he is known this salmon is king along the Pacific Coast from
California to the Bering Sea.
Salmon trollers take their outboards or small cruisers to Moun-
tain Point, south of town, or to Ward Cove and Clover Pass, to the
north, where the big kings run. On almost any evening in May and
June, someone brings in a 35- or 4o-pounder. Milton Atkinson's
62-pounder was the prize trophy for 1945. King fishermen use plugs,
herring strips, or metal lures; the egg wobbler, limper, and Mac-
Mahon are the best producers.
Late July, August, and early September bring in the smaller
but gamy coho, or silver salmon, which runs from 8 to 20 pounds
and which prefers the metal spoon.
Among Alaska's top fishermen, never affected by a shortage in
tackle, are the bears. Almost anywhere along a lake or stream one
is likely to see a black bear intent on snatching his dinner. If the
wind is right, you may approach close enough to get moving pic-
CASH CROP NO. I 107
tures. And you will be in no danger, for the instant he sees or
smells you the black bear will be off like a shot!
Sea gulls follow the salmon up the streams in milling, screaming
flocks; the avaricious bald eagle hovers near; occasionally a mink,
marten, or land otter will slip up and steal your catch right out
from under your nose. Hair seals come into the lagoons to gorge
themselves on salmon, and since there's a $3 bounty on these
predatory seals, the fisherman can sometimes manage a little profit-
able target practice. The diversion offered by these native creatures
in primitive regions is not found in the States and adds immeasur-
ably to the thrill of an outing.
For the hunter, the entire region abounds with little Sitka black-
tailed deer, black bears, ptarmigan, grouse, ducks, and geese. Rud-
yerd Bay, Walker Cove, and Ship Mountain on Cleveland Penin-
sula are famous for goats, most of the mainland for grizzly bears,
the Chickamin and Unuk River valleys for moose.
Whether one wants to fish or hunt, or just see and take pictures,
he should arrange a trip around Revillagigedo Island. Traveling up
Behm Canal one will see New Eddystone Rock, a picturesque
volcanic formation rising in a column straight from midchannel to
230 feet; rivaling Yosemite in their grandeur, the sheer purple cliffs
of Rudyerd Bay and Walker Cove tower 3,000 feet and ribbons of
water catapult from the brink into the blue-green water below;
Chickamin and Unuk Rivers, whose silt-laden waters flow directly
from one of the world's largest glaciers; Bell Island, where hot
mineral springs bubble out of the ground a few steps from a cold,
clear, trout stream; and other wonders of nature that you could
visit time and again without wearying of them.
Such is Ketchikan, the first of the "last frontiers."
JUNEAU AREA
At Juneau, the next stop for some of the steamers, a pleasant trip
is the ascent of Mt. Roberts. A clear trail from the capital city
reaches the timber line and continues along the mountain side to
Gastineau Peak from which the whole panorama of Gastineau
Channel is visible. As on all mountain trails, there are many beauti-
ful varieties of wild flowers. Another interesting hike is along the
The Baranof, Alaska's modern 250-1*00111 hotel at Juneau
with -accommodations and service rivaling some of the best
hotels in the States. It is the center of social gatherings and
entertainment for visiting dignitaries. (Ordway-Neff Photo
Service.)
CASH CROP NO. I 109
road leading into the valley of Gold Creek. The tourist can use a
car for the first mile or two, but farther on, driving is unsafe.
Walking takes one through a maze of forest verdure among flower-
ing shrubs. At a distance of slightly less than two miles there is a
waterfall of rustic beauty. The next attraction, approximately four
miles away, is the old mining camp of Perseverance in Silver Bow
Basin. This route is rich in history pertaining to earlier-day mining
and the founding of Juneau.
When the Auke tribe of Indians, living on the mainland, appeared
in Sitka wearing gold ornaments, there was excitement concerning
the source of the metal. John Muir, California naturalist for whom
the Muir Glacier was named, persuaded a Sitka merchant to grub-
stake Richard Harris and Joseph Juneau and send them on a hunt
for "colors." The prospectors found rich placer in a stream sub-
sequently named Gold Creek. Gold quartz also was discovered
near by. This was in the spring of 1880, seventeen years before the
big strike in the Klondike.
News of the find spread and by Christmas a camp was established
near the mouth of Gold Creek. It was called Rockwell and later was
changed to Harrisburg, but in December, 1881, the miners decided
that Juneau, the elder of the prospectors, was entitled to first honors
and the little town was renamed for him. One of the world's greatest
gold quartz mines the Alaska Juneau is a living testimony to the
wealth Juneau and Harris uncovered. It is possible to ascend Mt.
Juneau by trail, but the trip is difficult and should not be attempted
without a guide.
The capital of Alaska today is a modern city, a beehive of
activity settled at the base of a majestic mountain that almost shoves
it into the sea. Juneau cannot push the mountain back, so it spends
thousands of dollars dumping parts of it into Gastineau Channel,
making room for more streets, "skyscrapers," and hotels to house
its tourists and ever-increasing visitors from a larger capital 4,000
miles away. The city must obtain Congress' consent to dump its
rocks into the seas. Such new residences as are built for Alaskans
are chiefly on the outskirts, along the beautiful Glacier Highway.
Juneau is a little more metropolitan than any other community
in Alaska except Anchorage. Stepping into the lobby of the Baranof
Hotel, one is in an atmosphere of comfort comparable to that of
any hotel in the States. In the decorative Gold Room there is a
I 10 ALASKA TODAY
menu as inviting as in the Ritz or the Blackstone. The manager is
William R. Hughes, who in October, 1947, succeeded Jack
Fletcher, his predecessor for many years.
On special occasions there is an orchestra in the Bubble Room
but dance music is usually supplied by the omnipresent juke box,
as representative of Alaska as is milk in tin cans. The Baranof is
proud of its decorative murals by the late Sidney Laurence and
Eustace Ziegler, Alaska's own artists, both nationally famous. After
being closed for six months the Bubble Room was reopened shortly
before the close of the war as an attractive supper club.
Stores, movies, lodges, churches, hospitals, and restaurants are on
a par with those of cities in the States several times Juneau's size.
The Federal and Territorial Building, locally called the Capitol
Building and containing one of the finest museums in the world,
is crowded with a host of government bureaus. It is finished inside
with white marble mined in Alaska, and was built at a cost of
more than a million dollars. Territorial and Federal authorities
have petitioned Congress for funds to enlarge the building.
The Alaska Historical Library and Museum on the second floor
has a most complete collection of Eskimo artcraft. The native art is
expressed in ivory carving and includes replicas of animals, hunt-
ing and fishing gear, unique ivory fish hooks, basketry, ancient
eating and cooking utensils, and clothing of skin and fur worn
centuries ago. Hundreds of old books of historical value written
by Russian explorers are on view, as well as rare ethnological speci-
mens. A complete collection of minerals shows the progress in
Alaska's mining and the development of coal and other resources.
The town of Douglas on Douglas Island, across Gastineau
Channel, is connected with the capital city by a steel bridge, 1,564
feet long, built to replace the old ferry that operated until 1935.
South of Douglas is Treadwell and the ruins of the great Tread-
well gold mine which operated for 36 years and yielded $66,000,000
in ore. "Glory Hole" yawns as mute witness to days when the 300
stamp mill was a wonder of the mining world. Another attraction
is the Douglas Island ski trail built by the Forest Service. It leaves
the road just south of the bridge and extends to the timber line.
A reservoir or small lake where there is excellent fishing for
Colorado brook trout may be reached via the northern section of
the Glacier Highway on the Juneau side of the channel, which
GLACIER HIGHWAY
RECREATION
AREA
National Forest Boundaries
i Glacier Highway
Trails
Dwellings
Shelter Cabin
012
DOUGLASS I5LAN
112 ALASKA TODAY
extends along Gastineau Channel and Favorite Channel to Herbert
River. Three miles from the city is a trail leading up a tramway to
the powerhouse, dam, and reservoir. This sparkling clear water
afford fine sport for the angler who is not after zo-pounders. Goats
and bear can be seen on the ranges flanking the upper reaches of
the drainage.
Lemon Creek is 2 1 / 2 miles from this point, and from there a trail
leads to the Lemon Creek Glacier. At a distance of pVz miles from
Juneau is a branch road from the glacier where cars may park in
full view of this mass of shimmering blue ice. From here a trail
taking off for Nugget Creek Reservoir allows further excellent
views of the glacier.
Mendenhall Glacier is the greatest single feature of interest near
Juneau, especially to those not accustomed to seeing glaciers.
The mighty river of ice is a remnant of the huge ice cap which
once filled the valleys and water channels. The lowland areas are
made ground built by deposits of glacial silt. The glacier and its
vicinity are veritable wonderlands to the botanist and all nature
lovers. Remains of a buried forest are gradually being disclosed,
notably in the region of the Mendenhall River bridge. The glacier
has a frontage of i % miles.
Farther along the Loop Road on the west side of Mendenhall
Lake is a rifle range with a log shooting house, club, and lunch
rooms. There are reinforced concrete butts for target shooting
at each 100 yards; also a target butt for experts, placed at 1,000
yards the distance usually required for a shot at a mountain goat.
The Juneau Rifle and Pistol Club welcomes visiting marksmen to
this range.
Another point of interest along the Loop Road is Tolch Rock,
named in memory of W. T. Tolch, originator of the Boy Scout
movement in Alaska. The road joins the main highway just beyond
Auke Lake. A road leading south from the highway along the
shore of Auke Lake, traversing what is known as the Mendenhall
Peninsula, is spotted with homes and summer' cottages. Rounding
Auke Lake, the most picturesque portion of the highway lies ahead
vistas of beach, islands, cottages, and cabins bordering Favorite
Channel, all alternating with green patches of timber. At Mile 16
is the Auke Village recreation area, site of the old Auke Indian
village. Here there is a community log house with a broken granite
Skagway, on the Lynn Canal, where the Army turned over
a i5o-bed hospital for the treatment of tubercular patients.
(Courtesy U.S. Forest Service.)
114 ALASKA TODAY
fireplace and other attractions for tourists. A bathhouse or "change
place" with individual rooms, and picnic shelters add to the con-
veniences. A trail from the beach resort extends to Point Louisa
and Lena Cove where there is a camping ground.
From early May when the first king salmon appear until late
September when the coho run ceases, the water bordering the high-
way from Point Louisa to Earle River is excellent for strip fishing;
light tackle is used to lend additional sport in landing the silver
giants. Parking space is provided at Tee Harbor so that tourists
may enjoy the superb view of Favorite Channel, tree-covered
Shelter Island, and beyond, the Lynn Canal, used by steamers
traveling to and from Skagway. Majestic Chilkat is a striking back-
ground for this wide expanse of water. The vivid coloring of an
Alaskan sunset may be seen from the highway at Inspiration Point.
Farther on, between Tee Harbor and Pearl Harbor is a little
island on which the Jesuit Order of the Catholic Church has built
a shrine to Saint Terese and a retreat house. The land was given
to the Catholics by the government. The chapel is built of native
logs and stone with a 2 8-foot Notre Dame tower. It stands today
virtually as a memorial to the Most Reverend Joseph Raphael Cri-
mont, late bishop of Alaska v who died in the spring of 1945, a short
time after the shrine was completed. The bishop had administered
to the needs of a frontier country for more than fifty years. As a
young man in France, his life had been despaired of, but he rapidly
regained his health in Alaska's northern wilds and lived to eighty-
seven years.
The Jesuit missions in Alaska provide food, clothing, shelter,
and educational facilities for six hundred native children. Saint
Anne Hospital in Juneau is one of the finest in the Territory. The
Catholics also have hospitals at Anchorage, Ketchikan, Fairbanks,
and Seward.
Saint Terese is 23 miles from Juneau. At Mile 28, Glacier High-
way comes to an end at the bank of the Herbert River. Eagle
Glacier is visible 5 miles to the north. From the end of the road a
trail leads westward along the Herbert and Eagle rivers to the
Boy Scout Camp. A suspension bridge crosses Eagle River to
Amalga, a mining camp of earlier days, and to Yankee Basin.
The Glacier Highway has a smooth gravel surface almost com-
CASH CROP NO. I 115
\
Cordova, one of Alaska's most favored cities so far as tourists
are concerned. In the background is Mt. Heney, named for
Michael J. Heney, builder of the Copper River and North-
western Railroad, made famous by Rex Beach's The Iron
Trail. At the foot of the mountain to the left is Eyak Lake,
a fresh- water lake famous for its trout and duck hunting.
At the extreme right is Mt. Eccles. A hiker's trail leads to
its summit. (Courtesy Alaska Steamship Co.)
parable to a hard road. Its width is from 15 to 25 feet, wider in
town areas and narrower on the straightaways outside the towns.
Including the Loop Road and spurs it is only 45 miles long but it
cost $1,500,000. Aside from running through one of the most at-
tractive regions for tourists, its economic importance is proved by
the number of country homes, summer cottages, fur farms, and
dairies along the right of way.
I I 6 ALASKA TODAY
CORDOVA
Across Prince William Sound, 1 50 miles nearer Seattle than the
main steamer stop at Seward, is Cordova, at the mouth of the
Copper River. The former boom town marked the newly started
route of the Copper River and Northwestern Railroad to the
Kennecott copper mines. Building this road in record time was one
of the marvels of man's battle against the raw elements in the far
north. Two of Alaska's huge glaciers the Miles and Childs poured
millions of tons of ice into the Copper River, lifting the half-frozen
water high above the river's banks along the line's right of way.
Only 131 miles long, the railroad was completed in 191 1 at a cost
of $23,000,000 and abandoned in 1938 after the Morgan-Guggen-
heim interests had taken out $100,000,000 in copper ore.
Cordova, with a population of 1,600, is a favorite site for vaca-
tionists. It has an important harbor accommodating 500 small ships,
a large airport and shipbuilding yards, and is the center of an ex-
tensive salmon, crab, and clam fishing area. The salmon canning
season is the longest in Alaska, extending from May i to September
1 8. Of the town's many canneries, two are situated close to the
wharf where ocean steamers dock, and the interesting process of
transferring salmon from the sea to tin cans may be viewed by
visitors, just as thousands inspect Packingtown's meat industry in
Chicago. The best cannery in Alaska was built at Cordova in 1945
at a cost of more than $1,000,000.
Seven canneries are engaged in processing razor clams in addition
to the salmon. The packs of 45,000 cases annually, which in recent
years comprise the entire Alaska pack, are equivalent to 73.8 per
cent of the Pacific Coast pack. Three canneries are engaged in pack-
ing Dungeness crab, with average packs of 6,600 cases. The clam
season is in the early spring and fall; the crab canning season during
fall, winter, and spring months. Canneries furnish the principal
payroll of the community, the fishermen and cannery labor being
for the most part local.
Other industries include logging in Prince William Sound, trap-
ping, boatbuilding, and mining at interior points with operations
based at Cordova. Because of the heavy precipitation there is ex-
cellent duck hunting oh the Copper River flats, a half-hour's
CASH CROP NO. I 117
journey in a motor boat. Cordova and Ketchikan, in the Panhandle,
vie with each other for honors in rainfall and snow. Cordova is
the loser, boasting only 140.65 inches in a year compared to 153.66
at Ketchikan. Cordova sometimes dismisses school on clear days to
let the children enjoy the sunshine and acquire a tan. Its residents
do not mind the rain, however; they are honest in calling it rain-
not Alaska dew. And the town does have some beautiful days.
Winter climate in this attractive seaport town is moderate; the
mean temperature for January is 26.5 degrees above zero; for July,
54.8 degrees. At any time the visitor needs only the same clothing
he would wear in the middle-western states.
There is no highway connection to the interior although a road
is planned over the route of the former Copper River Railroad, to
connect with the Richardson Highway at Chitina, thus linking
Cordova with the Alaska arterial highway system. The Cordova
Air Service provides scheduled air transportation between Cordova,
Valdez, and Anchorage, also between coastal points and the interior.
Other airlines provide transportation to Juneau.
Good roads and trails lead to near-by recreation centers, one of
the most interesting of which is the Mt. Eyak trail, built to reach
the scenic area at the mountain's top. The trail follows open
beaches through strips of timber to a point where there are rare
vistas for the hiker views of Orca Inlet, Hawkins Island, and
Hinchinbrook Island, across beautiful Eyak Lake to the Copper
River flats and the Chugach Mountains.
Moisture and abundant light make plant life luxuriant. Cotton
grass is especially admired by tourists because the blossoms, when
dried, can be kept indefinitely. Tall purple lupine, wild hyacinth,
marsh marigold or yellow cowslip, dwarfed dogwood or bunch
berry, fireweed, bog laurel, yellow water lily, Labrador tea, blue
and yellow violets, and Alpine bluebells grow profusely.
Small boats and cabin planes, available for charter in Cordova,
are used by tourists to reach distant lakes and streams. Because of
its glaciers, islands, bays, and inlets, the Prince William Sound
division of the Chugach National Forest, of which Cordova is a
part, is well worth the tourist's time. The most noted tidewater
glacier is the Columbia, near Valdez, about fifty miles northwest
of Cordova. Valdez, coast terminus of the Richardson Highway,
is widely used by vacationists as part of a circle tour to or from
n8
ALASKA TODAY
Valdez, nestling at the foot of a huge glacial moraine that
looks as if it might bury the city at any moment, is the
coastal terminus of the Richardson Highway, the longest
road in the Territory. (Courtesy Alaska Steamship Co. and
Pacific Aerial Surveys.)
Fairbanks, with the Alaska Railroad the connecting link. Tourist
steamers run between Cordova and Valdez, and glaciers can be
viewed from the boats.
ALASKA'S GLACIERS
Alaska's awe-inspiring glaciers will always thrill the person who
sees them, either for the first time or the tenth. These primeval
masses of crystal-blue ice have molded the contours of the Ter-
ritory to surpassing beauty. The huge rivers of ice, sometimes 4
CASH CROP NO. I
T TQ
Wrangell, built on the site of the Stikine Indian village,
where the Stikine River meets the sea, is the second oldest
town in Alaska and is rich in Indian lore and totem poles.
Its large land-locked harbor would hold the entire U.S.
Navy. (Courtesy Alaska Steamship Co.)
miles wide and 300 feet high, are things of great beauty in them-
selves.
The lofty peaks of southeastern Alaska receive heavy snowfalls
from moisture-laden ocean breezes and this snow, piling layer on
layer, forms ice that pushes down the mountain sides toward the
sea. Some are live glaciers that pour millions-of pale blue bergs into
the fiords and inlets, and some are dead masses of ice that are re-
treating from year to year.
Starting at Wrangell, the sight-seer can observe how the glacier
formations increase in extent as he travels north toward Prince
Seward, since 1923 the coast terminus of the Alaska Rail-
road and the main port of call. Seward's importance waned
with the building of the Whittier-Portage cutoff and the
establishment of a new coastal terminus at Whittier. (Cour-
tesy Alaska Steamship Co.)
William Sound. The glaciers and surrounding lands present, in a
limited space, a series of related geologic views leading back from
present-day conditions to the time of the last Ice Age of North
America, of which they are a vestige. Nowhere on this continent,
or perhaps in the world, can glaciers be more easily visited than on
the Alaska coast. Some can be closely approached by ocean-going
vessels, others by roads and foot trails.
The glaciers most frequently visited by tourist steamers areTaku,
located on Taku Inlet; Herbert and Eagle River on the Lynn Canal;
La Perouse and Crillon, north of Cape Spencer, and Columbia.
Glaciers not on the tourist lanes, but reached by mail boats or trails,
include North and South Sawyer, on Tracy Arm; Twin and
Wright, up Taku. Inlet; Harriman, Surprise, Barry, Blackstone, and
Tebenkoff in Port Wells. Mendenhall Glacier, near Juneau, re-
ceives the greatest number of visitors. Lemon Creek Glacier at
Juneau and Denver Glacier at Skagway are tapped by trails. The
Alaska Railroad passes near several small glaciers on the Kenai
Peninsula, the largest of which is Spencer.
120
CASH CROP NO. I 121
KENAI PENINSULA
From Seward, the main stop of the boats carrying civilian traffic,
the steel route to the interior takes one through the most rugged
part of Alaska's terrain. The modern diesel-drawn train may have
to slow down while a moose or grizzly crosses the track, but you
will reach Mt. McKinley National Park in time for supper and
arrive at Fairbanks a few hours later.
Anchorage, Seward, and Whittier, all seaports on the railroad,
the latter two rail termini, are starting points for sportsmen patron-
izing the Kenai Peninsula, a mecca for big game hunters. Charter
planes and boats can be obtained at Seward and Anchorage and
guides are available. All nonresident hunters of big game must
employ a registered guide. Buses and the railroad also take sports-
men to their favorite haunts.
A divison of Chugach National Forest is on Kenai, where hiking
and photographing the wild life are added attractions. Moose,
mountain sheep, the famed Alaskan brown bear, black bears, and
ducks, geese, ptarmigan, and grouse are plentiful. In most regions
the hunting season opens about the middle of September, but it is
always open for black bears.
Russian River, a picturesque, wild stream, marking in part the
western boundary of the preserve, is noted for its rainbow trout,
measuring 10 to 30 inches. Steelhead, Dolly Varden, and golden fin
trout also satisfy the ambitious angler.
In addition to the railroad through the center of the Peninsula,
150 miles of auto roads and 200 miles of trails take the hiker to
isolated regions. Near Seward, one can ski as late as July. Use of
the Seward Ski Club's cabin at Mile 1 2 and a portable ski tow are
free to visitors.
The Seward Highway, 75 miles long, connects the seaport town
with the Turnagain Arm communities of Sunrise and Hope on
Cook Inlet. Turnagain Arm was named for the English explorer,
Captain James Cook, who sailed up the inlet in quest of the much
sought Northwest Passage to Europe. Eventually he had to turn
and go back.
Since hunting is barred on the mountain sheep and goat refuge
which stretches from Seward to Turnagain Arm, the animals have
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124 ALASKA TODAY
become reasonably tame and are easily photographed. Alaska's
famed Dall sheep constitute one of its most attractive forms of wild*-
life. Robert Service, with poetic license, referred to them as "big-
horns asleep on the hill," but the real bighorn is found chiefly in
the Rocky Mountains.
At Lawing, 2 3 miles from Seward, Nellie Neal Lawing has for
years conducted "Nellie's Place," a lodge with cabins for hunters
and fishermen. There are other recreation centers along the railroad
and along the highway which parallels it most of the way.
ANCHORAGE
Alaska's largest city, unquestionably destined to remain so, is
Anchorage, centrally situated on the railroad, 114 miles from the
coast, due north of Seward. This hub city is 550 miles northwest
of Juneau by air and 275 miles south of Fairbanks.
Covering more area than any other metropolitan center, Anchor-
age is laid out on a level plateau of Knik Arm, northern embayment
of Cook Inlet. The town site was selected in 1915 by the Alaska
Engineering Commission as a division point of the Alaska Railroad.
The line's executive office, main shops, and hospital are located
there, and 200 employees are residents.
Anchorage today has a population of close to 12,000. Includ-
ing the forces at Fort Richardson and people in the immediate
trading area, the population is 20,000. It is rapidly expanding in-
dustrially and as an aviation center. Fort Richardson, the Army's
headquarters of the Alaska Department, is about three miles from
the city limits, with frequent bus and cab service. The post is vir-
tually a part of Anchorage.
The city government is progressive. Recently it financed
$2,000,000 of public construction, plus an approximate outlay of
$4,000,000 for private building. About 500 new building units have
been constructed or are under way. Air transportation to and from
Anchorage is a huge industry. There is also much private flying,
with one plane to every 40 persons, more per capita than any other
city on the continent. Commercial ships serve an area as large as
the British Isles.
Anchorage has an even climate, its mean temperature for Jan-
Anchorage is Alaska's leading city, with a population of
1 2,000. It is the only city laid out in broad squares with wide
streets and lots of unoccupied land for growth. The city is
on a flat plateau at the head of Cook Inlet, but there is
plenty of scenic beauty in the surrounding mountains.
(Courtesy Alaska Steamship Co.)
nary being 10.1 degrees; for July, 56.8. The city draws heavily on
the rich mining and agriculture of the surrounding countryside.
Among recent improvements are a $305,000 addition to the school
including a large gymnasium a new $80,000 church; a $100,000
newspaper plant, a new hotel, another movie palace seating 1,000,
a new water system. A 5o-piece symphony orchestra, a city band,
new buses, and new planes are all indicative of the progressive spirit
prevailing.
Anchorage boast* that it is the front door to 90 per cent of in-
terior and coastal Central Alaska, the base of the chief coal fields
and a center of rich placer gold mines. New quartz mines have
been developed near by, those at Willow Creek assuming especial
125
A view of Mt. McKinley across Wonder Lake. (Courtesy
Sackman, National Park Service.)
importance. The city is the airways base for Bristol Bay whose
waters lead the world in sea products. It is the market for Matanuska
farmers, and storage facilities have made it possible to store fresh
vegetables from the colony for two months after they are harvested.
The Anchorage Cold Storage Company provides space for farm
produce, and other companies operate private lockers in which
sportsmen can preserve frozen game and fish.
Anchorage is an outfitting base for vacationing hunters and fisher-
men although for the latter Ketchikan is more important. The city
is also a center for much of the fur-farming industry.
Airplane service is available to tourists who wish to visit the
"Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes" on the Alaska Peninsula, site
of the world's largest chain of volcanoes. The lord of the valley
is Mt. Katmai which in 1912 erupted a billion tons of ashes, cover-
ing the country for 100 miles. This, however, gave Alaska another
national monument with an area of 2,697,590 acres. The crater has
a circumference of 8 miles. In it is a lake of milky blue water, with
a little crescent-shaped island in its midst. Vapors from the few
still active volcanoes rise more than 1,000 feet, merging above the
valley into one titanic cloud from which the area derives its name.
The number of fumaroles in the valley has decreased greatly during
126
CASH CROP NO. I 127
the last decade and vegetation is again growing on the mountain side.
The trek of work-weary escapists to Alaska has really taken on
new life. Thousands want to see what the Japanese coveted most
and failed to acquire. The treeless Aleutians, with their curtains of
fog and wind-tossed clouds, are no longer neglected. They, too, are
a show place of the Far North. If you want to see bomb craters
and abandoned foxholes, Kiska, Attu, or Dutch Harbor are your
nearest goals. On Adak Island where President Roosevelt admired
the luxuriant grass and tasted the good earth like the practical dirt
farmer he was, sheep are grazing today, taking shelter in
Quonset huts.
When it was first rumored that the Japanese were asking for
peace, Alaska started preparations to receive tourists on a broad
scale. At Anchorage, Governor Gruening predicted: "The tourist
industry will be bigger than the $50,000,000 salmon industry. Our
job is to prepare for tourists, not turn them away with the excuse
that we have no accommodations. If necessary, we must take vis-
itors into our homes and make them feel welcome, the same as we
did w r ith defense workers."
MT. McKINLEY NATIONAL PARK
Prior to this time, the Alaska Railroad already had stressed the
need of additional hotels in Anchorage and Fairbanks. It had
planned a commodious lodge and tourist cabins at Wonder Lake
in Mt. McKinley National Park in addition to the hotel it had
operated for years at the eastern edge of the park.
The new Wonder Lake resort is 89 miles west of the railroad in
the northern foothills of the Alaska Range, with a clear view of Mt.
McKinley, highest peak on the North American continent 20,300
feet. The Indians' use of the name Denali Home of the Sun is
explained by the fact that the sun is frequently hidden by Mt. Mc-
Kinley's peak, and when seen again seems to burst from a veil of
cloud as if the mountain were its birthplace.
Wild animals often cross the park's main street, a gravel road
crawling along Alaskan tundras and through mountain passes
banked by towering peaks on one side and a sheer drop of thou-
sands of feet on the other.
128 ALASKA TODAY
The only hunting permitted in the park is with a camera. Its en-
tire 3,030 square miles is a game sanctuary, and park rangers guard
all forms of animal life. In lieu of hunting, there are swift streams
and shimmering lakes for fishing, swimming, and boating. The new
camp has facilities for modern pastimes amid primitive settings-
tennis, horseback riding, and skiing in season. One can ski even in
summer if he wants to climb a thousand feet up Mt. McKinley's
steep slopes.
The park was always the pride of Colonel Ohlson who rated its
scenic wonders as superior to those of the Alps. "After a few days
at the park," said the Colonel, shortly before his retirement as head
of the Alaska Railroad, "crowded cities seem like dimly remem-
bered nightmares." And that is true of many a locality in Alaska
only a mile or two outside the towns.
While game conservationists rule the Northland with an iron
hand, the visitor is scarcely aware of their reign. Wildlife is so plenti-
ful that bag and creel limits satisfy any hunter or fisherman. Regula-
tions for big game are altered from time to time in various locali-
ties but they are always sufficiently generous. For sports fishing,
one need go only a few miles from urban centers to find trout-filled
lakes and streams that are rarely visited. Others, in more remote
regions, have not been fished at all. They can be reached in a short
time either by trail or plane. The Alaska Game Commission re-
quires a nominal fee of $2.50 from nonresidents. In general, it sets
no season or size limit, restricting only the number of the catch.
FAIRBANKS
Fairbanks, 1 50 miles north of Mt. McKinley Park, is another up-
and-coming city. People are interested in dining, wining, and min-
ing, with a moving picture or two for good measure. The restoration
of gold mining whipped up some activity late in the summer of
1945, but not much was accomplished until the following year.
In season, baseball excites the populace; Ladd Field sponsors a
league that gets opposition from civilian teams. Roadhouses and
gay night clubs attract the younger set and those ATC's at the
post who like to dance as well as fly. The students of the Univer-
sity of Alaska (only 3 miles away at College Station), are lively,
CASH CROP NO. I 129
too, and participate to some extent in the "Golden Heart" city's
gaieties.
The city is built on the Chena Slough, which serves as a land-
ing place for float planes in summer and a field for the winter car-
nivalwhen there is ice. Fairbanks also has its Chena Ice Pool,
with several thousand dollars at stake a miniature of the Nenana
Classic.
The town is satisfied with its climate even though winter tem-
peratures drop to 50 or 60 degrees below zero. At such times some
residents adopt Eskimo garb of skin boots and picturesque parkas.
They make rather snappy costumes for the w r omen. However,
ladies of the smart set go to dances at the post in evening gowns
with only the customary fur coat for warmth.
The airfield has tunnels underground so that workers may walk
along heated paths from one building to another. The same is true
of the university buildings. Despite the cold, the boast is often
heard that Fairbanks has the kind of \veather California would like
to have clear days and brilliant sunshine. The air is crisp and clear,
healthful and invigorating.
While there has been considerable discussion as to whether Fair-
banks or Anchorage would be the strategical air center of Asiatic
air commerce, Anchorage apparently has the lead. But Fairbanks
will play an important role. Alore than 5,000 planes were ferried
via Fairbanks to Russia during the war. The Army airport, at
Ladd Field, cost $30,000,000.
There are comfortable hotels and attractive homes in Fairbanks,
as well as one-room log cabins which are relics of gold-boom days.
The Pioneer Hotel, one of the oldest in Alaska, has a clientele of
old-timers. The Nordale is a more modern hotel. There are good
restaurants, a couple of large movie houses, the Lacey and the Em-
press, the former seating 700.
Tourists traveling via the railroad or the Richardson Highway,
or coming from the Yukon River via Circle and the Steese High-
way, seldom fail to visit the Territory's famed seat of higher learn-
ing. Neither do they miss the huge placer gold-dredges which
scoop up tons of potential colors from gravel beds of near-by
creeks or from diggings far below the frozen tundra.
There is mining everywhere in Alaska, but at Fairbanks it is
right at one's front door. To the average traveler, however, who
130 ALASKA TODAY
has no financial interest in the output, products other than gold
from strip mining are fascinating. In the Fairbanks district, re-
mains of prehistoric animals of the Pleistocene period have been
unearthed by powerful streams used in hydraulic attack on the
frozen, gold-bearing banks. Skeletons of mammoths, huge bears,
bison, camels, and other mammals long extinct in Alaska have been
found. They were buried under millions of tons of glacial ice cen-
turies ago. Many of these specimens attract tourists to the univer-
sity's museum, but the college has more items than it can display,
and some are stored in cellars.
The Fairbanks mining region is heaven to paleontologists, eth-
nologists, geologists, and most other scientists. Not even Africa
has yielded more relics of days gone by. No bones of cave men
have as yet been dug up or washed out of the muck, but the ethnol-
ogists are hopeful. As the war stopped gold mining, so also did it
check mining for dinosaurs, but the search has been resumed.
Alaska excels other fields in such research because there is lit-
tle expense. All the professors have to do is to line up as smokers
did in days of the cigarette shortage. When a giant elk appears in
the frozen soil, the scientist in front shouts: "That's mine!" If a
horse that was a colt a million years ago comes prancing out of
the glacial ice, the next paleontologist claims it. Some who are fed
up on dinosaurs or saber-toothed tigers step out of line with a
claim check and wait until a camel comes through.
Seriously, scientists have ample proof that before glacial ice
buried half the New World, Alaska had a much warmer climate
than it has now. As the glaciers recede for the fourth time as
they are doing the time may come when Alaska will produce
fine tree-borne fruit. And if this fruit should equal, in size, the
country's record for cabbages, Alaska will not have to import
many fruit juices.
