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ALBERUNI'S    INDIA, 


AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  RELIGION,  PHILOSOPHY,  LITERATURE, 

GEOGRAPHY,  CHRONOLOGY,  ASTRONOMY,  CUSTOMS, 

LAWS  AND  ASTROLOGY  OF  INDIA 

ABOUT  A.D.  1030. 


Bn  jEiigltsb  BDition,  witb  IFlotes  aiiD  5nMces. 

BY 

Dr.  EDWARD  C.  SACHAU, 

Professor  in  the  Royal  University  of  Berlin,  and  Principal  of  the  Seminaiy  for 

Oriental  Languages  ;  Member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Berlin,  and 

Corresponding  Member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Vienna 

Honorary  Member  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  London, 

and  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  Cambridge,  U.S.A. 

IN  TWO    VOLUMES. 
VOL.  I. 

LONDON 
KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.  L™ 

DRYDEN  HOUSE,  GERRARD  STREET,  W. 
1910 


The.  riyhts  of  translation  and  of  reproduction  are  reserved 


Printed  by  Ballantyne,  Hanson  &^  Co. 
At  the  Ballantyne  Press,  Edinburgh 


u  o 


7  ,•  n 


/'/ 


'/./ 


H>ebicate& 


CHARLES     SCHEFER, 

3IEMBRE   DE    L'iNSTlTUT,    PARIS 
AS 

A  HOMAGE  BOTH  TO 
THE   AfAJV  AND   THE  SCHOLAR. 


434611 


PREFACE. 


I. 

The  literary  history  of  the  East  represents  the  court  of  Mahmud 
King  Mahmud  at  Ghazna,the  leading  monarch  of  Asiatic  dansi. 
history  between  A. D.  997-1030,  as  having  been  a  centre 
of  literature,  and  of  poetry  in  particular.  There  were 
four  hundred  poets  chanting  in  his  halls  and  gardens, 
at  their  head  famous  Unsuri,  invested  with  the  recently 
created  dignity  of  a  poet-laureate,  who  by  his  verdict 
opened  the  way  to  royal  favour  for  rising  talents  ;  there 
was  grand  Firdausi,  composing  his  heroic  epos  by  the 
special  orders  of  the  king,  with  many  more  kindred 
spirits.  Unfortunately  history  knows  very  little  of  all 
this,  save  the  fact  that  Persian  poets  flocked  together 
in  Ghazna,  trying  their  kasidas  on  the  king,  his  minis- 
ters and  generals.  History  paints  Mahmud  as  a  suc- 
cessful warrior,  but  ignores  him  as  a  Maecenas.  With 
the  sole  exception  of  the  lucubrations  of  bombastic 
Utbi,  all  contemporary  records,  the  Makdmdt  of  Abii- 
Nasr  Mishkani,  the  Tahakdt  of  his  secretary  Baihaki, 
the  chronicles  of  Mulla  Muhammad  Ghaznavi,  Mahmud 
Warrak,  and  others,  have  perished,  or  not  yet  come  to 
light,  and  the  attempts  at  a  literary  history  dating  from 
a  time  300-400  years  later,  the  so-called  Tadhkiras, 
weigh  very  light  in  the  scale  of  matter-of-fact  examina- 
tion, failing  almost  invariably  whenever  they  are  applied 
to  for  information  on  some  detail  of  ancient  Persian 
literature.     However  this  may  be,  Unsuri,  the  ^jane- 


vlii  PREFACE. 

gyrist,  does  not  seem  to  have  missed  the  sun  of  royal 
favour,  whilst  Firdansi,  immortal  Firdausi,  had  to  fly 
in  disguise  to  evade  the  doom  of  being  trampled  to 
death  by  elephants.  Attracted  by  the  rising  fortune 
of  the  young  emperor,  he  seems  to  have  repaired  to  his 
court  only  a  year  after  his  enthronisation,  i.e.  A.D.  998. 
But  when  he  had  finished  his  Shdhndma,  and  found 
himself  disappointed  in  his  hopes  for  reward,  he  flung 
at  him  his  famous  satire,  and  fled  into  peaceless  exile 
(a.d.  ioio).^  In  the  case  of  the  king  versus  the  poet 
the  king  has  lost.  As  long  as  Firdausi  retains  the 
place  of  honour  accorded  to  him  in  the  history  of  the 
world's  mental  achievements,  the  stigma  will  cling  to 
the  name  of  Mahmud,  that  he  who  hoarded  up  perhaps 
more  worldly  treasures  than  were  ever  hoarded  up,  did 
not  know  how  to  honour  a  poet  destined  for  immor- 
tality. 

And  how  did  the  author  of  this  work,  as  remark- 
able among  the  prose  compositions  of  the  East  as  the 
Shdhndma  in  poetry,  fare  with  the  royal  Maecenas  of 
Ghazna  ? 

Alberuni,  or,  as  his  compatriots  called  him,  Abu 
Raihan,  was  born  a.d.  973,  in  the  territory  of  modern 
Khiva,  then  called  Khwarizm,  or  Chorasmia  in  anti- 
quity. ^  Early  distinguishing  himself  in  science  and 
literature,  he  played  a  political  part  as  councillor  of 
the  ruling  prince  of  his  native  country  of  the  Ma' muni 
family.  The  counsels  he  gave  do  not  seem  always  to 
have  suited  the  plans  of  King  Mahmud  at  Ghazna,  who 
was  looking  out  for  a  pretext  for  interfering  in  the 
affairs  of  independent  Khiva,  although  its  rulers  were 
his  own  near  relatives.  This  pretext  was  furnished  by 
a  military  4meute. 

^  Cf.  J.  Mohl,  Le  Livre  des  Rois,  traduit,  &c.  Publie  par  Mme. 
Mohl,  1876,  preface,  pp.  xl.  seq. 

2  There  is  a  reminiscence  of  his  native  country,  i.  166,  where  he 
speaks  of  a  kind  of  measure  used  in  Khwririzm. 


PREFACE.  ix 

Mahmiid  marched  into  the  country,  not  without  some 
fighting,  established  there  one  of  his  generals  as  provin- 
cial governor,  and  soon  returned  to  Ghazna  with  much 
booty  and  a  great  part  of  the  Khiva  troops,  together 
with  the  princes  of  the  deposed  family  of  Ma'mun  and 
the  leading  men  of  the  country  as  prisoners  of  war  or 
as  hostages.  Among  the  last  was  Abu-Raihrm  Muham- 
mad Ibn  Ahmad  Alberuni. 

This  happened  in  the  spring  and  summer  of  A.D. 
1017.  The  Chorasmian  princes  were  sent  to  distant 
fortresses  as  prisoners  of  state,  the  Chorasmian  soldiers 
were  incorporated  in  Mahm fid's  Indian  army  ;  and  Al- 
beruni— what  treatment  did  he  experience  at  Ghazna  ? 
From  the  very  outset  it  is  not  likely  that  both  the  king 
and  his  chancellor,  Ahmad  Ibn  Hasan  Maimandi,  should 
have  accorded  special  favours  to  a  man  whom  they  knew 
to  have  been  their  political  antagonist  for  years.  The 
latter,  the  same  man  who  had  beeu  the  cause  of  the 
tragic  catastrophe  in  the  life  of  Firdausi,  was  in  office 
under  Mahmiid  from  A.D.  1 00/- 1 02 5,  and  a  second 
time  under  his  son  and  successor,  Mas'iid,  from  1030- 
1033.  There  is  nothing  to  tell  us  that  Alberuni  was 
ever  in  the  service  of  the  state  or  court  in  Ghazna.  A 
friend  of  his  and  companion  of  his  exile,  the  Christian 
philosopher  and  physician  from  Bagdad,  Abulkhair 
Alkhammar,  seems  to  have  practised  in  Ghazna  his 
medical  profession.  Alberuni  probably  enjoyed  the 
reputation  of  a  great  muncijjim,  i.e.  astrologer-astrono- 
mer, and  perhaps  it  was  in  this  quality  that  he  had 
relations  to  the  court  and  its  head,  as  Tycho  de  Brahe 
to  the  Emperor  Eudolf.  When  writing  the  'IrStKa, 
thirteen  years  after  his  involuntary  immigration  to 
Afghanistan,  he  was  a  master  of  astrology,  both  ac- 
cording to  the  Greek  and  the  Hindu  system,  and  indeed 
Eastern  writers  of  later  centuries  seem  to  consider  him 
as  having  been  the  court  astrologer  of  King  Mahmiid. 
In  a  book  written  five  hundred  years  later  (v.  Chresto- 


X  PREFACE. 

mathie  Persane,  &g.,  par  Oh.  Schefer,  Paris,  1883,  i.  p. 
107  of  the  Persian  text),  there  is  a  story  of  a  practical 
joke  which  Mahmiid  played  on  Alberuni  as  an  astrolo- 
ger. Whether  this  be  historic  truth  or  a  late  invention, 
anyhow  the  story  does  not  throw  much  light  on  the 
author's  situation  in  a  period  of  his  life  which  is  the 
most  interesting  to  us,  that  one,  namely,  when  he 
commenced  to  study  India,  Sanskrit  and  Sanskrit 
literature. 

Historic  tradition  failing  us,  we  are  reduced  to  a 
single  source  of  information — the  author's  work — and 
must  examine  to  what  degree  his  personal  relations  are 
indicated  by  his  own  words.  When  he  wrote,  King 
Muhmud  had  been  dead  only  a  few  weeks.  Le  roi  est 
mort — but  to  whom  was  Vive  le  roi  to  be  addressed  ? 

Two  heirs  claimed  the  throne,  Muhammad  and 
Mas'ud,  and  were  marching  against  each  other  to  settle 
their  claims  by  the  sword.  Under  these  circumstances 
it  comes  out  as  a  characteristic  fact  that  the  book  has 
no  dedication  whatever,  either  to  the  memory  of  Mah- 
miid, or  to  one  of  the  rival  princes,  or  to  any  of  the 
indifferent  or  non-political  princes  of  the  royal  house. 
As  a  cautious  politician,  he  awaited  the  issue  of  the 
contest ;  but  when  the  dice  had  been  thrown,  and 
Mas'ud  was  firmly  established  on  the  throne  of  his 
father,  he  at  once  hastened  to  dedicate  to  him  the 
greatest  work  of  his  life,  the  Cmion  Masudicus.  If  he 
had  been  affected  by  any  feeling  of  sincere  gratitude, 
he  might  have  erected  in  the  'IvSlkol  a  monument  to 
the  memory  of  the  dead  king,  under  whose  rule  he  had 
made  the  necessary  preparatory  studies,  and  might  have 
praised  him  as  the  great  propagator  of  Islam,  without 
probably  incurring  any  risk.  He  has  not  done  so,  and 
the  terms  in  which  he  speaks  of  Malimiid  throughout 
his  book  are  not  such  as  a  man  would  use  when  speak- 
ing of  a  deceased  person  who  had  been  his  benefactor. 

He  is  called  simply  The  Amir  Mahmiid,  ii.  13  (Arabic 


PREFACE.  xi 

text,  p.  208,  9),  TJie  Amir  Malimud,  may  God's  mercy 
he  ivith  him,  i.  116  (text,  p.  56,  8),  The  Amir  MaJninid, 
may  the  grace  of  God  he  ivith  him,  ii.  103  (text,  p.  252,  11). 
The  title  Amir  was  nothing  very  complimentary.  It 
had  been  borne  by  his  ancestors  when  they  were  simply 
generals  and  provincial  governors  in  the  service  of  the 
Samani  king  of  Transoxiana  and  Khurasan.  Speaking 
.of  Mahmiid  and  his  father  Sabuktagin,  the  author  says, 
Yamin-aldaula  Mahvmd,  may  God's  mercy  he  with  them, 
i.  22  (text,  p.  1 1,  9).  He  had  received  the  title  Yamin- 
cddaula,  i.e.  The  right  hand  of  the  dynasty  (of  the 
Khalif),  from  the  Khalif,  as  a  recognition  of  the  legiti- 
macy of  his  rule,  resembling  the  investiture  of  the 
German  Emperor  by  the  Pope  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Lastly,  we  find  at  ii.  2  (text,  p.  203,  20)  the  following 
terms :  "  The  strongest  of  the  'pillars  (of  Islam),  the 
pattern  of  a  Sultan,  Mcdimud,  the  lion  of  the  world  and 
the  rarity  of  the  age,  may  God's  mercy  he  ivith  him." 

Whoever  knows  the  style  of  Oriental  authors  when 
speaking  of  crowned  heads,  the  style  of  their  prefaces, 
which  attains  the  height  of  absurdity  at  the  court  of 
the  Moghul  emperors  at  Delhi,  will  agree  with  me  that 
the  manner  in  which  the  author  mentions  the  dead 
king  is  cold,  cold  in  the  extreme  ;  that  the  words  of 
praise  bestowed  upon  him  are  meagre  and  stiff,  a  poor 
sort  of  praise  for  a  man  who  had  been  the  first  man  in 
Islam,  and  the  founder  of  Islam  in  India ;  lastly,  that 
the  phrases  of  benediction  which  are  appended  to  his 
name,  according  to  a  general  custom  of  Islam,  are  the 
same  as  the  author  would  have  employed  when  speak- 
ing of  any  acquaintance  of  his  in  common  life  who  had 
died.  He  says  of  Mahmiid  (i.  22) :  "  He  utterly  ruined 
the  prosperity  of  the  country  (of  India),  and  performed 
those  wonderful  exploits  by  which  the  Hindus  became 
like  atoms  of  dust  scattered  in  all  directions,  and  like  a 
tale  of  old  in  the  mouth  of  the  people."  To  criticise 
these  words  from  a  Muslim  point  of  view,  the  passage  of 


xii  PREFACE. 

the  r liming  of  the  prosperity  of  the  country  was  per- 
fectly out  of  place  in  the  glorification  of  a  Ghazi  like 
Mahmud. 

That  it  was  not  at  all  against  the  moral  principles  of 
Alberuni  to  write  such  dedications  to  princes  is  shown 
by  two  other  publications  of  his,  with  dedications  which 
exhibit  the  customary  Byzantinism  of  the  time.  In  the 
preface  of  the  "  Chronology  of  Ancient  Nations  "  (trans- 
lated, &c.,  by  Edward  Sachau,  London,  1879),  he  extols 
with  abundant  praise  the  prince  of  Hyrcania  or  Jurjan, 
Shams-alma'ali,  who  was  a  dwarf  by  the  side  of  giant 
Mahmud.  The  studied  character  of  the  neglect  of 
Mahmud  in  the  'IvScko.  comes  out  more  strongly  if  we 
compare  the  unmerited  praise  which  Alberuni  lavishes 
upon  his  son  and  successor.  The  preface  of  his  Canon 
Masudicus  is  a  farrago  of  high-sounding  words  in 
honour  of  King  Mas'iid,  who  was  a  drunkard,  and  lost 
in  less  than  a  decennium  most  of  what  his  father's 
sword  and  policy  had  gained  in  thirty-three  years. 
The  tenor  of  this  preface,  taken  from  the  manuscript 
of  the  Royal  Library  in  Berlin,  is  as  follows : — 

To  those  wholead  the  community  of  thebelievers  in  the 
place  of  the  Prophet  and  by  the  help  of  the  Word  of  God 
belongs  "the  king,  the  lord  majestic  and  venerated,  the 
helper  of  the  representative  of  God,  the  furtherer  of  the 
law  of  God,  the  protector  of  the  slaves  of  God,  who 
punishes  the  enemies  of  God,  Abu- Said  Mas'iid  Ibn 
Yamin-aldaula  and  'Amin-almilla  Mahmud — may  God 
give  him  a  long  life,  and  let  him  ^Derpetually  rise  to 
glorious  and  memorable  deeds.  For  a  confirmation  of 
what  we  here  say  of  him  lies  in  the  fact  that  God,  on 
considering  the  matter,  restored  the  right  {i.e.  the  right 
of  being  ruled  by  Mas  ud)  to  his  people,  after  it  had  been 
concealed.  God  brought  it  to  light.  After  he  had  been 
in  distress,  God  helped  him.  After  he  had  been  rejected, 
God  raised  him,  and  brought  him  the  empire  and  the 
rule,  after  people  from  all  sides  had  tried  to  get  posses- 


PREFACE.  xiii 

sion  of  it,  speaking  :  '  How  should  he  come  to  rule  over 
us,  as  we  have  a  better  right  to  the  rule  than  he  ? ' 
But  then  they  received  (from  God)  an  answer  in  the 
event  (lit.  sign)  which  followed.  God  carried  out  His 
promise  relating  to  him  (Mas'ud),  giving  him  the  inheri- 
tance without  his  asking  for  it,  as  He  gave  the  inheri- 
tance of  David  to  Solomon  without  reserve.  (That  is,  the 
dead  King  Mahmiid  had  proclaimed  as  his  successor  his 
son  Muhammad,  not  Mas'iicl,  but  the  latter  contested  the 
will  of  his  father,  and  in  the  following  contest  with  his 
brother  he  was  the  winner.)  If  God  had  not  chosen 
him,  the  hearts  of  men  would  not  have  been  gained  (?) 
for  him,  and  the  intrigues  of  his  enemies  would  not 
have  missed  their  aim.  In  short,  the  souls  of  men 
hastened  to  meet  him  in  order  to  live  under  his  shadow. 
The  order  of  God  was  an  act  of  predestination,  and  his 
becoming  king  was  written  in  the  Book  of  Books  in 
heaven  (from  all  eternity). 

"He — may  God  make  his  rule  everlasting! — has 
conferred  upon  me  a  favour  which  was  a  high  distinc- 
tion to  me,  and  has  placed  me  under  the  obligation  of 
everlasting  gratitude.  For  although  a  benefactor  may 
dispense  with  the  thank-offerings  for  his  deeds,  &c.,  a 
sound  heart  inspires  those  who  receive  them  with  the 
fear  that  they  might  be  lost  (to  general  notice),  and 
lays  upon  them  the  obligation  of  spreading  them  and 
making  them  known  in  the  world.  But  already,  before 
I  received  this  favour,  I  shared  with  the  inhabitants  of 
all  his  countries  the  blessings  of  his  rule,  of  peace  and 
justice.  However,  then  the  special  service  (towards 
his  Majesty)  became  incumbent  upon  me,  after  (until 
that  time)  obeying  in  general  (his  Majesty)  had  been 
incumbent  on  me.  (This  means,  probably,  that  Mas'ud 
conferred  a  special  benefit  (a  pension  ?)  on  the  author, 
not  immediately  after  he  had  come  to  the  throne,  but 
some  time  later.)  Is  it  not  he  who  has  enabled  me  for 
the  rest  of  my  life  (Alberuni  was  then  sixty-one  years 


xiv  PREFACE. 

old)  to  devote  myself  entirely  to  the  service  of  science, 
as  he  let  me  dwell  under  the  shadow  of  his  power  and 
let  the  cloud  of  his  favour  rain  on  me,  always  personally 
distinguishing  and  befriending  me,  &c.  ?  And  with 
regard  to  this  (the  favour  conferred  upon  me),  he  has 
deigned  to  send  his  orders  to  the  treasury  and  the 
ministry,  which  certainly  is  the  utmost  that  kings 
can  do  for  their  subjects.  May  God  Almighty  reward 
him  both  in  this  and  in  yonder  world,"  &c. 

Thereupon,  finding  that  his  Majesty  did  not  require 
his  actual  service,  and  besides,  finding  that  science  stood 
in  the  highest  favour  with  him,  he  composes  a  book  on 
astronomy,  to  which  he  had  been  addicted  all  his  life, 
and  adorns  it  with  the  name  of  his  Majesty,  calling  it 
Canon  Masudicus  {Alkdnun  Almasudi),  &c. 

To  put  the  phrases  of  this  preface  into  plain  language, 
the  author  was  in  favour  with  King  Mas'iid ;  he  had 
access  to  the  court — living,  probably,  near  it — and 
received  an  income  which  enabled  him  to  devote  him- 
self entirely  to  his  scientific  work.  Besides,  all  this 
appears  as  a  new  state  of  things,  the  reverse  of  which 
had  been  the  case  under  the  king's  predecessor,  his 
father,  Mahmiid.  We  do  not  know  the  year  in  which 
this  change  in  the  life  of  Alberuni  was  brought  about. 
Perhaps  it  was  in  some  way  connected  with  the  fact 
that  the  chancellor,  Maimandi,  died  A.D.  1033,  and  that 
after  him  one  Abii-Nasr  Ahmad  Ibn  Muhammad  Ibn 
'Abdussamad  became  chancellor,  who  before,  i.e.  from 
1017  to  1033,  ^^^^  administered  Khwarizm,  the  native 
country  of  Alberuni.  He  and  Maimandi  had  been 
political  antagonists — not  so  he  and  'Abdussamad, 

The  difference  of  the  author's  condition,  as  it  appears 
to  have  been  under  Mas'ud,  from  what  it  was  under 
Mahmiid  when  he  prepared  the  'IvSiKa^  is  further  illus- 
trated by  certain  passages  in  the  book  itself.  When 
speaking  of  the  difficulties  with  which  he  had  to  grapple 
in  his  efforts  to  learn  everything  about  India,  he  con- 


PREFACE.  XV 

tinues  :  "What  scholar,  however,  has  the  same  favour- 
able opportunities  of  studying  this  subject  as  I  have  ? 
That  would  be  only  the  case  with  one  to  whom  the 
grace  of  God  accords,  what  it  did  not  accord  to  me,  a 
perfectly  free  disposal  of  his  own  doings  and  goings  ; 
for  it  has  never  fallen  to  my  lot  in  my  own  doings  and 
goings  to  be  perfectly  independent,  nor  to  be  invested 
with  sufficient  power  to  dispose  and  to  order  as  I 
thought  best.  However,  I  thank  God  for  that  which 
He  has  bestowed  upon  me,  and  which  must  be  con- 
sidered as  sufficient  for  the  purpose  "  (i.  24).  These 
lines  seem  to  say  that  the  author,  both  at  Ghazna  and 
in  India,  at  Multan,  Peshavar,  &c.,  had  the  opportunity 
of  conversing  with  pandits,  of  procuring  their  help,  and 
of  buying  books  ;  that,  however,  in  other  directions  he 
was  not  his  own  master,  but  had  to  obey  a  higher  will ; 
and  lastly,  that  he  was  not  a  man  in  authority. 

In  another  place  (i.  152)  he  explains  that  art  and 
science  require  the  protection  of  kiugs.  "  For  they 
alone  could  free  the  minds  of  scholars  from  the  daily 
anxieties  for  the  necessities  of  life,  and  stimulate  their 
energies  to  earn  more  fame  and  favour,  the  yearning  for 
which  is  the  pith  and  marrow  of  human  nature.  The 
present  times,  however,  are  not  of  this  kind.  They  are 
the  very  opposite,  and  therefore  it  is  quite  impossible 
that  a  new  science  or  any  new  kind  of  research  should 
arise  in  our  days.  What  we  have  of  sciences  is  nothing 
but  the  scanty  remains  of  bygone  better  times."  Com- 
pare with  this  a  dictum  quoted  (i.  188)  :  -'The  scholars 
are  well  aware  of  the  use  of  money,  but  the  rich  are 
ignorant  of  the  nobility  of  science." 

These  are  not  the  words  of  an  author  who  basks  in 
the  sunshine  of  royal  protection.  The  time  he  speaks 
of  is  the  time  of  Mahmud,  and  it  is  Mahmiid  whom  he 
accuses  of  having  failed  in  the  duties  of  a  protector  of 
art  and  science  imposed  upon  him  by  his  royal  office. 
Firdausi,  in  his  satire  (Mohl,  i.   pref.   p.   xlv.),   calls 


xvi  PREFA  CE. 

him  "  un  roi  qui  n'a  ni  foi  ni  loi  ni  manieres  "  [roycdcs) ; 
and  he  says:  ^^  Si  le  roi  avait  M6  un  homme  digne  de 
renom,  il  nurait  honord  le  savoir,^'  &c.  It  is  most 
remarkable  to  what  degree  Firdausi  and  Alberuni  agree 
in  then-  judgment  of  the  king.  To  neither  of  them  had 
he  been  a  Maecenas. 

In  the  absence  of  positive  information,  we  have  tried 
to  form  a  chain  of  combinations  from  which  we  may 
infer,  with  a  tolerable  degree  of  certainty,  that  our 
author,  during  the  thirteen  years  of  his  life  from  1017 
to  103c,  after  he  had  been  carried  from  his  native 
country  to  the  centre  of  Malimiid's  realm,  did  not  enjoy 
the  favours  of  the  king  and  his  leading  men ;  that  he 
stayed  in  different  parts  of  India  (as  a  companion  of 
the  princes  of  his  native  country?),  probably  in  the 
character  of  a  hostage  or  political  prisoner  kept  on 
honourable  terms ;  that  he  spent  his  leisure  in  the 
study  of  India  ;  and  that  he  had  no  official  inducement 
or  encouragement  for  this  study,  nor  any  hope  of  royal 
reward. 

A  radical  change  in  all  this  takes  place  with  the 
accession  of  Mas'ud.  There  is  no  more  complaint  of  the 
time  and  its  ruler.  Alberuni  is  all  glee  and  exultation 
about  the  royal  favours  and  support  accorded  to  him 
and  to  his  studies.  He  now  wrote  the  greatest  work  of 
his  life,^  and  with  a  swelling  heart  and  overflowing 
words  he  proclaims  in  the  preface  the  praise  of  his 
benefactor.  Living  in  Ghazna,  he  seems  to  have  for- 
gotten India  to  a  great  extent.  For  in  the  Canon 
Masudicus  he  rarely  refers  to  India ;  its  chapter  on 
Hindu  eras  does  not  prove  any  progress  of  his  studies 
beyond  that  which  he  exhibits  in  the  'IvSiKa,  and  at 
the  end  of  it  he  is  even  capable  of  confounding  the  era 

1  The  Canon  Masudicus,  extant  in  four  good  copies  in  European 
libraries,  waits  for  the  patronage  of  some  Academy  of  Sciences 
or  some  Government,  and  for  the  combination  of  two  scholars,  an 
astronomer  and  an  Arabic  philologist,  for  the  purpose  of  an  edition 
and  translation. 


PREFA  CE.  xvii 

of  the  astronomers,  as  used  in  the  Khmidakhddyaka  of 
Brahmagnpta,  with  the  Guptakala. 

If  the  author  and  his  countrymen  had  suffered  and  The  authors 
were  still  suffering  from  the  oppression  of  King  Mali-  India. 
mild,  the  Hindus  were  in  the  same  position,  and  per- 
haps it  was  this  community  of  mishap  which  inspired 
him  with  sympathy  for  them.  And  certainly  the 
Hindus  and  their  world  of  thought  have  a  paramount, 
fascinating  interest  for  him,  and  he  inquires  with  the 
greatest  predilection  into  every  Indian  subject,  how- 
soever heathenish  it  may  be,  as  though  he  were  treating 
of  the  most  important  questions  for  the  souls  of  Muham- 
madans, — of  free-will  and  predestination,  of  future 
reward  and  punishment,  of  the  creation  or  eternity  of 
the  Word  of  God,  &c.  To  Mal^rnud  the  Hindus  were 
infidels,  to  be  dispatched  to  hell  as  soon  as  they  refused 
to"Be  plundered.  To  go  on  expeditions  and  to  fill  the 
treasury  with  gold,  not  to  make  lasting  conquests  of 
territories,  was  the  real  object  of  his  famous  expeditions ; 
and  it  was  with  this  view  that  he  cut  his  way  through 
enormous  distances  to  the  richest  temples  of  India  at 
Taneshar,  Mathura,  Kanoj,  and  Somanath. 

To  Alberuni  the  Hindus  were  excellent  philosophers, 
good  mathematicians  and  astronomers,  though  he  naively 
believes  himself  to  be  superior  to  them,  and  disdains  to 
be  put  on  a  level  with  them  (i.  23).^  He  does  not 
conceal  whatever  he  considers  wrong  and  unpractical 
with  them,  but  he  duly  appreciates  their  mental 
achievements,  takes  the  greatest  pains  to  appropriate 
them  to  himself,  even  such  as  could  not  be  of  any  use 
to  him  or  to  his  readers,  e.g.  Sanskrit  metrics;  and 
whenever  he  hits  upon  something  that  is  noble  and 
grand  both  in  science  and  in  practical  life,  he  never 
fails  to  lay  it  before  his  readers  with  warm-hearted 
words  of  approbation.  Speaking  of  the  construction  of 
the  ponds  at  holy  bathing-places,   he  says  :  "In  this 

^  For  a  similar  trait  of  self-confidence  cf.  i.  277,  last  lines. 
VOL.  I.  h 


^ 


(^ 


xviii  PREFACE. 

they  have  attained  a  very  high  degree  of  art,  so  that 
our  people  (the  Muslims),  when  they  see  them,  wonder 
at  them,  and  are  unable  to  describe  them,  much  less  to 
construct  anything  like  them"  (ii.  144). 

Apparently  Alberuni  felt  a  strong  inclination  towards 
Indian  philosophy.  He  seems  to  have  thought  that  the 
philosophers  both  in  ancient  Greece  and  India,  whom 
he  most  carefully  and  repeatedly  distinguishes  from  the 
ignorant,  image-loving  crowd,  held  in  reality  the  very 
same  ideas,  the  same  as  seem  to  have  been  his  own,  i.e. 
those  of  a  pure  monotheism  ;  that,  in  fact,  originally  all 
men  were  alike  pure  and  virtuous,  worshipping  one  sole 
Almighty  God,  but  that  the  dark  passions  of  the  crowd 
in  the  course  of  time  had  given  rise  to  the  difference  of 
religion,  of  philosophical  and  political  persuasions,  and 
of  idolatry.  "  The  first  cause  of  idolatry  was  the  desire 
of  commemorating  the  dead  and  of  consoling  the  living  ; 
but  on  this  basis  it  has  developed,  and  his  finally 
become  a  foul  and  pernicious  abuse"  (i.  124). 

He  seems  to  have  revelled  in  the  pure  theories  of 
the  Bhagavadgitd,  and  it  deserves  to  be  noticed  that  he 
twice  mentions  the  saying  of  Vyasa,  "Learn  twenty- 
five  [i.e.,  the  elements  of  existence)  by  distinctions,  &c. 
Afterwards  adhere  to  whatever  religion  you  like  ;  your 
end  will  be  salvation"  (i.  44,  and  also  i.  104).  In  one 
case  he  even  goes  so  far  as  to  speak  of  Hindu  scholars 
as  "  enjoying  the  help  of  God,^^  which  to  a  Muslim  means 
as  much  as  i^isjnred  by  God,  guided  hy  divine  inspiration 
(ii.  108).  These  words  are  an  addition  of  the  author's 
in  his  paraphrase  of  the  Brihatsamhitd  of  Varahamihira, 
V.  8.  There  can  be  scarcely  any  doubt  that  Muslims 
of  later  times  would  have  found  fault  with  him  for  going 
to  such  length  in  his  interest  for  those  heathenish 
doctrines,  and  it  is  a  singular  fact  that  Alberuni  wrote 
under  a  prince  who  burned  and  impaled  the  Karmatians 
{cf.  note  to  i.  3 1 ). 

Still  he    was  a  Muslim :    whether    Sunni    or    Shi'a 


PREFACE.  xix 

cannot  be  gathered  from  the  'Iv^iku.,     He   sometimes  \ 
takes  an  occasion  for  pointing  out  to  the  reader  the    ' 
superiority  of  Islam  over  Brahmanic  India.     He  con- 
trasts the  democratic  equality  of  men  with  the  castes  1 
of  India,  the  matrimonial  law  of  Islam  with  degraded  I 
forms  of  it  in  India,  the  cleanliness  and  decency  of  \ 
Muslims  with  filthy  customs  of  the  Hindus.     With  all 
this,  his  recognition  of  Islam  is  not  without  a  tacit 
reserve.     He  dares  not  attack  Islam,  but  he  attacks  the 
Arabs.     In  his  work  on  chronology  he  reproaches  the 
ancient  Muslims  with  having  destroyed  the  civilisation 
of  Eran,  and  gives  us  to  understand  that  the  ancient 
Arabs  were  certainly  nothing  better  than  the  Zoroastrian 
Eranians.     So  too  in  the  'IvStK-a,  whenever  he  speaks  of 
a  dark  side  in  Hindu  life,  he  at  once  turns  round  sharply 
to  compare  the  manners  of  the  ancient  Arabs,  and  to 
declare  that  they  were  quite  as  bad,  if  not  worse.     This 
could  only  be  meant  as  a  hint  to  the  Muslim  reader  not 
to  be  too  haughty  towards  the  poor  bewildered  Hindu, 
trodden  down  by  the  savage  hordes  of  Kiug  Mahmiid, 
and  not  to  forget  that  the  founders  of  Islam,  too,  were 
certainly  no  angels. 

Independent  in  his  thoughts  about  religion  and  The  author. 
philosophy,  he  is  a  friend  of  clear,  determined,  and  manly  ^  ^^^^^  "* 
words.  He  abhors  half-truths,  veiled  words,  and  waver- 
ing action.  Everywhere  he  comes  forward  as  a  champion 
of  his  conviction  with  the  courage  of  a  man.  As  in 
religion  and  philosophy,  so  too  in  politics.  There  are 
some  remarkable  sentences  of  political  philosophy  in 
the  introductions  to  chapters  ix.  and  Ixxi.  As  a  poli- 
tician of  a  highly  conservative  stamp,  he  stands  up 
for  throne  and  altar,  and  declares  that  "their  union 
represents  the  highest  development  of  human  society, 
all  that  men  can  possibly  desire  "  (i.  99).  He  is  capable 
of  admiring  the  mildness  of  the  law  of  the  Gospel :  "  To 
offer  to  him  who  has  beaten  your  cheek  the  other  cheek 
also,  to  bless  your  enemy  and  to  pray  for  him.     Upon 


XX  PREFA  CE. 

my  life,  this  is  a  noble  philosophy ;  but  the  people  of 
this  world  are  not  all  philosophers.  Most  of  them  are 
ignorant  and  erring,  who  cannot  be  kept  on  the  straight 
road  save  by  the  sword  and  the  whip.  And,  indeed, 
ever  since  Constantine  the  Victorious  became  a  Chris- 
tian, both  sword  and  whip  have^ever  been  employed,  for 
without  them  it  would  be  impossible  to  rule  "  (ii.  i6i). 
Although  a  scholar  by  profession,  he  is  capable  of  taking 
the  practical  side  of  a  case,  and  he  applauds  the  Khalif 
Muaviya  for  having  sold  the  golden  gods  of  Sicily  to 
the  princes  of  Sindh  for  money's  worth,  instead  of 
destroying  them  as  heathen  abominations,  as  bigoted 
Muslims  would  probably  have  liked  him  to  do.  His 
preaching  the  union  of  throne  and  altar  does  not  prevent 
him  from  speaking  with  undisguised  contempt  of  the 
"  preconcerted  tricks  of  the  priests  "  having  the  purpose 
of  enthralling  the  ignorant  crowd  (i.  123). 

He  is  a  stern  judge  both  of  himself  and  of  others.  ^ 
Himself  perfectly  sincere,  it  is  sincerity  which  he 
demands  from  others.  Whenever  he  does  not  fully 
understand  a  subject,  or  only  knows  part  of  it,  he  will 
at  once  tell  the  reader  so,  either  asking  the  reader's 
pardon  for  his  ignorance,  or  promising,  though  a  man 
of  fifty-eight  years,  to  continue  his  labours  and  to 
publish  their  results  in  time,  as  though  he  were  acting 
under  a  moral  responsibility  to  the  public.  He  always 
sharply  draws  the  limits  of  his  knowledge;  and  although 
he  has  only  a  smattering  of  the  metrical  system  of  the 
Hindus,  he  communicates  whatever  little  he  knows, 
guided  by  the  principle  that  the  best  must  not  be  the 
enemy  of  the  better  (i.  200,  6-9),  as  though  he  were 
afraid  that  he  should  not  live  long  enough  to  finish  the 
study  in  question.  He  is  not  a  friend  of  those  who 
hate  to  avow  their  ignorance  by  a  frank  /  do  not 
hioiv"  (i.  177),  and  he  is  roused  to  strong  indignation 
whenever  he  meets  with  want  of  sincerity.  If  Bralima- 
gupta  teaches  two  theories  of  the  eclipses,  the  popular 


PREFACE.  xxi 

one  of  the  dragon  Rahu's  devouring  the  luminous  body, 
and  the  scientific  one,  he  certainly  committed  the  sin 
against  conscience  from  undue  concessions  to  the  priests 
of  the  nation,  and  from  fear  of  a  fate  like  that  which 
befell  Socrates  when  he  came  into  collision  with  the 
persuasions  of  the  majority  of  his  countrymen.  Cf. 
chapter  lix.  In  another  place  he  accuses  Brahma- 
gupta  of  injustice  and  rudeness  to  his  predecessor, 
Aryabhata  (i.  376).  He  finds  in  the  works  of  Vara- 
hamihira  by  the  side  of  honest  scientific  work  sentences 
which  sound  to  him  "  like  the  ravings  of  a  madman  " 
(ii.  1 17),  but  he  is  kind  enough  to  suggest  that  behind 
those  passages  there  is  perhaps  an  esoteric  meaning, 
unknown  to  him,  but  more  to  the  credit  of  the  author. 
When,  however,  Varahamihira  seems  to  exceed  all 
limits  of  common  sense,  Alberuui  thinks  that  ''  to  such 
things  silence  is  the  only  'proper  answer"  (ii.  1 14). 

His  professional  zeal,  and  the  principle  that  learning 
is  the  fruit  of  repetitioii  (ii.  198),  sometimes  induce  him 
to  indulge  in  repetitions,  and  his  thorough  honesty 
sometimes  misleads  him  to  use  harsh  and  even  rude 
words.  He  cordially  hates  the  verbosity  of  Indian 
authors  or  versifiers,^  who  use  lots  of  words  where  a 
single  one  would  be  sufficient.  He  calls  it  "  mere 
nonsense — a  means  of  keeping  people  in  the  dark  and 
throwing  an  air  of  mystery  about  the  subject.  And  in 
any  case  this  copiousness  (of  words  denoting  the  same 
thing)  offers  painful  difficulties  to  those  who  want  to 
learn  the  whole  language,  and  only  results  in  a  sheer 
waste  of  time"  (i.  229,  299,  19).  He  twice  explains 
the  origin  of  the  Dibajat,  i.e.  Maledives  and  Laccadives 
(i.  233  ;  ii.  106),  twice  the  configuration  of  the  borders 
of  the  Indian  Ocean  (i.  197,  270). 

Whenever  he  suspects  humbug,  he  is  not  backward  in 
calling  it  by  the  right  name.  Thinking  of  the  horrid 
practices  of  Rasayana,  i.e.  the  art  of  making  gold,  of 

^  Cf.  his  sarcasms  on  the  versifying  bias  of  Hindu  authors,  i.  137. 


xxii  PREFACE. 

making  old  people  young,  &c.,  he  bursts  out  into 
sarcastic  words  which  are  more  coarse  in  the  original 
than  in  my  translation  (i.  189).  In  eloquent  words  he 
utters  his  indignation  on  the  same  subject  (i.  193): 
"  The  greediness  of  the  ignorant  Hindu  ]3rinces  for  gold- 
making  does  not  know  any  limit,"  &c.  There  is  a  spark 
of  grim  humour  in  his  words  on  i.  237,  where  he  criti- 
cises the  cosmographic  ravings  of  a  Hindu  author : 
"  We,  on  our  part,  found  it  already  troublesome  enough 
to  enumerate  all  the  seven  seas,  together  with  the  seven 
earths,  and  now  this  author  thinks  he  can  make  the 
subject  more  easy  and  pleasant  to  us  by  inventing  some 
more  earths  below  those  already  enumerated  by  our- 
selves !  "  And  when  jugglers  from  Kanoj  lectured  to 
him  on  chronology,  the  stern  scholar  seems  to  have  been 
moved  to  something  like  a  grin.  "  I  used  great  care  in 
examining  every  single  one  of  them,  in  repeating  the 
same  questions  at  different  times  in  a  different  order 
and  context.  But  lo !  what  different  answers  did  I 
get!     God  is  all-wise  "  (ii.  129). 

In  the  opening  of  his  book  Alberuni  gives  an  account 
of  the  circumstances  which  suggested  to  him  the  idea 
of  writing  the  'IvStKa.  Once  the  conversation  with  a 
friend  of  his,  else  unknown,  ran  on  the  then  existing 
literature  on  the  history  of  religion  and  philosophy, 
its  merits  and  demerits.  When,  in  particular,  the 
literature  on  the  belief  of  the  Hindus  came  to  be  criti- 
cised, Alberuni  maintained  that  all  of  it  was  second- 
hand and  thoroughly  uncritical.  To  verify  the  matter, 
his  friend  once  more  examines  the  books  in  question, 
which  results  in  his  agreeing  with  our  author,  and  his 
asking  him  to  fill  up  this  gap  in  the  Arabic  literature 
of  the  time.  The  book  he  has  produced  is  not  a  polemi- 
cal one.  He  will  not  convert  the  Hindus,  nor  lend 
a  direct  help  to  missionary  zealots.  He  will  simply 
describe  Hinduism,  without  identifying  himself  with  it. 
He  takes  care  to  inform  the  reader  that  he  is  not  respon- 


PREFACE.  xxiii 

sible  for  whatsoever  repugnant  detail  he  has  to  relate, 
but  the  Hindus  themselves.  He  gives  a  repertory  of 
information  on  Indian  subjects,  destined  for  the  use  of 
those  who  lived  in  peaceable  intercourse  with  them,  and 
wished  to  have  an  insight  into  their  mode  and  world  of 
thought  (i.  7  ;  ii.  246). 

The  author  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  Muham- 
madan  Ghazi  who  wanted  to  convert  the  Hindus  or  to 
kill  them,  and  his  book  scarcely  reminds  the  reader  of 
the  incessant  war  between  Islam  and  India,  during 
which  it  had  been  prepared,  and  by  which  the  possi- 
bility of  writing  such  a  book  had  first  been  given.  It 
is  like  a  magic  island  of  quiet,  impartial  research  in 
the  midst  of  a  world  of  clashing  swords,  burning  towns, 
and  plundered  temples.  The  object  which  the  author 
had  in  view,  and  never  for  a  moment  lost  sight  of,  was 
to  afford  the  necessary  information  and  training  to 
"  any  one  (in  Islam)  ivho  wants  to  converse  ivitli  the 
Hindus,  and  to  discuss  with  them  questions  of  religion, 
science,  or  literature,  on  the  very  hasis  of  their  own  civili- 
sation "  (ii.  246). 

It  is  difficult  to  say  what  kind  of  readers  Alberuni  had,  Tbe  author 
or  expected  to  have,  not  only  for  the  'Ii'StKa,  but  for  all  readers, 
his  other  publications  on  Indian  subjects.  Probably 
educated,  and  not  bigoted  or  fanatical  Muslims  in  Sindh, 
in  parts  of  the  Panjab,  where  they  were  living  by  the  side 
of  Hindus  and  in  daily  intercourse  with  them  ;  perhaps, 
also,  for  such  in  Kabul,  the  suburb  of  which  had  still  a 
Hindu  population  in  the  second  half  of  the  tenth  century, 
Ghazna,  and  other  parts  of  Afghanistan.  When  speak- 
ing of  the  Pidisasiddhclnta,  a  standard  work  on  astro- 
nomy, he  says  :  '"'A  translation  of  his  (Pulisa's)  whole 
work  into  Arabic  has  not  hitherto  yet  been  undertaken, 
because  in  his  mathematical  problems  there  is  an  evi- 
dent religious  and  theological  tendency  "  ^  (i.  375).     He 

^  Alberuni  does  not  seem  to  have  shared  these  scruples,  for  he 
translated  it  into  Arabic  (c/.  i.  154). 


xxiv  PREFA  CE. 

does  not  tell  us  what  this  particular  tendency  was  to 
which  the  readers  objected,  but  we  learn  so  much  from 
this  note  that  in  his  time,  and  probably  also  in  his 
neighbourhood,  there  were  circles  of  educated  men  who 
had  an  interest  in  getting  the  scientific  works  of  India 
translated  into  Arabic,  who  at  the  same  time  were  suffi- 
ciently familiar  with  the  subject-matter  to  criticise  the 
various  representations  of  the  same  subject,  and  to  give 
the  preference  to  one,  to  the  exclusion  of  another.  That 
our  author  had  a  certain  public  among  Hindus  seems 
to  be  indicated  by  the  fact  that  he  composed  some 
publications  for  people  in  Kashmir  ;  cf.  preface  to  the 
edition  of  the  text,  p.  xx.  These  relations  to  Kashmir 
are  very  difficult  to  understand,  as  Muslims  had  not 
yet  conquered  the  country,  nor  entered  it  to  any  extent, 
and  as  the  author  himself  (i.  206)  relates  that  it  was 
closed  to  intercourse  with  all  strangers  save  a  few  Jews. 
Whatever  the  interest  of  Muslims  for  the  literature  of 
and  on  India  may  have  been,  we  are  under  the  impression 
that  this  kind  of  literature  has  never  taken  deep  root ; 
for  after  Alberuni's  death,  in  A.D.  1048,  there  is  no  more 
original  work  in  this  field  ;  and  even  Alberuni,  when  he 
wrote,  was  quite  alone  in  the  field.  Enumerating  the 
difficulties  which  beset  his  study  of  India,  he  says  :  "  I 
found  it  very  hard  to  work  into  the  subject,  although  I 
have  a  great  liking  for  it,  in  which  7rspect  I  stand  quite 
alone  in  my  time/^  &c.  (i.  24).  And  certainly  we  do  not 
know  of  any  Indianist  like  him,  before  his  time  or 
after. 

In  general  it  is  the  method  of  our  author  not  to  speak 
himself,  but  to  let  the  Hindus  speak,  giving  extensive 
quotations  from  their  classical  authors.  He  presents  a 
picture  of  Indian  civilisation  as  painted  by  the  Hindus 
themselves.  Many  chapters,  not  all,  open  with  a  short 
characteristic  introduction  of  a  general  nature.  The  body 
of  most  chapters  consists  of  three  parts.  The  first  is 
a  precis  of  the  question,  as  the  author  understands  it. 


PREFACE.  XXV 

The  second  part  brings  forward  the  doctrmes  of  the 
Hindus,  quotations  from  Sanskrit  books  in  the  chapters 
on  religion,  philosophy,  astronomy,  and  astrology,  and 
other  kinds  of  information  which  had  been  communi- 
cated to  him  by  word  of  mouth,  or  things  which  he 
had  himself  observed  in  the  chapters  on  literature, 
historic  chronology,  geography,  law,  manners,  and  cus- 
toms. In  the  third  part  he  does  the  same  as  Megas- 
thenes  had  already  done  ;  he  tries  to  bring  the  sometimes 
very  exotic  subject  nearer  to  the  understanding  of  his 
readers  by  comparing  it  with  the  theories  of  ancient 
Greece,  and  by  other  comparisons.  As  an  example  of 
this  kind  of  arrangement,  cf.  Chapter  v.  In  the  dis- 
position of  every  single  chapter,  as  well  as  in  the 
sequence  of  the  chapters,  a  perspicuous,  well-considered 
plan  is  apparent.  There  is  no  patchwork  nor  anything 
superfluous,  and  the  words  fit  to  the  subject  as  close  as 
possible.  We  seem  to  recognise  the  professional  mathe- 
matician in  the  perspicuity  and  classical  order  through- 
out the  whole  composition,  and  there  was  scarcely  an 
occasion  for  him  to  excuse  himself,  as  he  does  at  the 
end  of  Chapter  i.  (i.  26),  for  not  being  able  everywhere 
strictly  to  adhere  to  the  geometrical  method,  as  he  was 
sometimes  compelled  to  introduce  an  unknown  factor, 
because  the  explanation  could  only  be  given  in  a  later 
part  of  the  book. 

He  does  not  blindly  accept  the  traditions  of  former  Theauthor' 
ages ;  he  wants  to  understand  and  to  criticise  them.  He  mind, 
wants  to  sift  the  wheat  from  the  chaff,  and  he  will 
discard  everything  that  militates  against  the  laws  of 
nature  and  of  reason.  The  reader  will  remember  that 
Alberuni  was  also  a  physical  scholar,  and  had  joublished 
works  on  most  departments  of  natural  science,  optics, 
mechanics,  mineralogy,  and  chemistry  ;  cf.  his  geolo- 
gical speculation  on  the  indications  of  India  once  having 
been  a  sea  (i.  198),  and  a  characteristic  specimen  of  his 
natural  philosophy  (i.  400).     That  he  believed  in  the 


xxvi  PREFACE. 

action  of  the  planets  on  the  subhmary  world  I  take  for 
certain,  though  he  nowhere  says  so.  It  would  hardly 
be  intelligible  why  he  should  have  spent  so  much  time 
and  labour  on  the  study  of  Greek  and  Indian  astrology 
if  he  had  not  believed  in  the  truth  of  the  thing.  He 
gives  a  sketch  of  Indian  astrology  in  Chapter  Ixxx., 
because  Muslim  readers  "are  not  acquainted  with  the 
Hindu  methods  of  astrology,  and  have  never  had  an 
opportunity  of  studying  an  Indian  book"  (ii.  21 1). 
Bardesanes,  a  Syrian  philosopher  and  poet  in  the 
second  half  of  the  second  Christian  century,  condemned 
astrology  in  plain  and  weighty  words.  Alberuni  did 
not  rise  to  this  height,  remaining  entangled  in  the 
notions  of  Greek  astrology. 

He  did  not  believe  in  alchemy,  for  he  distinguishes 
between  such  of  its  practices  as  are  of  a  chemical  or 
mineralogical  character,  and  such  as  are  intentional 
deceit,  which  he  condemns  in  the  strongest  possible 
terms  (i.  187). 

He  criticises  manuscript  tradition  like  a  modern 
philologist.  He  sometimes  supposes  the  text  to  be 
corrupt,  and  inquires  into  the  cause  of  the  corruption  ; 
he  discusses  various  readings,  and  proposes  emenda- 
tions. He  guesses  at  lacunce,  criticises  different  transla- 
tions, and  complains  of  the  carelessness  and  ignorance 
of  the  copyists  (ii.  y6',  i.  162-163).  He  is  aware  that 
Indian  works,  badly  translated  and  carelessly  copied  by 
the  successive  copyists,  very  soon  degenerate  to  such  a 
degree  that  an  Indian  author  would  hardly  recognise 
his  own  work,  if  it  were  presented  to  him  in  such  a 
garb.  All  these  complaints  are  perfectly  true,  particu- 
larly as  regards  the  proper  names.  That  in  his  essays 
at  emendation  he  sometimes  went  astray,  that,  e.g.  he 
was  not  prepared  fully  to  do  justice  to  Brahmagupta, 
will  readily  be  excused  by  the  fact  that  at  his  time  it 
was  next  to  impossible  to  learn  Sanskrit  with  a  suffi- 
cient degree  of  accuracy  and  completeness. 


PREFACE,  xxvii 

When  I  drew  the  first  sketch  of  the  life  of  Alberuni 
ten  years  ago,  I  cherished  the  hope  that  more  materials 
for  his  biography  would  come  to  light  in  the  libraries 
of  both  the  East  and  West.  This  has  not  been  the 
case,  so  far  as  I  am  aware.  To  gain  an  estimate  of  his 
character  we  must  try  to  read  between  the  lines  of  his 
books,  and  to  glean  whatever  minute  indications  may 
there  be  found.  A  picture  of  his  character  cannot 
therefore  at  the  present  be  anything  but  very  imperfect, 
and  a  detailed  appreciation  of  his  services  in  the  ad- 
vancement of  science  cannot  be  undertaken  until  all 
the  numerous  works  of  his  pen  have  been  studied  and 
rendered  accessible  to  the  learned  world.  The  principal 
domain  of  his  work  included  astronomy,  mathematics, 
chronology,  mathematical  geography,  physics,  chemistry, 
and  mineralogy.  By  the  side  of  this  professional  work 
he  composed  about  twenty  books  on  India,  both  transla- 
tions and  original  compositions,  and  a  number  of  tales 
and  legends,  mostly  derived  from  the  ancient  lore  of 
Eran  and  India.  As  probably  most  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  historic  literature  of  the  time,  we  must 
mention  his  history  of  his  native  country  Khwarizm, 
and  the  history  of  the  famous  sect  of  the  Karmatians, 
the  loss  of  both  of  which  is  much  to  be  deplored. 


II 

The  court  of  the  Khalif s  of  the  house  of  Omayya  at  on  the  ori- 

T-w  T  I  1  1  /•         gines  of 

Damascus   does  not  seem  to  have    been    a   home  tor  Arabic 

„  ,  .       T  .    .  „        -,      literature. 

literature.  Except  lor  the  practical  necessities  ot  ad- 
ministration, they  had  no  desire  for  the  civilisation  of 
Greece,  Egypt,  or  Persia,  their  thoughts  being  engrossed 
by  war  and  politics  and  the  amassing  of  wealth.  Pro- 
bably they  had  a  certain  predilection  for  poetry  common 
to  all  Arabs,  but  they  did  not  think  of  encouraging 
historiography,  much  to  their  own  disadvantage.  In 
many  ways  these  Arab  princes,  only  recently  emerged 


xxviii  PREFA  CE. 

from  the  rocky  wilderness  of  the  Hijaz,  and  suddenly- 
raised  to  imperial  power,  retained  much  of  the  great 
Bedouin  Shaikh  of  the  desert.  Several  of  them,  shun- 
ning Damascus,  preferred  to  stay  in  the  desert  or  on 
its  border,  and  we  may  surmise  that  in  their  house- 
holds at  Eusafa  and  Khunasara  there  was  scarcely 
more  thought  of  literature  than  at  present  in  the  halls 
of  Ibn  Arrashid,  the  wily  head  of  the  Shammar  at  Hiul. 
The  cradle  of  Arabic  literature  is  not  Damascus,  but 
Bagdad,  and  the  protection  necessary  for  its  rise  and 
growth  was  afforded  by  the  Khalifs  of  the  house  of 
Abbas,  whose  Arab  nature  has  been  modified  by  the 
influence  of  Eranian  civilisation  during  a  long  stay  in 
Khurasan. 

The  foundation  of  Arabic  literature  was  laid  between 
A.D.  750  and  850.  It  is  only  the  tradition  relating  to 
their  religion  and  prophet  and  poetry  that  is  peculiar 
to  the  Arabs ;  everything  else  is  of  foreign  descent. 
The  development  of  a  large  literature,  with  numerous 
ramifications,  is  chiefly  the  work  of  foreigners,  carried 
out  with  foreign  materials,  as  in  Rome  the  origines  of 
the  national  literature  mostly  point  to  Greek  sources. 
Greece,  Persia,  and  India  were  taxed  to  help  the  sterility 
of  the  Arab  mind. 

What  Greece  has  contributed  by  lending  its  Aristotle, 
Ptolemy,  and  Harpocrates  is  known  in  general.  A  de- 
tailed description  of  the  influx  and  spread  of  Greek 
literature  would  mark  a  memorable  progress  in  Oriental 
philology.  Such  a  work  may  be  undertaken  with  some 
chance  of  success  by  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  state 
of  Greek  literature  at  the  centres  of  learning  during  the 
last  centuries  of  Greek  heathendom,  although  he  would 
have  to  struggle  against  the  lamentable  fact  that  most 
Arabic  books  of  this  most  ancient  period  are  lost,  and 
probably  lost  for  ever. 

What  did  Persia,  or  rather  the  Sasanian  empire,  over- 
run by  the  Arab  hordes,  offer  to  its  victors  in  literature  ? 


PREFA  CE.  xxix 

It  left  to  the  east  of  the  Khalifate  the  language  of 
administration,  the  use  of  which  during  the  following 
centuries,  till  recent  times,  was  probably  never  much 
discontinued.  It  was  this  Perso-Sasanian  language  of 
administration  which  passed  into  the  use  of  the  smaller 
Eastern  dynasties,  reared  under  the  Abbaside  Khalifs, 
and  became  the  language  of  literature  at  the  court  of 
one  of  those  dynasties,  that  of  the  Samani  kings  of 
Transoxiana  and  Khurasan.  Thus  it  has  come  to  pass 
that  the  dialect  of  one  of  the  most  western  parts  of 
Eran  first  emerged  as  the  language  of  literature  in  its 
farthest  east.  In  a  similar  way  modern  German  is  an 
offsj^ring  of  the  language  used  in  the  chanceries  of  the 
Luxembourg  emperors  of  Germany. 

The  bulk  of  the  narrative  literature,  tales,  legends, 
novels,  came  to  the  Arabs  in  translations  from  the  Per- 
sian, c.fj.  the  "Thousand  and  One  Nights,"  the  stories  told 
by  the  mouth  of  animals,  like  KalUa  and  Dimna,  pro- 
bably all  of  Buddhistic  origin,  portions  of  the  national 
lore  of  Eran,  taken  from  the  Klmiddindma, ovl^ordi'^^ook, 
and  afterwards  immortalised  by  Firdausi ;  but  more 
than  anything  else  love-stories.  All  this  was  the  fashion 
under  the  Abbaside  Khalifs,  and  is  said  to  have  attained 
the  height  of  popularity  during  the  rule  of  Almuktadir, 
A.D.  908-932.  Besides,  much  favour  was  apparently 
bestowed  upon  didactic,  par^netic  compositions,  mostly 
clothed  in  the  garb  of  a  testament  of  this  or  that  Sasanian 
king  or  sage,  e.g.  Anushirvan  and  his  minister  Buzurju- 
mihr,  likewise  upon  collections  of  moralistic  apothegms. 
All  this  was  translated  from  Persian,  or  pretended  to 
be  so.  Books  on  the  science  of  war,  the  knowledge  of 
weapons,  the  veterinary  art,  falconry,  and  the  various 
methods  of  divination,  and  some  books  on  medicine 
and  de  rehus  mnereis,  were  likewise  borrowed  from  the 
Persians.  It  is  noteworthy  that,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  very  few  traces  of  the  exact  sciences,  such  as 
mathematics  and  astronomy,  among  the  Sasanian  Per- 


XXX  PREFACE. 

siaiis.  Either  they  had  only  little  of  this  kind,  or  the 
Arabs  did  not  choose  to  get  it  translated. 

An  author  by  the  name  of  'All  Ibn  Ziyad  Altamimi 
is  said  to  have  translated  from  Persian  a  book,  Ztj- 
alshahriydr,  which,  to  judge  by  the  title,  mnst  have 
been  a  system  of  astronomy.  It  seems  to  have  been 
extant  when  Alberuni  wrote  his  work  on  chronology  ; 
vide  "Chronology  of  Ancient  Nations,"  translated,  &c., 
by  Edward  Sachau,  London,  1876,  p.  6,  and  note  p.  368. 
Perhaps  it  was  from  this  source  that  the  famous  Alkh- 
warizmi  drew  his  knowledge  of  Persian  astronomy, 
which  he  is  said  to  have  exhibited  in  his  extract  from 
the  Brahmasiddhdnta,  composed  by  order  of  the  Khalif 
Ma'miin.  For  we  are  expressly  told  (vide  Gildemeister, 
Sco^iptorum  Arabum  de  rchus  Indieis  loci,  &c.,  p.  loi) 
that  he  used  the  media,  i.e.  the  mean  places  of  the 
planets  as  fixed  by  Brahmagupta,  whilst  in  other 
things  he  deviated  from  him,  giving  the  equations  of 
the  planetary  revolutions  according  to  the  theory  of 
the  Persians,  and  the  declination  of  the  sun  according 
to  Ptolemy.  Of  what  kind  this  Persian  astronomy  was 
we  do  not  know,  but  we  must  assume  that  it  was  of  a 
scientific  character,  based  on  observation  and  compu- 
tation, else  Alkhwarizmi  would  not  have  introduced 
its  results  into  his  own  work.  Of  the  terminology 
of  Arabian  astronomy,  the  word  jaAizaliar  =  (u2i,-^ut 
draconis,  is  probably  of  Sasanian  origin  {gaocithra),  as 
well  as  the  word  zij  (  =  canon),  i.e.  a  collection  of  astro- 
nomical tables  with  the  necessary  explanations,  perhaps 
also  Icardaj,  kardaja,  a  measure  in  geometry  equal  to 
g'g-  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  if  it  be  identical 
with  the  Persian  karda,  i.e.  cut. 

What  India  has  contributed  reached  Bagdad  by  two 
different  roads.  Part  has  come  directly  in  translations 
from  the  Sanskrit,  part  has  travelled  through  Eran, 
having  originally  been  translated  from  Sanskrit  (Pali  ? 
Prakrit  ?)  into  Persian,  and  farther  from  Persian  into 


PREFA  CE.  XXXI 

Arabic.  In  this  way,  c.fj.  the  fables  of  KaWa  and 
Dimna  have  been  communicated  to  the  Arabs,  and  a 
book  on  medicine,  probably  the  famous  CaraJca.  Cf. 
Fihrist,  p.  303. 

In  this  communication  between  India  and  Bagdad 
we  must  not  only  distinguish  between  two  different 
roads,  but  also  between  two  different  periods. 

As  Sindh  was  under  the  actual  rule  of  the  Khalif 
Mansiir  (a.d  753-774),  there  came  embassies  from  that 
part  of  India  to  Bagdad,  and  among  them  scholars,  who 
brought  along  with  them  two  books,  the  Brahmasid- 
dlidnta  to  Brahmagupta  (Sindhind),  and  his  Khanda- 
khddyaka  (Arkand).  With  the  help  of  these  pandits, 
Alfazari,  perhaps  also  Yakiib  Ibn  Tclrik,  translated  them. 
Both  works  have  been  largely  used,  and  have  exercised 
a  great  influence.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the 
Arabs  first  became  acquainted  with  a  scientific  system 
of  astronomy.  They  learned  from  Brahmagupta  earlier 
than  from  Ptolemy. 

Another  influx  of  Hindu  learning  took  place  under 
Harun,  A.D.  786-808.  The  ministerial  family  Barmak, 
then  at  the  zenith  of  their  power,  had  come  with  the 
ruling  dynasty  from  Balkh,  where  an  ancestor  of  theirs 
had  been  an  oflScial  in  the  Buddhistic  temple  Nanhchdr, 
i.e.  nava  vihdra  =\}iq  new  temple  (or  monastery).  The 
name  Barmak  is  said  to  be  of  Indian  descent,  meaning 
paramaka,  i.e.  the  superior  (abbot  of  the  riJidra  ?).  Cf. 
Kern,  GcschicJde  dcs  Buddhismus  in  Indicn,  ii.  445,  543. 
Of  course,  the  Barmak  family  had  been  converted,  but 
their  contemporaries  never  thought  much  of  their  pro- 
fession of  Islam,  nor  regarded  it  as  genuine.  Induced 
probably  by  family  traditions,  they  sent  scholars  to 
India,  there  to  study  medicine  and  pharmacology.  Be- 
sides, they  engaged  Hindu  scholars  to  come  to  Bagdad, 
made  them  the  chief  physicians  of  their  hospitals,  and 
ordered  them  to  translate  from  Sanskrit  into  Arabic 
books   on  medicine,  pharmacology,    toxicology,  philo- 


xxxii  PREFACE. 

sophy,  astrology,  and  other  subjects.  Still  in  later 
centuries  Muslim  scholars  sometimes  travelled  for 
the  same  purposes  as  the  emissaries  of  the  Barmak, 
e.g.  Almuwaffak  not  long  before  Alberuni's  time  (Codex 
Vindohonensis,  sive  medici  Abu  Mansur  liber  fundamen- 
torum  pharmacologicti,  ed.  Seligmann,  Vienna,  1859,  pp. 
6,  10,  and  15,  9). 

Soon  afterwards,  when  Sindh  was  no  longer  politically 
dependent  upon  Bagdad,  all  this  intercourse  ceased  en- 
tirely. Arabic  literature  turned  off  into  other  channels. 
There  is  no  more  mention  of  the  presence  of  Hindu 
scholars  at  Bagdad  nor  of  translations  of  the  Sanskrit. 
Greek  learning  had  already  won  an  omnipotent  sway 
over  the  mind  of  the  Arabs,  being  communicated  to 
them  by  the  labours  of  Nestorian  physicians,  the  philo- 
sophers of  Harran,  and  Christian  scholars  in  Syria  and 
other  parts  of  the  Khalifate.  Of  the  more  ancient  or 
Indo- Arabian  stratum  of  scientific  literature  nothing  has 
reached  our  time  save  a  number  of  titles  of  books,  many 
of  tliem  in  such  a  corrupt  form  as  to  baffle  all  attempts 
at  decipherment. 

Among  the  Hindu  physicians  of  this  time  one  ^j^'^  ^JV 
is  mentioned,  i.e.  the  son  of  DHN,  director  of  the  hos- 
pital of  the  Barmaks  in  Bagdad.  This  name  may  be 
Dlianya  or  Dlianin,  chosen  probably  on  account  of  its 
etymological  relationship  with  the  name  Dhanvantari, 
the  name  of  the  mythical  physician  of  the  gods  in 
Manu's  law-book  and  the  epos  (c/.  A.  Weber,  IndiscJie 
LiUercdurgesckiclite,  pp.  284,  287).  A  similar  relation 
seems  to  exist  between  the  names  Kanka,  that  of  a 
physician  of  the  same  period,  and  Kdnkdyana,  an 
authority  in  Indian  medicine  (cf.  Weber,  /.  c,  pp.  287 
note,  and  284  note,  302). 

The  name  ^\  that  of  an  author  of  a  book  on 
drinkables,  may  be  identical  with  Atri,  mentioned  as  a 
medical  author  by  Weber,  /.  c,  p.  288. 

There  was  a  book  by  one  b^X-j  (also  written  ^Ij^:^:}  on 


PREFA  CE.  xxxiii 

wisdom  or  philosophy  (c/.  Fihrist,  p.  305).  According 
to  Middle-Indian  phonetics  this  name  is  =  vedavydsa} 
A  man  of  this  name,  also  called  Vydsa  or  BddnrdTjann, 
is,  according  to  the  literary  tradition  of  India,  the 
originator  of  the  Vedanta  school  of  philosophy  {cf. 
Colebroke,  Essays,  i.  352),  and  this  will  remind  the 
reader  that  in  the  Arabian  Sufism  the  Indian  Vedanta 
philosophy  reappears. 

Further,  an  author  jV:^^"'  Sadbrm,^  is  mentioned, 
unfortunately  without  an  indication  of  the  contents  of 
his  book.  Alberuni  (i.  157)  mentions  one  Srdya  as  the 
author  of  a  jdtal-a  {cf.  Weber,  /.  c,  p.  278),  and  this 
name  is  perhaps  an  abbreviation  of  that  one  here 
mentioned,  i.e.  Satyavarman. 

A  work  on  astrology  is  attributed  to  one  Lfesj^-^? 
SNGHL  {vide  Fihrist,  p.  271),  likewise  enumerated 
by  Alberuni  in  a  list  of  names  (i.  158).  The  Indian 
equivalent  of  this  name  is  not  certain  {cf.  note  to  i.  1 58). 

There  is  also  mentioned  a  book  on  the  signs  of  swords 
by  one  ..p^ts  probably  identical  with  Vydghra,  which 
occurs  as  a  name  of  Indian  authors  {cf.  i.  Fihrist,  p. 

315). 

The  famous  Buddha  legend  in  Christian  garb,  most 
commonly  called  Jonsapli  and  Barlaam,,  bears  in  Fihrist, 
p.  300,  the  title  ^^:  ^  t^g^-lj^.  The  former  word  is  gene- 
rally explained  as  BodhisccUva,  although  there  is  no 
law  in  Indian  phonetics  which  admits  the  change  of 
scdtvct  to  saf.  The  second  name  is  that  of  Buddha's 
spiritual  teacher  and  guide,  in  fact,  his  'puroliita,  and 
with  this  word  I  am  inclined  to  identify  the  signs  in 
question,  i.e.  Jjb^h. 

What  Ibn  Wadih  in  his  chronicle  (ed.  by  Houtsma) 
relates  of  India,  on  pp.  92-106,  is  not  of  much  value. 
His  words  on  p.   105,  "the  king  ^^^  =Ghosha,  who 

^  Benfey  in  Kalilag  und  Damnag,  Einleitung,  p.  xliii.  note  3.     The 
word  has  received  currency  in  the  form  Bidpai. 
-  Cf.  Benfey,  I.  c,  Einleitung,  p.  xl. 
VOL.  I.  c 


xxxiv  PREFA  CE. 

lived  in  the  time  of  Sindbad  the  sage,  and  this  Ghosha 
composed  the  book  on  the  cunning  of  the  women,"  are 
perhaps  an  indication  of  some  fables  of  Buddhaghosha 
having  been  translated  into  Arabic. 

Besides  books  on  astronomy,  mathematics  (t-^jl**..^^ 
^wV-^!^),  astrology,  chiefly  jdtakas,  on  medicine  and 
pharmacology,  the  Arabs  translated  Indian  works  on 
snakes  {sarparidyd'),  on  poison  {visliaridyd),  on  all 
kinds  of  auguring,  on  talismans,  on  the  veterinary  art, 
de  arte  amandi,  numerous  tales,  a  life  of  Buddha,  books 
on  logic  and  philosophy  in  general,  on  ethics,  politics, 
and  on  the  science  of  war.  Many  Arab  authors  took 
up  the  subjects  communicated  to  them  by  the  Hindus 
and  worked  them  out  in  original  compositions,  commen- 
taries, and  extracts.  A  favourite  subject  of  theirs  was 
Indian  mathematics,  the  knowledge  of  which  became 
far  spread  by  the  publications  of  Alkindi  and  many 
others. 

The  smaller  dynasties  which  in  later  times  tore  the 
sovereignty  over  certain  eastern  countries  of  the  Khali- 
fate  out  of  the  hands  of  the  successors  of  Mansur  and 
Harun,  did  not  continue  their  literary  commerce  with 
India,  The  Banu-Laith  (a.d.  872-903),  owning  great 
part  of  Afghanistan  together  with  Ghazna,  were  the 
neighbours  of  Hindus,  but  their  name  is  in  no  way 
connected  with  the  history  of  literature.  For  the 
Buyide  princes  who  ruled  over  Western  Persia  and 
Babylonia  between  A.D.  932  and  105  5,  the  fables  of 
Kalila  and  Dimna  were  translated.  Of  all  these  princely 
houses,  no  doubt,  the  Samanides,  who  held  almost  the 
whole  east  of  the  Khalifate  under  their  sway  during 
892-999,  had  most  relations  with  the  Hindus,  those  in 
Kabul,  the  Panjab,  and  Sindh ;  and  their  minister, 
Aljaihani,  probably  had  collected  much  information 
about  India.  Originally  the  slave  of  the  Samanides, 
then  their  general  and  provincial  governor,  Alptagin, 
made  himself  practically  independent  in  Ghazna  a  few 


PREFA  CE.  XXXV 

years  before  Alberuni  was  born,  and  his  successor, 
Sabiiktagin,  Mahmud's  father,  paved  the  road  for  the 
war  with  India  (i.  22),  and  for  the  lasting  establish- 
ment of  Islam  in  India. 

Some  of  the  books  that  had  been  translated  under  Tiieauthor's 

.study  of 

the  first  Abbaside  Khalifs  were  extant  in  the  library  India  before 

•^     he  wrote 

of  Alberuni  when  he  wrote  the  'IvSlkol,  the  Brahma-  the  present 

book. 

siddhdnta  or  Sindhind,  and  the  Khandakhddyaka  or 
Arkand  in  the  editions  of  Alfazari  and  of  Yakub  Ibn 
Tarik,  the  Caraka  in  the  edition  of  'All  Ibn  Zain,  and 
the  Fancatantra  or  Kalila  and  Dimna.  He  also  used  an 
Arabic  translation  of  the  Karanasdra  by  Vittesvara 
(ii.  55),  but  we  do  not  learn  from  him  whether  this  was 
an  old  translation  or  a  modern  one  made  in  Alberuni's 
time.  These  books  offered  to  Alberuni — he  complains 
of  it  repeatedly — the  same  difficulties  as  to  us,  viz., 
besides  the  faults  of  the  translators,  a  considerable 
corruption  of  the  text  by  the  negligence  of  the  copyists, 
more  particularly  as  regards  the  proper  names. 

When  Alberuni  entered  India,  he  probably  had  a 
good  general  knowledge  of  Indian  mathematics,  astro- 
nomy, and  chronology,  acquired  by  the  study  of  Brahma- 
gupta  and  his  Arabian  editors.  What  Hindu  author 
was  his  teacher  and  that  of  the  Arabs  in  pure  mathe- 
matics (^-^^.^1^  c_jl^Jl)is  not  known.  Besides  Alfazari 
and  Yakub  Ibn  Tarik,  he  learned  from  Alkhwarizmi, 
something  from  Abulhasan  of  Ahwaz,  things  of  little 
value  from  Alkindi  and  Abu-Ma  shar  of  Balkh,  and 
single  details  from  the  famous  book  of  Aljaihani.  Of 
other  sources  which  he  has  used  in  the  'IrSiK-a,  he 
quotes  :  (i.)  A  Muhammadan  canon  called  Alharkan,  i.e. 
ahargana.  I  cannot  trace  the  history  of  the  book,  but 
suppose  that  it  was  a  practical  handbook  of  chronology 
for  the  purpose  of  converting  Arabian  and  Persian  dates 
into  Indian  ones  and  vice  versa,  which  had  perhaps  been 
necessitated  by  the  wants  of  the  administration  under 
Sabiiktagin  and  Mahmud.     The  name  of  the  author  is 


xxxvi  PREFACE. 

not  mentioned.  (2.)  Abu  Ahmad  Ibn  Catlaghtagin, 
quoted  i.  317  as  having  computed  the  latitudes  of  Karl! 
and  Taneshar. 

Two  other  authorities  on  astronomical  subjects  are 
quoted,  but  not  in  relation  to  Indian  astronomy, 
Muhammad  Ibn  Ishfik,  from  Sarakhs,  ii.  15,  and  a  book 
called  Ghurrat-cdzijdt,  perhaps  derived  from  an  Indian 
source,  as  the  name  is  identical  with  KaranatUoJm. 
The  author  is  perhaps  Abu-Muhammad  Alnaib  from 
Amul  (c/.  note  to  ii.  90). 

In  India  Alberuni  recommenced  his  study  of  Indian 
astronomy,  this  time  not  from  translations,  but  from 
vSanskrit  originals,  and  we  here  meet  with  the  remark- 
able fact  that  the  works  which  about  A.D.  770  had  been 
the  standard  in  India  still  held  the  same  high  position 
A.D.  1020,  viz.,  the  works  of  Brahmagupta.  Assisted 
by  learned  pandits,  he  tried  to  translate  them,  as  also 
the  Piolisasiddhdnta  {vide  preface  to  the  edition  of  the 
text,  §  5),  and  when  he  composed  the  'Ii^StKa,  he  had 
already  come  forward  with  several  books  devoted 
to  special  points  of  Indian  astronomy.  As  such  he 
quotes : — 

(i.)  A  treatise  on  the  determination  of  the  lunar 
stations  or  naksJicdras,  ii.  83. 

(2.)  The  Khaydl-rdJius'ilfaini,  which  contained,  pro- 
bably beside  other  things,  a  description  of  the  Yoga 
theory,  ii.  208. 

(3.)  A  book  called  TJie  Arabic  Khandakhddyaka,  on 
the  same  subject  as  the  preceding  one,  ii.  208. 

(4.)  A  book  containing  a  description  of  the  Karanas, 
the  title  of  which  is  not  mentioned,  ii.  194. 

(5.)  A  treatise  on  the  various  systems  of  numeration, 
as  used  by  different  nations,  i.  174,  which  probably 
described  also  the  related  Indian  subjects. 

(6.)  A  book  called  "  Key  of  Astronomy,"  on  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  sun  rotates  round  the  earth  or  the 
earth  round  the  sun,  i.  277.     We  may  suppose  that  in 


PREFACE.  xxxvii 

this  book  he  had  also  made  use  of  the  notions  of  Indian 
astronomers. 

(7.)  Lastly,  several  publications  on  the  different 
methods  for  the  computation  of  geographical  longitude, 
i.  315.  He  does  not  mention  their  titles,  nor  whether 
they  had  any  relation  to  Hindu  methods  of  calculation. 

Perfectly  at  home  in  all  departments  of  Indian  astro- 
nomy and  chronology,  he  began  to  write  the  'IvSlko.. 
In  the  chapters  on  these  subjects  he  continues  a  literary 
movement  which  at  his  time  had  already  gone  on  for 
centuries ;  but  he  surpassed  his  predecessors  by  going 
back  upon  the  original  Sanskrit  sources,  trying  to  check 
his  pandits  by  whatever  Sanskrit  he  had  contrived  to 
learn,  by  making  new  and  more  accurate  translations, 
and  by  his  conscientious  method  of  testing  the  data  of 
the  Indian  astronomers  by  calculation.  His  work  repre- 
sents a  scientific  renaissance  in  comparison  with  the 
aspirations  of  the  scholars  working  in  Bagdad  under  the 
first  Abbaside  Khalifs. 

Alberuni  seems  to  think  that  Indian  astrology  had 
not  been  transferred  into  the  more  ancient  Arabic 
literature,  as  we  may  conclude  from  his  introduction  to 
Chapter  Ixxx.  :  '•' Our  fellow-believers  in  these  (Muslim) 
countries  are  not  acquainted  with  the  Hindu  methods 
of  astrology,  and  have  never  had  an  opportunity  of 
studying  an  Indian  book  on  the  subject,"  ii.  211.  We 
cannot  prove  that  the  works  of  Varahamihira,  e.g.  his 
Brihatsamhitd  and  Laghujcitakam,  which  Alberuni  was 
translating,  had  already  been  accessible  to  the  Arabs  at 
the  time  of  Mansur,  but  we  are  inclined  to  think  that 
Alberuni's  judgment  on  this  head  is  too  sweeping,  for 
books  on  astrology,  and  particularly  on  jdtaka,  had 
already  been  translated  in  the  early  days  of  the  Abba- 
side  rule.      Cf.  Fihrist,  pp.  270,  271. 

As  regards  Indian  medicine,  we  can  only  say  that 
Alberuni  does  not  seem  to  have  made  a  special  study 
of  it,  for  he  simply  uses  the  then  current  translation  of 


xxxviii  PREFACE. 

Caraka,  although  complaining  of  its  incorrectness,  i. 
159,  162,  382.  He  has  translated  a  Sanskrit  treatise 
on  loathsome  diseases  into  Arabic  (cf.  preface  to  the 
edition  of  the  original,  p.  xxi.  No.  18),  but  we  do  not 
know  whether  before  the  'IvSlko.  or  after  it. 

What  first  induced  Alberuni  to  write  the  IvBiKa  was 
not  the  wish  to  enlighten  his  countrymen  on  Indian 
astronomy  in  particular,  but  to  present  them  with  an 
impartial  description  of  the  Indian  theological  and 
philosophical  doctrines  on  a  broad  basis,  with  every 
detail  pertaining  to  them.  So  he  himself  says  both  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  the  book.  Perhaps  on  this 
subject  he  could  give  his  readers  more  perfectly  new 
information  than  on  any  other,  for,  according  to  his 
own  statement,  he  had  in  this  only  one  predecessor, 
Aleranshahri.  Not  knowing  him  or  that  authority 
which  he  follows,  i.e.  Zurkan,  we  cannot  form  an 
estimate  as  to  how  far  Alberuni's  strictures  on|them 
(i.  7)  are  founded.  Though  there  can  hardly  be  any 
doubt  that  Indian  philosophy  in  one  or  other  of  its 
principal  forms  had  been  communicated  to  the  Arabs 
already  in  the  first  period,  it  seems  to  have  been  some- 
thing entirely  new  when  Alberuni  produced  before  his 
compatriots  or  fellow-believers  the  Sdmkliya  by  Kapila, 
and  the  Booh  of  Patahjali  in  good  Arabic  translations. 
It  was  this  particular  work  which  admirably  qualified 
him  to  write  the  corresponding  chapters  of  the  'Ii/8tKa. 
The  philosophy  of  India  seems  to  have  fascinated  his 
mind,  and  the  noble  ideas  of  the  Bhagavadgitd  pro- 
bably came  near  to  the  standard  of  his  own  persua- 
sions. Perhaps  it  was  he  who  first  introduced  this 
gem  of  Sanskrit  literature  into  the  world  of  Muslim 
readers. 

As  regards  the  Puranas,  Alberuni  was  perhaps  the 
first  Muslim  who  took  up  the  study  of  them.  At  all 
events,  we  cannot  trace  any  acquaintance  with  them  on 
the  part  of  the  Arabs  before  his  time.     Of  the  litera- 


PREFACE.  xxxix 

tare  of  fables,  he  knew  the  Pamcatantra  in  the  Arabic 
edition  of  Ibn  Almukaffa. 

Judging  Alberuni  in  relation  to  his  predecessors,  we 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  his  work  formed  a  most 
marked  progress.  His  description  of  Hindu  philosophy 
was  probably  unparalleled.  His  system  of  chronology 
and  astronomy  was  more  complete  and  accurate  than 
had  ever  before  been  given.  His  communications  from 
the  Puranas  were  probably  entirely  new  to  his  readers, 
as  also  the  important  chapters  on  literature,  manners, 
festivals,  actual  geography,  and  the  much-quoted  chap- 
ter on  historic  chronology.  He  once  quotes  Razi,  with 
whose  works  he  was  intimately  acquainted,  and  some 
Sufi  philosophers,  but  from  neither  of  them  could  he 
learn  much  about  India. 

In  the  following  pages  we  give  a  list  of  the  Sanskrit  msSanskiit 
books  quoted  in  the  'IvSiKct : — 

Sources  of  the  chapters  on  theology  and  philosophy  : 
SdrhkhTja,  by  Kapila  ;  Book  of  Fatahjali  ;  Gild,  i.e.  some 
edition  of  the  Bhagavadgitd. 

He  seems  to  have  used  more  sources  of  a  similar 
nature,  but  he  does  not  quote  from  them. 

Sources  of  a  Pauranic  kind  :  Vislinu-Dliarma,  Vislinu- 
Furdna,  Matsya-Purdn a,  Vdyio-ruTdna,Aditya-Furd ija. 

Sources  of  the  chapters  on  astronomy,  chronology, 
geography,  and  astrology  :  Fulisasiddhdnta ;  Brahma- 
siddhdnta,  Khandakliddydka,  JJUarakliandakliddyaka, 
by  Brahmagupta ;  Commentary  of  the  Kliandaklidd- 
yaka,  by  Balabhadra,  perhaps  also  some  other  work  of 
his  ;  Brihatsamliitd,  Fancasiddhd7iHkd,  Brihat-jdtakam, 
Laghu-jdtakam,  by  Varahamihira  ;  Commentary  of  the 
Brihatsamliitd,  a  book  called  Snldhaca  (perhaps  Sarva- 
dhara),  by  Utpala,  from  Kashmir  ;  a  book  by  Aryabhata, 
junior;  Karanasdra,  by  Vittesvara ;  Karanatilakay  by 
Vijayanandin  ;  Sripdla  ;  Book  of  the  Fishi  (sic)  BJmvaiia- 
kosa  ;  BookoftheBrdhman  Bhattila  ;  Book  of  Durlalha^ 


xl  PREFACE. 

from  Multan  ;  Book  of  Jivasarman  ;  Book  of  Sammy  a ; 
Book  of  Auliatta  (?),  the  son  of  Sahawi  (?)  ;  The  Minor 
Mdnasa,  by  Puncala ;  Si^ijbclhava  [Sarvadhara  ?),  by 
Mahadeva  Candrabija ;  Calendar  from  Kashmir. 

As  regards  some  of  these  authors,  Sripala,  Jivasar- 
man, Samaya  (?),  and  Auliatta  (?),  the  nature  of  the 
quotations  leaves  it  uncertain  whether  Alberuni  quoted 
from  books  of  theirs  or  from  oral  communications  which 
he  had  received  from  them. 

Source  on  medicine  :  Caraka^  in  the  Arabic  edition  of 
'All  Ibn  Zain,  from  Tabaristan. 

In  the  chapter  on  metrics,  a  lexicographic  work  by 
one  Haribhata  (?),  and  regarding  elephants  a  "  Book 
on  the  Medicine  of  Elephants,"  are  quoted. 

His  communications  from  the  Mahdbhdrata  and 
Rdyndyana,  and  the  way  in  which  he  speaks  of  them, 
do  not  give  us  the  impression  that  he  had  these  books 
before  him.  He  had  some  information  of  Jaina  origin, 
but  does  not  mention  his  source  (Aryabhata,  jun.  ?) 
Once  he  quotes  Manu's  Dharmasdstra,  but  in  a  manner 
which  makes  me  doubt  whether  he  took  the  words 
directly  from  the  book  itself.^ 

The  quotations  which  he  has  made  from  these  sources 
are,  some  of  them,  very  extensive,  e.g.  those  from  the 
Bhagavadgitd.  In  the  chapter  on  literature  he  men- 
tions many  more  books  than  those  here  enumerated, 
but  does  not  tell  us  whether  he  made  use  of  them  for 
the  'IvSlku.  Sometimes  he  mentions  Hindu  individuals 
as  his  informants,  e.g.  those  from  Somanath,  i.  i6i,  165, 
and  from  Kanoj,  i.  165  ;  ii.  129. 

In  Chapter  i.  the  author  speaks  at  large  of  the  radical 
difference  between  Muslims  and  Hindus  in  everything, 
and  tries  to  account  for  it  both  by  the  history  of  India 
and  by  the  peculiarities  of  the  national  character  of  its 
inhabitants  (i.    17  seq.).     Everything  in  India  is  just 

^  The  places  where  mention  of  these  books  occurs  are  given  in 
Index  I.     Cf.  also  the  annotations  on  single  cases. 


PREFACE.  xli 

the  reverse  of  what  it  is  in  Islam,  "  and  if  ever  a  custom 
of  theirs  resembles  one  of  ours,  it  has  certainly  just  the 
opposite  meaning  "  (i.  179).  Much  more  certainly  than 
to  Alberuni,  India  would  seem  a  land  of  wonders  and 
monstrosities  to  most  of  his  readers.  Therefore,  in 
order  to  show  that  there  were  other  nations  who  held 
and  hold  similar  notions,  he  compares  Greek  philosophy, 
chiefly  that  of  Plato,  and  tries  to  illustrate  Hindu 
notions  by  those  of  the  Greeks,  and  thereby  to  bring 
them  nearer  to  the  understanding  of  his  readers. 

The  role  which  Greek  literature  plays  in  Alberuni' s  Greek  and 
work  in  the  distant  country  of  the  Paktyes  and  Gandhari  leis. 
is  a  singular  fact  in  the  history  of  civilisation.  Plato 
before  the  doors  of  India,  perhaps  in  India  itself  !  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  then  extant  Greek  literature 
had  found  its  way  into  the  library  of  Alberuni,  who 
uses  it  in  the  most  conscientious  and  appreciative  way, 
and  takes  from  it  choice  passages  to  confront  Greek 
thought  with  Indian.  And  more  than  this  :  on  the 
part  of  his  readers  he  seems  to  presuppose  not  only  that 
they  were  acquainted  with  them,  but  also  gave  them 
the  credit  of  first-rate  authorities.  Not  knowing  Greek 
or  Syriac,  he  read  them  in  Arabic  translations,  some  of 
which  reflect  much  credit  upon  their  authors.  The 
books  he  quotes  are  these  : — 

Plato,  Phcedo. 

Timcsus,  an  edition  with  a  commentary. 

Leges.     In  the  copy  of  it  there  was  an  appendix  relating 

to  the  pedigree  of  Hippokrates. 
Proclus,    Commentary   on    Timccus    (different    from    the   extant 

one). 
Aristotle,  only  short  references  to  his  Physica  and  Metaphysica. 

Letter  to  Alexander. 
Johannes  Grammaticus,  Contra  Proclum. 
Alexander   of    Aphrodisias,   Commentary  on  Aristotle's   (pvaiKT] 

CLKpoaCTLS. 

Apollonius  of  Tyana. 

Porphyry,  Liber  historiarum  philosophorum  {?). 

Ammonius. 


xlii  PREFACE. 

Aratus,  Phcenomena,  witli  a  commentary. 
Galenus,  Protrepticus. 

irepl  avvdeaeajs  (f>ap/xdKcoy  twv  Kara  tottovs. 

irepl  avvdeaecos  (papfxaKUv  Kara  yhrj. 

Commentary  on  the  Apophthegms  of  Hippokrates. 

De  indole  aniiiue. 

Book  of  the  Proof. 
Ptolemy,  Almagest. 

Geography. 

Kitdh-almanshiirdt. 
Pseudo-Kallisthenes,  Alexander  romance. 
Scholia  to  the  Ars  grammatica  of  Dionysius  Thrax. 
A  synchronistic  history,   resembling  in  part  that  of  Johannes 
Malalas,  in  part  the  Chronicon  of  Eusebius.     Cf.  notes  to  i. 
112,  105. 


The  other  analogies  which  he  draws,  not  taken  from 
Greek,  but  from  Zoroastrian,  Christian,  Jewish,  Mani- 
ch^an,  and  Sufi  sources,  are  not  very  numerous.  He 
refers  only  rarely  to  Eranian  traditions  ;  cf.  Index  II. 
(Persian  traditions  and  Zoroastrian).  Most  of  the 
notes  on  Christian,  Jewish,  and  Manichaean  subjects 
may  have  been  taken  from  the  book  of  Eranshahri  [cf. 
his  own  words,  i.  6,  7),  although  he  knew  Christianity 
from  personal  experience,  and  probably  also  from  the 
communications  of  his  learned  friends  Abulkhair  Al- 
khammfir  and  Abu-Sahl  Almasihi,  both  Christians  from 
the  farther  west  {cf.  Chronologic  Orient alisclicr  Volker, 
Einleitung,  p.  xxxii.).  The  interest  he  has  in  Mani's 
doctrines  and  books  seems  rather  strange.  We  are  not 
acquainted  with  the  history  of  the  remnants  of  Mani- 
chseism  in  those  days  and  countries,  but  cannot  help 
thinking  that  the  quotations  from  Mani's  "  Book  of 
Mysteries"  and  Thesaurus  Vivificationis  do  not  justify 
Alberuni's  judgment  in  this  direction.  He  seems  to 
have  seen  in  them  venerable  documents  of  a  high 
antiquity,  instead  of  the  syncretistic  ravings  of  a  would- 
be  prophet. 

That  he  was  perfectly  right  in  comparing  the  Sufi 
philosophy — he  derives  the  word  from  a-o^la,  i.   33 — 


PREFACE.  xliii 

with  certain  doctrines  of  the  Hindus  is  apparent  to 
any  one  who  is  aware  of  the  essential  identity  of  the 
systems  of  the  Greek  Neo-Pythagoreans,  the  Hindu 
Vedanta  philosophers,  and  the  Sufis  of  the  Muslim 
world.  The  authors  whom  he  quotes,  Abu  Yazid 
Albistami  and  Abu  Bakr  Alshibli,  are  well-know^n 
representatives  of  Sufism.     Of.  note  to  i.  87,  88. 

As  far  as  the  present  state  of  research  allows  one  to 
judge,  the  work  of  Alberuni  has  not  been  continued. 
In  astronomy  he  seems  by  his  Canon  Masudicus  to 
represent  the  height,  and  at  the  same  time  the  end,  of 
the  independent  development  of  this  science  among  the 
Arabs.  But  numerous  scholars  toiled  on  in  his  wake, 
whilst  in  the  study  of  India,  and  for  the  translation  of 
the  standard  works  of  Sanskrit  literature,  he  never  had 
a  successor  before  the  days  of  the  Emperor  Akbar. 
There  followed  some  authors  who  copied  from  his 
'IvSlkol,  but  there  was  none  who  could  carry  on  the 
work  in  his  spirit  and  method  after  he  had  died, 
eighteen  years  after  the  composition  of  the  TrSiKa. 
We  must  here  mention  two  authors  who  lived  not  long 
after  him,  under  the  same  dynasty,  and  probably  in  the 
same  place,  Ghazna,  viz.,  Gardezi  (cf.  note  to  ii.  6),  who 
wrote  between  A.D.  1049  ^^^  1052,  and  Muhammad 
Ibn  'Ukail,  who  wrote  between  A.D.  1089  and  1099 
{cf.  note  to  i.  5).  Of  the  later  authors  who  studied 
Alberuni's  'L'^tKaand  copied  from  it,  the  most  notorious 
is  Rashid-aldin,  who  transferred,  e.j.  the  whole  geogra- 
phical Chapter  xviii.  into  his  huge  chronicle. 

When  Alberuni  entered  India,  times  were  not  favour-  lucUa  at  tin 

author's 

able  for  opening  friendly  relations  with  native  scholars,  time. 
India  recoiled  from  the  touch  of  the  impure  barbarians. 
The  Pala  dynasty,  once  ruling  over  Kabulistan  and  the 
Panjab,  had  disappeared  from  the  theatre  of  history,  and 
their  former  dominions  were  in  the  firm  grasp  of  King 
Mahmiid  and  under  the  administration  of  his  slaves, 
of   Turkish   descent.     The  princes  of  North-Western 


xliv  PREFACE. 

India  had  been  too  uarrow-miuded,  too  blind  in  their 
self-conceit,  duly  to  appreciate  the  danger  threatening 
from  Ghazna,  and  too  little  politic  in  due  time  to  unite 
for  a  common  defence  and  repulse  of  the  enemy. 
Single-handed  Anandapala  had  had  to  fight  it  out,  and 
had  succumbed  :  but  the  others  were  to  follow,  each  one 
in  his  turn.  All  those  who  would  not  bear  the  yoke 
of  the  mlecchas  fled  and  took  up  their  abode  in  the 
neighbouring  Hindu  empires. 

Kashmir  was  still  independent,  and  was  hermetically 
sealed  to  all  strangers  (i.  206).  Anandapala  had  fled 
there.  Mahmud  had  tried  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 
try, but  failed.  About  the  time  when  Alberuni  wrote, 
the  rule  passed  from  the  hands  of  Sangi*amadeva, 
A.D.  1 007- 1 050.  into  those  of  Auantadeva.  A.D.  1030- 
1082. 

Central  and  Lower  Siudh  were  rarely  meddled  with 
by  Mahmud.  The  country  seems  to  have  been  split 
into  minor  priucipalities,  ruled  by  petty  Muslim 
dynasties,  like  the  Karmatian  dynasty  of  Multan, 
deposed  by  Mahmud. 

In  the  conditions  of  the  Gurjara  empire,  the  capital  of 
which  was  Anhilvara  or  Pattan,  the  famous  expedition 
of  Mahmud  to  Somanath,  A.D.  102 5,  in  some  ways  re- 
sembling that  of  Xapoleon  to  Moscow,  does  not  seem 
to  have  produced  any  lasting  changes.  The  country 
was  under  the  sway  of  the  Solanki  dynasty,  who  in 
A.D.  980  had  taken  the  place  of  the  Calukyas.  King 
Camunda  fled  before  Mahmud.  who  raised  another 
prince  of  the  same  house,  Devasarman,  to  the  throne ; 
but  soon  after  we  find  a  son  of  Camunda,  Durlabha,  as 
king  of  Gurjara  till  A.D.  1037. 

Malava  was  ruled  by  the  Pramara  dynasty,  who, 
like  the  kings  of  Kashmir,  had  afforded  a  refuge  to  a 
fugitive  prince  of  the  Pala  dynasty  of  Kabulistan. 
Bhojadeva  of  Malava.  ruling  between  A.D.  997  and 
1053.  is  mentioned  by  Alberuni.     His  court  at  Dhar, 


PREFA  CE.  xlv 

where  he  had  gone  from  Ujjain,  was  a  rendezvous  of 
the  scholars  of  the  time. 

Kanoj  formed  at  that  time  part  of  the  realm  of  the 
Pala  princes  of  Ganda  or  Bengal,  who  resided  in 
Mongir.  During  the  reign  of  Rajyapala,  Kanoj  had 
been  plundered  and  destroyed  by  Mahmiid,  A.D.  1017, 
in  consequence  of  which  a  new  city  farther  away  from 
the  mlecchas,  Bari,  had  been  founded,  but  does  not 
seem  to  have  grown  to  any  importance.  Residing  in 
this  place,  the  King  Mahipala  tried  about  A.D.  1026  to 
consolidate  and  to  extend  his  empire.  Both  these  rulers 
are  said  to  have  been  Buddhists.  Cf.  Kern,  Geschichte 
des  Buddhismus  in  Indien,  ii.  544. 

The  centres  of  Indian  learning  were  Benares  and 
Kashmir,  both  inaccessible  to  a  barbarian  like  Alberuni 
(i.  22),  but  in  the  parts  of  India  under  Muslim  adminis- 
tration he  seems  to  have  foand  the  pandits  he  wanted, 
perhaps  also  at  Ghazna  among  the  prisoners  of  war. 

India,  as  far  as  known  to  Alberuni,  was  Brahmanic,  The  author 
not  Buddhistic.  In  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh  cen-  dhism. 
tury  all  traces  of  Buddhism  in  Central  Asia,  Khurasan, 
Afghanistan,  and  North-Western  India  seem  to  have 
disappeared ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  a  man  of 
the  inquisitive  mind  of  Alberuni  knew  scarcely  any- 
thing at  all  about  Buddhism,  nor  had  any  means  for 
procuring  information  on  the  subject.  His  notes  on 
Buddhism  are  very  scanty,  all  derived  from  the  book 
of  Eranshahri,  who,  in  his  turn,  had  copied  the  book  of 
one  Zurkan,  and  this  book  he  seems  to  indicate  to  have 
been  a  bad  one.      Cy.  i.  7,  249,  326. 

Buddha  is  said  to  be  the  author  of  a  book  called 
Cuddmoni  (not  Gv.dhdmaiw ,  as  I  have  written,  i.  158), 
i.e.  Jewel,  on  the  knowledge  of  the  supraDaturalistic 
world. 

The  Buddhists  or  Shamanians,  i.e.  sramaiw.  are  called 
Muliammira,  which  I  translate  the  red-robe  iccarers, 
taking  it  for  identical  with  raMapata.     Cf.  note  to  i.  21. 


xlvi  PREFACE. 

Mentioning  the  trinity  of  the  Buddhistic  system, 
huddha,  dharma,  sangha,  he  calls  Buddha  Buddhodana, 
which  is  a  mistake  for  something  like  the  son  of  Suddho- 
dana.  Cf.  note  to  i.  40  and  i.  380,  which  latter  passage 
is  probably  derived  from  the  Vishnu- Dharma  (on  which 
vide  note  to  i.  54)- 

Of  Buddhistic  authors  there  are  mentioned  Oandra, 
the  grammarian,  i.  135  {cf.  Kern,  Geschichte  des  Bud- 
dhismus  in  Indien,  ii.  520),  Sugriva,  the  author  of  an 
astronomical  work,  and  a  pupil  of  his,  i.  156. 

Of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Buddhists,  only 
their  practice  of  disposing  of  their  dead  by  throwing 
them  into  flowing  water  is  mentioned,  ii.  169. 

Alberuni  speaks  (ii.  1 1)  of  a  building  erected  by  King 
Kanishka  in  Peshavar,  and  called  Kanishlcacaitya,  as 
existing  in  his  time,  most  likely  identical  with  that 
stilpa  which  he  is  reported  to  have  built  in  consequence 
of  a  prophecy  of  no  less  a  person  than  Buddha  himself. 
Of.  Kern,  /.  c.,  ii.  1 87.  The  word  hihdr,  i.e.  vihdra,  which 
Alberuni  sometimes  uses  in  the  meaning  of  temple  and 
the  like,  is  of  Buddhistic  origin.     Cf.  Kern,  I.  c,  ii.  57. 

Among  the  various  kinds  of  writing  used  in  India,  he 
enumerates  as  the  last  one  the  "  BhaikshuJd,  used  in 
Udtcnjmr  in  Furvadem.  This  last  is  the  writing  of 
Buddha,^' i.  173.  Was  this  Udunpiir  (we  may  also  read 
Udannapur)  the  Buddhistic  monastery  in  Magadha, 
JJdandapicri,  that  was  destroyed  by  the  Muslims,  A.D. 
1200?     Cf.  Kern,  I.  c,  ii.  545. 

The  kosmographic  views  of  the  Buddhists,  as  given 
by  Alberuni,  i.  249,  326,  ought  to  be  examined  as  to 
their  origin.  Perhaps  it  will  be  possible  to  point  out 
the  particular  Buddhistic  book  whence  they  were  taken. 

He  speaks  twice  of  an  antagonism  between  Buddha 
and  Zoroaster. 

If  Alberuni  had  had  the  same  opportunity  for  travel- 
ling in  India  as  Hiouen-Tsang  had,  he  would  easily 
have   collected   plenty  of   information  on    Buddhism. 


PREFACE.  xlvii 

Considering  the  meagreness  of  his  notes  on  this  subject, 
we  readily  believe  that  he  never  found  a  Buddhistic 
book,  and  never  knew  a  Buddhist  "from  whom  I  might 
have  learned  their  theories,"  i.  249.  His  Brahman  pan- 
dits probably  knew  enough  of  Buddhism,  but  did  not 
choose  to  tell  him. 

Lastly,  India,  as  known  to  Alberuni,  was  in  matters 
of  religion  Vishnuitic  (vaishnavcf) ,  not  Sivaitic  (scdva). 
Vishnu,  or  Narayana,  is  the  first  god  in  the  pantheon  of 
his  Hindu  informants  and  literary  authorities,  whilst 
Siva  is  only  incidentally  mentioned,  and  that  not  always 
in  a  favourable  manner.  This  indicates  a  remarkable 
change  in  the  religious  history  of  those  countries.  For 
the  predecessors  of  Mahmud  in  the  rule  over  Kabulistan 
and  the  Panjab,  the  Pala  dynasty,  were  worshippers  of 
Siva  (cf.  Lassen,  Indische  Altertlmtmshitnde,  3,  895),  as 
we  may  judge  from  their  coins,  adorned  with  the  image 
of  Nanda,  the  ox  of  Siva,  and  from  the  etymology  of 
their  names.  Cf.  note  to  ii.  13,  and  Lassen,  I.  c,  3,  915. 
The  image  of  Nanda  reappears  a  second  time  on  the 
coins  of  the  last  of  the  descendants  of  King  Mahmud  on 
the  throne  of  Ghazna. 


Conclusion. 


It  was  in  the  summ^er  of  1883  that  I  began  to  work  at 
the  edition  and  translation  of  the  TvStKa,  after  having 
fulfilled  the  literary  duties  resulting  from  my  journey 
in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  in  1879  and  1880.  A  copy 
of  the  Arabic  manuscript  had  been  prepared  in  1872, 
and  collated  in  Stambul  in  the  hot  summer  months  of 

1873. 

In  order  to  test  my  comprehension  of  the  book,  I 
translated  it  into  German  from  beginning  to  end  between 
February  1883  and  February  1884.  I^  the  summer  of 
the  latter  year  the  last  hand  was  laid  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  Arabic  text  as  it  was  to  be  printed. 


xlviii  PREFACE. 

In  1885-86  the  edition  of  the  Arabic  original  was 
printed.  At  the  same  time  I  translated  the  whole  book 
a  second  time,  into  English,  finishing  the  translation  of 
every  single  sheet  as  the  original  was  carried  through 
the  press. 

In  1887  and  the  first  half  of  1888  the  English  trans- 
lation, with  annotations  and  indices,  was  printed. 

My  work  during  all  these  years  was  not  uninter- 
rupted. 

Translating  an  Arabic  book,  written  in  the  style  of 
Alberuni,  into  English,  is,  for  a  person  to  whom  English 
is  not  his  mother-tongue,  an  act  of  temerity,  which, 
when  I  was  called  upon  to  commit  it,  gravely  affected 
my  conscience  to  such  a  degree  that  I  began  to  falter, 
and  seriously  thought  of  giving  up  the  whole  thing  alto- 
gether. But  then  there  rose  up  before  "  my  mind's 
eye  "  the  venerable  figure  of  old  MacGuckin  de  Slane, 
and  as  he  had  been  gathered  to  his  fathers,  I  could  not 
get  back  the  word  I  had  given  him.  Of.  preface  to  the 
edition  of  the  Arabic  text,  p.  viii.  Assuredly,  to  do 
justice  to  the  words  of  Alberuni  would  require  a  com- 
mand over  English  like  that  of  Sir  Theodore  Martin, 
the  translator  of  "  Faust,"  or  Chenery,  the  translator  of 
Hariri. 

As.  regards  my  own  translation,  I  can  only  say  I  have 
tried  to  find  common  sense  in  the  author's  language, 
and  to  render  it  as  clearly  as  I  could.  In  this  I  was 
greatly  assisted  by  my  friend  the  Eev.  Eobert  Gwynne, 
Vicar  of  St.  Mary's,  Soho,  London,  whose  training  in 
Eastern  languages  and  literature  qualified  him  to  co- 
operate in  revising  the  entire  manuscript  and  correcting 
the  proof  sheets. 

Perhaps  it  will  not  be  superfluous  to  point  out  to  the 
reader  who  does  not  know  Arabic  that  this  language 
sometimes  exhibits  sentences  perfectly  clear  as  to  the 
meaning  of  every  single  word  and  the  syntactic  construc- 
tion, and  nevertheless  admitting  of  entirely  different 


PREFACE.  xlix 

interpretations.  Besides,  a  first  translator  who  steers 
out  on  such  a  sea,  like  him  who  first  tries  to  explain  a 
difficult,  hardly  legible  inscription,  exposes  himself  to 
many  dangers  which  he  would  easily  have  avoided  had 
kind  fortune  permitted  him  to  follow  in  the  wake  of 
other  explorers.  Under  these  circumstances,  I  do  not 
flatter  myself  that  I  have  caught  the  sense  of  the  author 
everywhere,  and  I  warn  the  reader  not  to  take  a  trans- 
lation, in  particular  a  first  translation,  from  Arabic 
for  more  than  it  is.  It  is  nothing  absolute,  but  only 
relative  in  many  respects  ;  and  if  an  Indianist  does  not 
find  good  Indian  thought  in  my  translation,  I  would 
advise  him  to  consult  the  next  Arabic  philologist  he 
meets.  If  the  two  can  obtain  a  better  insight  into  the 
subject-matter,  they  are  very  likely  to  produce  a  better 
rendering  of  the  words. 

My  annotations  do  not  pretend  to  be  a  running  com- 
mentary on  the  book,  for  that  cannot  be  written  except 
by  a  professed  Indianist.  They  contain  some  informa- 
tion as  to  the  sources  used  by  Alberuni,  and  as  to  those 
materials  which  guided  me  in  translating.  On  the 
phonetic  peculiarities  of  the  Indian  words  as  transcribed 
by  Alberuni,  the  reader  may  compare  a  treatise  of  mine 
called  Indo-Arahische  Studien,  and  presented  to  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Berlin  on  2 1  st  June  of  this  year. 

My  friend  Dr.  Robert  Schram,  of  the  University  of 
Vienna,  has  examined  all  the  mathematical  details  of 
chronology  and  astronomy.  The  results  of  his  studies 
are  presented  to  the  reader  in  the  annotations  signed 
with  his  name.  All  this  is  Dr.  Schram's  special  domain, 
in  which  he  has  no  equal.  My  thanks  are  due  to  him 
for  lending  me  his  help  in  parts  of  the  work  where  my 
own  attempts  at  verification,  after  prolonged  exertions 
in  the  same  direction,  proved  to  be  insufficient. 

Of  the  two  indices,  the  former  contains  all  words  of 
Indian  origin  occurring  in  the  book,  some  pure  Sanskrit, 
some  vernacular,  others  in  the  form  exhibited  by  the 

VOL.  I.  d 


1  PREFA  CE. 

Arabic  manuscript,  howsoever  faulty  it  may  be.  The 
reader  will  perhaps  here  and  there  derive  some  advan- 
tage from  comparing  the  index  of  the  edition  of  the 
Arabic  original.  The  second  index  contains  names  of 
persons  and  places,  &c.,  mostly  of  non-Indian  origin. 

It  was  the  Committee  of  the  Oriental  Translation 
Fund,  consisting  at  the  time  of  Osmond  de  Beau  voir 
Priaulx,  Edward  Thomas,  James  FergDsson,  Reinhold 
Rost,  and  Theodore  Goldsttlcker,  who  first  proposed  to 
me  to  translate  the  'Ii'StKa.  Thomas,  Goldstucker,  and 
Fergusson  are  beyond  the  reach  of  human  words,  but 
to  0.  de  Beauvoir  Priaulx,  Esq.,  and  to  Dr.  Rost,  I  desire 
to  express  my  sincerest  gratitude  for  the  generous  help 
and  the  untiring  interest  which  they  have  always  ac- 
corded to  me,  though  so  many  years  have  rolled  on  since 
I  first  pledged  to  them  my  word.  Lastly,  Her  Majesty's 
India  Office  has  extended  its  patronage  from  the  edition 
of  the  Arabic  original  also  to  this  edition  of  the  work  in 
an  English  garb. 

Of  the  works  of  my  predecessors,  the  famous  publica- 
tion of  Reinaud,  the  Memoive  geographiqiie,  historique  et 
scientifique  sur  VInde,  Paris,  1849,  has  been  most  useful 
to  me.  Of.  on  this  and  the  labours  of  my  other  pre- 
decessors §  2  of  the  preface  to  the  edition  of  the  Arabic 
original. 

The  Sanskrit  alphabet  has  been  transliterated  in  the 
following  way  : — a,  d,  i,  i,  u,  u — ri,  ai,  au — k,  kh,  g,  gh, 
ii — c,  c]i,j,jh,  n — t,  th,  d,  dh,  n — t,  th,  d,  dh,  n — p,  ph, 
b,  hh,  m — y,  r,  I,  v — 6',  sh,  s,  h. 

EDWARD  SACHAU. 

Berlin,  Avgust  4,  1888. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS, 

{For  Alberuni's  Synopsis  of  the  Single  Chapters  of  the  Bool-, 
vide  pp.  9-16.) 

VOL.     PAGE 

I.        3.  Author's  Preface. 

9.  Synopsis  op  the  Eighty  Chapters. 
17.  Chapter  I.,  Author's  Special  Introduction. 
27.  Chapters  II.-XI.,  on  Religion,  Philosophy,  and 
Related  Subjects. 

125.  Chapters  XII.-XVII.,  on  Literature,  Metrology, 
Usages,  and  Related  Subjects. 

196.  Chapters   XVIII.-XXXI.,    on   Geography,   Cosmo- 
graphy, AND  Astronomy. 

319  TO  Vol.  II.  p.  129.  Chapters  XXXII. -LXII.,  on  Chro- 
nology, Astronomy,  and  Related  Subjects. 
II.    130.  Chapters  LXIII.-LXXIX.,  on  Manners  and  Cus- 
toms, Festivals,  and  Related  Subjects, 

211.  Chapter  LXXX.,  on  Astrology. 

247.  Annotations  of  the  Translator. 
403-431.  Indices. 


3 


AAA 


ALBEBUNFS   INDIA 


AN 

ACCURATE  DESCRIPTION  OF  ALL  CATEGORIES 
OF  HliNDU  THOUGHT, 

AS    WELL    THOSE    WHICH   ARE   ADMISSIBLE    AS 
THOSE    WHICH   MUST  BE   REJECTED. 

COMPOSED   BY 

'ABU-ALRAIHAN  MUHAMMAD  IBN  'AH31AD  * 

ALBERUNL 


VOL.    I. 


ness. 


PREFACE. 


In  the  Name  of  God,  the  Compassionate,  the      Page2. 
Merciful. 

No  one  will  deny  that  in  questions  of  historic  authen-  i.  on  tra 
ticity  hearsay  does  not  equal  eye-ioitness  ;  for  in  the  latter  ^ay  an'd^eye- 
the  eye  of  the  observer  apprehends  the  substance  of  that  ^a^iifedif 
which  is  observed,  both  in  the  time  when  and  in  the  oTrrporteS 
place  where  it  exists,  whilst  hearsay  has  its  peculiar  of^trutS 
drawbacks.  But  for  these,  it  would  even  be  preferable 
to  eye-witness  ;  for  the  object  of  eye-witness  can  only  be 
actual  momentary  existence,  whilst  hearsay  comprehends 
alike  the  present,  the  past,  and  the  future,  so  as  to  apply 
in  a  certain  sense  both  to  that  which  is  and  to  that 
which  is  not  (i.e.  which  either  has  ceased  to  exist  or 
has  not  yet  come  into  existence).  Written  tradition 
is  one  of  the  species  of  hearsay — we  might  almost  say, 
the  most  preferable.  How  could  we  know  the  history 
of  nations  but  for  the  everlasting  monuments  of  the 
pen? 

The  tradition  regarding  an  event  which  in  itself  does 
not  contradict  either  logical  or  physical  laws  will  invari- 
ably depend  for  its  character  as  true  or  false  upon  the 
character  of  the  reporters,  who  are  influenced  by  the 
divergency  of  interests  and  all  kinds  of  animosities 
and  antipathies  between  the  various  nations.  We  must 
distinguish  different  classes  of  reporters. 

One  of  them  tells  a  lie,  as  intending  to  further  an 


4  PREFACE. 

interest  of  his  own,  either  hy  lauding  his  family  or 
nation,  because  he  is  one  of  them,  or  hy  attacking 
the  family  or  nation  on  the  opposite  side,  thinking  that 
thereby  he  can  gain  his  ends.  In  both  cases  he  acts 
from  motives  of  objectionable  cupidity  and  animosity. 

Another  one  tells  a  lie  regarding  a  class  of  j^eople 
whom  he  likes,  as  being  under  obligations  to  them,  or 
whom  he  hates  because  something  disagreeable  has 
happened  between  them.  Such  a  reporter  is  near  akin 
to  the  first-mentioned  one,  as  he  too  acts  from  motives 
of  personal  predilection  and  enmity. 

Another  tells  a  lie  because  he  is  of  such  a  base 
nature  as  to  aim  thereby  at  some  profit,  or  because  he 
is  such  a  coward  as  to  be  afraid  of  telling  the  truth. 

Another  tells  a  lie  because  it  is  his  nature  to  lie,  and 
he  cannot  do  otherwise,  which  proceeds  from  the  essen- 
tial meanness  of  his  character  and  the  depravity  of  his 
innermost  being. 

Lastly,  a  man  may  tell  a  lie  from  ignorance,  blindly 
following  others  who  told  him. 

If,  now,  reporters  of  this  kind  become  so  numerous 
as  to  represent  a  certain  body  of  tradition,  or  if  in  the 
course  of  time  they  even  come  to  form  a  consecutive 
series  of  communities  or  nations,  both  the  first  rej^orter 
and  his  followers  form  the  connecting  links  between 
the  hearer  and  the  inventor  of  the  lie ;  and  if  the 
connecting  links  are  eliminated,  there  remains  the 
originator  of  the  story,  one  of  the  various  kinds  of  liars 
we  have  enumerated,  as  the  only  person  with  whom  we 
have  to  deal. 

That  man  only  is  praiseworthy  who  shrinks  from  a 
lie  and  always  adheres  to  the  truth,  enjoying  credit 
even  among  liars,  not  to  mention  others. 

It  has  been  said  in  the  Koran,  "  Speak  the  truth,  even  if 

it  luci'e  against  yourselves"  (Sura,  4, 1 34) ;  and  the  Messiah 

Page  3-     expresses  himself  in  the  Gospel  to  this  effect :  "  Bo  not 

mind  the  fury  of  kings  in  speaking  the  truth  before  them. 


PREFACE.  5 

They  only  possess  your  body,  hut  they  have  no  j^ower  over 
your  soul"  {ef.  St.  Matt.  x.  i8,  19,  28;  St.  Lnke  xii.  4). 
In  these  words  the  Messiah  orders  us  to  exercise  moral 
courage.  For  what  the  crowd  calls  courage — bravely 
dashing  into  the  fight  or  plunging  into  an  abyss  of  de- 
struction— is  only  a  species  of  courage,  whilst  the  genus, 
far  above  all  species,  is  to  scorn  death,  whether  by  word 
or  deed. 

Now  as  justice  (i.e.  being  just)  is  a  quality  liked  and 
coveted  for  its  own  self,  for  its  intrinsic  beauty,  the 
same  applies  to  truthfulness.^  except  perhaps  in  the  case 
of  such  people  as  never  tasted  how  sweet  it  is,  or  know 
the  truth,  but  deliberately  shun  it,  like  a  notorious  liar 
who  once  was  asked  if  he  had  ever  spoken  the  truth, 
and  gave  the  answer,  "If  I  were  not  afraid  to  speak 
the  truth,  I  should  say,  no."  A  liar  will  avoid  the  path 
of  justice  ;  he  will,  as  matter  of  preference,  side  with  op- 
pression and  false  witness,  breach  of  confidence,  fraudu- 
lent appropriation  of  the  wealth  of  others,  theft,  and  all 
the  vices  which  serve  to  ruin  the  world  and  mankind. 

When    I    once  called  upon   the    master    'Abu-Sahl     i.  onthe 

dGIGCts  of 

'Abd-Almun'im  Ibn'Ali  Ibn  Nuh  At-tiflisi,  may  God  Muslim 

works  on 

strengthen  him  !  I  found  that  he  blamed  the  tendency  of  religious 

i-ire-i  •  ^^'l  philoSO- 

the  author  01  a  book  on  theMu  tazila  sect  to  misrepresent  pMcai  doc- 
their  theory.    For,  according  to  them,  God  is  omniscient     11.  Exem- 
of  himself,  and  this  dogma  that  author  had  expressed  in  regard  to  the 
such  a  way  as  to  say  that  God  has  no  knoiuledge  (like  criticism  of 
the  knowledge  of  man),  thereby  misleading  ud educated  Eranshahri. 
people  to  imagine  that,  according  to  the  Mutazilites,  asked  to 
God  is  ignorant.     Praise  be  to  God,  who  is  far  above  all  on  the  sub- 
such  and  similar  unworthy  descriptions  !     Thereupon  I  ""^iv.  He 
pointed  out  to  the  master  that  precisely  the  same  method 
is  much  in  fashion  among  those  who  undertake  the  task 
of   giving  an   account  of    religious  and  philosophical 
systems  from  which  they  slightly  differ  or  to  which  they 
are  entirely  opposed.     Such  misrepresentation  is  easily 
detected  in  a  report  about  dogmas  comprehended  within 


states  his 
method. 


6  PREFACE. 

the  frame  of  one  single  religion,  because  they  are  closely- 
related  and  blended  with  each  other.  On  the  other  hand , 
you  would  have  great  difficulty  in  detecting  it  in  a 
report  about  entirely  foreign  systems  of  thought  totally 
differing  both  in  principle  and  details,  for  such  a  research 
is  rather  an  out-of-the-way  one,  and  there  are  few  means 
of  arriving  at  a  thorough  comprehension  of  it.  The 
same  tendency  prevails  throughout  our  whole  literature 
on  philosophical  and  religious  sects.  If  such  an  author 
is  not  alive  to  the  requirements  of  a  strictly  scientific 
method,  he  will  procure  some  superficial  information 
which  will  satisfy  neither  the  adherents  of  the  doctrine 
in  question  nor  those  who  really  know  it.  In  such  a 
case,  if  he  be  an  honest  character,  he  will  simply 
retract  and  feel  ashamed  ;  but  if  he  be  so  base  as  not 
to  give  due  honour  to  truth,  he  will  persist  in  litigious 
wrangling  for  his  own  original  standing-point.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  an  author  has  the  right  method,  he  will  do 
his  utmost  to  deduce  the  tenets  of  a  sect  from  their 
legendary  lore,  things  which  peo^^le  tell  him,  pleasant 
enough  to  listen  to,  but  which  he  would  never  dream  of 
taking  for  true  or  believing. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  point  of  our  conversation, 
Page  4.  one  of  those  present  referred  to  the  religions  and  doc- 
trines of  the  Hindus  by  way  of  an  example.  There- 
upon I  drew  their  attention  to  the  fact  that  everything 
which  exists  on  this  subject  in  our  literature  is  second- 
hand information  which  one  has  copied  from  the  other, 
a  farrago  of  materials  never  sifted  by  the  sieve  of 
critical  examination.  Of  all  authors  of  this  class,  I  know 
only  one  who  had  proposed  to  himself  to  give  a  simple 
and  exact  report  of  the  subject  sine  ird  ac  studio,  viz. 
'  Abu-arabbas  Aleranshahri.  He  himself  did  not  believe 
in  any  of  the  then  existing  religions,  but  was  the  sole 
believer  in  a  religion  invented  by  himself,  v.hich  he 
tried  to  propagate.  He  has  given  a  very  good  account 
of  the  doctrines  of  the  Jews  and  Christians  as  well  as 


PREFACE.  7 

of  the  contents  of  both  the  Thora  and  the  Gospel. 
Besides,  he  furnishes  us  with  a  most  excellent  account 
of  the  Manichseans,  and  of  obsolete  religions  of  bygone 
times  which  are  mentioned  in  their  books.  But  when 
he  came  in  his  book  to  speak  of  the  Hindus  and  the 
Buddhists,  his  arrow  missed  the  mark,  and  in  the  latter 
part  he  went  astray  through  hitting  upon  the  book  of 
Zarkdn,  the  contents  of  which  he  incorporated  in  his 
own  work.  That,  however,  which  he  has  not  taken 
from  ZarJidii,  he  himself  has  heard  from  common  people 
among  Hindus  and  Buddhists. 

At  a  subsequent  period  the  master  'Abu-Sahl  studied 
the  books  in  question  a  second  time,  and  when  he  found 
the  matter  exactly  as  I  have  here  described  it,  he  incited 
me  to  write  down  what  I  know  about  the  Hindus  as  a 
help  to  those  who  want  to  discuss  religious  questions 
with  them,  and  as  a  repertory  of  information  to  those 
who  want  to  associate  with  them.  In  order  to  please 
him  I  have  done  so,  and  written  this  book  on  the 
doctrines  of  the  Hindus,  never  making  any  unfounded 
imputations  against  those,  our  religious  antagonists,  and 
at  the  same  time  not  considering  it  inconsistent  with 
my  duties  as  a  Muslim  to  quote  their  own  words  at  full 
length  when  I  thought  they  would  contribute  to  eluci- 
date a  subject.  If  the  contents  of  these  quotations 
happen  to  be  utterly  heathenish,  and  the  folloiuers  of  the 
truth,  i.e.  the  Muslims,  find  them  objectionable,  we  can 
only  say  that  such  is  the  belief  of  the  Hindus,  and  that 
they  themselves  are  best  qualified  to  defend  it. 

This  book  is  not  a  loolemical  one.  I  shall  not  produce 
the  arguments  of  our  antagonists  in  order  to  refute  such 
of  them  as  I  believe  to  be  in  the  wrong.  My  book  is 
nothing  but  a  simple  historic  record  of  facts.  I  shall 
place  before  the  reader  the  theories  of  the  Hindus 
exactly  as  they  are,  and  I  shall  mention  in  connection 
with  them  similar  theories  of  the  Greeks  in  order  to 
show  tfffe  relationship  existing  between  them.     For  the 


8  PREFACE. 

Greek  philosophers,  although  aiming  at  truth  in  the 
abstract,  never  in  all  questions  of  popular  bearing  rise 
much  above  the  customary  exoteric  expressions  and 
tenets  both  of  their  religion  and  law.  Besides  Greek 
ideas  we  shall  only  now  and  then  mention  those  of  the 
Sufis  or  of  some  one  or  other  Christian  sect,  because  in 
their  notions  regarding  the  transmigration  of  souls  and 
the  pantheistic  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God  with  crea- 
tion there  is  much  in  common  between  these  systems. 
I  have  already  translated  two  books  into  Arabic,  one 
about  the  origines  and  a  description  of  all  created 
beings,  called  SchhJchya,  and  another  about  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  soul  from  the  fetters  of  the  body,  called 
Patahjali  (Fdtaiijala  /).  These  two  books  contain  most 
of  the  elements  of  the  belief  of  the  Hindus,  but  not 
all  the  single  rules  derived  therefrom.  I  hope  that  the 
present  book  will  enable  the  reader  to  dispense  with 
these  two  earlier  ones,  and  with  other  books  of  the  same 
kind  ;  that  it  will  give  a  sufficient  representation  of  the 
subject,  and  will  enable  him  to  make  himself  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  it — God  willing  ! 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEK    I. 

ON    THE    HINDUS    IN    GENERAL,   AS    AN    INTRODUCTION    TO   OUR     Page  5. 
ACCOUNT   OF   THEM. 


CHAPTEE   II. 

ON    THE   BELIEF    OF    THE    HINDUS   IN    GOD. 

CHAPTER   III. 

ON    THE    HINDU    BELIEF    AS    TO    CREATED   THINGS,  BOTH 
"INTELLIGIBILIA"  AND    "  SENSIBILIA." 


CHAPTER    IV. 

FROM   WHAT    CAUSE    ACTION    ORIGINATES,   AND    HOW   THE    SOUL 
IS    CONNECTED    WITH    MATTER. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON  THE  STATE  OF  THE  SOULS,  AND  THEIR  MIGRATIONS   THROUGH 
THE   WORLD    IN    THE    METEMPSYCHOSIS. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

ON    THE    DIFFERENT    WORLDS,    AND    ON    THE    PLACES    OF 
RETRIBUTION    IN    PARADISE   AND    HELL. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

ON    THK    NATURE    OF    LIBERATION    FROM    THE   WORLD,    AND    ON 
THE    PATH    LEADING    THERETO. 


lo  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

ON     THE     DIFPEEENT     CLASSES     OF     CREATED     BEINGS,    AND     ON 
THEIR  NAMES. 

CHAPTER   IX. 

ON  THE  CASTES,  CALLED  "  COLOURS "  (VARNA),  AND  ON  THE 
CLASSES  BELOW  THEM. 

CHAPTER  X. 

ON  THE  SOURCE  OF  THEIR  RELIGIOUS  AND  CIVIL  LAW,  ON 
PROPHETS,  AND  ON  THE  QUESTION  WHETHER  SINGLE  LAWS 
CAN   BE   ABROGATED   OR  NOT. 

CHAPTER   XL 

ABOUT   THE  BEGINNING   OF   IDOL-WORSHIP,   AND   A   DESCRIPTION 
OF    THE   INDIVIDUAL   IDOLS. 

CHAPTER   XII. 

ON     THE    VEDA,     THE    PURANAS,    AND     OTHER    KINDS     OF    THEIR 
NATIONAL   LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

THEIR  GRAMMATICAL  AND   METRICAL    LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

HINDU     LITERATURE     IN      THE     OTHER     SCIENCES— ASTRONOMY, 
ASTROLOGY,    ETC. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

NOTES  ON  HINDU  METROLOGY,  INTENDED  TO  FACILITATE  THE 
UNDERSTANDING  OF  ALL  KINDS  OP  MEASUREMENTS  WHICH 
OCCUR  IN   THIS   BOOK. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

NOTES  ON  THE  WRITING  OP  THE  HINDUS,  ON  THEIR  ARITH- 
METIC AND  RELATED  SUBJECTS,  AND  ON  CERTAIN  STRANGE 
MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS   OF    THEIRS. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

ON     HINDU     SCIENCES     WHICH      PREY     ON     THE     IGNORANCE     OF 
PEOPLE. 


CONTENTS.  II 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

VARIOUS  NOTES  ON  THEIR  COUNTRY,  THEIR  RIVERS,  AND  THEIR 
OCEAN — ITINERARIES  OP  THE  DISTANCES  BETWEEN  THEIR 
SEVERAL  KINGDOMS,  AND  BETWEEN  THE  BOUNDARIES  OP 
THEIR   COUNTRY. 