In addition to the frozen mammals, dead and gone, the Fair-
banks area has plenty of live animals, and there is good opportunity
for sport afield. Roads radiate from the city and one can use mod-
ern buses to reach lodges and resorts or he can hire a car for trips
to distant points. For instance, it is only 100 miles to Big Delta
on the Alaska Highway, where the military road meets the Rich-
ardson Highway. Vast caribou migrations cross this road, and it
is close to the herd of wild buffalo, property of Uncle Sam.
CASH CROP NO. I 131
At the highway junction, there is an inviting roadhouse serving
imported steaks and 5-pound grayling from near-by streams. The
Alaska Highway hugs the Tanana River most of the way to Tok
Junction, another no miles south. Between Big Delta and Tok is
wild country with a score of crystal-clear rivers cutting into the
Tanana's muddy waters. A short way up these streams one can
watch the big grayling as they nose a lure before lunging at it.
There are thousands of these game fish, 12 to 30 inches long, itch-
ing for a fight.
There is not much spring or early summer rain in this section
of Alaska; instead, there are warm sun rays and a lot of game-
ducks, Canadian geese, grouse and ptarmigan, cranes, foxes,
caribou, moose, and black bears. Thisjsattapper's country, a
place for sportsmen who really like to rough it.
After 295 more miles ofthe highway, the tourist is at Haines
Junction in Canada, heading either 99 miles to Whitehorse or 1 54
over the cut-off to Haines on the Lynn Canal in Alaska. Here
one can take a launch to the north end of the Glacier Highway in
Tongass National Forest and drive on to Juneau, 44 miles south.
So now you are out of the wilds, back in Alaska's capital, at the
urban Baranof Hotel. Some day soon you will not have to leave
Alaska by way of its front door to the Pacific, but will drive from
Fairbanks to Whitehorse, to Edmonton; then on to Chicago or
Philadelphia, with a caribou and 100 pounds of salmon or trout,
riding in the rumble seat!
CHAPTER II
Wildlife
BY FRANK DUFRESNE
ALASKA is one of the most attractive countries in the
world for trappers and hunters because it has vigorously protected
its big game. While there are 250,000 square miles where animals
can be taken under suitable regulations, more than 15,000 square
miles are set aside as game sanctuaries.
In restoration and preservation of mammals and birds indigenous
to America's domain, the Interior Department, both the Fish and
Wildlife Service and the National Park Service, has done a good
job. The situation in Alaska is opposite to that in the States. Reck-
less slaughter of game by white men stripped the West of its wild-
life and robbed the natives of sustenance. It made them paupers
and wards of the government. In Alaska, it is the other way around.
The aborigines have rather free run of game, being the recipients
of special dispensations in which the whites do not share. For one
thing, natives pay no license fee for trapping and hunting, while
white residents do pay a nominal one. Many natives are not in
accord with this program, preferring to pay whatever the white
man does.
Its many animal species lure thousands of hunters, naturalists,
photographers, artists, and sight-seers to Alaska, for probably no-
where else on earth does game abound in such quantities. Dr. Ira N.
Gabrielson, former director of the Fish and Wildlife Service, and
W. E. Crouch, chief of game management, are two of the men
under whose guidance the Territory assumed top place among
wildlife regions. Jack O'Connor, resident game supervisor, also
has spent many years as a guardian of Alaska's animal life.
National forests, under the direction of the Department of Agri-
WILDLIFE
133
Pacific kittiwakes photographed on the barren rocks at
Walrus Island in the Pribilofs by Dr. I. N. Gabrielson, di-
rector of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
culture, contain game sanctuaries as well as large areas where hunt-
ing is permitted.
In the war years, the conservation program had to be curtailed
on account of a reduction in personnel and facilities for patrolling
large areas. Boats that annually had sailed thousands of miles of
coast to enforce game laws, took on duties with the armed forces.
Agents of the game commission, trappers, and guides proved of
vital aid to the Army and Navy through their intimate knowledge
of the wild terrain.
134 ALASKA TODAY
The government did its best to protect big game, fish, and fowl,
because among other reasons they are a source of food, especially
in an emergency. In the Yukon Territory, Army and civilian crews
building the Alaska Highway were able to obtain fresh meat and
fish as addition to a diet that otherwise would have been inadequate.
BIG GAME
Like Alaska's climate and geography, wildlife has three divisions
the big game animals, the fur-bearing mammals, and the birds.
In the big game class, the best known are the bears, which are in-
numerable and of varied species and subspecies. There are the
coastal brown bears Alaska's famous "Brownies"; the closely allied
grizzlies of the interior mountain ranges; the black bears, including
the brown and blue glacier color phases; and the polar bears, snow-
white visitors from the ice packs, seen periodically on the Arctic
and Bering seacoasts. Polar bears, popular in the nation's zoos, are
classed as fur animals under the Alaska game laws.
Other big game animals include the moose, caribou, deer, moun-
tain sheep, mountain goat, and the introduced species elk, bison,
muskoxen, and reindeer. The last do not serve as game, however,
except for the wolves and coyotes.
The brown or Kodiak bear, is as famous as Alaska's king salmon.
Sportsmen travel from all quarters of the globe to bag one or more
of these huge carnivorous animals.
It is estimated there are about 19,000 brown and grizzly bears
roaming a domain of 200,000 square miles. The brown bears are
numerous on Kodiak and Admiralty Islands and the Kenai Pen-
insula. On Unimak, one of the largest of the Aleutian islands, the
king of bears cannot be taken as game, and sometimes he is protected
from hunters in other places.
The brown bear is a majestic animal; the black bear, a clown.
When the brown bear runs, he sometimes runs in the wrong direc-
tiontoward you. But usually he will not attack unless provoked.
For the female with cubs, it's another story.
While the brown bear grudgingly gives way to man or woman
with a high-powered rifle, an intrepid camera fan finds a worthy
subject in this noble animal. For photographers who are not so bold,
WILDLIFE 135
there is a bear observatory in the Tongass National Forest on the
south bank of Pack Creek, Admiralty Island, just north of Wind-
fall Harbor in the Seymour Canal. It is a secure platform with roof,
guardrail, and seats, built around the bole of a large spruce tree
and reached by an iron ladder. Since Pack Creek is frequented by
bears in the salmon spawning season, the Forest Service constructed
the observatory to afford a safe place for tourists to watch the bears
as they catch fish.
Seen from a distance, the brown and grizzly bears appear similar,
but under close examination they are different in color, claws, skull,
and teeth. The pelage of the Brownie is more uniform in color, with
less admixture of gold- or silver-tipped hairs.
Bears emerge from hibernation late in April or early in May and
mate in June of every other year. In summer, when salmon are
spawning the fish form the favorite food of brown and black bears.
At other seasons, grasses, roots, and berries are staples. The grizzly
inhabits the mountains and supplements its fare with a diet of
ground squirrels and marmots. In October and November the long
hibernation begins for this species, and late in January or early in
February, one to four cubs are born.
Black bears, ranging over three-fifths of the land area of Alaska,
adapt themselves to the ways of man. Hunters generally bypass
them because the value of their hides is negligible. These bears are
not especially desirable for food, as they are scavengers. Their esti-
mated number is about 75,000. Alaskans consider black bears a
nuisance, since they enter cabins for food, raid caches of miners
and prospectors, and menace domestic livestock. Near Palmer a
bear was caught dragging off a 3oo-pound sow when the porker
was about ready to farrow. This raid was at the height of the meat
shortage when the sow, and possible ten pigs, would have been
worth a hundred black bears. The predatory animal was shot, but
the sow died of her injuries.
Conservationists have set off about 3,000 square miles where
black bears cannot be hunted, and for this guardianship there is
scarcely any logical reason.
The wild mountain goat is an elusive target for hunters. By the
astronomical figures by which Alaska measures everything, the
mountain goat is comparatively scarce only about 12,000 and
he intends to hold that minimum. Not many sportsmen have come
ALASKA TODAY
This observatory built by the Forest Service at Pack Creek
on Admiralty Island is a safe place for camera fans to take
pictures of bears catching salmon. (Courtesy U.S. Forest
Service.)
back from Alaska with a wild Billy's head as a trophy. Those who
have, know how to draw a true bead at 400 yards, and they are
lucky to get that close.
One does not have to be a millionaire to hunt north of 54 40'.
Still, such men have been assets to the Territory because they
hired boats, dog teams, planes, and guides, bought quantities of
food supplies, and scattered generous tips. Alaska gave them what
they could not find elsewhere the wild at its best and they paid
well for it; so well that in regions where domestic livestock and
wildlife compete with each other in economic importance, the
balance is in favor of bears, moose, and goats. However, there are
plenty of men of moderate means who enjoy sport in Alaska.
Mountain goats and Dall sheep are the camera fan's best shots.
The beautiful Dall sheep are far more numerous than goats and
inhabit a wider area. Their number is estimated at not more than
WILDLIFE
137
Alaska's famed Dall sheep are one of the greatest attractions
among its plentiful wildlife. On the Kenai Peninsula, along
the railroad, there is a sheep and goat sanctuary where the
animals may be photographed. (Courtesy Fish and Wild-
life Service.)
40,000. They live in the heights sheltered from wet coastal storms
about a 70,000 square mile range, extending from the Kenai Penin-
sula, northward, westward, and also eastward to the Canadian
boundary. Sanctuaries aggregating 5,000 square miles protect them,
the largest being in Mt. McKinley National Park; Similar sheep
are found in the Rockies and even on the tourist-flecked slopes of
Pike's Peak, but Alaska sheep are almost pure white while those
in the States are a smudgy gray with some brown.
Wild sheep herds, as well as caribou and reindeer, have suffered
from depredations of wolves, and the protection afforded wolves
in Alt. McKinley National Park has caused controversy between
Alaskans and the Interior Department's management of the park.
As a result, the government sent Adolph Murie, naturalist, to the
park to study the life habits of the wolf families. Alone, in a cabin
in a desolate region, Mr. Murie spent six months keeping tab on
138 ALASKA TODAY
the predators. The observer's conclusions were that wolves may.
possibly have a salutary effect on sheep and caribou because they
usually overtake the weaker animals. So, with what amounts to
Spartanlike selectivity, wolves knock off the no-accounts, while
the fittest survive through escape. He concedes, however, that
wolves kill many lambs and calves.
Jack O'Connor, wildlife authority in Alaska, says that the Terri-
tory is so large and predators are so numerous that it is difficult
to determine just how much damage wolves and coyotes do. "But,"
he added, "I have seen wolves pass up the weaker animals at the
end of a group in flight and haul down he leaders. And I have
seen wolves herd fine fat sheep to where they could be easily killed
and devoured. On more than one occasion I had the chance to in-
tervene and spoil their plans. All forms of animal life have their
ups and downs. Recently, there has been a lot of talk about wolves,
but it is difficult to say whether there are any more in Alaska to-
day than there were ten years ago. If they have increased, they
are just as likely to decrease in another cycle."
Other big game in Alaska include moose, caribou, and deer,
caribou being the most numerous. In fact, they sometimes are too
plentiful to suit the Yukon River steamboat captains. In groups of
thousands, they cross rivers at any time of day or night, swim-
ming in front of an approaching steamer, and there is nothing for
the boat crew to do but backwater and wait. Two kinds of caribou
inhabit the Territory the mountain and barren ground types.
They rove over half of Alaska and enjoy refuges totaling 8,829
square miles. In the Yukon and Northwest territories of Canada,
there are hundreds of thousands. Caribou herds in Alaska have been
diminishing, but not on as pronounced a scale as reindeer.
The Alaskan moose is far less plentiful and more exclusive in
his habits than any other animal. For hunters coming from afar,
the moose and brown bear are the prize mammals. Alaskans know
the popularity of these majestic animals and give them preference
in conservation programs. On 11,307 square miles of sanctuary
no hunting of moose is allowed. The Far North moose is the largest
of its kind on earth, the bulls standing 7 feet at the shoulder and
attaining a weight of more than 1,400 pounds. The larger bulls
have an antler spread exceeding 6 feet. The world's record for
a moose brought down by a hunter's rifle is an antler reach of 75
WILDLIFE
139
A huge band of caribou crossing the Yukon River near
Whitehorse. (Courtesy White Pass & Yukon Route.)
and 15/16 inches. A larger set found on a dead moose on the Kenai
Peninsula was placed in the Museum of Natural History in New
York City.
The Alaskan animal is a darker shade than the Canadian moose,
with more solid black coloring. The mating season is in Septem-
ber and October. The young, usually one, rarely two, are born
late in May or early in June. Moose feed on the willow, the pre-
dominant small tree growth in the Territory, thus enabling them
to pasture over 240,000 square miles of brush and open forest lands.
Although most abundant in Kenai Peninsula and Rainy Pass, this
lonely animal has extended its range well out on the treeless Alaska
Peninsula and to the islands of the Aleutian group. Its chief physi-
cal enemies are the wolf and man, but at long intervals, when severe
winters coincide with the cyclical peak of the snowshoe rabbit,
which competes with the moose for food in the willow patches,
many of these huge creatures die of starvation.
In the heavily forested regions of southeastern Alaska lives the
only deer native to the Territory. The small Sitka black-tailed
140 ALASKA TODAY
deer, until recently numbering about 40,000, occupy 12,000 square
miles of range among the islands of the Inner Passage and also a
narrow strip of mainland shore line from Dixon Entrance to the
Gulf of Alaska, i ,000 miles northwest. Being at the extreme north
of the deer range in North America, they suffer losses during
severe winters. Deep snows and sharp cold frequently drive them
to the beach line, where they require protection from wolves and
from men. Sanctuaries of 4,860 square miles have been provided.
Among the introduced big game species are the elk, bison, musk-
oxen, and reindeer. The last now, to all intents and purposes, is a
domestic animal. In fact, a reindeer cannot even be owned except
by a native or by the government.
A shipment of Roosevelt elk, liberated in 1927 on Afognak
Island, a comparatively small isle immediately north of Kodiak, is
now a herd of 300 or more fine animals. Some have been "seeded"
on the larger neighboring island and, under prescriptive hunting
laws, have increased.
Another interesting experiment was the moving of 23 buffalo
from the national bison range at Flathead, Montana, to the Big
Delta region in Alaska. From the first, these animals showed ability
to care for themselves and have multiplied until the herd now num-
bers about 400. Some have migrated 1 50 miles down the Richard-
son Highway as far south as Copper Center. The severest winter
weather has not bothered them. Soon the American sportsman
may be able to take a shot at a buffalo in Alaska as his forebears
did on the western plains.
Introduction of muskoxen to Alaska, after an absence of seventy-
five years, also was accomplished some few years prior to World
War II. At one time these shaggy-coated Ovibos were well dis-
tributed along the Arctic coast, but because the muskoxen never
learned to fear man, they soon were almost exterminated by traders
and whalers. Thirty-four of these husky animals, captured in
Greenland, were brought to Fairbanks and later placed on Nuni-
vak Island in the Bering Sea. This is the island where the .Alaskan
Native Service has the greater number of its reindeer. The musk-
oxen herd has more than trebled there.
Alaska is so large and its variety of wildlife so great that its own
residents are by no means familiar with all the species. A muskox
would be as much of a novelty to a schoolboy in Anchorage or
WILDLIFE
141
The muskox bull, a rare animal, was common in Alaska be-
fore the coming of the white man. The government has now
developed a sizable herd on Nunivak Island. (Courtesy Fish
and Wildlife Service.)
Ketchikan as to a youngster in New York. Hence, in Alaskan
cities educational wildlife films are much in demand.
BIRDS AND FOWL
In Alaska, not only is big game protected, but birds and water
fowl are guarded wherever they rear their broods. On its vast
nesting grounds the Territory is host to myriads of valuable
migrants. April and May find them seeking their summer homes;
September and October see them leave, streaming back across the
skies in even greater numbers, for wintering grounds in the United
States and Mexico.
Hunters will be amazed at the vast assortment of birds and water
fowl in Alaska. The most common duck is the pintail, the main-
142
ALASKA TODAY
The short-tailed albatross in the act of feeding its young.
(Courtesy Fish and Wildlife Service.)
stay of gunners in the western states. The mallard and the Amer-
ican widgeon are next, although green-winged teals and greater
and lesser scaups breed in the Territory, as do also smaller popu-
lations of ringnecks, shovelers, gadwalls, blue-winged teals, and
canvasbacks.
The salt-water ducks are well represented by the ubiquitous
oldsquaw, with its organlike voice, and by the white-winged surf
and American scoters. The American and Barrow's goldeneyes
also are abundant along the coast line, and the bufflehead and the
harlequin are almost as plentiful. The goldeneyes are the last ducks
to migrate south in the fall.
Widespread throughout the Territory are the saw-billed or fish
ducks the American, red-breasted, and hooded mergansers. Nest-
ing along the Arctic and Bering coasts and migrating southward
and westward to Bristol Bay and the Aleutian Islands are the beau-
tiful eiders, four species in all. The commonest of these is the large
WILDLIFE
The California murres, a common summer nester in west-
ern Alaska, photographed on the Kiliktogik Islands, near
the Afognak Islands. (Courtesy Fish and Wildlife Service.)
Pacific eider, an isolated colony of which nests in the Glacier Bay
National Monument in southeastern Alaska. The king eider, the
male of which has a characteristic fleshy protuberance on the upper
bill is one of the best known of the four.
Well distributed but not quite so abundant are the spectacled
eider and the teal-sized Steller's eider. Rare and beautiful ducks
from the other hemisphere occasionally reach Alaska; the Euro-
pean teal is the common nesting teal of the Aleutians, while the
European widgeon, the Baikal and falcated teals, the pochard, and
the European goldeneye have been taken as stragglers in other parts
of the Great Land.
While the occurrence of so many kinds of ducks in Alaska may
be surprising, of equal interest is the presence of various kinds of
wild geese, of which eight kinds nest there. Commonest are the
three races of the Canada goose, namely, the white-cheeked goose,
restricted to the islands of southeastern Alaska; the lesser Canada
144
ALASKA TODAY
The tufted puffin, Amchitka Island in the Aleutians. The
skin is used by natives for clothing. (Courtesy Fish and
Wildlife Service.)
goose; and the diminutive cackling goose, which are found over
large areas of the northern and western parts.
Two varieties of white geese, both with jet-black-wing tips,
visit Alaska: the lesser snow goose and the tiny Ross' goose, the
nest of which has only recently been found in the Perry River dis-
trict, Northwest Territory, Canada. A common nester throughout
western Alaska is the white-fronted, or speckle-bellied goose, rela-
tive of the common graylag of Europe, the reputed progenitor of
the domestic goose.
Alaska's most beautiful goose, the emperor, never leaves the
Territory except as a rare straggler. This slate-blue bird, with white
neck and head washed with orange, nests along the Bering Sea
tidal lands and winters in the Aleutian Islands.
The great flocks of black brant, which form such a striking
attraction on the California coast in winter, have their nesting
grounds along the western and northern shores of Alaska. To the
WILDLIFE
The rock ptarmigan, which stays in the Territory the year
round, has been suggested as the official Alaska bird. It is
a valuable source of food. The ptarmigan is here shown
in partial winter plumage. (Courtesy Fish and Wildlife
Service.)
Eskimos, the long waving cobweb patterns of these birds heading
northward over the broken ice floes herald spring, and their equally
impressive southward flight portends the approach of winter.
Among water birds protected at all times are the whistling swan
and the little brown crane, both plentiful in the Territory.
Alaska has an amazing number and variety of shore birds in-
cluding the black oyster catcher, golden and black-bellied plovers,
surf birds, turnstones, Wilson's snipe, dowitcher, Hudsonian and
bristle-thighed curlews, wandering tatler, greater and lesser yel-
lowlegs, knot, Pacific god\vit, and northern and red phalaropes, as
146 ALASKA TODAY
well as numerous sandpipers. Attracted to the lakes and waterways
is a profusion of gulls, jaegers, terns, loons, cormorants, grebes, blue
herons, and other nongame birds.
Literally millions of sea birds frequent the rock islands and
rugged headlands of Alaska each summer to rear their young.
Colonies of murres, auklets, kittiwakes, guillemots, puffins, petrels,
albatrosses, fulmars, and shearwaters fill the seascape with abundant
life.
In addition to such well-known forms of grouse as the rufTed
and sharp-tailed and the less familiar spruce and sooty grouse,
Alaska has three varieties that turn white in winter. These white
grouse, or ptarmigans, in furnishing almost the only diet available
at times to explorers, prospectors, and trappers, have played an
important part in the settling of northern Alaska. As a result of
their year-round occupancy of the Territory, the white grouse
are held in high regard.
Probably the most abundant of upland game birds is the willow
ptarmigan, which lives in most of the willow-grown sections of
the Territory and sometimes forms flocks so large as to obscure
the sun when they take to the air with a thunderous roar of wings,
Flocks of 10,000 to 20,000 have been recorded. The rock ptarmigan.,
slightly smaller in size, is found at greater elevations, and the white-
tailed ptarmigan, not much larger than the domestic pigeon, rarely
descends from the extremely high peaks.
In summer, the ptarmigans are colored various shades of brown
and gray, but in winter the plumage becomes pure white except
for the black undertail coverts in the willow and rock species.
Early in fall the flesh of these birds has a delicate flavor as a re-
sult of their diet of mountain blueberries, cranberries, and grass
seed, but during the long winters, which force them to subsist
almost exclusively on willow buds, the meat becomes bitter,
although they still afford the lone prospector a welcome change
of diet from his fare of bacon and beans.
As a result of the uncertainty of the native game-bird crop, ex-
periments are being made with hardy types of pheasants, includ-
ing the brown and blue-eared, cheer, kallege, Mongolian, and
reeves. It is planned to rear and liberate enough of these birds to
determine whether they will survive the Alaska winters.
Largest of Alaska's birds of prey are the bald eagle, which is
WILDLIFE
The avaricious bald eagle stands watch near streams or
lakes ready to swoop down on a playful salmon or steel-
head trout. (Courtesy Fish and Wildlife Service.)
abundant along the coast line, and the golden eagle, scattered
throughout the interior mountain ranges. In the far north the black
and white gyrfalcons prey on the ptarmigan flocks.
The snowy owl, as well as the migratory short-eared owl, fre-
quents the northern tundra. In timber sections are the great gray
owl, great horned owl, hawk owl, Richardson's owl, and the small
pygmy and screech owls. Among the hawks, the goshawk and the
red-tailed hawk are the most frequently seen, although the duck
hawk, rough-legged hawk, osprey, sparrow hawk, sharp-shinned
hawk, pigeon hawk, and marsh hawk are also familiar.
The song birds of Alaska include an unusual number variety of
thrushes. Most common is the western robin. Bird students are
amazed to find in these latitudes such a wide assortment not only
of thrushes, but also of warblers, sparrows, vireos, swallows, wrens,
148 ALASKA TODAY
kinglets, crossbills, chickadees, flycatchers, finches, j uncos, red
polls, waxwings, woodpeckers, bluebirds, hummingbirds, snow
buntings, longspurs, pine grosbeaks, flickers, phoebes, blackbirds,
pipits, and siskins. The sprightly water ousel, or dipper, is a com-
mon sight along the mountain streams.
Among the distinctive birds of larger size are the bold Alaska
jay, the dark-blue Steller's jay, and the black-and-white magpie.
The northern shrike and the kingfisher are well distributed. Around
the villages, the northern raven and northwest crow are common
scavengers.
For many years, game-law enforcement in Alaska was a haphazard
undertaking, divided among several Federal agencies delegated by
Congress to administer laws which were inadequate and which
had gradually become obsolete. Under these conditions, both game
and land fur animals were diminishing. The intensive killing of
beavers and the overtrapping of martens endangered the future
of these species. It was important that the government exercise
better guardianship.
The passage of the Alaska Game Law in 1925 set up a game
commission to function as the operating agency of the Bureau of
Biological Survey (now the Fish and Wildlife Service) in the for-
mation of suitable regulations. The Alaska Game Law, as modified
by Federal reorganization, provides that the Secretary of the In-
terior appoint a resident pame commission composed of five mem-
bers, of whom four, not Federal employees, are required to come,
one each, from the four judicial divisions; and the fifth member,
the executive officer of the commission, is to be the resident repre-
sentative of the Fish and Wildlife Service.
The Alaska Game Commission meets annually, at which time
it proposes, for action by the Fish and Wildlife Service and the
Secretary of the Interior, regulations with respect to hunting sea-
sons, bag limits, establishment of game and fur districts, and desig-
nation of areas as wild sanctuaries. The work of the commission
has brought about a wholesome respect for the game laws and co-
operation in their enforcement from the residents of the Territory,
both natives and whites. The result is that Alaska probably leads
the world as an attractive mecca for hunters and naturalists.
CHAPTER 12
Fur Farms
PROBABLY NO COUNTRY on earth is better adapted
to the raising of fine furs than is Alaska. The climate induces good
pelts, and natural food is abundant. Yet, the industry is diminu-
tive compared with its possibilities. Only a little more than $2,000,-
ooo is realized annually from island and pen-raised stock, and from
pelts obtained by trappers. Breeders say Alaska should yield fifty
times as many furs as it does.
Prior to the war, Alaska had 300 licensed fur farmers. Norway
and Sweden had 12,000. Alaska today has fewer than 100 ranchers.
The collapse of blue fox farming in Alaska was similar to the
break in the stock market in the hectic days of 1929. Too many
blue fox pelts were sold. Processors and retailers became over-
stocked. Suddenly, blue fox pelts were a drug on the market. The
trend today is toward mink and marten, with the platinum fox,
a cross of the original Alaskan blue fox and the Arctic white fox,
running a close second.
The blue fox is a native of Alaska. Its reign in fur marts of the
world was an epic in the Territory's history, second only to the
gold rush. Hundreds of islands in southeastern Alaska and west-
ward, far out on the Aleutians, were stocked with blue foxes.
Fancy prices were obtained for breeding stock $300 or more a
pair for animals whose pups would yield pelts worth from $50 to
$75. Breeders in the northern states of the Union bought mated
Alaskan foxes by the scores.
Fur farming in southeastern Alaska began in 1895 when Fred
Liljegren occupied and stocked Storey Island in Prince William
Sound. He obtained his breeders from one of the free-run ranches
in the Aleutians. Peak and Naked Islands, in the same locality,
were stocked by James McPherson in 1898. These men were
150 ALASKA TODAY
pioneers, accustomed to living off the country. They erected log
buildings and by hunting, trapping, and fishing, in addition to fox
farming, made a good living. Liljegren married and raised chil-
dren as well as blue foxes. Descendants of these two pioneers are
still carrying on the business at the original locations.
In 1901, James York occupied Sumdum Island in Endicott Arm,
fifty miles south of Juneau, stocking it with 39 blue foxes. In 1909
these islands and others were included in the national forests, and
the fur farms were placed under "special use" permits which is
the system today for acquiring land for fur farms in southeastern
Alaska, or in the Chugach National Forest including the northeast-
ern part of Kenai Peninsula.
In the ten-year period from 1910 to 1919 more fox farmers en-
tered the field. Wingham and Middleton Islands in the Gulf of
Alaska were stocked as were also the Sukoi Islands just north of
Petersburg in Frederick Sound. During World War I and for a
few years thereafter, fur prices were good, the demand exceeding
the supply. Pioneer farmers experienced a boom. News of the
"easy money" spread as it did in the case of the Klondike, and every
available island, suitable or otherwise, was taken up and stocked.
That was the peak; the decline in values started; then came the
crash.
An embryonic fur boom is on again for those who can read the
signs, not necessarily for Alaska, but for all fur farmers. The beau-
tiful platinum fox fur is likely to prove a small Eldorado. Top
quality pelts are harder to obtain than were those of the native
blue foxes. The market is not likely to be overrun with first-class
platinum furs because of the skill required in crossing the right
shades, together with an element of chance. After all, when it comes
to pelts of whitefaces, platina, or even silver foxes, Nature spins
the wheel.
The first pups from a cross of blue and white foxes were born
on the ranch of George R. Goshaw, owner of large fur farms on
Shishmaref Island in northwestern Alaska. That was back in the
early thirties. So far as is known, the first white fox raised in cap-
tivity for breeding purposes was also born at Shishmaref in 1924.
George Goshaw claims to have crossed a blue female with a
ranch-born red fox from wild parents. The pups were mated and
remated with various pronounced opposites. Those that would
FUR FARMS
Feeding blue foxes on a ranch on Wingham Island. Free-
range ranching for foxes has now largely given way to pens.
(Courtesy U.S. Forest Service.)
not breed were killed. Armchair fur farmers with technical knowl-
edge of foxes say Mr. Goshaw's breeding experiment, as above
narrated, is impossible, for the reason that the wild red and blue
fox have entirely different mating seasons. Nevertheless, he ob-
tained fine specimens of cross foxes which are in fair demand.
The blue-white platinum fox, however, brings the highest prices
of any exported from Alaska today. Mr. Goshaw says some have
netted him as high as $104 with an average of $65. Although the
States have approximately 4,000 fur farms to Alaska's 75, the best
foxes still come from Alaska. Fromm Brothers of Wisconsin and
New York State, the biggest ranchers in America, recently pur-
chased 75 pups of the blue-white cross from the Alaskan rancher.
He said: "Alaska is a right and proper country for the raising of
mink and foxes greater than Canada; greater than the combined
areas of Norway and Sweden."
152
ALASKA TODAY
A typical fur ranch in the Tongass National Forest. The
buildings are conveniently arranged for the fox rancher:
from left to right, the dwelling, woodshed, smokehouse,
and feed-storage house. (Courtesy Fish and Wildlife Serv-
ice.)
While the blue fox is a color species of the white, the latter an
inhabitant of the Arctic regions, the blue's history and distinc-
tive breeding date back so far that it may now be regarded as a
separate variety. Although the normal winter coat of the Arctic
fox is white, its summer coat becomes brown or tawny. The blue
fox is dark blue in winter, but tends toward brown in summer.
There are also intermediates in which the coat may be spotted
blue and white, or the blue and white may be blended, producing
a dingy or smoky white appearance. Such mottled animals some-
times occur among blue foxes, thus showing the connection be-
tween the blue and its progenitor.
While light-blue fox skins generally bring a good price on the
raw fur market, there still is a market for the cheaper pelts for
FUR FARMS 153
the so-called popular trade. To supply the latter, white skins are
dyed blue, steel, taupe, and rose. Also, there is ample market for
the common red fox pelts, both in their natural colors and dyed.
The biggest fur farmer in Alaska is the man of many trades
known as Alaska's shrimp king Earl Ohmer of Petersburg. His
Yukon Fur Farms near the town are mostly interested in mink,
though they also breed a few foxes and are making progress with
platina foxes. Mr. Ohmer also owns canneries and several fishing
boats, and has a payroll, so he does not get caught short on either
feed or labor.
Earl Ohmer explains Alaska's failure in fox farming as due not
only to the fact that too many blue fox pelts were put on the
market but that many of the pelts, because of bad conditions for
denning on the islands, were not first-class fur and were of a woolly
nature. After years of ranching, the island-ranched foxes, lack-
ing personal attention from breeders, developed parasites which
infested the ground and dens. With foxes running wild on an island,
it is impossible to treat them for ailments as can be done if they
are raised in pens.
"The war, with the scarcity of labor, high cost of feed, and
government ceilings on pelts was another adverse factor," Mr.
Ohmer said. "These things taken together just naturally forced the
blue fox ranchers out of business. Ceiling price on mink pelts, with
the high cost of feed, also put the majority of the mink ranchers out
of the game. We stayed, although we had to cut down on the
number of breeders. A few others did likewise. Now, some men
are going back into the industry, and I believe in the coming years,
unless there is a real depression in fur prices, that many who have
been ranching fur, as well as others, will go into fur farming. How-
ever, I do not look for any strong return to island-raised animals."
Other factors than disease and parasites worked to make free-run
fox ranches impracticable. For one thing, inbred half-starved males
proved just as active breeders as the superior animals but of course
produced inferior progeny. Also, the young of foxes on remote
islands became the prey of predatory birds. Breeders say the bald
eagle made off with many pups. Sometimes, too, the foxes escaped
on the ice when there was a hard freeze-up; or if there was land
near by, a half mile or less, they would obtain freedom by swim-
ming.
154 ALASKA TODAY
The really successful fur farmer tends his animals in pens and
fenced runs, watching their progress and ailments just as care-
fully as a dairy farmer watches a prize Guernsey herd.
While farms for raising mink, foxes, and other fur-bearing ani-
mals are scattered all over Alaska, especially on islands in the
Tongass National Forest, in central Alaska and the northwest sec-
tor, the industry is now in its infancy compared to the opportuni-
ties. Reduced freight rates on planes are a favorable factor now.
The war took the profit out of the business. A sales tax of 20
per cent was established on breeders' sales of pelts to processors.
The buyer of finished fur garments also was confronted with a 20
per cent sales tax, since fur coats were classed. as a luxury. In both
cases, the unfavorable reaction was felt by the fur breeders. The
processor did not suffer except in volume reduction of business.
The retail fur merchant had the same experience. But the retailer,
with approval of OP A, held prices up while the processors lowered
them to ranchers. There was a ceiling but no cellar. Probably in
all the war economy no person was hit harder than was the fur
rancher.