CHAPTER   XIX. 

ON    THE   NAMES   OP   THE   PLANETS,    THE    SIGNS    OP    THE    ZODIAC, 
THE   LUNAR  STATIONS,   AND   RELATED   SUBJECTS. 

CHAPTER    XX.  Page  6. 

ON   THE  BRAHMANDA. 

CHAPTER  XXL 

DESCRIPTION  OP  EARTH  AND  HEAVEN  ACCORDING  TO  THE 
RELIGIOUS  VIEWS  OP  THE  HINDUS,  BASED  UPON  THEIR 
TRADITIONAL   LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

TRADITIONS  RELATING   TO   THE  POLE. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

ON  MOUNT  MERU  ACCORDING  TO  THE  BELIEF  OP  THE  AUTHORS 
OP  THE  PURANAS  AND  OP  OTHERS. 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

TRADITIONS  OF  THE  PURANAS  REGARDING  EACH  OF  THE  SEVEN 
DViPAS. 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

ON   THE   RIVERS   OP   INDIA,   THEIR  SOURCES   AND   COURSES. 

CHAPTER   XXVI. 

ON  THE  SHAPE  OF  HEAVEN  AND  EARTH  ACCORDING  TO  THE 
HINDU  ASTRONOMERS. 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

ON  THE  FIRST  TWO  MOTIONS  OF  THE  UNIVERSE  (THAT  FROM 
EAST  TO  WEST  ACCORDING  TO  ANCIENT  ASTRONOMERS,  AND 
THE  PRECESSION  OF  THE  EQUINOXES)  BOTH  ACCORDING  TO 
THE  HINDU  ASTRONOMERS  AND  THE  AUTHORS  OF  THE 
PURANAS. 


12  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

ON    THE    DEFINITION    OP    THE   TEN    DIRECTIONS. 

CHAPTER   XXIX. 

DEFINITION    OF    THE    INHABITABLE    EARTH    ACCORDING    TO    THE 
HINDUS. 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

ON  LANKA,  OR  THE  CUPOLA  OF  THE  EARTH. 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

ON    THAT    DIFFERENCE    OF    VARIOUS    PLACES    WHICH    WE    CALL 
THE   DIFFERENCE    OF    LONGITUDE, 

CHAPTER   XXXII. 

ON  THE   NOTIONS  OF  DURATION  AND  TIME  IN  GENERAL,  AND  ON 
T^nr   ^REATION   OF   THE   WORLD   AND   ITS   DESTRUCTION. 

CHAPTER   XXXIII. 

ON  THE  VARIOUS  KINDS  OP  THE  DAY  OR  NYCHTHEMERON,  AND 
ON  DAY  AND  NIGHT  IN  PARTICULAR. 

CHAPTER   XXXIV. 

ON    THE    DIVISION    OF     THE    NYCHTHEMERON    INTO    MINOR 
PARTICLES    OP    TIME. 

CHAPTER   XXXV. 

ON   THE   DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF    MONTHS   AND   YEARS. 

CHAPTER   XXXVI. 

ON    THE   FOUR   MEASURES   OF    TIME    CALLED   MANA. 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

ON  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  MONTH  AND  THE  YEAR. 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

ON   THE  VARIOUS  MEASURES   OP   TIME   COMPOSED   OF   DAYS,    THE 
LIFE   OF   BRAHMAN    INCLUDED. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEE  XXXIX. 

ON    MEASURES    OF    TIME   WHICH    ARE    LARGER    THAN    THE    LIFE 
OF   BRAHMAN. 

CHAPTER   XL. 

ON    THE    SAMDHI,    THE    INTERVAL    BETWEEN    TWO    PERIODS    OF 
TIME,    FORMING   THE   CONNECTING   LINK   BETWEEN   THEM. 

CHAPTER   XLI. 

DEFINITION   OF  THE   TERMS  "  KALPA  "  AND   "  CATURYUGA,"  AND      Page  7. 
AN   EXPLICATION   OF   THE   ONE   BY   THE  OTHER, 

CHAPTER  XLII. 

ON    THE    DIVISION    OF   THE    CATURYUGA   INTO    YUGAS,    AND    THE 
DIFFERENT   OPINIONS   REGARDING  THE  LATTER. 

CHAPTER   XLIII. 

A  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  FOUR  YUGAS,  AND  OF  ALL  THAT  IS 
EXPECTED  TO  TAKE  PLACE  AT  THE  END  OF  THE  FOURTH 
YUGA. 

CHAPTER   XLIV. 

ON   THE  MANVANTARAS. 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

ON  THE  CONSTELLATION  OF  THE  GREAT  BEAR. 


CHAPTER  XLVI. 

ON  NARAYANA,  HIS  APPEARANCE  AT   DIFFERENT   TIMES,  AND 
HIS   NAMES. 

CHAPTER  XLVII. 

ON   VASUDEVA  AND   THE   WARS   OF   THE   BHARATA. 

CHAPTER  XLVIII. 

AN   EXPLANATION   OF   THE   MEASURE   OF   AN    AKSHAUHINI.     . 

CHAPTER  XLIX. 

A   SUMMARY    DESCRIPTION    OF   THE   ERAS. 


14  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  L. 

HOW  MANY   STAR-CYCLES   THERE   ARE   BOTH  IN  A  "  KALPA "   AND 
IN   A    "CATURYUGA." 


CHAPTER  LI. 

AN  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERMS  "  ADHIMASA,"  "  UNARATRA," 
AND  THE  "  AHARGANAS,"  AS  REPRESENTING  DIFFERENT 
SUMS   OF   DAYS. 

CHAPTER  LII. 

ON  THE  CALCULATION  OF  "AHARGANA"  IN  GENERAL,  THAT  IS, 
THE  RESOLUTION  OF  YEARS  AND  MONTHS  INTO  DAYS,  AND, 
VICE  VERSA,  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  YEARS  AND  MONTHS 
OUT   OF   DAYS. 

CHAPTER  LIII. 

ON  THE  AHARGANA,  OR  THE  RESOLUTION  OF  YEARS  INTO 
MONTHS,  ACCORDING  TO  SPECIAL  RULES  WHICH  ARE  ADOPTED 
IN  THE  CALENDARS  FOR  CERTAIN  DATES  OR  MOMENTS  OF 
TIME.  o»> 

CHAPTER  LIV. 

ON   THE   COMPUTATION   OF  THE   MEAN    PLACES   OF   THE   PLANETS. 

CHAPTER   LV. 

ON    THE   ORDER   OF   THE   PLANETS,  THEIR   DISTANCES  AND   SIZES. 

CHAPTER   LVL 

ON   THE  STATIONS   OF   THE   MOON. 

CHAPTER   LVII. 

ON  THE  HELIACAL  RISINGS  OF  THE  STARS,  AND  ON  THE  CERE- 
MONIES AND  RITES  WHICH  THE  HINDUS  PRACTISE  AT  SUCH 
A  MOMENT. 

CHAPTER  LVIII. 

HOW   EBB  AND  FLOW   FOLLOW  EACH   OTHER  IN   THE   OCEAN. 

CHAPTER   LIX. 

ON   THE  SOLAR   AND   LUNAR   ECLIPSES. 


CONTENTS.  15 

CHAPTEE  LX. 

ON   THE   PARVAN. 

CHAPTEE  LXI. 

ON  THE  DOMINANTS  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  MEASURES  OF  TIME  IN 
BOTH  RELIGIOUS  AND  ASTRONOMICAL  RELATIONS,  AND  ON 
CONNECTED   SUBJECTS, 

CHAPTEE   LXII. 

ON    THE   SIXTY   YEARS-SAMVATSARA,    ALSO    CALLED  Page 

"SHASHTYABDA." 

CHAPTEE   LXIII. 

ON    THAT   WHICH    ESPECIALLY  CONCERNS    THE    BRAHMANS,    AND 
WHAT    THEY    ARE    0BLIC4ED     TO     DO     DURING     THEIR   WHOLE 
'^  LIFE. 

CHAPTEE   LXIV. 

ON  THE  RITES  AND  CUSTOMS  WHICH  THE  OTHER  CASTES,  BESIDES 
THE   BRAHMANS,    PRACTISE   DURING   THEIR   LIFETIME, 

CHAPTEE   LXV. 

ON   THE   SACRIFICES, 

CHAPTEE    LXVI. 

ON   PILGRIMAGE   AND   THE   VISITING   OF   SACRED   PLACES. 

.CHAPTEE  LXVII.' 

ON    ALMS,    AND   HOW   A    MAN   MUST   SPEND   WHAT   HE   EARNS. 


CHAPTEE  LXVIII. 

ON   WHAT  IS  ALLOWED   AND   FORBIDDIiN    IN   EATING  AND 
DRINKING. 


CHAPTEE  LXIX. 

ON     MATRIMONY,     THE     MENSTRUAL     COURSES,     EMBRYOS,     AND 
CHILDBED. 


0 


^ 


i6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   LXX. 

ON   LAWSUITS. 

CHAPTER   LXXI. 

ON    PUNISHMENTS   AND   EXPIATIONS. 

CHAPTER   LXXII. 

ON    INHERITANCE,    AND    WHAT    CLAIM     THE    DECEASED    PERSON 
HAS   ON   IT. 

CHAPTER  LXXIII. 

ABOUT   WHAT    IS    DUE    TO    THE    BODIES    OF    THE    DEAD    AND   OF 
THE   LIVING   (THAT   IS,    ABOUT    BURYING   AND   SUICIDE). 

CHAPTER  LXXIV. 

ON   FASTING,   AND   THE  VARIOUS   KINDS   OP   IT. 


<^ 


B 


CHAPTER   LXXV. 

ON   THE   DETERMINATION   OF   THE   FAST-DAYS. 

CHAPTER   LXXVI. 

ON   THE  FESTIVALS  AND   FESTIVE   DAYS. 


CHAPTER  LXXVII. 

ON  DAYS  WHICH  ARE  HELD  IN  SPECIAL  VENERATION,  ON  LUCKY 
AND  UNLUCKY  TIMES,  AND  ON  SUCH  TIMES  AS  ARE  PAR- 
TICULARLY FAVOURABLE  FOR  ACQUIRING  IN  THEM  BLISS 
IN   HEAVEN. 

CHAPTER   LXXVIII. 

ON    THE   KARANAS. 

CHAPTER   LXXIX. 

ON   THE   YOGAS. 

CHAPTER   LXXX. 

ON  THE  INTRODUCTORY  PRINCIPLES  OF  HINDU  ASTROLOGY,  WITH 
A  SHORT  DESCRIPTION  OF  THEIR  METHODS  OF  ASTROLOGICAL 
CALCULATIONS. 


(     17     ) 


CHAPTER   I. 

ON    THE    HINDUS   IN   GENERAL,    AS   AN    INTRODUCTION        Page  9. 
TO    OUR   ACCOUNT   OF   THEM. 

Before  enteriDg  on  our  exposition,  we  must  form  an  Descrip- 
adequate  idea  of  that  which  renders  it  so  particularly  dif-  baniers  ^^ 
ficult  to  penetrate  to  the  essential  nature  of  any  Indian  Jxrate  the 
subject.     The  knowledge  of  these  difficulties  will  either  frimthe 
facilitate  the  progress  of  our  work,  or  serve  as  an  apology  and  u™ke 
for  any  shortcomings  of  ours.     For  the  reader  must  cuiaily  d^if. 
always  bear  in  mind  that  the  Hindus,  entirely  di,ffer  Musihu'to 
from   us  in  every  respect,  many  a  subject  appearing  i,*,'iffn^"^ 
intricate  and  obscure  which  would  , be  paifectly.oiear"^"^^^*^^^' 
if  there  were  more  connection  between  us.    The  barriers  . 
which  separate  Muslims  and  Hindus  rest  on  different  j 
causes. 

First,  they  differ  from  us  in  everything  which  other  First  rea- 
nations  have  in  common.     And  here  we  first  mention  fereiiceof 
the  language,  although  the  difference  of  language  also  guageand 
exists  between  other  nations.     If  you  want  to  conquer  cuiai"  ^ 
this  difficulty  {i.e.  to  learn  Sanskrit),  you  will  not  find 
it  easy,  because  the  language  is  of  an  enormous  range, 
both    in    words    and   inflections,    something   like   the 
Arabic,   calling  one   and  the   same  thing  by  various 
names,  both  original  and  derived,  and  using  one  and 
the  same  word  for  a  variety  of  subjects,  which,  in  order 
to  be  properly  understood,  must  be  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  various  qualifying  ej)ithets.     For  nobody 
could  distinguish  between  the  various  meanings  of  a 
word  unless  he  understands  the  context  in  which  it 

VOL.  L  B 


i8  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

occurs,  and  its  relation  both  to  the  following  and  the 
preceding  parts  of  the  sentence.  The  Hindus,  like 
other  people,  boast  of  this  enormous  range  of  their  lan- 
guage, whilst  in  reality  it  is  a  defect. 

Further,  the  language  is  divided  into  a  neglected 
vernacular  one,  only  in  use  among  the  common  people, 
and  a  classical  one,  only  in  use  among  the  upper  and 
educated  classes,  which  is  much  cultivated,  and  subject 
to  the  rules  of  grammatical  inflection  and  etymology, 
and  to  all  the  niceties  of  grammar  and  rhetoric. 

Besides,  some  of  the  sounds  (consonants)  of  which 
the  language  is  composed  are  neither  identical  with  the 
sounds  of  Arabic  and  Persian,  nor  resemble  them  in 
any  way.  Our  tongue  and  uvula  could  scarcely  manage 
to  correctly  pronounce  them,  nor  our  ears  in  hearing  to 
distinguish  them  from  similar  sounds,  nor  could  we 
transliterate  them  with  our  characters.  It  is  very 
difEciilfc,  therefore,  ro  express  an  Indian  word  in  our 
writing,  for  in  order  to  fix  the  pronunciation  we  must 
charxge  ou;-  orthographical  points  and  signs,  and  must 
pronounce  the  case- endings  either  according  to  the 
common  Arabic  rules  or  according  to  special  rules 
adapted  for  the  purpose. 

Add  to  this  that  the  Indian  scribes  are  careless,  and 
do  not  take  pains  to  produce  correct  and  well-collated 
I  copies.  In  consequence,  the  highest  results  of  the 
author's  mental  development  are  lost  by  their  negli- 
gence, and  his  book  becomes  already  in  the  first  or 
second  copy  so  full  of  faults,  that  the  text  appears  as 
something  entirely  new,  which  neither  a  scholar  nor 
one  familiar  with  the  subject,  whether  Hindu  or  Muslim, 
could  any  longer  understand.  It  will  sufficiently  illus- 
trate the  matter  if  we  tell  the  reader  that  we  have 
sometimes  written  down  a  word  from  the  mouth  of 
Hindus,  taking  the  greatest  paius  to  fix  its  pronuncia- 
tion, and  that  afterwards  when  we  repeated  it  to  them, 
they  had  great  difficulty  in  recognising  it. 


CHAPTER  I.  19 

As  in  other  foreign  tongues,  so  also  in  Sanskrit,  two 
or  three  consonants  may  follow  each  other  without  an 
intervening  vowel — consonants  which  in  our  Persian 
grauimatical  system  are  considered  as  haviug  a  hidden 
vowel.  Since  most  Sanskrit  words  and  names  begin 
with  such  consonants  without  vowels,  we  find  it  very 
difficult  to  pronounce  them. 

Besides,  the  scientific  books  of  the  Hindus  are  com- 
posed in  various  favourite  metres,  by  which  they  intend, 
considering  that  the  books  soon  become  corrupted  by 
additions  and  omissions,  to  preserve  them  exactly  as  Page  10. 
they  are,  in  order  to  facilitate  their  being  learned  by 
heart,  because  they  consider  as  canonical  only  that 
which  is  known  by  heart,  not  that  which  exists  in 
writing.  Now  it  is  well  known  that  in  all  metrical 
compositions  there  is  much  misty  and  constrained 
phraseology  merely  intended  to  fill  up  the  metre  and 
serving  as  a  kind  of  patchwork,  and  this  necessitates 
a  certain  amount  of  verbosity.  This  is  also  one  of 
the  reasons  why  a  word  has  sometimes  one  meaning 
and  sometimes  another. 

From  all  this  it  will  appear  that  the  metrical  form 
of  literary   composition  is    one   of   the    causes   which 
make  the  study  of  Sanskrit  literature  so  particularly  ^  , 
difficult. 

Secondly,  they  totally  differ  from  us  in  religion,  as  second  rea- 
we  believe  in  nothing  in  which  they  believe,  and  vice  leilgioir" 
versa.     On  the    whole,   there  is  very   little  disputing  p''^^"^"^®^- 
about    theological    topics   among  themselves ;    at    the 
utmost,  they  fight  with  words,  but  they  will  never  stake 
their  soul  or  body  or  their  property  on  religious  contro- 
versy.    On  the  contrary,  all  their  fanaticism  is  directed 
against  those  who  do  not  belong  to  them — against  all 
foreigners.     They  call  them  mleccha,  i.e.  impure,  and 
forbid  having^  any  connection    with    them,   be    it    by 
intermarriage   or    any   other  kind  of    relationship,  or 
by  sitting,  eating,  and  drinking  with  them,  because 


20 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


thereby,  they  think,  they  would  be  polluted.  They 
consider  as  impure  anything  which  touches  the  fire 
and  the  water  of  a  foreigner ;  and  no  household  can 
exist  without  these  two  elements.  Besides,  they  never 
desire  that  a  thing  which  once  has  been  polluted  should 
be  purified  and  thus  recovered,  as,  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, if  anybod}^  or  anything  has  become  unclean, 
he  or  it  would  strive  to  regain  the  state  of  purity. 
They  are  not  allowed  to  receive  anybody  who  does  not 
belong  to  them,  even  if  he  wished  it,  or  was  inclined  to 
their  religion.  This,  too,  renders  any  connection  with 
them  quite  impossible,  and  constitutes  the  widest  gulf 
between  us  and  them. 

In  the  third  place,  in  all  manners  and  usages  they 
differ  from  us  to  such  a  degree  as  to  frighten  their 
children  with  us,  with  our  dress,  and  our  ways  and 
customs,  and  as  to  declare  us  to  be  devil's  breed,  and 
our  doings  as  the  very  opposite  of  all  that  is  good  and 
proper.  By  the  by,  we  must  confess,  in  order  to  be 
just,  that  a  similar  depreciation  of  foreigners  not  only 
prevails  among  us  and  the  Hindus,  but  is  common  to 
all  nations  towards  each  other,  j  I  recollect  a  Hindu 
who  wreaked  his  vengeance  on  us  for  the  following 
reason : — 

'  Some  Hindu  king  had  perished  at  the  hand  of  an 
enemy  of  his  who  had  marched  against  him  from  our 
country.  After  his  death  there  was  born  a  child  to 
him,  which  succeeded  him,  by  the  name  of  Sagara. 
On  coming  of  age,  the  young  man  asked  his  mother 
about  his  father,  and  then  she  told  him  what  had  hai> 
pened.  Now  he  was  inflamed  with  hatred,  marched 
out  of  his  country  into  the  country  of  the  enemy,  and 
plentifully  satiated  his  thirst  of  vengeance  upon  them. 
After  having  become  tired  of  slaughtering,  he  compelled 
the  survivors  to  dress  in  our  dress,  which  was  meant  as 
an  ignominious  punishment  for  them.  When  I  heard 
of  it,  I  felt  thankful  that  he  was  gracious  enough  not 


rea- 
Aver- 
sicni  of  the 
Buddhists 
towards  the 
countries  of 


CHAPTER  I.  21 

to  compel  us  to  Indianise  ourselves  and  to  adopt  Hindu 
dress  and  manners.       : 

~~~~- Another  circumstance  which  increased  the  already  Foyyth 
existing  antagonism  between  Hindus  and  foreigners  is 
that  the  so-called  Shamaniyya  (Buddhists),  though  they 
cordially  hate  the  Brahmans,  still  are  nearer  akin  to  the  wesT, 

-r      r.  •  XT'!         A    A        T-*         *        whciicethey 

them  than  to  others.  In  former  times,  Khurasan,  rersis,  had  been 
'Irak,  Mosul,  the  country  up  to  the  frontier  of  Syria,  Fh-st inroads 
was  Buddhistic,  but  then  Zarathustra  went  forth  from  ims  uit<r 
Adharbaijan  and  preached  Magism  in  Balkh  (Baktra). 
His  doctrine  came  into  favour  with  King  Gushtasp, 
and  his  son  Isfendiyad  spread  the  new  faith  both  in 
east  and  west,  both  by  force  and  by  treaties.  He 
founded  fire-temples  through  his  whole  empire,  from 
the  frontiers  of  China  to  those  of  the  Greek  empire.  Page  u. 
The  succeeding  kings  made  their  religion  (i.e.  Zoroas- 
trianism)  the  obligatory  state-religion  for  Persis  and 
'Irak.  In  cousequence,  the  Buddhists  were  banished 
from  those  countries,  and  had  to  emigrate  to  the  coun- 
tries east  of  Balkh.  There  are  some  Magiaus  up  to  the 
present  time  in  India,  where  they  are  called  Maga. 
From  that  time  dates  their  aversion  towards  the  coun- 
tries of  Khurasan.  But  then  came  Islam  ;  the  Persian 
empire  perished,  and  the  repugnance  of  the  Hindus 
against  foreigners  increased  more  and  more  when  the 
Muslims  began  to  make  their  inroads  into  their  country ; 
for  Muhammad  Ibn  Elkasim  Ibn  Elmunabbih  entered 
Sindh  from  the  side  of  Si3istan(Sakastene)  and  conquered 
the  cities  of  Bahmanwa  and  Miilasthana,  the  former  of 
which  he  called  Al-manmra,  the  latter  Al-viccmwrt. 
He  entered  India  proper,  and  penetrated  even  as  far  as 
Kanauj,  marched  through  the  country  of  Gandhara,  and 
on  his  way  back,  through  the  confines  of  Kashmir,  some- 
times fighting  sword  in  hand,  sometimes  gaining  his  ends 
by  treaties,  leaving  to  the  people  their  ancient  belief, 
except  in  the  case  of  those  who  wanted  to  become  Mus- 
lims. All  these  events  planted  a  deeply  rooted  hatred 
in  their  hearts. 


22  ALBERUNPS  INDIA, 

Muham-  Now  iu  the   followmg  times  no  Muslim   conqueror 


Mahmud. 


niadau  con- 
quest of  the  passed  beyond  the  frontier  of  Kabul  and  the  river  Sindh 

country  by  .  "^ 

until  the  days  of  the  Turks,  when  they  seized  the  power 
in  Ghazna  under  the  Samani  dynasty,  and  the  supreme 
power  fell  to  the  lot  of  Nasir-addaula  Sabuktagin. 
This  prince  chose  the  holy  war  as  his  calling,  and  there- 
fore called  himseU  Al-ghdzi  (i.e.  luarring  on  the  road  of 
Allah).  In  the  interest  of  his  successors  he  constructed, 
in  order  to  weaken  the  Indian  frontier,  those  roads 
on  which  afterwards  his  son  Yamin-addaula  Mahmud 
marched  into  India  during  a  period  of  thirty  years  and 
more.  God  be  merciful  to  both  father  and  son  !  Mah- 
mud utterly  ruined  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  and 
performed  there  wonderful  exploits,  by  which  theHindus 
became  like  atoms  of  dust  scattered  in  all  directions, 
and  like  a  tale  of  old  in  the  mouth  of  the  people.  Their 
scattered  remains  cherish,  of  course,  the  most  inveterate 
aversion  towards  all  Muslims.  This  is  the  reason,  too, 
why  Hindu  sciences  have  retired  far  away  from  those 
parts  of  the  country  couquered  by^is,  and  have  fled  to 
places  which  our  hand  cannot  yet  reach,  to  Kashmir, 
Benares,  and  other  places.  And  there  the  antagonism 
between  them  and  all  foreigners  receives  more  and 
more  nourishment  both  from  political  and  religious 
sources. 

In  the  fifth  place,  there  are  other  causes,  the  mention- 
ing of  which  sounds  like  a  satire — peculiarities  of  their 
national  character,  deeply  rooted  in  them,  but  manifest 
\Ti*^'f iJhu"  "^^  to  everybody.  We  can  only  say,  folly  is  an  illness  for 
foreign."  wMch  there  is  no  medicine,  and  the  Hindus  believe  that 
there  is  no  country  but  theirs,  no  nation  like  theirs,  no 
kings  like  theirs,  no  religion  like  theirs,  no  science  like 
theirs.  They  are  haughty,  foolishly  vain,  self-conceited, 
and  stolid.  They  are  by  nature  niggardly  in  communi- 
cating that  which  they  know,  and  they  take  the  greatest 
possible  care  to  withhold  it  from  men  of  another  caste 
among  their  own  people,  still  much  more,  of  course, 


Fifth  rea- 
son :  Tlie 
self-conceit 
of  the  Hin- 
dus, and 
their  de- 


CHAPTER  I.  23 

from  any  foreigner.  According  to  their  belief,  there  is 
no  other  country  on  earth  but  theirs,  no  other  race  of 
man  but  theirs,  and  no  created  beings  besides  them  have 
any  knowledge  or  science  whatsoever.  Their  haughti- 
ness is  such  that,  if  you  tell  them  of  any  science  or 
scholar  in  Khurasan  and  Persis,  they  will  think  you  to 
be  both  an  ignoramus  and  a  liar.  If  they  travelled  and 
mixed  with  other  nations,  they  would  soon  change  their 
mind,  for  their  ancestors  were  not  as  narrow-minded 
as  the  present  generation  is.  One  of  their  scholars, 
Varahamihira,  in  a  passage  where  he  calls  on  the  people 
to  honour  the  Brahmans,  says  :  "  The  Greeks,  though 
impure,  must  he  honoured,  since  they  icere  trained  in 
sciences,  cmd  therein  excelled  others.  What,  then,  are 
ive  to  say  of  a  Brahman,  if  he  comhines  with  his  Page 
purity  the  height  of  science  V  In  former  times,  the 
Hindus  used  to  acknowledge  that  the  progress  of  science 
due  to  the  Greeks  is  much  more  important  than  that 
which  is  due  to  themselves.  But  from  this  passage  of 
Varfihamihira  alone  you  see  what  a  self-lauding  man 
he  is,  whilst  he  gives  himself  airs  as  doing  justice  to 
others.  At  first  I  stood  to  their  astronomers  in  the 
relation  of  a  pupil  to  his  master,  being  a  stranger 
among  them  and  not  acquainted  with  their  peculiar 
national  and  traditional  methods  of  science.  On  having 
made  some  progress,  I  began  to  show  them  the  elements 
on  which  this  science  rests,  to  point  out  to  them  some 
rules  of  logical  deduction  and  the  scientific  methods  of 
all  mathematics,  and  then  they  flocked  together  round 
me  from  all  parts,  wondering,  and  most  eager  to  learn 
from  me,  asking  me  at  the  same  time  from  what  Hindu 
master  I  had  learnt  those  things,  whilst  in  reality  I 
showed  them  what  they  were  worth,  and  thought  myself 
a  great  deal  superior  to  them,  disdaining  to  be  put  on  a 
level  with  them.  They  almost  thought  me  to  be  a 
sorcerer,  and  when  speaking  of  me  to  their  leading  men 
in  their  native  tongue,  they  spoke  of  me  as  the  sea  or  as 


24  A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 

the  loatcr  ivhich  is  so  acid  that  vinegar  in  comparison  is 
siveet. 
Personal  Now  sucli  is  the  State  of  thinefs  in  India.     I  have 

relations  of      p  ,     .  it.  -,  . 

the  author.    louncl  it  Very  hard  to  work  my  way  into  the  subject, 
although  I  have  a  great  liking  for  it,  in  which  respect  I 
stand  quite  alone  in  my  time,  and  although  I  do  not 
spare  either  trouble  or  money  in  collecting  Sanskrit 
books  from  places  where  I  supposed  they  were  likely 
to  be  found,  and  in  procuring  for  myself,  even  from  very 
remote   places,  Hindu   scholars  who  understand  them 
and  are  able  to  teach  me.     What  scholar,  however,  has 
the  same  favourable  opportunities  of  studying  this  sub- 
ject as  I  have  ?     That  would  be  only  the  case  with  one 
to  whom  the  grace  of  God  accords,   what  it  did  not 
accord  to  me,  a  perfectly  free  disposal  of  his  own  doings 
and  goings  ;  for  it  has  never  fallen  to  my  lot  in  my  own 
doings  and  goings  to  be  perfectly  independent,  nor  to 
be  invested  with  sufficient  power  to  dispose  and  to  order 
as  I  thought  best.     However,   1   thank  God  for  that 
which  He  has  bestowed  upon  me,  and  which  must  be 
considered  as  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 
The  author        The  heathen  Greeks,  before  the  rise  of  Christianity, 
intention  of  held  uiuch  the   same   opinions   as   the   Hindus ;  their 
Selk^'"^^'    educated  classes  thought  much  the  same  as  those  of 
becaus^e'of     the    Hiiidus ;    their    common    people    held   the    same 
nearakTn^    idolatrous   views    as    those    of    the    Hindus.      There- 
strictiy*''*^"   fore  I  like  to  confront  the  theories  of  the  one  nation 
cii al-acter  as  '^ith  those  of  the  Other  simply  on   account  of  their 
wTthThoseof  close  relationship,  not  in  order  to  correct  them.     For 
the  Hindus,  ^j^^^  y^\^ic\i  is  not  the  tvuth   [i.e.   the   true    belief   or 
monotheism)  does  not  admit  of  any  correction,  and  all 
heathenism,  whether  Greek  or  Indian,  is  in  its  pith  and 
marrow  one  and  the  same  belief,  because  it  is  onXj  a 
deviation  from  the   triith.     The  Greeks,  however,  had 
philosophers  who,  living  in  their  country,  discovered 
and  worked  out  for  them  the  elements  of  science,  not  of 
popular  superstition,  for  it  is  the  object  of  the  upper 


CHAPTER  I.  25 

classes  to  be  guided  by  the  results  of  science,  whilst  the 
common  crowd  will  always  be  inclined  to  plunge  into 
wrong-headed  wrangling,  as  long  as  they  are  not  kept 
down  by  fear  of  punishment.  Think  of  Socrates  when 
he  opposed  the  crowd  of  his  nation  as  to  their  idolatry 
and  did  not  want  to  call  the  stars  gods  !  At  once  eleven 
of  the  twelve  judges  of  the  Athenians  agreed  on  a  sen- 
tence of  death,  and  Socrates  died  faithful  to  the  truth. 

The  Hindus  had  no  men  of  this  stamp  both  capable 
and  willing  to  bring  sciences  to  a  classical  perfection. 
Therefore  you  mostly  find  that  even  the  so-called 
scientific  theorems  of  the  Hindus  are  in  a  state  of  utter 
confusion,  devoid  of  any  logical  order,  and  in  the  last  in- 
stance always  mixed  up  with  the  silly  notions  of  the  crowd, 
e.g.  immense  numbers,  enormous  spaces  of  time,  and 
all  kinds  of  religious  dogmas,  which  the  vulgar  belief 
does  not  admit  of  being  called  into  question.  Therefore 
it  is  a  prevailing  practice  among  the  Hindus  jurare  in 
verba  magistri ;  and  I  can  only  compare  their  mathema- 
tical and  astronomical  literature,  as  far  as  I  know  it,  to 
a  mixture  of  pearl  shells  and  sour  dates,  or  of  pearls  Page  13. 
and  dung,  or  of  costly  crystals  and  common  pebbles. 
Both  kinds  of  things  are  equal  in  their  eyes,  since  they 
cannot  raise  themselves  to  the  methods  of  a  strictly 
scientific  deduction. 

In  most  parts  of  my  work  I  simply  relate   without  The  author's 

....  ^     ,  ,        "^   ,  .    ,  f.         1     •  method. 

criticising,  unless  there  be  a  special  reason  lor  doing  so. 
I  mention  the  necessary  Sanskrit  names  and  technical 
terms  once  where  the  context  of  our  explanation  de- 
mands it.  If  the  word  is  an  original  one,  the  meaning 
of  which  can  be  rendered  in  Arabic,  I  only  use  the 
corresponding  Arabic  word ;  if,  however,  the  Sanskrit 
word  be  more  practical,  we  keep  this,  trying  to  trans-' 
literate  it  as  accurately  as  possible.  If  the  word  is  a 
secondary  or  derived  one,  but  in  general  use,  we  also 
keep  it,  though  there  be  a  corresponding  term  in  Arabic, 
but  before  using  it  we   explain  its   signification.     In 


26  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

this  way  we  have  tried  to  facilitate  the  understanding 
of  the  terminology. 

Lastly,  we  observe  that  we  cannot  always  in  our 
discussions  strictly  adhere  to  the  geometrical  method, 
only  referring  to  that  which  precedes  and  never  to  that 
which  follows,  as  we  must  sometimes  introduce  in  a 
chapter  an  unknown  factor,  the  explanation  of  which 
can  only  be  given  in  a  later  part  of  the  book,  God 
helping  us ! 


(       27       ) 


CHAPTEE   II. 

ON   THE   BELIEF   OF   THE   HINDUS   IN    GOD. 
The  belief  of  educated  and  uneducated  people  differs  in  Tiie  nature 

PIP  •  •  1  of  God. 

every  nation  ;  tor  the  lormer  strive  to  conceive  abstract 
ideas  and  to  define  general  principles,  whilst  the  latter 
do  not  pass  beyond  the  apprehension  of  the  senses,  and 
are  content  with  derived  rules,  without  caring  for  de- 
tails, especially  in  questions  of  religion  and  law,  regard- 
ing whicii  opinions  and  interests  are  divided. 

The  Bindus  believe  with  regard  to  God  that  he  is 
one,  eternal,  without  beginning  and  end,  acting  by  free- 
will, almighty,  all-wise,  living,  giving  life,  ruling,  pre- 
serving ;  one  who  in  his  sovereignty  is  unique,  beyond 
all  likeness  and  unlikeness,  and  that  he  does  not  re- 
semble anything  nor  does  anything  resemble  him.  In 
order  to  illustrate  this  we  shall  produce  some  extracts 
from  their  literature,  lest  the  reader  should  think  that 
our  account  is  nothing  but  hearsay. 

In  the  book  of  Patanjali  the  pupil  asks  :  Quotation 

"  Who  is  the  worshipped  one,  by  the  worship  of  whom  Patanjaii. 
blessing  is  obtained  ?  " 

The  master  says : 

"It  is  he  who,  being  eternal  and  unique,  does  not  for 
his  part  stand  in  need  of  any  human  action  for  which 
he  might  give  as  a  recompense  either  a  blissful  repose, 
which  is  hoped  and  longed  for,  or  a  troubled  existence, 
which  is  feared  and  dreaded.  He  is  unattainable  to 
thought,  being  sublime  beyond  all  unlikeness  which  is 
abhorrent  and  all  likeness  which  is  sympathetic.     He 


28  ALBERUNI'S  INDIA. 

by  his  essence  knows  from  all  eternity.  Knowledge^  in 
the  human  sense  of  the  term,  has  as  its  object  that 
which  was  unknown  before,  whilst  not  knoioing  does 
not  at  any  time  or  in  any  condition  apply  to  God." 

Further  the  pupil  speaks  : 

"Do  you  attribute  to  him  other  qualities  besides 
those  you  have  mentioned  ?  " 

The  master  says  : 

"  He  is  height,  absolute  in  the  idea,  not  in  space,  for 
he  is  sublime  beyond  all  existence  in  any  space.  He 
is  the  pure  absolute  good,  longed  for  by  every  created 
being.  He  is  the  knowledge  free  from  the  defilement 
of  forgetfulness  and  not-knowing." 

The  pupil  speaks : 

"  Do  you  attribute  to  him  speech  or  not  ?  " 

The  master  says : 

"As  he  knows,  he  no  doubt  also  speaks." 

The  pupil  asks  :  ' 

"  If  he  sjjcccks  because  he  knoins,  what,  then,  is  the 
difference  between  him  and  the  knowing  sages  who 
have  siJoken  of  their  knowing  ?  " 

The  master  says  : 
p.ige  14.  u  rpj^g  difference  between  them  is  time,  for  they  have 

learned  in  time  and  spoken  in  time,  after  having  been 
not-knowing  and  not-speaking.  By  speech  they  have 
transferred  their  knowledge  to  others.  Therefore  their 
speaking  and  acquiring  knowledge  take  place  in  time. 
And  as  divine  matters  have  no  connection  with  time, 
God  is  knowing,  speaking  from  eternity.  It  was  he 
who  spoke  to  Brahman,  and  to  others  of  the  first  beings 
in  different  ways.  On  the  one  he  bestowed  a  "book ; 
for  the  other  he  opened  a  door,  a  means  of  communi- 
cating with  him ;  a  third  one  he  inspired  so  that  he 
obtained  by  cogitation  what  God  bestowed  upon  him." 
!  The  pupil  asks  : 

"  Whence  has  he  this  knowing?  " 

The  master  answers  : 


CHAPTER  II.  29 

"  His  knowing  is  the  same  from  all  eternity,  for  ever 
and  ever.  As  he  has  never  been  not-knowint^,  lie  is 
knowing  of  himself,  having  never  acquired  any  know- 
ledge which  he  did  not  230ssess  before.  He  speaks  in 
the  Veda  which  he  sent  down  upon  Brahman : 

"  'Praise  and  celehrate  him  who  has  spoken  the  Veda, 
and  teas  hefore  the  Veda!  " 

The  pupil  asks : 

*'How  do  you  worship  him  to  whom  the  perception 
of  the  senses  cannot  attain  ?  " 

The  master  says  : 

"  His  name  proves  his  existence,  for  where  there  is  a 
report  there  must  be  something  to  which  it  refers,  and 
where  there  is  a  name  there  must  be  something  which 
is  named.  He  is  hidden  to  the  senses  and  unperceiv- 
able  by  them.  However,  the  soul  perceives  him,  and 
thought  comprehends  his  qualities.  This  meditation 
is  identical  with  worshipping  him  exclusively,  and  by 
practising  it  uninterruptedly  beatitude  is  obtained." 

In  this  way  the  Hindus  express  themselves  in  this 
very  famous  book. 

The  following  passage  is  taken  from  the  book  Gitd,  Quotation 
a  part  of  the  book  Bharata,  from  the  conversation  be-  book  oita. 
tween  Vasudeva  and  Arjuna  : — 

"I  am  the  universe,  without  a  beginning  by  being 
born,  or  without  an  end  by  dying.  I  do  not  aim  by 
whatever  I  do  at  any  recompense.  I  do  not  specially 
belong  to  one  class  of  beings  to  the  exclusion  of  others, 
as  if  I  were  the  friend  of  one  and  the  enemy  of  others. 
I  have  given  to  each  one  in  my  creation  what  is  suffi- 
cient for  him  in  all  his  functions.  Therefore  whoever 
knows  me  in  this  capacity,  and  tries  to  become  similar 
to  me  by  keeping  desire  apart  from  his  action,  his 
fetters  will  be  loosened,  and  he  will  easily  be  saved  and 
freed." 

This  passage  reminds  one  of  the  definition  of  philo- 


ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 


On  the 
notions  of 
the  action 
and  the 
agent. 


Quotation 
fium  the 
Look 
Sdinkhyo. 


Page  15. 


sophy  as  the  striving  to  become  as  much  as  j^ossihle  simi- 
lar to  God. 

Further,  Vasudeva  speaks  in  the  same  book  : — 

"  It  is  desire  which  causes  most  men  to  take  refuge 
with  God  for  their  wants.  But  if  you  examine  their 
case  closely,  you  will  find  that  they  are  very  far  from 
having  an  accurate  knowledge  of  him ;  for  God  is  not 
apparent  to  every  one,  so  that  he  might  perceive  him 
with  his  senses.  Therefore  they  do  not  know  him. 
Some  of  them  do  not  pass  beyond  what  their  senses 
perceive  ;  some  pass  beyond  this,  but  stop  at  the  know- 
ledge of  the  laws  of  nature,  without  learning  that  above 
them  there  is  one  who  did  not  give  birth  nor  was  born, 
the  essence  of  whose  being  has  not  been  comprehended 
by  the  knowledge  of  any  one,  while  his  knowledge 
comprehends  everything. " 

The  Hindus  differ  among  themselves  as  to  the  defini- 
tion of  what  is  action.  Some  who  make  God  the  source 
of  action  consider  him  as  the  universal  cause  ;  for  as  the 
existence  of  the  agents  derives  from  him,  he  is  the 
cause  of  their  action,  and  in  consequence  it  is  his 
own  action  coming  into  existence  through  their  inter- 
mediation. Others  do  not  derive  action  from  God,  but 
from  other  sources,  considering  them  as  the  'particular 
causes  which  in  the  last  instance — according  to  external 
observation — produce  the  action  in  question. 

In  the  book  SdmJchya  the  devotee  speaks  :  "  Has  there 
been  a  difference  of  opinion  about  action  and  the  agent, 
or  not?" 

The  sage  speaks  :  "  Some  people  say  that  the  soul  is 
not  alive  and  the  matter  not  living ;  that  God,  who  is 
self-sufficing,  is  he  who  unites  them  and  separates  them 
from  each  other  ;  that  therefore  in  reality  he  himself  is 
the  agent.  Action  proceeds  from  him  in  such  a  way 
that  he  causes  both  the  soul  and  the  matter  to  move, 
like  as  that  which  is  living  and  powerful  moves  that 
which  is  dead  and  weak. 


CHAPTER  II.  31 

"  Others  say  that  the  union  of  action  and  the  agent  is 
effected  by  nature,  and  that  such  is  the  usual  process 
in  everything  that  increases  and  decreases. 

"  Others  say  the  agent  is  the  soul,  because  in  the 
Veda  it  is  said,  '  Every  being  comes  from  Purusha.' 
According  to  others,  the  agent  is  time,  for  the  world  is 
tied  to  time  as  a  sheep  is  tied  to  a  strong  cord,  so  that 
its  motion  depends  upon  whether  the  cord  is  drawn 
tight  or  slackened.  Still  others  say  that  action  is 
nothing  but  a  recompense  for  something  which  has 
been  done  before. 

''  All  these  opinions  are  wrong.  The  truth  is,  that 
action  entirely  belongs  to  matter,  for  matter  binds  the 
soul,  causes  it  to  wander  about  in  different  shapes, 
and  then  sets  it  free.  Therefore  matter  is  the  agent, 
all  that  belongs  to  matter  helps  it  to  accomplish 
action.  But  the  soul  is  not  an  agent,  because  it  is 
devoid  of  the  different  faculties." 

This  is  what  educated  people  believe  about  God.  piaiosophi- 
They  call  him  Uvara,  i.e.  self-sufficing,  beneficent,  who  gar'notions 
gives  without  receiving.  They  consider  the  unity  of  nature  of 
God  as  absolute,  but  that  everything  beside  God  which 
may  appear  as  a  unity  is  really  a  plurality  of  things. 
The  existence  of  God  they  consider  as  a  real  existence, 
because  everything  that  exists  exists  through  him.  It 
is  not  impossible  to  think  that  the  existing  beings  are 
not  and  that  he  is,  but  it  is  impossible  to  think  that  he 
is  not  and  that  they  arc. 

If  we  now  pass  from  the  ideas  of  the  educated  people 
among  the  Hindus  to  those  of  the  common  people,  we 
must  first  state  that  they  present  a  great  variety.  Some 
of  them  are  simply  abominable,  but  similar  errors  also 
occur  in  other  religions.  Nay,  even  in  Islam  we  must  de- 
cidedly disapprove,  e.g.  of  the  anthropomorphic  doctrines, 
the  teachings  of  the  Jabriyya  sect,  the  prohibition  of 
the  discussion  of  religious  topics,  and  such  like.  Every 
religious  sentence  destined  for  the  people  at  large  must 


God. 


32  A  LB E RUNTS  INDIA. 

be  carefully  worded,  as  the  following  example  shows. 
Some  Hindu  scholar  calls  God  a  point,  meaning  to  say 
thereby  that  the  qualities  of  bodies  do  not  apply  to  him. 
Now  some  uneducated  man  reads  this  and  imagines, 
God  is  as  small  as  a  p)oint,  and  he  does  not  find  out 
what  the  -^ovdi point  in  this  sentence  was  really  intended 
to  express.  He  will  not  even  stop  with  this  offensive 
comparison,  but  will  describe  God  as  much  larger,  and 
will  say,  "He  is  twelve  fingers  longand  ten  fingers  broad." 
Praise  be  to  God,  who  is  far  above  measure  and  number  ! 
Further,  if  an  uneducated  man  hears  what  we  have 
mentioned,  that  God  comprehends  the  universe  so  that 
nothing  is  concealed  from  him,  he  will  at  once  imagine 
that  this  comprehending  is  effected  by  means  of  eye- 
sight ;  that  eyesight  is  only  possible  by  means  of  an  eye, 
and  that  two  eyes  are  better  than  only  one  ;  and  in  con- 
sequence he  will  describe  God  as  having  a  thousand  eyes, 
meaning  to  describe  his  omniscience. 

Similar  hideous  fictions  are  sometimes  met  with 
among  the  Hindus,  es]3ecially  among  those  castes  who 
are  not  allowed  to  occupy  themselves  with  science,  of 
whom  we  shall  speak  hereafter. 


CHAPTER   III. 

ON   THE    HINDU    BELIEF   AS    TO    CliEATED    THINGS,    BOTH 
"  INTELLIGIBILIA  "    AND    '' SENSIBILIA." 

On  this  subject  the  ancient  Greeks    held  nearly  the  Notions  of 

.  .  ,  the  Greeks 

same  view  as  the  Hindus,  at  all  events  in  those  times  and  the  sAfi 
before  philosophy  rose  high  among  them  under  the  care  pheis  as  to 
of  the  seven  so-called  'pillars  of  tuisdom,  viz.  Solon  of  cause. 
Athens,  Bias  of  Priene,  Periander  of  Corinth,  Thales  of 
jMiletus,  Chilon  of  Lacedasmon,  Pittacus  of  Lesbos,  and 
Cleobulus  of   Lindos,  and  their  successors.     Some  of  rage  i6. 
them  thought  that  all  things  are  one,  and  this  one  thing- 
is  according  to  some  to  XavOdv^iv,  according  to  others 
i)   SvvafjLis ;    that   e.g.   man    has    only   this    prerogative 
before  a  stone  and  the  inanimate  world,  that  he  is  by 
one  degree  nearer  than  they  to  the  First  Cause.     But 
this  he  would  not  be  anything  better  than  they. 

Others  think  that  only  the  First  Cause  has  real  exist- 
ence, because  it  alone  is  self-sufficing,  whilst  everything 
else  absolutely  requires  it;  that  a  thing  which  for  its 
existence  stands  in  need  of  something  else  has  only  a 
dream-life,  no  real  life,  and  that  reality  is  only  that  one 
and  first  being  (the  First  Cause). 

This  is  also  the  theory  of  the  Sufis,  i.e.  the  sages,  Origin  of 
for  svf  means  in  Greek  vjisdom  (o-o(/)ta).  Therefore  a  sufi. 
philosopher  is  called  paildsojKl  ((piXoaocfios) ,  i.e.  loving 
wisdom.  When  in  Islam  persons  adopted  something 
like  the  doctrines  of  the^Q philosophers,  they  also  adopted 
their  name  ;  but  some  people  did  not  understand  the 
meaning  of  the  word,  and  erroneously  combined  it  with 

VOL.  I.  C 


34  A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 

the  Arabic  word  sicffa,  as  if  tlie  Sufi  {  =  ^uXoaof^oi)  were 
identical  with  the  so-called  '^A/-«.9^?i^^ff- among  the  com- 
panions of  Muhammad.  In  later  times  the  word  was 
corrupted  by  misspelling,  so  that  finally  it  was  taken  for 
a  derivation  from  m/,  i.e.  the  ivool  of  goats.  Abu-alfath 
Albusti  made  a  laudable  effort  to  avoid  this  mistake 
when  he  said,  "  From  olden  times  people  have  differed 
as  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  sufi,  and  have  thought 
it  a  derivative  from  suf,  i.e.  wool.  I,  for  my  part, 
understand  by  the  word  a  youth  who  is  sdfi,  i.e.  pure. 
This  sdfi  has  become  sufi,  and  in  this  form  the  name 
of  a  class  of  thinkers,  the  Sufi.'" 

Further,  the  same  Greeks  think  that  the  existing 
world  is  only  one  thing ;  that  the  First  Cause  appears  in 
it  under  various  shapes ;  that  the  power  of  the  First 
Cause  is  inherent  in  the  parts  of  the  world  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances,  which  cause  a  certain  difference  of 
the  things  of  the  world  notwithstanding  their  original 
unity. 

Others  thought  that  he  who  turns  with  his  whole 
being  towards  the  First  Cause,  striving  to  become  as 
much  as  possible  similar  to  it,  will  become  united  with 
it  after  having  passed  the  intermediate  stages,  and 
stripped  of  all  appendages  and  impediments.  Similar 
views  are  also  held  by  the  Silfi,  because  of  the  similarity 
of  the  dogma. 

As  to  the  souls  and  spirits,  the  Greeks  tliink  that 
they  exist  by  themselves  before  they  enter  bodies  ;  that 
they  exist  in  certain  numbers  and  groups,  which  stand 
in  various  relations  to  each  other,  knowing  each  other 
and  not  knowing  ;  that  they,  whilst  staying  in  bodies, 
earn  by  the  actions  of  their  free-will  that  lot  which 
awaits  them  after  their  separation  from  the  bodies, 
i.f'.  the  faculty  of  ruling  the  world  in  various  ways. 
Therefore  tliey  called  them  gods,  built  temples  in  their 
Galenas.  uamcs  and  offered  them  sacrifices;  as  Galenus  says  in 
his    book   called    TTpoTpeTrriKos  els  ras  T€)(^vas  :    "  Excel- 


CHAPTER  III.  35 

lent  men  have  obtained  the  honour  of  being  reckoned 
among  the  deified  beings  only  for  the  noble  spirit  in 
which  they  cultivated  the  arts,  not  for  their  prowess  in 
wrestling  and  discus-throwing.  H.g.  Asclepius  and 
Dionysos,  whether  they  were  originally  human  beings 
in  bygone  times  and  afterwards  deified,  or  were  divine 
beings  from  the  very  beginning,  deserved  in  any  case 
the  greatest  of  honours,  because  the  one  taught  man-  rage  r 
kind  the  science  of  medicine,  the  other  the  art  of  the 
cultivation  of  the  vine." 

Galenus  says  in  his  commentary  on  the  aphorisms  of 
Hippocrates:  "As  regards  the  offerings  to  Asclepius, 
we  have  never  heard  that  anybody  offered  him  a  goat, 
because  the  weaving  of  goat's-hair  is  not  easy,  and 
much  goat's-meat  produces  epilepsy,  since  the  humours 
of  the  goats  are  bad.  People  only  offer  him  a  cock, 
as  also  Hippocrates  has  done.  For  this  divine  man 
acquired  for  mankind  the  art  of  medicine,  which  is 
much  superior  to  that  which  -Dionysos  and  Demeter 
have  invented,  i.e.  the  wine  and  the  cereals  whence 
bread  is  prepared.  Therefore  cereals  are  called  by  the 
name  of  Demeter  and  the  vine  is  called  by  the  name 
of  Dionysos." 

Plato    says   in  his    Timceus:    "The   Oeot  whom   the  Piuto. 
barbarians   call  gods,  because  of  their  not  dying,  are 
tlie  oat/xot'es,  whilst  they  call  tJie  god  the  first  god.'^ 

Further  he  says  :  "God  spoke  to  the  gods,  '  You  are 
not  of  yourselves  exempt  from  destruction.  Only  you 
will  not  perish  by  death.  You  have  obtained  from 
my  will  at  the  time  when  I  created  you,  the  firmest 
covenant.' " 

In  another  passage  of  the  same  book  he  says  :  "God 
is  in  the  single  number  ;  there  are  no  gods  in  the  plural 
number." 

These  cpiotations  prove  that  the  Greeks  call  in 
general  god  everything  that  is  glorious  and  noble,  and 
the  like  usage  exists  among  many  nations.     They  go 


GraniiDa 
tic  us 


Gale  1 J  lis. 


36  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

even  so  far  as  to  call  gods  the  monntains,  the  seas,  &c. 
Secondly,  they  apply  the  term  god  in  a  special  sense 
to  the  First  Cause,  to  the  angels,  and  to  their  souls. 
According  to  a  third  usage,  Plato  calls  gods  the  SeJdndt 
(z=  Movcrat).  But  on  this  subject  the  terms  of  the 
interpreters  are  not  perfectly  clear ;  in  consequence 
of  which  we  only  know  the  name,  but  not  what  it 
Johannes  uieans.  Johannes  Grammaticus  says  in  his  refutation 
of  Proclus  :  "  The  Greeks  gave  the  name  of  gods  to 
the  visible  bodies  in  heaven,  as  many  barbarians  do. 
Afterwards,  when  they  came  to  philosophise  on  the 
abstract  ideas  of  the  world  of  thought,  they  called  these 
by  the  name  of  gods." 

Hence  we  must  necessarily  infer  that  being  deified 
means  something  like  the  state  of  angels,  according 
to  our  notions.  This  Galenus  says  in  clear  words 
in  the  same  book :  "If  it  is  true  that  Asclepius  was 
a  man  in  bygone  times,  and  that  then  God  deigned 
to  make  him  one  of  the.  angels,  everything  else  is  idle 
talk." 

In  another  passage  of  the  same  book  he  says :  "  God 

spoke  to  Lyciirgus,   '  I  am  in  doubt  concerning  you, 

whether  to  call  you  a  man  or  an  angel,  but  I  incline  to 

the  latter.'" 

Difference         There  are,  however,  certain  expressions  which   are 

nating  Gud    offensive  according  to  the  notions  of  one  religion,  whilst 

Hebrew, '     they  are  admissible  according  to  those  of  another,  which 

'  ^"'*^'    may  pass  in  one  language,  whilst  they  are  rejected  by 

another.     To  this   class    belongs  the  word   cqwtlicosis, 

which  has  a  bad  sound  in  the  ears  of  Muslims.     If  we 

consider  the  use  of  the  word  god  in  the  Arabic  language, 

we  find  that  all  the  names  by  which  the  j;?/?'e  truth,  i.e. 

Page  18.        Allah,  has  been  named,  may  somehow  or  other  be  applied 

to  other  beings  besides  him,  except  the  word  Alldh, 

which  only  applies  to  God,  and  which  has  been  called 

his  greatest  name. 

If  we  consider  the  use  of  the  word  in  Hebrew  and 


CHAPTER  III.  37 

Syriac,  in  which  two  languages  the  sacred  books  before 
the  Koran  were  revealed,  we  find  that  in  the  Tliora  and 
the  following  books  of  prophets  which  are  reckoned 
with  the  Thora  as  one  whole,  that  word  Eahb  corre- 
sponds to  the  word  Allah  in  Arabic,  in  so  far  as  it  can- 
not in  a  genitive  construction  be  applied  to  anybody 
besides  God,  and  you  cannot  say  the  rahb  of  the  house, 
the  7rihb  of  the  property  (which  in  Arabic  is  allowed). 
And,  secondly,  we  find  that  the  word  'Eloah  in  Hebrew 
corresponds  in  its  usage  there  to  the  word  Rabl)  in 
Arabic  {i.e.  that  in  Hebrew  the  word  n?X  may  apply 
to  other  beings  but  God,  like  the  word  CLSj  in  Arabic). 
The  following  passages  occur  in  those  books  : — 

''The  sons  of  MoJiim  came  in  unto  the  daughters  of 
men  "  (Gen.  vi.  4),  before  the  deluge,  and  cohabited  with 
them. 

"  Satan  entered  together  with  the  sons  of  Elohim  into 
their  meeting  "  (Job  i.  6). 

In  the  Thora  of  Moses  God  speaks  to  him  :  "I  have 
made  thee  a  god  to  Pharaoh"  (Exod.  vii.  i). 

In  the  82d  Psalm  of  the  Psalter  of  David  the  fol- 
lowing occurs :  "  God  standeth  in  the  congregation  of 
the  gods''  (Ps.  Ixxxii.  i),  i.e.  of  the  angels. 

In  the  Thora  the  idols  are  called  foreign  gods.  If 
the  Thora  had  not  forbidden  to  worship  any  other  being 
but  God,  if  it  had  not  forbidden  people  to  prostrate 
themselves  before  the  idols,  nay,  even  to  mention  them 
and  to  think  of  them,  one  might  infer  from  this  expres- 
sion [foreign  gods)  that  the  order  of  the  Bible  refers 
only  to  the  abolition  oi  foreign  gods,  which  would  mean 
gods  that  are  7iot  Hebrew  ones  (as  if  the  Hebrews  had 
adored  national  gods,  in  opposition  to  the  gods  of  their 
neighbours).  The  nations  round  Palestine  were  idol 
worshippers  like  the  heathen  Greeks,  and  the  Israelites 
always  rebelled  against  God  by  worshipping  the  idol  of 
Baal  (lit.  Bct'la)  and  the  idol  of  Ashtfiroth,  i.e.  Venus. 

From  all  this  it  is  evident  that  the  Hebrews  used  to 


434611 


38  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

apply  the  term  being  god,  grammatically  a  term  like 
being  king,  to  the  angels,  to  the  souls  invested  with 
divine  power  (v.  p.  34) ;  by  way  of  comparison,  also, 
to  the  images  which  were  made  to  represent  the  bodies 
of  those  beings  ;  lastly,  metaphorically,  to  kings  and  to 
other  great  men. 

Passing  from  the  word  God  to  those  of  father  and 
son,  we  must  state  that  Islam  is  not  liberal  in  the  use  of 
them ;  for  in  Arabic  the  word  son  means  nearly  always 
as  much  as  a  cliild  in  the  natural  order  of  things,  and 
from  the  ideas  involved  in  parentage  and  birth  can 
never  be  derived  any  expression  meaning  the  Eternal 
Lord  of  creatioD.  Other  languages,  however,  take  much 
more  liberty  in  this  respect ;  so  that  if  peo23le  address  a 
man  by  father,  it  is  nearly  the  same  as  if  they  addressed 
him  b}^  sir.  As  is  well  known,  phrases  of  this  kind 
have  become  so  prevalent  among  the  Christians,  that 
anybody  who  does  not  always  use  the  words /«^/ic?'  and 
son  in  addressing  people  would  scarcely  be  considered 
as  one  of  them.  By  the  son  they  understand  most 
especially  Jesus,  but  apply  it  also  to  others  besides 
him.  It  is  Jesus  who  orders  his  disciples  to  say  in 
prayer,  '*  0  our  father  which  art  in  heaven"  (St. 
Matt.  vi.  9) ;  and  informing  them  of  his  approaching 
death,  he  says  that  he  is  going  to  his  father  and  to 
\X\^\v  father  (St.  John  xx.  17).  In  most  of  his  speeches 
he  explains  the  word  the  son  as  meaning  himself,  that 
he  is  the  son  of  man. 

Besides  the  Christians,  the  Jews  too  use  similar  ex- 
Page  19.  pressions;  for  the  2d  Book  of  Kings  relates  that  God 
consoled  David  for  the  loss  of  liis  son,  who  had  been 
borne  to  him  by  the  wife  of  Uriah,  and  promised  him 
another  son  from  her,  whom  he  would  adopt  as  his 
own  son  (i  Chron.  xxii.  9,  10).  If  the  use  of  the 
Hebrew  language  admits  that  Salomo  is  by  adoption  a 
son  of  God,  it  is  admissible  that  he  who  adopted  was  a 
father,  viz.  God. 


CHAPTER  III.  39 

The  Manichseans  stand  in  a  near  relationship  to  the  Note  on 
Christians.  Mani  expresses  himself  in  a  similar  way  in  chc^aus. 
the  book  called  Kanz-aVihyd  {Thesaurus  Vivificationis)  : 
"  The  resplendent  hosts  will  be  called  young  women  and 
virgins,  fathers  and  mothers,  sons,  brothers,  and  sisters, 
because  such  is  the  custom  in  the  books  of  the  prophets. 
In  the  country  of  joy  there  is  neither  male  nor  female, 
nor  are  there  organs  of  generation.  All  are  invested 
with  living  bodies.  Since  they  have  divine  bodies,  they 
do  not  differ  from  each  other  in  weakness  and  force,  in 
length  and  shortness,  in  figure  and  looks  ;  they  are  like 
similar  lamps,  which  are  lighted  by  the  same  lamp,  and 
which  are  nourished  by  the  same  material.  The  cause 
of  this  kind  of  name-giving  arises,  in  the  last  instance, 
from  the  rivalry  of  the  two  realms  in  mixiug  up  with 
each  other.  When  the  low  dark  realm  rose  from  the 
abyss  of  chaos,  and  was  seen  by  the  high  resplendent 
realm  as  consisting  of  pairs  of  male  and  female  beings, 
the  latter  gave  similar  outward  forms  to  its  own  chil- 
dren, who  started  to  fight  that  other  world,  so  that  it 
placed  in  the  fight  one  kind  of  beings  opposite  the 
same  kind  of  the  other  world." 

The  educated  among  the  Hindus  abhor  anthropo- 
morphisms of  this  kind,  but  the  crowd  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  single  sects  use  them  most  extensively. 
They  go  even  beyond  all  we  have  hitherto  mentioned, 
so  as  to  speak  of  wife,  son,  daughter,  of  the  rendering 
pregnant  and  other  physical  processes,  all  in  connection 
with  God.  They  are  even  so  little  pious,  that,  when 
speaking  of  these  things,  they  do  not  even  abstain  from 
silly  and  unbecoming  language.  However,  nobody 
minds  these  classes  and  their  theories,  though  they  be 
numerous.     The  main  and  most  essential  point  of  the  Notions  of 

^  the  edu- 

Hindu  world  of  thous^ht  is  that  which  the  Brahmans  catedHm- 

°  .  dus.     All 

think  and  believe,  for  they  are  specially  trained  for  pre-  created 

...  .  .      beings  are 

serving  and  maintaining  their  religion.     And  this  it  is  a  unity. 
which  we  shall  explain,  viz.  the  belief  of  the  Brahmans. 


40  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

Regarding  the  whole  creation  (to  oj'),  they  think  that 
it  is  a  unity,  as  has  already  been  declared,  because 
Vasudeva  speaks  in  the  book  called  Gitd  :  "  To  speak 
accurately,  we  must  say  that  all  things  are  divine ;  for 
Vishnu  made  himself  the  earth  that  the  living  beings 
should  rest  thereupon  ;  he  made  himself  water  to  nourish 
them  thereby  ;  he  made  himself  fire  and  wind  in  order 
to  make  them  grow ;  and  he  made  himself  the  heart  of 
every  single  being.  He  presented  them  with  recollec- 
tion and  knowledge  and  the  two  opposite  qualities,  as 
is  mentioned  in  the  Veda." 

How  much  does  this  resemble  the  expression  of  the 
author  of  the  book  of  Apollonius,  De  Causis  Rerum,  as 
if  the  one  had  been  taken  from  the  other  !  He  says  : 
"  There  is  in  all  men  a  divine  power,  by  which  all 
things,  both  material  and  immaterial,  are  apprehended." 
Thus  in  Persian  the  immaterial  Lord  is  called  KJmdhd, 
and  in  a  derivative  sense  the  word  is  also  used  to  mean 
a  man,  i.e.  a  human  lord. 

Pumsha.  I.  Those  Hindus  who  prefer  clear  and  accurate  defi- 

nitions to  vague  allusions  call  the  soul  purusha,  which 
means  man,  because  it  is  the  living  element  in  the 
existing  world.  Life  is  the  only  attribute  which  they 
give  to  it.  They  describe  it  as  alternately  knowing 
and  not  knowing,  as  not  knowing  eV  Trpd^et  (actually), 
and  as  knowing  iv  Swdixet  (potentially),  gaining  know- 
ledge by  acquisition.     The  not-knowing  of  purusha  is 

Page  20.  the  cause  why  action  comes  into  existence,  and  its 
knowing  is  the  cause  why  action  ceases. 

II.  Next  follows  the  general  matter,  i.e.  the  abstract 

Avyakta.  vXrj,  which  they  call  avyakta,  i.e.  a  shapeless  thing.  It 
is  dead,  but  has  three  powers  potentially,  not  actually, 
which  are  called  sattva,  rajas,  and  tamas.  I  have  heard 
that  Buddhodana  (sic),  in  speaking  to  his  adherents  the 
Shamanians,  calls  them  huddha,  dharma,  sanglia,  as  it 
were  intelligence,  religion,  and  ignorance  (sic).  The  first 
power  is  rest  and  goodness,  and  hence  come  existing 


CHAPTER  III.  41 

and  growing.  The  second  is  exertion  and  fatigue,  and 
hence  come  firmness  and  duration.  The  third  is  languor 
and  irresolution,  and  hence  come  ruin  and  perishing. 
Therefore  the  first  power  is  attributed  to  the  angels, 
the  second  to  men,  the  third  to  the  animals.  The  ideas 
before,  afterwards,  and  thereupon  may  be  predicated  of 
all  these  things  only  in  the  sense  of  a  certain  sequence 
and  on  account  of  the  inadequacy  of  language,  but  not 
so  as  to  indicate  any  ordinary  notions  of  time. 

III.  Matter  proceeding  from  SvvauLis  into  TrpaAs  under  vyaktaand 

T         .   T        T  7  .  /.  prakriti. 

the  various  shapes  and  with  the  t/iree  primary  jorces 
is  called  vyahta,  i.e.  having  shape,  whilst  the  union  of 
the  abstract  vX-i]  and  of  the  shaped  matter  is  called 
prakriti.  This  term,  however,  is  of  no  use  to  us  ;  we 
do  not  want  to  speak  of  an  abstract  matter,  the  term 
matter  alone  being  suflficient  for  us,  since  the  one  does 
not  exist  without  the  other. 

IV.  Next  comes  nature,  which  they  call  ahanlidra.  Ahaukara. 
The  word  is  derived  from  the  ideas  of  overjyowering,  de- 
vclopi7ig,  and  self-assertion,  because  matter  when  assum- 
ing shape  causes  things  to  develop  into  new  forms,  and 

this  growing  consists  in  the  changing  of  a  foreign  ele- 
ment and  assimilating  it  to  the  growing  one.  Hence 
it  is  as  if  Nature  were  trying  to  overpower  those  other 
or  foreign  elements  in  this  process  of  changing  them, 
and  were  subduing  that  which  is  changed. 

V.-IX.  As  a  matter  of  course,  each  compound  pre-  Mababhuta 
supposes  simple  elements  from  which  it  is  compounded 
and  into  which  it  is  resolved  again.  The  universal 
existences  in  the  world  are  the  five  elements,  i.e.  accord- 
ing to  the  Hindus  :  heaven,  wind,  fire,  water,  and  earth. 
They  are  called  mahdbhitta,  i.e.  having  great  natures. 
They  do  not  think,  as  other  people  do,  that  the  fire  is 
a  hot  dry  body  near  the  bottom  of  the  ether.  They 
understand  by  fire  the  common  fire  on  earth  which 
comes  from  an  inflammation  of  smoke.  The  Vdyii  Annotation 
Purdna  says  :  "  In  the  beginning  were  earth,  water,  wind,  pilSna?^'* 


42  ALBERUNfS  INDIA. 

and  heaven.  Brahman,  on  seeing  sparks  under  the 
earth,  brought  them  forward  and  divided  them  into 
three  parts :  the  first,  pdrthiva,  is  the  common  fire, 
which  requires  wood  and  is  extinguished  by  water  ;  the 
second  is  divya,  i.e.  the  sun ;  the  third,  vidyut,  i.e.  the 
lightning.  The  sun  attracts  the  water  ;  the  lightning 
shines  through  the  water.  In  the  animals,  also,  there  is 
fire  in  the  midst  of  moist  substances,  which  serve  to 
nourish  the  fire  and  do  not  extinguish  it." 

X.-XIV.  As  these  elements  are  compound,  they  pre- 
suppose simple  ones  which  are  called  paTica  mdtdras, 
i.e.  five  mothers.  They  describe  them  as  the  functions 
of  the  senses.  The  simple  element  of  heaven  is  sabda, 
i.e.  that  which  is  heard ;  that  of  the  wind  is  sparsa, 
i.e.  that  which  is  touched ;  that  of  the  fire  is  rilpa,  i.e. 
that  which  is  seen ;  that  of  the  water  is  rasa,  i.e.  that 
which  is  tasted ;  and  that  of  the  earth  is  gandha,  i.e. 
that  which  is  smelled.  With  each  of  these  mahdbhilta 
elements  (earth,  water,  &c.)  they  connect,  firstly,  one  of 
the  panca-mdtdras  elements,  as  we  have  here  shown  ; 
and,  secondly,  all  those  which  have  been  attributed  to 
the  malidhliuta  elements  previously  mentioned.  So 
the  earth  has  all  five  qualities;  the  water  has  them 
mimts  the  smelling  ( ==  four  qualities) ;  the  fire  has  them 
minus  the  smelling  and  tasting  {i.e.  three  qualities)  ;  the 
wind  has  them  minus  smelling,  tasting,  and  seeing  {i.e. 
two  qualities) ;  heaven  has  them  miimis  smelling,  tast- 
ing, seeing,  and  touching  {i.e.  one  quality). 

I  do  not  know  what  the  Hindus  mean  by  bringing 
sound  into  relation  with  heaven.  Perhaps  they  mean 
something  similar  to  what  Homer,  the  poet  of  the 
ancient  Greeks,  said,  "  Those  invested  luitli  the  seven  melo- 
dies speak  and  give  answer  to  caeh  other  in  a  pleasant 
tone.^'  Thereby  he  meant  the  seven  planets  ;  as  another 
poet  says,  "  The  spheres  endowed  with  different  melodies 
are  seven,  moving  eter7ially, praising  the  Creator,  for  it  is 
he  who  holds  them  and  embraces  thein  icnto  the  farthest 
end  of  the  starless  sphere." 


CHAPTER  III.  43 

Porphyry  says  in  his  book  on  the  opinions  of  the 
most  prominent  philosophers  about  the  nature  of  the 
sphere  :  '•  The  heavenly  bodies  moving  about  in  forms 
and  shapes  and  with  wonderful  melodies,  which  are 
fixed  for  ever,  as  Pythagoras  and  Diogenes  have  ex- 
plained, point  to  their  Creator,  who  is  without  equal 
and  without  shape.  People  say  that  Diogenes  had 
such  subtle  senses  that  he,  and  he  alone,  could  hear  the 
sound  of  the  motion  of  the  sphere." 

All  these  expressions  are  rather  hints  than  clear 
speech,  but  admitting  of  a  correct  interpretation  on  a 
scientific  basis.  Some  successor  of  those  philosophers, 
one  of  those  who  did  not  grasp  the  full  truth,  says : 
"  Sight  is  watery,  hearing  airy,  smelling  fiery,  tasting 
earthy,  and  touching  is  what  the  soul  bestows  upon 
everybody  by  uniting  itself  with  it."  I  suppose  this 
philosopher  connects  the  sight  with  the  water  because 
he  had  heard  of  the  moist  substances  of  the  eye  and  of 
their  different  classes  (lacuna);  he  refers  the  smelling 
to  the  fire  on  account  of  frankincense  and  smoke  ;  the 
tasting  to  the  earth  because  of  his  nourishment  which 
the  earth  yields  him.  As,  then,  the  four  elements  are 
finished,  he  is  compelled  for  the  fifth  sense,  the  touch- 
ing, to  have  recourse  to  the  soul. 

The  result  of  all  these  elements  which  we  have  enu- 
merated, i.e.  a  compound  of  all  of  them,  is  the  animal. 
The  Hindus  consider  the  plants  as  a  species  of  animal 
as  Plato  also  thinks  that  the  plants  have  a  sense, 
because  they  have  the  faculty  of  distinguishing  between 
that  which  suits  them  and  that  which  is  detrimental  to 
them.  The  animal  is  an  animal  as  distinguished  from 
a  stone  by  virtue  of  its  possession  of  the  senses. 

XV. -XIX.  The  senses  are  five,  called  indriydni,  the  luariyj 
heariug  by  the  ear,  the  seeing  by  the  eye,  the  smelling 
by  the  nose,  the  tasting  by  the  tongue,  and  the  touching 
by  the  skin. 

XX.  Next  follows  the  will,  which  directs  the  senses  Mausa. 


44 


ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 


Page  22. 


Recapitula- 
tion of  the 
twenty-five 
elements. 


in  the  exercise  of  their  various  functions,  and  which 
dwells  in  the  heart.     Therefore  they  call  it  manas. 

XXI.-XXV.  The  animal  nature  is  rendered  perfect 
by  five  necessary  functions,  which  they  call  karmendri- 
ydni,  i.e.  the  senses  of  action.  The  former  senses  bring 
about  learning  and  knowledge,  the  latter  action  and 
work.  We  shall  call  them  the  necessaria.  They  are  : 
I.  To  produce  a  sound  for  any  of  the  different  wants 
and  wishes  a  man  may  have ;  2.  To  throw  the  hands 
with  force,  in  order  to  draw  towards  or  to  put  away ; 
3.  To  walk  with  the  feet,  in  order  to  seek  something 
or  to  fly  from  it;  4,  5.  The  ejection  of  the  superfluous 
elements  of  nourishment  by  means  of  the  two  openings 
created  for  the  purpose. 

The  whole  of  these  elements  are  twenty-five,  viz.  : — 

1.  The  general  soul. 

2.  The  abstract  vXt-j. 

3.  The  shaped  matter. 

4.  The  overpowering  nature. 
5-9.  The  simple  mothers. 
10-14.  The  primary  elements. 
15-19.  The  senses  of  apperception. 
20.  The  directing  will. 

21-25.  The  instrumental  necessaria. 

The  totality  of  these  elements  is  called  tattva,  and  all 
knowledge  is  restricted  to  them.  Therefore  Vyasa  the 
son  of  Parasara  speaks  :  "  Learn  twenty-five  by  dis- 
tinctions, definitions,  and  divisions,  as  you  learn  a 
logical  syllogism,  and  something  which  is  a  certainty, 
not   merely    studying    with    the    tongue.     Afterwards 


adhere  to  whatever  religion  you 
be  salvation." 


ke 


your 


end 


(     45     ) 


CHAPTER   IV. 

FROM    WHAT    CAUSE   ACTION    ORIGINATES,    AND    HOW    THE 
SOUL   IS   CONNECTED   WITH   MATTER. 

Voluntary  actions  cannot  originate  in  the  body  of  any  The  «oui 
animal,  unless  the  body  be  living  and  exist  in  close  con-  be  united' 
tact  with  that  which  is  living  of  itself,  i.e.  the  soul.  body,\^s^so 
The  Hindus  maintain  that  the  soul  is  eV  irpd^ei,  not  iirte^medi- 
ev  8vvdix€L,  ignorant  of  its  own  essential  nature  and  of  '"^^^^  ^p^'^^s. 
its  material  substratum,  louging  to  apprehend  what  it 
does  not  know,  and  believing  that  it  cannot  exist  unless 
by  matter.  As,  therefore,  it  longs  for  the  good  which 
is  duration,  and  wishes  to  learn  that  which  is  hidden 
from  it,  it  starts  off  in  order  to  be  united  with  matter. 
However,  substances  which  are  dense  and  such  as  are 
tenuous,  if  they  have  tliese  qualities  in  the  very  highest 
degree,  can  mix  together  only  by  means  of  interme- 
diary elements  which  stand  in  a  certain  relation  to 
each  of  the  two.  Thus  the  air  is  the  medium  be- 
tween fire  and  water,  which  are  opposed  to  each  other  by 
these  two  qualities,  for  the  air  is  related  to  the  fire  in 
tenuity  and  to  the  water  in  density,  and  by  either  of 
these  qualities  it  renders  the  one  capable  of  mixing 
with  the  other.  Now,  there  is  no  greater  antithesis  than 
that  between  body  and  not-hody.  Therefore  the  soul, 
being  what  it  is,  cannot  obtain  the  fulfilment  of  its 
wish  but  by  similar  media,  spirits  which  derive  their 
existence  from  the  mafres  siviplices  in  the  worlds  called 
Bhurloka,  Bhuvarloka,  and  Svarloka.  The  Hindus  call 
them  tenuous  todies  over  which  the  soul  rises  like  the 


46  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

sun  over  the  earth,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  de7ise  bodies  which  derive  their  existence  from  the 
common  five  elements.  The  soul,  in  consequence  of 
this  union  with  the  media,  uses  them  as  its  vehicles. 
Thus  the  image  of  the  sun,  though  he  is  only  one,  is  re- 
presented in  many  mirrors  which  are  placed  opposite  to 
him,  as  also  in  the  water  of  vessels  placed  opposite. 
The  sun  is  seen  alike  in  each  mirror  and  each  vessel, 
and  in  each  of  them  his  warming  and  light-giving  effect 
is  perceived. 

When,  now,  the  various  bodies,  being  from  their 
nature  compounds  of  different  things,  come  into  exist- 
ence, being  composed  of  mcde  elements,  viz.  bones, 
veins,  and  sperma,  and  of  femcde  elements,  viz.  flesh, 
blood,  and  hair,  and  being  thus  fully  prepared  to  receive 
life,  then  those  spirits  unite  themselves  with  them,  and 
the  bodies  are  to  the  spirits  what  castles  or  fortresses 
are  to  the  various  affairs  of  princes.  In  a  farther  stage 
of  development  five  winds  enter  the  bodies.  By  the 
first  and  second  of  them  the  inhaling  and  exhaling  are 
effected,  by  the  third  the  mixture  of  the  victuals  in  the 
stomach,  by  the  fourth  the  locomotion  of  the  body  from 
one  place  to  the  other,  by  the  fifth  the  transferring  of 
the  apperception  of  the  senses  from  one  side  of  the  body 
to  the  other. 

The  spirits  here  mentioned  do  not,  accordiug  to  the 
notions  of  the  Hindus,  differ  from  each  other  in  sub- 
stance, but  have  a  precisely  identical  nature.  However, 
their  individual  characters  and  manners  differ  in  the 
same  measure  as  the  bodies  with  which  they  are  united 
differ,  on  account  of  the  three  forces  which  are  in  them 
striving  with  each  other  for  supremacy,  and  on  account 
of  their  harmony  being  disturbed  by  the  passions  of 
envy  and  wrath. 

Such,  then,  is  the  supreme  highest  cause  of  the  soul's 
starting  off  into  action. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  lotocst  cause,  as  proceeding 


CHAPTER  IV.  47 

from  matter,  is  this  :  that  matter  for  its  part  seeks  for  on  matter 
perfection,  and  always  prefers  that  which  is  better  to  union  with 
that  which  is  less  good,  viz.  proceeding  from  StVa/xt? 
into  irpa^is.  In  consequence  of  the  vainglory  and 
ambition  which  are  its  pith  and  marrow,  matter  pro- 
duces and  shows  all  kinds  of  possibilities  which  it 
contains  to  its  pupil,  the  soul,  and  carries  it  round 
through  all  classes  of  vegetable  and  animal  beings. 
Hindus  compare  the  soul  to  a  dancing-girl  who  is  clever  illustrations 
in  her  art  and  knows  well  what  effect  each  motion  and  ticuilVkTud 
pose  of  hers  has.  She  is  in  the  presence  of  a  sybarite 
most  eager  of  enjoying  what  she  has  learned.  Now  she 
begins  to  produce  the  various  kinds  of  her  art  one  after 
the  other' under  the  admiring  gaze  of  the  host,  until  her 
programme  is  finished  and  the  eagerness  of  the  spectator 
has  been  satisfied.  Then  she  stops  suddenly,  since  she 
could  not  produce  anything  but  a  repetition  ;  and  as  a 
repetition  is  not  wished  for,  he  dismisses  her,  and  action 
ceases.  The  close  of  this  kind  of  relation  is  illustrated 
by  the  following  simile  :  A  caravan  has  been  attacked 
in  the  desert  by  robbers,  and  the  members  of  it  have 
fled  in  all  directions  except  a  blind  man  and  a  lame 
man,  who  remain  on  the  spot  in  helplessness,  despairing 
of  their  escape.  After  they  meet  and  recognise  each 
other,  the  lame  speaks  to  the  blind  :  "  I  cannot  move, 
but  I  can  lead  the  way,  whilst  the  opposite  is  the  case 
with  you.  Therefore  put  me  on  your  shoulder  and 
carry  me,  that  I  may  show  you  the  way  and  that  we 
may  escape  together  from  this  calamity."  This  the 
blind  man  did.  They  obtained  their  purpose  by  helping 
each  other,  and  they  left  each  other  on  coming  out  of 
the  desert. 

Further,  the  Hindus  speak  in  difi"erent  ways  of  the  Action  of 
agent,  as  we  have  already  mentioned.     So  the    Vishnu  mg  from  an 
Furdna  says  :  "  Matter  is  the  origin  of  the  world.     Its  position. 
action  in  the  world  rises  from  an  innate  disposition,  as 
a  tree  sows  its  own  seed  by  an  innate  disposition,  not 


48  ALBERUNTS  INDIA. 

intentionally,  and  the  wind  cools  the  water  though  it 
only  intends  blowing.  Voluntary  action  is  only  due  to 
Vishnu."  By  the  latter  expression  the  author  means 
the  living  being  who  is  above  matter  (God).  Through 
him  matter  becomes  an  agent  toiling  for  him  as  a  friend 
toils  for  a  friend  without  wanting  anything  for  himself. 

On  this  theory  Mani  has  built  the  following  sentence  : 
"  The  Apostles  asked  Jesus  about  the  life  of  inanimate 
nature,  whereupon  he  said,  '  If  that  which  is  inanimate 
is  separated  from  the  living  element  which  is  com- 
mingled with  it,  and  appears  alone  by  itself,  it  is  again 
inanimate  and  is  not  capable  of  living,  whilst  the  living 
element  which  has  left  it,  retaining  its  vital  energy 
unimpaired,  never  dies.' " 

The  book  of  Saiiikhya  derives  action  from  matter,  for 
the  difference  of  forms  under  which  matter  appears 
depends  upon  the  three 'prwiarij  forces,  and  upon  whether 
one  or  two  of  them  gain  the  supremacy  over  the 
remainder.  These  forces  are  the  angelic,  the  liuvian, 
and  the  animal.  The  three  forces  belong  only  to  matter, 
not  to  the  soul.  The  task  of  the  soul  is  to  learn  the 
actions  of  matter  like  a  spectator,  resembling  a  traveller 
who  sits  down  in  a  village  to  repose.  Each  villager  is 
busy  with  his  own  particular  work,  but  he  looks  at 
them  and  considers  their  doings,  disliking  some,  liking 
others,  and  taking  an  example  from  them.  In  this  way 
he  is  busy  without  having  himself  any  share  in  the 
business  going  on,  and  without  being  the  cause  which 
has  brouoht  it  about. 

o 

The  book  of  Sariikhya  brings  action  into  relation  with 
the  soul,  though  the  soul  has  nothing  to  do  with  action, 
only  in  so  far  as  it  resembles  a  man  who  happens  to 
get  into  the  company  of  people  whom  he  does  not 
know.  They  are  robbers  returning  from  a  village 
which  they  have  sacked  and  destroyed,  and  he  has 
scarcely  marched  with  them  a  short  distance,  when 
they  are  overtaken  by  the  avengers.     The  whole  party 


CHAPTER  IV.  49 

are  taken  prisoners,  and  together  with  them  the  inno- 
cent man  is  dragged  off ;  and  being  treated  precisely 
as  they  are,  he  receives  the  same  punishment,  without 
having  taken  part  in  their  action. 

People  say  the  soul  resembles  the  rain-water  which 
comes  down  from  heaven,  always  the  same  and  of  the 
same  nature.  However,  if  it  is  gathered  in  vessels 
placed  for  the  purpose,  vessels  of  different  materials,  of 
gold,  silver,  glass,  earthenware,  clay,  or  bitter-salt  earth, 
it  begins  to  differ  in  appearance,  taste,  and  smell.  Thus 
the  soul  does  not  influence  matter  in  any  way,  except 
in  this,  that  it  gives  matter  life  b}^  being  in  close  con- 
tact with  it.  When,  then,  matter  begins  to  act,  the 
result  is  different,  in  conformity  with  the  one  of  the 
three  primary  forces  which  happens  to  preponderate, 
and  conformably  to  the  mutual  assistance  which  the 
other  two  latent  forces  afford  to  the  former.  This 
assistance  may  be  given  in  various  ways^  as  the  fresh 
oil,  the  dry  wick,  and  the  smoking  fire  help  each  other 
to  produce  light.  The  soul  is  in  matter  like  the  rider 
on  a  carriage,  being  attended  by  the  senses,  who  drive 
the  carriage  according  to  the  rider's  intentions.  But 
the  soul  for  its  part  is  guided  by  the  intelligence  with 
which  it  is  inspired  by  God.  This  intelligence  they 
describe  as  that  by  which  the  reality  of  things  is  appre- 
hended, which  shows  the  way  to  the  knowledge  of  God, 
and  to  such  actions  as  are  liked  and  praised  by  every- 
body. 


VOL. 


(     50    ) 


CHAPTEK   V. 


ON    THE    STATE   OF    THE   SOULS,    AND    THEIR   MIGRATIONS 
THROUGH   THE   WORLD   IN   THE   METEMPSYCHOSLS. 

As  the  ivord  of  co7ifession,"  There  is  no  god  but  God, 
Muliammad  is  his  prophet,"  is  the  shibboleth  of  Islam, 
the  Trinity  that  of  Christianity,  and  the  institute  of 
the  Sabbath  that  of  Judaism,  so  metempsychosis  is 
the  shibboleth  of  the  Hindu  religion.  Therefore  he 
who  does  not  believe  in  it  does  not  belong  to  them, 
and  is  not  reckoned  as  one  of  them.  For  they  hold  the 
following  belief : — 

The  soul,  as  long  as  it  has  not  risen  to  the  highest 
absolute  intelligence,  does  not  comprehend  the  totality 
of  objects  at  once,  or,  as  it  were,  in  no  time.  Therefore 
it  must  explore  all  particular  beings  and  examine  all  the 
possibilities  of  existence  ;  and  as  their  number  is,  though 
not  unlimited,  still  an  enormous  one,  the  soul  wants  an 
enormous  space  of  time  in  order  to  finish  the  contem- 
plation of  such  a  multiplicity  of  objects.  The  soul 
acquires  knowledge  only  by  the  contemplation  of  the 
individuals  and  the  species,  and  of  their  peculiar  actions 
and  conditions.  It  gains  experience  from  each  object, 
and  gathers  thereby  new  knowledge. 

However,  these  actions  differ  in  the  same  measure  as 
the  three  primary  forces  differ.  Besides,  the  world  is 
not  left  without  some  direction,  being  led,  as  it  were,  by 
a  bridle  and  directed  towards  a  definite  scope.  There- 
fore the  imperishable  souls  wander  about  in  perishable 
bodies  conformably  to  the  difference  of  their  actions,  as 


CHAPTER   V.  51 

they  prove  to  be  good  or  bad.  The  object  of  the  migra- 
tion through  the  world  of  Tciuard  {i.e.  heaven)  is  to 
direct  the  attention  of  the  soul  to  the  good,  that  it  should 
become  desirous  of  acquiring  as  much  of  it  as  possible. 
The  object  of  its  migration  through  the  world  of  yttn- 
ishment  {i.e.  hell)  is  to  direct  its  attention  to  the  bad 
and  abominable,  that  it  should  strive  to  keep  as  far  as 
possible  aloof  from  it. 

The  migration  begins  from  low  stages,  and  rises  to 
higher  and  better  ones,  not  the  contrary,  as  we  state 
on  purpose,  since  the  one  is  a  priori  as  possible  as  the 
other.  The  difference  of  these  lower  and  higher  stages 
depends  upon  the  difference  of  the  actions,  and  this 
again  results  from  the  quantitative  and  qualitative 
diversity  of  the  temperaments  and  the  various  degrees 
of  combinations  in  which  they  appear. 

This  migration  lasts  until  the  object  aimed  at  has 
been  completely  attained  both  for  the  soul  and  matter  ; 
the  lower  aim  being  the  disappearance  of  the  shape  of 
matter,  except  any  such  new  formation  as  may  appear 
desirable  ;  the  hi/fher  aim  being  the  ceasing  of  the  desire 
of  the  soul  to  learn  what  it  did  not  know  before,  the 
insight  of  the  soul  into  the  nobility  of  its  own  being 
and  its  independent  existence,  its  knowing  that  it  can 
dispense  with  matter  after  it  has  become  acquainted 
with  the  mean  nature  of  matter  and  the  instability  of 
its  shapes,  with  all  that  which  matter  offers  to  the 
senses,  and  with  the  truth  of  the  tales  about  its 
delights.  Then  the  soul  turns  away  from  matter ;  the 
connecting  links  are  broken,  the  union  is  dissolved. 
Separation  and  dissolution  take  place,  and  the  soul 
returns  to  its  home,  carrying  with  itself  as  much  of  the 
bliss  of  knowledge  as  sesame  develops  grains  and 
blossoms,  afterwards  never  separating  from  its  oil. 
The  intelligent  being,  intelligence  and  its  object,  are 
united  and  become  one. 

It  is  now  our  duty  to  produce  from  their  literature 


52  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

Quotations  some  cleai'  testimonies  as  to  this  subject  and  cognate 
book  Gitd.     theories  of  other  nations. 

Vasudeva  speaks  to  Arjuna  instigating  him  to  the 
battle,  whilst  they  stand  between  the  two  lines :  "  If  you 
believe  in  predestination,  you  must  know  that  neither 
they  nor  we  are  mortal,  and  do  not  go  away  without  a 
return,  for  the  souls  are  immortal  and  unchangeable. 
They  migrate  through  the  bodies,  while  man  changes 
from  childhood  into  youth,  into  manhood  and  infirm 
age,  the  end  of  which  is  the  death  of  the  body.  There- 
after the  soul  proceeds  on  its  return." 

Further  he  says :  "  How  can  a  man  think  of  death 
and  being  killed  who  knows  that  the  soul  is  eternal, 
not  having  been  born  and  not  perishing ;  that  the  soul 
Page  26.  is  something  stable  and  constant ;  that  no  sword  can 
cut  it,  no  fire  burn  it,  no  water  extinguish  it,  and  no 
wind  wither  it?  The  soul  migrates  from  its  body,  after  it 
has  become  old,  into  another,  a  different  one,  as  the  body, 
when  its  dress  has  become  old,  is  clad  in  another.  What 
then  is  your  sorrow  about  a  soul  which  does  not  perish  ? 
If  it  were  perishable,  it  would  be  more  becoming  that 