^ While three-fourths of Alaska's small raisers of foxes and mink
went out of business, the government fur seal industry on the
Pribilof Islands prospered because Uncle Sam forgot to tax him-
self with the 20 per cent sales tax. The Fouke Fur Company of
St. Louis is the seal fur processor, but serves merely as an agent
for the government. Foxes are also raised on the government islands
St. Paul and St. George. Women's sealskin coats command a high
price. The genuine seal fur is a beautiful product that cannot be
surpassed, especially as it is now popular in natural shades rather
than the old-time black. The government could well afford to step
out of the fur coat business, or at-least equalize taxes on the raw
product comparable to those on mink, marten, and foxes, which
are definite competitors of seal. Uncle Sam talks a lot about tak-
ing care of his war veterans and of how thousands of them want
to go to Alaska to begin life anew. Fur ranching could be made
the most attractive inducement in the Territory to hundreds of
veterans. As this is written, it offers the poorest field of all.
Normally, fur farming is an alluring life in Alaska. The work
is pleasant for those who like outdoor jobs, and it is not too ardu-
ous. Living conditions for a family so engaged are good, and so
FUR FARMS 155
One of the first prize male mink from the Yukon Fur Farms
near St. Petersburg, the largest mink-raising ranch in Alaska.
(Courtesy Earl N. Ohmer.)
is the environment near towns. Fish, the main food for the ani-
mals, is plentiful. Most farms are on or close to water, and the
rancher who can catch his own supply of fish is that much ahead.
Because the production of a fine quality of fur is closely related
to climate, Alaska is eminently suited to fur ranching. A reason-
ably cold winter with a moderate amount of shade and sunshine
is necessary for the comfort and health of the foxes. Rainfall, par-
ticularly in the spring, is also conducive to the production of good
pelts. Hot summers are not detrimental to pelts if the heat lasts
only a short time and is followed by cold severe enough to cause
the renewal of heavy coats. While excessive sunshine is said to
make the fur fade, foxes, like most other animals, will seek shade
if it is available. And sunshine and rain are the best natural means
of keeping the ground clean and sanitary. Alaska has enough of
both.
Some of the treeless islands in the Aleutian chain, with their
luxuriant growth of grasses and herbaceous vegetation, have proved
good for fox ranching, but others with little plant life and much
outcropping of bedrock have proved disastrous.
156 ALASKA TODAY
Generally, Alaska's mainland is just as good for fur farms as are
the islands, although ranches along the railroad belt went out of
business in the war years. There are also good farms on the Sew-
ard Peninsula, where the cold winters are particularly conducive
to heavy coats.
In southeastern Alaska, fox farms extend as far south as Hyda-
burg, near Ketchikan, although the winter climate in this sector
is exceedingly mild. Such localities are advantageous because they
are near salmon canneries where for two months or more scrap
fish can be obtained cheaply. As fish is the basic article of diet
for mink and foxes, location ne^ar a source of ready supply at low
cost is decidedly an economic advantage.
The presence of fresh-water streams, springs, or ponds also is
important to the fur rancher. Though it is almost impossible in
pen-raising of stock to avoid carrying water, the task is simplified
if the source is convenient. Other factors to consider for a fur
farm are the location of the pens, the cook house, the feed storage
room, the smoke house and other structures, as well as the rancher's
dwelling house.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in conjunction with the
University of Alaska, maintains an experiment station at Petersburg
in southeastern Alaska, devoted to the problems of fur farming:
diet, diseases, and other subjects confronting the breeder of pen-
raised or semifree run stock. When possible, this station also aids
the prospective rancher in planning the arrangement of his farm.
Anyone not familiar with conditions in Alaska should communi-
cate with the station if he contemplates going into the fur-ranching
business. James R. Leekley is in charge. The Petersburg station,
however, is small, undermanned, and inadequately financed. Also,
conditions for fur ranching in southeastern Alaska are different
from those in western or in the interior sections, and for that rea-
son there should be experimental farms conveniently situated to
these areas. Similar stations in Canada and Siberia are on a larger
scale, and fur farming in those countries is progressing faster than
it is in the United States or in Alaska.
The feed problem on Alaska fur farms is perhaps the most serious.
All the fish fed to fur-bearing animals flounders, gray cod, hali-
but, red cod, salmon, and grayling have a high cash value if sold
for human consumption. Therefore, even if a man catches his own
FUR FARMS 157
supply of fish, he must charge his fur ranch with the cost in cash
that he would get if he sold the fish. The manager of a big fur
farm in the Panhandle said: "I doubt if the near future will offer
any relief in the high price of fish. The rancher will have to de-
pend chiefly on his own fishing ability. He will have to have boats,
gear, and the knowledge of where and how to fish; that cannot be
obtained in a short time. Certain kinds of fish are best for produc-
tion, others for pup growth, and others for fur. This knowledge
cannot be absorbed in a day.
"My advice to anyone wishing to go into the fur farming in
Alaska is to get a job on one of the ranches here, and learn the
game. He should work at least a year; then decide if he wants to
go on his own."
Some of the government experiments for utilizing heads, tails,
and other surplus parts of fish for human consumption might well
be directed to methods of manufacturing a product useful for fur
animals and poultry. There are enough fish in the seas, rivers, and
lakes to feed humans the parts they have always eaten. Alaska's
famed "cannery loaf," which was well meant during the wartime
food shortage, might be diverted to fur husbandry. It might pay
for Mr. Leekley and the management of the Federal and Terri-
torial experimental fish laboratory at Ketchikan to get together.
Texas tomato juice canners found that the pulp remaining after
the juice was extracted, made a good vitamin food for livestock.
The Petersburg experimental fur farm buys bricks of tomato pulp,
skins, and seeds, using it advantageously in feeding its mink and
foxes.
In a sense, despite the favorable climate, low cost of land, abun-
dance of feed, and the wide market for pelts, fur ranching in Alaska
is in the same boat with the reindeer industry. Both are failures,
where they could, with proper management, be tremendous suc-
cesses.
In fur farming, as in other matters, it is obvious that the congres-
sional subcommittee on appropriations got only half the story in
Alaska. The committee's report said: "The production of fur
ranks third among the industries of Alaska, being surpassed only
by fisheries and minerals. During the past several years, the value
of raw furs shipped from Alaska exceeded $7,000,000 annually,
of which more than $5,000,000 was derived from seals taken from
158 ALASKA TODAY
the seal herds on the Pribilof Islands. The remainder was obtained
from land fur animals. The committee was advised that between
six and seven thousand trappers, a majority of whom are Indians
and Eskimos, spend a large portion of the winter months hunting
and trapping, and that their income from this seasonal occupation
ranges generally from $250 to $1,000. The committee met one
native trapper in the vicinity of Circle, northeast of Fairbanks,
who had made in excess of $2,000 from fur trapping during the
past winter. On the other hand, the committee visited several fur
farms which were not a financial success. The main obstacle to
fur farming in Alaska appears to be the scarcity of red meat re-
quired by fur-bearing animals to produce high-quality furs. In
this connection it should be added that a visit was made to the
experimental fur farm operated by the Fish and Wildlife Service
at Petersburg, Alaska, which is performing outstanding experi-
mental work in the breeding, care, and feeding of fur-bearing
animals."
Despite the committee's emphasis on the necessity of providing
red meat, it should be pointed out that where plenty of fish is fed to
foxes and mink, the animals require very little red meat. Seventy-
five per cent of the diet can be fish, and the balance a mixed cereal
and mineral commercial feed that at present is shipped to Alaska
from the West Coast in the States, but which by sufficient enter-
prise, could be produced in Alaska at a lower cost to fur ranchers.
The subcommittee of the House appropriation committee which
spent thirty-eight days in Alaska, discovered "outstanding experi-
mental work in breeding, care, and feeding of fur-bearing animals"
done at the government experimental station, but it did not learn
how that work can be of value to fur breeders, or how it can be
directed to make fur ranching in Alaska practical and profitable.
It did not find out why, if Canada and Siberia can supply the
necessary feed for mink and foxes at reasonable rates, Alaska can-
not do the same. That is the problem that confronts the Alaskan
ranchers not how to obtain red meat.
CHAPTER 13
The Silver Millions
BY WARD T. BOWER
AMERICAN HOUSEWIVES know that the Alaska
salmon, like the Alaska fur seal, yields a product of excellent qual-
ity. Not many know, however, that in every can of this world-
famous fish is encased a piscatorial romance rivaling the most
exciting fiction. The story of the salmon is Mother Nature's best
seller among all her mystery yarns.
From the rivers that drain into the North Pacific come over half
of the world's supply of salmon: the silver millions that have made
a great industry possible. The Pacific salmon is born in fresh water
and makes its way to the sea. After two to six years, depending
on the species, it returns with true homing instinct to the fresh-
water stream or lake of its birth. There it spawns, giving life to
many of its kind, and completing its own life mission.
This homing instinct is so remarkably developed that, as the
spawning season approaches, the fish gather in great numbers,
fighting their way upstream in such masses that sometimes indi-
viduals are crowded out upon the bank. In this rush for the spawn-
ing grounds, many cannot survive the hardships encountered.
When once in fresh water, the spawning urge is so strong that they
neither eat nor rest, always pushing toward their objective, in
some instances hundreds of miles away, or, in the Yukon, more
than a thousand miles distant. After arrival at their individual
spawning grounds, usually in some quiet place, the female pre-
pares a nest and deposits several thousand eggs. The male fertilizes
them and, by the use of his tail, covers as many as possible with a
thin layer of gravel. The eggs hatch in from two to three months,
depending on the temperature of the water; the colder it is, the
159
i6o
ALASKA TODAY
m
The homing instinct of salmon is so strongly developed
that as the spawning season approaches they ascend swift
fresh- water streams to the place of 'their birth, leaping over
falls and surmounting every other difficulty to reach the
pools where they bring forth countless more of their species.
(Courtesy U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)
longer the time for development. Emaciated and weakened after
spawning, the parent fish die, having accomplished the job nature
ordained for them.
Trout and other fish gorge themselves on the eggs as well as
on the young salmon after they have hatched. Gulls, terns, and
other water birds find the young salmon a delicate morsel and con-
sume them freely. The young fish are never without enemies along
the route to the sea. It would seem that only by rare good fortune
could any salmon survive; but millions do, however, and they in
THE SILVER MILLIONS l6l
turn become equally active in appeasing their own hunger in their
years of growth at sea.
Having outwitted their enemies, and now grown to maturity,
the salmon seek, in the final cycle of their lives, the waters of their
birth. As they move in from the sea toward the fresh-water streams,
they must deal with man's cunning and run the gauntlet of fish-
ing devices. But those fishermen who are wise keep an eye to the
future and abide by the Federal regulations which specify that an
adequate number of spawning salmon must be permitted to escape
to maintain the species. Some salmon that have passed the fishing
gear may encounter natural enemies, such as bears and wolves,
which invade the spawning streams and lakes. But apparently there
is a balance of nature which serves to maintain the stocks of fish,
provided reasonable protection is given. This protection is one of
the important jobs of the Fish and Wildlife Service.
The wisdom of control in order to permit enough salmon to
escape to meet spawning ground needs is so evident that most fish-
ermen and canners are strong supporters of conservation. In the
days when the lone coastal fisherman supplied only the small ad-
jacent community with his spear and net, there was little danger
of overfishing, but modern fishing equipment and facilities for
processing and preserving the catch have altered the picture. Pro-
tective measures include the use of airplanes, speedboats, and patrol
vessels to prevent and detect infractions of regulations.
Before conservation could be applied effectively, many details
in the life history of the fish had to be known. Years ago, extensive
biological studies were begun by the Bureau of Fisheries, merged
in 1940 with the Bureau of Biological Survey to form the Fish
and Wildlife Service. These investigations, actively continued,
concern migration routes of the different species of salmon, spawn-
ing habits, and mortality rates, and the resulting information plays
a highly important part in determining regulatory measures.
There are five species of Pacific salmon, each with two or more
trade names: (i) chinook, spring, king, or tyee; (2) sockeye, red,
or blueback; (3) coho, or silver; (4) pink, or humpback; and (5)
chum, or keta. The steelhead trout also is classed commercially
with the Pacific salmons. Each species of salmon has certain char-
acteristics as to flesh texture, color, and oil content.
Although the chinook or king salmon is the largest and most
ALASKA TODAY
Fishing for salmon with a purse seine in Yes Bay, near
Ketchikan. This is the commonest form of seine used for
big-scale netting of salmon, so named because it is let out
and drawn together at the surface like a bag or purse. A
powerboat is used with a power winch for drawing the
seine together for the catch. (Courtesy U.S. Fish and Wild-
life Service.)
highly prized, it is the least abundant. It occasionally reaches a
weight of over 100 pounds, but averages about 20 pounds. The
king salmon was the first to be canned in quantity and has be-
come prominent in the fresh and frozen trade. Its red flesh may
be regarded as setting the color fashion for a high-quality prod-
uct, for to many housewives color is the major factor in judging
excellence.
The sockeye or red salmon has, as its name indicates, red flesh
and it is a close competitor with the chinook. The largest Alaskan
runs of red salmon are in Bristol Bay, an arm of Bering Sea. The
sockeye, like the chinook, remains in fresh water a full year after
hatching. At maturity, four or five years later, it returns to rivers
THE SILVER MILLIONS 163
having lakes at their headwaters, and spawns in the tributaries of
the lakes. It averages 7 pounds in weight and is used almost exclu-
sively in the canning trade.
The coho or silver, which has lighter-colored flesh, goes not only
into cans but also is frozen and mild-cured. Its average weight is
about 8 pounds, with a maximum of 30 pounds. This species, found
all the way from Monterey, California, to the Yukon River in
Alaska, enters fresh-water streams from July to November. It
spawns in the third or sometimes fourth year, the young going to
sea during their first or second year.
The pink or humpback salmon is the most numerous, and also
the smallest of the Pacific salmons, averaging about 4 pounds in
weight. Its flesh when taken from the sea is a light red, but turns
to a pale pink in the canning process. This species ordinarily does
not ascend the larger streams but seeks shorter tributary waters
near the sea in which to spawn. The young start to sea in about
two months and return at the end of the second year to complete
another cycle. This species appears in Alaskan waters from June
to September, with the peak runs late in July and in August.
The chum or keta salmon averages about 9 pounds in weight.
It has a good flavor and is nutritious, but its pale yellowish color
after processing lessens its value in the eyes of those who want
only a pink or red product. The major runs arrive from the sea
later in the summer and fall, and spawning occurs principally in
the smaller streams near tidewater. Soon after hatching the young
go to sea, returning in from three to five years to start another
cycle.
Mechanization has greatly changed the old hand method o can-
ning salmon, although mild curing, dry salting, smoking, and kip-
pering are carried on much as formerly. The fish arrive at the can-
nery in a boat or scow and are unloaded by an automatic elevator
similar to that used in handling grain. One of the most ingenious
machines in the salmon canning operation is the "iron chink" which
has replaced many hands, chiefly Chinese, formerly imported for the
season from the States. This remarkable device cuts off heads, tails,
and fins, and removes viscera in a single rotary operation.
After the "iron chink" does its work, revolving knives slice the
salmon to fit the cans and still another machine with a plunger
arrangement fills each can with fish. Other devices add the proper
164
ALASKA TODAY
Unloading salmon from a scow at Ketchikan, and hoisting
the fish into cannery bins by means of an escalator. (U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service.)
amount of salt, discard cans that are underweight, and vacuum-
seal each container. From beginning to end the process is as mod-
ern as an assembly line in an automobile plant. After sealing, the
cans are cooked in steam retorts for 90 minutes at a temperature
of about 240 degrees fahrenheit. The result is an excellent product
rich in protein and other body-building essentials such as calcium,
phosporus, and sulphur.
Salmon are caught chiefly by traps, purse seines, and gill nets,
and in smaller numbers by beach seines, fish wheels, and troll lines.
The hook and line or trolling method of fishing fojr chinook and
coho salmon is carried on both in Territorial and extra-Territorial
waters and goes on throughout the year, weather permitting. Small
powerboats, manned by a crew of two, are generally used for this
type of fishing.
THE SILVER MILLIONS 165
During World War I, the number of canneries operated in
Alaska increased from 8 1 to 1 3 5, with a pack increase of from 4, i oo,-
ooo to 6,600,000 cases. This emphasized the realization that there
was a limit to the number of fish that could be taken without ex-
hausting the resource. In 1919 the Federal government warned
that the normal supply of salmon was threatened, that some runs
were definitely on the wane, and that it was a mistake to judge
total abundance by the increased output. Conditions culminated in
the passage by Congress of the comprehensive White Act of 1924,
an important feature of which was that not less than 50 per cent
of the fish should be permitted to pass to the spawning grounds.
The White Act also gave the Secretary of Commerce, and later
to the Secretary of the Interior, full authority to administer the
law and to regulate the size and character of nets, traps, and other
fishing apparatus, and to limit the catch taken from any specified
area. This law, with some amendments, provides broad authority
for conservation of the fisheries, and fixes the responsibility for
formulating and enforcing regulatory measures applicable in
widely separated areas, with over more than 10,000 miles of coast
line.
One of the difficulties in judging the trend in the salmon runs
is the length of time required before the survivors of one genera-
tion come back at maturity to spawn. The percentage of loss dur-
ing the spawning process and during the period of life in the sea
has not been fully established, although marine biological studies
are making excellent progress in this direction. The constant ob-
jective is to secure information to enable the rebuilding of those
runs showing evidence of depletion and to increase productivity
elsewhere.
Incidental to the regulation of commercial fishing to obtain ade-
quate escapements of salmon to spawning grounds, the Fish and
Wildlife Service carries on stream improvement work. Each sea-
son the most important spawning streams are inspected to deter-
mine to what degree the spawning areas have been utilized. Ob-
structions to the passage of salmon upstream are removed or altered
to permit the easiest possible access to spawning grounds. The con-
struction of fishways where necessary and the blasting out of steps
over lower waterfalls are included in this program.
In some of the most representative spawning streams, weirs,
66
ALASKA TODAY
Boys repairing fishing nets at the Annette Islands Cannery
at Metlakatla. (Courtesy Alaska Native Service.)
which resemble picket fences, are constructed each season to facili-
tate an accurate check on the number of spawning salmon passing
upstream through the counting gates. These annual counts provide
an index of the extent of spawning operations and also serve as a
means of regulating the commercial catch in a particular area to
balance the escapement.
The fisheries of Alaska are the backbone of the Territory's
economy with regard to permanent value, employment, and tax-
able wealth. More than one-half the entire revenue collected by
THE SILVER MILLIONS 167
the Territorial government comes from the fisheries. The products
of these fisheries and the supplies and equipment necessary to their
operation make up the major items in cargo shipments to and from
Alaska. In some years more than nine-tenths of all Alaska freight
shipments have been related to the fisheries. The industry, how-
ever, draws on Alaska for only about half of its labor. Operators
point out that this is unavoidable, because of the sparse local popu-
lation in most places and the highly seasonal nature of the business.
Capital to the extent of approximately $60,000,000 is invested in
the salmon fisheries of Alaska. Seasonal employment is given to
more than 20,000 persons. The products, as ready for the consumer,
are worth in excess of $50,000,000 each year.
These fisheries are in a high state of development and, apart
from seasonal fluctuations common to any wildlife resource, should
continue at a satisfactory rate of productivity.
CHAPTER 14
A Colossal Industry
NEW METHODS of fishing and the quest for additional
sea products promise to double Alaska's $60,000,000 fishing enter-
prises. This development will not come in a year or two years,
but it will come in time. The huge salmon canning industry, which
accounts for more than 90 per cent of all Alaska's fisheries, will
have a rival when steps are taken to fill the gap caused by with-
drawal of the Japs from North Pacific waters and from the Bering
Sea.
So-called bottom or ground fish flounders, cod, halibut, red
snapper, pollack, crabs, and shrimp, as well as many varieties of
rock fish are being taken in much greater quantities than formerly.
Generally, this form of fishing takes place in early spring and in
late fall, thus greatly extending the season of fishing activities and
serving to promote year-round employment.
Another development that will increase export of Alaskan fish
is expansion of the quick-freeze and packaging method. Experts
predict that one- and two-pound packages of neatly wrapped
frozen fish will soon be marketed on a scale approaching that of
the canned product. This new processing will also result in more
employment, and the extended period of work will induce per-
manent residence of fishermen and processors in Alaska, dispens-
ing with much of the itinerant labor which has been imported from
the West Coast. The mass movement of these employees from
Puget Sound and from San Francisco has been fine for the boat
lines and West Coast labor unions, but has done more to retard
permanent growth of population in Alaska than any other cause.
Though Governor Gruening and Congressional Delegates Bart-
lett and Dimond have fought for years to curtail this movement
168
A COLOSSAL INDUSTRY 169
of outside labor, they have been powerless, chiefly because Alaska
could not supply sufficient workers at the right time. Helpers on
farms and in mines have left their jobs to take others during the
fishing and canning season, thus aiding in the maintenance of a
poor Alaskan economy.
Year-round fishing and processing, with industrial plants manu-
facturing accessories used in the fishing and canning trade, is the
only method of abolishing 1 the West Coast's grip on Alaska's fish-
D or
cries. Such a remedy is apparently in the offing. With the greatly
reduced time schedules of airplanes flying from Chicago and Min-
neapolis, Great Lakes fishermen who can now make the trip from
the Twin Cities to Anchorage in ten hours are likely to enter the
Alaskan field. Obviously, Alaska is no longer to be looked on as
a suburb of Seattle, and the so-called Alaska Fishermen's Union,
dominated by West Coast locals, will have to yield to national
agreements and give a wider range of access to fishermen from the
Middle West, as well as those able to carry on the work from
their homes in the Territory.
The 1945 salmon yield was a disappointment. Only about 4,300,-
ooo cases were packed, compared to a normal pack of 5,500,000
cases. A case contains 48 one-pound cans.
Considerable criticism ensued concerning management of Alaska
salmon fisheries by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, especially
regarding arbitrary dates for opening and closing the season. A
Federal grand jury in Ketchikan declared that "millions of dollars
worth of food fish are wasted because of the present fisheries regu-
lations.'' The jurors recommended that the opening and closing of
the fishing season be made flexible to fit escapement of the salmon,
that is, the time the fish leave the sea for streams and fresh-water
lakes to spawn. The jury further urged that three Alaskan fisher-
men be appointed as an advisory board "to consult with and make
recommendations to the Fish and Wildlife Service respecting all
things relative to the control of fish."
This action was regarded as Alaska's first substantial move to-
ward severing Federal apron strings, which to date, the average
Alaskan says, have tied the fishing industry in a tight knot. If the
Territory should win statehood, it would undoubtedly act to con-
trol its fisheries. Plans have been devised to accomplish that end.
IJO ALASKA TODAY
At the last session of the legislature, a bill was introduced to
abolish fish traps, which are the means of taking 55 to 60 per cent
of all the salmon caught in Alaskan waters. Fully 90 per cent of
the traps are owned by large corporations, many of whose stock-
holders and executives are not residents of Alaska. The bill, re-
ported to have had the approval of Governor Gruening, was passed
in the house, but was defeated in the senate by a vote of nine to
seven.
A4eanwhile, of more interest to the American housewife is the
fact that she will now see an abundance of canned salmon and de-
licious crab meat again stocking her grocer's shelves. The Alaskan
king crab, a monstrous crustacean that has been neglected as a fine
food source except by the Japs, is being taken in Alaskan waters
in no small quantities. It will never rival the famous king or the
other red salmon, but it will quickly assume an important place in
Alaska's fishery exports.
Between 1931 and 1940 the United States paid to Japan more
than $27,000,000 for canned crab meat, and in the last five years
of that decade the imported product accounted for 95 per cent of
our canned, and 50 per cent of our entire crab meat consumption.
Japan supplied 78 per cent of the canned product, while most of
the remainder came from Soviet Russia. Much of the Japanese
pack was obtained from Alaskan waters.
Fresh crab meat is prepared from the so-called "blue" crabs of
the Atlantic and from the Dungeness crabs common to the entire
Pacific Coast. The latter are about one-fifth as large as the aver-
age king crab. Some king crabs, however, are ten times as big as
the Dungeness species.
When relations with Japan reached a crisis, prior to Pearl Har-
bor, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service moved to develop fisheries
and processing to make up for the shortage that would be caused
by the retirement of Japanese fishermen from Alaskan waters. An
investigation was begun to determine whether American enter-
prises could successfully engage in the crabmeat industry. Three
fishing vessels and a floating cannery were employed, and in ten
months these boats explored likely areas from southeast Alaska to
within sight of Siberia. Results established the presence of a large
king crab population in the Bering Sea and a smaller but still im-
portant one in bays on the south shore of the Alaska Peninsula,
A COLOSSAL INDUSTRY
171
Vincent Creed, one of the Fish and Wildlife experts on a
tour of exploration of Alaskan waters in 1940-41, holds a
giant king crab. (Courtesy U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)
around Kodiak Island, and in lower Cook Inlet. The famed Bristol
Bay area probably is the most fertile field.
Virtually all of our imported crabmeat was obtained from the
large king crab that American fishermen have ignored in favor of
the salmon, halibut, herring, and cod. In some Alaskan waters,
notably around Petersburg, the catch of the smaller species of
crab the Dungeness the taking of shrimp, and the digging for
172 ALASKA TODAY
clams have assumed considerable proportions. But with the ex-
ception of shrimp, the industry is confined mostly to local trade.
Lemuel Gulliver, hero of Swift's Gulliver's Travels, paid a hypo-
thetical visit to Alaska in 1703, beating Vitus Bering by nearly
two-score years. Lemuel found cats three times the size of oxen,
and horses 54 and 60 feet high, but the king crab, an actuality at
which he might just as well have marveled, escaped him. It is a
giant compared to the popular conception of an edible crab. Male
king crabs with an over-all spread of 4 to 5 feet that is, from end
to end of legs and weighing 1 5 or more pounds are not uncom-
mon in Alaskan waters. One specimen caught in the Kodiak area
weighed 22.2 pounds, with a y-foot spread of legs.
The carapace (body) of a 1 5-pound crab will measure approxi-
mately 9% inches. The legs, however, supply the best meat, con-
taining twice as much as the body. The huge length of the king
crab's legs is a spectacular and commercially valuable feature of
the species. The leg meat is an attractive pinkish red color. It is
packed at the top and the bottom of the cans, with white meat
from the body in the center. From 5 to 15 king crabs will fill a
case, or 48 cans, of 6 l / 2 ounces each. A crab yields from 25 to 30
per cent pure meat. Shells and viscera are dried, ground, and used
in poultry feed mixtures and for fertilizers.
The king crab is quite a hiker, traveling great distances in the
sea with the ease that the ostrich does on land. This was demon-
strated by the investigating group which tagged hundreds of the
crabs, throwing them back for recapture, to study migratory habits.
One was retaken 80 miles from the point where it had been dropped
overboard. Migrations are governed largely by the molting sea-
sons when the kings seek the shallower waters of inland bays.
Ordinarily, they are recognized as deep-water denizens, being
taken in depths varying from 5 to 80 fathoms (30 to 480 feet).
Operators planning to catch and process king crabs have to be
informed on the molting seasons as well as on the courses of migra-
tion. The king crab molts more completely than the smaller species;
the flesh is not suitable for canning during this period. Molting
takes place frequently in the life of young crabs and annually dur-
ing the life of the adult. When a king crab molts, no hard portion
remains; the entire exoskeleton, the lining of the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, and its calceous structures, gills, tendons, and a portion
A COLOSSAL INDUSTRY 173
of the intestine are shed. In short, virtually a new crab emerges,
and for that reason the flesh of the huge 15- or zo-pound king
crab is as delectable as that of a youngster weighing three or four
pounds. Molting of individual crabs in a given locality takes place
over a considerable period of time; mature males and females have
seasons peculiar to their sex. Most of the shell shedding of the fe-
males seems to occur in March and April, whereas the males shed
in winter.
The advantage of crab fishing either as a specialized business
or as an adjunct to the commoner forms is that the best seasons
are apparently earlier or later than the salmon runs, when labor is
available.
J. Steele Culbertson, formerly fishery management supervisor
for the Fi::h and Wildlife Service in Alaska, stated that salmon can-
neries could well process and can a great deal of the king crab meat
in off seasons, except that many are too far removed from the scene
of the catch. The Japs relied almost entirely on floating can-
neries, but very few of such vessels are now in use in the Alaskan
field. It is believed that several will be built or converted, and
equipped for the new enterprise. Equipment is expensive, for the
big trawl and tangle nets cost from $2,000 to $5,000. The opera-
tion as a whole is much more costly than scooping salmon out of
the huge traps common to coastal Alaska but almost nowhere else.
British Columbia abolished them in favor of gill nets, and they
are not tolerated in the Bristol Bay area of Alaska.
The housewife anticipating a plethora of delicious salads with
crab meat as the base need not lock for cheaper prices, for besides
the cost of fishing equipment, other items make crab production
high. The crabs have to be kept alive after the catch, and they
must be butchered when they are active and in good flesh. The
frequent changing of water or spraying with water, necessary to
maintain a favorable condition on long trips to shore canneries,
involves 'considerable labor. Some of the cost is obviated by the
floating cannery.
Alaska's great fishing industry was curtailed by the war, but de-
velopment of plans for utilizing by-products such as fish scrap, oil,
meal, and fertilizer, together with improved methods of curing
and preserving all kinds of fish, opened new channels for revenue.
Informed experts predicted a $25,000,000 industry eventually in
174 ALASKA TODAY
this field. In the first year of World War II, combined efforts of
Territorial and Federal agencies resulted in establishment of an
experimental laboratory in Ketchikan to aid in developing pro-
duction from fishery resources and in finding improved methods
for processing fish. More than $100,000 has been spent for build-
ings, equipment, and a research staff, headed currently by Harris
W. Magnuson, chemist in charge. Developments at Ketchikan un-
questionably would result in employment for hundreds of Alaskans,
both men and women.
Cod and halibut fishing are also on the upgrade in Alaskan waters.
About three million pounds' of cod were taken the year before the
war. During hostilities, some of the cod fishing grounds were in
the combat zone, precluding use by civilians. Cod fishing on the
continental shelf off Alaskan shores is undertaken mostly by fish-
ermen from San Francisco or Puget Sound. If Alaska had a license
fee from this and other forms of gratuitous fishing in its waters,
the Territory would gain considerable additional revenue, but a
move for such a tax would raise a storm of protest from the West
Coast clique which has long looked on Alaskan waters as its own.
The Federal government will do nothing to further such a tax,
and the Territorial government seems unable to stand on its legs
in anything contrary to the wishes of outside capitalists. Union
labor could remedy this matter and other vital affairs concerning
fishing, but here again, Alaska is weak; there is much talk, with
very little action.
Codfish are caught singlehanded by men in small boats, 15 or
20 of which are sent out at daylight from a schooner. The fisher-
menone man to a boat are paid from $35 to $45 a thousand for
cod they haul up on a double-baited line. So there is an element
of skill and sport to this kind of fishing. Halibut are caught with
"skates" of baited line strung from the sides or rear of a boat, with
the crew generally operating on a share basis. Considerably in-
creased activities in these fisheries were evidenced in 194^.
The catch of Alaska herring also is important and definitely is
open to expansion. Normally, it is more than 200,000,000 pounds.
It is generally believed that herring fisheries can be made more
profitable by developing the trade in salt and pickled herring, for-
merly imported largely from Great Britain, Canada, Labrador, Nor-
way, and Iceland. The Alaska herring are as good as any in the
A COLOSSAL INDUSTRY
175
Herring purse-seine boats with deckloads of fish at Crab
Bay, Alaska. The United States formerly imported great
quantities of salted and pickled herring, but these fisheries
in Alaska are being expanded. (Courtesy U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service.)
world, but in the past they have been used mostly for fish meal
and oil. The United States formerly imported more than 37,000,-
ooo pounds of salted and pickled herring annually; Alaska sup-
plied only a little better than 5 per cent.
No layman in the States can grasp the monumental industrial
opportunities offered through participation in Alaska's fisheries.
The Smithsonian Institution is authority for the statement that 75
species of food fish are found in Alaska or off its shores. Other
authorities say there are at least 200 varieties. Whitefish abound
Ij6 ALASKA TODAY
in rivers and lakes where trout are plentiful, too; the fresh waters
also hold grayling and blackfish. Everything from the oyster to the
whale is the best summary of Alaska's marine and fresh-water life.
No one runs the risk of exaggeration when talking or writing
about Alaska's fish. Even ironical darts of intended overstatement
hurled when Alaska's purchase was attacked in Congress proved
in time to be a boomerang of prophetic truth. A striking example is
that of the Honorable Hiram Price of Iowa, where chubs and bull-
heads are better known than trout or salmon. In 1868, Mr. Price
told the House: "By a movement as quick and a change as sudden
as ever was produced by Aladdin's lamp, we were standing on the
margins of the inlets, bays, and water courses of Alaska. There,
the gentleman from Massachusetts (Banks) pointed out to me the
fish with which these waters swarm; no, sir, I beg your pardon; not
swarm; there is no room for them to swarm; they are piled up, fish
upon fish, pile upon pile; no human arithmetic can compute their
numbers. And, sir, such fish shad, salmon, cod according to the
description, a foot and over through the shoulders, with sides and
tails to match. As I stood there, Mr. Chairman, listening to the gen-
tleman from Massachusetts, with fish to the right of me, fish to the
left of me, fish all in front of me, rolling and tumbling, I had to
acknowledge that the picture as painted made Alaska a good place
for fish."