you  should  not  sorrow  about  a  thing  which  may  be  dis- 
pensed with,  which  does  not  exist,  and  does  not  return 
into  existence.  But  if  you  look  more  to  your  body 
than  to  your  soul,  and  are  in  anxiety  about  its  perish- 
ing, you  must  know  that  all  that  which  is  born  dies, 
and  that  all  that  which  dies  returns  into  another  exist- 
ence. However,  both  life  and  death  are  not  your  con- 
cern. They  are  in  the  hands  of  God,  from  whom  all 
things  come  and  to  whom  they  return." 

In  the  further  course  of  conversation  Arjuna  speaks 
to  Vasudeva  :  "How  did  you  dare  thus  to  fight  Brahman, 
Brahman  who  was  before  the  world  was  and  before 
man  was,  whilst  you  are  living  among  us  as  a  being, 
whose  birth  and  age  are  known  ?  " 

Thereupon  Vasudeva  answered:  "  Eternity  (pre-exist- 
ence)  is  common  to  both  of  us  and  to  him.     How  often 


CHAPTER   V.  53 

have  we  lived  together,  when  I  knew  the  times  of  our  life 
and  death,  whilst  they  were  concealed  from  you  !  When 
I  desire  to  appear  in  order  to  do  some  good,  I  array 
myself  in  a  body,  since  one  cannot  be  with  man  except 
in  a  human  shape." 

People  tell  a  tale  of  a  king,  whose  name  I  have 
forgotten,  who  ordered  his  people  after  his  death  to 
bury  his  body  on  a  spot  where  never  before  had  a  dead 
person  been  buried.  Now  they  sought  for  sucli  a  spot, 
but  could  not  find  it ;  finally,  on  finding  a  rock  pro- 
jecting out  of  the  ocean,  they  thought  they  had  found 
what  they  wanted.  But  then  Vasudeva  spoke  unto 
them,  "  This  king  has  been  burned  on  this  identical 
rock  already  many  times.  But  now  do  as  you  like  ;  for 
the  king  only  wanted  to  give  you  a  lesson,  and  this 
aim  of  his  has  now  been  attained." 

Vasudeva  says  :  "  He  who  hopes  for  salvation  and 
strives  to  free  himself  from  the  world,  but  whose  heart 
is  not  obedient  to  his  wish,  will  be  rewarded  for  his 
action  in  the  worlds  of  those  who  receive  a  good  re- 
ward ;  but  he  does  not  attain  his  last  object  on  account 
of  his  deficiency,  therefore  he  will  return  to  this  world, 
and  will  be  found  worthy  of  entering  a  new  shape  of  a 
kind  of  beings  whose  special  occupation  is  devotion. 
Divine  inspiration  helps  him  to  raise  himself  in  this 
new  shape  by  degrees  to  that  which  he  already  wished 
for  in  the  first  shape.  His  heart  begins  to  comply  with 
his  wish  ;  he  is  more  and  more  purified  in  the  different 
shapes,  until  he  at  last  obtains  salvation  in  an  uninter- 
rupted series  of  new  births." 

Further,  Vasudeva  says:  "If  the  soul  is  free  from 
matter,  it  is  knowing  ;  but  as  long  as  it  is  clad  in  matter, 
the  soul  is  not-knowing,  on  account  of  the  turbid  nature 
of  matter.  It  thinks  that  it  is  an  agent,  and  that  the 
actions  of  the  world  are  prepared  for  its  sake.  There- 
fore it  clings  to  them,  and  it  is  stamped  with  the  im- 
pressions of  the  senses.     When,  then,  the  soul  leaves 


54  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

the  body,  the  traces  of  the  impressions  of  the  senses 
remain  in  it,  and  are  not  completely  eradicated,  as  it 
longs  for  the  world  of  sense  and  returns  towards  it. 
And  since  it  in  these  stages  undergoes  changes  entirely 
opposed  to  each  other,  it  is  thereby  subject  to  the 
influences  of  the  three  i^rimary  forces.  What,  therefore, 
can  the  soul  do,  its  wing  being  cut,  if  it  is  not  suffi- 
ciently trained  and  prepared  ?  " 

Vasudeva  says  :  "  The  best  of  men  is  the  perfectly 
wise  one,  for  he  loves  God  and  God  loves  him.  How 
many  times  has  he  died  and  been  born  again  !  During 
his  whole  life  he  perseveringly  seeks  for  perfection  till 
he  obtains  it." 

In  the  Vishnu-Dharma,  Markandeya,  speaking  of  the 
spiritual  beings,  says  :  "  Brabman,  Karttikeya,  son  of 
Mahadeva,  Lakshmi,  who  produced  the  Amrita,  Daksha, 
who  was  beaten  by  Mahadeva,  Umadevi,  the  wife  of 
Mahadeva,  each  of  them  has  been  in  the  middle  of  this 
kaipct,  and  they  have  been  the  same  already  many 
times." 

Varahamibira  speaks  of  the  influences  of  the  comets, 
and  of  the  calamities  which  befall  men  when  they 
appear.  These  calamities  compel  them  to  emigrate 
from  their  homes,  lean  from  exhaustion,  moaning  over 
their  mishap,  leading  their  children  by  the  hand  along 
the  road,  and  speaking  to  each  other  in  low  tones, 
"  We  are  punished  for  the  sins  of  our  kings  ;  "  where- 
upon others  answer,  "  Not  so.  This  is  the  retribution 
for  what  we  have  done  in  the  former  life,  before  we 
entered  these  bodies." 

When  Mani  was  banished  from  Errmshahr,  he  went 
to  India,  learned  metempsychosis  from  the  Hindus,  and 
transferred  it  into  his  own  system.  He  sa^^s  in  the  Boole, 
of  Mysteries :  "  Since  the  Ajoostles  knew  that  the  souls 
are  immortal,  and  that  in  their  migrations  they  array 
themselves  in  every  form,  that  they  are  shaped  in  every 
animal,  and  are  cast  in  the  mould  of  every  figure,  they 


CHAPTER   V.  55 

asked  Messiah  what  would  be  the  end  of  those  souls  which 
did  not  receive  the  truth  nor  learn  the  origin  of  their 
existence.  Whereupon  he  said,  '  Any  weak  soul  which 
has  not  received  all  that  belongs  to  her  of  truth  perishes 
without  any  rest  or  bliss.'"  'By  perishing  Mani  means 
her  being  punished,  not  her  total  disappearance.  For 
in  another  place  he  says  :  "  The  partisans  of  Bardesanes 
think  that  the  living  soul  rises  and  is  purified  in  the 
carcase,  not  knowing  that  the  latter  is  the  enemy  of 
the  soul,  that  the  carcase  prevents  the  soul  from  rising, 
that  it  is  a  prison,  and  a  painful  punishment  to  the 
soul.  If  this  human  figure  were  a  real  existence,  its 
creator  would  not  let  it  wear  out  and  suffer  injury,  and 
would  not  have  compelled  it  to  reproduce  itself  by  the 
sperma  in  the  uterus." 

The  following  passage  is  taken  from  the  book  of  Patafijaii 
Patanjali  : — "  The  soul,  being  on  all  sides  tied  to 
ignorance,  which  is  the  cause  of  its  being  fettered, 
is  like  rice  in  its  cover.  As  long  as  it  is  there, 
it  is  capable  of  growing  and  ripening  in  the  tran- 
sition stages  between  being  born  and  giving  birth 
itself.  But  if  the  cover  is  taken  off  the  rice,  it  ceases 
to  develop  in  this  way,  and  becomes  stationary. 
The  retribution  of  the  soul  depends  on  the  various 
kinds  of  creatures  through  which  it  wanders,  upon 
the  extent  of  life,  whether  it  be  long  or  short,  and 
upon  the  particular  kind  of  its  happiness,  be  it  scanty 
or  ample." 

The  pupil  asks  :  "  What  is  the  condition  of  the  spirit 
when  it  has  a  claim  to  a  recompense  or  has  committed 
a  crime,  and  is  then  entangled  in  a  kind  of  new  birth 
either  in  order  to  receive  bliss  or  to  be  punished  ?  " 

The  master  says  :   "It  migrates  according  to  what 
it  has  previously  done,  fluctuating  between  happiness  Pag9  28. 
and  misfortune,  and  alternately  experiencing  pain  or 
pleasure." 

The  pupil  asks  :   "  If  a  man  commits  something  which 


56  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

necessitates  a  retribution  for  him  in  a  different  shape 
from  that  in  which  he  has  committed  the  thiDg,  and  if 
between  both  stages  there  is  a  great  interval  of  time 
and  the  matter  is  forgotten,  what  then  ?  " 

The  master  answers:  "It  is  the  nature  of  action  to 
adhere  to  the  spirit,  for  action  is  its  product,  whilst 
the  body  is  only  an  instrument  for  it.  Forgetting  does 
not  apply  to  spiritual  matters,  for  they  lie  outside  of 
time,  with  the  nature  of  which  the  notions  of  long  and 
short  duration  are  necessarily  connected.  Action,  by 
adhering  to  the  spirit,  frames  its  nature  and  character 
into  a  condition  similar  to  that  one  into  which  the  soul 
will  enter  on  its  next  migration.  The  soul  in  its  purity 
knows  this,  thinks  of  it,  and  does  not  forget  it ;  but  the 
light  of  the  soul  is  covered  by  the  turbid  nature  of  the 
body  as  long  as  it  is  connected  with  the  body.  Then 
the  soul  is  like  a  man  who  remembers  a  thing  which  he 
once  knew,  but  then  forgot  in  consequence  of  insanity 
or  an  illness  or  some  intoxication  which  overpowered  his 
mind.  Do  you  not  observe  that  little  children  are  in 
high  spirits  when  people  wish  them  a  long  life,  and 
are  sorry  when  people  imprecate  upon  them  a  speedy 
death  ?  And  what  would  the  one  thing  or  the  other 
signify  to  them,  if  they  had  not  tasted  the  sweetness  of 
life  and  experienced  the  bitterness  of  death  in  former 
generations  through  which  they  had  been  migrating  to 
undergo  the  due  course  of  retribution  ?  " 

The  ancient  Greeks  agreed  with  the  Hindus  in  this 
belief.  Socrates  says  in  the  book  Phaedo :  "  We  are 
reminded  in  the  tales  of  the  ancients  that  the  souls 
go  from  here  to  Hades,  and  then  come  from  Hades 
to  here ;  that  the  living  originates  from  the  dead,  and 
that  altogether  things  originate  from  their  contraries. 
Therefore  those  who  have  died  are  among  the  living. 
Our  souls  lead  an  existence  of  their  own  in  Hades. 
The  soul  of  each  man  is  glad  or  sorry  at  something,  and 
contemplates  this  thing.     This  impressionable  nature 


CHAPTER   V.  57 

ties  the  soul  to  the  body,  nails  it  down  in  the  body, 
and  gives  it,  as  it  were,  a  bodily  figure.  The  soul 
which  is  not  pure  cannot  go  to  Hades.  It  quits  the 
body  still  filled  with  its  nature,  and  then  migrates 
hastily  into  another  body,  in  which  it  is,  as  it  were, 
deposited  and  made  fast.  Therefore,  it  has  no  share  in 
the  living  of  the  company  of  the  unique,  pure,  divine 
essence." 

Further  he  says  :  "If  the  soul  is  an  independent 
being,  our  learning  is  nothing  but  remembering  that 
which  we  had  learned  previously,  because  our  souls 
were  in  some  place  before  they  appeared  in  this  human 
figure.  When  people  see  a  thing  to  the  use  of  which 
they  were  accustomed  in  childhood,  they  are  under  the 
influence  of  this  impressionability,  and  a  cymbal,  for 
instance,  reminds  them  of  the  boy  who  used  to  beat  it, 
whom  they,  however,  had  forgotten.  Forgetting  is  the 
vanishing  of  knowledge,  and  knowing  is  the  soul's 
remembrance  of  that  which  it  had  learned  before  it 
entered  the  body." 

Proclus  says :  "  Remembering  and  forgetting  are 
peculiar  to  the  soul  endowed  with  reason.  It  is 
evident  that  the  soul  has  always  existed.  Hence  it 
follows  that  it  has  always  been  both  knowing  and  for-  Page  29. 
getting,  knowing  when  it  is  separated  from  the  body, 
forgetting  when  it  is  in  connection  with  the  body.  For, 
being  separated  from  the  body,  it  belongs  to  the  realm 
of  the  spirit,  and  therefore  it  is  knowing ;  but  being 
connected  wdth  the  body,  it  descends  from  the  realm  of 
the  spirit,  and  is  exposed  to  forgetting  because  of  some 
forcible  influence  prevailing  over  it." 

The  same  doctrine  is  professed  by  those  8ufi  who  siift 
teach  that  this  world  is  a  sleeping  soul  and  yonder 
world  a  soul  awake,  and  who  at  the  same  time  admit 
that  God  is  immanent  in  certain  places — e.g.  in  heaven 
— in  the  seat  and  the  throne  of  God  (mentioned  in  the 
Koran).     But  then  there  are  others  who   admit  that 


58  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

God  is  immanent  in  the  whole  world,  in  animals,  trees, 
and  the  inanimate  world,  which  they  call  his  universal 
ajjpearance.  To  those  who  hold  this  view,  the  entering 
of  the  souls  into  various  beings  in  the  course  of  metem- 
psychosis is  of  no  consequence. 


(     59    ) 


CHAPTER   VI. 

ON   THE   DIFFERENT   WORLDS,   AND    ON   THE   PLACES 
OF   RETRIBUTION   IN   PARADISE   AND    HELL. 

The  Hindus  call  the  world  loka.  Its  primary  division  The  three 
consists  of  the  upper,  the  low,  and  the  middle.-  The 
upper  one  is  called  svarloka,  i,e.  paradise ;  the  low, 
ndgaloka,  i.e.  the  world  of  the  serpents,  which  is  hell ; 
besides  they  call  it  naraloka,  and  sometimes  also  patella, 
i.e.  the  lowest  world.  The  middle  world,  that  one  in 
which  we  live,  is  called  madhyaloka  and  manashyaloka, 
i.e.  the  world  of  men.  In  the  latter,  man  has  to  earn,  in 
the  upper  to  receive  his  reward  ;  in  the  low,  to  receive 
punishment.  A  man  who  deserves  to  .come  to  svarloka 
or  ndgaloka  receives  there  the  full  recompense  of  his 
deeds  during  a  certain  length  of  time  corresponding  to 
the  duration  of  his  deeds,  but  in  either  of  them  there  is 
only  the  soul,  the  soul  free  from  the  body. 

For  those  who  do  not  deserve  to  rise  to  heaven  and  to 
sink  as  low  as  hell  there  is  another  world  called  tiryag- 
loka,  the  irrational  world  of  j^lants  and  animals,  through 
the  individuals  of  which  the  soul  has  to  wander  in 
the  metempsychosis  until  it  reaches  the  human  being, 
rising  by  degrees  from  the  lowest  kinds  of  the  vegetable 
world  to  the  highest  classes  of  the  sensitive  world.  The 
stay  of  the  soul  in  this  world  has  one  of  the  following 
causes :  either  the  award  which  is  due  to  the  soul  is  not 
sufficient  to  raise  it  into  heaven  or  to  sink  it  into  hell, 
or  the  soul  is  in  its  wanderings  on  the  way  back  from 
hell ;  for  they  believe  that  a  soul  returning  to  the  human 


6o 


A  LB  E  RUNTS  INDIA. 


Quotation 
from  the 
Vishnu- 
Purdna. 


Page  30. 


world  from  heaven  at  once  adopts  a  human  body, 
whilst  that  one  which  returns  there  from  hell  has  first 
to  wander  about  in  plants  and  animals  before  it  reaches 
the  degree  of  living  in  a  human  body. 

The  Hindus  speak  in  their  traditions  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  hells,  of  their  qualities  and  their  names,  and  for 
each  kind  of  sin  they  have  a  special  hell.  The  number 
of  hells  is  88,000  according  to  the  Vishnu- Pur di) a. 
We  shall  quote  what  this  book  says  on  the  subject : — 

"The  man  who  makes  a  false  claim  and  who  bears 
false  witness,  he  who  helps  these  two  and  he  who 
ridicules  people,  come  into  the  Raurava  hell. 

"He  who  sheds  innocent  blood,  who  robs  others  of 
their  rights  and  plunders  them,  and  who  kills  cows, 
comes  into  Rodha.  Those  also  who  strangle  people 
come  here. 

"Whoso  kills  a  Brahman,  and  he  who  steals  gold, 
and  their  companions,  the  princes  who  do  not  look  after 
their  subjects,  he  who  commits  adultery  with  the  family 
of  his  teacher,  or  who  lies  down  with  his  mother-in-law, 
come  into  TaiJtakumhha. 

"  Whoso  connives  at  the  shame  of  his  wife  for  greedi- 
ness, commits  adultery  with  his  sister  or  the  wife  of  his 
son,  sells  his  child,  is  stingy  towards  himself  with  his 
property  in  order  to  save  it,  comes  into  Mahdjivdla. 

"Whoso  is  disrespectful  to  his  teacher  and  is  not 
pleased  with  him,  despises  men,  commits  incest  with 
animals,  contemns  the  Veda  and  Puranas,  or  tries  to 
make  a  gain  by  means  of  them  in  the  markets,  comes 
into  Savala. 

"A  man  who  steals  and  commits  tricks,  who  opposes 
the  straight  line  of  conduct  of  men,  who  hates  his 
father,  who  does  not  like  God  and  men,  who  does  not 
honour  the  gems  which  God  has  made  glorious,  and 
who  considers  them  to  be  like  other  stones,  comes  into 
Krimisa. 

"  Whoso  does  not  honour  the  rights  of  parents  and 


CHAPTER   VI .  6t 

grandparents,  whoso  does  not  do  his  doty  towards  the 
angels,  the  maker  of  arrows  and  spear-points,  come  to 
Ldldhhaksha. 

"  The  maker  of  swords  and  knives  comes  to  Visasaiia. 

"  He  who  conceals  his  property,  being  greedy  for  the 
presents  of  the  rulers,  and  the  Brahman  who  sells  meat 
or  oil  or  bntter  or  sauce  or  wine,  come  to  Adhomukha. 

"  He  who  rears  cocks  and  cats,  small  cattle,  pigs,  and 
birds,  comes  to  Rudhirdndlta. 

"  Public  performers  and  singers  in  the  markets,  those 
who  dig  wells  for  drawing  water,  a  man  who  cohabits 
with  his  wife  on  holy  days,  who  throws  hre  into  the 
houses  of  men,  who  betrays  his  companion  and  then 
receives  him,  beiug  greedy  for  his  property,  come  to 
Rudhira. 

"  He  who  takes  the  honey  out  of  the  beehive  comes 
to  V altar  a  III. 

"Whoso  takes  away  by  force  the  proj^erty  and 
women  of  others  in  the  intoxication  of  youth  comes 
to  Krishna. 

"  Whoso  cuts  down  the  trees  comes  to  Asipatrairma. 

"The  hunter,  and  the  maker  of  snares  and  traps, 
come  to  Vahnij icdla. 

"  He  who  neglects  the  customs  and  rules,  and  he  who 
violates  the  laws — and  he  is  the  worst  of  all — come  to 
Sandamsaka.^^ 

We  have  given  this  enumeration  only  in  order  to 
show  what  kinds  of  deeds  the  Hindus  abhor  as  sins. 

Some  Hindus  believe  that  the  middle  world,  that  one  According 
for  earning,  is  the  human  world,  and  that  a  man  wan-  Hindus,  the 
ders  about  in  it,  because  he  has  received  a  reward  which  SiSigh'^ 
does  not  lead  him  into  heaven,  but  at  the  same  time  in^mais" 
saves  him  from  hell.     They  consider  heaven  as  a  higher  piacTo?^ 
stage,  where  a  man  lives  in  a  state  of  bliss  which  must  ^^^^' 
be  of  a  certain  duration  on  account  of  the  good  deeds 
he  has  done.     On  the  contrary,  they  consider  the  wan- 
dering about  in  plants  and  animals  as  a  lower  stage, 


62 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


where  a  man  dwells  for  punishment  for  a  certain  length 
of  time,  which  is  thought  to  correspond  to  the  wretched 
deeds  he  has  done.  People  who  hold  this  view  do  not 
know  of  another  hell,  but  this  kind  of  degradation 
below  the  degree  of  living  as  a  human  being. 

All  these  degrees  of  retribution  are  necessary  for  this 
reason,  that  the  seeking  for  salvation  from  the  fetters 
of  matter  frequently  does  not  proceed  on  the  straight 
line  which  leads  to  absolute  knowledge,  but  on  lines 
chosen  by  guessing  or  chosen  because  others  had  chosen 
them.  Not  one  action  of  man  shall  be  lost,  not  even 
the  last  of  all ;  it  shall  be  brought  to  his  account  after 
his  good  and  bad  actions  have  been  balanced  against 
each  other.  The  retribution,  however,  is  not  according 
to  the  deed,  but  according  to  the  intention  which  a  man 
had  in  doing  it ;  and  a  man  will  receive  his  reward 
either  in  the  form  in  which  he  lives  on  earth,  or  in  that 
form  into  which  his  soul  will  migrate,  or  in  a  kind  of 
intermediary  state  after  he  has  left  his  shape  and  has 
not  yet  entered  a  new  one. 

Here  now  the  Hindus  quit  the  path  of  philosophical 
speculation  and  turn  aside  to  traditional  fables  as  re- 
gards the  two  places  where  reward  or  punishment  is 
given,  ejj.  that  man  exists  there  as  an  incorporeal  being, 
and  that  after  having  received  the  reward  of  his  actions 
he  again  returns  to  a  bodily  appearance  and  human 
shape,  in  order  to  be  prepared  for  his  further  destiny. 
Therefore  the  author  of  the  book  Sdmhhya  does  not 
consider  the  reward  of  paradise  a  special  gain,  because  it 
has  an  end  and  is  not  eternal,  and  because  this  kind  of 
life  resembles  the  life  of  this  our  world  ;  for  it  is  not 
free  from  ambition  and  envy,  having  in  itself  various 
degrees  and  classes  of  existence,  whilst  cupidity  and 
desire  do  not  cease  save  where  there  is  perfect  equalit3^ 

The  Siifi,  too,  do  not  consider  the  stay  in  paradise  a 
special  gain  for  another  reason,  because  there  the  soul 
delights  in  other  things  but  the  Truth,  i.e.  God,  and  its 


CHAPTER   VI .  63 

thoughts  are  diverted  from  the  Absolute  Good  by  things 
which  are  not  the  Absolute  Good. 

We  have  already  said  that,  according  to  the  belief  of  ou  the  soui 
the  Hindus,  the  soul  exists  in  these  two  places  without  body"° 
a  body.     But  this  is  only  the  view  of  the   educated  popular"^' ^^ 
among  them,  who  understand  by  the  soul  an  indepen-  ^^^^^'^' 
dent  being.     However,  the  lower  classes,  and  those  who 
cannot  imagine  the   existence  of  the  soul   without  a 
body,  hold  about  this  subject  very  different  views.     One 
is  this,  that  the  cause  of  the  agony  of  death  is  the  soul's 
waiting  for  a  shape  which  is  to  be  prepared.     It  does 
not  quit  the  body  before  there  has  originated  a  cognate 
being  of  similar  functions,  one  of  those  which  nature 
prepares  either  as  an  embryo  in  a  mother's  womb  or  as 
a  seed  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth.     Then  the  soul  quits 
the  body  in  which  it  has  been  staying. 

Others  hold  the  more  traditional  view  that  the  soul 
does  not  wait  for  such  a  thing,  that  it  quits  its  shape 
on  account  of  its  weakness  whilst  another  body  has 
been  prepared  for  it  out  of  the  elements.  This  body 
is  called  ativdhika,  i.e.  that  vjltich  ijrows  in  haste,  because 
it  does  not  come  into  existence  by  being  born.  The 
soul  stays  in  this  body  a  complete  year  in  the  greatest 
agony,  no  matter  whether  it  has  deserved  to  be  rewarded 
or  to  be  punished.  This  is  like  the  Barzakh  of  the 
Persians,  an  intermediary  stage  between  the  periods  of 
acting  and  earning  and  that  of  receiving  award.  For 
this  reason  the  heir  of  the  deceased  must,  according  to 
Hindu  use,  fulfil  the  rites  of  the  year  for  the  deceased, 
duties  which  end  with  the  end  of  the  year,  for  then  the 
soul  goes  to  that  place  which  is  prepared  for  it. 

We  shall  now  give  some  extracts  from  their  litera-  Quotations 
tare  to  illustrate  these  ideas.     First  from  the  Vishriu  ^ivmu 
Purdna.^  ^  '      ^^^ 

"  Maitreya  asked  Parasara  about  the  purpose  of  hell  Ich^i^'^ 
and  the  punishment  in  it,  whereupon  he  answered :   '  It 
is  for  distinguishing  the  good  from  the  bad,  knowledge 


64  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

Page  32.  from  ignorance,  and  for  the  manifestation  of  justice. 
But  not  every  sinner  enters  hell.  Some  of  them  escape 
hell  by  previously  doing  works  of  repentance  and  ex- 
piation. The  greatest  expiation  is  uninterruptedly 
thinking  of  Vishnu  in  every  action.  Others  wander 
about  in  plants,  filthy  insects  and  birds,  and  abominable 
dirty  creeping  things  like  lice  and  worms,  for  such  a 
length  of  time  as  they  desire  it.'  " 

In  the  book  Sdmkhya  we  read  :  "  He  who  deserves 
exaltation  and  reward  will  become  like  one  of  the 
augels,  mixing  with  the  hosts  of  spiritual  beings,  not 
being  prevented  from  moving  freely  in  the  heavens 
and  from  living  in  the  company  of  their  inhabitants, 
or  like  one  of  the  eight  classes  of  spiritual  beings.  But 
he  who  deserves  humiliation  as  recompense  for  sins 
and  crimes  will  become  an  animal  or  a  plant,  and  will 
wander  about  until  he  deserves  a  reward  so  as  to  be 
saved  from  punishment,  or  until  he  offers  himself  as 
expiation,  flinging  away  the  vehicle  of  the  body,  and 
thereby  attaining  salvation." 
Muslim  A  theosoph   who  inclines   towards  metempsychosis 

metempsy-    ^^J^  *  "  ^he  metcmpsychosis  has  four  degrees  : 

"  I.  The  transferring,  i.e.  the  procreation  as  limited 
to  the  human  species,  because  it  transfers  existence 
from  one  individual  to  another  ;  the  opposite  of  this  is — 

"2.  The  transforming,  which  concerns  men  in  parti- 
cular, since  they  are  transformed  into  monkeys,  pigs, 
and  elephants. 

"3.  A  stable  condition  of  existence,  like  the  condition 
of  the  plants.  This  is  worse  than  transferring,  because 
it  is  a  stable  condition  of  life,  remains  as  it  is  through 
all  time,  and  lasts  as  long  as  the  mountains. 

"4.  The  dispersing,  the  opposite  of  number  3,  which 
applies  to  the  plants  that  are  plucked,  and  to  animals 
immolated  as  sacrifice,  because  they  vanish  without 
leaving  posterity." 

Abu-Yakub  of  Sijistan  maintains  in  his  book,  called 
"  The  disclosing  of  that  which  is  veiled,"  that  the  species 


cbosis. 


CHAPTER   VI.  65 

are  preserved  ;  that  metempsychosis  always  proceeds  in 
one  and  the  same  species,  never  crossing  its  limits  and 
passing  into  another  species. 

This  was  also  the   opinion  of  the  ancient  Greeks ;  Quotations 

.  p  i~»i  from  Johan- 

for  Joliannes  Grammaticus  relates  as  the  view  or  Plato  nes  Gram- 
that  the  rational  souls  will  be  clad  in  the  bodies  of  piato. 
animals,  and  that  in  this  regard  he  followed  the- fables 
of  Pythagoras. 

Socrates  says  in  the  book  Phceclo :  "  The  body  is 
earthy,  ponderous,  heavy,  and  the  soul,  which  loves  it, 
wanders  about  and  is  attracted  towards  the  place,  to 
which  it  looks  from  fear  of  the  shapeless  and  of  Hades, 
the  gatheriog-place  of  the  souls.  They  are  soiled,  and 
circle  round  the  graves  and  cemeteries,  where  souls 
have  been  seen  appearing  in  shadowy  forms.  This 
phantasmagoria  only  occurs  to  such  souls  as  have  not 
been  entirely  separated,  in  which  there  is  still  a  part 
of  that  towards  which  the  look  is  directed." 

Further  he  says  :  "  It  appears  that  these  are  not  the 
souls  of  the  good,  but  the  souls  of  the  wicked,  which 
wander  about  in  these  things  to  make  an  expiation  for 
the  badness  of  their  former  kind  of  rearing.  Thus  they 
remain  until  they  are  again  bound  in  a  body  on  account 
of  the  desire  for  the  bodily  shape  which  has  followed 
them.  They  will  dwell  in  bodies  the  character  of 
which  is  like  the  character  which  they  had  in  the  world. 
Whoso,  e.g.  only  cares  for  eating  and  drinking  will  enter 
the  various  kinds  of  asses  and  wild  animals  ;  and  he 
who  preferred  wrong  and  oppression  will  enter  the 
various  kinds  of  wolves,  and  falcons,  and  hawks." 

Further  he  says  about  the  gathering-places  of  the 
souls  after  death :  "If  I  did  not  think  that  I  am 
going  first  to  gods  who  are  wise,  ruling,  and  good,  Page  33. 
then  afterwards  to  men,  deceased  ones,  better  than 
those  here,  I  should  be  wrong  not  to  be  in  sorrow  about 
death." 

Further,  Plato  says  about  the  two  places  of  reward  and 

VOL.  I.  E 


66  ALBERUNfS  INDIA. 

of  punishment :  "  When  a  man  dies,  a  claimon,  i.e.  one  of 
the  guardians  of  hell,  leads  him  to  the  tribunal  of  judg- 
ment, and  a  guide  whose  special  office  it  is  brings  him,  to- 
gether with  those  assembled  there,  to  Hades,  and  there  he 
remains  the  necessary  number  of  many  and  long  cycles 
of  time.  Telephos  says,  '  The  road  of  Hades  is  an 
even  one.'  I,  however,  say,  '  If  the  I'oad  were  even  or 
only  a  single  one,  a  guide  could  be  dispensed  with.' 
Now  that  soul  which  longs  for  the  body,  or  whose  deeds 
were  evil  and  not  just,  which  resembles  souls  that  have 
committed  murder,  flies  from  there  and  encloses  itself  in 
every  species  of  being  until  certain  times  pass  by. 
Thereupon  it  is  brought  by  necessity  to  that  place 
which  is  suitable  to  it.  But  the  pure  soul  finds  com- 
panions and  guides,  gods,  and  dwells  in  the  places 
which  are  suitable  to  it." 

Further  he  says  :  "  Those  of  the  dead  who  led  a 
middle  sort  of  life  travel  on  a  vessel  prepared  for 
them  over  Acheron.  After  they  have  received  punish- 
ment and  have  been  purified  from  crime,  they  wash 
and  receive  honour  for  the  good  deeds  which  they 
did  according  to  merit.  Those,  however,  who  had 
committed  great  sins,  e.g.  the  stealing  from  the  sacri- 
fices of  the  gods,  robberies  on  a  great  scale,  unjust 
killing,  repeatedly  and  consciously  violating  the  laws, 
are  thrown  into  Tartarus,  whence  they  will  never  be 
able  to  escape." 

Further :  "  Those  who  repented  of  their  sins  already 
during  their  lifetime,  and  whose  crimes  were  of  a  some- 
what lower  degree,  who,  e.g.  committed  some  act  of 
violence  against  their  parents,  or  committed  a  murder  by 
mistake,  are  thrown  into  Tartarus,  being  punished  there 
for  a  whole  year ;  but  then  the  wave  throws  them  out  to 
a  place  whence  they  cry  to  their  antagonists,  asking 
them  to  abstain  from  further  retaliation,  that  they  may 
be  saved  from  the  horrors  of  punishment.  H  those  now 
agree,  they  are  saved  ;  if  not,  they  are  sent  back  into 


CHAPTER   VI.  67 

Tartarus.  And  this,  their  punishment,  goes  on  until 
their  antagonists  agree  to  their  demands  for  being  re- 
lieved. Those  whose  mode  of  life  was  virtuous  are 
liberated  from  these  places  on  this  earth.  They  feel  as 
though  released  from  prison,  and  they  will  inhabit  the 
pure  earth." 

Tartarus  is  a  huge  deep  ravine  or  gap  into  which  the 
rivers  flow.  All  people  understand  by  the  punishment 
of  hell  the  most  dreadful  things  which  are  known  to 
them,  and  the  Western  countries,  like  Greece,  have 
sometimes  to  suffer  deluges  and  floods.  But  the  de- 
scription of  Plato  indicates  a  place  where  there  are 
glaring  flames,  and  it  seems  that  he  means  the  sea  or 
some  part  of  the  ocean,  in  which  there  is  a  whirlpool 
{dtordilr,  a  pun  upon  Tartarus).  No  doubt  these  de- 
scriptions represent  the  belief  of  the  men  of  those 
ages. 


(     68     ) 


CHAPTER   VIL 

ON    THE   NATUKE    OF   LIBKKATION   EKOM    THE   WORLD, 
AND    ON   THE    PATH    LEADING   THERETO. 


First  part : 
Moksha  in 
general. 


Page  34. 


Moksha  ac- 
cording to 
Patanjali. 


If  the  soul  is  bound  up  with  the  world,  and  its  being 
bound  up  has  a  certain  cause,  it  cannot  be  liberated 
from  this  bond  save  by  the  opposite  of  this  identical 
cause.  Now  according  to  the  Hindus,  as  we  have 
already  explained  (p.  55),  the  reason  of  the  bond  is 
ignorance,  and  therefore  it  can  only  be  liberated  by 
knowledge,  by  comprehending  all  things  in  such  a  way 
as  to  define  them  both  in  general  and  in  particular, 
rendering  superfluous  any  kind  of  deduction  and  re- 
moving all  doubts.  I  For  the  soul  distinguishing  between 
things  (ra  oVra)  by  means  of  definitions,  recognises  its 
own  self,  and  recognises  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  its 
noble  lot  to  last  for  ever,  and  that  it  is  the  vulgar  lot  of 
matter  to  change  and  to  perish  in  all  kinds  of  shapes. J 
Then  it  dispenses  with  matter,  and  perceives  that  that 
which  it  held  to  be  good  and  delightful  is  in  reality 
bad  and  painful.  \  In  this  manner  it  attains  real  know- 
ledge and  turns  away  from  being  arrayed  in  matter. 
Thereby  action  ceases,  and  both  matter  and  soul  become 
free  by  separating  from  each  other. 

The  author  of  the  book  of  Patanjali  says  :  "  The  con- 
centration of  thought  on  the  unity  of  God  induces  man 
to  notice  something  besides  that  with  which  he  is 
occupied.  He  who  wants  God,  wants  the  good  for  the 
whole  creation  without  a  single  exception  for  any  reason 
whatever  ;  but  he  who  occupies  himself  exclusively  with 


CHAPTER   VIL  ^      69 

his  own  self,  will  for  its  benefit  neither  inhale,  breathe, 
nor  exhale  it  [svclsa  and  ^j?'a5msft).  When  a  man 
attains  to  this  degree,  his  spiritual  power  prevails  over 
his  bodily  power,  and  then  he  is  gifted  with  the  faculty 
of  doing  eight  different  things  by  which  detachment  is 
realised  ;7for  a  man  can  only  dispense  with  that  which 
he  is  aMe  to  do,  not  with  that  which  is  outside  his 
grasp.     These  eight  things  are  : — 

"  I.  The  faculty  in  man  of  making  his  body  so  thin 
that  it  becomes  invisible  to  the  eyes. 

"  2.  The  faculty  of  making  the  body  so  light  that  it  is 
indifferent  to  him  whether  he  treads  on  thorns  or  mud 
or  sand. 

"3.  The  faculty  of  making  his  body  so  big  that  it 
appears  in  a  terrifying  miraculous  shape. 

"  4.  The  faculty  of  realising  every  wish. 

"  5.  The  faculty  of  knowing  whatever  he  wishes. 

"  6.  The  faculty  of  becoming  the  ruler  of  whatever 
religious  community  he  desires. 

*'  7.  That  those  over  whom  he  rules  are  humble  and 
obedient  to  him. 

"  8.  That  all  distances  between  a  man  and  any  far- 
away place  vanish." 

The  terms  of  the  Sufi  as  to  the  hioiuing  being  and  sufi 
his  attaining  the  stage  of  hioidcdgc  come  to  the  same  ^'^^^ 
effect,  for  the}^  maintain  that  he  has  two  souls — an 
eternal  one,  not  exposed  to  change  and  alteration,  by 
which    he    knows    that    which    is    hidden,    the    trans- 
cendental world,  and  performs  wonders!  and  another, 
a  human  soul,  which  is  liable  to  being  changed  and  being 
born.   i'From  these  and  similar  views  the  doctrines  of  f/ 
the  Christians  do  not  much  differ. 

The  Hindus  say  :  "  If  a  man  has  the  faculty  to  per-  Thediffer- 
form  these  things,  he  can  dispense  with  them,  and  will  o?know-^^^ 
reach   the    goal   by   degrees,  passing   through   several  accOTdiugto 
stages :—  ^"'"'^^'^■• 

"  I.  The  knowledge  of  things  as  to  their  names  and 


70  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

qualities  and  distinctions,  which,  however,  does  not  yet 
afford  the  knowledge  of  definitions. 

"  2.  Such  a  knowledge  of  things  as  proceeds  as  far  as 
the  definitions  by  which  particulars  are  classed  under 
the  category  of  universals,  but  regarding  which  a  man 
must  still  practise  distinction. 

"3.  This  distinction  (viveht)  disappears,  and  man 
comprehends  things  at  once   as  a  whole,  but  within 

"  4.  This  kind  of  knowledge  is  raised  above  time,  and 
he  who  has  it  can  dispense  with  names  and  epithets, 
which  are  only  instruments  of  human  imperfection. 
In  this  stage  the  intellectus  and  the  intelligens  unite 
with  the  intellcctum,  so  as  to  be  one  and  the  same 
thing." 

This  is  what  Pataiijali  says  about  the  knowledge 
which  liberates  the  soul.  In  Sanskrit  they  call  its 
liberation  Moksha — i.e.  tlie  end.  By  the  same  term 
they  call  the  last  contact  of  the  eclipsed  and  eclipsing 
bodies,  or  their  separation  in  both  lunar  and  solar 
eclipses,  because  it  is  the  end  of  the  eclipse,  the  moment 
when  the  two  luminaries  which  were  in  contact  with 
Page  35-        each  other  separate. 

According  to  the  Hindus,  the  organs  of  the  senses 
have  been  made  for  acquiring  knowledge,  and  the  plea- 
sure which  they  afford  has  been  created  to  stimulate 
people  to  research  and  investigation,  as  the  pleasure 
which  eating  and  drinking  afford  to  the  taste  has  been 
created  to  preserve  the  individual  by  means  of  nourish- 
ment. So  the  pleasure  of  coitus  serves  to  preserve  the 
species  by  giving  birth  to  new  individuals.  If  there 
were  not  special  pleasure  in  these  two  functions,  man 
and  animals  would  not  practise  them  for  these  pur- 
poses. 
On  know-  In  the  book  Gitd  we  read:   "Man  is  created  for  the 

cmdhig'to     purpose  of  knowing ;  and  because  knowing  is  always 
&!?d.^"""       the  same,  man  has  been  gifted  with  the  same  organs. 


CHAPTER   VI I.  71 

If  man  were  created  for  the  purpose  of  acting,  his 
organs  would  be  different,  as  actions  are  different  in 
consequence  of  the  difference  of  the  three  primary  forces. 
However,  bodily  nature  is  bent  upon  acting  on  account 
of  its  essential  opposition  to  hnoioing.  Besides,  it 
wishes  to  invest  action  with  pleasures  which  in  reality 
are  pains.  But  knowledge  is  such  as  to  leave  this 
nature  behind  itself  prostrated  on  the  earth  like  an 
opponent,  and  removes  all  darkness  from  the  soul  as 
an  eclipse  or  clouds  are  removed  from  the  sun." 

This  resembles  the  opinion  of  Socrates,  who  thinks  Quotation 

-.      .  .    1        1         1       n  T         •   1  •  1       ^^'^^  Plato's 

that  the  soul  "  being  with  the  body,  and  wishing  to  Phado. 
inquire  into  something,  then  is  deceived  by  the  body. 
But  by  cogitations  something  of  its  desires  becomes 
clear  to  it.  Therefore,  its  cogitation  takes  place  in  that 
time  when  it  is  not  disturbed  by  anything  like  hearing, 
seeing,  or  by  any  pain  or  pleasure,  when  it  is  quite  by 
itself,  and  has  as  much  as  possible  quitted  the  body 
and  its  companionship.  In  particular,  the  soul  of  the 
philosopher  scorns  the  body,  and  wishes  to  be  separate 
from  it." 

"  If  we  in  this  our  life  did  not  make  use  of  the  body, 
nor  had  anything  in  common  with  it  except  in  cases  of 
necessity,  if  we  were  not  inoculated  with  its  nature, 
but  were  perfectly  free  from  it,  we  should  come  near 
knowledge  by  getting  rest  from  the  ignorance  of  the 
body,  and  we  should  become  pure  by  knowing  our- 
selves as  far  as  God  would  permit  us.  And  it  is  only 
right  to  acknowledge  that  this  is  the  truth." 

Now  we  return  and  continue  our  quotation  from  the  The  process 

T_       1     n^j.  ^  of  know- 

book  (jTlta.  ledge  ac- 

"  Likewise  the  other  organs  of  the  senses  serve  for  ^T^dS'' 
acquiring  knowledge.     The  knowing  p>erson  rejoices  in  souSe;'^ 
turning  them  to  and  fro  on  the  field  of  knowledge,  so 
that  they  are  his  spies.     The  apprenhension  of  the  senses 
is  different  according  to  time.     The  senses  which  serve 
the  heart  perceive  only  that  which    is    present.     The 


72  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

heart  reflects  over  that  which  is  present  and  remembers 
also  the  past.  The  nature  takes  hold  of  the  present, 
claims  it  for  itself  in  the  past,  and  prepares  to  wrestle 
with  it  in  future.  The  reason  understands  the  nature 
of  a  thing,  no  regard  being  had  of  time  or  date,  since 
past  and  future  are  the  same  for  it.  Its  nearest  helpers 
are  rcjiection  and  nature ;  the  most  distant  are  the  five 
senses.  When  the  senses  bring  before  reflection  some 
particular  object  of  knowledge,  reflection  cleans  it  from 
the  errors  of  the  functions  of  the  senses,  and  hands  it 
over  to  reason.  Thereupon  reason  makes  universal 
what  was  before  particular,  and  communicates  it  to  the 
soul.     Thus  the  soul  comes  to  know  it." 

Further,  the  Hindus  think  that  a  man  becomes  know- 
ing in  one  of  three  ways : — 

1.  V»y  being  inspired,  not  in  a  certain  course  of  time, 
but  at  once,  at  birth,  and  in  the  cradle,  as,  e.g.  the  sage 
Kapila,  for  he  was  born  knowing  and  wise. 

2.  By  being  inspired  after  a  certain  time,  like  the 
children  of  Brahman,  for  they  were  inspired  when  they 
came  of  age. 

3.  By  learning,  and  after  a  certain  course  of  time, 
like  all  men  who  learn  when  their  mind  ripens. 

Page  36  Liberation  through  knowledge  can  only  be  obtained 

wratif  *JAd    ^y  abstaining  from  evil.     The  branches  of  evil  are  many, 

Se  the  chief  ^^^  ^®  ^^^1  classify  them  as  cupidity,  wrath,  and  ignor- 

Mokshr*°  a7ice.     If  the  roots  are  cut  the  branches  will  wither. 

And  here  we  have  first  to  consider  the  rule  of  the  two 

forces  of  cupidity  and  wrath,  which  are  the  greatest  and 

most  pernicious  enemies  of  man,  deluding  him  by  the 

pleasure  of  eating  and  the  delight  of  revenge,  whilst  in 

reality  they  are  much  more  likely  to  lead  him  into 

pains  and  crimes.     They  make  a  man  similar  to  the 

wild  beasts  and  the  cattle,  nay,  even  to  the  demons  and 

devils. 

Next  we  have  to  consider  that  man  must  prefer  the 
reasoning  force  of  mind,  by  which  he  becomes  similar 


CHAPTER   VII.  73 

to  the  highest  angels,  to  the  forces  of  cupidity  and 
wrath  ;  and,  lastly,  that  he  must  turn  away  from  the 
actions  of  the  world.  He  cannot,  however,  give  up  these 
actions  unless  he  does  away  with  their  causes,  which 
are  his  lust  and  ambition.  Thereby  the  second  of  the 
three  i^rimary  forces  is  cut  away.  However,  the  abstain- 
ing/ro«^  action  takes  place  in  two  different  ways  : — 

1.  By  laziness,  procrastination,  and  ignorance  accord- 
ing to  the  third  force.  This  mode  is  not  desirable,  for 
it  will  lead  to  a  blamable  end. 

2.  By  judicious  selection  and  by  preferring  that  which 
is  better  to  that  which  is  good,  which  way  leads  to  a 
laudable  end. 

The  abstaining  from  actions  is  rendered  perfect  in  this 
way,  that  a  man  quits  anything  that  might  occuj^y  him 
and  shuts  himself  up  against  it.  Thereby  he  will  be 
enabled  to  restrain  his  senses  from  extraneous  objects 
to  such  a  degree  that  he  does  not  any  more  know  that 
there  exists  anything  besides  himself,  and  be  enabled 
to  stop  all  motions,  and  even  the  breathing.  It  is 
evident  that  a  greedy  man  strains  to  effect  his  object, 
the  man  who  strains  becomes  tired,  and  the  tired  man 
pants  ;  so  the  panting  is  the  result  of  greediness.  If 
this  greediness  is  removed,  the  breathing  becomes  like 
the  breathing  of  a  being  living  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
that  does  not  want  breath  ;  and  then  the  heart  quietly 
rests  on  one  thing,  viz.  the  search  for  liberation  and 
for  arriving  at  the  absolute  unity. 

In  the  book  Gitd  we  read  :   "  How  is  a  man  to  ob-  Further 

quotations 

tain  liberation  who  disperses  his  heart  and  does  not  fiom  GUa. 
concentrate  it  alone  upon  God,  who  does  not  exclu- 
sively direct  his  action  towards  him  ?  But  if  a  man 
turns  away  his  cogitation  from  all  other  things  and 
concentrates  it  upon  the  One,  the  light  of  his  heart  will 
be  steady  like  the  light  of  a  lamp  filled  with  clean  oil, 
standing  in  a  corner  where  no  wind  makes  it  flicker, 
and  he  will  be  occupied  in  such    a   degree  as  not  to 


74  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

perceive  anything  that  gives  j^ain,  like  heat  or  cold, 
knowing  that  everything  besides  the  One,  the  Truth, 
is  a  vain  phantom." 

In  the  same  book  we  read  :  "  Pain  and  pleasure  have 
no  effect  on  the  real  world,  jnst  as  the  coutinnons  flow 
of  the  streams  to  the  ocean  does  not  affect  its  water. 
How  could  anybody  ascend  this  mountain  pass  save  him 
who  has  conquered  cv/piclity  and  lurath  and  rendered 
them  inert?  " 

On  account  of  w^iat  we  have  explained  it  is  necessary 
that  cogitation  should  be  continuous,  not  in  any  way 
to  be  defined  by  number ;  for  a  number  always  de- 
notes TeiJeated  times,  and  repeated  times  ^^resuppose  a 
break  in  the  cogitation  occurring  between  two  consecu- 
tive times.  This  would  interrupt  the  continuity,  and 
would  prevent  cogitation  becoming  united  with  the 
object  of  cogitation.  And  this  is  not  the  object  kept 
in  view,  which  is,  on  the  contrary,  the  co7iti7iuity  of 
cogitation. 

This  goal  is  attained  either  in  a  single  shape,  i.e.  a 
single  stage  of  metempsychosis,  or  in  several  shapes, 
in  this  way,  that  a  man  perpetually  practises  virtuous 
behaviour  and  accustoms  the  soul  thereto,  so  that  this 
virtuous  behaviour  becomes  to  it  a  nature  and  an 
essential  quality. 

Virtuous  behaviour  is  that  which  is  described  by 
The  nine       the  religious  law.     Its  principal  laws,  from  which  they 

eonunand-        ,       .  -,  ,  i  •      j  i 

nients  of       derive  many  secondary  ones,  may  be  summed  up  in  the 

the  Hindu        f    n         •  "•  ^ 

religion.        lollowing  nine  rules  : — 

1.  A  man  shall  not  kill. 

2.  Nor  lie. 

3.  Nor  steal. 

4.  Nor  whore. 

Pi'ges?.  5.  Nor  hoard  up  treasures. 

6.  He  is  perpetually  to  practise  holiness  and  purity. 

7.  He  is  to  perform  the  prescribed  fasting  without 
an  interruption  and  to  dress  poorly. 


CHAPTER   VII.  75 

8.  He  is  to  hold  fast  to  the  adoration  of  God  with 
praise  and  thanks. 

9.  He  is  always  to  have  in  mind  the  word  6m,  the 
word  of  creation,  without  pronouncing  it. 

The  injunction  to  abstain  from  killing  as  regards 
animals  (No.  i)  is  only  a  special  part  of  the  general 
order  to  ahstain  from  doing  anything  Iturt/al.  Under 
this  head  falls  also  the  robbing  of  another  man's  goods 
(No.  3),  and  the  telling  lies  (No,  2),  not  to  mention  the 
foulness  and  baseness  of  so  doing. 

The  abstaining  from  hoarding  up  (No.  5)  means  that 
a  man  is  to  give  up  toil  and  fatigue  ;  that  he  who  seeks 
the  bounty  of  God  feels  sure  that  he  is  provided  for ; 
and  that,  starting  from  the  base  slaver}^  of  material  life, 
we  may,  by  the  noble  liberty  of  cogitation,  attain  eternal 
bliss. 

Practising  purity  (No.  6)  implies  that  a  man  knows  the 
filth  of  the  body,  and  that  he  feels  called  upon  to  hate 
it,  and  to  love  cleanness  of  soul.  Tormenting  oneself 
by  poor  dress  (No.  7)  means  that  a  man  should  reduce 
the  body,  allay  its  feverish  desires,  and  sharpen  its  senses. 
Pythagoras  once  said  to  a  man  who  took  great  care  to 
keep  his  body  in  a  flourishing  condition  and  to  allow  it 
everything  it  desired,  "Thou  art  not  lazy  in  building 
thy  prison  and  making  thy  fetter  as  strong  as  possible." 

The  holding  fast  to  meditation  on  God  and  the  angels 
means  a  kind  of  familiar  intercourse  with  them.  The 
book  Sdrhhhya  says  :  "  Man  cannot  go  beyond  anything 
in  the  wake  of  which  he  marches,  it  being  a  scope 
to  him  {i.e.  thus  engrossing  his  thoughts  and  detaining 
liim  from  meditation  on  God)."  The  book  Gitcl  says  : 
"  All  that  which  is  the  object  of  a  man's  continuous 
meditating  and  bearing  in  mind  is  stamped  upon  him, 
so  that  he  even  unconsciously  is  guided  by  it.  Since, 
now,  the  time  of  heath  is  the  time  of  remembering  what 
we  love,  the  soul  on  leaving  the  body  is  united  with 
that  object  which  we  love,  and  is  changed  into  it." 


76 


ALBERUNPS  INDIA 


Quotations 
from  ClUd. 


Greek 
and  Sufi 
parallels. 


Second 
part:  The 
jrroctical 
path  leading 
to  Moksha 


However,  the  reader  must  not  believe  that  it  is  only 
the  union  of  the  soul  with  any  forms  of  life  that  perish 
and  return  into  existence  that  is  perfect  liberation,  for  the 
same  book,  Gitd,  says  :  "He  who  knows  when  dying  that 
God  is  everything,  and  that  from  him  everything  pro- 
ceeds, is  liberated,  though  his  degree  be  lower  than  that 
of  the  saints." 

The  same  book  says  :  "  Seek  deliverance  from  this 
world  by  abstaining  from  any  connection  with  its  follies, 
by  having  sincere  intentions  in  all  actions  and  when 
making  offerings  by  fire  to  God,  without  any  desire  for 
reward  and  recompense ;  further,  by  keeping  aloof  from 
mankind."  The  real  meaning  of  all  this  is  that  you 
should  not  prefer  one  because  he  is  your  friend  to 
another  because  he  is  your  enemy,  and  that  you  should 
beware  of  negligence  in  sleeping  when  others  are  awake, 
and  in  waking  when  others  are  asleep ;  for  this,  too,  is 
a  kind  of  being  absent  from  them,  though  outwardl}^ 
you  are  present  with  them.  Further  :  Seek  deliverance 
by  guarding  soul  from  soul,  for  the  soul  is  an  enemy  if 
it  be  addicted  to  lusts ;  but  what  an  excellent  friend 
it  is  when  it  is  chaste  !  " 

Socrates,  caring  little  for  his  impending  death  and 
being  glad  at  the  prospect  of  coming  to  his  Lord,  said  : 
"  My  degree  must  not  be  considered  by  any  one  of  you 
lower  than  that  of  the  swan,"  of  which  people  say  that 
it  is  the  bird  of  Apollo,  the  sun,  and  that  it  therefore 
knows  what  is  hidden  ;  that  is,  when  feeling  that  it  will 
soon  die,  sings  more  and  more  melodies  from  joy  at  the 
prospect  of  coming  to  its  Lord.  "  At  least  my  joy  at  my 
prospect  of  coming  to  the  object  of  my  adoration  must 
not  be  less  than  the  joy  of  this  bird." 

For  similar  reasons  the  Sufi  define  love  as  being  en- 
grossed by  the  creature  to  the  exclusion  of  God. 

In  the  book  of  Fatanjali  we  read  :  "  We  divide  the 
path  of  liberation  into  three  parts  : — 

''  I.   The  practical  one  {kriyd-yogct),  a  process  of  habitu- 


CHAPTER   VII.  77 

ating  the  senses  in  a  gentle  way  to  detach  themselves  according  to 
from  the  external  world,  and  to  concentrate  themselves  vishnu- 
upon  the  internal  one,  so  that  they  exclusively  occupy  aud  Guk 
themselves  with  God.     This  is  in  general  the  path  of 
him  who  does  not  desire  anything  save  what  is  sufficient  Page  38. 
to  sustain  life." 

In  the  book  Vishnu- Dhar ma  we  read  :  "  The  king 
Pariksha,  of  the  family  of  Bhrigu,  asked  Satanika,  the 
head  of  an  assembly  of  sages,  who  stayed  with  him,  for 
the  explanation  of  some  notion  regarding  the  deity,  and 
by  way  of  answer  the  sage  communicated  what  he  had 
heard  from  Saunaka,  Saunaka  from  Usanas,  and  Usanas 
from  Brahman,  as  follows  :  '  God  is  without  first  and 
without  last ;  he  has  not  been  born  from  anything,  and 
he  has  not  borne  anything  save  that  of  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  say  that  it  is  He,  and  just  as  impossible  to 
say  that  it  is  Not-he.  How  should  I  be  able  to  ponder 
on  the  absolute  good  which  is  an  outflow  of  his  benevo- 
lence, aud  of  the  absolute  bad  which  is  a  product  of  his 
wrath  ;  and  how  con  Id  I  know  him  so  as  to  worship  him 
as  is  his  due,  save  by  turning  away  from  the  world  in 
general  and  by  occupying  myself  exclusively  with  him, 
by  perpetually  cogitating  on  him  ?  ' 

''  It  was  objected  to  him  :  '  Man  is  weak  and  his  life 
is  a  trifling  matter.  He  can  hardly  bring  himself  to 
abstain  from  the  necessities  of  life,  and  this  prevents 
him  from  walking  on  the  path  of  liberation.  If  we 
were  living  in  the  first  age  of  mankind,  when  life 
extended  to  thousands  of  years,  and  when  the  world 
was  good  because  of  the  non-existence  of  evil,  we  might 
hope  that  that  which  is  necessary  on  this  path  should 
be  done.  But  since  we  live  in  the  last  age,  what, 
according  to  your  opinion,  is  there  in  this  revolving 
world  that  might  protect  him  against  the  floods  of  the 
ocean  and  save  him  from  drowning  ? ' 

"  Thereupon  Brahman  spoke  :  '  Man  wants  nourish- 
ment, shelter,  and  clothing.     Therefore  in  them  there 


78  ALBERUNTS  INDIA. 

is  no  harm  to  him.  But  happiness  is  only  to  be  found 
in  abstaining  from  things  besides  them,  from  superfluous 
and  fatiguing  actions.  Worship  God,  him  alone,  and 
venerate  him  ;  approach  him  in  the  place  of  worship 
with  presents  like  perfumes  and  flowers ;  praise  him 
and  attach  your  heart  to  him  so  that  it  never  leaves 
him.  Give  alms  to  the  Brahmans  and  to  others,  and 
vow  to  God  vows — special  ones,  like  the  abstaining 
from  meat ;  general  ones,  like  fasting.  Vow  to  him  ani- 
mals which  you  must  not  hold  to  be  something  different 
from  yourselves,  so  as  to  feel  entitled  to  kill  them. 
Know  that  he  is  everything.  Therefore,  whatever  you 
do,  let  it  be  for  his  sake  ;  and  if  you  enjoy  anything  of 
the  vanities  of  the  world,  do  not  forget  him  in  your 
intentions.  If  you  aim  at  the  fear  of  God  and  the 
faculty  of  worshippi*ng  him,  thereby  you  will  obtain 
liberation,  not  by  anything  else.'  " 

The  book  Gitd  says  :  "  He  who  mortifies  his  lust  does 
not  go  beyond  the  necessary  wants  ;  and  he  who  is 
content  with  that  which  is  sufficient  for  the  sustaining 
of  life  will  not  be  ashamed  nor  be  despised." 

The  same  book  says :  "If  man  is  not  without  wants 
as  regards  the  demands  of  human  nature,  if  he  wants 
nourishment  to  appease  thereby  the  heat  of  hunger  and 
exhaustion,  sleep  in  order  to  meet  the  injurious  influ- 
ences of  fatiguing  motions  and  a  couch  to  rest  upon, 
let  the  latter  be  clean  and  smooth,  everywhere  equally 
high  above  the  ground  and  sufficiently  large  that  he 
may  stretch  out  his  body  upon  it.  Let  him  have  a 
place  of  temperate  climate,  not  hurtful  by  cold  nor  by 
heat,  and  where  he  is  safe  against  the  approach  of 
reptiles.  All  this  helps  him  to  sharpen  the  functions 
of  his  heart,  that  he  may  without  any  interruption  con- 
centrate his  cogitation  on  the  unity.  For  all  things 
besides  the  necessities  of  life  in  the  way  of  eating  and 
clothing  are  pleasures  of  a  kind  which,  in  reality,  are 
disguised  pains.     To  acquiesce  in  them  is  impossible, 


CHAPTER   VII.  79 

and  would  end  in  the  gravest  inconvenience.  There  is 
pleasure  only  to  him  who  kills  the  two  intolerable 
enemies,  lust  and  wrath,  already  during  his  life  and  not  rage  39. 
when  he  dies,  who  derives  his  rest  and  bliss  from  within, 
not  from  without  ;  and  who,  in  the  final  result,  is  able 
altogether  to  dispense  with  his  senses." 

Vasudeva  spoke  to  Arjuna  :  "  If  you  want  the  abso- 
lute good,  take  care  of  the  nine  doors  of  thy  body, 
and  know  what  is  going  in  and  out  through  them. 
Constrain  thy  heart  from  dispersing  its  thoughts,  and 
quiet  thy  soul  by  thinking  of  the  upper  membrane  of 
the  child's  brain,  which  is  first  soft,  and  then  is  closed 
and  becomes  strong,  so  that  it  would  seem  that  there 
were  no  more  need  of  it.  Do  not  take  perception  of 
the  senses  for  anything  but  the  nature  immanent  in 
their  organs,  and  therefore  beware  of  following  it." 

II.  The  second  part  of  the  path  of  liberation  is  The  path  of 
renunciation  (the  via  omissionis),  based  on  the  know-  tk.n  as  tiie 
ledge  of  the  evil  which  exists  in  the  changing  things  of  ortiie'path 

T     , ,      .  •    1   •  1  T  ^^f  liberation 

creation  and  their  vanishing  shapes,  in  consequence  according  to 
the  heart  shuns  them,  the  longing  for  them  ceases,  and 
a  man  is  raised  above  the  three  primary  forces  which  are 
the  cause  of  actions  and  of  their  diversity.  For  he  who 
accurately  understands  the  affairs  of  the  world  knows 
that  the  good  ones  among  them  are  evil  in  reality,  and 
that  the  bliss  which  they  afford  changes  in  the  course 
of  recompense  into  pains.  Therefore  he  avoids  every- 
thing which  might  aggravate  his  condition  of  being- 
entangled  in  the  world,  and  which  might  result  in 
making  him  stay  in  the  world  for  a  still  longer  period. 

'Jlie  book  Gitd  says :  "  Men  err  in  what  is  ordered 
and  what  is  forbidden.  They  do  not  know  how  to  dis- 
tinguish between  good  and  evil  in  actions.  Therefore, 
giving  up  acting  altogether  and  keeping  aloof  from  it, 
this  is  the  action." 

The  same  book  says  :  "  The  purity  of  knowledge  is 
high  above  the  purity  of  all  other  things,  for  by  know- 


8o  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

ledge  ignorance  is  rooted  out  and  certainty  is  gained  in 
exchange  for  donbt,  which  is  a  means  of  torture,  for 
there  is  no  rest  for  him  who  doubts." 

It  is  evident  from  this  that  the  first  part  of  the  path 

of  liberation  is  instrumental  to  the  second  one. 

Worship  as        III.  The  third  part  of  the  path  of  liberation  which  is 

part  of  the    to  be  coHsidcred  as  instrumental  to  the  preceding  two 

liberation     is  vjoTslivp,  for  this  purposB,  that  God  should  help  a  man 

eS!  ^"°  ^  to  obtain  liberation,  and  deign  to  consider  him  worthy 

of  such  a  shape  of  existence  in  the  metempsychosis  in 

which  he  may  effect  his  progress  towards  beatitude. 

The  author  of  the  book  Gitd  distributes  the  duties  of 
worship  among  the  hody,  the  voice,  and  the  heart. 

What  the  body  has  to  do  is  fasting,  prayer,  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  law,  the  service  towards  the  angels  and  the 
sages  among  the  Brahmans,  keeping  clean  the  body, 
keeping  aloof  from  killing  under  all  circumstances,  and 
never  looking  at  another  man's  wife  and  other  property. 
What  the  voice  has  to  do  is  the  reciting  of  the  holy 
texts,  praising  God,  always  to  speak  the  truth,  to 
address  people  mildly,  to  guide  them,  and  to  order 
them  to  do  good. 

What  the  heart  has  to  do  is  to  have  straight,  honest 
intentions,  to  avoid  haughtiness,  always  to  be  patient, 
to  keep  your  senses  under  control,  and  to  have  a  cheer- 
ful mind. 
On  Rasa-  The  author  (Patafijali)  adds  to  the  three  parts  of  the 

pathioading  path  of  liberation  a  fourth  one  of  an  illusory  nature, 
called  Rasdyana,  consisting  of  alchemistic  tricks  with 
various  drugs,  intended  to  realise  things  which  by  nature 
are  impossible.  We  shall  speak  of  these  things  after- 
wards {vide  chap.  xvii.).  They  have  no  other  relation  to 
the  theory  of  Moksha  but  this,  that  also  in  the  tricks  of 
Easayana  everything  depends  upon  the  intention,  the 
well-understood  determination  to  carry  them  out,  this 
determination  resting  on  the  firm  belief  in  them,  and 
resulting  in  the  endeavour  to  realise  them. 


CHAPTER   VII.  8 1 

According  to  the  Hindus,  liberation  is  union  with  onthc 
God ;  for  they  describe  God  as  a  being  who  can  dis-  Moksha 
pense  with  hoping  for  a  recompense  or  with  fearing 
opposition,  unattainable  to  thought,  because  he  is  sub- 
lime beyond  all  unlikeness  which  is  abhorrent  and  all 
likeness  which  is  sympathetic,  knowing  himself  not  by 
a  knowledge  which  comes  to  him  like  an  accident,  re- 
garding something  which  had  not  in  every  phase  before 
been  known  to  him.  And  this  same  description  the 
Hindus  apply  to  the  liherated  one,  for  he  is  equal  to  God 
in  all  these  things  except  in  the  matter  of  beginning, 
since  he  has  not  existed  from  all  eternity,  and  except 
this,  that  before  liberation  he  existed  in  the  ivorld  of 
entanglement,  knowing  the  objects  of  knowledge  only 
by  a  phantasmagoric  kind  of  knowing  which  he  had 
acquired  by  absolute  exertion,  whilst  the  object  of  his 
knowing  is  still  covered,  as  it  were,  by  a  veil.  On  the  rage  40. 
contrary,  in  the  world  of  liberation  all  veils  are  lifted, 
all  covers  taken  off,  and  obstacles  removed.  There  the 
being  is  absolutely  knowing,  not  desirous  of  learning 
anything  unknown,  separated  from  the  soiled  percep- 
tions of  the  senses,  united  with  the  everlasting  ideas. 
Therefore  in  the  end  of  the  book  of  Patanjali,  after  the  Quotations^ 
pupil  has  asked  about  the  nature  of  liberation,  the  jaii. 
master  says:  "If  you  wish,  say,  Liberation  is  the 
cessation  of  the  functions  of  the  three  forces,  and  their 
returning  to  that  home  whence  they  had  come.  Or  if 
you  wish,  say,  It  is  the  return  of  the  soul  as  a  knovnng 
being  into  its  own  nature." 

The  two  men,  pupil  and  master,  disagree  regarding 
him  who  has  arrived  at  the  stage  of  liberation.  The 
anchorite  asks  in  the  book  of  Saiiikhya,  "  Why  does  From 
not  death  take  place  when  aetion  ceases  ?  "  The  sage  "'"  ^'^' 
replies,  "  Because  the  cause  of  the  separation  is  a 
certain  condition  of  the  soul  whilst  the  spirit  is  still 
in  the  body.  Soul  and  body  are  separated  by  a  natural 
condition  which  severs  their  union.     Frequently  when 

VOL.  I.  F 


Fiom  Pa 
lanjali.i 


82  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

the  cause  of  au  effect  has  ah-eady  ceased  or  disappeared, 
the  effect  itself  still  goes  on  for  a  certain  time,  slacken- 
ing, and  by  and  by  decreasing,  till  in  the  end  it  ceases 
totally  ;  e.g.  the  silk-weaver  drives  round  his  wheel  with 
his  mallet  until  it  whirls  round  rapidly,  then  he  leaves 
it ;  however,  it  does  not  stand  still,  though  the  mallet 
that  drove  it  round  has  been  removed ;  the  motion  of 
the  wheel  decreases  by  little  and  little,  and  finally  it 
ceases.  It  is  the  same  case  with  the  body.  After  the 
action  of  the  body  has  ceased,  its  effect  is  still  lasting 
until  it  arrives,  through  the  various  stages  of  motion 
and  of  rest,  at  the  cessation  of  physical  force  and  of  the 
effect  which  had  originated  from  preceding  causes. 
Thus  liberation  is  finished  when  the  body  has  been 
completely  prostrated." 

In  the  book  of  Patanjali  there  is  a  passage  which 
expresses  similar  ideas.  Speaking  of  a  man  who  re- 
strains his  senses  and  organs  of  perception,  as  the  turtle 
draws  in  its  limbs  when  it  is  afraid,  he  says  that  "  he 
is  not  fettered,  because  the  fetter  has  been  loosened, 
and  he  is  not  liberated,  because  his  body  is  still  with 
him." 

There  is,  however,  another  passage  in  the  same  book 
which  does  not  agree  with  the  theory  of  liberation  as 
expounded  above.  He  says  :  "  The  bodies  are  the  snares 
of  the  souls  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  recompense. 
He  who  arrives  at  the  stage  of  liberation  has  acquired, 
in  his  actual  form  of  existence,  the  recompense  for  all 
the  doings  of  the  past.  Then  he  ceases  to  labour  to 
acquire  a  title  to  a  recompense  in  the  future.  He  frees 
himself  from  the  snare  ;  he  can  dispense  with  the  parti- 
cular form  of  his  existence,  and  moves  in  it  quite  freely 
without  being  ensnared  by  it.  He  has  even  the  faculty 
of  moving  wherever  he  likes,  and  if  he  like,  he  might 
rise  above  the  face  of  death.  For  the  thick,  cohesive 
bodies  cannot  oppose  an  obstacle  to  his  form  of  exist- 
ence (as,  e.g.  a  mountain  could  not  prevent  him  from 


CHAPTER   VII.  83 

passing  through).  How,  theo,  could  his  body  oppose  an 
obstacle  to  his  soul  ?  " 

Similar  views  are   also  met   with  amonor  the   Sufi,  sufipa- 

■  rallels. 

Some  Sufi  author  relates  the  following  story  :  "A  com- 
pany of  Sufi  came  down  unto  us,  and  sat  down  at  some 
distance  from  us.  Then  one  of  them  rose,  prayed,  and 
on  having  finished  his  prayer,  turned  towards  me  and 
spoke  :  '  0  master,  do  you  know  here  a  place  fit  for  us 
to  die  on  ?  '  Now  I  thought  he  meant  sleepinrj,  and  so  I 
pointed  out  to  him  a  place.  The  man  went  there,  threw 
himself  on  the  back  of  his  head,  and  remained  motion- 
less. Now  I  rose,  went  to  him  and  shook  him,  but  lo ! 
he  was  already  cold." 

The  Sufi  explains  the  Koranic  verse,  "  We  have 
made  room  for  him  on  earth"  (Sura  18,  83),  in  this  rage 41. 
way :  "  If  he  wishes,  the  earth  rolls  itself  up  for 
him  ;  if  he  wishes,  he  can  walk  on  the  water  and  in 
the  air,  which  offer  him  sufficient  resistance  so  as  to 
enable  him  to  walk,  whilst  the  mountains  do  not  offer 
him  any  resistance  when  he  wants  to  pass  through 
them." 

We  next  speak  of  those  who,  notwithstanding  their  ou  those 
greatest  exertions,  do  not  reach  the  stage  of  liberation,  leich 
There  are  several  classes  of  them.     The  book  Sdrhkhya  according  to 
says  :   "  He  who  enters  upon  the  world  with  a  virtuous    ^ ""   ^"' 
character,  who  is  liberal  with  what  he  possesses  of  the 
goods  of  the  world,  is  recompensed  in  it  in  this  way, 
that  he  obtains  the  fulfilment  of  his  wishes  and  desires, 