And it has proved to be just that not only a good place, but prob-
ably the best place in the world for fish.
CHAPTER 15
The Forest Primeval
CAPITAL for logging and lumber processing of Alaska's
huge forests of spruce, hemlock, and cedar began to develop at
the close of World War II, but scarcely on a scale commensurate
with the possibilities. The timber supply is so great that it would
require a large force of investors with big ideas and big pocket-
books to make a sizable dent in the vast expanse of wooded areas.
The United States today is buying more than half its pulp paper
from Canada, whereas Alaska could annually furnish one-fourth
the total newsprint used. The accepted explanation for this state
of affairs is that development of Canada's forests was undertaken
at a time of much more favorable world economy. The Canadian
authorities also granted concessions in the nature of favorable
stumpage contracts and tax concessions which were not available
in connection with the Alaska development. Labor costs also have
been cheaper in Canada than Alaska. Encouragement of trade re-
lations, too, may have accounted to a great extent for the pur-
chase of Canadian wood and pulp.
On the other hand, a situation that now looks encouraging for
the Alaska lumber industry is that timber in the northwest states
is being rapidly depleted. The War Department was faced with
the necessity of going into the national parks for trees three years
ago, when Alaska came to the rescue. The National Park Service
pointed out that much of the fine Sitka spruce in Alaska was going
to waste and could be used instead of chopping down trees in the
parks.
B. Frank Heintzleman, regional forester in Alaska, also urged
that Alaska be allowed to contribute to the war effort. As a result,
the Secretary of Agriculture approved an agreement between the
Commodity Credit Corporation and the Forest Service under
177
Ij8 ALASKA TODAY
which the Alaska Spruce Log Program began producing spruce
logs for airplane lumber from areas in the Tongass National Forest.
This new source of log supply from the northern end of the spruce
belt counted heavily in meeting increased demand for spruce of
airplane grade.
The Commodity Credit Corporation made available a revolving
fund of $3,500,000 to cover field operations. The corporation
bought stumpage from the Forest Service after which the program
officers contracted the work to independent logging companies.
The logs were assembled into rafts of about one million feet each
and towed to Puget Sound, where they were offered for sale to
mills specializing in cutting spruce airplane stock.
The lower grade logs were sawed by the Alaska mills, large
quantities of this lumber being shipped to the Aleutians for de-
fense work. The program was liquidated in the fall of 1944 be-
cause of decreased need for airplane lumber.
Most of Alaska's superior timber is in the two national forests,
the Tongass Forest in southeastern Alaska and the Chugach in the
central southwest area. The two forests have a combined area of
20,880,000 acres, capable of producing 800,000 tons of sulphate
pulp, or over 1,000,000 tons of newsprint a year in perpetuity, the
latter being more than 25 per cent of the requirements of the
United States. Trees adapted to such use are chiefly the Sitka
spruce and western hemlock. Hemlock trees are much more nu-
merous than the spruce.
Shortly before the depression in 1929, the Alaska Forest Serv-
ice was able to interest West Coast publishers and a large paper
corporation (Zellerbach) in the establishment of two pulp and
paper mills, one to be located near Juneau and the other near
Ketchikan. The economic slump canceled all plans in this respect-
plans that were close to fruition; in ensuing years the Forest Serv-
ice was unable to interest manufacturers. But negotiations with
large pulp manufacturers have been renewed.
After a lapse of sixteen years the government decided to renew
its efforts to establish a privately owned and operated pulp manu-
facturing industry in Alaska. An offer of 14,000,000 cords (about
7,500,000,000 feet) of hemlock and spruce near Ketchikan, for sul-
phate, sulphite, or newsprint was made. However, ten times this
amount of commercial timber is available.
THE FOREST PRIMEVAL
I 79
Native spruce saw timber with a mixture of hemlock, at
Bond Bay, Tongass National Forest. (Courtesy Pulp and
Paper Industry Magazine, U.S. Forest Service.)
The decision to push development of pulp and paper plants came
at a time when the industry was facing not only a shortage of
pulpwood but of available forest resources. Like other Alaskan
opportunities, little has been known by the general public of
Alaska's vast forest reserves, but an active campaign was carried
on by the Forest Service in trade circles to have postwar plan-
ners realize the timber possibilities.
Largely secret also were the fine harbor installations, built in
wartime, in what were once quiet little seaports. The effect of the
increase in good roads and the expansion of air and sea transport
on the development of the pulpwood and lumber industry, was
publicized only in trade papers and commercial circles.
While the shortage of newsprint in the United States and Canada
was largely due to lack of manpower, Alaska should have no dif-
An aerial view of Camp Three, the main camp of the Alaska
Spruce Log Program, on Kosciusko Island, Tongass Na-
tional Forest. The quarry shown at the left produced the
rock required for surfacing the logging road. (Courtesy
U.S. Forest Service.)
ficulty in this respect. As has been pointed out, there is a great
deal of seasonable work in Alaska, limited only to three or four
months. Lumbering, on the other hand, may be pursued in winter
as well as summer, housing facilities being easily provided. The
mild fall and winter temperatures in southeastern Alaska make
living and work there feasible; tidewater operations may be car-
ried on throughout the year. Logging crews are housed on floating
camps comfortable frame cabins built on rafts that move from
one logging show to another.
The Sitka spruce is one of the most useful trees on the North
American continent, yet until Alaska became combat territory
great quantities of the lumber used for building houses and for
other purposes were shipped up from Seattle. Alaska has a few
good sawmills, but most of them are comparatively small, not
even supplying local needs. Two of the largest are at Ketchikan
and Juneau where the best of modern equipment has been in-
stalled. Another of the larger mills is now operating at Whittier,
the new seaport town established by building a cut-off on the
Alaska Railroad. A sawmill at Wrangell has also been improved
180
THE FOREST PRIMEVAL l8l
for processing local timber. Carl Edlund, Pacific Coast logging
and mill man, took over the plant in 1945, installing $50,000 worth
of new machinery. He said Wrangell's spruce and cedar will be
shipped to China and the Far Eastern market. While the capacity
of this mill will be only about 70,000 board feet daily, still, it is
a boon to Wrangell's activities and means year-round jobs for quite
a few more residents. The Ketchikan Spruce Mills carry on large
operations in Ketchikan and Anchorage.
There also is much timber in the interior, but not of such qual-
ity as that in southeastern Alaska. Although the vegetative cover
of central Alaska has never been fully mapped, the area in tree
growth is estimated at 80,000,000 acres. Of this, at least half con-
sists of fairly dense stands with well-formed trees. Even the more
scant and brushy growth of the northern sectors would make pulp-
wood. As it is, lumber and logging is an important industry in
parts of the interior. White spruce is the predominant commercial
tree and occurs in natural locations along river valleys and streams.
Woodcutting for fuel offers considerable employment.
With resumption of postwar shipping, there seems little doubt
Alaska will offer practical means of a greatly increased logging
and mill industry. Low cost of power to produce and bring the
wood to the mills is a favorable factor in Alaska. At present, the
largest users of newsprint avail themselves of water transporta-
tion, but the bulk movement of paper over the Great Lakes from
Canada by this means cannot be relied on for more than seven
months in the year because of freeze-ups.
The important consideration for publishers, Alaskans point out,
is the great quantity of timber at hand and the permanency of the
supply. All of Alaska's national forest resources are available for
use. Standing timber can be purchased by manufacturing indus-
tries, or by individuals; areas needed for waterpower development
may be leased for fifty years.
The only drawback to an intensive logging program in south-
east Alaska is that it might prove a menace to the highly profitable
salmon industry. While this idea has not been widely discussed,
experienced conservationists have given serious thought to it. The
heavy growth of spruce and hemlock protect the countless moun-
tain streams where salmon spawn. The trees break the heavy rains
while the deep moss beneath them absorbs the dripping moisture,
l82 ALASKA TODAY
A "Davis" raft of high-grade Sitka spruce logs, produced
by the Alaska Spruce Log Program, starting on its 1,000-
mile journey to Puget Sound mills. (Courtesy U.S. Forest
Service.)
releasing it gradually so that a rush of water, with consequent ero-
sion, is averted. This tends to keep the streams at a steady level
which, fish experts say, is an essential. Salmon will not spawn suc-
cessfully in water that is too deep or too shallow. Also, torrential
flow of water will wash the eggs away before they hatch.
It is a fact, too; that the discharge of sulphite waste from paper
mills plays havoc with marine life. British Columbia and Wash-
ington state have had bitter proof of that. Where pulp mills have
operated at the water's edge and dumped their refuse into a river
or into the sea, fishing as an industry has practically ceased, marine
life disappearing from the contaminated water as far as 8 or 10
miles from shore. So some wildlife experts believe that Alaska's
virgin forests account largely for the Territory's supremacy in
salmon, and that heavy encroachment on the forests for logging
might prove a severe blow to nature's program for propagation
of fish. It is possible, however, that a happy medium can be struck
by utilizing only sections of the forests remote from the salmon
streams.
In the fourth year of World War II, Canada and the United
States got together for the first time regarding forests. The Pacific
Northwest Trade Association was formed with offices at Victoria,
THE FOREST PRIMEVAL 183
One of the floating camps used by the Alaska Spruce Log
Program. As most merchantable timber is located close to
tidewater, loggers can be housed in this manner. (Courtesy
U.S. Forest Service.)
B.C., and Portland, Oregon, to undertake a study of forest poten-
tialities. It was expected that eventually a total of 140,000,000 cords
of timber (78,500,000,000 feet), virtually all the commercially
available stands in the Tongass National Forest, might be utilized
for timber industries.
In addition to pulpwood and lumber for building, newly devel-
oped refining and bleaching processes have resulted in many new
uses for the forests. The Forest Service sought a purchaser to in-
stall a large pulp mill in Alaska within three years after the end
of the war, or, at least, before April, 1949. It was tentatively pro-
posed that a fifty-year agreement would be drawn up and that the
timber would be paid for in advance installments as cutting pro-
ceeded.
Ketchikan and Juneau, the two largest centers for lumbering, are
750 and 1,000 miles respectively from Seattle. Year-round steam-
ship service is provided from Seattle and from Vancouver. The
network of protected sea channels is admirably suited to the use
of motor-driven boats; and a railroad service, or barge service,
could easily be operated between Alaska ports and the Prince
Rupert, terminus of the Canadian National Railroad, to permit
Alaska pulp and paper to be shipped by this short route to middle-
Outlet of Brantwood Lake on the east side of Baranof Island.
This is typical of the many high lakes in the Tongass Na-
tional Forest which are potential cheaply developed water-
power sites. (Courtesy U.S. Forest Service.)
western states. Also, the pulp and paper markets of the Orient and
Australia are as readily accessible to Alaska as they are to the Pacific
Northwest and British Columbia.
There are no climatic conditions that hinder operation of forest
industries in Alaska and in the southeastern sector, heavy precipi-
tation reduces the peril of fires. The ocean inlets generally are free
of ice in winter. The only drawback to heavy production in winter
period is the shortness of the days.
The population of southeastern Alaska in 1945 was about 35,000,
including Indians. The latter, as a whole, are not disposed to do
heavy work. So long as the Interior Department continues to set
aside millions of acres in Alaska where natives need do nothing
but fish and hunt, they are not likely to become applicants for tim-
184
THE FOREST PRIMEVAL 185
her jobs. But there are plenty of white men who would gladly
work in timber under favorable living conditions, especially when
the commercial fishing industry is not at its height. In addition to
Ketchikan, Juneau, and Wrangell, Sitka and Petersburg have satis-
factory locations for pulp mills and could supply considerable
labor.
Since many of the trees in these virgin forests are either over-
mature or young timber, they could be relied on to supply a large
part of the wood for pulp mills. Other timber could be used as
shingles and piling. The overmature hemlock is 3 to 4 feet in di-
ameter and the spruce, 4 to 6 feet. But stands of nearly matured
young growth timber, varying from a few acres to several square
miles, are found throughout the region. These trees, ranging from
i to 2 feet in diameter, are from 90 to 1 50 feet high.
In the year preceding the United States' entry into the war,
37,972,000 board feet, with a stumpage value of $55,267 were cut
on the two national forests. The yield was tripled in the war years.
The total estimated stand is 84,760,000,000 board feet of timber,
so that the amount cut thus far is infinitesimal.
The national forests in Alaska were set apart from the public
domain and placed under supervision of the Forest Service for
development under methods to insure continuous forest produc-
tivity. The chief administrative officer is the regional forester with
headquarters in Juneau. Subordinate officers are located at Ketchi-
kan, Petersburg, Cordova, and Seward.
Regarding waterpower, a survey of the best known sites in
southeastern Alaska disclosed a potential year-round capacity of
800,000 horsepower. With an aggregate capacity of 28,000 horse-
power, 52 power sites had been developed by the first year of the
war and more than 40 were in use. The largest single power site
of record has a year-long capacity of 32,000 horsepower. In many
places, power from several sites can easily be concentrated at one
manufacturing plant. The regional forester is the Alaska representa-
tive of the Federal Power Commission.
The national forests are governed with the idea of putting every
resource to its best use. The use of large tracts of timber for wood
pulp or lumber should, however, require chief consideration in
the future. The stumpage for saw timber averages $1.50 a thousand
for spruce and $i for hemlock. Development of minor wood-using
l86 ALASKA TODAY
industries to relieve seasonal unemployment in Alaska is progress-
ing. Since the forests have extensive peat beds, many of them close
to shipping, the markets for peat moss have been investigated.
The national forests gave employment to workers who were
deprived of a means of livelihood when, for military reasons, fish-
ing, hunting, and trapping were curtailed in certain areas.
FOREST FIRE CONTROL
Alaska needs more money for adequate protection of its forests
from fire, especially in those areas north of the Panhandle. It would
seem that in lieu of sufficient Federal funds to carry on fire control,
the meager amount received from the sale of logs might be used
for patrols and means of combating forest fires. Frequently in the
past they have raged for long periods, being extinguished only by
unusually heavy rains or by streams wide enough to check the
flames. The Forest Service maintains a fire control setup supposed
to handle all fires within the two national forests, and because of
the heavy rainfall in most of this area, fire menace is at a minimum.
In fact, these timber stands have often been designated as "fire-
proof forests." In the Kenai Peninsula, fires are more of a problem
because the climate is drier. The National Park Service, controlling
the parks such as Mt. McKinley, the Glacier Bay National Park,
and the national monuments, has a certain amount of fire control
equipment, but its small personnel and the scattered areas leave
it inadequately prepared to cope with serious fires.
These are the only agencies in Alaska, other than the Alaskan
Fire Control Service, organized to handle fire control activities.
Some 323,000,000 acres of public domain lands are dependent on
the Alaskan Fire Control Service for safety, although not all of
this huge area is timbered. For years there were sporadic attempts
made to decrease the heavy losses of natural resources from fire,
but the vast size of Alaska, its small population, and its meager
communication and transportation facilities, combined to make
the task one of hardship and high cost. In 1924 the first serious
attempt was made by the General Land Office to establish fire
control in conjunction with the district land offices. Fire patrolmen
were employed for three to four months each season to patrol
This map of southeastern Alaska shows the principal tim-
ber, mineral-deposit, and commercial-fishing areas.
I 88 ALASKA TODAY
highways and lands adjacent to Anchorage, Fairbanks, and the
Alaska Railroad, but with inadequate funds the work was limited.
This type of fire organization was maintained through 1933 when
depression-forced economies wiped the Alaska fire control item
from the General Land Office budget.
From 1934 through 1938 by far the greater part of Alaska was
left to risk the ravages of fire. Large conflagrations occurred and
smoke-filled skies hampered air travel. In that period the regional
forester reported:
"The effects of fire far transcend in importance the combined
results of all other agencies which work toward the depletion of
the valuable land resources of the Territory. . . . Not uncom-
monly a fire will rage for many weeks and extend over hundreds
of square miles before being checked by barriers such as rivers or
by the coming of the fall rains. In 1935 a fire in the Kvichak River
section, burning for more than two months in brush, grass, tundra,
and scrub timber, covered an area estimated at 1,000 square miles,
eliminating wildlife of every sort. ..."
These serious losses finally stirred Washington into establishing
an Alaskan Fire Control Service under the General Land Office.
It was organized in July, 1939, with a budget of $37,500. This small
appropriation enabled the service to buy equipment, employ a few
persons, initiate a system of fire detection, and undertake a
limited amount of fire suppression activities. On April i, 1940, the
administration of all Civilian Conservation Corps activities on the
Alaskan public domain was transferred from the Forest Service to
the Alaskan Fire Control Service. The CCC, until its liquidation
in 1942, provided equipment and manpower, not otherwise avail-
able or possible under the limited annual funds which were reduced
to $27,000 in 1941.
In 1942, as a result of the war and Alaska's position in the Pacific
war theater, the Fire Control Service was granted some of the
emergency funds appropriated by Congress for protection of the
forests and strategic facilities of the United States. This additional
fund was continued through June, 1945, amounting to about $125,-
ooo a year. This sum, coupled with the regular appropriation of
$27,000, enabled the Fire Control Service to establish a skeleton
organization of year-long personnel which was supplemented dur-
ing the 6-month fire season with from 25 to 30 fire guards.
THE FOREST PRIMEVAL 189
Federal funds, as appropriated by Congress, are the only monies
available for fire control activities. The territory of Alaska does
not provide funds in any form. "Let her burn," is the attitude of
the Territorial legislature.
No complete records were kept by any organization of the an-
nual burned acreage prior to the 1940 fire season. That it was large
is plainly evident to any air traveler. Since 1940 the total burned
acreages have been: 1940, 4,500,000 acres; 1941, 3,654,774; 1942,
452,510; 1943,666,773; 1944, 110,603; 1945, 1 1 7, 3 1 4. This reduction,
representing millions of dollars of natural resources, demonstrated
what could be done even with comparatively small appropriations,
although the Alaskan Fire Control Service conceded that excep-
tionally wet summers for three years, coupled with co-operation
of all Federal and private agencies in Alaska, aided materially in
suppression of fires.
(Editor's note) Success in the long drive to establish a paper
pulp industry in Alaska finally came in August, 1948, when the
Forest Service announced it had accepted the bid of a west coast
company involving the cutting and processing of i billion 500
million cubic feet of timber from the Tongass National Forest
near Ketchikan. The contract was for fifty years. The bid was
from the Ketchikan Pulp and Paper Company, an affiliate of the
Puget Sound Pulp and Timber Company, Bellingham, Wash.
Under the agreement, a mill costing about 30 million dollars was
to begin at once. At peak production, the mill will have an output
of 500 tons a day and employ 1,200 workers.
CHAPTER I 6
Mining
DRAW UP a chair and listen to the oft-told tale of Alaska's
buried treasures, amended a bit to include postwar developments.
Thar's gold in them thar hills more of it known today than in
'98 when fifty thousand cheechakos from afar tried to find it.
The Northland's mineral wealth stirs the imagination of the
white-collar city worker, the Iowa farm boy, and even the old-
timer warming his toes near a radiator in Alaska's Pioneer Home.
He would like another chance! For every capitalist with banks and
movies, for every transportation executive with streamlined buses,
for every governor fighting outside vested interests for a few more
dollars in taxes, for every president of a land grant college strug-
gling to set Alaska on her feet in agriculture for every one of these,
there are a hundred hopefuls planning, prospecting, or digging in
the frozen soil for gold.
If it's not gold they're seeking, it could be titanium, zirconium,
rubidium, cesium, cerium, rhenium, molybdenum, platinum, or just
plain tin and copper. Almost all the elements for which commercial
use was developed during the war years have been found in Alaska.
In the search for strategic and critical minerals, engineers sur-
veyed Alaska's great mineral wealth on a wider scale than ever
before. They went into unexplored regions to seek ores vital to
the war effort, with the result that many new projects were opened
in the three-year period in which gold mining was suspended.
Toward the approach of V-E Day, however, mining for "colors"
was renewed under certain priorities; and on June 30, 1945, the
ban on gold mining was lifted, too late for much progress until
the following year.
In 1944 and 1945, there was some activity in the tin fields on
the Seward Peninsula, but production of this essential mineral was
190
MINING
9 1
not as great as demand seemed to warrant. Alaska is the only place
on the North American continent where tin is mined in any
quantity.
Production of platinum, a highly strategic mineral, especially
for construction of aircraft parts, centers almost entirely in Alaska,
so far as this country is concerned. Platinum was first discovered
in the area of Goodnews Bay in 1927 by a native who excitedly
announced he had found white gold. A sample was sent to the
University of Alaska, where the true identity of the ore was deter-
mined. One company, the Goodnews Bay Mining Company, sit-
uated ten miles from the town of Platinum on Goodnews Bay,
north of Bristol Bay, mines about 90 per cent of the total recovered.
The camp, under the direction of Edward Ohlson, is a hustling
community with 20 miles of roads, modern homes for executives,
and smaller cottages for the miners. Movies and dances are regular
events; a bowling alley is another attraction, together with a library
for the miners' families. Quite different from the old days at Nome
when Tex Rickard, smoking a big black cigar, paced the floor of
his gambling hall with a sharp eye on his roulette dealers. Never-
Dredge of the Goodnews Bay Mining Company near Plati-
num, Alaska, where nearly all the platinum ore in the
United States is mined. (Courtesy Edward Ohlson.)
Investigated mining areas in Alaska Railroad belt: A
Anthracite Ridge; B Fairbanks; C Willow Creek; D Mt.
Eielson; E West Fork of Chulitna River; F Eureka and
vicinity; G Girdwood; H Valdez Creek; I Moose Pass
and Hope.
MINING 193
theless, modern methods pay. The camp has been producing
$1,000,000 in platinum annually. An 8-cubic-foot dredge handles
1,250,000 yards of platinum and gold-bearing ground. The com-
pany holds or leases 1 50 claims.
During the war, the mining of tungsten ore, used chiefly in
making high-grade steel, was also pushed. Mines at the southern
end of Alaska, that formerly were a moderate source of tungsten
ore, were reopened. An increased output of mercury was obtained
from Alaska deposits near Sleitmut in the central part of the
Kuskokwim district on the northern flanks of the Alaska Range
and, in a lesser degree, in other places.
One of the most interesting discoveries of the exploratory work
was the valuable deposit of jade in the Shungnak area of the Arctic.
So far as is known, this is the only place on the North American
continent, except a minor field in Wyoming, where jade, almost
exclusively a product of southern China, is found. Experts in rare
stones who have examined the Alaska product say it is of a good
type, not what is known as jadite. Although jade is marketed
largely as costume jewelry, tests made on the Shungnak deposit
determined it could be used in bearings for airplanes; therefore,
equipment for a complete laboratory to cut and grind the jade
was immediately forwarded to Shungnak.
The Arctic Circle Exploration Company, which discovered the
jade deposits, also found large quantities of tremolite asbestos, used
as a filtering agent for blood plasma. The supply in the United
States was almost exhausted at the time of the discovery. The
company reported that 25 tons were shipped out the first season,
and that the government was calling for full development of the
vein. Shipments were made from Shungnak to Fairbanks by plane
at transportation costs of $500 a ton.
Such enterprises as these show that Alaska has a large field for
development of mining aside from that of gold. It is known that
more than 1 50 commercially important metals exist in Alaska, but
many still lie as untouched resources. Deposits of mineral com-
modities, such as petroleum, marble, varite, graphite, gypsum, and
sulphur, which occur in Alaska, attracted minor attention in the
war years. An excellent bill to aid prospectors was introduced in
the seventeenth legislative session; it was passed by the House but
was killed by the Senate.
194 ALASKA TODAY
Governor Gruening and B. D. Stewart, Alaska's commissioner
of mines, have made strong pleas for funds to stimulate research
for minerals. Mr. Stewart said: "More extensive, better directed,
and better financed exploratory, prospecting, and development
activity is the primary need of the mining industry in Alaska. . . .
Too great a percentage of the efforts and resources of mining op-
erators is being devoted to the task of extracting mineral wealth
from developed sources and far too little to the search for new
deposits.
"This problem is met in Canada by syndicates organized for
that purpose, and by mining companies. One maintains a corps of
experienced prospectors in widely scattered localities. The pros-
pectors are paid a salary and are assured of liberal cash purchase
prices, plus a share in any productive enterprises resulting from
their discoveries. The company maintains a fleet of airplanes, keep-
ing touch with the prospecting parties, supplying them with pro-
visions and equipment."
Despite such examples as described by Mr. Stewart, neither the
Federal nor Territorial government in Alaska has done enough to
encourage emulation of them.
The two main domestic coal fields are the Healy River mines in
the interior and the field at Matanuska, both served by the Alaska
Railroad. The largest amount of coal, but not the best, comes from
the Healy field on the northern slope of the Alaska Range. This
coal, used chiefly in the Fairbanks region, is a high-grade lignite,
adapted to generating power because it is relatively cheap. A large
interest in the mines is owned by Cap Lathrop, as well as by the
railroad. Healy, north of midway between Anchorage and Fair-
banks, is a growing community, the Alaska Railroad having just
completed a new hotel, cottages, and repair shops at a cost of nearly
$500,000.
The Matanuska fields, with a railroad spur running to the mines,
yield 1,000 tons daily of high-grade bituminous coal. Located less
than 50 miles from Anchorage, the mines are highly profitable
because of the short haul to market. Recently, a vein producing
500 tons daily, and indicating millions of tons, was opened. The
seam is 2 miles long and 1 2 feet deep. Above it is a second vein, 5
feet thick and approximately the same length. The new coal, part
of the Evan Jones property, is 25 per cent higher in heat units than
Alaska Juneau gold mine, one of the largest low-grade gold-
ore mines in the world. Its unique feature is that the shafts
go up instead of down.
that formerly mined, and leaves only 8 per cent ash, compared to
a former 1 6 per cent.
In addition, small properties throughout Alaska are in various
stages of development. One of them is in the Costello Creek region
in the southern foothills of the Alaska Range, west of Broad Pass,
a railroad stop. For years small supplies of coal have been taken in
the Homer area. At Wainwright on the Arctic Coast, coal is mined
by the natives with a pick and wheelbarrow, practically at ground
level. Recently, under direction of Don C. Foster, director of the
Native Service, this mine has been improved by tunneling and by
imported machinery. In the summer of 1945, about 200 Eskimos
were engaged in working the mine with the result that sufficient
coal was obtained not only for the immediate vicinity, but also for
Barrow and other distant native settlements. It was hauled by dog-
team or tractor-drawn sleds.
A small amount of coal is mined in the Yukon Valley. Many
195
196 ALASKA TODAY
small strip properties were uncovered in the building of the Alaska
Highway. There is also some coal on the Alaska Peninsula. The
situation as a whole is that Alaska not only has enough coal for
present needs in the vicinity of the various coal-mining properties,
but could also produce it in sufficient quantities to ship coal to
southeastern Alaska, where most of the people live. The problem
of inadequate transportation, at present blocking such a move,
could be solved by a good ferry system from Haines now reached
by highway. The Alaska Railroad is not especially active in pro-
ducing a good ferry system.
Among other Alaska mineral products prized in the war effort
was lead. Because it comes as a by-product of ores mined for their
gold, a number of gold mines that otherwise might have been closed
were allowed to continue. Quantities of lead come from the huge
Alaska Juheau mine which, during most of the war era, continued
operating at about one-fifth its capacity. In 1944, however, it dis-
continued work entirely rather than meet a requested wage in-
crease of 14 cents an hour. In the spring of 1946, these differences
between the management and the miners' union (AFL) were ad-
justed and Alaska Juneau got under way again. Normally, it em-
ploys more than i ,000 workers.
Mining in Alaska ranks as the second industry. Eventually, it
may again assume first place over the fishing and canning industry,
for fish to a large degree are governed by nature and mining by
man. Lode and placer mining of gold still hold first place, despite
all the development in other fields. At present, about 7,000 persons
find seasonal employment in mines, compared to approximately
18,000 in fisheries.
While hundreds of Alaska's residents engage in mining on their
own and thousands of others obtain seasonal employment, a large
percentage of the gold mining is in the hands of big companies
controlled by nonresidents. There is, however, considerable local
capital in the Alaska Juneau mine, the largest quartz mine in Alaska
as well as one of the largest low-grade gold ore mines in the world.
Its stock on the New York exchange has been selling at about $9
a share. The mine is unusual because its shafts go up from the base
into the mountain, instead of down.
In the Fairbanks area, several local companies operate dredges
and draglines for placer gold mining where large-scale operations
This old sourdough is panning the precious yellow metal
in the swift current of a mountain stream in the Yukon
country. While this form of gold mining is comparatively
rare, it is not entirely obsolete in the Northland. (Courtesy
Canadian Pacific Railway.)
198 ALASKA TODAY
are carried on by the Fairbanks Exploration Company, a subsidiary
of the United States Smelting, Refining and Alining Company. The
latter has little Alaska capital involved. It has, however, plenty of
influence in Alaska's legislature and does not hesitate to use it.
Stripped of most of the glamor of gold-rush days, mining for
"colors" in Alaska recently has been chiefly an organized business.
But there is nothing to prevent individuals or small groups from
going out after gold on their own if they want to. There is still
some of the old-time color in remote camps; sensational strikes,
however, are rare. The picturesque Alaska prospector, panning
gold in the creeks, has been missing for years. Now huge dredges
are used for digging creek and river beds. Bulldozers slash away
the topsoil; steam drills push down to bedrock so that pipes can
be easily driven to flush the subsoil with water for thawing. Hy-
draulic pressure streams play on the big gravel banks in strip mining,
washing out low-grade muck that yields gold and by-products.
Labor troubles have been few since 1941, when there was a
strike of United States Smelting employees. The CIO, under the
leadership of W. A. Rasmussen, became firmly intrenched and
extracted favorable terms for its workers. Living conditions of
the miners have been greatly improved. Many men who pros-
pected and mined for themselves are now willing to work in estab-
lished mines for good w r ages and at fixed hours. In normal times
it is not too difficult to get help, but early in 1946 employers were
struggling to line up men for the rush that was expected after the
long suspension of gold mining.
Now there are no stampedes or marathon "runs" to stake a
claim; no fabulous Wilson Mizner's staging prize fights and barroom
shows for spendthrift miners; no dollar-a-dance girls; no $6 a
dozen eggs. But since the days of the Klondike and Nome gold
rushes, forty-odd years ago, the -working of known gold deposits
and the search for new ones have gone on continuously. While
Alaska does not yield its yellow metal so spectacularly 'as before,
it surrenders the gold in almost as great a quantity as during the
hell-raising days; and, of course, gold brings a much higher price
an ounce than it did in 1898.
The total value of minerals from Alaska mines in the year before
the war was $26,791,000. Gold accounted for 91 per cent. But in
the war years, shipments of gold and silver ores amounted only
MINING
199
Thawing the frozen gravel beds by means of cold-water
pipes driven into the ground for many feet. This process
permits the big dredge to go to work.
to about $2,000,000 annually. Other minerals used in the war were
not listed in the foreign trade figures. Since 1880, the start of
official records, approximately $860,000,000 has been taken out
of Alaska in minerals. Including the minerals used for war pur-
poses, the value to date has been $ i ,000,000,000.
Alaska gold comes from two types of deposits placer and lode.
In placer mining, gold is recovered from gravel or other uncon-
solidated deposits; in lodes, it occurs in the solid rock or vein
matter. Placer mining, widely scattered, formerly supplied twice
as much gold as was obtained from lode mines. The greater part
of the lode gold comes from southeastern Alaska, near Junsau and
on Chichagof Island, with the Willow Creek district, fifty miles
northwest of Anchorage, next in yield.
Development of Willow Creek and other areas along the line
was promoted by the Alaska Railroad to increase tonnage. Congress
voted $250,000 for reconnaissance in these and other sections near
the railroad, the grant being made to the geological survey with
Dr. Philip S. Smith as its representative. Ten selected projects in-
volved the examination of two localities valuable for coal: Anthra-
200 ALASKA TODAY
cite Ridge and Moose Creek; five areas likely to be valuable for
gold: Fairbanks, Willow Creek, Girdwood, Moose Pass, and Valdez
Creek; and three areas whose lodes consisted mainly of mixed sul-
phides: the Eureka area in the Kantishna district, Mount Eielson
(formerly known as Copper Mountain), and the head of West
Fork of the Chulitna River.
A general study of the nonmetalliferous resources of the region
traversed by the railroad was included in the projects. The Willow
Creek district, in the southwestern part of the Talkeetna Moun-
tains, 20 miles north of Knik Arm, is accessible by automobile road
from Wasilla. The district is 1 6 miles long from east to west, 6 to
8 miles wide, with an area of about 1 1 2 square miles. Gold was dis-
covered in the vicinity in 1888, but no extensive knowledge of the
region was gained until 1 906. Now it is one of the most promising
gold developments in Alaska. Some of the best-known mines are
the Independence, War Baby, and the Lucky Strike.
The Talkeetna Mountain region is deeply scarred by glacial
erosion. At elevations above 2,500 feet, it assumes proportions of
rugged grandeur. Typical U-shaped glacial valleys separate the
ridges, which in turn are deeply scalloped by closely spaced glacial
cirques. Within the Willow Creek district proper, the elevation
ranges from 1,500 feet in the valley of the Little Susitna River to
6,000 feet at the crest of the highest peaks in the northeastern part.
Farther northeast, beyond the limits of the district are elevations
of 8,000 feet. Above the lateral moraines and talus slopes rise pre-
cipitous cliffs and narrow ridges whose saw-toothed edges and
craggy pinnacles exhibit many grotesque silhouettes.
Aside from its commercial aspects, this section is one of Alaska's
outstanding scenic wonders. Lieut. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner,
Jr., loved these mountains and the Susitna Valley. He had bought
property in the vicinity and had planned, when the war was ended,
to transplant the Buckner family from their native home in Ken-
tucky to a strip of land along Cook Inlet. "The sun going down
and that beautiful red sky with Susitna silhouetted in the fore-
ground is a sight I want to see in my last days," he told a friend.
But fate decided otherwise for General Buckner when he fell on
Okinawa.
Copper mining, which at its peak in 1916 surpassed gold in value,
later became almost a forgotten project. Mining of this ore has
MINING
2OI
A section of the huge drill rig used by Seabees to uncover
naval oil reserves in northern Alaska. It is en route to Umiat
at the southern end of the 35,ooo-square-mile reserve. (U.S.
Navy photograph.)
been renewed to some extent in the past few years. In 1916, copper
mined in Alaska was worth $29,484,291. Stock market investors
well remember the three-figure values chalked up in the flush days
of 1928 and 1929, for Kennecott Copper is one of the richest cop-
per properties in the world. The Morgan-Guggenheim interests
added many millions to their well-stocked coffers. The ticker often
showed a sale of 1,000 to 5,000 shares of Kennecott Copper every
half hour, with the stock bringing around $1503 share. It reached
a high of $162. When production failed in 1938, as already men-
tioned, one of Alaska's three railroads the Copper River and
Northwestern went out of business.
The potential oil reserves in Alaska in the Arctic region near
Barrow are controlled for the most part by the U.S. Navy. It has
held 35,000 square miles there since 1923, when President Harding
signed the order placing the vast tract under naval control. In 1944,
the Navy put a force of Seabees to work in the Arctic field known
as Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4. The expert in charge of drilling
was Captain Bart W. Gillespie, Civil Engineer Corps, U.S.N.R.
The work was continued in 1945. The expedition's leader presented
202 ALASKA TODAY
details of the exploration and its purpose, before a Senate commit-
tee investigating national oil reserves.
Results of the drilling have not yet been announced but the
Navy spokesman did say that even if a gusher were developed it
would be capped, and that no oil would be taken from the reserve.
Under the law creating the four reserves controlled by the Navy,
only a national emergency will cause oil to be taken from any of
the tracts held. In World War II, the government spent $i 30,000,-
ooo in developing and piping oil from the "Canol" Norman Wells
field in Canada to the Alaska Highway. The emergency was still
not considered desperate enough to draw on Naval Reserve No. 4
in American territory. Also, engineers considered the distance from
Barrow to the nearest point on the highway too great to make such
a venture practical.
The Canol project was abandoned by the United States shortly
before the close of the war, but despite the hue and cry against it,
the project might have proved highly useful had the Japanese made
more progress than they did in the North Pacific. Canada was
asked to make a bid on the U.S. property the pipe line and refinery
which supplied considerable fuel for trucks and planes at the
height of heavy traffic on and over the Alaska Highway.
Geologists and independent oil men say that there is undoubt-
edly a good amount of oil in the U.S. Naval Reserve. Shortly after
he began actual work in the reserve, Captain Gillespie advised the
Navy Department: "There is every reason to believe the reserve
contains oil in quantity."
Oil exists in other parts of Alaska, especially on the Alaska Penin-
sula and at Kattalla, on the Pacific Coast east of the mouth of the
Copper River. H. Foster Bain, special consultant to the U.S. Bureau
of Mines, told Alaskans in the summer of 1945 that as yet Alaska
oil deposits had had no fair test as to their potentialities, and that he
had great hopes that good Alaska oil fields will be found. He men-
tioned that the Standard Oil Company spent $11,000,000 in the
Dutch East Indies before the rich fields there were finally de-
veloped. Federal and Territorial authorities, aside from the Navy.
have spent possibly $20,000 in Alaska.
CHAPTER iy
Meat for the Wolves
THE WOLVES of Alaska are licking their chops! Why
not? Nightly, they feast on choice reindeer steaks. Time was when
reindeer meat was a luxury on transcontinental trains and in swank
hotels and restaurants of the nation. But in 1938 Congress began
tossing it to the wolves and the Eskimos, and today the wolves
have most of it.
More than a decade ago, Alaska's famous reindeer husbandry
loomed as a $20,000,000 industry, but now it is just a headache for
Uncle Sam. The deer have dwindled from 750,000 to an estimated
65,000. During the war, herders left to take high-priced defense
jobs, and the wolves had free run of almost all Alaska's reindeer
herds.
At the ceiling price of 16 cents a pound for dressed reindeer
carcasses, plus the value of hides, this decline in the number of deer
represents a loss of approximately $10,000,000. The potential loss
is many times that, as it will take years to rout the wolves and
restore the reindeer.
The average weight of a reindeer, ready for market, is 105
pounds; the skins are worth from $i to $4. Fawn hides, from which
beautiful cold weather garments are made, command the top price.
The meat is as good as beef and formerly it brought more than beef
in the States, where it was widely marketed.
With the Army and Alaskan meat markets bidding for reindeer
that could not be supplied, the Territory exploded with fury over
depletion of the herds which, since 1940, have been solely under
government and native management. Four years before the war,
Congress passed a law barring white men from reindeer ownership.
The U.S. Indian Service, a division of the Interior Department,
was instructed to buy out white operators and turn the herds over
203
J. Sidney Rood, for many years general reindeer supervisor
for the Alaska Native Service. He directed the Eskimo or-
ganizations and also supervised the installation of the im-
portant government plant at Nunivak Island.
MEAT FOR THE WOLVES 205
to the natives. Negotiations were begun as far back as 1934, Dut
they were not consummated until much later. The purchase, ac-
cording to former owners, was about as sharp a bargain as that by
which Secretary Seward bought all Alaska for a song. The num-
ber of animals involved in the deal was 84,442; the amount paid
for them was $328,614, or an average of $3.98 apiece. At the wartime
poundage ceiling established later, each reindeer would have been
worth $16.80, exclusive of hides.
Abattoirs, refrigerators, corrals, and herders' cabins also were
bought by the government for about one-fourth their cost, the
total outlay being $445,916. The 84,000 reindeer, of course, did
not represent all those in Alaska, as the Eskimos already owned far
more than half of them. The count was made by Charles G. Bur-
dick, special appointee of the government, who, with J. Sidney
Rood, reindeer supervisor, flew low in a plane over Alaska's wild
tundra, circling and estimating the scattered herds. Other means
of checking white ownership were employed, such as herd brands
(clipped ears) used by both white operators and natives.
In July, 1945, Mr. Rood said: "I do not think there are more
than 65,000 reindeer in Alaska today, including some 20,000 on
the mainland." Shortly after publication of his official report, Mr.
Rood lost his job.
Reindeer are considered a highly economical source of revenue
in Alaska because they graze on millions of acres of tundra plain
and mountainous regions that cannot be utilized for any other
purpose. In the war years they proved of definite aid to the armed
forces, in providing both sustenance and hides for cold weather
garments. A great deal of the material used for parkas, mukluks
(skin boots), mittens, socks, leggings, and sleeping equipment are
provided by the deer. These garments are made by Eskimo women.
Naval headquarters at Barrow is one of the chief markets, although
apparel is sold at other places, and to civilians as well as to the
military.
In the first year of the war the Eskimos sold 300,000 pounds of
reindeer meat to the Army and Navy. Sales have continued on a
diminishing scale. With the depletion of the mainland herds,
through waning activity on the part of the Eskimos, the reindeer
industry now centers on Nunivak Island in northwestern Alaska,
where the government owns 30,000 animals about three times as
206
ALASKA TODAY
Reindeer of both sexes have larre antlers which are shed
annually. Horned and hornless deer are found together in
the herds. (Courtesy U.S. Indian Service.)
many as forage facilities permit. Consequently, extensive butch-
ering of fawns as well as adult reindeer has been under way there.
In 1944, the Army released to the Reindeer Service a quick-
freeze and storage plant it had maintained at Nome. This was
erected at Nunivak. Nearly all the occupants of the island are
Eskimos who tend the reindeer and operate the slaughter and cold
storage plant under white supervision. The plant holds 1,500 frozen
adult carcasses, or 4,000 fawns. Butchering began in the early fall
of 1945 when 4,000 fawns were "harvested." "Our main objective
in slaughtering fawns instead of the older animals," Mr. Rood said,
"was to meet the strong demand for their hides; also a greater
number of fawns could be handled by the plant. We used the
quickest way to cut down on the number of reindeer grazing on
the island."
While Alaskan reindeer herds on the mainland grew thinner
MEAT FOR THE WOLVES
207
and thinner, Alaska's wolves, practically unmolested, waxed fat.
Meanwhile, across Bering Strait in Siberia, the reindeer industry
prospered. Thousands of natives there gain sustenance and financial
income from the deer. They not only use the animals' hides for
clothing and the meat as food, but they milk the reindeer, making
an excellent cheese, which is widely distributed.
The turning point in Alaska's booming reindeer industry came
when Congress hearkened to lobbyists representing the sheep and
cattle men of the West. At that time, white owners of reindeer
had progressed to a point where reindeer meat was extremely
popular. Not only was it produced more cheaply than beef or mut-
ton, but it had the lure attached to game products and was looked
on as a luxury. The Department of Agriculture considered rein-
deer a sufficiently important food source to issue a pamphlet of
Reindeer grouped in a large range corral at the start of the
annual roundup. (Courtesy U.S. Indian Service.)
208 ALASKA TODAY
recipes for cooking the meat. Food specialists of the former bureau
of home economics supplied directions for preparing reindeer
roasts, steaks, chops, breaded cutlets, stews, and pot roasts.
All parts of the deer are good. The meat differs little from beef
or veal, generally containing less fat and more protein. The flavor
is characteristic, gamy but not strong; and the texture is fine. These
qualities become widely recognized. Wholesale meat dealers in
the States began handling reindeer on a big scale. New York,
Chicago, and San Francisco provided especially good markets. A
whole shipload of reindeer carcasses was sent east via the Panama
Canal, the meat arriving in New York in prime condition.
Stockmen of the western states became alarmed. Their lobbyists
in Washington centered their complaint on alleged injustice being
done to the Eskimos, for whom reindeer were first imported to
Alaska. Congress decided to eliminate white men from the industry.
The majority of present-day Eskimos are not good reindeer
herders. They know how to tend the deer, but the Alaska Native
Service has taught them an economy alien to the nomadic job of
the herder. The attractions of village community life have been
emphasized. By contrast, life on the wild tundra plains is obnoxious.
Little by little, the herders became weary of tasks they found hard
and lonely. There were rains, blizzards, maddening insects. The few
really diligent herders were discouraged by having to carry the
burden of tending deer which inactive owners had turned loose
to wander in "association" herds. The government encouraged
these native associations or stock companies, ownership of one
reindeer being equivalent to one share of stock. The herders them-
selves usually were not large stockholders. They were merely paid
hands, deprived of the joys of social life in the settlements where
most of the actual owners lived in comparative ease and comfort,
waiting only for the annual roundups when they could butcher a
good supply of reindeer for a winter's supply of meat for them-
selves and their dogs.
Unlike western cowboys in the States, around whose lives there
is a certain element of romance as well as good living, the reindeer
herders of Alaska were the "goats" of the faltering industry, under-
paid and generally discontented. Reports of Native Service teachers
who, among other multitudinous duties, were expected to keep
herders on the job, as well as check up on the count at roundup
MEAT FOR THE WOLVES 209
time, are full of stories about Eskimos hiking back into villages
under any pretext feigned illness or to obtain food when they
already were well supplied. At such times, the wolves had full
sway, and the herds suffered accordingly. The entire management
and economy of the industry was and is wrong; the result, a
tragic sequel.
The Siberian reindeer farmers, or "industrialists," tend much
smaller herds than Alaskan Eskimos do. The herders are mostly
owners. With their families and their dogs they live with the deer,
guarding groups of 200 to 400. When the reindeer moss or other
forage is cropped close enough, the Siberian Eskimos pull up
stakes and move on to fresh pasturage. While they are with the deer
they know no other life. Seldom do they lose an animal to predatory
foes.
Though Alaskan Eskimos have always followed a different sys-
tem of herding reindeer, they formerly were attracted to it for
two reasons. .Some took pride in ownership of small herds while
others appreciated the monthly checks paid by white owners. But
from the time the Office of Indian Affairs took full charge, with
its meager wages, the Eskimos began to step out and the wolves
stepped in.
Carl J. Lomen of Seattle and Nome who, with his brothers, was
the leader of the reindeer industry in Alaska, and who formerly sold
many thousands of pounds of meat in New York, Chicago, and on
the West Coast, has said: "The story of the reindeer industry, its
rapid growth and success up to 1932 or 1933, contrasted with its
present deplorable condition, is a sad one. There was a time when
it was conceded that there were between 500,000 and 800,000 deer
in Alaska, but in my opinion, 1,000,000 would have been nearer
the right figure."
Mr. Lomen's explanation of the startling decline in numbers of
the deer is wolves and huntsmen. "But a small percentage of
Alaskan Eskimos are interested in reindeer to the extent of devot-
ing time and attention to their care," the former "reindeer king"
declared. Government officials blame the wolves and the war. They
say that with defense workers earning $15 to $20 a day, it was im-
possible to hire reindeer herders at $40 to $60 a month, with keep,
which seems fairly logical. The white operators, however, long
before the era of wartime wages, paid their Eskimo herders from
tit
Blanketing the reindeer, preparatory to herding them to-
ward chutes leading to the smaller corrals. (Courtesy U.S.
Indian Service.)
$75 to $150 monthly, together with board, and $5 a day to extra
helpers during the roundups.
Carl Lomen's story of the reindeer fiasco, new in its detail, is
enlightening. "The industry cannot properly develop unless, and
until, it is commercialized and managed by people interested in its
development. There must be an incentive other than simply a local
meat supply.
"As to the decrease in number of animals: There was a time over
a period of years, that our payroll for herders alone totaled more
than $40,000 annually.* The Department of the Interior, under
Mr. Ickes, wanted control of all the reindeer in Alaska and ap-
proached me asking for a 'proposition.' Our herds were grazed on
public domain, and we were given to understand that we would
be required to pay a grazing fee. Control of the public lands was
lodged with the General Land Office, Department of the Interior.
We agreed to sell, and letters were exchanged. Believing that mat-
ters would be settled in a short time, we stopped all butchering and
discontinued our close herding. The 'short time' proved to be six
years, during which period the uncared-for herds grew wilder
each year, were preyed on by wolves and by huntsmen. Entire
* Prior to the war, the government appropriation to the Reindeer Service
was $55,000 for a year. In 1943 it was raised to $80,000. In 1944, with the
herds rapidly decreasing, the appropriation was $80,000, plus $10,200 for
overtime. In 1945, $85,650 was granted, and $77,180 for 1946.
2 IO
MEAT FOR THE WOLVES 211
herds disappeared, and the total number of animals shrank an-
nually.
"Figures as to numbers of reindeer have been given out from
time to time by agents of the department, but these are all esti-
mates. No one knows within thousands the number of reindeer in
Alaska, either today or during the years we were active. Ranges
are vast millions of acres made up of mountains and valleys.
There are no roads; herders travel on foot. Our herds were well
organized. Our estimates as to number of the deer were built up
over a period of years. For example: We rounded up a given herd
and handled 15,000 reindeer. They were passed through chutes
and counted. Records showed the number of adult males, adult
females, yearling males, yearling females, and the number of
fawns. The percentage of fawn to female was, say, 72 per cent. We
knew how many we handled in that herd, but we did not know
the number left on the range.
"The following year we again handled 15,000 in said herd, but
then we found 1,500 unmarked yearlings in the herd. These ani-
mals were fawns the year before, but had not been brought in, for
they were unmarked. We then added a count of 1,500 animals to
the number we handled the year before, giving us 16,500. Also,
we knew that the 1,500 fawns were running with their mothers the
year before, and that those mothers had not been brought in. More
than that, the percentage of fawn to mother, running 7 2 per cent,
would give 2,000 females and up the herd to 18,500. Then would
come the percentage of adult male to female, which would build
the herd up another 300 or more.
"A year later, we would take any two-year-olds found un-
marked and add each number, so, eventually, we would have a fair
idea as to numbers in that particular herd for the two- or three-year
earlier period. We would also know the approximate rate of in-
crease, and so keep our annual estimates as to the size of each herd.
"I would not make a guess as to the number of reindeer today,
but feel safe in saying that there are far fewer than 50 per cent
of the number ten years ago.
"As to refrigeration plants, we operated ammonia cold storage
plants at Teller, Nome, Golovin, and Egavik as well as a large
natural cold storage plant at Elephant Point, near Teller. The de-
partment has operated only the plant at Teller, and, recently, a plant
2 I 2
ALASKA TODAY
Seven wolves killed from an airplane by Dr. M. R. Ken-
nedy, Nome dentist. "Incomparable as a sport," says the
hunter, "but a cold and dangerous business." Wolves were
particularly vicious in attacks on deer and caribou in the
winter of 1945-46. (Photo by Dr. M. R. Kennedy.)
on Nunivak Island. (The Teller plant was abandoned also as soon
as the one at Nunivak was installed.) Lack of meat animals has
prevented operation of other plants. We also operated modern
abattoirs at each cold storage plant location. The natural cold
storage plant at Elephant proved successful. It had a capacity of
10,000 carcasses.
"It may interest some to know that our 'settlement' with the
government, after payment of banking obligations, did not leave
one dollar for our stockholders after twenty-six years of work.
We accepted an arbitrary offer set by the Interior rather than have
t 'certificates of taking' filed against us, for by that time it would
have taken most of the price offered to prove our property, with
reindeer scattered in forty to fifty herds, over most of which we
had no control.
"As to present value of the herds, or of the individual animal, I
MEAT FOR THE WOLVES 213
will only say that in a country where but one domestic food animal
can thrive without shelter, the reindeer should prove of great value
in the future as it has in the past."
Looking at the reindeer picture as it is today, it is obvious that
radical changes must be made if Alaska is to take advantage of op-
portunities to restore a great industry. At a time when this industry
was at its height, the management of the Alaska Railroad was in-
terested in establishing centers along its right of way for corralling
the deer, and for butchering and freezing the meat. General Foods
had even drawn plans for a large cold storage plant at the road's
terminus at Seward. All these proposed developments vanished
when the white operators were taken out of the business.
Handled properly, reindeer meat could be produced so cheaply
that the parts less attractive for human consumption would be
available to fur farmers at reasonable cost something comparable
to horsemeat which is the chief food source for foxes in the States.
The one industry might dovetail into the other, making both suc-
cessful, where now both are failures.
Before anything tangible can be accomplished the present laws
must be amended; and, according to one who has held a high
position in Alaska, they will be. There is no reason why reindeer
meat, a fine food, should not be utilized by white persons in Alaska
as well as by all those in the States who are willing to pay for it. In
Norway and Sweden it is relished by a large percentage of the
populace. In reindeer husbandry, as in dirt farming, Siberia is far
ahead of Alaska.
CHAPTER I" 8
The Home of Milady's
Seal Coat
BY EDWARD C. JOHNSTON
ONE of the treasures of Alaska which Japan has always
coveted is the great fur-seal herd whose summer home for thou-
sands of years has been on the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea.
This group of islands with its half a million fur seals came into
the possession of the United States when the territory of Alaska
was acquired by purchase from Russia in 1867. The deal was one
of the best the United States ever made. The fur-seal herd to say
nothing of the islands has proved to be worth many times the sum
the United States paid for all of Alaska.
St. Paul Island, about 14 miles in length, is the largest island in
the group. Three relatively unimportant small islands are located
near St. Paul, and about 40 miles distant is St. George Island, 12
miles long. The islands are devoid of standing trees although many
areas are covered with creeping willows and other dwarfed shrubs.
The profusion of wild flowers and grasses is remarkable during
the months of June, July, and August. It is during the summer
months when the Pribilof Islands are almost continuously en-
shrouded with fog banks that the fur seals visit this isolated summer
resort.
After the purchase of Alaska there followed two years of indis-
criminate killing of the valuable fur-bearing inhabitants by various
independent groups who actually waged war among themselves.
Then in 1870 the Federal government, realizing that a continuation
of such depredations would soon exterminate the fur seals, took
measures to regulate the killing of seals on land. For the next 40
214
HOME OF MILADY'S SEAL COAT
2I 5
Part of the huge fur-seal herd on the beach at St. Paul
Island. (Courtesy U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)
years the right to take fur-sealskins was leased to private cor-
porations. The government limited the take and placed agents on
the islands to see that the regulations were carried out.
It became evident, however, that the problem remained unsolved
since it was still possible to take sealskins legally outside the 3 -mile
limit. The practice, called pelagic sealing, accelerated the decline
of the seal herd since no selection could be made between males
and females; only a small percentage of the seals killed or wounded
could be recovered and the killing of females while out feeding
resulted in the death of their offspring on shore.
Diplomatic negotiations were initiated between the United
States, Great Britain (Canada), Russia, and Japan with a view of
stopping pelagic sealing. On December 15, 191 1, the North Pacific
Sealing Convention was concluded which prohibited the nationals
of the four countries from killing seals at sea.
2l6 ALASKA TODAY
The government of the United States took over direct control
of the Pribilof Islands and the fur-seal herd at the termination of
the last lease to a private corporation in 1910. Under government
management a program of conservation was instituted which in-
creased the size of the fur-seal herd from approximately 125,000
animals in 1911 to over 3,000,000 in 1945.
On October 23, 1941, Japan abrogated the treaty of 1911, claim-
ing that her fishing industry was suffering on account of the in-
creased size of the fur-seal herd.
After the attack on Dutch Harbor in 1942 all inhabitants of the
Pribilof Islands were evacuated for two years to southeastern
Alaska, 1,500 miles away, because it was believed that Japan would
surely strike at St. Paul and St. George islands. Fortunately for the
United States the attack did not develop. During the period of the
evacuation the islands were occupied by combat forces. No organ-
ized sealing operations were carried on in 1942. The evacuation of
the Pribilof Islands occurred in the first summer of the war, after
one small killing had been made to provide fresh meat for the native
residents. As all native Aleut families as well as all civilian govern-
ment personnel were removed, the fur seals were left to them-
selves.
In 1943, with the approval of the United States Army, a sealing
party was organized at the evacuation camp. The party, consisting
of 1 5 1 men with the assistance of some 80 enlisted personnel who
were placed on special duty during the sealing season, secured
1 17,164 sealskins, a record take. As about six or seven skins are re-
quired for a full-size fur coat, this one year's take furnished material
for about 20,000 of these beautiful garments. The finished skins
are disposed of at public auction in St. Louis, Missouri, one sale in
the spring and one in the fall.
The Alaska fur seals spend their summer on land and the re-
mainder of the year in the water. The long migrations, made with
uniform regularity, and the picturesque life of the herd in its
northern domain, form an interesting chapter in the history of
marine life. The killing of surplus males for milady's fur coat in no
way retards the growth of the herd because these young bachelors
have never been admitted to the rights and responsibilities of matri-
mony. Polygamy is the rule for seasoned bulls, those six or seven
years old and, as their harems vary in size from one to one hundred
HOME OF MILADY S SEAL COAT 2IJ
females, preservation of 10 per cent of the males is more than suffi-
cient to meet all requirements. If they were not killed systemati-
cally for their skins, many would be lost in rights among them-
selves and to natural enemies or disease.
Even in wartime the purchase of an Alaska fur-seal coat was not
looked on as an extravagance. In fact such a buy was nearly as
patriotic as that of a war bond, for the United States government
owns the seal herd outright and revenue from the sales of the skins
D
accrues to it for any purpose it sees fit. Under the terms of a Pro-
visional Fur-Seal Agreement between Canada and the United States
signed in 1942, 20 per cent of the skins, or the revenue derived
from them go to Canada. Japan, before her withdrawal from the
treaty, received 1 5 per cent.
The American fur-seal herd is truly an Alaskan institution. When
the Pribilof Islands were discovered in 1786, the herd was estimated
as 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 seals. The present herd, over 3,000,000,
constitutes nearly 90 per cent of the fur seals in the world. The
Alaska fur seal is one of the three races of the species, having been
given the name Callorhmus ursinus cynocephalus (Walbaum). It
inhabits the Pribilof Islands only. There are two other closely re-
lated groups on islands off the Asiatic Coast, Callorhmus ursinus
ursinus (Linnaeus), the Siberian fur seal of close to 100,000 ani-
mals, and Callorhmus ursinus mimicus (Tilesius), the Japanese fur
seal of not more than 25,000 animals. The Russian fur seals inhabit
the Commander Islands, owned by Russia, located west of Attu
Island. The Japanese herd lives on Robben Island off the east coast
of southern Sakhalin Island. Fur seals are also found to a limited
degree on Lobos Island, Uruguay; on islands off the Cape of Good
Hope, Africa; and a scant few in other cold parts of the southern
hemisphere.
In the years following the transfer of Alaska and the Pribilof
Islands from Russia to the United States, the Alaska fur seal came
near extinction. Russia, alarmed over the rapid depletion of the
herd, had given protection to the animals; their control had been
placed in the hands of the Russian American Company. Under its
administration the seals increased. With American acquisition in
1867, wnen all control ceased for two seasons, the islands were
wide open to merciless slaughter of both sexes. Rival gangs of
sealers killed 329,000 seals in 1868 and 1869. Washington, burdened
2l8 ALASKA TODAY
with the problems of reconstruction, gave small attention to Alaska.
However, after a few years of intensive agitation by a small num-
ber of people interested in conserving a great natural resource, the
sealing privilege at the Pribilof Islands was leased in 1870 to the
Alaska Commercial Company for a period of twenty years. A
second lease for a like number of years was made in 1 890 to the
North American Commercial Company. In both leases a limit of
100,000 male seals was fixed as the yearly take. The ruthless
poachers thus were banished from the rookeries, but they trans-
ferred their activities to adjacent waters, killing thousands of
mother seals when they went to sea for food. For every mother
slain, two more seals perished the pup left to starve on the islands
and the one already conceived.
A large part of present knowledge concerning the migrations of
the fur seals has come from the logs of vessels engaged in pelagic
sealing. When the Treasury Department issued permits for such
operations it was required that each vessel report the number of
animals taken daily. From these records it was evident that the
main body of the herd moved southward during the last three
months of each year, the general course being a straight line from
the Aleutian passes out of Bering Sea to Southern California. The
return of the herd followed the shore line more closely and at a
much slower pace but always outside the continental shelf about
20 miles offshore.
When the huge herd began moving south in October, scores of
vessels were ready to follow it and continue the slaughter all the
way to California waters. Although the herd is scattered over an
enormous area and only a very few seals can be seen at a time, each
vessel, by putting out a dozen or more small boats loaded with men
armed with shotguns could make a nice daily profit. Of the seals
shot, only about one in five was recovered, as they sank before the
killers could reach them or if wounded could swim away to die
elsewhere. By 1890, with pelagic sealing an organized business,
regulations were flouted and by 1911 the number of seals had
dwindled to the alarming low of about 125,000 animals. The annual
take by the Alaska Commercial Company alone from 1870 to 1890
was 100,000. The rookeries, once loud with the bellowing of great
hordes, were now relatively quiet.
The Pribilof Islands are a lonely group over 200 miles from the
HOME OF MILADY'S SEAL COAT 219
nearest land. Only part of St. Paul Island, which comprises 43
square miles, is used for rookeries or breeding grounds. The island
was originally a group of small volcanic eruptions which have been
joined together by sand dunes thrown up between them by the
rough storms of Bering Sea. It has a diversified make-up; parts are
rough and rocky, others with small rounded hills merging into
grassy flats. Volcanic craters are numerous and many of the hills
consist of scoria, a volcanic cinder which has proved an excellent
material for road building.
St. George Island, with an area of 34 square miles is different
from St. Paul in that the larger part of the shore line consists of
bold precipitous cliffs, rising from the water's edge to a maximum
height of a thousand feet. In the crevasses and nooks of the rocks
millions of sea birds murres, auklets, puffins, gulls find safe haven
to nest and rear their young. Wild foxes cannot scale the cliffs.
Only a few miles of the low rocky shore is occupied by the seals.
There are no streams on either island, but both are dotted with
fresh- water lakes.
To many it may seem strange that the seals have limited them-
selves to the beaches of the Pribilof Islands. Yet few areas anywhere
seem so admirably fitted for them. Frequent drizzling rains of the
region keep the shores wet and cool. Even in the far north the
herd suffers on those rare dry days when the sun appears in a
cloudless sky. At such times the animals assume grotesque poses,
fanning themselves with their flippers.
The Pribilof Islands are also well adapted to the seal herd as a
feeding ground. The contact of colder and warmer waters in
near-by areas supplies a rich sea fauna, essential for such a dense
population. Mothers, while suckling their young, must find food
relatively abundant and near. At their summer abode, fish consti-
tute only a part of the seals' diet; probably their chief food is squid.
Another advantage of the sharp contrasts in temperatures of these
oceanic waters where North Pacific and Arctic currents meet is
that they give rise in the summer months to dense fogs and drizzling
rains, enveloping the islands for weeks without letup. The Pribilof
Islands lie on the line marking the southern limit of drift ice so
that they are seldom icebound. It is a severe winter when the tem-
perature goes below zero.
The islands annually present the most dramatic panorama of
220 ALASKA TODAY
animal life known to the world. The old bulls come as the van-
guard, beginning usually about the end of April and often claim
the same rock homestead they occupied the year before. It is near
the end of June before all bulls have arrived. The cows begin to
arrive a month later. The bulls take up their selected homesites
before the cows arrive and will fight to hold them but will not
leave their positions voluntarily to attack another home master.
After a bull has established his position he awaits in majesty the
coming of the harem cows, interrupted only by challenging roars
and furious battles with overambitious rivals. They are the acme
of vitality, rolling in fat, with shoulder manes and wigs erect and
smart mustaches bristling from their upper lips. Their reserve
strength accumulated during months at sea on distant feeding
grounds is among the most remarkable of all of nature's phe-
nomena. It is so great that in the entire mating season of three
months or more these tyrants of the rookeries neither eat nor
drink. Also, they usually spurn sleep, except for short naps, for
fear of losing one of their wives to a rival; they pay dearly for
their vigil and jealousies. In the fall they are emaciated and battle-
scarred, cut and bruised, and sometimes are minus an eye or a
tooth as a result of desperate fights. At the conclusion of the tour
of harem duties, the bulls will move back into unpopulated areas
to sleep a week or ten days before taking to the water in search
for food.
The old monarchs do not make the long autumnal migration
southward with the cows and young. They usually winter in the
Gulf of Alaska or other northerly waters, while the females, their
offspring making their first migration, and the bachelors or im-
mature males go south as far as southern California.
In most forms of life the male is credited with seeking the
female. With fur seals, the opposite seems to be true. The cows,
singly or in small groups, will cruise back and forth in the water
off a rookery where the bulls have settled, until they decide which
lord and master they prefer. Often one particular bull near the
water will have a good-sized harem before any other bull in his
vicinity is able to secure a cow. While the old sultan is stocking
his matrimonial retreat, some younger intruder often invades the
sanctum and tries to carry off a wife. If caught a fight ensues and
frequently the interloper will be tossed back and forth by the old
HOME OF MILADY S SEAL COAT
22 I
Only six wives but there are probably a dozen or more at
sea in search of food. A typical harem among barren rocks
on St. Paul Island. (Courtesy Alaska Native Service.)
bulls until dead. Often, also, the flirtatious and unfaithful wife
will share the same fate. A bull has been known to throw a cow
fifteen feet in trying to teach her to stay where he wants her.
In the rookeries, herded and guarded by their masters, the
females bring forth their young, one each, and mate again within
a few days for the young of the next spring. The pups are born
sometimes a few hours after the mother arrives on shore. A young
female's first pup comes in her third year nine to ten months after
conception. After that the gestation period is a year. Young
females come to the rookeries and mate the first time in the fall,
after the regular season is over and the old cows are beginning to
spend more time at sea.
During the mating season of the older animals, bulls that have
been unable to secure cows form a fringe around the harem areas.
When the regular harem masters become worn out from their
222 ALASKA TODAY
arduous duties they move out to rest. Then the fringe of idle bulls
moves in to take their places. This occurs at the time the virgin
cows begin to come ashore. The timing of births and the provision
of two branches to the womb to permit breeding quickly after
birth are facts that many naturalists, unfamiliar with the fur seals,
are loath to accept.
For nearly the entire summer the pups feed on the rich creamy
milk of the mother, getting fat and strong. To supply this nourish-
ment, she must make almost daily trips to the sea for food. On her
return she marvelously finds her pup among the thousands of
others. She will not nurse any other pup but her own. The blatting
of the mothers and their young trying to locate each other may
be heard for miles. It was during this period, when the mother
traveled beyond the 3-mile limit as far as 1 50 miles for her food,
that the pelagic sealers did their most destructive work.