that  he  moves  about  in  the  world  in  happiness,  happy 
in  body  and  soul  and  in  all  other  conditions  of  life.     For 
in  reality  good  fortune  is  a  recompense  for  former  deeds, 
done  either  in  the  same  shape  or  in  some  preceding 
shape.     Whoso  lives  in  this  world  piously  but  without 
knowledge  will  be  raised  and  be  rewarded,  but  not  be 
liberated,  because  the  means  of  attaining  it  are  want- 
ing   in    his  case.     Whoso    is    content  and   acquiesces 
in  possessing  the  faculty  of  practising  the  above-men- 


84 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA 


A  parable 

showing 

people 

in  the 

various 

degrees  of 

knowledge. 


tioned  eight  commandments  {sic,  vide  p.  74),  whoso 
glories  in  them,  is  successful  by  means  of  them,  and 
believes  that  they  are  liberation,  will  remain  in  the 
same  stage." 

The  following  is  a  parable  characterising  those  who 
vie  with  each  other  in  the  progress  through  the  various 
stages  of  knowledge  : — A  man  is  travelling  together 
with  his  pupils  for  some  business  or  other  towards  the 
end  of  the  night.  Then  there  appears  something  stand- 
ing erect  before  them  on  the  road,  the  nature  of  which 
it  is  impossible  to  recognise  on  account  of  the  darkness 
of  night.  The  man  turns  towards  his  pupils,  and  asks 
them,  one  after  the  other,  what  it  is  ?  The  first  says  : 
"  I  do  not  know  what  it  is."  The  second  says  :  "  I  do 
not  know,  and  I  have  no  means  of  learning  what  it  is." 
The  third  says:  "It  is  useless  to  examine  what  it  is, 
for  the  rising  of  the  day  will  reveal  it.  If  it  is  some- 
thing terrible,  it  will  disappear  at  daybreak ;  if  it  is 
something  else,  the  nature  of  the  thing  will  anyhow  be 
clear  to  us."  Now,  none  of  them  had  attained  to  know- 
ledge, the  first,  because  he  was  ignorant ;  the  second, 
because  he  was  incapable,  and  had  no  means  of  know- 
ing ;  the  third,  because  he  was  indolent  and  acquiesced 
in  his  ignorance. 

The  fourth  pupil,  however,  did  not  give  an  answer. 
He  stood  still,  and  then  he  went  on  in  the  direction  of 
the  object.  On  coming  near,  he  found  that  it  was  pump- 
kins on  which  there  lay  a  tangled  mass  of  something. 
Now  he  knew  that  a  living  man,  endowed  with  free 
will,  does  not  stand  still  in  his  place  until  such  a 
tangled  mass  is  formed  on  his  head,  and  he  recognised 
at  once  that  it  was  a  lifeless  object  standing  erect. 
Further,  he  could  not  be  sure  if  it  was  not  a  hidden 
place  for  some  dunghill.  So  he  went  quite  close  to  it, 
struck  against  it  with  his  foot  till  it  fell  to  the  ground. 
Thus  all  doubt  having  been  removed,  he  returned  to 
his  master  and  gave  him  the  exact  account.     In  such  a 


CHAPTER   VII.  85 

way  the  master  obtained  the  knowledge  through  the 
intermediation  of  his  pupils. 

With  regard  to  similar  views  of  the  ancient  Greeks  Parallels 
we  can  quote  Ammonius,  who  relates  the  following  as  a  authors, 
sentence  of  Pythagoras  :  "  Let  your  desire  and  exertion  piato,  and' 
in  this  world  be  directed  towards  the  union  with  the  First 
Cause,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  cause  of  your  existence, 
that  you  may  endure  for  ever.     You  will  be  saved  from 
destruction  and  from  being  wiped  out ;  you  will  go  to 
the  world  of  the  true  sense,  of  the  true  joy,  of  the  true 
glory,  in  everlasting  joy  and  pleasures." 

Further,  Pythagoras  says  :  "  How  can  you  hope  for 
the  state  of  detachment  as  long  as  you  are  clad  in 
bodies  ?  And  how  will  you  obtain  liberation  as  long  as 
you  are  incarcerated  in  them  ?  " 

Ammonius  relates  :  "  Empedocles  and  his  successors 
as  far  as  Heracles  (sic)  think  that  the  soiled  souls  always 
remain  commingled  with  the  world  until  they  ask  the 
universal  soul  for  help.  The  universal  soul  intercedes  Page  42. 
for  it  with  the  Tntellujenee,  the  latter  with  the  Creator. 
TheCreatoraffordssomethingof  his  light  to  Intelligence; 
Intelligence  affords  something  of  it  to  the  universal  soul, 
which  is  immanent  in  this  world.  Now  the  soul  wishes 
to  be  enlightened  by  Intelligence,  until  at  last  the 
individual  soul  recognises  the  universal  soul,  unites 
with  it,  and  is  attached  to  its  world.  But  this  is  a  pro- 
cess over  which  many  ages  must  pass.  Then  the  soul 
comes  to  a  region  where  there  is  neither  place  nor  time, 
nor  anything  of  that  which  is  in  the  world,  like  transient 
fatigue  or  joy." 

Socrates  says :  "The  soul  on  leaving  space  wanders 
to  the  holiness  {to  KaOapov)  which  lives  for  ever  and 
exists  eternally,  being  related  to  it.  It  becomes  like 
holiness  in  duration,  because  it  is  by  means  of  something 
like  contact  able  to  receive  impressions  from  holiness. 
This,  its  susceptibility  to  impressions,  is  called  Intelli- 
gence" 


86  A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 

Further,  Socrates  says :  ''The  soul  is  very  similar  to 
the  divine  substance  which  does  not  die  nor  dissolve, 
and  is  the  only  intelligihile  which  lasts  for  ever ;  the 
body  is  the  contrary  of  it.  When  soul  and  body  unite, 
nature  orders  body  to  serve,  the  soul  to  rule  ;  but  when 
they  separate,  the  soul  goes  to  another  place  than  that 
to  which  the  body  goes.  There  it  is  happy  with  things 
that  are  suitable  to  it ;  it  reposes  from  being  circum- 
scribed in  space,  rests  from  folly,  impatience,  love,  fear, 
and  other  human  evils,  on  this  condition,  that  it  had 
always  been  pure  and  hated  the  body.  If,  however,  it 
has  sullied  itself  by  connivance  with  the  body,  by 
serving  and  loving  it  so  that  the  body  was  subservient 
to  its  lusts  and  desires,  in  this  case  it  does  not  ex- 
perience fmything  more  real  than  the  species  of  bodily 
things  (to  crto/y.aroetSes)  and  the  contact  with  them." 

Proclus  says :  "  The  body  in  which  the  rational  soul 
dwells  has  received  the  figure  of  a  globe,  like  the  ether 
and  its  individual  beings.  The  body  in  which  both  the 
rational  and  the  irrational  souls  dwell  has  received  an 
erect  figure  like  man.  The  body  in  which  only  the 
irrational  soul  dwells  has  received  a  figure  erect  and 
curved  at  the  same  time,  like  that  of  the  irrational 
animals.  The  body  in  which  there  is  neither  the  one 
nor  the  other,  in  which  there  is  nothing  but  the  nourish- 
ing power,  has  received  an  erect  figure,  but  it  is  at  the 
same  time  curved  and  turned  upside  down,  so  that  the 
head  is  planted  in  the  earth,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
plants.  The  latter  direction  being  the  contrary  to  that 
of  man,  man  is  a  heavenly  tree,  the  root  of  which  is 
directed  towards  its  home,  i.e.  heaven,  whilst  the  root 
of  vegetables  is  directed  towards  their  home,  i.e.  the 
earth." 
Brahman  The  Hindus  hold  similar  views  about  nature.     Ar- 

an A.?vattiia  j  una  asks,  "What  is  Brahman  like  in  the  world?" 
ing'^to'pa-  Whereupon  Vasudeva  answers,  "Imagine  him  like  an 
ianjai.         Asvctttlia  tree."     This  is   a  huge    precious   tree,   well 


CHAPTER   VII.  87 

known  among  them,  standing  upside  down,  the  roots 
being  above,  the  branches  below.  If  it  has  ample 
nourishment,  it  becomes  quite  enormous  ;  the  branches 
spread  far,  cling  to  the  soil,  and  creep  into  it.  Roots 
and  branches  above  and  below  resemble  each  other  to 
such  a  degree  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  which  is  which. 

"  Brahman  is  the  upper  roots  of  this  tree,  its  trunk  is 
the  Veda,  its  branches  are  the  different  doctrines  and 
schools,  its  leaves  are  the  different  modes  of  inter- 
pretation ;  its  nourishment  comes  from  the  three  forces ; 
the  tree  becomes  strong  and  compact  through  the  senses. 
The  intelligent  being  has  no  other  keen  desire  but  that  vage  43. 
of  felling  this  tree,  i.e.  abstaining  from  the  world  and 
its  vanities.  When  he  has  succeeded  in  felling  it,  he 
wishes  to  settle  in  the  place  where  it  has  grown,  a 
place  in  w^hich  there  is  no  returning  in  a  further  stage 
of  metempsychosis.  When  he  obtains  this,  he  leaves 
behind  himself  all  the  pains  of  heat  and  cold,  and 
coming  from  the  light  of  sun  and  moon  and  common 
fires,  he  attains  to  the  divine  lights." 

The  doctrine  of  Fatanjali  is   akin  to   that  of  the  suftparai- 

.  .  .         .  I'els. 

Sufi  regarding  being  occupied  in  meditation  on  the 
Truth  (i.e.  God),  for  they  say,  "As  long  as  you  point 
to  something,  you  are  not  a  monist ;  but  when  the 
Truth  seizes  upon  the  object  of  your  pointing  and 
annihilates  it,  then  there  is  no  longer  an  indicating 
person  nor  an  object  indicated." 

There  are  some  passages  in  their  system  which  show 
that  they  believe  in  the  pantheistic  union  ;  e.g.  one  of 
them,  being  asked  what  is  the  Truth  (God),  gave  the 
following  answer :  "  How  should  I  not  know  the  being 
which  is  /  in  essence  and  Not-I  in  space  ?  If  I  return 
once  more  into  existence,  thereby  I  am  separated  from 
him ;  and  if  I  am  neglected  {i.e.  not  born  anew  and 
sent  into  the  world),  thereby  I  become  light  and  be- 
come accustomed  to  the  union"  (sic). 

Abu-Bekr  Ash-shibli  says:    "Cast  off  all,  and  you 


88  A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 

will  attaiu  to  us  completely.  Then  you  will  exist ;  but 
you  will  not  report  about  us  to  others  as  long  as  your 
doing  is  like  ours." 

Abu-Yazid  Albistami  once  being  asked  how  he  had 
attained  his  stage  in  Sufism,  answered :  ''I  cast  off  roy 
own  self  as  a  serpent  casts  oft'  its  skin.  Then  I  con- 
sidered my  own  self,  and  found  that  /  was  He,"  i.e. 
God. 

The  Sufi  explain  the  Koranic  passage  (Sura  2,  68), 
"  The7i  ive  spoke:  Beat  him  with  a  part  of  her,"  in  the 
following  manner :  "  The  order  to  kill  that  which  is 
dead  in  order  to  give  life  to  it  indicates  that  the  heart 
does  not  become  alive  by  the  lights  of  knowledge 
unless  the  body  be  killed  by  ascetic  practice  to  such 
a  degree  that  it  does  not  any  more  exist  as  a  reality, 
but  only  in  a  formal  way,  whilst  your  heart  is  a  reality 
on  which  no  object  of  the  formal  world  has  any  in- 
fluence." 

Further  they  say :  "  Between  man  and  God  there 
are  a  thousand  stages  of  light  and  darkness.  Men  exert 
themselves  to  pass  through  darkness  to  light,  and 
when  they  have  attained  to  the  stations  of  light,  there 
is  no  return  for  them." 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

ON    THE   DIFFERENT    CLASSES    OF   CREATED    BEINGS,    AND 
ON    THP:IR    NAMES. 

The  subject  of  this  chapter  is  very  difficult  to  study  and  The  various 
iniderstaDd  accurately,  since  we  Muslims  look  at  it  from  creatures 
without,  and  the  Hindus  themselves  do  not  work  it  out  s>hhi-hya. 
to  scientific  perfection.     As  we,  however,  want  it  for 
the  further  j^rogress  of  this  treatise,  w^e  shall  communi- 
cate all  we  have  heard  of  it  until  the  date  of  the  present 
book.     And  first  we   give   an   extract  from   the  book 
Sdmlhya. 

"  The  anchorite  spoke :  '  How  many  classes  and  species 
are  there  of  living  bodies  ?  ' 

"  The  sage  replied  :  '  There  are  three  classes  of  them — 
the  spiritual  ones  in  the  height,  men  in  the  middle,  and 
animals  in  the  depth.  Their  species  are  fourteen  in 
number,  eight  of  which  belong  to  the  spiritual  beings  : 
Brahman,  Indra,  Prajapati,  Saumya,  Gandharva,  Yak- 
sha,  Rakshasa,  and  Pisaca.  Five  species  are  those  of 
the  animals — cattle,  wild  beasts,  birds,  creeping  things, 
and  growing  tilings,  i.e.  the  trees.  And,  Lastly,  one 
species  is  represented  by  man.'  " 

The  author  of  the  same  book  has  in  another  part  of 
it  given  the  following  enumerationwith  different  names : 
"Brahman,  Indra,  Prajapati,  Gandharva,  Yaksha,  Pak- 
shasa,  Pitaras,  Pisaca." 

The  Hindus  are  people  who  rarely  preserve  one  and 
the  same  order  of  things,  and  in  their  enumeration  of 
things  there  is  much  that  is  arbitrary.     They  use  or 


90  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

invent  numbers  of  names,  and  who  is  to  hinder  or  to 
control  them  ? 

In  the  book  Gitct,  Vasudeva  says  :  "  When  the^7's^  of 
Page  44.  the  three  "primary  forces  prevails,  it  particularly  applies 
itself  to  developing  the  intellect,  purifying  the  senses, 
and  producing  action  for  the  angels.  Blissful  rest  is  one 
of  the  consequences  of  this  force,  and  liberation  one  of 
its  results. 

"  When  the  second  force  prevails,  it  particularly  ap- 
plies itself  to  developing  cupidity.  It  will  lead  to 
fatigue,  and  induce  to  actions  for  the  Yaksha  and  R;lk- 
shasa.  In  this  case  the  recompense  will  be  according 
to  the  action. 

"  If  the  third  force  prevails,  it  particularly  applies 
itself  to  developing  ignorance,  and  making  people  easily 
beguiled  by  their  own  wishes.  Finally,  it  produces 
wakefulness,  carelessness,  laziness,  procrastination  in 
fulfilling  duties,  and  sleeping  too  long.  If  man  acts,  he 
acts  for  the  classes  of  the  Bhfita  and  Pisaca,  the  devils, 
for  the  Preta  who  carry  the  spirits  in  the  air,  not  in 
paradise  and  not  in  hell.  Lastly,  this  force  will  lead 
to  punishment;  man  will  be  lowered  from  the  stage 
of  humanity,  and  will  be  changed  into  animals  and 
plants." 

In  another  place  the  same  author  says  :  "  Belief  and 

virtue  are  in  the   Deva  among  the  spiritual  beings. 

Therefore  that  man  who  resembles  them  believes  in 

God,  clings  to  him,  and  longs  for  him.     Unbelief  and 

vice  are  in  the  demons  called  Asura  and  Rjikshasa. 

That  man  whe  resembles  them  does  not  believe  in  God 

nor  attend  to  his  commandments.     He  tries  to  make 

the  world  godless,  and  is  occupied  with  things  which 

are  harmful  in  this  world  and  in  the  world  beyond,  and 

are  of  no  use." 

The  author        If  WO  uow  combinc  theso  statements  with  each  other, 

eight  classes  it  wiU  be  evident  that  there  is  some  confusion  both  in 

befngs!  "^     the  names  and  in  their  order.     According  to  the  most 


CHAPTER   VIII.  91 

popular  view  of  the  majority  of  the  Hindus,  there  are 
the  following  eight  classes  of  sjnritual  beings  : — 

1.  The  Deva,  or  angels,  to  whom  the  north  belongs. 
They  specially  belong  to  the  Hindus.  People  say  that 
Zoroaster  made  enemies  of  the  Shamaniyya  or  Bud- 
dhists by  calling  the  devils  by  the  name  of  the  class  of 
angels  which  thei/  consider  the  highest,  i.e.  Dcva.  And 
this  usage  has  been  transmitted  from  Magian  times 
down  to  the  Persian  language  of  our  days. 

2.  Daitya  'ddnava,  the  demons  who  live  in  the 
south.  To  them  everybody  belongs  who  opposes  the 
religion  of  the  Hindus  and  persecutes  the  cows.  Not- 
withstanding the  near  relationship  which  exists  between 
them  and  the  Deva,  there  is,  as  Hindus  maintain,  no 
end  of  quarrelling  and  fighting  among  them. 

3.  Gandharva,  the  musicians  and  singers  who  make 
music  before  the  Deva.  Their  harlots  are  called  Ap- 
saras. 

4.  Yaksha,  the  treasurers  or  guardians  of  the  Deva. 

5.  Rdkshasa,  demons  of  ugly  and  deformed  shapes. 

6.  Kimiara,  having  human  shapes  but  horses'  heads, 
being  the  contrary  of  the  centaurs  of  the  Greek,  of 
whom  the  lower  half  has  the  shape  of  a  horse,  the  upper 
half  that  of  a  man.  The  latter  figure  is  that  of  the 
Zodiacal  sign  of  Arcitenens. 

7.  Ndga,  beings  in  the  shape  of  serpents. 

8.  Vidyddhara,  demon-sorcerers,  who  exercise  a 
certain  witchcraft,  but  not  such  a  one  as  to  produce 
permanent  results. 

If  we  consider  this  series  of  beings,  we  find  the  criticisms 
angelic  power  at  the  upper  end  and  the  demoniac  at  the 
lower,  and  between  them  there  is  much  interblending. 
The  qualities  of  these  beings  are  different,  inasmuch 
as  they  have  attained  this  stage  of  life  in  the  course  of 
metempsychosis  by  action,  and  actions  are  different  on 
account  of  the  three  primary  forces.  They  live  very 
long,  since  they  have  entirely  stripped  off  the  bodies, 


On  the 
Devas. 


92  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

since  they  are  free  from  all  exertion,  and  are  able  to  do 

things  which  are  impossible  to  man.     They  serve  man 

Page  45.        in  whatever  he  desires,  and  are  near  him  in  cases  of  need. 

However,  we  can  learn  from  the  extract  from  SctThJchy a 
that  this  view  is  not  correct.  For  Brahman,  Indra,  and 
Prajapati  are  not  names  of  species,  but  of  individuals. 
Brahman  and  Prajapati  very  nearly  mean  the  same, 
but  they  bear  different  names  on  account  of  some 
quality  or  other.  Indra  is  the  ruler  of  the  worlds.  Be- 
sides, Vasudeva  enumerates  the  Yaksha  and  Rakshasa 
together  in  one  and  the  same  class  of  demons,  whilst 
the  Puranas  represent  the  Yaksha  as  guardian-angels 
and  the  servants  of  guardian-angels. 

After  all  this,  we  declare  that  the  spiritual  beiugs 
which  we  have  mentioned  are  one  category,  who  have 
attained  their  present  stage  of  existence  by  action  dur- 
ing the  time  when  they  were  human  beings.  They  have 
left  their  bodies  behind  them,  for  bodies  are  weights 
which  impair  the  power  and  shorten  the  duration  of 
life.  Their  qualities  and  conditions  are  different,  in  the 
same  measure  as  one  or  other  of  the  three p7'imary  forces 
prevails  over  them.  The  first  force  is  peculiar  to  the 
Deva,  or  angels  who  live  in  quietness  and  bliss.  The 
predominant  faculty  of  their  mind  is  the  comprehending 
of  an  idea  luitlwut  ynatter,  as  it  is  the  predominant 
faculty  of  the  mind  of  man  to  comprehend  the  idea  in 
matter. 

The  third  force  is  peculiar  to  the  Pisaca  and  Bhuta, 
whilst  the  second  is  peculiar  to  the  classes  between  them. 

The  Hindus  say  that  the  number  of  Deva  is  thirty- 
three  I'oti  or  crore,  of  which  eleven  belong  to  Maha- 
deva.  Therefore  this  number  is  one  of  his  surnames, 
and  his  name  itself  (Mahadeva)  points  in  this  direction. 
The  sum  of  the  number  of  angels  just  mentioned  would 
be  330,000,000. 

Further,  they  represent  the  Deva  as  eating  and  drink- 
ing,   cohabiting,    living    and    dying,   since    they    exist 


CHAPTER   VIII.  93 

within  matter,  though  in  the  most  subtle  and  most 
simple  kind  of  it,  and  since  they  have  attained  this  by 
action,  not  by  knowledge.  The  book  Fatajijali  relates 
that  Nandikesvara  offered  many  sacrifices  to  Mahadeva, 
and  was  in  consequence  transferred  into  paradise  in  his 
human  shape;  that  Indra,  the  ruler,  had  intercourse  with 
the  wife  of  Nahusha  the  Brahmin,  and  therefore  was 
changed  into  a  serpent  by  way  of  punishment. 

After  the  Deva  comes  the  class  of  the  Pitaras,  the  onthePita- 
deceased  ancestors,  and  after  them  the  Bhuta,  human  iShrs. 
beings  who  have  attached  themselves  to  the  spiritual 
beings  (Deva),  and  stand  in  the  middle  between  them 
and  mankind.  He  who  holds  this  degree,  but  without 
being  free  from  the  body,  is  called  either  Rishi  or 
Siddha  or  Muni,  and  these  differ  among  themselves 
according  to  their  qualities.  Siddha  is  he  who  has 
attained  by  his  action  the  faculty  to  do  in  the  world 
whatever  he  likes,  but  who  does  not  aspire  further,  and 
does  not  exert  himself  on  the  path  leading  to  liberation. 
He  may  ascend  to  the  degree  of  a  Rishi.  If  a  Brahmin 
attains  this  degree,  he  is  called  Brahmarshi  ;  if  the 
Kshatriya  attains  it,  he  is  called  Rdjarslii.  It  is  not 
possible  for  the  lower  classes  to  attain  this  degree. 
Rishis  are  the  sages  who,  though  they  are  only  human 
beings,  excel  the  angels  on  account  of  their  knowledge. 
Therefore  the  angels  learn  from  them,  and  above  them 
there  is  none  but  Brahman. 

After  the  Brahmarshi  and  Rajarshi  come  those  classes 
of  the  populace  which  exist  also  among  us,  the  castes, 
to  whom  we  shall  devote  a  separate  chapter. 

All   these    latter  beings  are  ranged   under  matter,  vishnuthe 
Now,  as  regards  the  notion   of  that  which  is  above  Bmh^^an, 
matter,  we   say  that  the   vX-q   is  the  middle  between  and^Rudrk. 
matter  and  the  spiritual  divine  ideas  that  are  above 
matter,  and  that  the  three  primavTj  forces  exist  in  the  vXri 
dynamically  (ev  Si-va/xet).     So  the  vXr],  with  all  that  is 
comprehended  in  it,  is  a  bridge  from  above  to  below. 


94  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

Any  life  which  circulates  in  the  vXt]  under  the  exclu- 
sive influence  of  the  First  Cause  is  called  Braliman, 
Page  46.  Frajdpati,  and  by  many  other  names  which  occur  in 
their  religious  law  and  tradition.  It  is  identical  with 
nature  in  so  far  as  it  is  active,  for  all  bringing  into 
existence,  the  creation  of  the  world  also,  is  attributed 
by  them  to  Brahman. 

Any  life  which  circulates  in  the  vXt]  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  seco7id  force  is  called  Ndrdyana  in  the 
tradition  of  the  Hindus,  which  means  nature  in  so  far 
as  it  has  reached  the  end  of  its  action,  and  is  now  striv- 
ing to  preserve  that  which  has  been  produced.  Thus 
Narayana  strives  so  to  arrange  the  world  that  it  should 
endure. 

Any  life  which  circulates  in  the  vX-q  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  third  force  is  called  Mahddeva  and  SaohJcarcc, 
but  his  best-known  name  is  Rudra.  His  work  is 
destruction  and  annihilation,  like  nature  in  the  last 
stages  of  activity,  when  its  power  slackens. 

These  three  beings  bear  different  names,  as  they  cir- 
culate through  the  various  degrees  to  above  and  below, 
and  accordingly  their  actions  are  different. 

But  prior  to  all  these  beings  there  is  one  source 
whence  everything  is  derived,  and  in  this  unity  they 
comprehend  all  three  things,  no  more  separating  one 
from  the  other.  This  unity  they  call  Vishnu,  a  name 
which  more  properly  designates  the  middle  force  ;  but 
sometimes  they  do  not  even  make  a  distinction  between 
this  middle  force  and  the  first  cause  {i.e.  they  make 
Narayana  the  causa  causarum). 

Here  there  is  an  analogy  between  Hindus  and  Chris- 
tians, as  the  latter  distinguish  between  the  Three  Per- 
sons and  give  them  separate  names.  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost,  but  unite  them  into  one  substance. 

This  is  what  clearly  results  from  a  careful  exami- 
nation of  the  Hindu  doctrines.  Of  their  traditional 
accounts,  which  are  full  of  silly  notions,  we  shall  speak 


CHAPTER   VIII.  95 

hereafter  in  the  course  of  our  explanation.  You  must 
not  wonder  if  the  Hindus,  in  their  stories  about  the 
class  of  the  Deva,  whom  we  have  explained  as  angels, 
allow  them  all  sorts  of  things,  unreasonable  in  them- 
selves, some  perhaps  not  objectionable,  others  decidedly 
objectionable,  both  of  wbich  the  theologians  of  Islam 
would  declare  to  be  incompatible  with  the  dignity  and 
nature  of  angels. 

If  you  compare  these  traditions  with  those  of  the  Greek  parai- 
G reeks  regarding  their  own  religion,  you  will  cease  to  aWt  zeus. 
find  the  Hindu  system  strange.  We  have  already  men- 
tioned that  they  called  the  angels  gods  (p.  36).  Now 
consider  their  stories  about  Zeus,  and  you  will  under- 
stand the  truth  of  our  remark.  As  for  anthropomor- 
phisms and  traits  of  animal  life  which  they  attribute  to 
him,  we  give  the  following  tradition:  "When  he  was 
born,  his  father  wanted  to  devour  him  ;  but  his  mother 
took  a  stone,  wrapped  rags  round  it,  and  gave  him  the 
stone  to  swallow,  whereupon  he  went  away."  This  is 
also  mentioned  by  Galenus  in  his  Book  of  Speeches, 
where  he  relates  that  Philo  had  in  an  enigmatical  way 
described  the  preparation  of  the  <^tAwve6oi/  cfidpi^aKov  in 
a  poem  of  his  by  the  following  words  : — 

"  Take  red  hair,  diffusing  siveet  odour,  the  qferi^ig  to  the  gods, 
And  of  num^s  blood  weigh  weights  of  the  number  of  the  mental 
faculties." 

The  poet  mesnisjlvc  pounds  of  saffron,  because  the  senses 
are  Jive.  The  weights  of  the  other  ingredients  of  the 
mixture  he  describes  in  similar  enigmatic  terms,  of 
which  Galenus  gives  a  commentary.  In  the  same 
poem  occurs  the  following  verse  : — 

"  And  of  the  pseudonymous  root  ivhich  has  grovm  in  the  district 
in  ichich  Zeus  was  horn.'^ 

To  which  Galenus  adds  :  "This  is  Andropogon  Nardus, 
which  hears  a  false  name,  because  it  is  called  an  ear  of 
corn,  although  it  is  not  an  ear,  but  a  root.     The  poet 


96  A  LB  E  RUNTS  INDIA. 

prescribes  that  it  should  be  Cretan,  because  the  mytho- 
logists  relate  that  Zeus  was  born  on  the  mountain 
Page  47.  Au<Ta?ov  in  Crcta,  where  his  mother  concealed  him 
from  his  father  Kronos,  that  he  should  not  devour  him 
as  he  had  devoured  others." 

Besides,  well-known  story-books  tell  that  he  married 
certain  women  one  after  the  other,  cohabited  with 
others,  doing  violence  to  them  and  not  marrying  them  ; 
among  them  Europa,  the  daughter  of  Phoenix,  who  was 
taken  from  him  by  Asterios,  king  of  Crete.  After- 
wards she  gave  birth  to  two  children  from  him,  Minos 
and  Ehadamanthus.  This  happened  long  before  the 
Israelites  left  the  desert  and  entered  Palestine. 

Another  tradition  is  that  he  died  in  Crete,  and  was 
buried  there  at  the  time  of  Samson  the  Israelite,  being 
780  years  of  age  ;  that  he  was  called  Zeics  when  he  had 
become  old,  after  he  had  formerly  been  called  Bios;  and 
that  the  first  who  gave  him  this  name  was  Cecrops,  the 
first  king  of  Athens.  It  was  common  to  all  of  them 
to  indulge  in  their  lusts  without  any  restraint,  and  to 
favour  the  business  of  the  pander ;  and  so  far  they  were 
not  unlike  Zoroaster  and  King  Gushtasp  when  they 
desired  to  consolidate  the  realm  and  the  rule  (sic). 

Chroniclers  maintain  that  Cecrops  and  his  successors 
are  the  source  of  all  the  vices  among  the  Athenians, 
meaning  thereby  such  things  as  occur  in  the  story  of 
Alexander,  viz.  that  Nectanebus,  king  of  Egy23t,  after 
having  fled  before  Artaxerxes  the  Black  and  hiding  in 
the  capital  of  Macedonia,  occupied  himself  with  astro- 
logy and  soothsaying ;  that  he  beguiled  Olympias,  the 
wife  of  King  I^hilip,  who  was  absent.  He  cunningly 
contrived  to  cohabit  with  her,  showing  himself  to  her 
in  the  figure  of  the  god  Ammon,  as  a  serpent  with  two 
heads  like  rams'  heads.  So  she  became  pregnant  with 
Alexander.  Philip,  on  returning,  was  about  to  disclaim 
the  paternity,  but  then  he  dreamt  that  it  was  the  child 
of  the  god  Ammon.    Thereupon  he  recognised  the  child 


CHAPTER   VIII.  97 

as  his,  and  spoke,  "  Man  cannot  oppose  the  gods."  The 
combination  of  the  stars  had  shown  to  Nectanebiis  that 
he  would  die  at  the  hands  of  his  son.  When  then 
he  died  at  the  hands  of  Alexander  from  a  wound  in 
the  neck,  he  recognised  that  he  was  his  (Alexander's) 
father. 

The  tradition  of  the  Greeks  is  full  of  similar  things. 
We  shall  relate  similar  subjects  when  speaking  of  the 
marriages  of  the  Hindus. 

Now  we  return  to  our  subject.  Regarding  that  part  Quotations 
of  the  nature  of  Zeus  which  has  no  connection  with  Aratos. 
humanity,  the  Greeks  say  that  he  is  Jupiter,  the  son  of 
Saturn ;  for  Saturn  alone  is  eternal,  not  having  been 
born,  according  to  the  philosophers  of  the  Academy,  as 
Galenus  says  in  the  Book  of  Deduction.  This  is  suffi- 
ciently proved  by  the  book  of  Aratos  on  the  ^atvofxeva^ 
for  he  begins  with  the  praise  of  Zeus : 

"  We,  mankind,  do  not  leave  bim,  nor  can  we  do  without  him  ; 
Of  him  the  roads  are  full, 
And  the  meeting-places  of  men. 
He  is  mild  towards  them  ; 

He  produces  for  them  what  they  wish,  and  incites  them  to  work. 
Reminding  them  of  the  necessities  of  life, 
He  indicates  to  them  the  times  favourable 
For  digging  and  ploughing  for  a  good  growth, 
Who  has  raised  the  signs  and  stars  in  heaven. 
Therefore  we  humiliate  ourselves  before  him  first  and  last." 

And  then  he  praises  the  spiritual  beings  (the  Muses). 
If  you  compare  Greek  theology  with  that  of  the  Hindus, 
you  will  find  that  Brahman  is  described  in  the  same 
way  as  Zeus  by  Aratos. 

The  author  of  the  commentary  on  the  ^aivoiieva  of 
Aratos  maintains  that  he  deviated  from  the  custom  of 
the  poets  of  his  time  in  beginning  with  the  gods ;  that 
it  was  his  intention  to  speak  of  the  celestial  sphere. 
Further,  he  makes  reflections  on  the  origin  of  Asclepius,  Page  48. 
like  Galenus,   and    says:    "We   should   like   to  know 

VOL.  I.  G 


98  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

which  Zens  Aratos  meant,  the  mystical  or  the  physical 
one.  For  the  poet  Krates  called  the  celestial  sphere 
Zeus,  and  likewise  Homer  says : 

'  As  pieces  of  snow  are  cut  off  from  Zeus.'' " 

Aratos  calls  the  ether  and  the  air  Zeus  in  the  passage  : 
'•  The  roads  and  the  meeting- places  are  full  of  him,  and 
we  all  must  inhale  him." 

Therefore  the  philosophers  of  the  Stoa  maintain  that 
Zeus  is  the  spirit  which  is  dispersed  in  the  vXr],  and 
similar  to  our  souls,  i.e.  the  nature  which  rules  every 
natural  body.  The  author  supposes  that  he  is  mild, 
since  he  is  the  cause  of  the  good ;  therefore  he  is  right 
in  maintaining  that  he  has  not  only  created  men,  but 
also  the  gods. 


(  99  ) 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ON  THE  CASTES,  CALLKD  "  COLOUKS  "  (VARNA),  AND  ON 
THE  CLASSES  BELOW  THEM. 

If  a  new  order  of  things  in  political  or  social  life  is  Tiuoneand 
created  by  a  man  naturally  ambitious  of  ruling,  who  '^^*'^'' 
by  his  character  and  capacity  really  deserves  to  be  a 
ruler,  a  man  of  firm  convictions  and  unshaken  deter- 
mination, who  even  in  times  of  reverses  is  supported  by 
good  luck,  in  so  far  as  people  then  side  with  him  in 
recognition  of  former  merits  of  his,  such  an  order  is 
likely  to  become  consolidated  among  those  for  whom 
it  was  created,  and  to  continue  as  firm  as  the  deeply 
rooted  mountains.  It  will  remain  among  them  as  a 
generally  recognised  rule  in  all  generations  through  the 
course  of  time  and  the  flight  of  ages.  If,  then,  this  new 
form  of  state  or  society  rests  in  some  degree  on  religion, 
these  twins,  state  and  religion,  are  in  perfect  harmony, 
and  their  union  represents  the  highest  development  of 
human  society,  all  that  men  can  possibly  desire. 

The  kings  of  antiquity,  who  were  industriously  de- 
voted to  the  duties  of  their  office,  spent  most  of  their 
care  on  the  division  of  their  subjects  into  different 
classes  and  orders,  which  they  tried  to  preserve  from 
intermixture  and  disorder.  Therefore  they  forbade 
people  of  different  classes  to  have  intercourse  with  each 
other,  and  laid  upon  each  class  a  particular  kind  of 
work  or  art  and  handicraft.  They  did  not  allow  any- 
body to  transgress  the  limits   of  his  class,  and  even 


loo  A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 

punished  those  who  would  not  be  content  with  their 
class. 
Castes  of  All  this  is  Well  illustrated  by  the  history   of  the 

PersSs!^  ancient  Ohosroes  (Khusrau),  for  they  had  created  great 
institutions  of  this  kind,  which  could  not  be  broken 
through  by  the  special  merits  of  any  individual  nor  by 
bribery.  When  Ardashir  ben  Babak  restored  the  Per- 
sian empire,  he  also  restored  the  classes  or  castes  of  the 
population  in  the  following  way  : — 

The  first  class  were  the  knights  and  princes. 

The  second  class  the  monks,  the  fire-priests,  and  the 
lawyers. 

The  third  class  the  physicians,  astronomers,  and  other 
men  of  science. 

The  fourth  class  the  husbandmen  and  artisans. 

And  within  these  classes  there  were  subdivisions,  dis- 
tinct from  each  other,  like  the  species  within  a  genus. 
All  institutions  of  this  kind  are  like  a  pedigree,  as  long 
as  their  origin  is  remembered ;  but  when  once  their 
origin  has  been  forgotten,  they  become,  as  it  were,  the 
stable  property  of  the  whole  nation,  nobody  any  more 
questioning  its  origin.  And  forgetting  is  the  necessary 
result  of  any  long  period  of  time,  of  a  long  succession 
of  centuries  and  generations. 

Among  the  Hindus  institutions  of  this  kind  abound. 
We  Muslims,  of  course,  stand  entirely  on  the  other  side 
of  the  question,  considering  all  men  as  equal,  except  in 
piety ;  and  this  is  the  greatest  obstacle  which  prevents 
any  approach  or  understanding  between  Hindus  and 
Muslims. 
The  four  The  Hiudus  call  their  castes  varna,  i.e.  colours,  and 

from  a  genealogical  point  of  view  they  call  them,  jdt aha, 
Page  49.       i.e.  births.     These  castes  are  from  the  vei:y  beginning 
only  four. 

I.  The  highest  caste  are  the  Brahmana,  of  whom  the 
books  of  the  Hindus  tell  that  they  were  created  from 
the  head  of  Brahman.     And  as  Brahman  is  only  another 


CHAPTER  IX.  loi 

name  for  the  force  called  nature,  and  the  head  is  the 
highest  part  of  the  animal  body,  the  Brahmana  are  the 
choice  part  of  the  whole  genus.  Therefore  the  Hindus 
consider  them  as  the  very  best -of'  mj«,rki'!:id.       '     ' 

II.  The  next  caste  are  the  Kehatr-iya,  vvho  w'e?^e 
created,  as  they  say,  from  tKe'shciilders  and  bands  "^of 
Brahman.  Their  degree  is  not  much  below  that  of  the 
Brahmana. 

III.  After  them  follow  the  Yaisya,  who  were  created 
from  the  thigh  of  Brahman. 

IV.  The  Sudra,  who  were  created  from  his  feet. 
Between   the  latter   two    classes  there    is  no  very 

great  distance.  Much,  however,  as  these  classes  differ 
from  each  other,  they  live  together  in  the  same  towns 
and  villages,  mixed  together  in  the  same  houses  and 
lodgings. 

After  the  Sudra  follow  the  people  called  Antyaja,  who  Low-caste 
render  various  kinds  of  services,  who  are  not  reckoned 
amongst  any  caste,  but  only  as  members  of  a  certain 
craft  or  profession.  There  are  eight  classes  of  them, 
who  freely  intermarry  with  each  other,  except  the  fuller, 
shoemaker,  and  weaver,  for  no  others  would  condescend 
to  have  anything  to  do  with  them.  These  eight  guilds 
are  the  fuller,  shoemaker,  juggler,  the  basket  and  shield 
maker,  the  sailor,  fisherman,  the  hunter  of  wild  animals 
and  of  birds,  and  the  weaver.  The  four  castes  do  not 
live  together  with  them  in  one  and  the  same  place. 
These  guilds  live  near  the  villages  and  towns  of  the 
four  castes,  but  outside  them. 

The  people  called  Hfidi,  Doma  (Domba),  Cancirda,  ^ 
and  Badhatau  (sic)  are  not  reckoned  amongst  any  caste 
or  guild.  They  are  occupied  with  dirty  work,  like  the 
cleansing  of  the  villages  and  other  services.  They  are 
considered  as  one  sole  class,  and  distinguished  only  by 
their  occupations.  In  fact,  they  are  considered  like 
illegitimate  children  ;  for  according  to  general  opinion 
they   descend  from   a  Sudra  father  and   a   Brahman! 


I02  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

mother  as  the  children  of  fornication  ;  therefore  they 
are  degraded  outcasts. 
Different  T-he  Hindus  p'ive  to   every  single  man  of  the  four 

occupations  ...  . 

of  the  castes  castes~ 'charactferl.siic  names,  according  to  their  occu- 
p'ations^  and  modes  of  life.  Ujj.  the  Brahmana  is  in 
general  ^called  by  Uws  name  as  long  as  he  does  his  work 
staying  at  home.  When  he  is  busy  with  the  service 
of  one  fire,  he  is  called  ishtin ;  if  he  serves  three  fires,  he 
is  called  agnihotrin  ;  if  he  besides  offers  an  offering  to 
the  fire,  he  is  called  dikshita.  And  as  it  is  with  the 
Brahmana,  so  is  it  also  with  the  other  castes.  Of  the 
classes  beneath  the  castes,  the  Hadi  are  the  best  spoken 
of,  because  they  keep  themselves  free  from  everything 
unclean.  Next  follow  the  Doma,  who  play  on  the  lute 
and  sing.  The  still  lower  classes  practise  as  a  trade 
killing  and  the  inflicting  of  judicial  punishments.  The 
worst  of  all  are  the  Badhatau,  who  not  only  devour  the 
flesh  of  dead  animals,  but  even  of  dogs  aud  other 
beasts. 

Customs  of        Each  of  the  four  castes,  when  eating  together,  must 

mills.  form   a  group   for  themselves,   one   group  not   being 

allowed  to  comprise  two  men  of  different  castes.  If, 
further,  in  the  group  of  the  Brahmana  there  are  two 
men  who  live  at  enmity  with  each  other,  and  the  seat 
of  the  one  is  by  the  side  of  the  other,  they  make  a 
barrier  between  the  two  seats  by  placing  a  board 
between  them,  or  by  spreading  a  piece  of  dress,  or  in 
some  other  way  ;  and  if  there  is  only  a  line  drawn 
between  them,  they  are  considered  as  separated.  Since 
it  is  forbidden  to  eat  the  remains  of  a  meal,  every  single 
man  must  have  his  own  food  for  himself  ;  for  if  any  one 
of  the  party  who  are  eating  should  take  of  the  food  from 
one  and  the  same  plate,  that  which  remains  in  the  plate 
becomes,  after  the  first  eater  has  taken  part,  to  him  who 

Page  50.  wants  to  take  as  the  second,  the  remains  of  the  meal, 
and  such  is  forbidden. 

Such  is  the  condition  of  the  four  castes.     Arjuna 


CHAPTER  IX.  103 

asked  about  the  nature  of  the  four  castes  and  what 
must  be  their  moral  qualities,  whereupon  Vasudeva 
answered  : 

"  The  Brahmana  must  have  an  ample  intellect,  a 
quiet  heart,  truthful  speech,  much  patience ;  he  must 
be  master  of  his  senses,  a  lover  of  justice,  of  evident 
purity,  always  directed  upon  worship,  entirely  bent 
upon  religion. 

"  The  Kshatriya  must  fill  the  hearts  with  terror,  must 
be  brave  and  high-minded,  must  have  ready  speech  and 
a  liberal  hand,  not  minding  dangers,  only  intent  upon 
carrying  the  great  tasks  of  his  calling  to  a  happy  end. 

"  The  Vaisya  is  to  occupy  himself  with  agriculture, 
with  the  acquisition  of  cattle,  and  with  trade. 

"The  Sudra  is  to  endeavour  to  render  services  and 
attention  to  each  of  the  preceding  classes,  in  order  to 
make  himself  liked  by  them. 

"  If  each  member  of  these  castes  adheres  to  his  cus- 
toms and  usages,  he  will  obtain  the  happiness  he  wishes 
for,  supposing  that  he  is  not  negligent  in  the  worship  of 
God,  not  forgetting  to  remember  him  in  his  most  im- 
portant avocations.  But  if  anybody  wants  to  quit  the 
works  and  duties  of  his  caste  and  adopt  those  of  another 
caste,  even  if  it  would  bring  a  certain  honour  to  the 
latter,  it  is  a  sin,  because  it  is  a  transgression  of  the 
rule." 

Further,  Vasudeva  speaks,  inspiring  him  with  courage 
to  fight  the  enemy  :  "  Dost  thou  not  know,  0  man  with 
the  long  arm,  that  thou  art  a  Kshatriya ;  that  thy  race 
has  been  created  brave,  to  rush  boldly  to  the  charge, 
to  care  little  for  the  vicissitudes  of  time,  never  to  give 
way  whenever  their  soul  has  a  foreboding  of  coming 
misfortune?  for  only  thereby  is  the  reward  to  be  ob- 
tained. If  he  conquers,  he  obtains  power  and  good 
fortune.  If  he  perishes,  he  obtains  paradise  and  bliss. 
Besides,  thou  showest  weakness  in  the  presence  of  the 
enemy,   and    seemest    melancholy   at    the   prospect  of 


I04  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

killing  this  host  ;  but  it  will  be  iufiuitely  worse  if  thy 
name  will  spread  as  that  of  a  timid,  cowardly  man,  that 
thy  reputation  among  the  heroes  and  the  experienced 
warriors  will  be  gone,  that  thou  wilt  be  out  of  their 
sight,  and  thy  name  no  longer  be  remembered  among 
them.  I  do  not  know  a  worse  punishment  than  such 
a  state.  Death  is  better  than  to  expose  thyself  to  the 
consequences  of  ignominy.  If,  therefore,  God  has 
ordered  thee  to  fight,  if  he  has  deigned  to  confer  upon 
thy  caste  the  task  of  fighting  and  has  created  thee  for 
it,  carry  out  his  order  and  perform  his  will  with  a 
determination  which  is  free  from  any  desire,  so  that 
thy  action  be  exclusively  devoted  to  him." 
Mokshaaiid  Hiudus  differ  among  themselves  as  to  which  of  these 
castes.  castes  is  capable  of  attaining  to  liberation  ;  for,  according 

to  some,  only  the  Brahmana  and  Kshatriya  are  capable 
of  it,  since  the  others  cannot  learn  the  Veda,  whilst 
according  to  the  Hindu  philosophers,  liberation  is 
common  to  all  castes  and  to  the  whole  human  race,  if 
their  intention  of  obtaining  it  is  perfect.  This  view 
is  based  on  the  saying  of  Vyasa  :  "  Learn  to  know 
the  twenty-five  things  thoroughly.  Then  you  may 
follow  whatever  religion  you  like ;  you  will  no  doubt 
be  liberated."  This  view  is  also  based  on  the  fact 
that  Vasudeva  was  a  descendant  of  a  Riidra  family, 
and  also  on  the  following  saying  of  his,  which  he 
addressed  to  Arjuna:  "God  distributes  recompense 
without  injustice  and  without  partiality.  He  reckons 
the  good  as  bad  if  people  in  doing  good  forget  him ;  he 
reckons  the  bad  as  good  if  people  in  doing  bad  remem- 
ber him  and  do  not  forget  him,  whetber  those  people  be 
Vaisya  or  Siidra  or  women.  How  much  more  will  this 
Page  51.        be  the  case  when  they  are  Brahmana  or  Kshatriya." 


(     I05     ) 


CHAPTER   X. 

ON  THK  SOURCE  OF  TIIErK  RELIGIOUS  AND  CIVIL  LAW, 
ON  PROPHETS,  AND  ON  THE  QUESTION  WHKTHER 
SINGLE   LxVWS   CAN    BE   ABROGATED    OR    NOT. 

The  ancient  Greeks  received  their  religious  and  civil  Lawand 
laws  from  sages  among  them  who  were  called  to  the  among  the 
work,   and   of  whom  their  countrymen  believed   that  founded  by 
they  received  divine  help,  like  Solon,  Draco,  Pythagoras, 
Minos,  and  others.     Also  their  kings  did  the  same  ;  for 
Mianos  (sic),  when  ruling  over  the  islands  of  the  sea 
and  over  the  Cretans  about  two  hundred  years  after 
Moses,  gave  them  laws,  pretending  to  have   received 
them  from  Zens.     About  the  same  time  also  Minos  (sic) 
gave  his  laws. 

At  the  time  of  Darin s  I.,  the  successor  of  Cyrus,  the 
Romans  sent  messengers  to  the  Athenians,  and  received 
from  them  the  laws  in  twelve  books,  under  which  they 
lived  till  the  rule  of  Pompilius  (Numa).  Tins  king 
gave  them  new  laws  ;  he  assigned  to  the  year  twelve 
months,  whilst  up  to  that  time  it  had  only  had  ten 
months.  It  appears  that  he  introduced  his  innovations 
against  the  will  of  the  Romans,  for  he  ordered  them  to 
use  as  instruments  of  barter  in  commerce  pieces  of 
pottery  and  hides  instead  of  silver,  which  seems  on 
his  part  to  betray  a  certain  anger  against  rebellious 
subjects. 

In  the  first  chapter  of  the  Book  of  Lavjs  of  Plato,  the  Quotation  _ 
Athenian  stranger  says:   "Who  do  you  think  was  the  zoi 


lies. 


io6  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

first  who  gave  laws  to  you  ?  Was  he  an  angel  or  a  man  ?  " 
The  man^of  Cnossus  said:  "He  was  an  angel.  In 
truth,  with  us  it  was  Zeus,  but  with  the  Lacedasmonians, 
as  they  maintain,  the  legislator  was  Apollo." 

Further,  he  says  in  the  same  chapter :  "It  is  the 
duty  of  the  legislator,  if  he  comes  from  God,  to  make 
the  acquisition  of  the  greatest  virtues  and  of  the  highest 
justice  the  object  of  his  legislation." 

He  describes  the  laws  of  the  Cretans  as  rendering 
perfect  the  happiness  of  those  who  make  the  proper 
use  of  them,  because  by  them  they  acquire  all  the 
human  good  which  is  dependent  upon  the  divine  good. 
The  Athenian  says  in  the  second  chapter  of  the 
same  book :  "  The  gods,  pitying  mankind  as  born  for 
trouble,  instituted  for  them  feasts  to  the  gods,  the 
Muses,  Apollo  the  ruler  of  the  Muses,  and  to  Dionysos, 
who  gave  men  wine  as  a  remedy  against  the  bitterness 
of  old  age,  that  old  men  should  again  be  young  by 
forgetting  sadness,  and  by  bringing  back  the  character 
of  the  soul  from  the  state  of  affliction  to  the  state  of 
soundness." 

Further  he  says  :  "  They  have  given  to  men  by  in- 
spiration the  arrangements  for  dancing,  and  the  equally 
weighed  rhythm  as  a  reward  for  fatigues,  and  that  they 
may  become  accustomed  to  live  together  with  them  in 
feasts  and  joy.  -  Therefore  they  call  one  kind  of  their 
music  praises,  with  an  implied  allusion  to  the  prayers 
to  the  gods." 

Such  was  the  case  with  the  Greeks,  and  it  is  precisely 

the  same  with  the  Hindus.     For  they  believe  that  their 

The  Rishis,    religious  law  and  its  single  precepts  derive  their  origin 

of  HiiKhi'"'    from  Rishis,  their  sages,  the  pillars  of  their  religion, 

Page  52.       ^^^  i^ot  from  the  prophet,  i.e.  Narayana,  who,  when 

coming  into  this  world,  appears  in  some  human  figure. 

But  he  only  comes  in  order  to  cut   away  some  evil 

matter  which  threatens  the  world,  or  to  set  the  world 

right  again  when  anything  has  gone  wrong.    Further,  no 


CHAPTER  X.  107 

law  can  be  exchanged  or  replaced  by  another,  for  they 
use  the  laws  simply  as  they  find  them.  Therefore  they 
can  dispense  witli  prophets,  as  far  as  law  and  worship 
are  concerned,  though  in  other  affairs  of  the  creation 
they  sometimes  want  them. 

As  for  the  question  of  the  abrogation  of  laws,  it  whether 

-,  .      .  .  .11  •   1        1        TT      1  r         laws  may  be 

seems  that  this  is  not  impossible  with  the  Hindus,  tor  abrogated  or 
they  say  that  many  things  which  are  now  forbidden 
were  allowed  before  the  coming  of  Vasudeva,  e.g.  the 
flesh  of  cows.  Such  changes  are  necessitated  by  the 
change  of  the  nature  of  man,  and  by  their  being  too 
feeble  to  bear  the  whole  burden  of  their  duties.  To 
these  changes  also  belong  the  changes  of  the  matri- 
monial system  and  of  the  theory  of  descent.  For  in 
former  times  there  were  three  modes  of  determining 
descent  or  relationship^ : 

1.  The  child  born  to  a  man  by  his  legitimate  wife  is  Diflferent 
the  child  of  the  father,  as  is  the  custom  with  us  and  syst"ms°"''^ 
with  the  Hindus. 

2.  If  a  man  marries  a  woman  and  has  a  child  by  her  ; 
if,  farther,  the  marriage-contract  stipulates  that  the 
children  of  the  woman  will  belong  to  her  father,  the 
child  is  considered  as  the  child  of  its  grandfather  who 
made  that  stipulation,  and  not  as  the  child  of  its  father 
who  engendered  it. 

3.  If  a  stranger  has  a  child  by  a  married  woman,  the 
child  belongs  to  her  husband,  since  the  wife  being,  as  it 
were,  the  soil  in  which  the  child  has  grown,  is  the  pro- 
perty of  the  husband,  always  presupposing  that  the 
sowing,  i.e.  the  cohabitation,  takes  place  with  his  con- 
sent. 

According  to  this  principle.  Panda  was  considered  as  Tiie  story  of 
the  son  of  Santanu  ;  for  this  king  had  been  cursed  by  Vyasa. 
an  anchorite,  and  in  consequence  was  unable  to  cohabit 
with  his  wives,  which  was  the  more  provoking  to  him 
as  he  had  not  yet  any  children.     Now  he  asked  Vyasa, 
the  son  of  Parasara,  to  procreate  for  him  children  from 


io8  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

his  wives  in  his  place.  Pftndu  sent  him  one,  but  she 
was  afraid  of  him  when  he  cohabited  with  her,  and 
trembled,  in  consequence  of  which  she  conceived  a 
sickly  child  of  yellow  hue.  Then  the  king  sent  him  a 
second  woman  ;  she,  too,  felt  much  reverence  for  him, 
and  wrapped  herself  up  in  her  veil,  and  in  consequence 
she  gave  birth  to  Dhritarfishtra,  who  was  blind  and 
unhealthy.  Lastly,  he  sent  him  a  third  woman,  whom 
he  enjoined  to  put  aside  all  fear  and  reverence  with 
regard  to  tlie  saint.  Laughing  and  in  high  spirits,  she 
went  in  to  him,  and  conceived  from  him  a  child  of 
moon-like  beauty,  who  excelled  all  men  in  boldness  and 
cunning. 

Birth  of  The  four  sons  of  Pandu  had  one  wife  in  common, 

''^  '  who  stayed  one  month  with  each  of  them  alternately. 

In  the  books  of  the  Hindus  it  is  told  that  Parasara,  the 
hermit,  one  day  travelled  in  a  boat  in  which  there  was 
also  a  daughter  of  the  boatman.  He  fell  in  love  with 
her,  tried  to  seduce  her,  and  finally  she  yielded ;  but 
there  was  nothing  on  the  bank  of  the  river  to  hide 
them  from  the  looks  of  the  people.  However,  instan- 
taneously there  grew  a  tamarisk-tree  to  facilitate  their 
purpose.  Now  he  cohabited  with  her  behind  the  tama- 
risk, and  made  her  conceive,  whereupon  she  became 
pregnant  with  this  his  excellent  son  Vyasa. 

All  these  customs  have  now  been  abolished  and  ab- 
rogated, and  therefore  we  may  infer  from  their  tradi- 
tion that  in  principle  the  (ilrogation  of  a  laiv  is  allowahle. 

Various  As  regards  unnatural  kinds  of  marriage,  we  must 

state  that  such  exist  still  in  our  time,  as  they  also 
existed  in  the  times  of  Arab  heathendom ;  for  the 
people  inhabiting  the  mountains  stretching  from  the 
region  of  Panchir  into  the  neighbourhood  of  Kashmir 
live  under  the  rule  that  several  brothers  have  one  wife 
in  common.  Among  the  heathen  Arabs,  too,  marriage 
was  of  different  kinds  : — 

Page 53.  I.  An  Arab  ordered  his  wife  to  be  sent  to  a  certain 


marriage 
with  Tibe 
tuns  and 
Arabs. 


CHAPTER  X.  109 

mau  to  demand  sexual  intercourse  with  him ;  then  he 
abstained  from  her  during  the  whole  time  of  her  preg- 
nancy, since  he  wished  to  have  from  her  a  generous 
offspring.  This  is  identical  with  the  third  kind  of 
marriage  among  the  Hindus. 

2.  A  second  kind  was  this,  that  the  one  Arab  said  to 
the  other,  "  Cede  me  your  wife,  and  I  will  cede  you 
mine,"  and  thus  they  exchanged  their  wives. 

3.  A  third  kind  is  this,  that  several  men  cohabited 
with  one  wife.  Wben,  then,  she  gave  birth  to  a  child, 
she  declared  who  was  the  father ;  and  if  she  did  not 
know  it,  the  fortune-tellers  had  to  know  it. 

4.  The  Nikdh-elmaJd  (=  matrimonium  exosiim),  i.e. 
when  a  man  married  the  widow  of  his  father  or  of  his 
son,  the  child  of  such  a  marriage  was  called  daizan. 
This  is  nearly  the  same  as  a  certain  Jewish  marriage, 
for  the  Jews  have  the  law  that  a  man  must  marry  the 
widow  of  his  brother,  if  the  latter  has  not  left  children, 
and  create  a  line  of  descent  for  his  deceased  brother ; 
and  the  offspring  is  considered  as  that  of  the  deceased 
man,  not  as  that  of  the  real  father.  Thereby  they  want 
to  prevent  his  memory  dying  out  in  the  world.  In 
Hebrew  they  call  a  man  who  is  married  in  this  way 
Ydhhdm. 

There  was  a  similar  institution  among  the  Magians.  Marriage 
In  the  book  of  Tausar,  the  great  Iterhadli,  addressed  to  ancient 
Padashvar-girshah,   as    an  answer  to    his    attacks    on    ^    '    * 
Ardashir  the  son  of  Babak,  we  find  a  description  of  the 
institution  of  a  man's  being  married  as  the  substitute 
for  another  man,  which  existed  among  the  Persians. 
If  a  man  dies  without  leaving  male  offspring,  people 
are  to  examine  the  case.     If  he  leaves  a  wife,   they 
marry  her  to  his  nearest  relative.     If  he  does  not  leave 
a  wife,  they  marry  his  daughter  or  the  nearest  related 
woman   to  the    nearest  related    male    of   the    family. 
If  there  is  no  woman  of  his  family  left,  they  woo  by 
means  of  the  money  of  the  deceased  a  woman  for  his 


no  A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 

family,  and  marry  her  to  some  male  relative.  The 
child  of  such  a  marriage  is  considered  as  the  offspring 
of  the  deceased. 

Whoever  neglects  this  duty  and  does  not  fulfil  it, 
kills  innumerable  souls,  since  he  cuts  off  the  progeny 
and  the  name  of  the  deceased  to  all  eternity. 

We  have  here  given  an  account  of  these  things  in 
order  that  the  reader  may  learn  by  the  comparative 
treatment  of  the  subject  how  much  superior  the  insti- 
tutions of  Islam  are,  and  how  much  more  plainly  this 
contrast  brings  out  all  customs  and  usages,  differing 
from  those  of  Islam,  in  their  essential  foulness. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

ABOUT   THE   BKGINNING   OF   IDOL- WORSHIP,   AND    A 
DESCKIPTION   OF   THE   INDIVIDUAL   IDOLS. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  popular  mind  leans  towards  origin  of 

.  iTf.   idol- worship 

the  sensible  world,  and  has  an  aversion  to  the  world  oi  in  the 


abstract  thought  which  is  only  understood  by  highly 
educated  people,  of  whom  in  every  time  and  every 
place  there  are  only  few.  And  as  common  people  will 
only  acquiesce  in  pictorial  representations,  many  of  the 
leaders  of  religious  communities  have  so  far  deviated 
from  the  right  path  as  to  give  such  imagery  in  their 
books  and  houses  of  worship,  like  the  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians, and,  more  than  all,  the  Manich^eans.  These 
words  of  mine  would  at  once  receive  a  sufficient  illus- 
tration if,  for  example,  a  picture  of  the  Prophet  were 
made,  or  of  Mekka  and  the  Ka'ba,  and  were  shown  to 
an  uneducated  man  or  woman.  Their  joy  in  looking 
at  the  thing  would  bring  them  to  kiss  the  picture,  to 
rub  their  cheeks  against  it,  and  to  roll  themselves  in 
the  dust  before  it,  as  if  they  were  seeing  not  the  picture, 
but  the  original,  and  were  in  this  way,  as  if  they  were 
present  in  the  holy  places,  performing  the  rites  of  pil- 
grimage, the  great  and  the  small  ones. 

This  is  the  cause  which  leads  to  the  manufacture  of 
idols,  monuments  in  honour  of  certain  much  venerated 
persons,  prophets,  sages,  angels,  destined  to  keep  alive 
their  memory  when  they  are  absent  or  dead,  to  create 
for  them  a  lasting  place  of  grateful  veneration  in  the 
hearts  of  men  when  they  die.     But  when  much  time 


nature 
of  man. 


112  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

passes  by  after  the  setting  up  of  the  monument,  genera- 
tions and  centuries,  its  origin  is  forgotten,  it  becomes  a 
matter  of  custom,  and  its  veneration  a  rule  for  general 
practice.  This  being  deeply  rooted  in  the  nature  of 
man,  the.  legislators  of  antiquity  tried  to  influence  them 
from  this  weak  point  of  theirs.  Therefore  they  made 
the  veneration  of  pictures  and  similar  monuments  ob- 
ligatory on  them,  as  is  recounted  in  historic  records, 
both  for  the  times  before  and  after  the  Deluge.  Some 
people  even  pretend  to  know  that  all  mankind,  before 
Page  54.  God  sent  them  his  prophets,  were  one  large  idolatrous 
body. 

The  followers  of  the  Thora  fix  the  beginning  of  ido- 
latry in  the  days  of  Serugh,  the  great-grandfather  of 
Abraham.  The  Eomans  have,  regarding  this  question, 
story  of  the  following  tradition: — Romulus  and  Romaniis  (!), 
aiXRemus.  the  two  brothers  from  the  country  of  the  Franks,  on 
having  ascended  the  throne,  built  the  city  of  Rome. 
Then  Romulus  killed  his  brother,  and  the  consequence 
was  a  long  succession  of  intestine  troubles  and  wars. 
Finally,  Romulus  humiliated  himself,  and  then  he 
dreamt  that  there  would  only  be  peace  on  condition 
that  he  placed  his  brother  on  the  throne.  Now  he  got 
a  golden  image  made  of  him,  placed  it  at  his  side,  and 
henceforward  he  used  to  say,  "  We  (not  /)  have  ordered 
thus  and  thus,"  which  since  has  become  the  general 
use  of  kings.  Thereupon  the  troubles  subsided.  He 
founded  a  feast  and  a  play  to  amuse  and  to  gain  over 
those  who  bore  him  ill-will  on  account  of  the  murder 
of  his  brother.  Besides,  he  erected  a  monument  to  the 
sun,  consisting  of  four  images  on  four  horses,  the  green 
one  for  the  earth,  the  blue  for  the  water,  the  red  for  the 
fire,  and  the  white  for  the  air.  This  monument  is  still 
in  Rome  in  our  days, 
idoi-wor-  Since,  however,  here  we  have  to  explain  the  system  and 

stiicted  to    the  theories  of  the  Hindus  on  the  subject,  we  shall  now 
classes  of      mention  their  ludicrous  views  ;  but  we  declare  at  once 


CHAPTER  XL 


113 


that  they  are  held  only  by  the  common  uneducated 
people.  For  those  who  march  on  the  path  to  liberation, 
or  those  who  study  philosophy  and  theology,  and  who 
desire  abstract  truth  which  they  call  sdra,  are  entirely 
free  from  worshipping  anything  but  God  alone,  and 
would  never  dream  of  worshipping  an  image  manufac- 
tured to  represent  him.  A  tradition  illustrative  of 
this  is  that  which  Saunaka  told  the  king  Pariksha  in 
these  words : — 

There  was  once  a  king  called  Ambarisha,  who  had  story  of 
obtained  an  empire  as  large  as  he  had  wished  for.     But  baSfhlTnd 
afterwards  he  came  to  like  it  no  longer  ;  he  retired  from    ^^^^'^' 
the  world,  and  exclusively  occupied  himself  with  wor- 
shipping and  praising  God  for  a  long  time.     Finally, 
God  appeared  to  him  in  the  shape  of  Indra,  the  prince 
of  the  angels,  riding  on  an  elephant.     He  spoke  to  the 
king  :  "  Demand  whatever  you  like,  and  I  will  give  it 
vou." 

The  king  answered :  "I  rejoice  in  seeing  thee,  and 
I  am  thankful  for  the  good  fortune  and  help  thou 
hast  given  ;  but  I  do  not  demand  anything  from  thee, 
but  only  from  him  who  created  thee." 

Indra  said :  "  The  object  of  worship  is  to  receive  a 
noble  reward .  Kealise,  therefore,  your  object,  and  accept 
the  reward  from  him  from  whom  hitherto  you  have 
obtained  your  wishes,  and  do  not  pick  and  choose, 
saying,  '  Not  from  thee,  but  from  another.'  " 

The  king  answered  :  "  The  earth  has  fallen  to  my  lot, 
but  I  do  not  care  for  all  that  is  in  it.  The  object  of 
my  worship  is  to  see  the  Lord,  and  that  thou  canst  not 
give  me.  Why,  therefore,  should  I  demand  the  fulfil- 
ment of  my  desire  from  thee  ?  " 

Indra  said  :  "  The  whole  world  and  whoever  is  upon 
it  are  obedient  to  me.  Who  are  you  that  you  dare  to 
oppose  me  ?  " 

The  king  answered:  "I,  too,  hear  and  obey,  but  I 
worship  him  from  whom  thou  hast  received  this  power, 

VOL.  I.  H 


114  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

who  is  the  lord  of  the  universe,  who  has  protected  thee 
against  the  attacks  of  the  two  kings,  Bali  and  Hiran- 
yaksha.  Therefore  let  me  do  as  /  like,  and  turn  away 
from  me  with  my  farewell  greeting." 

Indra  said  :  "  If  you  will  absolutely  oppose  me,  I  will 
kill  you  and  annihilate  you." 

The  king  answered :  "  People  say  that  happiness  is 
envied,  but  not  so  misfortune.  He  who  retires  from 
the  world  is  envied  by  the  angels,  and  therefore  they 
will  try  to  lead  him  astray.  I  am  one  of  those  who 
have  retired  from  the  world  and  entirely  devoted  them- 
selves to  worship,  and  I  shall  not  give  it  up  as  long  as 
Pa.^a  55.  I  Uvc.  I  do  not  kuow  myself  to  be  guilty  of  a  crime 
for  which  I  should  deserve  to  be  killed  by  thee.  If 
thou  killest  me  without  any  offence  on  my  part,  it  is 
thy  concern.  What  dost  thou  want  from  me  ?  If  my 
thoughts  are  entirely  devoted  to  God,  and  nothing  else 
is  blended  with  them,  thou  art  not  able  to  do  me  any 
harm.  Sufficient  for  me  is  the  worship  with  which  I 
am  occupied,  and  now  I  return  to  it." 

As  the  king  now  went  on  worshipping,  the  Lord 
appeared  to  him  in  the  shape  of  a  man  of  the  grey 
lotus  colour,  riding  on  a  bird  called  Garuda,  holding  in 
one  of  the  four  hands  the  sankha,  a  sea-shell  which 
people  blow  when  riding  on  elephants ;  in  the  second 
hand  the  cakra,  a  round,  cutting,  orbicular  weapon, 
which  cuts  everything  it  hits  right  through  ;  in  the 
third  an  amulet,  and  in  the  iouvth  padma,  i.e.  the  red 
lotus.  When  the  king  saw  him,  he  shuddered  from 
reverence,  prostrated  himself  and  uttered  many  praises. 
The  Lord  quieted  his  terrified  mind  and  promised  him 
that  he  should  obtain  everything  he  wished  for.  The 
king  spoke :  "I  had  obtained  an  empire  which  nobody 
disputed  with  me;  I  was  in  conditions  of  life  not 
troubled  by  sorrow  or  sickness.  It  was  as  if  the 
whole  world  belonged  to  me.  But  then  I  turned  away 
from  it,  after  I  had  understood  that  the  good  of  the 


CHAPTER  XL  115 

world  is  really  bad  iu  the  end.  I  do  not  wish  for  any- 
thing except  what  I  now  have.  The  only  thing  I  now 
wish  for  is  to  be  liberated  from  this  fetter." 

The  Lord  spoke  :  "  That  you  will  obtain  by  keeping 
aloof  from  the  world,  by  being  alone,  by  uninterrupted 
meditation,  and  by  restraining  your  senses  to  yourself." 

The  king  spoke :  "  Supposing  that  I  am  able  to  do 
so  through  that  sanctity  which  the  Lord  has  deigned 
to  bestow  upon  me,  how  should  any  other  man  be  able 
to  do  so  ?  for  man  wants  eating  and  clothing,  which 
connects  him  with  the  world.  How  is  he  to  think  of 
anything  else  ?  " 

The  Lord  spoke  :  "  Occupy  yourself  with  your  empire 
in  as  straightforward  and  prudent  a  way  as  possible : 
turn  your  thoughts  upon  me  when  you  are  engaged  in 
civilising  the  world  and  protecting  its  inhabitants,  in 
giving  alms,  and  in  everything  you  do.  And  if  you  are 
overpowered  by  human  forgetfulness,  make  to  yourself 
an  image  like  that  in  which  you  see  me ;  offer  to  it 
perfumes  and  flowers,  and  make  it  a  memorial  of  me, 
so  that  you  may  not  forget  me.  If  you  are  in  sorrow, 
think  of  me ;  if  you  speak,  speak  in  my  name  ;  if  you 
act,  act  for  me." 

The  king  spoke:  "Now  I  know  what  I  have  to  do 
in  general,  but  honour  me  further  by  instructing  me 
in  the  details." 

The  Lord  spoke  :  "  That  I  have  done  already.  I  have 
inspired  your  judge  Yasishtha  with  all  that  is  required. 
Therefore  rely  upon  him  in  all  questions." 

Then  the  figure  disappeared  from  his  sight.  The 
king  returned  into  his  residence  and  did  as  he  had 
been  ordered. 

From  that  time,  the  Hindus  say,  people  make  idols, 
some  with  four  hands  like  the  appearance  we  have 
described,  others  with  two  hands,  as  the  story  and 
description  require,  and  conformably  to  the  being  which 
is  to  be  represented. 


ii6  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

Narada  and        Another  stoiy  o£  theirs  is  the  following  : — Brahman 

frorJthe       had  a  son  called  Narada,  who  had  no  other  desire  but 

^'^'  that  of  seeing  the  Lord.     It  was  his  custom,  when  he 

walked  about,  to  hold  a  stick.     If  he  threw  it  down, 