About mid-August with the main breeding season over, the
scarred and scraggly bulls, no longer the slick bold fighters of two
months ago, take their first uninterrupted rest of the summer. The
mothers, after having shown great care in nursing their offspring,
begin to take less interest in them. Unlike the sea lion and particu-
larly the sea otter, the fur-seal mother does not teach her pup to
swim nor pay attention to its antics in the water. Mid- August is
also a turning point in the pup's life. He has developed and grown
strong enough to begin to wander about. He soon locates shallow
pools of tidewater in which he paddles around learning the rudi-
ments of swimming. The ocean is the natural habitat of the fur seal,
and a pup has very little to learn in order to handle himself in it.
After playing in pools and shallow water for a week or so, a few
venturesome individuals go farther into deep water. Others fol-
low, and soon the pups spend most of their time in the water. Their
excursions away from home become longer and longer; they be-
gin catching their own food; they learn to sleep in the water all
of which prepares them for the long journey soon to be under-
taken. When a seal sleeps in the water, one of the rear flippers is
curved up and forward until its tip touches his nose, probably to
keep the balance such that the nose remains out of water. Seals
breathe air just as land mammals do. The pelagic sealers called a
sleeping seal a "jug" because the arched flipper looked like the
handle of a floating jug.
HOME OF MILADY S SEAL COAT 223
Everyone has seen boys building forts in their play and defend-
ing them against Indian pirates or other enemies. The fur-seal pups
have a similar game they play which may be called "hold the fort."
At various stages of the tides, small rounded boulders occur, rising
eight or ten inches above the water. A pup will climb on one and
challenge his playmates to dislodge him. His challenge is accepted.
Pups in the water on all sides begin nipping at his flippers; they
try to climb on the rock to shove him off. He holds his position
as long as he can, but sooner or later he makes a misstep, slips off
the slippery rock or is washed off by the surf, and another pup
takes his place. At times the youngsters romp and play just as boys
do at the old swimming hole. They play tag, race in pairs and
groups, leap over one another, float belly up, do corkscrews in
the w^ater and are almost human in their antics.
Soon the mothers wean their pudgy youngsters and let them
shift for themselves. In a month they will make their way south
alone, or at least without maternal guidance. The span of youth
is very short for the seal, yet it may seem too long for the males,
as several seasons must come and go before they acquire the
strength and courage to assume the role of harem master. The
females mate in the second year after birth while the males do not
mature until six or seven years of age. A female lives a maximum
of twenty-two years and the male a maximum of sixteen years. Al-
though polygamous, the sexes are born in equal numbers and there
is a natural mortality of 50 per cent by the end of the first com-
plete migration.
The villages on St. Paul and St. George islands are the scenes of
much commercial activity during the sealing season. Formerly the
villages consisted of a Byzantine-domed Greek Orthodox church,
a few frame buildings and a number of underground huts that
were the homes of Aleuts imported by the Russian American
Company to kill the seals and do the rough work of salting the
skins. Now there are two villages of modern concrete houses. The
natives have good schools with gymnasiums, recreation hall, mod-
ern motion-picture shows, native-owned stores or canteens, base-
ball teams and a strong complex of American citizenship. The
villages also have radio communication with the States and radio-
telephone between the islands; St. Paul Island has an airfield.
On each island are maintained all the buildings and equipment
22 4
ALASKA TODAY
Aleut workers and government men removing the blubber
or excess fat from the seal pelts, preparing them for ship-
ment to St. Louis, where they are made into finished skins
for fur auctions. (Courtesy U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)
used in the initial treatment of the thousands of seal pelts before
they are packed in barrels and shipped to the firm in St. Louis,
Missouri, which has the contract to dress, dye, machine, and
finish the skins before they are sold for the account of the United
States government. Most of the blubbering the removal of layers
of protective fat is done before shipment from the islands. Over
the years the Aleuts residing on the islands have become expert
executioners of seals and adept workers in the handling and curing
of pelts.
HOME OF MILADY'S SEAL COAT 225
At the St. Louis plant the proper curing, tanning, and* dyeing of
the skins is an intricate work requiring sixty or more days for each
skin. There are about 125 different hand operations required in
preparing the skins for market. Half a century ago virtually all
Alaska seal fur was dyed black. Now the favorite colors are two
shades of brown safari and matara. The dyeing process is a par-
ticularly expert one, and the colors always endure for the life of
the fur, which under ordinary wear is more than twenty-five
years.
While the fur seals are sought primarily for their wonderful
fur, they are also a source of food. The meat is prized by the
Aleuts both in a fresh or frozen state or salted for winter use. Seal
liver is more delicious than calves' liver. The remaining parts of
the carcasses are put through a rendering plant to extract the oil,
following which the residue is ground into meal chiefly for use as
meat scrap in poultry and animal foods. No part is wasted.
The Alaska seal, an aristocrat in life, remains one in the ateliers
of fashion. The rebuilding of the fur-seal herd from a compara-
tively few animals to its present size is one of the best-known ex-
amples of profitable conservation.
CHAPTER 19
Alaska's Roads
ALASKANS have said, "Once we get roads, develop-
ment and population will follow quickly." Many good roads have
been perfected but the notable increase in civilian population is
yet to come. The war brought an increase in appropriations to
established road agencies, and Army engineers helped to improve
old highways and construct new ones.
Improvements and relocations were made on the Richardson
Highway from Valdez, on the coast, to Fairbanks in the interior.
This is the oldest road of consequence in Alaska, and is the longest,
not excepting that part of the new Alaska Highway that is within
the Territory. It meets the military road at Big Delta, 100 miles
south of Fairbanks, at which junction motorists may continue
north to Fairbanks or south, connecting with the new Haines High-
way at Haines Junction. From there, they can continue south to
Haines and use launches along the Lynn Canal. Thus, for the first
time in Alaska's history, the interior is connected with the south-
eastern Panhandle by highway.
The greater part of Haines Highway runs through Canadian ter-
ritory. Maintenance lagged when the Army discontinued using it.
But the highway is destined to be one of the most frequently used
of all.
The congressional road committee that toured Alaska in the
summer of 1945 pronounced the Haines cut-off of great economic
importance.
Alaska at that time had 3,200 miles of highways, approximately
2,000 of them connected. In addition, there were 1,161 miles of
sled, or winter roads and 5,000 miles of trails for foot use or for
pack horses and dog teams.
The fight waged by Congressional Delegate Bartlett and Ter-
226
ALASKA'S ROADS 227
ritorial authorities to obtain for Alaska the benefits of the Federal
Aid and Highway Acts, from which it had been excluded, seems
about to be victorious. With commensurate funds from the legis-
lature, such aid would just about treble Alaska's available money
for highways.
The Territory's congressional bill called for amendments to the
highway act to permit one-half of federally appropriated funds to
be used for maintenance. As it applies to states and territories
where it now functions, the act allows expenditures only for con-
struction. Alaska justly argues that its road maintenance costs,
because of terrain and climate, are relatively much higher than
in the States, Hawaii, or Puerto Rico.
The frozen condition of the subsoil with constant thawing in
summer requires special precautions for drainage. Sloughing
banks, caused by the thawing of subsurface ice frequently result in
slides which cover and block the road. Also, special methods of
revetment and stream control must be used to withstand the de-
structive effects of freshets and washouts from heavy rains in the
mountains, or the release of impounded waters by breaks in
glaciers. Bridges are especially susceptible to damage.
About $50,000,000 has been spent on roads and trails in Alaska
in 40 years. California spends on an average of $40,000,000 an-
nually. That figure includes only expenditure for state and Fed-
eral projects not funds from county or municipal sources which
w r ould swell the total materially. So California spends about the
same for highways in one year that Alaska did in 30 years. While
the population of California is of course many times greater than
that of Alaska, still a lot of the West Coast's fine paved highways
run for hundreds of miles through sparsely settled agricultural
areas.
Good roads populated California and other western states, and
they would populate Alaska if she had them. If she had pos-
sessed them years ago there would be more farmers and the Great
Land would not have had to import millions of dollars in food in
wartime when there was a shortage in the States.
In a raw country, access to sawmills and markets are a neces-
sity if agriculture is to prosper. On a loo-mile strip along Cook
Inlet in the Kenai country, possibilities for successful farming are
perhaps greater than in the Matanuska Valley, but for 75 years the
PRINCIPAL
ALASKA ROAD SYSTEM
ALASKA'S ROADS 229
district has been virtually devoid of roads. One now is projected
to connect this belt with Anchorage and the Alaska Railroad. It
should have been built 25 years ago.
This new highway will be one of the most interesting in Alaska's
long chain of difficult road buildings. It involves a fill and bridge
more than two miles long across Turnagain Arm at the north-
eastern end of Cook Inlet. The cost will be approximately
S6,ooo,ooo, but the road will open to agricultural development
land worth twenty times that sum.
The highway will start at Sunrise, which with Hope is one of
the northern termini of the Seward Highway. It will cross a large
expanse of water to Bird Point on the Alaska Railroad, thence
along Turnagain Arm and Ship Creek to Anchorage, covering
3 3 miles. When the new highway is completed probably the fall
of 1947 or the summer of 1948 the Alaska Railroad will cease to
use Seward as a seacoast terminus, and will rely on the new port of
Whittier built by the Army.
Some say the new highway will do more for development of
the Kenai Peninsula than the railroad did. Already, farm activity
is on the increase, especially in the Homer area at the southern end
of the agricultural belt.
The Turnagain Arm road will rival some of the accomplish-
ments on the Alaska Highway as an engineering feat. In addition
to aiding agriculture, it will tap a country rich in wildlife. Along
the shore of Cook Inlet and back of it, northeast of Ninilchik,
moose are more plentiful than in any other place in Alaska.
The Army played a prominent role in the development of
Alaska's road system, both in pioneer days and in World War II
not necessarily because its engineers were more efficient than
civilians, but because it could obtain funds with less red tape than
local boards or Federal bureaus. On the other hand, Alaska is
proud of the men whose names its principal highways bear
Steese, Richardson, Glenn all Army engineers or surveyors of
early days who battled terrific odds to find and lay the trails that
later became good surfaced roads. Wild terrain and merciless ele-
mentscold and storms that even their pack horses could not en-
durestood between these men and their goals, but the men won.
The Richardson Highway was mapped as a trail in 1898 and
1899 by Capt. William Abercrombie, assigned by the Army.
Heavy rock work under way in 1944 on Mile 2 l /2 relocation
of Richardson Highway, Mile 14^2 from Valdez. (Courtesy
Ike P. Taylor.)
ALASKA'S ROADS 231
Starting at the coast town of Valdez on Prince William Sound,
the route first crossed the huge Valdez Glacier, but because of
hardships involved, later was changed to go around it. Scores of
miners died during, or soon after, attempts to cross the icy trail in
the gold-rush days.
In 1907, under supervision of Gen. W. P. Richardson, the trail
was improved so it was made passable by sleigh or bobsled, the
journey to Fairbanks taking 8 days. The first auto trip was made
in 1913, requiring nearly 4 days. Now, travel from the coast to
Fairbanks is usually about 1 8 hours for loaded trucks or buses, or
1 2 to 14 hours for passenger cars.
From sea level at Valdez, the highway crosses the Chugach
Mountain Range through Thompson Pass Mile 25.5 at an ele-
vation of 2,722 feet. Skirting the Wrangell Mountains, it ascends
the Alaska Range and at Isabelle Pass Mile 203 reaches a height
of 3,3 10 feet. It then begins the descent to Fairbanks in the Tanana
Valley. As mentioned, relocations were made from 1942 to 1945,
shortening the highway from 371 to 368 miles. Scenically, the
Richardson Highway affords beautiful views, typical of Alaska's
imposing contour and terrain. A trip over the road is well worth
one's time.
Another important road development of the last decade was the
Glenn Highway, connecting the Richardson Highway with
Anchorage. The Glenn Highway is 141 miles long. It cost about
$3,000,000, including improvements made since it was opened in
1942. Building this road was another useful step toward con-
necting Alaska's interior with the coast. It connected Anchorage,
situated on the south shore of Knik Arm, with the Alaska High-
way into Fairbanks.
The Steese Highway, next in length to the Glenn, extends 163
miles from Fairbanks to Circle, on the Yukon River, also connect-
ing salt water with fresh. This is not a new road, but it serves as a
link between Yukon River boats and centrally located Fairbanks.
With rather limited funds, authorities planned much of the
road work done in Alaska in the last few years with the view of
freeing the Territory from sole reliance on ocean and air travel.
While overland transportation along the Alaska Highway may
not be economically advantageous at present, future growth of
Alaska will make it so.
232 ALASKA TODAY
Railroad history contains eminent examples of boat travel being
superseded by rails and highways, notably along the Mississippi
where the old side-wheelers finally lost their long-held suprem-
acy.
The military road through Alaska pierces territory equal in
potential value to the southern Panhandle. Agricultural experts
concede that the country around Big Delta, where the Alaska and
Richardson highways meet, is one of the best areas for grazing
beef cattle. The distance along the highway to Fairbanks is not too
far to make trucking of beef cattle practical. A packing industry
situated in the "Golden Heart" city would give its people and
the servicemen at Ladd Field good steaks at half their present
cost.
In the summer of 1942 a highway was built over the old Chicka-
loon trail from Copper Center, making it possible for residents of
Anchorage to get to Fairbanks without using the railroad. Then
came the great Alaska Highway. The Alaska Road Commission in
1934 na d built a highway from Gulkana, on the Richardson High-
way, through Slana to Nabesna. Using the first 64 miles of this
road, as a connection with the Richardson Highway, the Army in
1942 carried the road to Tok Junction on the Alaska Highway.
Another spur from the Richardson Highway had long connected
Copper Center with Chitina on the abandoned railroad that had
been used to take out the fabulous riches of the Kennecott copper
mines. Scenically, this is one of the most attractive routes in the
Territory.
About 165 miles of roads radiate from Nome, mostly to mining
settlements, and there are an additional 98 miles in various parts of
the Seward Peninsula. A narrow-gauge railroad, 80 miles long,
maintained as a public tramroad, connects Nome with the
Kougharok mining district.
Ninety-five miles of roads in Mt. McKinley National Park are
being improved and possibly will be added to. There is talk of
extending this road to the Alaska Highway. The Elliott Highway
is a road branching from the Steese Highway at Mile 1 1 and ex-
tending 70 miles to Livengood, its northern terminus. The Mata-
nuska Valley has 250 miles of roads, the longest being that con-
necting Palmer with Anchorage. There is a spur to the important
Willow Creek mining district at the headwaters of Willow near
Looking west on Glenn Highway, 33 miles from Palmer.
The Matanuska River is at the left. The Chickaloon River
enters at the right, at the bottom of the grade. (Courtesy
Ike P. Taylor.)
the Little Susitna River, through Wasilla, center of a new 6,000-
acre farming area recently opened for homesteading.
The Anchorage-Palmer road, 48 miles long, crossing several
rivers including the Matanuska and Knik is attractive from a
scenic standpoint and leads to resort centers as well as to Palmer,
seat of the government farm colony. Two bus companies, the
O'Harra and the Matanuska Valley lines, give good accommodation
over the Palmer road. Fire Lake Roadhouse, 18 miles out of
Anchorage, is an attractive resort with cabins, boats, "New York"
steaks, and big Saturday nights.
Wasilla, 60 miles from Anchorage, is a resort center with special
bus service Saturday and Sunday. Buses also run to Fairbanks,
Circle Hot Springs, near the Yukon River, where there is a lodge
accommodating 150 persons, and to Valdez on the coast.
The new cut-off from Haines at the head of the Lynn Canal, to
Haines Junction, 108 miles west of Whitehorse, was built to make
further connection with the Alaska Highway. The Army pushed
this road through with its corps of engineers aided by Territorial
233
Grading on the Glenn Highway, Mile 3 from Palmer a
relocation of the old road. (Courtesy Alaska Road Com-
mission.)
road builders, but left 40 miles of it as a dirt road, while the re-
mainder was graveled and made a good highway. Former Con-
gressional Delegate Dimond had urged Congress to finish the job
and his successor, E. L. Bartlett, presented a similar bill. The full
length of the road is 1 54 miles. The general route is over the old
trail laid by Jack Dalton, famed hero of paper-bound trail-blazing
stories. These rather lurid tales were read by thousands of Amer-
ican boys at the turn of the century, and generally read surrepti-
tiously, for most parents considered them blood and thunder. Jack
Dalton died in San Francisco, December 15, 1944, glorying in the
fact that one of his most strenuous tasks had been of use to Alaska
and the United States Army.
Back in the gold-rush days, when men and women from all over
the world swarmed north to make their fortunes in the Klondike
creeks, this route was followed by thousands of would-be miners.
Dalton drove a herd of cattle across Chilkoot Pass to Dawson City,
making a small fortune. He established a permanent trade route
through the wilderness. The road came to be known as the "Jack
Dalton Trail." The Army survey followed this route much of the
way. Even before Dalton's time, Indian tribes of the region had
a summer hunting and fishing camp on this trail. Some of the
ALASKA S ROAD?
235
mountain tribes exacted tributes of fur and gold from travelers
bent on reaching either the interior or the coast. That gave Uncle
Sam an idea, so for many years he collected a toll on the Richard-
son Highway. But the Army broke up that program in 1942 and
the charge has not been renewed.
Haines Highway will prove a favorite with tourists, as it affords
magnificent views of tall, shimmering peaks, fragrant breaths of
evergreen forests of spruce and pine, as well as glimpses of swift-
flowing rivers and jungle-fringed northern lakes.
Road-building activities in Alaska are administered t>y three
agencies the Public Roads Administration under the Federal
Works Agency; the Alaska Road Commission under the Interior
Department; and the Territorial Board of Road Commissioners,
consisting of the governor, the Territorial highway engineer, and
the Territorial treasurer.
The Territorial Board has no field organization. Funds appro-
Why Alaska needs road money. Opening Thompson Pass
section of the Richardson Highway in the early spring.
(Courtesy Alaska Road Commission.)
I
I
236 .ALASKA TODAY
priated by the legislature are allocated by the board for road and
airfield construction and maintenance. Approximately 80 per cent
of such funds are set up for expenditure on a co-operative basis
with the Alaska Road Commission or the Public Roads Adminis-
tration, known as the PRA. The balance is allotted to mining
operators or others having suitable equipment to perform the
work, who co-operate in construction of short roads or airfields.
In the first two and a half years of the war, the Army carried
out a large program of road construction, including its work on
the Alaska Highway, but the regular road agencies continued to
function. The work of the Alaska Road Commission was con-
siderably increased as a result of military requirements. Also, the
commission has maintained that section of the Alaska Highway
within the Territory (302.3 miles) since July i, 1944. Funds and
equipment for this particular job were provided by the Army.
The Army pushed connecting road links primarily with the ob-
jective of getting supplies to the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleu-
tians via overland route from the military highway. Since the
close of the war, the trend has been more toward uniting central
and southeastern Alaska.
The PRA confines its road work in Alaska to the national forests
of which the Territory has 33,000 square miles. Forest road funds
authorized by Congress are apportioned among the states and
territories having national forests, on a basis of the relative forest
areas and timber values. But Congress, in June, 1938, eliminated
Alaska from participation on this basis. The Territory was re-
stricted to $400,000 annually, which at the time was about one-
third of its rightful apportionment. Had $1,200,000 been appro-
priated, as it should have been, some of the rush later by Army
engineers would have been obviated.
The Alaska Road Commission builds and maintains roads out-
side the national forests. It is supported by congressional appro-
priations as supplemented by the Alaska Fund, made up of taxes
collected by the Federal government outside incorporated towns.
This fund is Alaska money pure and simple. Sixty-five per cent of
it is given back by the government for construction and mainte-
nance of roads.
Territorial appropriations to its own board of road commis-
sioners are augmented by receipts from sale of timber in the na-
tional forests. Part of the sales (25 per cent) are turned over by
An attractive stretch of rolling road on the Haines cutoff,
Alaska's new and important road connecting the Alaska
Highway and the interior highway system with southeast-
ern Alaska. Much of this road follows the old Jack Dalton
trail and runs through Canadian territory. (Courtesy Na-
tional Park Service.)
the Forest Service with stipulation that 75 per cent go for roads
and 25 per cent for schools. From 1908 through June 30, 1944, this
sum amounted to $660,764 or a little more than $18,000 a year.
In addition, 10 per cent of the timber sales was used by the Forest
Service for roads and trails in the national forests. This amount in
the same period was $256,259. With increasing timber sales, if the
arrangement is continued, considerably more money should be
raised for Alaska roads. However, these scattered and meager
funds in the past have held back adequate development.
Recently, road maintenance costs in Alaska have approached
$2,000,000 a year, which is in excess of six times the amount ever
provided by the Territory for roads in one year.
According to highway officials, road planning has proceeded
without friction among the various agencies, but funds have not
been provided either by Territorial or congressional action to
implement the plans. Generally Territorial legislators take the
stand that as 98 per cent of the land in Alaska is government-
owned, it is up to Washington to build roads. Congress is not al-
ways in accord with that view.
The forty-first annual report of the Alaska Road Commission,
237
238 ALASKA TODAY
in 1945, showed 2,816.25 miles of road and tramroad in Alaska, in-
cluding that part of the Alaska Highway within the Territory.
PRA and forest roads mileage brought the total to approximately
3,200 miles. About 80 per cent of highway was suitable for auto-
mobiles in summer. All the roads could be used throughout the
year if funds were available to keep them open. Expenditures on
roads and trails were about equally divided between construction
and maintenance.
In the future, when Alaska fulfills her destiny by becoming a
great state with a population of 10,000,000, road builders will drill
through the frozen subsoil and sink caissons on bedrock so that
alternate freezing and thawing will have no effect on highways.
They will hard-surface all roads, allowing snowplows to run over
them and toss the drifts aside in a few hours, as is done now in the
northern states. Bridges will be built so high that spring and fall
freshets will not interfere with traffic. The Territory already has
learned its lesson from the Seabees who swung from pillar to post
in the Aleutians, laughed at mountains and muskeg, accomplishing
the impossible with unruffled ease.
What Army engineers and the Public Roads Administration
achieved on the Alaska Highway, where they encountered terrain
as tough as anywhere in the world, can be duplicated by Alaska's
own road builders if they are given the machinery and money to
go ahead. And this will come to pass. Another generation will see
Alaska's concrete highways the marvel of a new century. There
will be four-lane superhighways with two-level approaches at
crossings so that the autoist can traverse the center lanes safely at
70 miles an hour.
Milk delivery trucks will run from Palmer, in the Matanuska
Valley, 48 miles to Anchorage in half an hour. A man with a fast
car will toss a coin to determine whether he drives 350 miles to
Fairbanks or takes a plane. Airline companies, to compete with
ground traffic, will offer rates one-half \vhat they are today. Man
has a place in the clouds, but many will always prefer to travel on
the good earth, especially when it is surfaced with concrete.
With more roads and better ones, there will be a bigger market
for farm machinery and trucks. Under the stimulus of improved
marketing conditions, through the building of additional high-
ways, livestock breeders will take hold, since they will be able to
get beef, pork, and mutton to cold storage plants in a hurry.
ALASKA'S ROADS 239
Northern Commercial Company, the Lomens, and Glenn Car-
rington all of Seattle have many outlets in Alaska for mining
machinery, road equipment, and various supplies, but the farmer
has had to buy implements practically sight unseen. The co-op
at Palmer has helped its Matanuska members in purchasing trac-
tors, but its means are limited. If the large machinery dealers
would fight for and back an expanded road program and feature
farm implements as well as mining equipment, they would help
their own business and the farmer, too.
Good roads eventually will make Alaska self-sufficient. In the
meantime, airlines with private capital, have accomplished more
in a year for advance of agriculture than the legislature has in
ten years. In the era before the airplane came into wide use in
Alaska, a dog team traveled from Fairbanks to Nome, 525 miles,
in 28 days. Now a fast plane makes it in 3 hours or less, according
to weather conditions. On a good concrete highway, a truck or
bus could do it in a day.
As a source of more revenue for roads, adjustment of automo-
bile licenses is in order. At present there is a $10 license plate
charge for passenger cars and privately operated trucks, $15 for
commercial trucks or buses. In the States, a motorcar driver may be
obliged to pay a combined state and city tax. Commercial trucks
pay much more. That situation apparently does not worry Alaska's
legislators who generally try to keep all taxes down. Highway
executives also complain of lack of cooperation from the courts,
in that offending motorists are let off with minor fines for serious
violations of the traffic laws.
Alaska has very few motor police. With the highways for-
merly under control of the Army thrown open for public travel,
need of expansion of the road patrol system became apparent.
Travel increased and motorists became more troublesome. Shelter
cabins along roads and trails, intended for emergency use, were
damaged by vandals. The lack of an adequate policing system al-
ways has been obvious in Alaska and is responsible for many de-
structive forest fires. The resultant waste would build half as
many more roads as Alaska now has. The country has nothing to
compare with Canada's famous Royal Mounties, now policing
that part of the Alaska Highway that is in Canada. Congress, un-
til recently, has ignored appeals for expansion of the fire protec-
tion sendee.
CHAPTER 2O
Railroads and Rivers
ALASKA has two railroads. First, the more important
government-owned Alaska Railroad with coast termini at Seward
on Resurrection Bay and Whittier on Prince William Sound,
both with a northern terminus at Fairbanks in the interior. The
second road is the White Pass and Yukon Route from Skagway,
Alaska, to Whitehorse in Canada's Yukon Territory.
The Alaska Railroad has been in use 23 years. In the past eight
years, it has shown an operating profit rather an unusual feat
for a Federal line. In the war years, transport of military supplies
brought this profit to approximately $6,000,000, but the 'line had
begun to be a financial success before hostilities.
At the time Col. O. F. Ohlson, a transportation expert who had
filled an important post in World War I, went to Alaska to pull
the railroad out of the red (1928), Congress and the Interior De-
partment were discouraged over its prospects. It had been losing
a great deal. Some Alaskans had stamped it as a white elephant, and
the government was inclined to agree.
The fight to make the road self-sufficient was indeed a hard
one. Colonel Ohlson raised freight and passenger rates, so Alaskans
regarded him as a second Jesse James. At a hearing before the
congressional subcommittee on appropriations, touring Alaska in
the summer of 1945, the suggestion that Colonel Ohlson was a
first-class highwayman was repeated in the open. The complain-
ant was a bit taken back by the Hon. Jed Johnson of Oklahoma,
chairman of the committee, whd announced firmly that if anyone
was at fault for the transgressions of the Alaska Railroad, it was
Washington, D.C. "Colonel Ohlson," he said, "merely carried
out orders. If you want to blame anyone, blame us, not him."
As an experienced railroad man, following directions from
240
RAILROADS AND RIVERS 241
superiors and using also such discretion as he deemed advisable,
Colonel Ohlson never stooped to defend his actions. The increase
in rates brought down on Federal management of the road a
storm of protest and abuse.
Inasmuch as Alaskans, prior to the building of the line, had
made insistent demands on Congress for a railroad, then seemed
put out because they got one, Colonel Ohlson liked to repeat a
story by Thane Williamson, a westerner who worked on the
Alaska Railroad and in the canneries before a physical ailment
forced him to turn author.
Mr. Williamson was fishing in Bristol Bay. He had employed an
old-timer to row the boat. Toward late afternoon, when the dis-
tant snow-capped mountains stood out in bold relief against a
purple-blue sky, the boatman said: "Ain't it beautiful? Did you
ever see anything like it? Did you ever see anything like Alaska
or Alaskans any place in the world? "
Mr. Williamson hadn't had a strike in an hour. He may have
been in an off mood. He answered: "Yes, I have seen scenery
similar to Alaska's. And I have met people who are very much like
Alaskans.'*
"Where?" retorted the old-timer. "Where have you seen the
like of this?" sweeping a hand toward the distant shore. "Where
have you met people like us? "
"In India," Williamson replied quietly.
"India! That's a long way off. How are people way over there
like Alaskans?"
"Because they don't know what they want."
Although construction and maintenance of the Alaska Rail-
road cost the United States in excess of $75,000,000, it has accom-
plished more for Alaska than any other development. While the
war boosted traffic 90 per cent, the road's success cannot be wholly
attributed to hostilities. In fact, it was more the other way around,
for the Alaska Railroad moved hundreds of thousands of tons of
equipment, supplies, and food to Army camps at Anchorage and
Fairbanks. It is conceded the military forces scarcely could have
carried on without the railroad.
A costly improvement was made on the line in 1942 one ad-
vocated by Colonel Ohlson long before the war. To establish a
new tidewater terminal at Whittier, shortening the line 52 miles
2 4 2
ALASKA TODAY
Loading freight on the dock at Whittier, the new terminus
of the Whittier-Anchorage cutoff of the Alaska Railroad
The new route, built as a war measure, will materially aid
Alaska's postwar economic development. At Whittier,
docks accommodating three ships were built, and oil tanks
installed. (Courtesy American Locomotive Co.)
and doing away with steep grades, a cut-off was built from
Portage, on the old route, to Whittier, which has equally as good
a harbor as Seward and one easier to protect.
The job entailed the building of two tunnels through the Kenai
Mountains: the longer, 13,090 feet, the fifth longest railroad tun-
nel under the American flag; and a shorter one, 4,911 feet. They
are separated by the narrow Bear Valley, the terrain and glaciers
in this region being among the most rugged in Alaska.
The two tunnel bores, started from the far side of each moun-
tain, met with a variation of only one-half inch in elevation and
one-eighth of an inch in line an engineering feat that has seldom
RAILROADS AND RIVERS 243
been equaled. The railroad project and the great Alaska Highway
were completed on the same day November 20, 1942. Both were
finished far ahead of schedule.
Work on the Whittier-Portage cut-ofT was done by a private
construction company under supervision of Army engineers
and the railroad management. While actual length of the new
cut-ofT is only 12.34 miles, a w r hole day is saved in travel from the
coast to Fairbanks, with resultant lowering of freight rates.
Just as the Ohlson regime \vas the first to raise rates when the
line was operating at a loss, so also it was the first to recommend
a decrease when the road began to show a profit. The railroad
management made it clear recently that freight reduction to
Anchorage probably would be at least 30 per cent, with graded re-
duction of lesser amounts as the line approached Fairbanks. Colonel
Ohlson said: "I have always contended that the Federal govern-
ment should not make a profit on transportation in Alaska. But so
long as the road operated at a deficit I was not so keen about a
rate reduction. However, when the Alaska Railroad began to
stick its head above a mass of red figures, I recommended that the
Interstate Commerce Commission be detailed to make a study to
determine just what the passenger and freight rates should be.
This, together with rate reductions to come into effect when com-
mercial tonnage is handled via Whittier, should bring satisfactory
results. I do not believe the public will have any further com-
plaints."
When Army operation over the new cut-off began, American-
built diesel locomotives that could move 45 cars compared to 25
powered by steam engines w r ere put in use. Civilian freight and
passenger travel continue over the Seward route. Colonel Ohlson,
before his retirement on December 3 1, 1945, disclosed that eventu-
ally the railroad to Seward would be abandoned. The idea of
constructing the cut-off was to shorten the distance from the sea-
port to the interior; also, to eliminate the hazardous and costly
operation of the Seward end of the line, where winter snowfall is
exceedingly heavy.
The Alaska Railroad in this area was built in the bottom of a
series of narrow canyons. Heavy rains in the fall brought down
millions of yards of earth which built up the ground adjacent to
the road, sometimes considerably above the roadbed. This caused
244 ALASKA TODAY
water to inundate the track for distances of from 10 to 15 miles.
Colonel Ohlson said that without the cut-off the railroad never
would have been able to handle the heavy tonnage transported for
the Army.
As an offset to eventual discontinuance of the railroad to Se-
ward, a highway connection between the Seward-Hope road
and Anchorage is projected, and reconnaissance work has been
under way for some time to determine the best route across the
Turnagain Arm from the Kenai Peninsula to Anchorage. This
road will connect Seward with Anchorage by highway and will
assist m the development of Kenai Peninsula, especially the farm
belt. Tourists are likely to prefer a highway to a railroad.
Had the Whittier cut-off been selected in the first place, it is
conceded that there would have been a saving of approximately
$20,000,000 to the Federal government. The general public also
might have saved several millions in reduced freight and passenger
rates. Practical railroad men knew this, but contention by inter-
ested communities caused one of the bitterest political upheavals
in Alaska's history. Seward, led by a former mayor, fought to
retain the Resurrection Bay terminus. A mere fishing village be-
fore the railroad was built, Seward became a port of call for most
of the freight for the interior and for 75 per cent of the tourists.
However, opposition from Seward did not affect the proposed
change.
The significance of these improvements in Alaska's main artery
of travel cannot be overemphasized from an economic standpoint.
Saving of time on the Alaska Railroad was not the only advantage.
After abandonment of the Seward road, the Alaska Steamship
Line would run its larger tourist steamers direct from Seattle to
Whittier, touching only the ports of Ketchikan and Juneau, en-
abling it to make the trip in four days instead of six.
The Alaska Railroad would then run a tourist train direct from
Whittier to Fairbanks in one day, eliminating the night stopover
in a hotel at Curry, which in the early days of the road was known
as "Dead Horse." This would reduce the time of travel from
Seattle to Fairbanks by three days, or a total saving of six days
on the *ound trip. That is less than half the time allotted for the
average vacation and makes a trip to Alaska feasible for the great
majority of summer travelers who prefer steamer and railroad
RAILROADS AND RIVERS
245
Two i ,ooo-horsepower diesel engines, operating in tandem,
speeded war supplies to the interior of Alaska over the new
Whittier-Anchorage cutoff. Though only 12.34 miles long,
the route required the boring of two tunnels, one of which
is the fifth longest under the American flag. (Courtesy
American Locomotive Co.)
transportation. After its abandonment as a tourist stopover, Curry
will be used as a division terminal where freight trains will tie up
at night.