it  became  a  serpent,  and  he  was  able  to  do  miracles 

with  it.     He  never  went  without  it.     One  day  being 

engrossed  in  meditation  on  the  object  of  his  hopes,  he 

saw  a  fire  from  afar.     He  went  towards  it,  and  then  a 

voice  spoke  to  him  out  of  the  fire  :   "  What  you  demand 

and   v/ish   is   impossible.     You    cannot    see    me    save 

thus."     When  he  looked  in  that  direction,  he  saw  a 

fiery   appearance    in    something    like    human   shape. 

rage  56.       Henceforward  it  has  been  the  custom  to  erect  idols  of 

certain  shapes. 
The  idol  c.f  A  famoLis  idol  of  theirs  was  that  of  Multan,  dedicated 
^^Aditya!^  to  the  sun,  and  therefore  called  Aditya.  It  was  of  wood 
and  covered  with  red  Cordovan  leather  ;  in  its  two  eyes 
were  two  red  rubies.  It  is  said  to  have  been  made  in 
the  last  Kritayuga.  Suppose  that  it  was  made  in  the 
very  end  of  Kritayuga,  the  time  which  has  since  elapsed 
amounts  to  216,432  years.  When  Muhammad  Ibn 
Alkasim  Ibn  Almunabbih  conquered  Multan,  he  in- 
quired how  the  town  had  become  so  very  flourishing 
and  so  many  treasures  had  there  been  accumulated,  and 
then  he  found  out  that  this  idol  was  the  cause,  for 
there  came  pilgrims  from  all  sides  to  visit  it.  There- 
fore he  thought  it  best  to  have  the  idol  where  it  was, 
but  he  hung  a  piece  of  cow's-flesh  on  its  neck  by  way 
of  mockery.  On  the  same  place  a  mosque  was  built. 
When  then  the  Karmatians  occupied  Multan,  Jalam 
Ibn  Shaiban,  the  usurper,  broke  the  idol  into  pieces 
and  killed  its  priests.  He  made  his  mansion,  which 
was  a  castle  built  of  brick  on  an  elevated  place,  the 
mosque  instead  of  the  old  mosque,  which  he  ordered  to 
be  shut  from  hatred  against  anything  that  had  been 
done  under  the  dynasty  of  the  Caliphs  of  the  house  of 
'Umayya.     When  afterwards  the  blessed  Prince  Mah- 


CHAPTER  XL  117 

mud  swept  away  their  rule  from  those  countries,  he 
made  again  the  old  mosque  the  place  of  the  Friday- 
worship,  and  the  second  one  was  left  to  decay.  At 
present  it  is  only  a  barn-floor,  where  bunches  of  Hinna 
{Laiusonia  inermis)  are  bound  together. 

If  we  now  subtract  from  the  above-mentioned  num- 
ber of  years  the  hundreds,  tens,  and  units,  i.e.  the  432 
years,  as  a  kind  of  arbitrary  equivalent  for  the  sum  of 
about  100  years,  by  which  the  rise  of  the  Karmatians 
preceded  our  time,  we  get  as  the  remainder  216,000 
years  for  the  time  of  the  end  of  the  Kritayuga,  and 
about  the  epoch  of  the  era  of  the  Hijra.  How,  then, 
could  wood  have  lasted  such  a  length  of  time,  and 
particularly  in  a  place  where  the  air  and  the  soil  are 
rather  wet  ?     God  knows  best ! 

The  city  of  Taneshar  is   highly   venerated   by  the  The  idol  of 
Hindus.     The  idol  of  that  place  is  called  Calcrasvdmin,  called 
i.e.  the  owner  of  the  cakra,  a  weapon  which  we  have  svamin. 
already  described  (page   1 14).     It  is  of  bronze,  and  is 
nearly  the  size  of  a  man.     It  is  now  lying  in  the  hippo- 
drome in  Ghazna,  together  with  the  Lord  of  Somandth, 
which  is  a  representation  of  the  ^9e?its  of  Mahadeva, 
called  Linga.     Of  Soman  a  th  we  shall  hereafter  speak  in 
the  proper  place.     This  Cakrasvamin  is  said  to  have 
been  made  in  the  time  of  Bharata  as  a  memorial  of  wars 
connected  with  this  name. 

In  Inner  Kashmir,  about  two  or  three  days'  journey  Theidoi 
from  the  capital  in  the  direction  towards  the  mountains  I^J'w" 
of  Bolor,  there  is  a  wooden  idol  called  &dvada,  which  is 
much  venerated  and  frequented  by  pilgrims. 

We  shall  now  communicate  a  whole  chapter  from  the  Quotation 

,  -,  from  the 

book  Samhitd  relating  to   the   construction   ot    idols,  samhitaof 
which  will  help  the  student  thoroughly  to  comprehend  hira.  ' 
the  present  subject. 

Varahamihira  says :  "If  the  figure  is  made  to  repre- 
sent Rama  the  son  of  Dasaratha,  or  Bali  the  son  of 
Virocana,  give  it  the  height  of  120  digits,"  i.e.  of  idol 


ii8  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

digits,  which  must  be  reduced  by  one-tenth  to  become 
common  digits,  in  this  case  io8. 

"  To  the  idol  of  Vishnu  give  eight  hands,  or  four,  or 
two,  and  on  the  left  side  under  the  breast  give  him  the 
figure  of  the  woman  Sri.  If  you  give  him  eight  hands, 
place  in  the  right  hands  a  sword,  a  club  of  gold  or  iron, 
an  arrow,  and  make  the  fourth  hand  as  if  it  were  draw- 
Page  57.  ing  water  ;  in  the  left  hands  give  him  a  shield,  a  bow,  a 
calc.ra,  and  a  conch. 

"  If  you  give  him  four  hands,  omit  the  bow  and  the 
arrow,  the  sword  and  shield. 

"If  you  give  him  two  hands,  let  the  right  hand  be 
drawing  water,  the  left  holding  a  conch. 

"  If  the  figure  is  to  represent  Baladeva,  the  brother  of 
Nilrayana,  put  earrings  into  his  ears,  and  give  him  eyes 
of  a  drunken  man. 

"If  you  make  both  figures,  Narayana  and  Baladeva, 
join  with  them  their  sister  Bliagavati  (Durga  =  Eka- 
nansa),  her  left  hand  resting  on  her  hip  a  little  away 
from  the  side,  and  her  right  hand  holding  a  lotus. 

"  If  you  make  her  four-handed,  place  in  the  right  hands 
a  rosary  and  a  hand  drawing  water  ;  in  the  left  hands,  a 
book  and  a  lotus. 

"  If  you  make  her  eight-handed,  place  in  the  left  hands 
the  kamandalu,  i.e.  a  pot,  a  lotus,  bow  and  book  ;  in -the 
right  hands,  a  rosary,  a  mirror,  an  arrow,  and  a  water- 
drawing  hand. 

"  If  the  figure  is  to  represent  Samba,  the  son  of  Vishnu, 
put  only  a  club  in  his  right  hand.  If  it  is  to  represent 
Pradyumna,  the  son  of  Vishnu,  place  in  his  right  hand 
an  arrow,  in  his  left  hand  a  bow.  And  if  you  make 
their  two  wives,  place  in  their  right  hand  a  sword,  in 
the  left  a  buckler. 

"  The  idol  of  Brahman  has  four  faces  towards  the  four 
sides,  and  is  seated  on  a  lotus. 

"The  idol  of  Skanda,  the  son  of  Mahadeva,  is  a  boy 
riding  on  a  peacock,  his  hand  holding  a  sakti,  a  weapon 


CHAPTER  XI,  119 

like  a  double-edged  sword,  which  has  in  the  middle  a 
pestle  like  that  of  a  mortar. 

"The  idol  Indra  holds  in  its  hand  a  weapon  called 
vajra  of  diamond.  It  has  a  similar  handle  to  the  sakti, 
but  on  each  side  it  has  two  swords  which  join  at  the 
handle.  On  his  front  place  a  third  eye,  and  make  him 
ride  on  a  white  elephant  with  four  tusks. 

"  Likewise  make  on  the  front  of  the  idol  of  Mahadeva 
a  third  eye  right  above,  on  his  head  a  crescent,  in  his 
hand  a  weapon  called  silla,  similar  to  the  club  but  with 
three  branches,  and  a  sword  ;  and  let  his  left  hand  hold 
his  wife  Gauri,  the  daughter  of  Himavant,  whom  he 
presses  to  his  bosom  from  the  side. 

"  To  the  idol  Jina,  i.e.  Buddha,  give  a  face  and  limbs  as 
beautiful  as  possible,  make  the  lines  in  the  palms  of  his 
hands  and  feet  like  a  lotus,  and  represent  him  seated 
on  a  lotus  ;  give  him  grey  hair,  and  represent  him  with 
a  placid  expression,  as  if  he  were  the  father  of  creation. 

"If  you  make  Arhant,  the  figure  of  another  body  of 
Buddha,  represent  him  as  a  naked  youth  with  a  fine 
face,  beautiful,  whose  hands  reach  down  to  the  knees, 
with  the  figure  of  Sri,  his  wife,  under  the  left  breast. 

"  The  idol  of  Revanta,  the  son  of  the  sun,  rides  on  a 
horse  like  a  huntsman. 

"  The  idol  of  Yima,  the  angel  of  death,  rides  on  a 
buffalo,  and  holds  a  club  in  his  hand. 

"  The  idol  of  Kubera,  the  treasurer,  wears  a  crown,  has 
a  big  stomach  and  wide  hips,  and  is  riding  on  a  man. 

"  The  idol  of  the  sun  has  a  red  face  like  the  pith  of 
the  red  lotus,  beams  like  a  diamond,  has  protruding 
limbs,  rings  in  the  ears,  the  neck  adorned  with  pearls 
which  hang  down  over  the  breast,  wears  a  crown  of 
several  compartments,  holds  in  his  hands  two  lotuses, 
and  is  clad  in  the  dress  of  the  Northerners  which  reaches 
down  to  the  ankle. 

"  If  you  represent  the  Seven  Mothers,  represent  several  Page  5^. 
of  them  together  in  one  figure,  Brahmani  with  four  faces 


I20  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

towards  the  four  directions,  Kaumriri  with  six  faces, 
Vaishnavi  with  four  hands,  Varahi  with  a  hog's  head 
on  a  human  bod}^,  Indrani  with  many  eyes  and  a  club 
in  her  hand,  Bhagavati  (Durga)  sitting  as  people 
generally  sit,  Camunda  ugly,  with  protruding  teeth 
and  a  slim  waist.  Further  join  with  them  the  sons  of 
Mahadeva,  Kshetrapala  with  bristling  hair,  a  sour  face, 
and  an  ugly  figure,  but  Vinayaka  with  an  elephant's 
head  on  a  human  body,  with  four  hands,  as  we  have 
heretofore  described." 

The  worshippers  of  these  idols  kill  sheep  and  buffaloes 
with  axes  (kutdra),  that  they  may  nourish  themselves 
with  their  blood.  All  idols  are  constructed  according  to 
certain  measures  determined  by  idol-fingers  for  every 
single  limb,  but  sometimes  they  differ  regarding  the 
measure  of  a  limb.  If  the  artist  keeps  the  right 
measure  and  does  not  make  anything  too  large  nor  too 
small,  he  is  free  from  sin,  and  is  sure  that  the  being 
which  he  represented  will  not  visit  him  with  any 
mishap.  "  If  he  makes  the  idol  one  cubit  high  and 
together  with  the  throne  two  cubits,  he  will  obtain 
health  and  wealth.  If  he  makes  it  higher  still,  he  will 
be  praised. 

"  But  he  must  know  that  making  the  idol  too  large, 
especially  that  of  the  Sun,  will  hurt  the  ruler,  and 
making  it  too  small  will  hurt  the  artist.  If  he  gives  it 
a  thin  belly,  this  helps  and  furthers  the  famine  in  the 
country  ;  if  he  gives  it  a  lean  belly,  this  ruins  property. 

"  If  the  hand  of  the  artist  slips  so  as  to  produce  some- 
thing like  a  wound,  he  will  have  a  wound  in  his  own 
body  which  will  kill  him. 

"  If  it  is  not  completely  even  on  both  sides,  so  that 
the  one  shoulder  is  higher  than  the  other,  his  wife  will 
perish. 

"  If  he  turns  the  eye  upward,  he  will  be  blind  for 
lifetime ;  if  he  turns  it  downward,  he  will  have  many 
troubles  and  sorrows." 


CHAPTER  XL  121 

If  the  statue  is  made  of  some  precious  stone,  it  is 
better  than  if  it  were  made  of  wood,  and  wood  is  better 
than  clay.  "The  benefits  of  a  statue  of  precious  stone 
will  be  common  to  all  the  men  and  women  of  the 
empire.  A  golden  statue  will  bring  power  to  him  who 
erected  it,  a  statue  of  silver  will  bring  him  renown,  one 
of  bronze  will  bring  him  an  increase  of  his  rule,  one  of 
stone  the  acquisition  of  landed  property." 

The  Hindus  honour  their  idols  on  account  of  those 
who  erected  them,  not  on  account  of  the  material  of 
which  they  are  made.  We  have  already  mentioned 
that  the  idol  of  Multan  was  of  wood.  U.g.  the  liiiga 
which  Kama  erected  when  he  had  finished  the  war  with 
the  demons  was  of  sand,  which  he  had  heaped  up  with 
his  own  hand.  But  then  it  became  petrified  all  at  once, 
since  the  astrologically  correct  moment  for  the  erecting 
of  the  monument  fell  before  the  moment  when  the 
workmen  had  finished  the  cutting  of  the  stone  monu- 
ment which  Rama  originally  had  ordered.  Regarding 
the  building  of  the  temple  and  its  peristyle,  the  cutting 
of  the  trees  of  four  different  kinds,  the  astrological 
determination  of  the  favourable  moment  for  the  erec- 
tion, the  celebration  of  the  rites  due  on  such  an  occa- 
sion, regarding  all  this  Rama  gave  very  long  and  tedious 
instructions.  Further,  he  ordered  that  servants  and 
priests  to  minister  to  the  idols  should  be  nominated 
from  different  classes  of  the  people.  "To  the  idol  of 
Vishnu  are  devoted  the  class  called  Bhagavata ;  to  the 
idol  of  the  Sun,  the  Maga,  i.e.  the  Magians ;  to  the  idol 
of  Mahadeva,  a  class  of  saints,  anchorites  with  long 
hair,  who  cover  their  skin  with  ashes,  hang  on  their 
persons  the  bones  of  dead  people,  and  swim  in  the 
pools.  The  Brahmana  are  devoted  to  the  Eight  Page  59. 
Mothers,  the  Shamanians  to  Buddha,  to  Arhant  the 
class  called  Nagna.  On  the  whole,  to  each  idol  certain 
people  are  devoted  who  constructed  it,  for  those  know 
best  how  to  serve  it." 


122  A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 

Onr  object  in  mentioning  all  this  mad  raving  was  to 
teach  the  reader  the  accurate  description  of  an  idol,  if 
he  happens  to  see  one,  and  to  illustrate  what  we  have 
said  before,  that  such  idols  are  erected  only  for  unedu- 
cated low-class  people  of  little  understanding  ;  that  the 
Hindus  never  made  an  idol  of  any  supernatural  being, 
much  less  of  God;  and,  lastly,  to  show  how  the  crowd 
is  kept  in  thraldom  by  all  kinds  of  priestly  tricks  and 
deceits.  Therefore  the  book  Gitd  says  :  "  Many  people 
try  to  approach  me  in  their  aspirations  through  some- 
thing which  is  different  from  me  ;  they  try  to  insinuate 
themselves  into  my  favour  by  giving  alms,  praise,  and 
prayer  to  something  besides  me.  I,  however,  confirm 
and  help  them  in  all  these  doings  of  theirs,  and  make 
them  attain  the  object  of  their  wishes,  because  I  am 
able  to  dispense  with  them." 

In  the  same  book  Vasudeva  speaks  to  Arjuna  :  "  Do 
you  not  see  that  most  of  those  who  wish  for  something 
address  themselves  in  offering  and  worshipping  to  the 
several  classes  of  spiritual  hcings,  and  to  the  sun,  moon, 
and  other  celestial  bodies  ?  If  now  God  does  not  dis- 
appoint their  hopes,  though  he  in  no  way  stands  in 
need  of  their  worship,  if  he  even  gives  them  more  than 
they  asked  for,  and  if  he  gives  them  their  wishes  in 
such  a  way  as  though  they  were  receiving  them  from 
that  to  which  they  had  addressed  their  prayers — viz. 
the  idol — they  will  proceed  to  worship  those  whom 
they  address,  because  they  have  not  learned  to  know 
him,  whilst  he,  by  admitting  this  kind  of  intermedia- 
tion, carries  their  affairs  to  the  desired  end.  But  that 
which  is  obtained  by  desires  and  intermediation  is  not 
lasting,  since  it  is  only  as  much  as  is  deserved  for  any 
particular  merit.  Only  that  is  lasting  which  is  obtained 
from  God  alone,  when  people  are  disgusted  with  old 
age,  death,  and  birth  (and  desire  to  be  delivered  there- 
from by  Moksha):' 

This  is  what  Vasudeva  says.  When  the  ignorant  crowd 


CHAPTER  XL  123 

get  a  piece  of  good  luck  by  accident  or  something  at 
wliicli  they  had  aimed,  and  when  with  this  some  of  the 
preconcerted  tricks  of  the  priests  are  brought  into  con- 
nection, the  darkness  in  which  they  live  increases 
vastly,  not  their  intelligence.  They  will  rush  to  those 
figures  of  idols,  maltreating  their  own  figures  before 
them  by  shedding  their  own  blood  and  mutilating  their 
own  bodies. 

The  ancient  Greeks,  also,  considered  the  idols  as 
mediators  between  themselves  and  the  First  Cause,  and 
worshipped  them  under  the  names  of  the  stars  and  the 
highest  substances.  For  they  described  the  First  Cause, 
not  with  positive,  but  only  with  negative  predicates, 
since  they  considered  it  too  high  to  be  described  by 
human  qualities,  and  since  they  wanted  to  describe  it 
as  free  from  any  imperfection.  Therefore  they  could 
not  address  it  in  worship. 

When  the  heathen  Arabs  had  imported  into  their 
country  idols  from  Syria,  they  also  worshipped  them, 
hoping  that  they  would  intercede  for  them  with  God. 

Plato  says  in  the  fourth  chapter  of  the  Booh  of  Laws  : 
"  It  is  necessary  to  any  one  who  gives  perfect  honours 
(to  the  gods)  that  he  should  take  trouble  with  the 
mijstery  of  the  gods  and  Sakinat,  and  that  he  should 
not  make  sjDecial  idols  masters  over  the  ancestral  gods. 
Further,  it  is  the  greatest  duty  to  give  honours  as  much 
as  possible  to  the  parents  while  they  live." 

By  mystery  Plato  means  a  sjoecial  kind  of  devotion. 
The  word  is  much  used  among  the  Sfibians  of  Harran, 
the  dualistic  Manichreans,  and  the  theologians  of  the 
Hindus. 

Galenus  says  in  the  book  Dc  Indole  Animce :  "  At 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Commodus,  between  500-5  lO 
years  after  Alexander,  two  men  went  to  an  idol-mer-  Page  60. 
chant  and  bargained  with  him  for  an  idol  of  Hermes. 
The  one  wanted  to  erect  it  in  a  temple  as  a  memorial 
of  Hermes,  the  other  wanted  to  erect  it  on  a  tomb  as  a 


124  ALBERUNI'S  INDIA. 

memorial  of  the  deceased.  However,  they  could  not 
settle  the  business  with  the  merchant,  and  so  they 
postponed  it  until  the  following  day.  The  idol-merchant 
dreamt  the  following  night  that  the  idol  addressed  him 
and  spoke  to  him  :  '  0  excellent  man  !  I  am  thy  work. 
I  have  received  through  the  work  of  thy  hands  a  figure 
which  is  thought  to  be  the  figure  of  a  star.  Now  I  am 
no  longer  a  stone,  as  people  called  me  heretofore  ;  I  am 
now  known  as  Mercury.  At  present  it  stands  in  thy 
hands  to  make  me  either  a  memorial  of  something  im- 
perishable or  of  something  that  has  perished  already.'  " 

There  is  a  treatise  of  Aristotle  in  which  he  answers 
certain  questions  of  the  Brahmins  which  Alexander  bad 
sent  him.  There  he  says  :  "If  you  maintain  that  some 
Greeks  have  fabled  that  the  idols  speak,  that  the  people 
offer  to  them  and  think  them  to  be  spiritual  beings,  of 
all  this  we  have  no  knowledge,  and  we  cannot"  give  a 
sentence  on  a  subject  we  do  not  know."  In  these  words 
he  rises  high  above  the  class  of  fools  and  uneducated 
people,  and  he  indicates  by  them  that  he  does  not 
occupy  himself  with  such  things.  It  is  evident  that 
the  first  cause  of  idolatry  was  the  desire  of  commemo- 
rating the  dead  and  of  consoling  the  living ;  but  on  this 
basis  it  has  developed,  and  has  finally  become  a  foul 
and  pernicious  abuse. 

The  former  view,  that  idols  are  only  memorials,  was 
also  held  by  the  Caliph  Mu  awiya  regarding  the  idols 
of  Sicily.  When,  in  the  summer  of  A.H.  53,  Sicily  was 
conquered,  and  the  conquerors  sent  him  golden  idols 
adorned  with  crowns  and  diamonds  which  had  been 
captured  there,  he  ordered  them  to  be  sent  to  Sind,  that 
they  should  be  sold  there  to  the  princes  of  the  country  ; 
for  he  thought  it  best  to  sell  them  as  objects  costing 
sums  of  so-and-so  many  denars,  not  having  the  slightest 
scruple  on  account  of  their  being  objects  of  abomin- 
able idolatry,  but  simply  considering  the  matter  from  a 
political,  not  from  a  religious  point  of  view. 


(      125      ) 


CHAPTER   XII. 

ON   THE  VEDA,    THE   PURANAS,   AND    OTHER   KINDS   OF 
THEIR   NATIONAL   LITERATURE. 

Veda  means  knowledge  of  that  which  was  before  uu-  Sundry 

-r      •  T     •  1  •    1  T  notes  relat- 

known.  It  is  a  religious  system  which,  accordiDg  to  ing:tothe 
the  Hindus,  comes  from  God,  and  was  promulgated 
by  the  mouth  of  Brahman.  The  Brahmins  recite 
the  Veda  without  understanding  its  meaning,  and  in 
the  same  way  they  learn  it  by  heart,  the  one  receiv- 
ing it  from  the  other.  Only  few  of  them  learn  its 
explanation,  and  still  less  is  the  number  of  those  who 
master  the  contents  of  the  Veda  and  their  interpretation 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  able  to  hold  a  theological 
disputation. 

The  Brahmins  teach  the  Veda  to  the  Kshatriyas. 
The  latter  learn  it,  but  are  not  allowed  to  teach  it,  not 
even  to  a  Brahmin.  The  Vaisya  and  Sudra  are  not 
allowed  to  hear  it,  much  less  to  pronounce  and  recite 
it.  If  such  a  thing  can  be  proved  against  one  of  them, 
the  Brahmins  drag  him  before  the  magistrate,  and  he 
is  punished  by  having  his  tongue  cut  off. 

The  Veda  contains  commandments  and  prohibitions, 
detailed  statements  about  reward  and  punishment  in- 
tended to  encourage  and  to  deter ;  but  most  of  it  con- 
tains hymns  of  praise,  and  treats  of  the  various  kinds 
of  sacrifices  to  the  fire,  which  are  so  numerous  and 
difficult  that  you  could  hardly  count  them. 

They  do  not  allow  the  Veda  to  be   committed  to  TheVeda 

...  t'  ...  -jT  T  ,  ,•  T         transmitted 

writing,  because  it  is  recited  according  to  certain  modu-  by  memory. 


126  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

lations,  and  they  therefore  avoid  the  use  of  the  pen, 
since  it  is  liable  to  cause  some  error,  and  may  occasion 
an  addition  or  a  defect  in  the  written  text.  In  conse- 
quence it  has  happened  that  they  have  several  times 
forgotten  the  Veda  and  lost  it.  For  they  maintain  that 
the  following  passage  occurs  in  the  conversations  be- 
tween God  and  Brahman  relating  to  the  beginning  of 
all  thiugs,  according  to  the  report  of  vSaunaka  who  had 
received  it  from  the  planet  Venus:  "You  will  forget 
the  Veda  at  the  time  when  the  earth  will  be  submerged; 
it  will  then  go  down  to  the  depths  of  the  earth,  and 
none  but  the  fish  will  be  able  to  bring  it  out  again. 
Therefore  I  shall  send  the  fish,  and  it  will  deliver  the 
Veda  into  your  hands.  And  I  shall  send  the  boar  to 
raise  the  earth  with  its  tusks  aud  to  bring  it  out  of  the 
water." 

Further,  the  Hindus  maintain  that  the  Veda,  together 
with  all  the  rites  of  their  religion  and  country,  had  been 
obliterated  in  the  last  Dvapara-yuga,  a  period  of  time 
of  which  we  shall  speak  in  the  proper  place,  until  it 
was  renewed  by  Vyasa,  the  son  of  Parasara. 

The  Vishnu  Furchia  ssLjs  :  "At  the  beginning  of  each 
Manvantara  period  there  will  be  created  anew  a  lord 
of  a  period  whose  children  will  rule  over  the  whole 
earth,  and  a  prince  who  will  be  the  head  of  the  world, 
and  angels  to  whom  men  will  bring  fire-offerings,  and 
the  Gi^eat  Bear,  who  will  renew  the  Veda  which  is  lost 
at  the  end  of  each  period." 

This  is  the  reason  why,  not  long  before  our  time, 
Vasukra,  a  native  of  Kashmir,  a  famous  Brahmin,  has 
of  his  own  account  undertaken  the  task  of  explaining 
the  Veda  and  committing  it  to  writing.  He  has  taken 
on  himself  a  task  from  which  everybody  else  would 
have  recoiled,  but  he  carried  it  out  because  he  was 
afraid  that  the  Veda  might  be  forgotten  and  entirely 
vanish  out  of  the  memories  of  men,  since  he  observed 
that  the  characters  of  men  grew  worse  and  worse,  and 


CHAPTER  XI I.  127 

that  they  did  not  care  much  for  virtue,  nor  even  for 
duty. 

There  are  certain  passages  in  the  Veda  which,  as  they 
maintain,  must  not  be  recited  within  dwelliugs,  since 
they  fear  that  they  would  cause  an  abortion  both  to 
women  and  the  cattle.  Therefore  they  step  out  into  the 
open  field  to  recite  them  there.  There  is  hardly  a  single 
verse  free  from  such  and  similar  minatory  injunctions. 

As  we  have  already  mentioned,  the  books  of  the 
Hindus  are  metrical  compositions  like  the  Rajaz  poems 
of  the  Arabs.  Most  of  them  are  composed  in  a  metre 
called  sloka.  The  reason  of  this  has  already  been 
explained.  Galenus  also  prefers  metrical  composi- 
tion, and  says  in  his  book  Kara  yevi-j :  "The  single 
signs  which  denote  the  weights  of  medicines  become 
corrupt  by  being  copied ;  they  are  also  corrupted  by  the 
wanton  mischief  of  some  envious  person.  Therefore  it 
is  quite  right  that  the  books  of  Damocrates  on  medi- 
cines should  be  preferred  to  others,  and  that  they  should 
gain  fame  and  praise,  since  they  are  written  in  a  Greek 
metre.  If  all  books  were  written  in  this  way  it  would 
be  the  best ;  "  the  fact  being  that  a  prose  text  is  much 
more  exposed  to  corruption  than  a  metrical  one. 

The  Veda,  however,  is  not  composed  in  this  common 
metre,  sloka,  but  in  another.  Some  Hindus  say  that 
no  one  could  compose  anything  in  the  same  metre. 
However,  their  scholars  maintain  that  this  is  possible 
indeed,  but  that  they  refrain  from  trying  it  merely  from 
veneration  for  the  Veda. 

According  to  their  tradition,  Vyasa  divided  it  into  The  four 
four  parts  :  Rigveda,  Ycy'urvcda,  Sd7naveda,  and  Athar-  vyasaand 
vanaveda.  vedas. 

Vyasa  had  four  sisJiya,  i.e.  pupils.  He  taught  a  sepa- 
rate Veda  to  each  of  them,  and  made  him  carry  it  in 
his  memory.  They  are  enumerated  in  the  same  order 
as  the  four  parts  of  the  Veda :  Paila^  Vaisampdyana, 
Jaimini,  Suma7itu. 


128  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

Each  of  the  four  parts  has  a  peculiar  kind  of  recita- 
tion. The  first  is  Rigveda,  consisting  of  metrical  com- 
positions called  ric,  which  are  of  different  lengths.  It 
is  called  Rigveda  as  being  the  totality  of  the  ric. 
It  treats  of  the  sacrifices  to  the  fire,  and  is  recited  in 
three  different  ways.  First,  in  a  uniform  manner  of 
reading,  just  as  every  other  book  is  read.  Secondly,  in 
such  a  way  that  a  pause  is  made  after  every  single 
word.  Thirdly,  in  a  method  which  is  the  most  meri- 
torious, and  for  which  plenty  of  reward  in  heaven  is 
promised.  First  you  read  a  short  passage,  each  word 
of  which  is  distinctly  pronounced ;  then  you  repeat  it 
together  with  a  part  of  that  which  has  not  yet  been 
recited.  Next  you  recite  the  added  portion  alone,  and 
then  you  repeat  it  together  with  the  next  part  of  that 
which  has  not  yet  been  recited,  &c.,  &c.  Continuing  to 
do  so  till  the  end,  you  will  have  read  the  whole  text  twice. 

The  Yajurveda  is  composed  of  kdndin.  The  word 
is  a  derivative  noun,  and  means  the  totality  of  the 
kdndin.  The  difference  between  this  and  the  Rigveda 
is  that  it  may  be  read  as  a  text  connected  by  the  rules 
of  Samdhi,  which  is  not  allowed  in  the  case  of  Rigveda. 
The  one  as  well  as  the  other  treats  of  works  connected 
with  the  fire  and  the  sacrifices. 

I  have  heard  the  following  story  about  the  reason 
why  the  Rigveda  cannot  be  recited  as  a  text  connected 
by  the  rules  of  Samdhi : — 

Yajnavalkya  stayed  with  his  master,  and  his  master 
had  a  Brahmin  friend  who  wanted  to  make  a  journey. 
Therefore  he  asked  the  master  to  send  somebody  to  his 
house  to  perform  there  during  his  absence  the  rites  to 
Homa,  i.e.  to  his  fire,  and  to  prevent  it  from  being 
extinguished.  Now  the  master  sent  his  pupils  to  the 
house  of  his  friend  one  after  the  other.  So  it  came  to 
be  the  turn  of  Yajnavalkya,  who  was  beautiful  to  look 
at  and  handsomely  dressed.  When  he  began  the  work 
which  he  was  sent  for,  in  a  place  where  the  wife  of  the 


CHAPTER  XII.  129 

absent  -^nau  was  present,  she  conceived  an  aversion  to 
his  fine  attire,  and  Yajnavalkya  became  aware  of  it, 
thongli  she  concealed  it.  On  having  finished,  he  took 
the  water  to  sprinkle  it  over  the  head  of  the  woman, 
for  this  holds  with  them  the  place  of  the  blowing  after 
an  incantation,  since  blowing  is  disliked  by  them  and 
considered  as  something  impure.  Then  the  woman  said, 
"  Sprinkle  it  over  this  column."  So  he  did,  and  at  once 
the  column  became  green.  Now  the  woman  repented 
having  missed  the  blessing  of  his  pious  action  ;  there- 
fore on  the  following  day  she  went  to  the  master,  asking 
him  to  send  her  the  same  pupil  whom  he  had  sent  the 
day  before.  Yajnavalkya,  however,  declined  to  go 
except  in  his  turn.  No  urging  had  any  effect  upon 
him  ;  he  did  not  mind  the  wrath  of  his  master,  but 
simply  said,  "  Take  away  from  me  all  that  yon  have 
taught  me."  And  scarcely  had  he  spoken  the  word, 
when  on  a  sudden  he  had  forgotten  all  he  knew  before. 
Now  he  turned  to  the  Sun  and  asked  him  to  teach  him 
the  Veda.  The  Sun  said,  "  How  is  that  possible,  as  I 
must  perpetually  wander,  and  you  are  incapable  of 
doing  the  same  ?  "  But  then  Yajnavalkya  clung  to 
the  chariot  of  the  Sun  and  began  to  learn  the  Veda 
from  him ;  but  he  was  compelled  to  interrupt  the 
recitation  here  and  there  on  account  of  the  irregularity 
of  the  motion  of  the  chariot. 

The  Samaveda  treats   of    the   sacrifices,  command-  Sama^eda 

,   .,  .    .  -r       •  •        T     •  Ti         and  Athur- 

ments,  and  prohibitions,     it  is  recited  m  a  tone  like  vanaveda. 
a  chant,  and  hence  its  name  is  derived,  because  sdman 
means  the  sweetness  of  recitation.     The  cause  of  this 
kind  of  recital  is,  that  Narayana,  when  he  appeared  on  * 

earth  in  the  shape  of  Vamana,  and  came  to  the  king 
Bali,  changed  himself  into  a  Brahman  and  began  to 
recite  the  Samaveda  with  a  touching  melody,  by 
which  he  exhilarated  the  king,  in  consequence  of  which 
there  happened  to  him  the  well-known  story. 

The  Atharvanaveda  is  as  a  text  connected   by  the 
VOL.  I.  I 


I30  ALBRRUNFS  INDIA. 

rules  of  Saiiidhi.  It  does  not  consist  of  the  same  com- 
positions as  the  Rig  and  Yajnr  Vedas,  but  of  a  third 
kind  called  bhara.  It  is  recited  accordiug  to  a  melody 
with  a  nasal  tone.  This  Veda  is  less  in  favour  with 
the  Hindus  than  the  others.  It  likewise  treats  of  the 
sacrifices  to  the  fire,  and  contains  injunctions  regarding 
the  dead  and  what  is  to  be  doue  with  them. 

List  of  the         As  to  the  Purfiiias,  we  first  mention  that  tlie  word 

uicinas.       means  ^rs^,  eternal.     There  are  eighteen  Puranas,  most 

of  them  called  by  the  names  of  animals,  human  or 

Page  63.  angelic  beings,  because  they  contain  stories  about  them, 
or  because  the  contents  of  the  book  refer  in  some  way 
to  them,  or  because  the  book  consists  of  answers  which 
the  creature  whose  name  forms  the  title  of  the  book 
has  given  to  certain  questions. 

The  Puranas  are  of  human  origin,  composed  by  the 
so-called  Rishis.  In  the  following  I  give  a  list  of  their 
names,  as  I  have  heard  them,  and  committed  them  to 
writing  from  dictation  : — 

1 .  Adi-purdua,  i.e.  the  first. 

2.  Matsya-purdna,  i.e.  the  fish. 

3.  KHrma-purdna,  i.e.  the  tortoise. 

4.  Vardha-purdiia,  i.e.  the  boar. 

5.  Narasimha-purdna,  i.e.  a  human  being  with  a  lion's  head. 

6.  Vdmana-pturdna,  i.e.  the  dwarf. 

7.  Vdyu-purdna,  i.e.  the  wind. 

8.  Nanda-purdna,  i.e.  a  servant  of  Mahadeva. 

9.  Skanda-purdna,  i.e.  a  son  of  Mahadeva. 

10.  Aditya-purdna,  i.e.  the  sun. 

11.  Soma-purdna,  i.e.  the  moon. 

12.  Sdmha-purdna,  i.e.  the  son  of  Vishnu. 

13.  Brahmdnda-i'Urdna,  i.e.  heaven. 

14.  Mdrkandeya-purdna,  i.e.  a  great  Kishi. 

15.  Tdrlshya-purdna,  i.e.  the  bird  Garuda. 

16.  Vishnu -]}urdna,  i.e.  Narayana. 

17.  Brahma-purdna,  i.e.  the  nature  charged  with  the  preserva- 

tion of  the  world. 

18.  Bhavishya-purdna,  i.e.  future  things. 

Of  all  this  literature  I  have  only  seen  portions  of  the 
Matsya,  Aditya,  and  Vayu  Puranas. 


CHAPTER  XII.  131 

Another  somewhat  different  list  of  the  Parrinas  has 
been  read  to  me  from  the  Vishnu-Fur  ana.  I  give  it 
here  in  extenso,  as  in  all  questions  resting  on  tradition 
it  is  the  duty  of  an  author  to  give  those  traditions  as 
completely  as  possible  : — 

1.  Brahma. 

2.  Padma,  i.e.  the  red  lotus. 

3.  Vishnu. 

4.  S'iva,  i.e.  Mahadeva. 

5.  Bhdgavata,  i.e.  Vasudeva. 

6.  Ndrada,  i.e.  the  sou  of  Brahma. 

7.  MdrTcandeya. 

8.  Ayni,  i.e.  the  fire. 

9.  Bhavishya,  i.e.  the  future. 

10.  Brahmavaivaj'ta,  i.e.  the  wind. 

11.  Linga,  i.e.  an  image  of  the  uloola  of  Mahadeva. 

1 2.  Vardha. 

13.  Skanda. 

14.  Vdviana. 

15.  Kurma. 

16.  Matsya,  i.e.  the  fish. 

17.  Garuda,  i.e.  the  bird  ou  which  Vishnu  rides. 

18.  Brahmdnda. 

These  are  the  names  of  the  Puranas  according  to 
the  Vishnu- Pur  ana. 

The  book  Sniriti  is  derived  from  the  Veda.  It  con-  a  list 
tains  commandments  and  prohibitions,  and  is  composed  books. 
by  the  following  twenty  sons  of  Brahman : — 


1.  Apastamba. 

2.  Parasara. 
^  Satatajja. 

4.  Samvarta. 

5.  Daksha. 

■  6.  Vasishtha. 

7.  Angiras. 

8.  Yama. 

9.  Vishnu. 
10.  Manu. 


11.  Yajnavalkya 

12.  Atri. 

13.  Harita. 

14.  Likhita. 

15.  Sankha. 

16.  Gautama. 

17.  Vrihaspati. 

18.  Katyayana. 

19.  Vyasa. 

20.  Usanas. 


Besides,  the  Hindus  have  books  about  the  jurispru- 
dence of  their  religion,  on  theosophy,  on  ascetics,  on 
the  process  of  becoming  god  and  seeking  liberation 


132  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

from  the  world,  as,  e.g.  the  book  composed  by  Gaiida 
the  anchorite,  which  goes  by  his  name  ;  the  book  Sdm- 
IJiya,  composed  by  Kapila,on  divine  subjects  ;  the  book 
of  Fataujali,  on  the  search  for  liberation  and  for  the 
union  of  the  soul  with  the  object  of  its  meditation  ; 
the  book  Nydyctbhdslid,  composed  by  Ivapila,  on  the 
Veda  and  its  interpretation,  also  showing  that  it  has 
been  created,  and  distinguishing  within  the  Veda  be- 
tween such  injunctions  as  are  obligatory  only  in  cer- 
tain cases,  and  those  which  are  obligatory  in  general ; 
further,  the  book  Mimdmsd,  composed  by  Jaimini,  on 
the  same  subject ;  the  book  LaulMyata,  composed  by 
Brihaspati,  treating  of  the  subject  that  in  all  investiga- 
tions we  must  exclusively  rely  upon  the  apperception  of 
Page  64.  the  senses ;  the  book  Agastyamata,  composed  by  Agastya, 
treating  of  the  subject  that  in  all  investigations  we 
must  use  the  apperception  of  the  senses  as  well  as  tradi- 
tion ;  and  the  book  Vishnu-dharma.  The  word  dharma 
means  reward,  but  in  general  it  is  used  for  religion  ;  so 
that  this  title  means  Tlie  religion  of  God,  who  in  this 
case  is  understood  to  be  Narayana.  Further,  there  are 
the  books  of  the  six  pupils  of  Vyasa,  viz.  Devala,  Siikra, 
Bhdrgava,  Vrihcispati,  Ydjncivcdkya,  and  Maim.  The 
Hindus  have  numerous  books  about  all  the  branches 
of  science.  How  could  anybody  know  the  titles  of  all 
of  them,  more  especially  if  he  is  not  a  Hindu,  but  a 
foreigner  ? 

Besides,  they  have  a  book  which  they  hold  in  such 
veneration  that  they  firmly  assert  that  everything  which 
occurs  in  other  books  is  found  also  in  this  book,  but  not 
all  which  occurs  in  this  book  is  found  in  other  books. 
It  is  called  Bhdrata,  and  composed  by  Vyasa  the  son 
of  Parasara  at  the  time  of  the  great  war  between  the 
children  of  Pandu  and  those  of  Kuru.  The  title  itself 
gives  an  indication  of  those  times.  The  book  has 
100,000  Slokas  in  eighteen  parts,  each  of  which  is  called 
Parvan.     Here  we  give  the  list  of  them  : — 


Mahd- 
bhdrata 


CHAPTER  XI I.  133 

1.  Sahhd-parva,  i.e.  the  king's  dwelling. 

2.  Arcmya,   i.e.   going    out   into  the  open  field,  meaning   the 

exodus  of  the  children  of  Pcindu. 

3.  Virata,  i.e.  the  name  of  a  king  in  whose  realm  the}^  dwelt 

during  the  time  of  their  concealment. 

4.  Udyoga^  i.e.  the  preparing  for  battle. 

5.  Bhtshma. 

6.  Drona  the  Brahmin. 

7.  Karna  the  son  of  the  Sun. 

8.  S'alya  the  brother  of  Duryodhana,  some  of  the  greatest  heroes 

who  did  the  fighting,  one  always  coming  forward  after 
his  predecessor  had  been  killed. 

9.  Gadd,  i.e.  the  club. 

10.  Sauptika,  i.e.  the  killing  of  the  sleepers,  when  Asvatthaman 

the  son  of  Drona  attacked  the  city  of  Paiicala  during 
the  night  and  killed  the  inhabitants. 

11.  Jala-praddniha,  i.e.  the  successive  drawing  of  water  for  the 

dead,  after  people  have  washed  off  the  impurity  caused 
by  the  touching  of  the  dead. 

12.  Stri,  i.e.  the  lamentations  of  the  women. 

13.  S'dnti,  containing  24,000  Slokas  on  eradicating  hatred  from 

the  heart,  in  four  parts  : 
(i.)  lidjadharma,  on  the  reward  of  the  kings. 
(2.)  Ddnadharma,  on  the  reward  for  almsgiving. 
(3.)  Apaddharma,  on  the  reward  of  those  who  are  in  need  and 

trouble. 
(4.)  MoJcshadharma,  on  the  reward  of   him  who  is  liberated 

from  the  world. 

14.  Ah'amedha,  i.e.  the  sacrifice  of  the  horse  which  is  sent  out 

together  with  an  army  to  wander  through  the  world. 
Then  they  proclaim  in  public  that  it  belongs  to  the  king 
of  the  world,  and  that  he  who  does  not  agree  thereto  is  to 
come  forward  to  fight.  The  Brahman s  follow  the  horse, 
and  celebrate  sacrifices  to  the  fire  in  those  places  where 
the  horse  drops  its  dung. 

15.  Mausala,  i.e.  the  fighting  of  the  Yadavas,  the  tribe  of  Vasu- 

deva,  among  themselves. 

16.  Asramavdsa,  i.e.  leaving  one's  own  country. 

17.  Prasthdna,  i.e.  quitting  the  realm  to  seek  liberation. 

18.  Svargdrohana,  i.e.  journeying  towards  Paradise. 

These  eighteen  parts  are  followed  by  another  one 
which  is  called  Harivamsa-Parvan,  which  contains  the 
traditions  relating  to  Vasudeva. 

In  this  book  there  occur  passages  which,  like  riddles, 
admit  of  manifold  interpretations.     As  to  the  reason  of  Page  65. 


134  ALBERUNI'S  INDIA. 

this  the  Hindus  relate  the  following  story  : — Vyasa 
asked  Brahman  to  procure  him  somebody  who  might 
write  for  him  the  Bhdrata  from  his  dictation.  Now  he 
intrusted  with  this  task  his  son  Vinayaka,  who  is  re- 
presented as  an  idol  with  an  elephant's  head,  and  made 
it  obligatory  on  him  never  to  cease  from  writing.  At 
the  same  time  Vyasa  made  it  obligatory  on  him  to 
write  only  that  which  he  understood.  Therefore  Vyasa, 
in  the  course  of  his  dictation,  dictated  such  sentences 
as  compelled  the  writer  to  ponder  over  them,  and  thereby 
Vyasa  gained  time  for  resting  awhile. 


(     135     ) 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

THEIR   GRAMMATICAL    AND    METRICAL   LITERATURE. 

The  two  sciences  of  sframmar  and  metrics  are  auxiliary  List  of 

o  •/     books  on 

to  the  other  sciences.  Of  the  two,  the  former,  grammar,  grammar. 
holds  the  first  place  in  their  estimate,  called  vydkarana, 
i.e.  the  law  of  the  correctness  of  their  speech  and  ety- 
mological rules,  by  means  of  which  they  acquire  an 
eloquent  and  classical  style  both  in  writing  and  reading. 
We  Muslims  cannot  learn  anything  of  it,  since  it  is  a 
branch  coming  from  a  root  which  is  not  within  our 
grasp — I  mean  the  language  itself.  That  which  I  have 
been  told  as  to  titles  of  books  on  this  science  is  the 
following : — 

1.  Aindra,  attributed  to  ludra,  the  head  of  the  angels. 

2.  Cdndra,   composed  by  Candra,  one  of  the  red-robe-wearing 

sect,  the  followers  of  Buddha. 

3.  S'dkata,  so   called   by  the   name  of   its   author.      His  tribe, 

too,  is  called  by  a  name  derived  from  the  same  word,  viz. 
S'dkatdyana. 

4.  Pdnini,  so  called  from  its  author. 

5.  Kdtantra,  composed  by  Sarvavarman. 

6.  S'aiidevavritti,  composed  by  Sasideva. 

7.  Durgavivritti. 

8.  S'ishyahitdvritti,  composed  by  Ugrabhuti. 

I  have  been  told  that  the  last-mentioned  author  was  sbah  Anan- 
the  teacher  and  instructor  of  Shah  Anandapclla,  the  son  ms 'master 
of  Jayapala,  who  ruled  in  our  time.     After  having  com- 
posed the  book  he  sent  it  to  Kashmir,  but  the  people 
there  did  not  adopt  it,  being  in  such  things  haughtily  con- 
servative.    Now  he  complained  of  this  to  the  Shah,  and 


Ugrabhuti. 


1.36  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

the  Shah,  in  accordance  with  the  duty  of  a  pupil  towards 
his  master,  promised  him  to  make  him  attain  his  wish. 
So  he  gave  orders  to  send  200,000  dirham  and  presents 
of  a  similar  value  to  Kashmir,  to  be  distributed  among 
those  who  studied  the  book  of  his  master.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  they  all  rushed  upon  the  book,  and 
would  not  copy  any  other  grammar  but  this  one,  show- 
ing themselves  in  the  baseness  of  their  avarice.  The 
book  became  the  fashion  and  highly  prized. 

Of  the  origin  of  grammar  they  give  the  following 
account : — One  of  their  kings,  called  Samalvahana,  i.e. 
in  the  classical  language,  Satavahana,  was  one  day  in  a 
pond  playing  with  his  wives,  when  he  said  to  one  of 
them  "  Mdudakcviii  dehi,"  i.e.  do  not  sprinkle  the  water  on 
me.  The  woman,  however,  understood  it  as  if  he  had  said 
modakam  dehi,  i.e.  hri7ig  siveetmeats.  So  she  went  away 
and  brought  him  sweetmeats.  And  when  the  king 
disapproved  of  her  doing  so,  she  gave  him  an  angry 
reply,  and  used  coarse  language  towards  him.  Now  he 
was  deeply  offended,  and,  in  consequence,  as  is  their 
custom,  he  abstained  from  all  food,  and  concealed  him- 
self in  some  corner  until  he  was  called  upon  by  a  sage, 
who  consoled  him,  promising  him  that  he  would  teach 
people  grammar  and  the  inflexions  of  the  language. 
Thereupon  the  sage  went  off  to  Mahfideva,  praying, 
praising,  and  fasting  devoutly.  Mahadeva  appeared  to 
him,  and  communicated  to  him  some  few  rules,  the  like 
of  which  Abul'aswad  Addu'ali  has  given  for  the  Arabic 
language.  The  god  also  promised  to  assist  him  in  the 
further  development  of  this  science.  Then  the  sage 
returned  to  the  king  and  taught  it  to  him.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  the  science  of  gi-ammar. 

Grammar  is  followed  by  another  science,  called 
chandas,  i.e.  the  metrical  form  of  poetry,  corresponding 
to  our  meti'ics — a  science  indispensable  to  them,  since 
all  their  books  are  in  verse.  By  composing  their  books 
in  metres  they  intend  to  facilitate  their  being  learned 


CHAPTER  XIII.  137 

by  heart,  and  to  prevent  people  in  all  questions  of 
science  ever  recurring  to  a  written  text,  save  in  a  case 
of  bare  necessity.  For  they  think  that  the  mind  of 
man  sympathises  with  everything  in  which  there  is 
symmetry  and  order,  and  has  an  aversion  to  everything 
in  which  there  is  no  order.  Therefore  most  Hindus  are 
passionately  fond  of  their  verses,  and  always  desirous 
of  reciting  them,  even  if  they  do  not  understand  the 
meaning  of  the  words,  and  the  audience  will  snap  their 
fingers  in  token  of  joy  and  applause.  They  do  not  want 
prose  compositions,  although  it  is  much  easier  to  under- 
stand them. 

Most  of  their  books  are  composed  in  Sloka,  in  which 
I  am  now  exercising  myself,  being  occupied  in  compos- 
ing for  the  Hindus  a  translation  of  the  books  of  Euclid 
and  of  the  Almagest,  and  dictating  to  them  a  treatise  on 
the  construction  of  the  astrolabe,  being  simply  guided 
herein  by  the  desire  of  spreading  science.  If  the  Hin- 
dus happen  to  get  some  book  which  does  not  yet  exist 
among  them,  they  set  at  work  to  change  it  into  Slokas, 
which  are  rather  unintelligible,  since  the  metrical  form 
entails  a  constrained,  affected  style,  which  will  become 
apparent  when  we  shall  speak  of  their  method  of  ex- 
pressing numbers.  And  if  the  verses  are  not  sufficiently 
affected,  their  authors  meet  with  frowning  faces,  as 
having  committed  something  like  mere  prose,  and  then 
they  will  feel  extremely  unhappy.  God  will  do  me  jus- 
tice in  what  I  say  of  them. 

The  first  who  invented  this  art   were   Piii^fala  and  Books  on 

,  *-"  metrics. 

c::^i.>-  (?  C  L  T).  The  books  on  the  subject  are  nu- 
merous. The  most  famous  of  them  is  the  book  Gaisita 
(?G  — AI  — S  — T),  so  called  from  its  author,  famous  to 
such  a  degree  that  even  the  whole  science  of  metrics 
has  been  called  by  this  name.  Other  books  are  that  of 
Mrigalanchana,  that  of  Pihgala,  and  that  of  J^'uJjl  (?  U 
(Au)  —  L  —  Y  —  A  —  N  —  D).  I,  however,  have  not  seen 
any  of  these  books,  nor  do  I  know  much  of  the  chapter 


138  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

of  the  Brahma-siddhdnta  which  treats  of  metrical  cal- 
culations, and  therefore  I  have  no  claim  to  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  laws  of  their  metrics.  Nevertheless, 
I  do  not  think  it  right  to  pass  by  a  subject  of  which  I 
have  only  a  smattering,  and  I  shall  not  postpone  speak- 
ing of  it  until  I  shall  have  thoroughly  mastered  it. 

In  counting  the  syllables  (ganachandas)  they  use 
similar  figures  to  those  used  by  Alkhalil  Ibn  Ahmad  and 
our  metricians  to  denote  the  consonant  without  vowel  and 
the  consonant  with  voiuel,  viz.  these  two  signs,  |  and  >, 
the  former  of  which  is  called  laghu,  i.e.  light ;  the  latter, 
guru,  i.e.  heavy.  In  measuring  (mdtrdchandas),  the  guru 
is  reckoned  double  of  a  laghu,  and  its  place  may  be 
filled  by  two  laghu. 

Further,  they  have  a  syllable  which  they  call  long 
(diiy/ha),  the  measure  or  prosody  of  which  is  equal  to 
that  of  a  g2cr2i.  This,  I  think,  is  a  syllable  with  a 
long  vowel  (like  kd,  Jet,  kit).  Here,  however,  I  must 
confess  that  up  to  the  present  moment  I  have  not 
been  able  to  gain  a  clear  idea  of  the  nature  of  both 
laghu  and  guric,  so  as  to  be  able  to  illustrate  them 
by  similar  elements  in  Arabic.  However,  I  am  in- 
clined to  think  that  laghu  does  not  mean  a  consonant 
tvithout  vowel,  wot  guru  a  consonant  with  voivel,  but  that, 
on  the  contrary,  laghu  means  a  consonant  with  a  short 
vowel  (e.g.  ka,  Id,  ku),  and  guru  means  the  same  with 
a  vowelless  consonant  (e.g.  kat,  kit,  kut),  like  an  element 
in  Arabic  metrics  called  Sahah  {i.e.  — or  ^^,  a  long 
syllable  the  place  of  which  may  be  taken  by  two  short 
ones).  That  which  makes  me  doubt  as  to  the  first- 
mentioned  definition  of  Iccghu  is  this  circumstance,  that 
the  Hindus  use  many  laghu  one  after  the  other  in  an 
uninterrupted  succession.  The  Arabs  are  not  capable 
of  pronouncing  two  vowelless  consonants  one  after  the 
other,  but  in  other  languages  this  is  possible.  The  Per- 
sian metricians,  for  instance,  call  such  a  consonant 
moved  hy  a  light  vowel  (i.e.  pronounced  with  a  sound  like 


CHAPTER  XIII .  139 

the  Hebrew  Schwa).  But,  in  any  case,  if  such  conso- 
nants are  more  than  three  in  number,  they  are  most 
difficult,  nay,  even  impossible  to  pronounce  ;  whilst,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  is  not  the  slightest  difficulty  in 
pronouncing  an  uninterrupted  series  of  short  syllables 
consisting  of  a  consonant  with  a  short  vowel,  as  when 
you  say  in  Arabic,  "  BadamiJca  kamathali  sifatika  wafa- 
muJca  hisdati  shafatika"  {i.e.  Thy  body  is  like  thy 
description,  and  thy  mouth  depends  upon  the  width  of 
thy  lip).  Further,  although  it  is  difficult  to  pronounce  Page  67. 
a  vowelless  consonant  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  most 
nouns  of  the  Hindus  begin,  if  not  exactly  with  vowel- 
less  consonants,  still  with  such  consonants  as  have  only 
a  Schwa-like  vowel-sound  to  follow  them.  If  such  a 
consonant  stands  at  the  begiuniug  of  a  verse,  they  drop 
it  in  counting,  since  the  law  of  the  guru  demands  that 
in  it  the  vowelless  consonant  shall  not  irrecede  hut  fol- 
low the  vowel  {Ica-t,  ki-t,  ku-t). 

Further,  as  our  people  have  composed  out  of  the  feet  Defimtiou 

(N  .  -, .  ,   .    ,      of  mdtrd. 

Aj^[i\j  certain  schemes  or  types,  according  to  which 

verses  are  constructed,  and  have  invented  signs  to 
denote  the  component  parts  of  a  foot,  i.e.  the  consonant 
with  and  witliout  a  vowel,  in  like  manner  also  the 
Hindus  use  certain  names  to  denote  the  feet  which  are 
composed  of  lagliu  and  guru,  either  the  former  preced- 
ing and  the  latter  following  or  vice  versa,  in  such  a 
way,  however,  that  the  measure  must  always.be  the 
same,  whilst  the  number  of  syllables  may  vary.  By 
these  names  they  denote  a  certain  conventional  prosodic 
unity  {i.e.  cev tarn  feet).  By  measure,  I  mean  that  laghu 
is  reckoned  =  one  mcUrd,  i.e.  measure,  and  guru^t'wo 
mdtrd.  If  they  represent  a  foot  in  writing,  they  only 
express  the  measure  of  the  syllables,  not  their  number, 
as,  e.g.  (in  Arabic)  a  double  consonant  {kka)  is  counted 
as  a  consonant  without  vowel  plus  a  consonant  ivith 
vowel,  and  a  consonant  followed  by  Tanwin  (l.'un)  is 
counted  as  a  consonant  with  a  vowel  plus  a  consonant 


I40  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

without  vowel,  whilst  in  writing  both  are  represented 
as  one  and  the  same  thing  {i.e.  by  the  sign  of  the  con- 
sonant in  question). 

Taken  alone  by  themselves,  laghu  and  guru  are 
called  by  various  names  :  the  former,  la,  kcdi,  rupa, 
cdmara,  and  graha  ;  the  latter,  ga,  nivra,  and  a  half 
amsaka.  The  latter  name  shows  that  a  complete 
amsaka  is  equal  to  two  gunc  or  their  equivalent.  These 
names  they  have  invented  simply  to  facilitate  the  ver- 
sification of  their  metrical  books.  For  this  purpose 
they  have  invented  so  many  names,  that  one  may  fit 
into  the  metre  if  others  will  not. 

The  feet  arising  out  of  combinations  of  laghti  and 
giC7m  are  the  following  : — 

Twofold  both  in  number  and  measure  is  the  foot  1 1, 
i.e.  two  syllables  and  two  mdt7'il. 

Twofold  in  number,  not  in  measure,  are  the  feet,  |  < 
and  <  I  ;  in  measure  they  are  =  three  mdtrd  \  \  \  (bnt, 
in  number,  only  two  syllables). 

The  second  foot  <  |  (a  trochee)  is  called  krittikd. 

The  quaternary  feet  are  in  each  book  called  by  dif- 
ferent names : 

<  <    paksha,  i.e.  the  half  month. 
1 1  <    jvalana,  i.e.  the  fire. 

I  <  I    madhya  (?  madhu). 

<  I  I    parvata,  i.e.  the  mountain,  also  called  hdra  and  rasa. 
I  1 1 1    ffhana,  i.e.  the  cube. 

The  feet  consisting  of  five  mdtrd  have  manifold 
forms  ;  those  of  them  which  have  special  names  are  the 
following  : — 

|<  <   hastin,  i.e.  the  elephant.     I       <  <  |  (?  lacuna). 
<|<   i-ama,  i.e.  the  wish.  |       |||  <   husuma. 

A  foot  consisting  of  six  mdttrct  is  <  <  < . 
Some  people  call  these  feet  by  the   names  of  the 
chess  figures,  viz. : 

jvalana  =  the  elephant.  i  2')arvata  =  the  pawn. 

madhya  =  the  tower.  |  ghana  =  the  horse. 


CHAPTER  XIII.  141 


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In    a    lexicoi^i-apbical    work    to    which    the    author  onthear- 

^  ^  raiiKemeiit 

c>«  Jb  ('^  Haribhatta)  has  given  his  own  name,  the  feet  Qtiotation' 

^■^  from  Hari- 

composed  of  three  layhit  or  gurio  are  called  by  single  ^^^tta. 
consonants,  which  in  the  following  diagram  are  written 
on  their  left : — 

Diar/ram. 
sixfold  {i.e.  containing  six  mdtrd). 
hastin. 
Mma. 
(?  lacuna). 
jvalana. 
madhya. 
2Mrvata. 
threefold  {i.e.  containing  three  mdtrd). 

By  means  of  these  signs  the  author  teaches  how  to 
construct  these  eight  feet  by  an  inductive  method  (a 
kind  of  algebraic  permutation),  saying  : 

"Place  one  of  the  two  kinds  (gunc  and  lagliu)  in 
the  first  line  unmixed  (that  would  be  <  <  <,  if  we  Page 68. 
begin  with  a  guru).  Then  mix  it  with  the  second 
kind,  and  place  one  of  this  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  line,  whilst  the  two  other  elements  are  of  the 
first  kind  (|  <  < ).  Then  place  this  element  of  admix- 
ture in  the  middle  of  the  third  line  (<|<),  and  lastly 
at  the  end  of  the  fourth  line  (<  <|).  Then  you  have 
finished  the  first  half. 

''  Further,  place  the  second  kind  in  the  lowest  line, 
unmixed  (|  |  |),  and  mix  up  with  the  line  above  it  one 
of  the  first  kind,  placing  it  at  the  beginning  of  the  line 
(<  I  I),  then  in  the  middle  of  the  next  following  line 
(I  <  I),  and  lastly  at  the  end  of  the  next  following  line 
(I  I  <).  Then  the  second  half  is  finished,  and  all  the 
possible  combinations  of  three  mdtra  have  been  ex- 
hausted." 

I-   <  <  <     ^  I         5-   I   I   <  ^ 


First  half.  ,  -    Second  half. 

3-    <     I    <      I  T-  <    \  \      \ 

4.    <   <    I       ^  8.    I     I   1     i 


This  system  of  composition  or  permutation  is  correct, 


142  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

but  his  calculation  showing  how  to  find  that  place 
which  every  single  foot  occupies  in  this  series  of  per- 
mutations is  not  in  accordance  with  it.     For  he  says : 

"Place  the  numeral  2  to  denote  each  element  of  a 
foot  {i.e.  both  guru  and  laghu),  once  for  all,  so  that 
every  foot  is  represented  by  2,  2,  2.  Multiply  the 
left  (number)  by  the  middle,  and  the  product  by  the 
right  one.  If  this  multiplier  (i.e.  this  number  of  the 
right  side)  is  a  laghu,  then  leave  the  product  as  it  is  ; 
but  if  it  is  a  gicru,  subtract  one  from  the  product." 

The  author  exemplifies  this  with  the  sixth  foot,  i.e. 
I  <  I.  He  multiplies  2  by  2,  and  from  the  product  (4) 
he  subtracts  I.  The  remaining  3  he  multiplies  by  the 
third  2,  and  he  gets  the  product  of  6. 

This,  however,  is  not  correct  for  most  of  the  feet,  and 
I  am  rather  inclined  to  believe  that  the  text  of  the 
manuscript  is  corrupt. 

The  proper  order  of  the  feet  would  accordingly  be  the 
following : 


I. 

11. 

III. 

I. 

11. 

III 

I. 

< 

< 

< 

i          ^* 

< 

< 

1 

2. 

1 

< 

< 

1         6. 

1 

< 

1 

3- 

< 

1 

< 

7. 

< 

1 

1 

4- 

1 

1 

< 

8. 

1 

1 

1 

The  midure  of  the  first  line  (No.  I.)  is  sucb  that  one 
kind  always  follows  the  other.  In  the  second  line 
(No.  II.)  two  of  one  kind  are  followed  by  two  of  the 
other ;  and  in  the  third  line  (No.  III.)  four  of  one  kind 
are  followed  by  four  of  the  other. 

Then  the  author  of  the  above-mentioned  calculation 
goes  on  to  say  :  "  If  the  first  element  of  the  foot  is  a 
guint,  subtract  one  before  you  multiply.  If  the  multi- 
plier is  a  guru,  subtract  one  from  the  product.  Thus 
you  find  the  place  which  a  foot  occupies  in  this  order." 

As  the  Arabic  verse  is  divided  into  two  halves  or 
hemistichs  by  the  drild,  i.e.  the  last  foot  of  the  first 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


M3 


hemistich,  and  the  darh,  i.e.  the  last  foot  of  the  second 
hemistich,  in  like  manner  the  verses  of  the  Hindus  are 
divided  into  two  halves,  each  of  which  is  called  foot 
(pdda).  The  Greeks,  too,  call  them  feet  (lacuna), — 
those  words  which  are  composed  of  it,  o-vWd/S-q,  and 
the  consonants  with  or  without  vowels,  with  long,  short, 
or  doubtful  vowels. 

The  verse  is  divided  into  three,  or  more  commonly  onthe 
into  four  pdda.     Sometimes  they  add  a  fifth  pdda  in  Arya. 
the  middle  of  the  verse.     The  yddas  have  no  rhyme, 
but  there  is  a  kind  of  metre,  in  which  the   i   and  2 
p)ddas  end  with  the  same  consonant  or  syllable  as  if 
rhyming  on  it,  and  also  the  p)ddas  3  and  4  end  with 
the  same  consonant  or  syllable.     This  kind  is  called 
Aryd.     At  the  end  of  the  pdda  a  laghu  may  become  a  Page  69. 
(jum,  though  in  general  this  metre  ends  with  a  laghu. 

The  different  poetical  works  of  the  Hindus  contain 
a  great  number  of  metres.  In  the  metre  of  5  j^dda, 
the  fifth  pdda  is  placed  between  pddas  3  and  4.  The 
names  of  the  metres  differ  according  to  the  number  of 
syllables,  and  also  according  to  the  verses  which  fol- 
low. For  they  do  not  like  all  the  verses  of  a  long 
poem  to  belong  to  one  and  the  same  metre.  They  use 
many  metres  in  the  same  poem,  in  order  that  it  should 
appear  like  an  embroidered  piece  of  silk. 

The  construction  of  the  four  p)ddas  in  the  ionv-pdda 
metre  is  the  following  : — 


, 

<     < 

paksha  =  i  aiiisaka. 

<    < 

paksha. 

0 

<1 
Q 

<    1    1 

parvata. 

<  1   1 

parvata. 

1    1    < 

jvalana. 

<    < 

paksha. 

t— 1 

1— i 

<     < 

paksha. 

<    < 

paksha. 

HH 

1    1    < 

jvalana. 

1   l< 

jvalaua. 

>> 

< 

Q 

i     <     1 

madbya. 

1    <    1 

madhya. 

t> 

<< 

<    1    1 

parvata. 

<   1   1 

parvata. 

*-* 

<     < 

paksha. 

1   I  < 

jvalana. 

144  ALB E RUNTS  INDIA. 

This  is  a  representation  of  a  species  of  their  metres, 
called  Skandha,  containing  four  pcida.  It  consists  of 
two  halves;  and  each  half  has  eight  amsaJca. 

Of  the  single  arhkika,  the  ist,  3d,  and  5th  can  never 
be  a  madhya,  i.e.  <  |,  and  the  6th  must  always  be 
either  a  madhya  or  a  rjhana.  If  this  condition  is  adhered 
to,  the  other  aihsakas  may  be  anything  at  all,  just  as 
accident  or  the  fancy  of  the  poet  wills  it.  However, 
the  metre  must  always  be  complete,  neither  more  nor 
less.  Therefore,  observing  the  rules  as  to  the  formation 
of  certain  arhsakas  in  the  single  pddas,  we  may  repre- 
sent the  four  j^ddas  in  the  following  manner  : — 

Padal.  <  <         <    I  I       I  I    <. 

Pada  II.  <  <        I  I    <        I    <   I         <   I  I      <  < . 

Pada  III.  <<<!<<. 

r.gc  70.  Pada  IV.  <  <        |  <  <        |    <   |        <    |  |     |  |  < . 

According  to  this  pattern  the  verse  is  composed. 
Arab  and  If  you  represent  an  Arabic  metre  by  these  signs  of 

tiouofa''  the  Hindus,  you  will  find  that  they  mean  something 
entirely  different  from  what  the  Arabic  signs  mean 
which  denote  a  consonant  luitli  a  short  vowel  and  a 
consonant  without  a  vowel.  (The  Arabic  sign  \  means 
a  consonant  without  a  vowel ;  the  Hindu  sign  |  means 
a  short  syllable ;  the  Arabic  sign  o  means  a  consonant 
followed  by  a  short  vowel ;  the  Hindu  sign  <  means  a 
long  syllable.)  As  an  example,  we  give  a  representation 
of  the  regular  complete  Khafif  metre,  representing  each 
foot  by  derivations  of  the  root  ^Ui. 

Mdrum  Khafif. 
represented  by  derivations  of  the  root  ^J^. 

(2.)  loloolo      loo  lolo       loloolo, 

represented  by  Arabic  signs. 

(3.)    <<|<  <l<<  <<|<, 

represented  by  the  signs  of  the  Hindus. 


metre. 


CHAPTER  XIII.  145 

We  give  the  latter  signs  in  an  inverted  order,  since 
the  Hindus  read  from  the  left  to  the  right. 

I  have  already  once  pleaded  as  my  excuse,  and  do  so 
here  a  second  time,  that  my  slender  knowledge  of  this 
science  does  not  enable  me  to  give  the  reader  a  complete 
insight  into  the  subject.  Still  I  take  the  greatest  pains 
with  it,  though  I  am  well  aware  that  it  is  only  very 
little  I  can  give. 

The  name  Vritta  applies  to  each  iour-jjdda  metre  in  On  the 
which  the  signs  of  both  the  prosody  and  the  number  of  vritta. 
the  syllables  are  like  each  other,  according  to  a  certain 
correspondence  of  the  pddas  among  themselves,  so  that 
if  you  know  one  j^dda,  you  know  also  the  other  ones, 
for  they  are  like  it.  Further,  there  is  a  law  that  a  pdda 
cannot  have  less  than  four  syllables,  since  a  pdda  with 
less  does  not  occur  in  the  Yeda.  For  the  same  reason 
the  smallest  number  of  the  syllables  of  a  pdda  is  four, 
the  largest  twenty-six.  In  consequence,  there  are 
twenty-three  varieties  of  the  Vritta  metre,  which  we 
shall  here  enumerate  : — 

1.  The  jpdda  has  four  heavy  syllables  {guru),  and  here  you  can- 

not put  two  larjhu  in  the  place  of  one  guru. 

2.  The  nature  of  the  second  kind  of  the  pdda  is  not  clear  to  me, 

so  I  omit  it. 

3.  This  fdda  is  built  of 

ghana      +      palsha. 

INI  << 

4.  =  2  guru      +       2  laghu       +       3  guru. 

<<  II  <<  < 

It  would  be  better  to  describe  this  2)dda  as  =  palsha  + 
jvalana  +  p)(il'sh(t. 


rage  71 


:.    =  2  l-rittihx 

-i-       jvalana 

+      palsha. 

<!<  1 

'll< 

<  < 

>.    :=  ghana       + 

madhya      -f 

palcsha. 

MM 

l<i 

<  < 

'.    =  ghana       + 

jyarvoia       + 

jvalana. 

lili 

<ll 

\\< 

VOL.  I. 

146 

8. 


ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 


9-   = 


kdma, 

<l< 

paksha , 

<  < 

paJcsha, 

<  < 


kusuma, 

\\\< 

hastifi, 

l<< 

paroata 

<ll 


II.    =  palsha,         madhya, 
\<\ 


13. 


14. 


15- 


<  < 

qJiana, 

■|||l 

parvata, 

<ll 


jvalana, 

Il< 

jvalana, 

ll< 

jvalana, 

ll< 

2  jvalana, 

ll<ll< 


guru. 
< 

madhya, 

Kl 

madhya, 

\<\ 

hast  in. 

\<< 


2  guru. 
<  < 

paksha. 
<  < 


jvalana, 

l|< 

kdnia, 
<l< 


paksha, 
<  < 


2  hastin. 


kusnma,         madhya,         jvalana. 

Ilk         !<!         Il< 


hastin,   paksha,  parvata,    kusuma,   parvata,   lar/hu,    guru. 

\<<   <<     <||      Ilk     <||       I       < 


:  2  paksha, 
<  <  <  < 


parvata, 

<li 


kusuma,  2  kdma,  giiru. 

\\\<  <|<     <|<         < 


[6.      r. 


17- 


paksha,   parvata,    kdma,    kusxima,   paksha,    laghu,    guru. 
<<  <\\       <|<        |||<        <<  I  < 

=  2  paksha,    parvata,     ghana,    jvalana,,     paksha,     kusuma. 

<<  <<  <\\     nil     Ik     <<     Ilk 

=  2  paksha,      parvata,    ghana,    jvalana,  2  kdma,        guru. 

<<  <<     <\\     I  III     l|<      <!<  <|<    < 


19.  = 


<  < 

21.     = 

<  < 

22.    = 

<  < 

23-    = 

<   < 

guru,   2  paksha,  parvata,   ghana,  jvalana,    2  kdma,    guru. 

<<<<<<!!    III!   ||<  <1<  <!<   < 

=  i\pjaksha,  jvalana,  madliya,  p)a.ksha,  2  madhya,  guru. 

<<<<<<    |l<     !<!    <<  l<l|<|    < 

=  ^paksha,  T, jvalana,  2  madhya,         guru. 

<<<<<<  ll<  |lv  ||<    |<|l<|      < 

=  4.  paksha,  knstima  ,   madhya,  jvalana,  2  madhya,  guru. 

<<<<<<     |||<  |<|  ||<     I  <l|   <|     < 

=  S  guru,  10  laghu,      kdma,   jvalana,    laghu,     guru. 

<<<<<<  1111111111  <!<    ||<        I        < 


CHAPTER  XIII.  147 

We  have  givTn  such  a  lengthy  account,  though  it  be 
only  of  scanty  use,  in  order  that  the  reader  may  see 
for  himself  the  example  of  an  accumulation  of  laghus, 
which  shows  that  laghu  means  a  consonant  folloiocd  hy 
a  short  vowel,  not  a  consonant  without  a  vowel.  Further, 
he  will  thereby  learn  the  way  in  which  they  represent 
a  metre  and  the  method  of  their  scanning  a  verse. 
Lastly,  he  will  learn  that  Alkhalil  Ibn  Ahmad  exclu- 
sively drew  from  his  own  genius  when  he  invented  the 
Arabic  metrics,  though,  possibly,  he  may  have  heard, 
as  some  people  think,  that  the  Hindus  use  certain 
metres  in  their  poetry.  If  we  here  take  so  much 
trouble  with  Indian  metrics,  we  do  it  for  the  purpose 
of  fixing  the  laws  of  the  Sloka,  since  most  of  their 
books  are  composed  in  it. 

The  Sloka  belongs  to  the  iouY-imda  metres.  Each  TLeory  of 
pcicla  has  eight  syllables,  which  are  different  in  all  four  *'^^  ^^°^'^' 
pddas.  The  last  syllable  of  each  of  the  four  pddas 
must  be  the  same,  viz.  a  guru.  Further,  the  fifth 
syllable  in  each|j«<j?a  must  always  be  laghu,  the  sixth 
syllable  guru.  The  seventh  syllable  must  be  laghu  in 
the  second  and  fourth  pctda,  guru  in  the  first  and  third 
pddas.  The  other  syllables  are  entirely  dependent 
upon  accident  or  the  writer's  fancy. 

In  order  to  show  in  what  way  the  Hindus  use  Quotation 
arithmetic  in  their  metrical  system,  we  give  in  the  magupta. 
following  a  quotation  from  Brahmagupta :  "  The  first 
kind  of  poetry  is  gdyatri,  a  metre  consisting  of  two 