The Alaska Railroad also operates steamers on the Nenana and
Yukon rivers, between Nenana, the railhead situated on the Ta-
nana River, and Marshall on the lower Yukon, a distance of 774
miles. The fleet is composed of four river steamers and nine
barges. These serve the mining and fur industries and the native
population and traders during the navigation season from about
May 2 5 to October i . Tourists who have the time take these river
trips which afford a close-up view of life in interior Alaska.
Alaska's second railroad is the White Pass and Yukon Route,
246
ALASKA TODAY
The Alaska Railroad also operates a fleet of steamers and
barges on the Yukon and Nenana rivers, which carries sup-
plies to the outposts of the territory and brings out avail-
able raw materials. The steamships Alice and Nenana are
shown here at the Marine Ways in Nenana, with the Alaska
Railroad bridge in the background. (Courtesy American
Locomotive Co.)
a narrow-gauge line, British-built and privately owned. It was
operated in wartime by the Army. The road runs in Alaska for
only 22 miles mostly up from Skagway to Summit, the inter-
national boundary, then proceeds through British Columbia and
Yukon Territory to Whitehorse, the head of navigation on the
Yukon River. Built in 1889 and 1900, the railroad follows the
canyon trail used by hordes of gold seekers en route to the Klon-
dike fields. With its termini at Skagway and Whitehorse, it con-
nects the ocean with the interior.
Despite its high cost, the road has paid for itself over and over
again. London capital financed the line, which is 1 1 1 miles long,
and it still is one of the twentieth-century marvels of engineering.
RAILROADS AND RIVERS 247
Nearing the highest elevation, which marks the boundary be-
tween Alaska and British Columbia, the roadbed in places was
blasted out of solid rock, a work entailing months of perilous and
patient labor. Before it reaches the crest, the track crosses a
number of bridges, spanning desolate gorges at dizzy heights.
These and other scenes of awe-inspiring beauty are not always
comforting to a passenger afflicted with nerves. At one spot the
train passes over an artificial roadway of sleepers supported by
wooden trestles clamped to the rock by means of steel girders.
Men employed in constructing this and other parts of the track
were lowered to it by ropes made fast to the sheer cliff hundreds
of feet above them. The Chamounix Road in Switzerland was for
years considered the wonder of mountain railroads, but the White
Pass and Yukon Route surpasses it.
Much new equipment for the White Pass and Yukon Route
was brought in at great effort under Army supervision, and it
carried the brunt of supplying the Yukon and iMackenzie River
projects all the winter of 1942-1943, the worst in that part of the
North since 1917. New rotary plows kept White Pass open in
spite of snow that often was 30 feet deep.
Preparations for increased postwar tourist travel also were
made by this railroad and by the White Pass and Yukon Naviga-
tion Company. The latter agreed to deliver down-river tourists
to Circle instead of taking them down to Tanana Junction, thence
up the Tanana River to Nenana. This will reduce the time of
travel for tourists by two days. After arriving at Circle, these
tourists would then be moved by bus from Circle to Fairbanks,
and from there the Alaska Railroad would take them to Mt.
McKinley National Park, then to Whittier, where they could
board the Alaska Steamship Company's steamers at that point.
The upstream Yukon River tourists would also be handled by bus
from Fairbanks to Circle over the Steese Highway.
These changes in routes arid methods of travel were agreed to
in conferences between the different companies co-operating in a
broad move for postwar transportation. It was the unanimous view
that tourist movement to Alaska the year following the close of
hostilities would be double that of any previous time, and that
the influx of prospective settlers might be even greater than that
of tourists. Plans were made accordingly.
CHAPTER 21
A Home for the Asking
THE SPELL of the Yukon that Robert Service pictured
so vividly years ago was no stronger than the lure of Alaska is to the
modern pioneer. A home for the asking is the attraction a piece
of the good earth! A place to call your own where every effort ex-
pended means that much more for the future, where you build
for your children, not for the boss* children.
Some persons regard a free homestead merely as the means of
getting something for nothing, but the few attracted by that
mirage will be disappointed in Alaska, as they would be anywhere
else. Homesteading land and developing it means getting it the hard
way. If you want to lead an easy life, follow the compass in some
other direction. But if you long for new worlds to conquer, love a
rugged outdoor life, and can "take it," Alaska is your goal.
Most Americans probably have forgotten, if they ever knew it,
that theoretically every citizen is entitled to 160 acres of lahd
for a homestead. They have forgotten it, because for the last 50
years there has been little such land offered within the continental
United States.
In Alaska there are 375,396,000 acres of which about 75,000,000
are restricted for forests, parks, game preserves, and other reserva-
tions, the last mostly of a military character. Only a little more
than 3,000,000 acres have been surveyed, most of this land being
subject to private entry either through purchase or residence.
Large areas of it are excellent for farms or ranches.
The experiences of those who have pioneered in Alaska have in
the main proved satisfactory. The country is chiefly populated
by pioneers. Not all of them built cabins in the woods, cleared
land with an ax and a brush hook, and watched the wilderness
yield under their brawn and blossom into a Garden of Eden.
248
A HOME FOR THE ASKING 249
Pioneering in Alaska has various interpretations. One can pioneer
in moccasins and mukluks, in a farmer's overalls, or in a tweed
suit, with an entrepreneur's eye on his waiters or barkeeps. In
fact, some of the most successful of Alaska's "select few" have had
little to do with forests, belly-deep muskeg, or mountains. They
have not hewn logs for their parlor, bedroom, and bath in the
Utopian land of opportunity. They have steered other courses to
fortune.
Three areas in Alaska, long restricted to civilians, were the
Alaska Peninsula, which terminates in the Aleutian Islands, Kodiak
Island, which lies just below the peninsula, and the Aleutians
themselves. These were all military reservations, and most of the
land there was withdrawn from public entry. However, none of
these areas holds unusual interest to the homesteader, unless he is
interested in big-scale livestock husbandry.
The settler who plans to make a home in Alaska, first should
study the maps reproduced in this book and other maps of Alaska.
The district land offices at Anchorage, Fairbanks, or Nome, or the
commissioner of the General Land Office in Washington, D.C., will
supply maps and information as to the possibilities for settlement
in various locations.
If you go to the Northland, do not take along a lot of special
Alaska clothes. Where you are going will determine the kind of
clothing you should have, and no outfitter in the States can tell
you what that should be. Plenty of clothing suited to the district
where it is bought is to be had in Alaska. The cheechako who goes
north burdened with special attire or sports paraphernalia will
wish he had worn only his Sunday suit and a topcoat.
Before one heads for Alaska he should have a definite idea of
what he wants to do after he gets there whether to farm, go into
fur ranching, run a roadhouse, to mine, or fish, to become a lumber-
jack or teach dancing. Climate and geography enter into the de-
cision in each case to a greater or less degree. There are no special
drawbacks to settlement in Alaska. The matter of vast distances
is being rapidly solved by the airplane and by the new highways.
The question of home markets for farm products likewise is being
answered by new highways and by air transportation as well as by
the military installations and by the influx of new civilian resi-
dents.
250 ALASKA TODAY
A homestead claim in Alaska may be initiated by anyone having
the qualifications required of an applicant for land in the United
States. He may obtain, under the present laws, no more than 160
acres. Where the land has been surveyed, regulations governing
initiation and completion of the claim are the same as those in the
United States. Where the land is unsurveyed, the claim must be
located in rectangular form, not more than a mile long, with side
lines due north and south, the four corners being marked by
stakes, rocks, or other permanent monuments. To secure the land
against adverse claim, the location must be recorded at the near-
est recording office (the United States Commissioner), within
90 days from the date of settlement. Notice of the claim must be
posted on the land and should contain the name of the settler,
date of settlement, together with a description of the land by
reference to some natural object or permanent monument.
When a homesteader files with the registrar and shows that he
is in a position to submit final proof, acceptable as to residence,
cultivation, and improvements, the public service office will be so
advised, and not later than the next succeeding surveying season,
it will have the parcel of land surveyed without expense to the
entryman.
A civilian must live on the homesteaded land three years, mak-
ing certain improvements before he can secure title. He must build
a house and cultivate one-sixteenth of the area during the second
year of the entry, and a total of one-eighth during the third year.
A war veteran need devote only one year to settlement. Residence
in either case must be established within 6 months. After 14 months
of residence on the land, the homesteader may, if he chooses, com-
mute his entry by paying $1.25 an acre and thus obtain immediate
patent.
Those are the general principles for claiming 160 acres of land
in Alaska. On the other hand, land can be leased or purchased al-
most as cheaply as it can be homesteaded. The General Land
Office leases lands on the public domain for grazing, use of timber,
fur farming, and for certain waterpower developments. Patents
are issued on lands for homesteads, industrial sites, and for mining,
exclusive of coal and oil.
In order that fishermen, traders, manufacturers, or any persons
engaged in productive industry may have a homestead or head-
A HOME FOR THE ASKING 251
quarters for their activities, a law provides that they may purchase
5 acres or less at $2.50 an acre, with a minimum payment of $10.
Among places where good land can be purchased are the Mata-
nuska and Susitna valleys. Also, there are attractive homesite offer-
ings in the national forests, under the direction of the Forest
Service, a division of the Department of Agriculture. These can be
patented. While Forest Service certainly suggests trees, not all the
land obtainable would prove shelter for a Robin Hood. There are
some open places.
Alaska's national forests comprise about 5% per cent of the
total area. The remaining land is largely composed of open pub-
lic domain, also under Federal ownership. The Tongass National
Forest covers 70 per cent, or more than 1 6,000,000 acres of south-
eastern Alaska, the section which extends southerly along British
Columbia and in which the towns of Skagway, Haines, Juneau,
Sitka, Petersburg, Wrangell, and Ketchikan are situated. The
smaller national forest consists of nearly 5,000,000 acres, covering
the shores of Prince William Sound, and the eastern part of Kenai
Peninsula. It is called the Chugach National Forest. Its principal
towns are Cordova, Whittier, and Seward, with Valdez and
Anchorage not far away.
Tree growth in the national forests generally starts at the shore-
line, extending to an elevation of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet.
The country is rugged, the mountains usually rising from the
water's edge. Many of the few level sections are muskeg (peat
bogs). Hundreds of large and small islands, with irregular shore
lines, dot the area, creating a pattern of beautiful coves, harbors,
bays, inlets, and "canals."
The climate is wet and the temperature is mild; the summers are
cool, with winter temperatures seldom going below zero. Most
of the population is found in small towns which are miles apart
and not often connected by roads. Local transportation as well
as from the States is by water and air. With its mountains, virgin
forests, glaciers, and narrow winding fiords, the region is excep-
tionally interesting to newcomers. Game and fish are plentiful.
The national forests are managed by the Federal government
primarily to provide the nation with a continuous supply of wood
products, but this does not mean that the lands are closed to other
uses. Lands within the forests are available for patenting: first, as
252 ALASKA TODAY
forest homesteads; second, as mining claims under the Federal
mining laws; and third, as homesites or industrial sites. Only a
small percentage of the land is suitable for general farming because
of the steep slopes, thin soil, and heavy precipitation. Clearing
the heavier forested lands is costly. However, the relatively small
areas that are good for agriculture, including timbered tracts
that can be economically cleared, are available for homesteading.
For prospective farmers there have been made available 336
homestead tracts of varying sizes up to 160 acres. Of these 300
have been entered by homesteaders, but only 100 were occupied
late in 1945. Some of the 200 remaining tracts were patented be-
fore owners moved elsewhere, and most of these can be purchased.
Tracts vacated without being patented are available for entry by
someone else. A re-examination of lands heretofore classed as
nonagricultural is under way.
In studying the chances for making a living in whole or in part
from a national forest homestead in Alaska one must consider the
following factors. ( i ) Since the climate is too wet to grow many
field crops, vegetable gardening offers the best livelihood. Choose
soils and sites which are well drained, catch most of the limited
sunshine, and have the longest possible growing season. (2) Lo-
cate as closely as possible to a town, salmon cannery, or mine, as
such places constitute the settler's market. You may need a launch
to reach the market unless you select a place on a road leading
out of a town. In such sites a settler may earn extra money by fish-
ing, working in a cannery in the late summer and fall, or by fur
trapping in winter. (3) If a settler wants the advantages of public
schools, mails, medical, and other community services, he should
locate in a place holding possibilities for development of a town,
if one does not already exist.
The matter of homesteads may be summed up as follows. Make
a personal examination on the ground before severing present
economic connections. Decide on the kind of work you want to
do, then choose a region suitable, always taking into considera-
tion the available market. Get as close to that market as possible.
Do not start to carve out a farm in an isolated locality unless you
are sure you want to stay there indefinitely.
As to patent on a piece of national forest land through the home-
site laws, the maximum for such sites is 5 acres. Homesites are
A HOME FOR THE ASKING 253
not available in sections far from established communities. Instead,
the Forest Service lays out tracts along the national forest roads.
The purpose of the Alaska homesite law, as distinguished from
the regular Federal homestead laws, is to provide small tracts on
which settlers can speedily establish permanent homes through
their own efforts, at the least financial outlay.
Many homesite residents who are wage earners in a near-by
town use the bus line or their own cars in reaching their jobs.
Others are fishermen and loggers who are away from home during
the working seasons, but who permanently maintain their families
on homesites. It is scarcely possible to make a living on homesites
solely from the growing of vegetables, but by combining this
with other pursuits, an energetic family of three or four persons
can succeed. Dairying is possible as a homesite activity around the
towns, but most localities have little natural grassland to support
cows, and dairy feed has to be bought elsewhere.
No objection is made to using homesites for business enterprises,
such as resorts, fur farms, chicken and rabbit ranches, stores,
garages, filling stations, or similar small business ventures, pro-
vided the settler makes the tract his permanent home.
The requirements and the various steps leading toward patent
and permanent occupancy are: (i) United States citizenship;
(2) special use permit issued by the Forest Service to authorize
occupancy at a rental of $5 a year; (3) construction of a good
dwelling; (4) occupancy as a permanent home to the exclusion
of a home elsewhere for a period of three consecutive years (no
cultivation requirement); (5) elimination from the national forest
after the above requirements are met; and (6) application for
patent to the registrar, district land office, Anchorage, at a pur-
chase price of $2.50 an acre, with a minimum payment of $10.
If you want to start an industry of a larger size than can be ac-
commodated on a homesite tract, you can get title to the required
area up to 80 acres. Substantial investments in improvements de-
signed for trade, manufacture, or other productive industry are
required before the land is eliminated from the national forest for
patenting. Many salmon cannery projects started on national
forest land have patented their plant sites by this method.
In addition to the use of national forest land under certain laws
which allow for eventual patent, a large number of tracts may be
254 ALASKA TODAY
occupied for a variety of purposes under special use permits,
which offer no chance of title. Temporary uses, such as camping,
hunting, and fishing do not require permits. Special use permits,
except for certain uses carrying a large public interest, involve a
reasonable yearly charge, such as $5 for a residence or summer
home. This is the most widely held form of national forest permit.
It has been used for 30 years with apparent general satisfaction.
More than 1,300 special use permits are in effect in the two Alaska
national forests, representing a range of investments from a few
hundred to many thousands of dollars.
Among the enterprises authorized by special use permits, in ad-
dition to salmon canneries, are dairies, fur farms, stores, marine-
ways, tramways, storage grounds, residences, resorts, summer
homes, electric power lines, telephone lines, warehouses, and
wharves. Free special use permits in effect include trapper and
prospector cabins, schoolhouses, churches, missions, cemeteries,
and rifle ranges.
For fur farms, entire islands of not more than 1,000 acres, or
tracts of land not in excess of 80 acres on the larger islands or on
the mainland can be leased. Annual rentals are $12.50 and $25 for
entire islands and from $5 to $25 for tracts. Fur-farm permittees
are granted exclusive occupancy and use of the land for the pur-
pose of raising definitely designated fur-bearing animals. Before
a permit is issued, the applicant must show financial ability for
carrying on the enterprise. Islands or tracts under fur-farm permit
are not available for patent. Many islands and other sites are avail-
able for fur-farm purposes.
The exceptionally fine outdoor recreational features of the na-
tional forests are attracting more and more people, and additional
resorts are necessary to accommodate them. Sites are available
for both large and small developments. To avoid the tar-paper
shack type of construction, simple descriptive plans must be sub-
mitted with applications for small resorts. More elaborate plans
with proof of ability to carry them out are required for the large
developments. Annual rentals are from $10 up for small sites and
from $75 up for large sites.
Ordinary special use permits are issued for resorts valued at
$5,000 or less. A term permit is available for resorts costing more
than $5,000. The law authorizing this type limits the area to 5
acres and the period to 30 years. The usual period granted is from
A HOME FOR THE ASKING 255
10 to 20 years with privilege of renewal. For resorts in connection
with the use of mineral springs, a lease issued by the Secretary of
Agriculture can be obtained.
The Forest Service is making special efforts to further the es-
tablishment of resorts on the national forest areas. No objection
is made to a homesite permittee operating a resort on his homesite,
provided he complies with the residence requirements. However,
it must be remembered that homesite tracts are limited to areas
readily accessible to existing settlements, and cannot be obtained
in the isolated locations that so frequently offer good resort pos-
sibilities.
Special use permits are also issued for small plots of land for
summer home purposes at an annual rental fee of $5. These are
located at points offering exceptional scenic or recreational attrac-
tions. They are classed as a recreational feature and cannot be
made available for patenting. Many summer homes, some repre-
senting substantial investments, have been built under special use
permits on scenic plots along the highways and beaches outside
the large towns, especially near Juneau and Ketchikan. Additional
desirable sites are available. Simple restrictions on the design of
summer cottages and the use of the land are imposed by the Forest
Service to preclude features that would be objectionable to neigh-
boring owners.
Lands for community centers, subdivided into streets and lots
to insure orderly growth, are laid out in localities which show
signs of becoming concentrated settlements. The lots are rented
for a nominal yearly fee until the population is sufficient to main-
tain a town government; then the area is eliminated from the na-
tional forest to permit title to be obtained under general township
laws. Graded and planked streets are frequently constructed to
stimulate the growth of the new community.
The national forests of Alaska are administered through a re-
gional forester and staff resident in Alaska. Only important mat-
ters involving questions of policy are referred to Washington.
This form of administrative procedure expedites action in deal-
ing with the public. The regional forester's headquarters are in
Juneau. Field offices in charge of division supervisors are situated
in Ketchikan, Petersburg, and Juneau for the Tongass National
Forest, and at Cordova and Seward for the Chugach National
Forest.
CHAPTER 22
The Native
THE NATIVE question has been the main bone of con-
tention between Alaskans and the Office of Indian Affairs. Some
feel that with an increase of reservations, plus the present game
sanctuaries, national parks, monuments, and Army and Navy re-
serves, the white resident soon will not have a place to hang his
hat. At present, however, each one has about 6 square miles all to
himself.
A large part of the land withdrawn from the public domain is
for use of the natives. Special grants are made assuring perpetual
proprietorship, together with exclusive rights for trapping, hunt-
ing, and fishing. But in huge areas thus set aside, there may be
opportunity for mining or other industries in which not many
natives engage. In the Venetie reservation in northeastern Alaska
approximately 7,000 acres were withdrawn for each of the 202
natives.
Congressional Delegate Bartlett protested certification of the
Venetie reserve, although he has approved of smaller ones. Gov-
ernor Gruening has opposed all reservations for natives, not that
he denies certain priority rights for the Eskimos, Indians, and
Aleuts, but because he does not favor the principle involved in
segregating the natives from the whites. Some outstanding native
leaders have disapproved of special reserves, asking, "How can we
expect to be on a plane of equality with whites if we allow our-
selves to be penned in separate areas, whether one or a million
acres?"
So the native question, like others in Alaska, is definitely two-
sided. The consensus has been that withdrawal of public domain
has been carried too far. The most even-keeled editor and pub-
lisher in Alaska said: "You haven't seen much about natives and
256
THE NATIVE 257
the land question in our editorials because there is much confusion
here. I have been unable to unravel the problem to my satisfaction
and so say nothing."
The Alaskan natives might have checked discrimination against
their race earlier than they did by electing representatives to the
legislature and enacting laws to back up the United States Con-
stitution. That document, calling for equality of all races, creeds,
and colors, apparently had escaped the notice of Alaskans, some
of whom barred aborigines from shops, cafes, and places of amuse-
ment.
In the general election of October, 1944, Tlingit and Haida
Indians, living in the First Division of the four judicial districts
the southeastern Panhandle seated two of their race in the lower
House. As a result, the Seventeenth Assembly, meeting the fol-
lowing February, passed the antidiscrimination bill, a step indica-
tive of social progress. Similar measures, introduced by fair-
minded whites, had come up before and had been defeated. This
time, however, legislators supported the natives and enacted a stiff
law.
The bill was introduced by an Indian. It had teeth in it, making
it a jail offense to display signs reading, "No Natives Allowed,"
or "We Do Not Cater to Natives." It had been rather brazen for
whites to notify the original inhabitants they were intruders, but
they had done that for years without the natives offering effective
opposition. The Aleuts are a mild people who believe the Aleutians
are the Garden of Eden. The Eskimos lived so far away that the
signs did not bother them. But one would have expected descend-
ants of the ferocious Tlingits, formerly a lordly race boasting
high-caste slave owners, to have thrown a brick through a plate
glass window now and then.
This disgraceful and un-American practice on the part of some
Alaskan whites had been virtually the one blot on a clean escutch-
eon. That it endured as long as it did seems unbelievable. It
lowered the spirit and economic status of the native, for it served
to deprive him of a means of livelihood. Now the native has the
will to better his condition as well as the opportunity to do so.
The aborigines still are beset by handicaps. The tuberculosis rate
is high some say 26 per cent and their love for whisky remains
at par. Some natives deteriorated through contact with whites by
2 5 8
ALASKA TODAY
Watching the local team play ball on St. Paul Island in
the Pribilofs. (Courtesy Alaska Native Service.)
falling heir to their faults and ailments without profiting from
their virtues. They went the whites one better on drink. Venereal
diseases also played havoc with them. However, through tireless
effort of the Native Service, aided by Territorial welfare workers,
these diseases have been held in check to a great extent.
So the Alaskan scene for native peoples is portrayed in brighter
hue. To make it still more attractive, the natives need good jobs,
more tuberculosis hospitals, additional doctors, and honest poli-
ticians. The last is quite an order but it is being filled. Stronger
THE NATIVE 259
leadership in their own ranks also has developed. No one doubts
that the aborigine can hold his own if he is encouraged. On the
battle line, in sports, in agriculture and industry he has demon-
strated qualifications for success.
In Alaska is an Indian colony that equals in accomplishment, if
it does not surpass, any group management in all the country. Near
the southern boundary on Annette Island, the Metlakatlan Indians
have shown they can follow inspiring leadership. These natives,
reputedly victims of religious persecution in Canada, went to
Alaska at the time Grover Cleveland was president and started life
anew under the guidance of a determined white missionary. Many
a white man in Alaska today would like to be in a Metlakatlan's
shoes. Most of these Indians rank high in this world's goods. They
have modern homes, the best community hall in the Territory, a
prosperous salmon cannery, a good school, and two fine churches.
Most of them own motor launches for fishing and pleasure, cost-
ing from $2,000 to $20,000. When these Indians speak of the Cubs
they are not referring to Alaska's black bears. In 1937-1938, the
Metlakatlans had the champion basketball team in Alaska.
The story of this colony's success is told in one word diligence.
"Father" William Duncan, their friend and preceptor, taught
them the meaning of diligence through his own exemplary con-
duct. He left them a heritage they cherished and made good use
of. In a sense, the Annette Island colony, numbering about 700,
offers a solution to most problems of the aborigines as well 3s to
the troubles of their protectors. William Duncan put industry
next to religion for his proteges. Sheldon Jackson tried the same
plan with the Eskimos but they did not follow their leader so well
as did the Metlakatlans.
Both these recognized friends of the natives considered temper-
ance important. Lack of it has proved a handicap to Indians, Eski-
mos, and Aleuts. Governor Gruening, in addressing the Alaska
Native Brotherhood at its thirty-first annual convention, did no
pussyfooting on the subject. He told them: "A large part of the
revenue received from fishing and labor in the canneries is dissi-
pated in excessive consumption of liquor. This is not a peculiarity
of any one race, group, or community. While I am not an advocate
of total abstinence, I must confess I have often been shocked at the
extent to which liquor in Alaska is abused. The consequences of
260 ALASKA TODAY
such dissipation are deplorable in their effects on the welfare of
the people, particularly on that of the children.
"Why is it that so many native communities are poorly housed,
and that their inhabitants are often poorly clothed and poorly
nourished? We must explore this matter and try to arrive at a
policy which offers hope of improvement. . . . While it is de-
sirable that you acquire the machinery for livelihood in the form
of canneries and fish traps to increase your income, this will avail
nothing if a larger income is annually squandered in a long de-
bauch. ... If there are those who cannot control their appetites
for strong drink, then for them total abstinence is the only solu-
tion. . . . There can be no real progress of the native people un-
less they grapple squarely with this problem."
There are good Indians and bad Indians, just as there are good
and bad whites. Likewise, there is good and bad liquor. The low-
income natives generally get hold of cheap whisky or moonshine
and suffer accordingly. Not only is it cheaper, but there is more
of it than of bonded whisky, and consequently a debauch is likely
to last longer than one started with high-priced liquor. If you re-
versed the, situation of the two drinkers that is, put a well-dressed
Indian in a comfortable hotel lounge with a white- jacketed waiter
serving him highballs in leisurely fashion, and stripped a white
cannery owner of his wealth and up-to-date clothes, placed him
in a one-room hovel with plenty to brood about, plus a gallon of
cheap whisky which man do yo"u think would acquire the worst
jag? There's many a white beachcomber on the sands at Tahiti
who could answer that question.
THE ALEUTS
All Alaskan natives have decreased in numbers, the greatest de-
pletion being among the Aleuts. There were 20,000 or more when
the Russians came. Now they scarcely exceed 3,000. The czar's
soldiers surpassed the worst tactics of Cortez' greedy followers.
Whole islands in the Aleutians were depopulated. Some Aleuts
migrated to the mainland. Others were transported to the Pribi-
lofs, 250 miles north of Dutch Harbor, to work at butchering the
fur seals. :
Attu women making sea-grass baskets. Attu Island is at the
western tip of the Aleutians. (Courtesy Alaska Native
Service.)
262 ALASKA TODAY
Later, under American supervision, more Aleuts were sent to
these islands St. Paul and St. George where the government
built modern villages for them. The natives now are well paid for
a short season's employment. In addition to killing the seals and
aiding in processing the skins, some of the Aleuts attend to fox
ranching, also under government control in the Pribilofs.
The island colony, too, is a happy one, but the people are not
nearly so self-sufficient as the Metlakatlans for the reason that
Uncle Sam has been a prodigal spender. He can afford it, as the
sealskins yield big profits. Also, the Aleuts do a good job. They
go in for fun as well as work, indulge in sports, have a jive orches-
tra that played for G.I.'s in all Alaskan camps, and generally are as
modern as whites. They are not very well schooled in economics,
however; instead of buying life's necessities, cash and carry, the
Aleuts obtain them at a community store and charge them. Aleut
girls on the Pribilofs seldom know the difference in cost between
nylon and rayon, but they can recognize a distinction in appear-
ance and take the nylon stockings if any are on hand.
When the Japanese struck in the Aleutians, the Pribilof Aleuts
as well as those from the "stepping stones" to and from Japan were
evacuated to southeastern Alaska. The government sent shiploads
of food and clothes to the natives. They liked the oranges and
name-brand coffee in vacuum-sealed tins. They also were pleased
with the bright-colored sweaters and slacks allotted to them. The
only fault they found with their new home on Admiralty Island
was the heavy growth of timber. It came right down to the
pebbled beach. Neither the Aleutians nor the Pribilofs have trees
and the Aleuts were used to the open spaces. "No place to walk
here," said old Larry Mercheenen, chief of the Atka settlement.
"The trees get in your way."
Attu, at the far western tip of the Aleutians, was the first island
attacked and most of its inhabitants were lost.
The village on Adak Island, also demolished by the Japanese,
has been rebuilt. Better houses and a better school were erected,
but the old Russian Greek Orthodox church was duplicated in its
entirety. Adak later became the chief outpost of Army and Navy
bases in the Aleutians. Many changes were introduced, including
breeding of livestock.
When the Navy carried the Aleuts back to their native shores,
THE NATIVE 263
it played host to them at Unalaska, treating the youngsters to
loads of pop, candy, and cake sweets that they are too fond of.
Unlike a diet of fish and seal oil, these tidbits call for doctors and
dentists, not too numerous in native habitats.
The evacuees were returned just in time for Easter services in
their home churches, a boon to the older folks, as the Aleuts are
very religious and attentive to formalities of worship begun in
Baranof's day. His fur hunters and soldiers took away the sources
of bodily sustenance, but his priests supplied spiritual nourishment
aplenty.
THE ESKIMOS
The story of the Eskimos is different. This race has suffered less
than the Aleuts from contact with the whites, but has not escaped
entirely. There are 1 5,000 to 1 8,000 Eskimos in Alaska today com-
pared to about 20,000 thirty years ago. No slaughter of the
Eskimos followed the advent of the whites as in the case of the
Aleuts. The white man's diseases, however, were readily commu-
nicated to what formerly had been a hardy people. Measles, flu,
pneumonia, smallpox, and tuberculosis have taken a heavy toll for
years. Many died in a flu epidemic at Point Barrow, despite heroic
efforts of Native Service workers and missionaries.
Arctic Coast Eskimos were the first to suffer from the encroach-
ment of white trappers and whalers. Later, the interior tribes con-
tracted contagious diseases when they came to the coast to trade
skins for seal oil. Whole villages have been wiped out by ailments
common to children in the civilized world; measles was one of
the worst scourges. But this menace is passing, and most of the
adults are now immune to such diseases.
The Eskimo is generally shrewder and of a more buoyant dis-
position than the Indian. Such depletion of the American Eskimos
as has taken place has been chiefly the penalty of physical change.
This mutation still is in process, but gradually the Eskimos are
adjusting themselves to the ways of the whites.
There is more intermarriage of Eskimos and white Alaskans
than among whites and other natives, possibly because there are
more Eskimos than Indians, but also because regions inhabited by
264
ALASKA TODAY
George Aden Ahgupuk, Eskimo artist. (Courtesy Lillian
V. Russell.)
Eskimos are isolated, making the white man living there more sus-
ceptible than he is farther south.
All natives gave good aid in the war effort, both in combat and
in financial support, through purchase of bonds and contributions
to the Red Cross. Eskimos were possibly the heaviest subscribers.
The Eskimo is a crack shot and an unusually good mechanic.
He can take an ailing outboard motor apart and put it together in
excellent working condition.
Many- Eskimos have inherent cultural tastes, in some instances
highly developed. One of Alaska's artists is George Aden Ahgu-
puk, an Eskimo who draws on finely prepared reindeer hides. He
will not touch a "canvas" until it has been well tanned, bleached,
and split five or six times to reach a state of perfection, this process
taking a month.
Simeon Oliver, born an Eskimo but raised in the Aleutians, is a
student of Alaskan history, concert pianist, author, and lecturer.
He has a home near Anchorage, overlooking Smuggler's Cove
where he is host at Sunday breakfasts to a mixed assemblage of
THE NATIVE 265
interesting people, consisting of the literati, artists, and other
friends with good appetites, who enjoy their host's sourdough
pancakes. The view from the veranda is wonderful, and the in-
formal forums are intellectually stimulating. Among Mr. Oliver's
guests will be found Ziegler, Alaska's best known painter; Peter
Wood, newspaper reporter and columnist; Marvin Hart, editor of
Let's See Alaska; Ted Lambert, author and artist; and others of
an artistic vein.
The sourdough batter is reputedly forty-seven years old. The
sourdough "starter" is something miners concocted to make bread,
biscuits, and pancakes in lieu of yeast. This relic of pioneer days
accounts for the term "sourdough" by which old-time Alaskans
are known.
Simeon Oliver's first book, Son of the Smoky Sea, was well re-
ceived as was its sequel, Return to the Smoky Sea. Now he is
writing a history of Alaska. He was born to the name of Nutchuk
and christened in the Russian church. He is widely traveled and
although half Norwegian is typical of the cultural development
possible to members of the Eskimo race.
Ivory carvings of the Eskimos are famous and no meager source
of revenue. Jade is used also. The sale of all Northland trinkets
doubled when the G.I.'s came, equaling in a year about half the
A carved ivory paper weight typical of the native craft of
the King Island Eskimos. (Courtesy Dame, Alaska Native
Service.)
266 ALASKA TODAY
amount the Native Service in Alaska spends annually for edu-
cation $1,374,910 was appropriated for 1946.
While ivory and jade carving is the chief art of the Eskimos,
tiie manufacture of winter garments from furs and skins is more
important from a utilitarian standpoint. Women of the Nome
Skin Sewers Association are prominent in the work, but it is not
limited to this group. The native craft supplied the armed forces
with parkas, mukluks (skin boots), mittens, sleeping bags, and
other essentials.
THE KING ISLANDERS
Among the ivory carvers, the best known are those on King
Island, a 2-mile-square granite rock, 75 miles northwest of Nome.
Fewer than 200 Eskimo cliff-dwellers have inhabited this bleak
Bering Sea island since the day Captain Cook discovered it in 1778,
and probably for centuries before that. The village igloos are built
of driftwood, with the back against the steep cliff and the front
supported by poles, thirty feet high. The houses are covered with
walrus hides, making the little buildings secure and weatherproof.
King Island is one place where the natives have not changed
much in their mode of life. They have adopted only a few of the
conveniences bestowed on their cousins on the mainland. The
little huts usually are 9 feet square and not high enough for the
owners to stand erect. The people sit, eat, and sleep on the floor.
Adjoining each shack is a shed for surplus household goods and
fishing gear. Large community sheds, in which the single men
sleep, are used as workshops and for social gatherings. In these
shops, sleds and boats are built and new skin covering is put on the
oomiaks the large boats used for hunting trips and for marketing
their ivory artcraft.
The kashima, as the community halls are called, serve as places
for village dances and for other release of the convivial spirit for
which the Eskimo is noted. The young people jive while the
older folks eat and tell tall tales. Those who can read carry a Mil-
ler's joke book. Though he leads a hard life in fog and cold, the
King Islander, like most other Eskimos, would rather play than
THE NATIVE 267
eat; but he generally prefers either of these indulgences to a white
man's work.
Seal and walrus are the sources of food. Also, the wild migra-
tory birds help out by laying far more eggs than they hatch. The
walrus^herds come in the spring from Siberia, and at this season the
natives keep a lookout atop the island. When warned of an ap-
proaching herd, the hunters, dressed in white, the chief color motif
of the Arctic, shove out to sea, grounding the oomiaks on ice
cakes. There they wait the signal to shoot. This is the time the
Eskimos are all business, for the walrus hunt means filling their
natural cold-storage cellars with a year's supply of meat.
The most Valuable trophies obtained, in addition to food, are
the ivory tusks from which they carve attractive trinkets to sell
on their annual visjt to the Nome beach, where they continue the
work all summer. The whole population makes the trip in large
skin boats of the kind used for centuries, but for a recent trip the
natives chartered a tug. On the beach they live in pup tents or
under their boats, turned upside down and propped with paddles,
and not only work at artcraft but dance and sing for the benefit of
tourists who toss coins as they would to aspiring amateurs at
home. It's a festive scene and one of Nome's biggest attractions.
Natives from Little Diomede Island also flock to Nome in the
summer.
Fine rifles, motors for propelling their oomiaks, and acceptance
of the Catholic faith are the King Islanders' only concessions to
modernity. Their missionary for years has been Father La For-
tune, a friend of Father Bernard Hubbard. Before the missionaries
drove the native "devil-drivers" back to Hades, the morals of the
Eskimo were scarcely the same as those of the whites or as those
the whites should have. When he first encountered the whaler on
Arctic shores, the native voluntarily loaned his wife to his guest. So
if the fishermen went a step further and appropriated the natives'
daughters, carrying them to the ships and virtually dumping them
overboard after orgies, one has to admit the Eskimo set a prec-
edent.
That was long ago. Whales and whalers became almost extinct
with the passing of whalebone corsets. By that time the Arctic
natives had learned a lot of the white man's tricks. Today at gin
rummy or solo, a white cardsharp has to look sharp when he has
268 ALASKA TODAY
an Eskimo opponent. And in his modern home of imported spruce
and hemlock, not nearly so warm as his igloo with its long snow-
tunneled entrance, the native resident at Wainwright or Barrow
long has ceased to bow to the magic of the devil-doctors; nor will
he trade the sanctity of his home for tobacco or whisky.
While the Eskimo is a capable citizen, one can go too far in
exalting him. He can maneuver a kayak, his small narrow skin
boat, better than a white man, but aside from that he has few
talents which the white man cannot equal. Evidence of that was
demonstrated by Charles D. Brower, uncrowned "King of the
Arctic," who died in 1944 at the age of eighty-four. Charles
Brower spent sixty years near the North Pole, and was known
from coast to coast in the States for his outstanding ivory carvings.
They were equal if not superior to anything done by natives. He
also excelled in taxidermy and preservation of rare flora as well as
unique specimens of fauna. There is scarcely a big museum in the
country that does not cherish his memory and the trophies he
gave them during his long stay in the Arctic.
Everything the aborigine did, Charles Brower did a little better,
from knocking over a caribou at a quarter of a mile, to removing
a ruptured appendix. While he was a shining light in the Far
North's winter gloom, his supremacy more or less acknowledged,
he never boasted or looked down on the Eskimo, for he recog-
nized many laudable traits along with some questionable ones. The
"king" learned as much as he taught. What he learned serVed him
so well that he usually became more adept than the native.
Born in New York City, self-educated and highly cultured, the
Eskimos' friend married an Eskimo three of them, in fact, but of
course at different times. And there were no divorces. Separation
of married natives is on a much smaller scale than among whites,
it being conceded that native girls regard the marriage vows as
sacred. He had fourteen children, all of whom were educated
either in Alaska or in the States; one was graduated from West
Point and served in World War I. Two of his seven sons and sev-
eral grandchildren were in World War II. Most of his children
married whites whom they met at school. Their marriages, as well
as his own, proved happy ones. This is interesting because many
missionaries and white teachers maintain that it is preferable to
keep the aborigines socially and economically distinct from the
"Eskimo kiss okay, but we like white man's way much bet-
ter!" (Courtesy Edna Walker Chandler.)
2JO- ALASKA TODAY
whites. The Arctic king's history and that of his descendants upset
that theory. Perhaps in his useful life and the benefits he passed on,
one can see another solution to the native question entirely differ-
ent from that of Metlakatla, where intermarriage with whites is
relatively uncommon.
Charles Brower gave little attention to social questions. Though
inherently artistic in his tastes, he gained his livelihood from the
Arctic and did business at his trading post with white trappers and
natives alike. He was not a severe critic of native shortcomings,
nor of the zealous efforts of missionaries; but he was at variance
with some of the policies of both missionaries and Native Service
teachers. He thought it a mistake to urge the Eskimo to don a
warm fur shirt indoors merely to cover his or her nakedness from
the waist up. He knew that so dressed in their heated igloos they
perspired and contracted pneumonia when they went out in the
biting cold. He was aware that when they built modern cabins
with thin walls they were not as healthy as in their well-ventilated
igloos of driftwood and skins, warmed by oil lamps instead of
overheated potbellied stoves. He questioned not a few of the new
economy's "musts" and "don'ts" for the native, but he didn't rant
about them.
Charlie Brewer's friends, like the famous Amundsen, Stefans-
son, and Wilkins, were not explorers in the field of social prob-
lems but rather seekers after scientific facts. They and others of
their type, together with Alaska's Capt. Bob Bartlett, whalers,
traders, and old-time skippers loved to sit at the "king's" festive
board of an evening when an Arctic wind was howling outside
and the temperature 50 degrees below.
Had the tragedy that ended Will Rogers' and Wiley Post's lives
been only a few miles closer to Point Barrow, Will Rogers would
have died in Charlie Brower's arms. It was he who prepared Will
Rogers' body for burial in an Arctic grave.
The lesson to be drawn from the life of Charles Brower and his
associates at Point Barrow is that the Arctic is not necessarily a
country adapted solely to the pursuits and manner of life of the
Eskimos. While it is not a land that the average white man might
voluntarily select as a place of abode, Charles Brower proved that
should opportunities arise mining, oil development, or any pur-
suit offering profit for labor the whites are as able to cope with
THE NATIVE 271
the rigors of the climate as are the natives. In some respects, he and
his crew seemed to meet the requisites for healthful life there bet-
ter than the Eskimos. Whaling took Charles Brower and his men
to Point Barrow; industrial development may eventually draw
many other white workers to the same region.
The Eskimos are generous and circumspect in their relations
with others. They are trustful and in the main trustworthy. The
girls quickly adapt themselves to modern ways. At the native
boarding schools Eklutna, near Anchorage, and at White Moun-
tain on the Seward Peninsula both boys and girls are good
students. More than a few show artistic talent of one sort or
another.
So far as attractiveness is concerned, and in a metropolitan en-
vironment, the Eskimo girl is as appealing as the white girl. An
Alaskan girl, born on the lower Kuskokwim, whose father was an
Eskimo and mother a Frenchwoman, was educated at Holy Cross
on the Yukon and after working in Anchorage was taken^to
Chicago to exhibit sledge dogs, hunting and fishing gear, and Arc-
tic apparel. There were frolicsome malemute pups and other
things to attract the curious throng, but most of the crowd in
front of the 6o-foot booth centered on Lisa. Her job was to ex-
plain the customs of a strange people and the use of native imple-
ments. She did this in soft leisurely speech, and her listeners seemed
highly interested. Her employer overlooked an opportunity. He
could have sold 500 portraits of Lisa to 5 of his heroic and always
hungry hounds of the North.
Eskimo girls are good workers. As with the Indians, if there is
any tiresome chore to be done, it is the mothers and daughters
who do ft. When the Eskimo goes hunting, he lets his wife go
along to drag home the game, often a 6oo-pound caribou or
two, which she helps the dogs to pull on a sled. Also, she may
carry a couple of foxes across her shoulder with an heir apparent
on her back. Teacher Thompson of Eklutna reported that when
it came to repairing the school's fish nets, he found the native boys
reluctant to assist. "At home, our mothers and sisters do that sort
of work," they informed him.
Eskimos have many superstitions, usually based on a premise
that makes life easy for the men. Exposing such superstitions is one
accomplishment on the credit side of the missionaries.
ALASKA TODAY
Aleut boys treated to pop on their return to Unalaska, in
the Aleutians, after the three-year evacuation to southeast-
ern Alaska. (Courtesy U.S. Navy )
THE INDIANS
The Indians in Alaska are the Athapascans, Tlingits, Haidas, and
Tsimshians. The first named are the most numerous; they inhabit
the valleys of the interior rivers, including the Yukon, Tanana,
Kuskokwim, and their tributaries. The lower portions of the
Yukon and Kuskokwim and their deltas are peopled by Eskimos,
speaking a different tongue from those of the Arctic coast.
Athapascans number approximately 6,000 against 3,000 Tlingits
THE NATIVE 273
and about 700 Haidas. The Tsimshians are the Aletlakatlans al-
ready described as residents of the Annette Island reservation. The
Haidas occupy the southern half of Prince of Wales Island, largest
of the southeastern archipelago. This island contains the native
towns of Klawock, Craig, and Hydaburg, all fairly close to Ket-
chikan on neighboring Revillagigedo Island. Klawock, with 500
population, is the home of Frank Peratrovich, author of the anti-
discrimination bill. The Indians on Prince of Wales Island are of
the same origin as those on the Queen Charlotte Islands in Canada.
Of all the Indians, the Athapascans remain the most primitive.
Missions of various faiths as well as Native Service teachers are
spread over thousands of square miles in the domain of the Atha-
pascans but the work in their behalf is difficult. While a few
Athapascans earn a part-time living cutting wood and working
on the river boats, some becoming expert pilots, the majority de-
pend on hunting, fishing, and trapping. The Venetie reservation
contains 1,804,000 acres and is peopled almost entirely by Atha-
pascans, with a few interior tribes of Eskimos. With the exception
of Metlakatla, a closely knit colony of long duration and much
enterprise, the native reservations are devoted merely to use of
the land's game resources.
Little attempt has been made in Alaska to turn the native toward
cultivation of the land. In Idaho and other states, Indian colonies
have been highly successful in the development of agricultural
pursuits and livestock projects. While the Alaskan economy is of
course different in many respects, the chief explanation for this
contrast is disinclination on the part of the Alaskan native or his
leaders to turn to the physical labor involved in agriculture. The
Alaskan Indian has been encouraged to fight for special fishing
rights rather than to fight grub worms or potato rust. The fight
over land and fishing rights was dragged out for so long that it
cost the taxpayer more than the whole question is worth. It was
carried to the bar, to the council chambers of labor unions, to
Congress, and to the innermost sanctums of government in Wash-
ington. The claims of the Indian are about as logical as the heirs
of Hendrik Hudson demanding a deed to Manhattan.
A more interesting picture is found in the intellectual progress of
the younger generation of Athapascans, who are not concerned
with the land and water controversy in southeastern Alaska. The
274 ALASKA TODAY
older generation has untold respect for the dead. They build cabins
over graves and paint the shelters with bright colors, while the
homes of the living are drab and cheerless. They believe their de-
parted ones crave food and so they leave delicacies in the graveyard.
The youngsters, more enlightened, know spirits need no mundane
nourishment and that the bears and ground squirrels will get the
food if they don't. So at night they trek to the burial ground and
have a bobby-sox feast.
Indians who live in the larger towns or on the outskirts present
the most deplorable picture. Their homes, in most cases, have been
decaying shacks built close together, poorly heated and ventilated.
Tuberculosis has been taking an ever increasing toll. The chief
work of the Native Service, aside from education, has been caring
for invalided hospital patients instead of slum clearance and
adequate housing. An exception to this was the reconstruction of
Hoonah which burned in 1944, leaving 97 Indian families home-
less. Through the Native Service and the Federal Projects Housing
Administration, 80 individual housing units were built on lots about
twice as wide as formerly, with lights, water, sewer, and other
utilities.
After fishing, the most important source of revenue for Indians of
southeastern Alaska, especially for youngsters, is the carving of
miniature totem poles which are sold to visiting tourists and shipped
to the States as well. Before the war, the CCC, under direction of the
Forest Service, restored many genuine totem poles, taking them to
the Sitka National Monument park, Saxman Park near Ketchikan,
Wrangell, and other places where tourists could see them. Thus an
interest in the ancestral art that the Indians themselves had aban-
doned years ago was revived. The totem pole originally was a
heraldic emblem by which the chiefs of the Pacific Northwest pro-
claimed their family history and supernatural connections, and
though indigenous only to certain tribes and localities, came to be
identified by outsiders with all of Alaska.
In spite of the land controversy, there are good prospects ahead
for Alaskan Indians and the only hindrance to their realization was
summarized by Governor Gruening in his talk to the Alaska Native
Brotherhood. More work and less liquor will make them as pro-
gressive as the whites real Americans as well as first Americans.
CHAPTER 23
Alaska's Schools
THE TIME is ripe for Alaska's twofold educational sys-
temone for natives and one for whites to be merged into a single
program. Such a procedure has been urged by some educators, but
it has encountered opposition from both sides the U.S. Office of
Indian Affairs and the Territorial authorities.
One uniform school system under Territorial control or under
jurisdiction of the state, if and when Alaska becomes the forty-
ninth state, probably cannot be achieved at one stroke. But accord-
ing to Dr. James C. Ryan, commissioner of education since 1941,
some transfer of individual schools from the Alaska Native Service
to the Territory should take place at once. He adds that in certain
areas the Native Service must remain in charge for quite awhile.
Alaska, he says, would be unable to get supplies to sections where
there is no commercial transportation. The Alaska Native Service
has the means for that purpose.
The United States government (the nation's taxpayers) spends
in excess of $2,000,000 annually for education, welfare, and health
of Eskimos, Indians, and Aleuts in Alaska, but little toward schools
for \vhites, many of whom live in villages as small and remote as
the native settlements.
With its own funds the Territory tries to maintain the same
educational opportunities for children in far Arctic regions as it
provides in thriving cities. Alaska deserves high praise for this effort,
but a unified system would make the task easier.
At a hearing before the subcommittee of the congressional
committee on territories, touring Alaska in August, 1945, Dr.
Ryan testified in favor of partial unification of the two school sys-
tems. Subsequently, another congressional committee that on
Federal appropriations, also visiting Alaska, made a written report
275
2 7 6
ALASKA TODAY
mum
liillll tlL I
ilrill
The Juneau grade school with typical Juneau homes in the
background. (Ordway's Photo Service, Juneau.)
under the direction of Representative Jed Johnson of Oklahoma,
chairman. This said in part:
"Indian (native) schools in the Territory, for the most part have
been and continue to be inferior to Territorial white schools. Con-
ditions with which Indians (teachers) have been compelled to cope
made it difficult to obtain or retain qualified teachers. Some Indian
school buildings are a disgrace to the Indian Service and to Congress.
Improvements have been made under the leadership of Don C. Fos-
ter, recently installed as general superintendent of the Alaska Native
Service, but many additional improvements are essential. The Indian
Service, generally, has made little effort to instruct the native chil-
dren in trades, and has failed especially to teach or encourage gar-
dening. . . . For example, the school near Wrangell, known as the
ALASKA'S SCHOOLS 277
Wrangell Vocational Institute, does not have a garden although it
is situated in one of the richest agricultural areas which the com-
mittee visited. (A statement factually incorrect, since the appro-
priations committee inspected Matanuska, the Homer area, and the
Tanana Valley.) Practically the only attempt to give vocational
instruction to the children was in connection with the building of
fishing boats, which the natives had been building in a satisfactory
manner long before the white man migrated to Alaska." The con-
gressmen disclosed flaws in the Alaska Native Service; nevertheless,
its work as a whole has been good.
Aside from any question of social distinction or prejudice, the
advantage of a single school system w r ould be that funds available
from Federal and Territorial sources would go further if united.
The feelings of some persons might be hurt, but better educational
facilities for Alaska youth would be provided. In one community
there may be a teacher for half a dozen white and (or) mixed blood
pupils, and another for the same type of native children. Hence, in
a single locality, two "little red schoolhouses" are provided where
one \vould serve.
Alaska's legislature has been generous in its appropriations for
education. Out of $5,631,822 appropriated for the biennial, April i,
1945, through March 31, 1947, $2,557,274 of the total Territorial
funds to be expended were earmarked for the school system. In
general, Territorial schools are better equipped and teachers better
paid than are those in the Federal government service. Salaries range
from $ 2 , 2 50 to $ 2 ,6 2 5 a year, according to the location of the school.
The recent passage of the antidiscrimination bill, putting natives
and whites on an equal social plane, has done much to further the
argument favoring one school program. In Alaska, the aborigine is
considered as such, if he has one-half or more of native blood. Full-
blooded Eskimos, Indians, or Aleuts are not excluded from Ter-
ritorial schools; probably many attend the Federal schools merely
because such schools exist for them. During the 1944-1945 school
year, however, 26 per cent of the Territorial school enrollment was
one-fourth or more native. It is getting more and more difficult to
draw the line, and there is no just reason for drawing one at all.
The number of both Territorial and Federal schools, the latter
conducted by the Alaska Native Service under the Office of Indian
Affairs, varies from year to year according to shifts in population.
278 ALASKA TODAY
If gold were discovered at Kashega, which has 26 inhabitants, fam-
ilies with school-age children would soon move there, and a school
would be provided. The Territory, more sensitive to educational
needs than is the Federal government, will open a school for as few
as 6 pupils, whereas the Alaska Native Service requires 15 to 20.
Shortly after V-J Day a number of families returned to Haycock, a
small settlement in northwestern Alaska. Parents requested reopen-
ing of the school which had been discontinued. Dr. Ryan flew to
the town. Twenty-four hours after his arrival a teacher had been
engaged, supplies were rushed in from Nome, and the school was
in full operation.
Public schools in incorporated cities and towns have stable en-
rollments and, so far as academic studies are concerned, are as good
as can be found anywhere. All the high schools are small, the largest
having approximately 200 pupils, but the curriculums and efficiency
of instructors are on a par with larger high schools in the States.
The only point at issue in Alaska's school system is whether voca-
tional training might not be expanded in the high schools. Some
Alaskans feel it should play a more important part than it does;
Congressional Delegate Bartlett is among them. "I believe vocational
training is perhaps even more pertinent in Alaska than elsewhere,"
he has declared. "It is all very well to hold that the happiest person
through life is the person well educated academically. There are
two difficulties in carrying out that program. The first is that when
the boy (or girl) so educated leaves school he is except in isolated
cases where his parents are rich thrown into a world in which he
must compete with trained workers. The graduate is then starting
with a definite handicap. If he has difficulty in making a living, the
perfect life envisioned for him goes awry. Second, only a small per-
centage of the youth in any country are so mentally equipped that
a purely academic education is sufficient base for earning a liveli-
hood. I am firmly of the opinion that vocational training in Alaska
should be strongly emphasized."
Territorial schools usually remain about 70 in number, and Fed-
eral schools about 112, the larger number of native schools being
due to the fact that they are scattered over a wider domain.
All Territorial high schools have been graduating annually a total
of fewer than 300 pupils, with the majority from the cities and
towns. High school enrollment outside the corporate limits has been
ALASKA S SCHOOLS
2 79
HUH
Indian day school, Douglas, Alaska. (Courtesy Alaska Na-
tive Service.)
light, but with better transportation facilities it is now increasing.
Registration in both high and elementary schools increased in
the cities at the opening of the fall season in 1945. The Territory
pays 70 to 80 per cent of current operation costs in all city schools.
In lieu of the balance, it pays a tuition fee for each student from
outside the corporate bounds and transportation costs for such
pupils.
As a further means of extending education to children in distant
localities, Alaska offers correspondence courses. High school mail
courses are purchased from the University of Nebraska, while ele-
mentary courses are bought from the Calvert School in Baltimore.
Cost to the Territory is $85 a course. A small deposit is required
from students to insure that the work will be taken seriously, but
it is refunded when the course is completed satisfactorily. Tests are
sent out by the correspondence school and papers are returned for
correction and criticism. A certificate of promotion is issued at the
close of each year's course.
Mail order education has proved feasible in several middle-
western states and is regarded as a permanent feature of school pro-
280 ALASKA TODAY
grams in areas with widely scattered population. But any educator
knows that half the stimulation to learning is found in the classroom.
Dr. Ryan concedes that Alaska uses correspondence courses as an
emergency measure, realizing that they are far from ideal.
Rural school life in Alaska is all-absorbing for youngsters because
there are fewer distractions than elsewhere; isolation has barred
competing interests to a large degree. The boys and girls in the
wilds regard school as the prime center of activities. With their
snowmen, and snowball fights in which the teacher may join, the
youngsters have a good time. In some schools children assist the in-
structor by doing such odd jobs as fetching wood, tending the fire,
or doing other chores that a part-time janitor may choose to omit.
Away from school, library books are in strong demand. In the long
winter nights when the northern lights are playing across a purple-
blue sky, children of Alaska's rural schools are avid readers, por-
ing over all the magazines and books that the school can supply.
Alaskans patterned their schools largely after those of the States,
with which they were familiar. In the legislative statute initiating
the school system it was stipulated that a community with six or
more pupils should be entitled to a school. Rural schools are sup-
ported 100 per cent from Territorial funds, including construction
and equipping of buildings, free textbooks and school supplies to
students, salaries of teachers and janitors, fuel, and all other costs.
Settlers can obtain special schools by petition, but in that case
parents must provide the building, fuel, lights, and janitor. The
Territory supplies the teacher, books, and all other essentials.
Qualifications for teachers in Alaska are the same as in the States;
for elementary schools, three years training beyond high school;
for high school teachers, four years; and for superintendents, five
years beyond high school graduation. Teachers are employed by
the local school boards and by the commissioner of education.
Those trained by the University of Alaska, and who are residents
of Alaska, are given preference, but persons from outside, ade-
quately qualified, are not barred. Ninety per cent of the Alaska
teachers are university, college, or normal school graduates. In con-
sideration of this, and because of the increasing cost of living, the
194.3 legislature passed a bill raising the salaries of all teachers.
The pay for instructors in the small settlements is the same as in
the city schools. Many teachers prefer the rural schools because
ALASKA'S SCHOOLS 281
living costs are comparatively low and they can save a considerable
part of their pay; also, they have more independence no con-
ferences with superintendents or other duties outside the classroom.
Although the objectives of education in the rural districts are the
same as in urban schools, the means of achieving them differ. The
work of the rural teacher is strongly influenced by environment,
and there is demand for greater resourcefulness and ingenuity than
is required of the city teacher. Whether children in small isolated
rural schools receive as good an education as those in the towns de-
pends to a great extent on the energy, patience, and ideals of the
teacher. In many such schools the instructors are young girls, fresh
from college. They like their pupils and are eager to meet the re-
sponsibilities encountered.
As in small schools elsewhere, rural teachers instruct in all grades,
sometimes having one or two pupils taking high school studies while
others just past the kindergarten stage are learning to read. But
twelfth-grade graduates from these schools readily hold their own
in college.
Supervision of the public schools is vested in the Territorial
Board of Education with five members appointed by the governor
and approved by the legislature. The board appoints as its executive
officer a commissioner of education who is less subject to political
pressure than any other Territorial or Federal official in Alaska.
Eighty-five per cent of the fund for support of the Territorial
schools is appropriated by the legislature. Alaska levies a $5 school
tax on all persons aged twenty-one to fifty, including employed
women and employed natives. This tax supplies about 8 per cent
of the school funds. Another 2 per cent comes from the Alaska
Game Commission through fines from game law violators. Thus,
if a man shoots two bears where regulations call for one he is twice
a benefactor to the Alaskan community; he creates money for
schools and helps the farmer get rid of predatory animals.
Five per cent of the school fund is obtained through receipt of
2 5 per cent of the Alaska Fund, a small Federal fund fed by license
levies on Alaska business outside the incorporated towns. With
gallant gesture, Uncle Sam gives back a part of the money he takes,
offering it as almost his sole contribution toward education of white
children in Alaska. For Eskimos and Indians, he does decidedly bet-
ter, graciously bearing the whole burden. The Alaska Fund is spent
282
ALASKA TODAY
Students and teachers at Eklutna Vocational School catch
and prepare sufficient salmon for school needs each sum-
mer. The fish are caught by beach seines on near-by Knik
Arm and are brought to the school by motorboat and truck.
During the "fish run," everyone may work as much as
twenty-four hours at a time to take care of a large catch.
(Courtesy Dr. G. A. Dale, Alaska Native Service.)
mostly onthe school at Palmer that educates children of the Matan-
uska Valley farm colony.
A percentage of the sales of timber in Alaska's national forests
also goes to the public schools. It is not a heavy contribution at
ALASKA'S SCHOOLS 283
present, but should some millionaire pulp-paper manufacturer come
along and start utilizing the virgin forests, Alaska speedily could
build a branch of the University of Alaska, something it has been
talking about doing for years.
Eighteen of the 21 incorporated cities offer regular four-year
high school courses, all of which are accredited through the Ter-
ritorial Department of Education with the University of Alaska.
Fully accredited by the Northwest Association of Secondary and
High schools are: Anchorage, Cordova, Douglas, Fairbanks, Jun-
eau, Ketchikan, Nome, Petersburg, Seward, Sitka, Skagway, and
Wrangell. The Territorial rural school at Palmer, the Sheldon Jack-
son denominational school at Sitka, and Wrangell Institute (an
Indian school) also are accredited by the Northwest Association.
The Palmer school is large and modern, equipped with a good
laboratory, a manual training shop, and a gymnasium.
Alaska owns 54 Territorial rural school buildings but did not
operate 9 in 1945, largely because of the curtailment of mining
which caused many families to move to the cities.
SCHOOLS FOR NATIVES
In schools for natives in isolated regions, Federal government
teachers have to be even more resourceful than those in the Ter-
ritorial schools. Usually, instructors in Eskimo, Indian, and Aleut
villages include man and wife, although such an arrangement is not
an inviolable rule. They are selected from civil service lists, and
must have completed a four-year college course or its equivalent.
But a few of the things they are called on to do, they would not
have learned at college. Some must supervise management of rein-
deer herds owned by the natives, and in about forty communities
teachers confer with native storekeepers on such matters as markets,
credit, inventories, banking, and bookkeeping. They also take
charge of conservation of food by encouraging gardening (fre-
quently supplying the seeds) and the preserving of berries, meat,
and fish. Where there is no nurse, they may even assist at births or
handle medical problems of a complicated nature.
Nurses in the Native Service are directed through the two-way
short-wave radio by doctors speaking from hospitals; in emer-
284
ALASKA TODAY
Indian boys carving miniature totem poles in the native
school at Ketchikan. (Courtesy Alaska Native Service.)
gencies even minor operations may be performed under such con-
ditions. Teachers in isolated native settlements also are able to
communicate with hospitals through the two-way radio service.
Promising native students are trained through an apprentice pro-
gram, loaned money to attend college, and at conclusion of their
training are taken on as apprentice teachers. Other loan bene-
ficiaries secure business training and become highly efficient stenog-
raphers and secretaries.
In the war years, native schools averaged 2 principals, 16 prin-
cipal teachers, 193 teachers, 86 special assistants, and 32 Indian
ALASKA'S SCHOOLS 285
assistants. Many teachers were deferred from war service because
of their usefulness in civilian defense work.
The Alaskan Indians and Eskimos, according to Dr. George A.
Dale, educational director of the Native Service, are willing students
and seem eager to better their condition. The younger generation
is making rapid strides in a new economy. Social welfare work in-
cludes assistance in adoption and child placement and aid in cases
of destitution or neglect. These services are under the direction of
Dr. Evelyn E. Butler, welfare supervisor. Old-age assistance is ad-
ministered by the Alaska Territorial Department of Public Welfare,
with teachers of the Native Service co-operating.
Federal appropriations for hospitals and medical aid have been
considered inadequate as indicated by the growth in tuberculosis;
hospitalization facilities have been lately increased. Missionaries and
religious organizations have aided greatly in building and con-
ducting some of the best schools and hospitals in Alaska.
The Native Service, in addition to its hundred-odd day schools,
maintains three boarding schools in widely different parts of Alaska
for pupils of from fourteen to twenty years. The one at Eklutna,
23 miles from Anchorage, is attended mostly by Indians. Eskimo
children formerly came to this school from far reaches of the Arctic
coast so far that some did not return home even for the summer
vacations. Now a newer school at White Mountain on the Seward
Peninsula cares for those from the Arctic Circle.
Pupils in these schools and in the Wrangell Institute for Indian
children of southeastern Alaska, are trained in fisheries, carpentry,
painting, and other vocational pursuits, as well as in languages and
mathematics. Enrollment at the native boarding schools averages
about 225 at Wrangell, 150 at Eklutna, and 75 at White Mountain.
UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA
Alaska's land-grant college is the University of Alaska at College,
about 3 miles west of Fairbanks on the Alaska Railroad. Dr. Charles
E. Bunnell has been president of the University since 1922. It is the
most northerly situated institution of higher learning in the world.
This geographical distinction, frequently publicized, is in itself of
little moment, but the distance from which the college draws
Aerial view of the buildings of the University of Alaska,
at College, Alaska.
students is significant. They come from Florida and Texas, from
southern California and Maine. Near-by facilities t for field study in
geology, mineralogy, paleontology, and anthropology are excep-
tional, as Alaska is famous for its mineral wealth and buried relics
of past ages.
The University of Alaska, directed by an efficient board of re-
gents which has served during the last three national administra-
tions, is one of the broadest yet most closely knit organizations
in the Great Land. It offers four-year courses in arts and letters (in-
cluding two years in journalism), agriculture, business administra-
tion, education, chemistry, civil engineering, general science
(including military science), and home economics, as well as
geology, mining, mining engineering, and metallurgy. In all these
studies the school ranks high.
286
ALASKA'S SCHOOLS 287
Five-year courses are offered in civil engineering and in mining
engineering, with options in geology and metallurgy. A non-spe-
cialized three-year course for teachers is available. The Bureau of
Mines has a station on the campus where assaying and identification
tests are performed for prospectors and miners.
Entrance requirements are on a standard with those of leading
universities elsewhere. The college is a member of the Northwest
Association of Secondary and Higher Schools, and is fully accred-
ited in civil engineering and its school of mines by the Engineer's
Council for Professional Development. Normal student enrollment
is approximately 300, but more than 1,700 other students receive
education through the university's extension and short courses.
The principal extension courses are for prospectors and miners.
These courses, lasting five weeks, are held in several Alaska towns.
At the conclusion of the courses, successful students are awarded
certificates in mining, mineralogy, and geology. Agricultural ex-
tension courses also are given in several centers of population.
The university conducts agricultural experiment stations at Fair-
banks and at Matanuska; it also operates a fur-farm station at Peters-
burg. The director of the agricultural experiment stations is also
the director of the co-operative extension service, with its main
office at the university and district offices at Anchorage, Juneau,
and Palmer in the Matanuska Valley. The extension service super-
vises 4-H Club work and conducts home demonstration in canning
and other forms of service for the home. Also, it assembles subject
matter on agriculture for free distribution. Federal and Territorial
appropriations have not been sufficient to meet the requirements
of this growing institution.
While the college buildings were taken over during the war as
quarters for the armed forces, none of the school work was sus-
pended. Normal conditions were partially restored soon after Jan-
uary, 1945, when the last Army unit was withdrawn.
Ten buildings provide administrative offices, classrooms, lab-
oratories, a library, a gymnasium, a well-equipped power plant, a
mine and shop building, a motor building, dormitories for men,
and a dormitory for women. The newer structures are concrete
while the older ones are frame with concrete basements.
The university museum with its fine collection of Eskimo arti-
factsapproximately 75,000 specimens and other features of the
288 ALASKA TODA