pddas.  If  we  now  suppose  that  the  number  of  the 
syllables  of  this  metre  may  be  24,  and  that  the  smallest 
number  of  the  syllables  of  one  pdda  is  4,  we  describe 
the  two  ^9(^f?a.s  by  4  -  4,  representing  their  smallest 
possible  number  of  syllables.  As,  however,  their  largest 
possible  number  is  24,  we  add  the  difference  between 
these  4  —  4  and  24,  i.e.  16,  to  the  right-side  number, 
and  get  4  --  20.  If  the  metre  had  three  7:>(^(r/rts,  it 
would  be  represented  by  4  -f  4  +  16.     The  right-side 


148 


ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 


pdda  is  always  distinguished  from  the  others  and  called 
by  a  separate  name  ;  but  the  preceding  pddas  also  are 
connected,  so  as  to  form  one  whole,  and  likewise  called 
by  a  separate  name.  If  the  metre  had  four  pddas,  it 
would  be  represented  by  4  +  4  +  4  -I    12. 

"  If,  however,  the  poet  does  not  use  the 2)dd(:(s  of  4,  i.e. 
the  smallest  possible  number  of  syllables,  and  if  we 
want  to  know  the  number  of  combinations  of  the  24 
syllables  which  may  occur  in  a  two-pdda  metre,  we 
write  4  to  the  left  and  20  to  the  right ;  we  add  i  to  4, 
again  i  to  the  sum,  &c.  ;  we  subtract  i  from  20,  again 
I  from  the  remainder,  &c.  ;  and  this  we  continue  until 
we  get  both  the  same  numbers  with  which  we  com- 
menced, the  small  number  in  the  line  which  commenced 
with  the  greater  number,  and  the  greater  number  in 
the  line  which  commenced  with  the  small  number. 
See  the  following  scheme  : — 


4 

20 

1 

19    1 
18 

7 
8 

17    1 
16 

9 

15 

,0 

14 

1 1 

13 

•2 

12 

13 

II 

14 

10 

\l 

9 
8 

17 
18 

7 
6 

19 

5 

1    20 

4 

The  number  of  these  combinations  is   iy,i.e.  the  dif- 
ference between  4  and  20  plus  i . 

"  As  regards  the  thr ee-p)dda  metre  with  the  presup- 
posed number  of  syllables,  i.e.  24,  its  first  species  is 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


[49 


that  in  which  all  three  pddas  have  the  smallest  pos- 
sible number  of  syllables,  i.e.  4  +  4  +  16. 

"The  right-side  number  and  the  middle  number  we 
write  down  as  we  have  done  with  the  pddas  of  the  two- 
pdda  metre,  and  we  make  with  them  the  same  calcula- 
tion as  we  have  done  above.  Besides,  we  add  the  left- 
side number  in  a  separate  column,  but  do  not  make  it 
undergo  any  changes.     See  the  following  scheme : — 


4 

1 
4 

i 
16 

4 

5 

15 

4 

6 

14 

4 

7 

13 

4 

8 

12 

■   4 

9 

II 

4 

10 

10 

4 

1 1 

9 

4 

12 

8 

:  •  4 

13 

7 

4 

14 

6 

4 

15 

5 

4 

16 

4 

"This  gives  the  number  of  13  permutations,  but  by 
changing  the  places  of  the  numbers  forwards  and  back- 
wards in  the  following  method,  the  number  may  be 
increased  sixfold,  i.e.  to  78  : — 

"I.  The  right-side  number  keeps  its  place;  the  two 
other  numbers  exchange  their  places,  so  that  the  middle 
number  stands  at  the  left  side  ;  the  left-side  number 
occupies  the  middle  : — 


4 

i 
4 

16 

5 

4 

15 

6 

4 

14 

7 

4 

13  &c. 

"II.-IIL  The  right-side   number  is  placed  in  the 
middle  between  the  other  two   numbers,  which   first 


I50 


A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 


keep  their  original  places,  and  then   exchange  them 
with  each  other  :■ — 

11. 


IJl. 


4 

i6 

4 

4 

15 

5 

4 

14 

6 

4 

13 

7&C. 

4 

i6 

4 

5 

15 

4 

6 

14 

4 

7 

13 

4&C. 

"  IV.-V.  The  right-side  number  is  placed  to  the  left, 
and  the  other  two  numbers  first  keep  their  original 
places,  and  then  exchange  them  with  each  other : — 


I  v. 


V. 


i6 

4 

4 

15 

4 

5 

14 

4 

6 

13 

4 

7&C. 

i6 

4 

4 

15 

5 

4 

14 

6 

4 

13 

7 

4&C. 

"Because,  further,  the  numbers  of  the  syllables  of  a 
jydda  rise  like  the  square  of  2,  for  after  4  follows  8,  we 
may  represent  the  syllables  of  the  three  2}(^(das  in  this 
way  :  8  +  8  +  8  ( =4  +  4  +  1 6).  However,  their  arith- 
metical peculiarities  follow  another  rule.  The  four- 
pcida  metre  follows  the  analogy  of  the  three-jydda 
metre." 

Of  the  above-mentioned  treatise  of  Brahmagupta  I 
have  only  seen  a  single  leaf:  it  contains,  no  doubt, 
important  elements  of  arithmetic.     God   affords    help 


CHAPTER  XIII .  151 

and  sustains  by  his  mercy,  i.e.  I  hope  one  day  to  learn 
those  things.  As  far  as  I  can  guess  with  regard  to  the 
literature  of  the  Greeks,  they  used  in  then-  poetry 
similar /e^^  to  the  Hind  as  ;  for  Galenus  says  in  his  book 
Kara  y'^v-q :  "  The  medicine  prepared  with  saliva  dis-  page  73. 
covered  by  Menecrates  has  been  described  by  Damo- 
crates  in  a  poem  composed  in  a  metre  consisting  of 
three  parts." 


(       152       ) 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

HINDU   LITERATURE   IN   THE   OTHER   SCIENCES, 
ASTRONOMY,    ASTROLOGY,    ETC. 


Times  un- 
favourable 
to  the 
progiess  of 
science. 


On  the 
iSiddhantas. 


The  number  of  sciences  is  great,  and  it  may  be  still 
greater  if  the  public  mind  is  directed  towards  them  at 
sach  times  as  they  are  in  the  ascendancy  and  in  general 
favour  with  all,  when  people  not  only  honour  science 
itself,  but  also  its  representatives.  To  do  this  is,  in  the 
first  instance,  the  duty  of  those  who  rule  over  them,  of 
kings  and  princes.  For  they  alone  could  free  the  minds 
of  scholars  from  the  daily  anxieties  for  the  necessities 
of  life,  and  stimulate  their  energies  to  earn  more  fame 
and  favour,  the  yearning  for  which  is  the  pith  and  mar- 
row of  human  nature. 

The  present  times,  however,  are  not  of  this  kind. 
They  are  the  very  opposite,  and  therefore  it  is  quite 
impossible  that  a  new  science  or  any  new  kind  of 
research  should  arise  in  our  days.  What  we  have  of 
sciences  is  nothing  but  the  scanty  remains  of  bygone 
better  times. 

If  a  science  or  an  idea  has  once  conquered  the  whole 
earth,  every  nation  appropriates  part  of  it.  So  do  also 
the  Hindus.  Their  belief  about  the  cyclical  revolutions 
of  times  is  nothing  very  special,  but  is  simply  in  accord- 
ance with  the  results  of  scientific  observation. 

The  science  of  astronomy  is  the  most  famous  among 
them,  since  the  affairs  of  their  religion  are  in  various 
ways  connected  with  it.  If  a  man  wants  to  gain  the 
title  of  an  astronomer,  he  must  not  only  know  scientific 


CHAPTER  XIV.  153 

or  mathematical  astronomy,  but  also  astrology.  The 
book  known  among  Muslims  as  Sindliiiid  is  called  by 
them  Siddhdnta,  i.e.  straight,  not  crooked  nor  changing. 
By  this  name  they  call  every  standard  book  on  astro- 
nomy, even  such  books  as,  according  to  our  opinion, 
do  not  come  up  to  the  mark  of  our  so-called  Zij,  i.e. 
handbooks  of  mathematical  astronomy.  They  have  five 
Siddhantas : — 

I.  SiXrya-siddhdnta,  i.e.  the  Siddhanta  of  the  sun, 
composed  by  Lata. 

II.  Vasishtha-siddhdnta,  so  called  from  one  of  the 
stars  of  the  Great  Bear,  composed  by  Vishnu candra. 

III.  Fulisa-siddhdnta,  so  called  from  Paulisa,  the 
Greek,  from  the  city  of  Saintra,  which  I  suppose  to  be 
Alexandria,  composed  by  Pulisa. 

IV.  Romaka-siddlidnta,  so  called  from  the  Rum,  i.e. 
the  subjects  of  the  Roman  Empire,  composed  by 
Srishena. 

V.  BraJima-siddhdnta,  so  called  from  Brahman,  com- 
posed by  Brahmagupta,  the  son  of  Jishnu,  from  the 
town  of  Bhillamfda  between  Multan  and  Anhilwara, 
16  yojana  from  the  latter  place  (?). 

The  authors  of  these  books  draw  from  one  and  the 
same  source,  the  Book  Paithdmaha,  so  called  from  the 
first  father,  i.e.  Brahman. 

Varahamihira  has  composed  an  astronomical  hand- 
book of  small  compass  called  Panca-siddhdntilat,  which 
name  ought  to  mean  that  it  contains  the  pith  and  mar- 
row of  the  preceding  five  Siddhantas.  But  this  is  not 
the  case,  nor  is  it  so  much  better  than  they  as  to  be 
called  the  most  correct  one  of  the  five.  So  the  name 
does  not  indicate  anything  but  the  fact  that  the  number 
of  Siddhantas  is  five. 

Brahmagupta  says:  "Many  of  the  Siddhantas  are 
Surya,  others  Indn,  Pulisa,  Romaka,  Vasishtha,  and 
Yavana,  i.e.  the  Greeks ;  and  though  the  Siddhantas  are 
many,  they  differ  only  in  words,  not  in  the  subject- 


154  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

matter.     He  who  studies  them  properly  will  find  that 
they  agree  with  each  other." 

Up  to  the  present  time  I  have  not  been  able  to  pro- 
cure any  of  these  books  save  those  of  Pulisa  and  of 
Brahmagupta.  I  have  commenced  translating  them, 
but  have  not  yet  finished  my  work.     Meanwhile  I  shall 

Page  74.        give  here  a  table  of  contents  of  the  Brahma-siddhcinta, 
which  in  any  case  will  be  useful  and  instructive. 

Contents  of       Conteuts  of  the  twenty-four  chapters  of  the  Brahma- 

t\\ti Brahtna-       •  7  77    /i     , 

siddhdnta.     siad/ianta — 

1 .  On  the  nature  of  the  globe  and  the  figure  of  heaven 
and  earth. 

2.  On  the  revolutions  of  the  planets  ;  on  the  calcula- 
tion of  time,  i.e.  how  to  find  the  time  for  different  longi- 
tudes and  latitudes  ;  how  to  find  the  mean  places  of  the 
planets  ;  how  to  find  the  sine  of  an  arc. 

3.  On  the  correction  of  the  places  of  the  planets. 

4.  On  three  problems :  how  to  find  the  shadow,  the 
bygone  portion  of  the  day  and  the  ascendens,  and  how 
to  derive  one  from  the  other. 

5.  On  the  planets  becoming  visible  when  they  leave 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  their  becoming  invisible  when 
entering  them. 

6.  On  the  first  appearance  of  the  moon,  and  about 
her  two  cusps. 

7.  On  the  lunar  eclipse. 

8.  On  the  solar  eclipse. 

9.  On  the  shadow  of  the  moon. 

10.  On  the  meeting  and  conjunction  of  the  planets. 

1 1.  On  the  latitudes  of  the  planets. 

12.  A  critical  investigation  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
tinguishing between  correct  and  corrupt  passages  in  the 
texts  of  astronomical  treatises  and  handbooks. 

13.  On  arithmetic;  on  plane  measure  and  cognate 
subjects. 

14.  Scientific  calculation  of  the  mean  places  of  the 
planets. 


CHAPTER  XIV.  155 

15.  Scientific  calculation  of  the  correction  of  the 
places  of  the  planets. 

16.  Scientific  calculation  of  the  three  problems  (v. 
chap.  4). 

17.  On  the  deflection  of  eclipses. 

18.  Scientific  calculation  of  the  appearance  of  the 
new  moon  and  her  two  cusps. 

19.  On  Kuttaka,  i.e.  the  pounding  of  a  thing.  The 
pounding  of  oil-producing  substances  is  here  compared 
with  the  most  minute  and  detailed  research.  This  chapter 
treats  of  algebra  and  related  subjects,  and  besides  it 
contains  other  valuable  remarks  of  a  more  or  less 
arithmetical  nature. 

20.  On  the  shadow. 

21.  On  the  calculation  of  the  measures  of  poetry  and 
on  metrics. 

22.  On  cycles  and  instruments  of  observation. 

23.  On  time  and  the  four  measures  of  time,  the  solar, 
the  civil,  the  litnar,  and  the  siderecd. 

24.  About  numeral  notation  in  the  metrical  books  of 
this  kind. 

These,  now,  are  twenty-four  chapters,  according  to 
his  own  statement,  but  there  is  a  twenty-fifth  one, 
called  Dhydnci-gro.ha-adhyaya,  in  which  he  tries  to 
solve  the  problems  by  speculation,  not  by  mathematical 
calculation.  I  have  not  enumerated  it  in  this  list, 
because  the  pretensions  which  he  briugs  forward  in 
this  chapter  are  repudiated  by  mathematics.  I  am 
rather  inclined  to  think  that  that  which  he  produces  is 
meant  to  be  the  ratio  metaphysica  of  all  astronomical 
methods,  otherwise  how  could  any  problem  of  this 
science  be  solved  by  anything  save  by  mathematics  ? 

Such  books  as  do  not  reach  the  standard  of  a  Sid-  ou  the 

Ti   A  ^  ^^     -\       rn  tt-  mi         literature  of 

dhanta    are   mostly    called    lantra   or   Karana.     Ine  Tantras  and 
former  means  ruling  under  a  governor,  the  latter  means 
following,  i.e.  following  behind  the  Siddhanta.     Under 
governors  they  understand  the  Acdryas,  i.e.  the  sages, 
anchorites,  the  followers  of  Brahman. 


156  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

There  are  two  famous  Tantras  by  Aryahhata  and 
Balctbhadra,  besides  the  Rasdyana-tantra  by  Bhdnu- 
yasas  (?).  About  what  Kasayana  means  we  shall  give  a 
separate  chapter  (chap.  xvii.). 

As  for  Karanas,  there  is  one  {lacmia)  called  by  his 
name,  besides  the  Karamt-ldianda-khdclyaka  by  Brah- 
magupta.  The  last  word,  khanda,  means  a  kind  of 
their  sweetmeats.  With  regard  to  the  reason  why  he 
gave  his  book  this  title,  I  have  been  told  the  follow- 
ing:— 

Sugriva,  the  Buddhist,  had  composed  an  astrono- 
mical handbook  which  he  called  Dadhi-sdgara,  i.e. 
the  sea  of  sour-milk ;  and  a  pupil  of  his  composed  a 
book  of  the  same  kind  which  he  called  Kura-bahayd  (?), 
i.e.  a  mountain  of  rice.  Afterwards  he  composed  an- 
other book  which  he  called  Lavaiia-mitshti,  i.e.  a  hand- 
ful of  salt.  Therefore  Brahmagupta  called  his  book 
the  Sweetmeat — kliddyctkci — in  order  that  all  kinds  of 
victuals  (sour-milk,  rice,  salt,  &c.)  should  occur  in  the 
titles  of  the  books  on  this  science. 

The  contents  of  the  book  Karctna-khanda-kliddyaka 
Page  75.  rej^resent  the  doctrine  of  Aryabhata.  Therefore  Brah- 
magupta afterwards  composed  a  second  book,  which  he 
called  Uttctra-khanda-khddyctka,  i.e.  the  explanation  of 
the  Khcmda-kliddyaka.  And  this  book  is  again  followed 
by  another  one  called  Khandci-kliddyaka-tii^-pd  (sic),  of 
which  I  do  not  know  whether  it  is  composed  by  Brah- 
magupta or  somebody  else.  It  explains  the  reasons 
and  the  nature  of  the  calculations  employed  in  the 
Khandct-khddyaka.  I  suppose  it  is  a  work  of  Bala- 
bhadra's. ' 

Further,  there  is  an  astronomical  handbook  composed 
by  Vijayanandin,  the  commentator,  in  the  city  of 
Benares,  entitled  Karana-tilaka,  i.e.  the  blaze  on  the 
front  of  the  Karanas ;  another  one  by  Vittesvara  the 
son  of  Bhadatta(?  Mihdatta),  of  the  city  of  Nagarapura, 
called  Karana-sdra,   i.e.  that  which  has  been  derived 


CHAPTER  XIV.  157 

from  the  Karana ;  another  one,  by  Bbanuyasas  (?),  is 
called  Karana-jKira-tilalca,  which  shows,  as  I  am  told, 
how  the  corrected  places  of  the  stars  are  derived  from 
one  another. 

There  is  a  book  by  Utpala  the  Kashniirian  called 
Bdhuoirdlcarana  (?),  i.e.  breaking  the  Karanas ;  and 
another  called  Karana-'pdta,  i.e.  killing  the  Karanas. 
Besides  there  is  a  book  called  Karana-ciXddmani  of 
which  I  do  not  know  the  author. 

There  are  more  books  of  the  same  kind  with  other 
titles,  e.g.  the  great  Mdna.sa,  composed  by  Manu,  and  the 
commentary  by  Utpala ;  the  small  Mdnasa,  an  epitome 
of  the  former  by  Puncala  (?),  from  the  southern  country  ; 
Dasagttikd,  by  Aryabhata  ;  Arydshtasata,  by  the  same  ; 
Lokdnanda,  so  called  from  the  name  of  the  author  ;  Bhat- 
tild  (?),  so  called  from  its  author,  the  Brahman  Bhattila. 
The  books  of  this  kind  are  nearly  innumerable. 

As  for  astrological  literature,  each  one  of  the  follow-  on  astroio- 
ing  authors  has  composed  a  so-called  Saiiihitd,  viz. : — 


Mandavya. 
Parasara. 
Garga. 
Brahman. 


ture,  the 
so-c:illed 
Balabbadra.  Sambitas. 

Divj'^atattva. 

Varahamihira. 


Samhitd  means  that  ivhich  is  collected,  books  containing 
something  of  everything,  e.g.  forewarnings  relating  to  a 
journey  derived  from  meteorological  occurrences  ;  pro- 
phecies regarding  the  fate  of  dynasties  ;  the  knowledge 
of  lucky  and  unlucky  things  ;  prophesying  from  the 
lines  of  the  hand  ;  interpretation  of  dreams,  and  taking 
auguries  from  the  flight  or  cries  of  birds.  For  Hindu 
scholars  believe  in  such  things.  It  is  the  custom  of 
their  astronomers  to  propound  in  their  Sailihitas  also 
the  whole  science  of  meteorology  and  cosmology. 

Each  one  of  the  following  authors  has  composed  a  TheJata- 
book,  JdtaJca,  i.e.  book  of  nativities,  viz. : —  books  on 


Parasara.  Jivasarman. 

Satya.  Mau,  the  Greek. 

Maiiittha.  i 


nativities 


158  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

Varfihamihira  has  composed  two  Jatakas,  a  small  and 
a  large  one.  The  latter  of  these  has  been  explained 
by  Balabhadra,  and  the  former  I  have  translated  into 
Arabic.  Further,  the  Hindus  have  a  large  book  on  the 
science  of  the  astrology  of  nativities  called  Sdrdvcdi, 
i.e.  the  chosen  one,  similar  to  the  Vazidaj  (=  Persian 
fjuztda  ?),  composed  by  Kalyana-A'^arman,  who  gained 
hig-h  credit  for  his  scientific  works.  But  there  is 
another  book  still  larger  than  this,  which  comprehends 
the  whole  of  astrological  sciences,  called  Yavana,  i.e. 
belonging  to  the  Greeks. 

Of  Varahamihira  there  are  several  small  books,  e.r/. 
Shat-paricdsiM,  Mty -six  ch3.i^teT&  on  astrology;  Rord- 
panca-hotriya  (?),  on  the  same  subject. 

Travelling  is  treated  of  in  the  book  Yogaydtrd  and 
the  book  Tikani{?)-7jdtrd,  marriage  and  marrying  in  the 
book  Vivdha-patcda,  architecture  in  the  book  {lacuna). 

The  art  of  taking  auguries  from  the  flight  or  cries 
of  birds,  and  of  the  foretelling  by  means  of  piercing  a 
needle  into  a  book,  is  propounded  in  the  work  called 
Srudham  (?  srotavya),  which  exists  in  three  different 
copies.  Mahadeva  is  said  to  be  the  author  of  the  first, 
Yimalabuddhi  the  author  of  the  second,  and  Baiigala  the 
author  of  the  third.  Similar  subjects  are  treated  in  the 
book  Gudhdmana  (?),  i.e.  the  knowledge  of  the  un- 
known, composed  by  Buddha,  the  originator  of  the  sect 
of  the  red  robe-wearers,  the  Shamanians ;  and  in  the 
book  Prasna  Gudhdmana  (?),  i.e.  questions  of  the  science 
of  the  unknown,  composed  by  Utpala. 

Besides,  there  are  Hindu  scholars  of  whom  we  know 
Page  76.        the  names,  but  not  the  title  of  any  book  of  theirs,  viz. : — 

Pradyumna.  Sarasvata. 

Sangahila  (Sriukhala  ?).  Piruvana  (?). 

Divukara.  |  Devaklrtti. 

Pares  vara.  1  Prithudaka-svamin. 


Medical 
literature. 


Medicine  belongs  to  the  same  class  of   sciences  as 
astronomv,  but  there  is  this  difference,  that  the  latter 


CHAPTER  XIV.  159 

stands  in  close  relation  to  the  religion  of  the  Hindus. 
They  have  a  book  called  by  the  name  of  its  author, 
i.c,  CaraJca,  which  they  consider  as  the  best  of  their 
whole  literature  on  medicine.  According  to  their  belief, 
Caraka  was  a  Rishi  in  the  last  Dvapara-yuga,  when 
his  name  was  Agnivesa,  but  afterwards  he  was  called 
Caraka,  i.e.  the  intelligent  one,  after  the  first  elements 
of  medicine  had  been  laid  down  by  certain  Rishis,  the 
children  of  Sutra.  These  latter  had  received  them  from 
Indra,  Indra  from  Asvin,  one  of  the  two  physicians  of 
the  Devas,  and  Asvin  had  received  them  from  Praja- 
pati,  i.e.  Brahman,  the  first  father.  This  book  has  been 
translated  into  Arabic  for  the  princes  of  the  house  of 
the  Barmecides. 

The  Hindus  cultivate  numerous  other  branches  of  onPanca- 
science  and  literature,  and  have  a  nearly  boundless 
literature.  I,  however,  could  not  comprehend  it  with 
my  knowledge.  I  wish  I  could  translate  the  book 
Pancatantra,  known  among  us  as  the  book  of  Kalila 
and  Dimna.  It  is  far  spread  in  various  languages,  in 
Persian,  Hindi,  and  Arabic — in  translations  of  people 
who  are  not  free  from  the  suspicion  of  having  altered 
the  text.  For  instance,  'Abdallah  Ibn  Almukaffa  has 
added  in  his  Arabic  version  the  chapter  about  Barzoya, 
with  the  intention  of  raising  doubts  in  the  minds  of 
people  of  feeble  religious  belief,  and  to  gain  and  prepare 
them  for  the  propagation  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Mani- 
chieans.  And  if  he  is  open  to  suspicion  in  so  far  as  he 
has  added  something  to  the  text  which  he  had  simply 
to  translate,  he  is  hardly  free  from  suspicion  in  his 
capacity  as  translator. 


(     i6o    ) 


CHAPTEE   XV. 

NOTES  ON  HINDU  METROLOGY,  INTENDED  TO  FACILITATE 
THE  UNDERSTANDING  OF  ALL  KINDS  OF  MEASURE- 
MENTS   WHICH    OCCUR   IN   THIS   BOOK. 

The  Hindu    COUNTING  is  innate  to  man.     The  measure  of  a  thinff 

systeia  of  ,  .         ,      .  ^ 

weights.  becomes  known  by  its  being  compared  with  another 
thing  which  belongs  to  the  same  species  and  is  assumed 
as  a  unit  by  general  consent.  Thereby  the  difference 
between  the  object  and  this  standard  becomes  known. 

By  weighing,  people  determine  the  amount  of  gravity 
of  heavy  bodies,  when  the  tongue  of  the  scales  stands 
at  right  angles  on  the  horizontal  plane.  Hindus  want 
the  scales  very  little,  because  their  dirhams  are  deter- 
mined by  number,  not  by  weight,  and  their  fractions, 
too,  are  simply  counted  as  so-and-so  many/wMs.  The 
coinage  of  both  dirhams  and  fulus  is  different  accord- 
ing to  towns  and  districts.  They  weigh  gold  with  the 
scales  only  when  it  is  in  its  natural  state  or  such  as 
has  been  worked,  e.g.  for  ornaments,  but  not  coined. 
They  use  as  a  weight  of  gold  the  suvarna=i^  tola. 
They  use  the  tola  as  frequently  as  we  use  the  mithJcdl. 
According  to  what  I  have  been  able  to  learn  from  them, 
it  corresponds  to  three  of  our  dirhams,  of  which  lo 
equal  7  ^nithkdl. 

Therefore  i  tola  =  2^^  of  o^r  7nithMl. 

The  greatest  fraction  of  a  tola  is  yV,  called  mdsha. 
Therefore  16  mdsha  =  i  siivarna. 


CHAPTER  XV.  i6i 

Further, 

I  mdsha  —  4  andt  {eranda),  i.e.  the  seed  of  a  tree 

called  Gaura. 
I  andt     =  4  yava. 
I  ?/ai/U    —  6  A.aZ(?. 
I  ^aM     =  /^pdda. 
I  ^a(ia    =  4  wdrt  (?). 

Arranged  differently  we  have — 

I  suvarna  =  16  mdsha  —  64  anrZ?  =  2^6  yava  =  1600  kald  = 
6400  |5acZa  =  25,600  ??if??7  (?). 

Six  mdshas  are  called  i  dixinlisliana.  If  you  ask 
them  about  this  weight,  they  will  tell  you  that  2  draiik- 
sliana  =  i  mithhdl.  But  this  is  a  mistake ;  for  i 
mithk(U=  ^f  mdsha.  The  relation  between  a  drank- 
shana  and  a  mithkdl  is  as  20  to  21,  and  therefore  I 
drankshana=  i-^V  mithlatl.  If,  therefore,  a  man  gives 
the  answer  which  we  have  just  mentioned,  he  seems  to 
have  in  mind  the  notion  of  a  Qnithl'dl  as  a  weight  which 
does  not  much  differ  from  a  drankshana ;  but  by 
doubling  the  amount,  saying  2  drankshanas  instead  of 
I,  he  entirely  spoils  the  comparison. 

Since  the  unit  of  measure  is  not  a  natural  unit,  Page 
but  a  conventional  one  assumed  by  general  consent,  it 
admits  of  both  practical  and  imaginary  division.  Its 
subdivisions  or  fractions  are  different  in  different  places 
at  one  and  the  same  time,  and  at  different  periods 
in  one  and  the  same  country.  Their  names,  too,  are 
different  according  to  places  and  times  ;  changes  which 
are  produced  either  by  the  organic  development  of  lan- 
guages or  by  accident. 

A  man  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Somanath  told  me 
that  their  onithkdl  is  equal  to  ours ;  that 

I  mithkdl  =  8  7'uvu. 
I  ruvu  =  2  pdli. 
I  pdli  —    16  yava,  i.e.  barley-corn. 

Accordingly  i  mithkdl  =  8  7-uvu  =  16  j'^dli  =  256  yava. 

This  comparison   shows  that  the   man  was    mistaken 
VOL.  I.  L 


1 62  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

in  comparing  the  two  mithkdls ;  that  what  he  called 
mitkhdls  is  in  reality  the  tola,  and  that  he  calls  the 
mdslia  by  a  different  name,  viz.  ruxu. 

If  the  Hindus  wish  to  be  particularly  painstaking  in 
these  things,  they  give  the  following  scale,  based  on  the 
measurements  which  Varahamihira  prescribes  for  the 
construction  of  idols  : — 

I  reim  or  particle  of  dust  =  i  raja. 

8  raja  =  i  haldgra,  i.e.  the  end  of  a  hair. 

8  halagra  =  i  likhyd,  i.e.  the  egg  of  a  louse. 

8  likhyd  =  i  yilkd,  i.e.  a  louse. 

8  yiVcd  =  I  yava,  i.e.  a  barley-corn. 

Hence,  Varahamihira  goes  on  to  enumerate  the  measures 
for  distances.  His  measures  of  weight  are  the  same  as 
those  which  we  have  already  mentioned.     He  says : 

4  yava  =  I  andt. 

4  andt  =  I  mdsha. 

1 6  mdsha  =  I  suvarna,  i.e.  gold. 

4  suvarna  =  I  2^(tlo,- 

The  measures  of  dry  substances  are  the  following  : — 

4  pal  a  =  I  kudava. 

4  kudava     =   i  prastha. 
4  2^rastha    =  i  ddhaka. 

The  measures  of  liquid  substances  are  the  following: — 

8  pala  =  I  kudava. 

8  kudava  =  i  prastha. 

4prastha  =  l  adhaka. 

4  ddhaka  =  i  droiia. 

Weights  The  followino^  weisfhts  occur  in  the  book  Caraka.     I 

according  to       .  *="  ^  i  *        i  •  i       • 

give  them  here  according  to  the  Arabic  translation,  as 
I  have  not  received  them  from  the  Hindus  viva  voce. 
The  Arabic  copy  seems  to  be  corrupt,  like  all  other 
books  of  this  kind  which  I  know.  Such  corruption 
must  of  necessity  occur  in  our  Arabic  writing,  more 
particularly  at  a  period  like  ours,  when  people  care 


the  book 
Caraka. 


CHAPTER  XV.  163 

so   little    about  the    correctness    of   what   they  copy. 
"  Atreya  says  : 

6  particles  of  dust  =  i  marici. 

6  marici  =  I  mustard-seed  {rajikd). 

8  mustard-seeds      =  i  red  rice-corn. 

2  red  rice-corns       =  i  pea. 

2  peas  =  I  andt. 

And    I    audi  is    equal  to  |^   ddnak,  according  to  the 


scale  by 

which    7   ddnc 

■Jj 

are   equal   to    one    dirl 

Further : 

4  ciTidi 

= 

I  mdsha. 

8  mdsha 

= 

I  cana  (?). 

(  I  karsha  or  suvarna  of  the 

2  can  a 

— 

1      weight  of  2  dirhams. 

4  suvarna 

= 

I  T^aZa. 

4  i-xila 

— 

1  kudava. 

4  kudava 

= 

I  prastha. 

4  prastha 

= 

I  ddhaka.                                      \ 

4  ddhaka 

= 

I  drona. 

2  drona 

= 

1  surpa. 

2  s'^?73a. 

= 

ijand{l)." 

The  weight  ^«i«  is  much  used  in  all  the  business 
dealings  of  the  Hindus,  but  it  is  different  for  different 
wares  and  in  different  provinces.  According  to  some, 
I  pal  a  =  yV  "tnand  ;  according  to  others,  i  pcda  =  14 
mithkdl ;  but  the  mand  is  not  equal  to  210  mithhdl. 
According  to  others,  i  pcda  =  16  mithkdl,  but  the 
mand  is  not  equal  to  240  mithl'dl.  According  to  others, 
I  jxda  =  15  dirharn,  but  the  mand  is  not  equal  to  225 
dirham.  In  reality,  however,  the  relation  between  the 
pala  and  the  mand  is  different. 

Further,  Atreya  says:  "  i  ddhalca  =  64  'pda  =128  Page 78. 
dirham  —  i  rati.  But  if  the  amdi  is  equal  to  -J  ddnak, 
one  suvarna  contains  64  rt?zr/^,  and  then  a  dirham  has 
32  «?^<f^,  which,  as  each  andi  is  equal  to  |^  ddnak,  are 
equal  to  4  ddnak.  The  double  amount  of  it  is  \\  dir- 
ham^' (sic). 

Such  are  the  results  when  people,  instead  of  trans- 
lating, indulge  in  wild  conjecture  and  mingle  together 
different  theories  in  an  uncritical  manner. 


i64  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

As  regards  the  first  theory,  resting  on  the  assninption 
of  one  suvarna  being  equal  to  three  of  our  dirhams, 
people  ia  general  agree  in  this — that 

I  suvarna  =  I  pala. 

I  pala  =   12  dirham. 

I  pala  —   rV  ^'2^"i(^' 

I  mand  =  i8o  dirham. 

This  leads  me  to  think  that  I  suvarna  is  equal  to  3 
of  our  mithjcdl,  not  to  3  of  our  dirham. 

Varahamihira  says  in  another  place  of  his  Saiiihita  : 

"  Make  a  round  vase  of  the  diameter  and  height  of 
one  yard,  and  then  expose  it  to  the  rain  until  it  ceases. 
All  the  water  that  has  been  collected  in  it  of  the  weight 
of  200  dirham  is,  if  taken  fourfold,  equal  to  i  ddhaka." 

This,  however,  is  only  an  approximate  statement, 
because,  as  we  have  above  mentioned  in  his  own  words, 
I  ddhaka  is  equal  to  768  either  dirham.,  as  they  say,  or 
mithkdl,  as  /  suppose. 

Sripala  relates,  on  the  authority  of  Varahamihira,  that 
50  j;ftift  =  2  56  dirham  =  i  ddhaka.  But  he  is  mistaken, 
for  here  the  number  256  does  not  mean  dirhams,  but  the 
number  of  the  suvarna  contained  in  one  ddhaka.  And  the 
number  oi  pala  contained  in  i  ddhaka  is  64,  not  50. 

As  I  have  been  told,  Jivasarman  gives  the  following 
detailed  account  of  these  weights  : 

4  pala         =  I  kudava. 

4  Jcudava    =  I  prastha. 

4  prastha  =  I  adhaka. 

4  ddhala    =  I  drona. 

20  drona      =  I  JcMrl. 

The  reader  must  know  that  16  mdsha  are  i  suvarna, 
but  in  weighing  wheat  or  barley  they  reckon  4  suvarna 
=  I  jjala,  and  in  weighing  water  and  oil  they  reckon  8 
S7ivarna=  i  |w/ft. 

The  balances  with  which  the  Hindus  weigh  things 
are  x^'/^^o-Ttwi'c^,  of  which  the  weights  are  immovable, 
whilst  the   scales  move   on   certain   marks  and  lines. 


CHAPTER  XV.  165 

Therefore  the  balance  is  called  tuld.  The  first  lines 
mean  the  units  of  the  weight  from  i  to  5,  and  farther 
on  to  10;  the  following  lines  mean  the  tenths,  10,  20, 
30,  &c.  With  regard  to  the  cause  of  this  arrangement 
they  relate  the  following  saying  of  Vasudeva : — 

"I  will  not  kill  Sisupala,  the  son  of  my  aunt,  if  he 
has  not  committed  a  crime,  but  will  pardon  him  until 
ten,  and  then  I  shall  call  him  to  account." 

We  shall  relate  this  story  on  a  later  opportunity. 

Alfazari  uses  in  his  astronomical  handbook  the  word 
pake  for  daij-minutes  (i.e.  sixtieth  parts  of  a  day).  I  have 
not  found  this  use  anywhere  in  Hindu  literature,  but 
they  use  the  word  to  denote  a  correction  in  a  mathe- 
matical sense. 

The  Hindus  have  a  weight  called  bJiclra,  which  is 
mentioned  in  the  books  about  the  conquest  of  Sindh. 
It  is  equal  to  2000  i^ala  ;  for  they  explain  it  by  1 00  X 
20  jx/irt,  and  as  nearly  equal  to  the  weight  of  an  ox. 

This  is  all  I  have  lighted  on  as  regards  Hindu 
weights. 

By  measuring  (with  dry  measures)  people  determine 
the  body  and  the  bulk  of  a  thing,  if  it  fills  up  a  certain 
measure  which  has  been  gauged  as  containing  a  certain 
quantity  of  it,  it  being  understood  that  the  way  in  Page  79 
which  the  things  are  laid  out  in  the  measure,  the  way 
in  which  their  surface  is  determined,  and  the  way  in 
which,  on  the  whole,  they  are  arranged  within  the 
measure,  are  in  every  case  identical.  If  two  objects 
which  are  to  be  weighed  belong  to  the  same  species, 
they  then  prove  to  be  equal,  not  only  in  bulk,  but  also 
in  weight ;  but  if  they  do  not  belong  to  the  same  species, 
their  bodily  extent  is  equal,  but  not  their  weight. 

They  have  a  measure  called  Msi  (?  siM),  which  is 
mentioned  by  every  man  from  Kanauj  and  Somanath. 
According  to  the  people  of  Kanauj — 

4  hist  —  I  prastha. 
\  but  =  I  Jcudava, 


Dry 
measun 


1 66  ALBERUNrS  INDIA. 

According  to  the  people  of  Somaiiath — 

1 6  bist       =  I  pantt. 
12  paw^t    =   I  mora. 

According  to  another  theory — 

12  bisi       =  I  Icalasi. 
^  bhi         =  I  mcina. 

From  the  same  source  I  learnt  that  a  mdna  of  wheat 
is  nearly  equal  to  5  ma  ml.  Therefore  i  lisi  (?)  is 
equal  to  20  mand.  The  hist  corresponds  to  the  Khwa- 
rizmian  measure  sukhkh,  according  to  old  style,  whilst 
the  kalasi  corresponds  to  the  Khwarizmian  ghur,  for 
I  ghiLT  =12  sukhkh. 
Measures  of  Meusuration  is  the  determination  of  distances  by 
lines  and  of  superficies  by  planes.  A  plane  ought  to 
be  measured  by  part  of  a  plane,  but  the  mensuration 
by  means  of  lines  effects  the  same  purpose,  as  lines 
determine  the  limits  of  planes.  When,  in  quoting 
Varahamihira,  we  had  come  so  far  as  to  determine  the 
weight  of  a  barley-corn  (p,  162),  we  made  a  digression 
into  an  exposition  of  weights,  where  we  used  his 
authority  about  gravity,  and  now  we  shall  return  to 
him  and  consult  him  about  distances.     He  says — 

8  barley-corns  put  together  :=  i  angula,  i.e.  finger. 

4  fingers  =  i  rdma  (?),  i.e.  the  fist. 

24  fingers                                   =  i  hattha,  i.e.  j'ard,  also  called  dasta. 
4  yards                                       =  I  dhanu,  i.e.  arc  —  a  fathom. 

40  arcs  =  I  ncdva. 

25  nalva  =  l  kroki. 

Hence  it  follows  that  i  kroh  =  4000  yards;  and  as 
our  mile  has  just  so  many  yards,  i  mile  =  i  kroh. 
Pulisa  the  Greek  also  mentions  in  his  Siddhanta  that 
I  kroh  =  4000  yards. 

The  yard  is  equal  to  2  miki/ds  or  24  fingers ;  for  the 
Hindus  determine  the  sanku,  i.e.  miki/ds,  by  idol-fingers. 
They  do  not  call  the  twelfth  part  of  a  mikyds  a  finger 
in  general,  as  ive  do,  but  their  mikyds  is  always  a  span. 
The  span,  i.e.  the  distance  between  the  ends  of  the 


CHAPTER  XV.  167 

thumb  and  the  small  finger  at  their  widest  possible 
stretching,  is  called  vitasti  and  also  kishku. 

The  distance  between  the  ends  of  the  fourth  or  ring- 
finger  and  the  thumb,  both  being  stretched  out,  is  called 
gokarria. 

The  distance  between  the  ends  of  the  index-finger 
and  of  the  thumb  is  called  karcLblia,  and  is  reckoned  as 
equal  to  two-thirds  of  a  span. 

The  distance  between  the  tops  of  the  middle  finger 
and  of  the  thumb  is  called  tctla.  The  Hindus  maintain 
that  the  height  of  a  man  is  eight  times  his  tdla,  whether 
he  be  tall  or  small ;  as  people  say  with  regard  to  the 
foot,  that  it  is  one-seventh  of  the  height  of  a  man. 

Regarding  the  construction  of  idols,  the  book  Sarhhitd 
says  : — 

"The  breadth  of  the  palm  has  been  determined  as  6, 
the  length  as  7  ;  the  length  of  the  middle  finger  as  5, 
that  of  the  fourth  finger  as  the  same  ;  that  of  the  index- 
finger  as  the  same  minus  ^  (i.e.  4^) ;  that  of  the  small 
finger  as  the  same  minus  4^  (i.e.  3^)  ;  that  of  the  thumb 
as  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  length  of  the  middle  finger 
(i.e.  3^),  so  that  the  two  last  fingers  are  of  equal  length." 

By  the  measurements  and  numbers  of  this  passage,  Page  80. 
the  author  means  idol-fingers. 

After  the  measure  of  the  krosa  has  been  fixed  and  Tiie  relation 

-,  ,  between 

found  to  be  equal  to  our  mile,  the  reader  must  learn  yoja/io, miie, 
that  they  have  a  measure  of  distances,  called  yojana,  ^"^  •^""" 
which  is  equal  to  8  miles  or  to  32,000  yards.  Perhaps 
somebody  might  believe  that  i  kroli  is  =  |  farsakh, 
and  maintain  that  the  farsakhs  of  the  Hindus  are 
16,000  yards  long.  But  such  is  not  the  case.  On 
the  contrary,  i  kroh  =  ^  yojcina.  In  the  terms  of 
this  measure,  Alfazari  has  determined  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  earth  in  his  astronomical  handbook.  He 
calls  \tjun,  in  the  plural  \tjwdn. 

The  elements  of  the  calculations  of  the  Hindus  on  Relation 

between 

the  circumference  of  the  circle  rest  on  the  assumption 


i68  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

circuinfer-    that  it  is  tJiTice  its  diameter.     So  the  Matsyct-Purdna 
diameter,      says,  after  it  has  mentioned  the  diameters  of  the  sun 
and  moon  in  yojanas :    "  The  circumference  is  thrice 
the  diameter." 

The  Aditya-Ptirdna  says,  after  it  has  mentioned  the 
breadth  of  the  Dvipas,  i.e.  the  islands  and  of  their 
surrounding  seas  :  "  The  circumference  is  thrice  the 
diameter." 

The  same  occurs  also  in  the  Vdyu-Purdna.  In  later 
times,  however,  Hindus  have  become  aware  of  the 
fraction  following  after  the  three  wholes.  According 
to  Brahmagupta,  the  circumference  is  3^  times  the 
diameter;  but  he  finds  this  number  by  a  method 
peculiar  to  himself.  He  says  :  ''  As  the  root  of  10 
is  nearly  3I-,  the  relation  between  the  diameter  and 
its  circumference  is  like  the  relation  between  i  and 
the  root  of  10."  Then  he  multiplies  the  diameter 
by  itself,  the  product  by  10,  and  of  this  product  he 
takes  the  root.  Then  the  circumference  is  solid,  i.e. 
consists  of  integers,  in  the  same  way  as  the  root  of 
ten.  This  calculation,  however,  makes  the  fraction 
larger  than  it  really  is.  Archimedes  defined  it  to  be 
something  between  ^-%  and  i^.  Brahmagupta  relates 
with  regard  to  Aryabhata,  criticising  him,  that  he 
fi^ied  the  circumference  as  3393  ;  that  he  fixed  the  dia- 
meter in  one  place  as  1080,  in  another  place  as  1050. 
According  to  the  first  statement,  the  relation  between 
diameter  and  circumference  would  be  like  i  :  3yVo- 
This  fraction  (yW)  is  by^V  smaller  than  f.  However, 
as  regards  the  second  statement,  it  contains  no  doubt  a 
blunder  in  the  text,  not  of  the  author  ;  for  according  to 
the  text,  the  relation  would  be  like  1:3^  and  some- 
thing over. 

Pulisa  employs  this  relation  in  his  calculations  in 
the  proportion  of  I  :  3  xVVd- 

This  fraction  is  here  by  so  much  smaller  than  one- 
seventh  as  it  is  according  to  Aryabhata,  i.e.  by  yV- 


CHAPTER  XV.  169 

The  same  relation  is  derived  from  the  old  theory, 
which  Yakiib  Ibn  Tarik  mentions  in  his  book,  Com- 
positio  SpJiccrarum,  on  the  authority  of  his  Hindu 
informant,  viz.  that  the  circumference  of  the  zodiac 
is  1,256,640,000  yojana,  and  that  its  diameter  is 
400,000,000  yojana. 

These  numbers  presuppose  the  relation  between  cir- 
cumference and  diameter  to  be  as  i  :  3  -rir&j^jPin)- 
These  two  numbers  may  be  reduced  by  the  common 
divisor  of  360,000.  Thereby  we  get  177  as  numerator 
and  1250  as  denominator.  And  this  is  the  fraction 
(tVVo)  which  Pulisa  has  adopted. 


(     170    ) 


CHAPTER   XVI. 


rage  8r. 


On  various 
kinds  of 
writing 
material. 


NOTES  ON  THE  WAITING  OF  THE  HINDUS,  ON  THEIR 
ARITHMETIC  AND  RELATED  SUBJECTS,  AND  ON  CER- 
TAIN  STRANGE  MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS   OF   THEIRS. 

The  tongue  communicates  the  thought  of  the  speaker 
to  the  hearer.  Its  action  has  therefore,  as  it  were,  a 
momentary  life  only,  and  it  would  have  been  impos- 
sible to  deliver  by  oral  tradition  the  accounts  of  the 
events  of  the  past  to  later  generations,  more  particularly 
if  they  are  separated  from  them  by  long  periods  of 
time.  This  has  become  possible  only  by  a  new  dis- 
covery of  the  human  mind,  by  the  art  of  writing,  which 
spreads  news  over  space  as  the  winds  spread,  and  over 
time  as  the  spirits  of  the  deceased  spread.  Praise 
therefore  be  unto  Him  who  has  arranged  creation  and 
created  everything  for  the  best ! 

The  Hindus  are  not  in  the  habit  of  writing  on  hides, 
like  the  Greeks  in  ancient  times.  Socrates,  on  being 
asked  why  he  did  not  compose  books,  gave  this  reply : 
"I  do  not  transfer  knowledge  from  the  living  hearts  of 
men  to  the  dead  hides  of  shee23."  Muslims,  too,  used 
in  the  early  times  of  Islam  to  write  on  hides,  e.g.  the 
treaty  between  the  Prophet  and  the  Jews  of  Khaibar 
and  his  letter  to  Kisra.  The  coj^ies  of  the  Koran  were 
written  on  the  hides  of  gazelles,  as  are  still  nowadays 
the  copies  of  the  Thora.  There  occurs  this  passage  in 
the  Koran  (Sura  vi.  91):  "They  make  it  karcUis,"  i.e. 
To/xtt/ota.      The  Mr  las  (or    eharta)    is   made  in  Egypt, 


CHAPTER  XVI.  171 

being  cut  out  of  the  papyrus  stalk.  Written  on  this 
material,  the  orders  of  the  Khalifs  went  out  into  all  the 
world  until  shortly  before  our  time.  Papyrus  has  this 
advantage  over  vellum,  that  you  can  neither  rub  out 
nor  change  anything  on  it,  because  thereby  it  would  be 
destroyed.  It  was  in  China  that  paper  was  first  manu- 
factured. Chinese  prisoners  introduced  the  fabrication 
of  paper  into  Samarkand,  and  thereupon  it  was  made 
in  various  places,  so  as  to  meet  the  existing  want. 

The  Hindus  have  in  the  south  of  their  country  a 
slender  tree  like  the  date  and  cocoa-nut  palms,  bearing 
edible  fruits  and  leaves  of  the  length  of  one  yard,  and 
as  broad  as  three  fingers  one  put  beside  the  other. 
They  call  these  leaves  tdri  (tdla  or  tdr  =  Borassus  fla- 
helliformis),  and  write  on  them.  They  bind  a  book  of 
these  leaves  together  by  a  cord  on  which  they  are 
arranged,  the  cord  going  through  all  the  leaves  by  a 
hole  in  the  middle  of  each. 

In  Central  and  Northern  India  people  use  the  bark  of 
the  tuz  tree,  one  kind  of  which  is  used  as  a  cover  for 
bows.  It  is  called  hliivrja.  They  take  a  piece  one  yard 
long  and  as  broad  as  the  outstretched  fingers  of  the 
hand,  or  somewhat  less,  and  prepare  it  in  various  ways. 
They  oil  and  polish  it  so  as  to  make  it  hard  and  smooth, 
and  then  they  write  on  it.  The  proper  order  of  the 
single  leaves  is  marked  by  numbers.  The  whole  book 
is  wrapped  up  in  a  piece  of  cloth  and  fastened  between 
two  tablets  of  the  same  size.  Such  a  book  is  called 
2nUhi  (cf.  picsta,  pustaka).  Their  letters,  and  whatever 
else  they  have  to  write,  they  write  on  the  bark  of  the 
tuz  tree. 

As  to  the  writing  or  alphabet  of  the  Hindus,  we  have  onthe 
already  mentioned  that  it  once  had  been  lost  and  for-  alphabet. 
gotten  ;  that  nobody  cared  for  it,  and  that  in  conse- 
quence   people    became    illiterate,    sunken   into    gross 
ignorance,  and  entirely  estranged  from  science.     But 
then  Vyasa,   the   son  of    Parasara,   rediscovered  their 


172  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

alphabet  of  fifty  letters  by  an  inspiration  of  God.  A 
letter  is  called  akshai^a. 

Some  people  say  that  originally  the  number  of  their 
letters  was  less,  and  that  it  increased  only  by  degrees. 
This  is  possible,  or  I  should  even  say  necessary.  As  for 
the  Greek  alphabet,  a  certain  Asidhas  (sic)  had  formed 
sixteen  characters  to  perpetuate  science  about  the  time 
when  the  Israelites  ruled  over  Egypt.  Thereupon 
Kimush  (sic)  and  Agenon  (sic)  brought  them  to  the 
Greeks.  By  adding  four  new  signs  they  obtained  an 
alphabet  of  twenty  letters.  Later  on,  about  the  time 
when  Socrates  was  poisoned,  Simonides  added  four 
other  signs,  and  so  the  Athenians  at  last  had  a  complete 
alphabet  of  twenty-four  letters,  which  happened  during 
the  reign  of  Artaxerxes,  the  son  of  Darius,  the  son  of 
Artaxerxes,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  according  to  the  chrono- 
graphers  of  the  West. 

The  great  number  of  the  letters  of  the  Hindu  alpha- 
bet is  explained,  firstly,  by  the  fact  that  they  express 
every  letter  by  a  separate  sign  if  it  is  followed  by  a 
vowel  or  a  diphthong  or  a  hamza  (visarga),  or  a  small 
extension  of  the  sound  beyond  the  measure  of  the 
vowel ;  and,  secondly,  by  the  fact  that  they  have  con- 
sonants which  are  not  found  together  in  any  other 
language,  though  they  may  be  found  scattered  through 
different  languages — sounds  of  such  a  nature  that  oar 
tongues,  not  being  familiar  with  them,  can  scarcely  pro- 
nounce them,  and  that  our  ears  are  frequently  not  able 
to  distinguish  between  many  a  cognate  pair  of  them. 

The  Hindus  write  from  the  left  to  the  right  like  the 
Greeks.  They  do  not  write  on  the  basis  of  a  line, 
above  which  the  heads  of  the  letters  rise  whilst  their 
tails  go  down  below,  as  in  Arabic  writing.  On  the 
contrary,  their  ground-line  is  above,  a  straight  line 
above  every  single  character,  and  from  this  line  the 
letter  hangs  down  and  is  written  under  it.  Any  sign 
ctbovc  the  line  is  nothing  but  a  grammatical  mark  to 


CHAPTER  XVI.  173 

denote  the  pronunciation  of  the  character  above  which 
it  stands. 

The  most  generally  known  alphabet  is  called  Siddha-  Ontheiocai 

.,  ^'^'■,  -1  1  ••  •  alphabets  of 

matrikd,  which  is  by  some  considered  as  originating  the  Hindus. 

from  Kashmir,  for  the  people  of  Kashmir  use  it.     But 

it  is  also  used  in  Varanasi.     This  town  and  Kashmir  are 

the  high  schools  of  Hindu  sciences.     The  same  writing 

is  used  in  Madhyadesa,  i.e.  the    middle    country,  the 

country  all  around  Kanauj,  which  is  also  called  Arya- 

varta. 

In  Malava  there  is  another  alphabet  called  Ndgara, 
which  differs  from  the  former  only  in  the  shape  of  the 
characters. 

Next  comes  an  alphabet  called  Ardliandgari,  i.e.  ludf- 
ndgctra,  so  called  because  it  is  compounded  of  the 
former  two.  It  is  used  in  Bhatiya  and  some  parts  of 
Sindh. 

Other  alphabets  are  the  Malvxtri,  used  in  Malwashau, 
in  Southern  Sind,  towards  the  sea-coast ;  the  Saindhava, 
used  in  Bahmanwa  or  Almansura  ;  the  Karndta,  used  in 
Karnatadesa,  whence  those  troops  come  which  in  the 
armies  are  known  as  Kannara ;  the  Andliri,  used  in 
Andhradesa  ;  the  Dvnvari  (Drdvidi),  used  in  Dirwara- 
desa  (Dravidadesa) ;  the  Ldri,  used  in  Laradesa  (Lata- 
desa)  ;  the  Gauri  (Gaudi),  used  in  Purvadesa,  i.e.  the 
Eastern  country  ;  the  Bhaikshuld,  used  in  Udunpur  in 
Purvadesa.     This  last  is  the  writing  of  Buddha. 

The  Hindus  begin  their  books  with  Om,  the  word  of  onthe 
creation,  as  we  begin  them  with  "  In  the  name  of  ^°^  ™' 
God."  The  figure  of  the  word  om  is  QV,-  This  figure 
does  not  consist  of  letters ;  it  is  simply  an  image 
invented  to  represent  this  word,  which  people  use, 
believing  that  it  will  bring  them  a  blessing,  and 
meaning  thereby  a  confession  of  the  unity  of  God. 
Similar  to  this  is  the  manner  in  which  the  Jews  write 
the  name  of  God,  viz.  by  three  Hebrew  yods.  In  the 
Thora    the   word  is  written  YHVH  and  pronounced 


Tafre  8i 


174  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

Adonai ;    sometimes   they   also    say    Yah.     The  word 
Ado7iai,   which   they  pronounce,  is   not    expressed  in 
writing. 
On  their  The  Hindiis  do  not  use  the  letters  of  their  alphabet 

signs.  '^  for  numerical  notation,  as  we  use  the  Arabic  letters  in 
the  order  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  As  in  different  parts 
of  India  the  letters  have  different  shapes,  the  numeral 
signs,  too,  which  are  called  anJ^a,  differ.  The  numeral 
signs  which  2ve  use  are  derived  from  the  finest  forms  of 
the  Hindu  signs.  Signs  and  figures  are  of  no  use  if 
people  do  not  know  what  they  mean,  but  the  people  of 
Kashmir  mark  the  single  leaves  of  their  books  with 
figures  which  look  like  drawings  or  like  the  Chinese 
characters,  the  meaning  of  which  can  only  be  learned 
by  a  ver}^  long  practice.  However,  they  do  not  use 
them  when  reckoning  in  the  sand. 

In  arithmetic  all  nations  agree  that  all  the  orders  of 
numbers  (e.g.  one,  ten,  hundred,  thousand)  stand  in  a 
certain  relation  to  the  ten ;  that  each  order  is  the  tenth 
part  of  the  following  and  the  tenfold  of  the  preceding. 
I  have  studied  the  names  of  the  orders  of  the  numbers 
in  various  languages  with  all  kinds  of  people  with 
whom  I  have  been  in  contact,  and  have  found  that  no 
nation  goes  beyond  the  thousand.  The  Arabs,  too,  stop 
with  the  thousand,  which  is  certainly  the  most  correct 
and  the  most  natural  thing  to  do.  I  have  written  a 
separate  treatise  on  this  subject. 

Those,  however,  who  go  beyond  the  thousand  in  their 
numeral  system  are  the  Hindus,  at  least  in  their 
arithmetical  technical  terms,  which  have  been  either 
freely  invented  or  derived  according  to  certain  etymolo- 
gies, whilst  in  others  both  methods  are  blended  together. 
They  extend  the  names  of  the  orders  of  numbers  until 
the  1 8th  order  for  religious  reasons,  the  mathematicians 
being  assisted  by  the  grammarians  with  all  kinds  of 
etymologies. 

The   1 8th  order  is  called  Pardrdha,  i.e.  the  half  of 


CHAPTER  XVI.  175 

heaven,  or,  more  accurately,  tJic  half  of  thai  which  is 
above.  For  if  the  Hindus  construct  periods  o£  time  out 
of  Kalpas,  the  unit  of  this  orchr  is  a  day  of  God  {i.e.  a 
half  nychthemeron).  And  as  we  do  not  know  any  body  " 
larger  than  heaven,  half  of  it  (jxirdrdha),  as  a  half  of 
the  greatest  body,  has  been  compared  with  a  half -of  the 
greatest  day.  By  doubling  it,  by  uniting  night  to  day, 
we  get  the  ivhole  of  the  greatest  day.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  name  Pardrdha  is  accounted  for  in  this 
way,  and  th.2it  pardr  means  the  ivhole  of  heaven. 

The  following:  are  the  names  of  the  eighteen  orders  of  Theeigbt- 

o  "  een  orders 

nU  mberS  : ""^  numera- 

tion. 

I.  Ekam.  I  10.  Padma. 


2. 


Dakirh.  II-  Kharva. 


3.  S'atam.  12.  Nikharva. 

4.  Sahasrarh.  13.  MaMpadma. 

5.  Ayuta.  14.  S'atiku. 

6.  Laksha.  15.  Samudra. 

7.  Prayuta.  16.  Madhya. 

8.  Koti.  17-  Antya. 

9.  Nyarbuda.  18.  P<irnrdlia. 

I  shall  now   mention   some  of  their  differences  of 
opinion  relating  to  this  system. 

Some   Hindus  maintain  thett   there  is  a    igth  order  Variations 

,  occurring 

beyond  the  Pardrdha,  called  Phuri,  and  that  this  is  the  in  the 
limit  of  reckoning.  But  in  reality  r'echoning  is  unlimited  ;  orders. 
it  has  only  a  technical  limit,  which  is  conventionally 
adopted  as  the  last  of  the  orders  of  numbers.  By  the 
word  reckoning  in  the  sentence  above  they  seem  to  mean 
nomenclature,  as  if  they  meant  to  say  that  the  language 
has  no  name  for  any  reckoning  beyond  the  19th  order. 
It  is  known  that  the  unit  of  this  order,  i.e.  one  bliv.ri,  is 
equal  to  one-fifth  of  the  greatest  day,  but  on  this  subject 
they  have  no  tradition.  In  their  tradition  there  are 
only  traces  of  combinations  of  the  greatest  day,  as  we 
shall  hereafter  explain.  Therefore  this  19th  order 
is  an  addition  of  an  artificial  and  hyper-accurate 
nature. 


176  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

According  to  others,  the  limit  of  reckoning  is  Jcoti  ; 
and  starting  from  Jcoti  the  succession  of  the  orders  of 
numbers  would  be  koti,  thousands,  hundreds,  tenths ; 
for  the  number  of  Devas  is  expressed  in  Jwtis.  Ac- 
cording to  their  belief  there  are  thirty-three  kotis  of 
Devasf  eleven  of  which  belong  to  each  of  the  three 
beings,  Brahman,  Narayana,  and  Mahadeva. 

The  names  of  the  orders  beyond  that  of  the  i8th 
have  been  invented  by  the  grammarians,  as  we  have 
said  already  (p.  174). 

Further,  we  observe  that  the  popular  name  of  the 
5th  order  is  Basa  sahasra,  that  of  the  7th  order,  Dasa 
laksJia;  for  the  two  names  which  we  have  mentioned  in 
the  list  above  {Ayida  Frayuta)  are  rarely  used. 

The  book  of  Aryabhata  of  Kusumapura  gives  the 
following  names  of  the  orders  from  the  ten  till  10 
koti  : — 


Ayutam. 
Niyutam. 
Pr  ayutam. 


Koti  padma. 
Parapadma. 


Further,  it  is  noteworthy  that  some  people  establish 
a  kind  of  etymological  relationship  between  the  dif- 
ferent names ;  so  they  call  the  6th  order  Niyuta,  ac- 
cording to  the  analogy  of  the  5th,  which  is  called 
Ayuta.  Further,  they  call  the  8th  order  Arhuda, 
according  to  the  analogy  of  the  9th,  which  is  called 
Nya7'huda. 

There  is  a  similar  relation  between  Nikliarva  and 
Kharva,  the  names  of  the  12th  and  nth  orders^  and 
between  Baiiku  and  Mahdsahku,  the  names  of  the  1 3th 
and  14th  orders.  According  to  this  analogy  Mahd- 
2oadma  ought  to  follow  immediately  after  Fadma,  but 
this  latter  is  the  name  of  the  lOth,  the  former  the 
name  of  the  1 3th  order. 

These  are  differences  of  theirs  which  can  be  traced 
back  to  certain  reasons ;  but  besides,  there  are  many 
differences    without    any   reason,    which    simply  arise 


CHAPTER  XVI.  177 

from  people  dictating  these  names  without  observing 
any  fixed  order,  or  from  the  fact  that  they  hate  to 
avow  their  ignorance  by  a  frank  /  do  not  know, — a 
word  which  is  difficult  to  them  in  any  connection 
whatsoever. 

The  Pulisa-siddhdnta  gives  the  following  list  of  the 
orders  of  the  numbers  : — 


4.  Sahasram. 

5.  Ayutam. 

6.  Niyutarh. 

7.  Prayutai'n. 


8.  Kofi. 

9.  Arbudam. 
10.  Kharva. 


The  following  orders,  from  the  i  ith  till  the  1 8th,  are 
the  same  as  those  of  the  above-mentioned  list. 

The  Hindus  use  the  numeral  signs  in  arithmetic  in  Numeriii 
the  same  way  as  we  do.  1  have  composed  a  treatise 
showing  how  far,  possibly,  the  Hindus  are  ahead  of  us 
in  this  subject.  AVe  have  already  explained  that  the 
Hindus  compose  their  books  in  Slokas.  If,  now,  they 
wish,  in  their  astronomical  handbooks,  to  express  some 
numbers  of  the  various  orders,  they  express  them  by 
words  used  to  denote  certain  numbers  either  in  one 
order  alone  or  at  the  same  time  in  two  orders  {e.g.  a 
word  meaning  either  20  or  both  20  and  200).  For 
each  number  they  have  appropriated  quite  a  great 
quantity  of  words.  Hence,  if  one  word  does  not  suit 
the  metre,  you  may  easily  exchange  it  for  a  synonym 
which  suits.  Brahmagupta  says :  "If  you  want  to 
write  one,  express  it  by  everything  which  is  unique,  as 
the  earth,  the  moon  ;  tiuo  by  everything  which  is  double, 
as,  e.g.  hlack  and  white  ;  three  by  everything  which  is 
threefold;  the  nought  by  heaven,  the  twelve  by  the 
names  of  the  sun." 

I  have  united  in  the  following  table  all  the  ex- 
pressions for  the  numbers  which  I  used  to  hear  from 
them ;  for  the  knowledge  of  these  things  is  most 
essential  for  deciphering  their  astronomical  handbooks. 

VOL.  I.  M 


178 


ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 


Whenever  I  shall  come  to  know  all  the  meanings  of 
these  words,  I  will  add  them,  if  God  permits !  ^-^se 


o  —  Mnya  and  Ma,  both  mean- 

samudra,   sdgara,    i.e.   the 

ing  ^oi??<. 

sea. 

gagana,  i.e.  heaven. 

abdhi. 

viyat,  i.e.  heaven. 

dadhi. 

dkdsa,  i.e.  heaven. 

di^,  i.e.  the  four  cardinal 

ambara,  i.e.  heaven. 

points. 

ahhvd,  i.e.  heaven. 

jaldiayd. 

krita.                                            r^ige  86 

I  —  ddi,  i.e.  the  beginnhig. 

5 

=  ktra. 

msin. 

artha. 

indu. 

sUd. 

urvard,  dharant. 

indriyn,      i.e.      the       five 

senses. 
sdyaka. 

pitdmaha,     i.e.     the     first 

father. 

^^\ 

candra,  i.e.  the  moon. 

sUdthm,  i.e.  the  moon. 

xdna. 

rtlpa. 

bMta. 
ishu. 

rahni. 

Pdndava,  i.e.  the  five  royal 

2  =  yama. 

brothers. 

asvin. 

pattrin,  mdrgana. 

ravicandra. 

6 

—  rasa. 

locana,  i.e.  the  two  eyes. 

anga. 

akshi. 

shat. 

dasra. 
yamala. 

^  .-v!'  (?)  i.e.  the  year. 

paksha,  i.e.  the  two  halves 

rituil). 

of  a  month. 

7ndsdrdham. 

netra,  i.e.  the  two  eyes. 

7 

=  aga.^ 

3  -  trikdla,  i.e.  the  three  parts 

mahidhara. 

of  time. 

parvala,    i.e.     the    moun- 

trijagat. 

tains. 

trayaih. 

saptan. 

pdvaka,     vaisvdnara,      da- 

naga,  i.e.  the  mountains. 
adri. 

hana,  tapana,    hutdkma, 

jvalana,  agni,  i.e.  fire. 

muni. 

[triguna,']  i.e.  the  three  first 

8 

—  vasu,  ashta. 

forces. 

dht,  mangala. 

loka,  i.e.  the  worlds,  earth. 

gaja,  ndga. 

heaven  and  hell. 

dantin. 

trikatu. 

9 

=  go,  chidra. 
nanda,  pavana. 

4  =  veda,  i.e.  their  sacred  code, 

randhra,  antara. 

because  it  has  four  parts . 

navan  =  g.                                 rage  87. 

CHAPTER  XVI.  179 


10  =  dis,  khendu. 

dki,  Rdvana-slras. 

1 1  =  Budra,  the  destroyer  of  the 
world. 


14  =  manu,    the    lords    of    the 

fourteen  manvantaras. 

15  =  tithi,  i.e.  the  lunar  days  in 

each  half  month. 


Mahddeva,   i.e.  the    prince       '^  =  «^^^^''  ^H^"'  ^^«^^^- 
of  the  angels.  17  =  atyashti. 


18  =  dhriti.  Page 


akshauhim,    i.e.    the    army       ^9  =  «^KZ/.r/«/. 

Kuru  had.  ^^  =  '^f  ^'.^'  ^•''^^'- 

21  =  uthriti. 
surya,    because    there    are       22  = 

twelve  suns. 
dditya. 

lu'ka,  i.e.  the  sun. 
mdsa,  bhdnu. 
sahasrdmiu. 


13 


23  = 

24  = 

25  =  tattva,  i.e.  the  twenty- 
five  things,  through  the 
knowledge  of  which  lib- 

eration is  obtained. 


As  far  as  I  have  seen  and  heard  of  the  Hindus,  they 
do  not  usually  go  beyond  twenty-five  with  this  kind 
of  numerical  notation. 

We  shall  now  speak  of  certain  strange  manners  and  strange 
customs  of  the  Hindus.     The   strangeness  of  a  thing  andcuTtoms 
evidently  rests  on  the  fact  that  it  occurs  but  rarely,  and  Hindus, 
that  we  seldom  have  the  opportunity  of  witnessing  it.  ^''^^^9- 
If  such  strangeness  reaches  a  high  degree,  the  thing 
becomes  a  curiosity,  or  even  something  like  a  miracle, 
which  is  no  longer  in  accordance  with  the  ordinary  laws 
of  nature,  and  which  seems  chimerical  as  long  as  it  has 
not  been  witnessed.     Many  Hindu  customs  differ  from 
those  of  our  country  and  of  our  time  to  such  a  degree 
as   to    appear    to    us    simply    monstrous.     One    might 
almost  think  that  they  had  intentionally  changed  them 
into  the   opposite,  for  our  customs  do    not  resemble 
theirs,  but  are  the  very  reverse  ;  and  if  ever  a  custom  of 
theirs  resembles  one  of  ours,  it  has  certainly  just  the 
opposite  meaning. 

They  do  not  cut  any  of  the  hair  of  the  body.  Originally 
they  went  naked  in  consequence  of  the  heat,  and  by 
not  cutting  the  hair  of  the  head  they  intended  to  pre- 
vent sunstroke. 


i8o  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

They  divide  the  moustache  into  single  plaits  in 
order  to  preserve  it.  As  regards  their  not  cutting 
the  hair  of  the  genitals,  they  try  to  make  people 
believe  that  the  cutting  of  it  incites  to  lust  and 
increases  carnal  desire.  Therefore  such  of  them  as 
feel  a  strong  desire  for  cohabitation  never  cut  the 
hair  of  the  genitals. 

They  let  the  nails  grow  long,  glorying  in  their  idle- 
ness, since  they  do  not  use  them  for  any  business  or 
work,  but  only,  while  living  a  dolcc  far  niente  life,  they 
scratch  their  heads  with  them  and  examine  the  hair  for 
lice. 

The  Hindus  eat  singly,  one  by  one,  on  a  tablecloth 
of  dung.  They  do  not  make  use  of  the  remainder  of  a 
meal,  and  the  plates  from  which  they  have  eaten  are 
thrown  away  if  they  are  earthen. 

They  have  red  teeth  in  consequence  of  chewing  areca- 
nuts  with  betel-leaves  and  chalk. 

They  drink  wine  before  having  eaten  anything,  then 
they  take  their  meal.  They  sip  the  stall  of  cows,  but 
they  do  not  eat  their  meat. 

They  beat  the  cymbals  with  a  stick. 

They  use  turbans  for  trousers.  Those  who  want  little 
dress  are  content  to  dress  in  a  rag  of  two  fingers'  breadth, 
which  they  bind  over  their  loins  with  two  cords ;  but 
those  who  like  much  dress,  wear  trousers  lined  with 
so  much  cotton  as  would  suffice  to  make  a  number  of 
counterpanes  and  saddle-rugs.  These  trousers  have  no 
(visible)  openings,  and  they  are  so  huge  that  the  feet 
are  not  visible.  The  string  by  which  the  trousers  are 
fastened  is  at  the  back. 

Their  siddr  (a  piece  of  dress  covering  the  head 
and  the  upper  part  of  breast  and  neck)  is  similar  to 
the  trousers,  being  also  fastened  at  the  back  by 
buttons. 

The  lappets  of  the  kurtakas  (short  shirts  from  the 
shoulders   to  the  middle  of  the  body  with   sleeves,    a 


CM  AFTER  XVt.  igi 

female  dress)  have  slashes  both  on  the  right  and  left 
sides. 

They  keep  the  shoes  tight  till  they  begin  to  put 
them  on.  They  are  turned  down  from  the  calf  before 
walking  (?). 

In  washing  they  begin  with  the  feet,  and  then  wash 
the  face.  They  wash  themselves  before  cohabiting  with 
their  wives. 

Coeunt  stantes  velut  pahs  vitis,  dum  mulicres  ah  imo 
sursum  moventur  vehtt  occiqxctce  in  arando,  maritus  vero 
plane  otiosus  onanet. 

On  festive  days  they  besmear  their  bodies  with  dung- 
instead  of  perfumes. 

The  men  wear  articles  of  female  dress;  they  use 
cosmetics,  wear  earrings,  arm-rings,  golden  seal-rings  on 
the  ring-finger  as  well  as  on  the  toes  of  the  feet. 

Miscret  cos  catamiti  et  viri  qui  rehus  venereis  frui  non 
potest  pushandila  dicti,  qui  penem  hiicca  devorans  semen 
elicit  sorhenditm. 

In  cacando  fccciem  vertunt  versus  murum  rctegentes 
pudenda  ut  videantur  a  prcetereuntihus. 

Sacra  faciunt  virilihus  liiiga  dictis,  quce  est  imago 
veretri  Mahadevce. 

They  ride  without  a  saddle,  but  if  they  put  on  a 
saddle,  they  mount  the  horse  from  its  right  side.  In 
travelling  they  like  to  have  somebody  riding  behind 
them. 

They  fasten  the  kntjidra,  i.e.  the  dagger,  at  the  waist 
on  the  right  side. 

They  wear  a  girdle  called  yajnopavAta,  passing  from 
the  left  shoulder  to  the  right  side  of  the  waist. 

In  all  consultations  and  emergencies  they  take  the  Page  90. 
advice  of  the  women. 

When  a  child  is  born  people  show  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  man,  not  to  the  woman. 

Of  two  children  they  give  the  preference  to  the 
younger,  particularly  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  country ; 


i82  ALBERUNI'S  INDIA. 

for  they  maintain  that  the  elder  owes  his  birth  to  pre- 
dominant lust,  whilst  the  younger  owes  his  origin  to 
mature  reflection  and  a  calm  proceeding. 

In  shaking  hands  they  grasp  the  hand  of  a  man  from 
the  convex  side. 

They  do  not  ask  permission  to  enter  a  house,  but 
when  they  leave  it  they  ask  permission  to  do  so. 

In  their  meetings  they  sit  cross-legged. 

They  spit  out  and  blow  their  noses  without  any 
respect  for  the  elder  ones  present,  and  they  crack  their 
lice  before  them.  They  consider  the  crepitus  ventris  as 
a  good  omen,  sneezing  as  a  bad  omen. 

They  consider  as  unclean  the  weaver,  but  as  clean 
the  cupper  and  the  flayer,  who  kills  dying  animals  for 
money  either  by  drowning  or  by  burning. 

They  use  black  tablets  for  the  children  in  the  schools, 
and  write  upon  them  along  the  long  side,  not  the  broad 
side,  writing  with  a  white  m  ;terial  from  the  left  to  the 
right.  One  would  think  that  the  author  of  the  follow- 
ing verses  had  meant  the  Hindus : — 


"  How  many  a  writer  uses  paper  as  black  as  charcoal, 
Whilst  his  pen  writes  on  it  with  white  colour. 
By  writing  he  places  a  bright  day  in  a  dark  night, 
Weaving  like  a  weaver,  but  without  adding  a  woof." 


They  write  the  title  of  a  book  at  the  end  of  it,  not  at 
the  beginning. 

They  magnify  the  nouns  of  their  language  by  giving 
them  the  feminine  gender,  as  the  Arabs  magnify  them 
by  the  diminutive  form. 

If  one  of  them  hands  over  a  thing  to  another,  he 
expects  that  it  should  be  thrown  to  him  as  we  throw  a 
thing  to  the  dogs. 

If  two  men  play  at  A^ard  (backgammon),  a  third 
one  throws  the  dice  between  them. 

They  like  the  juice  which  flows  over  the  cheeks  of 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


83 


the  rutting  elephant,  which  in  reaUty  has  the   most 
horrid  smell. 

In  playing  chess  they  move  the  elephant  straight  on,  onthe 
not  to  the  other  sides,  one  square  at  a  time,  like  the  chess" 
pawn,  and  to  the  four  corners  also  one  square  at  a  time, 
like  the  queen  (firzdn).  They  say  that  these  five  squares 
(i.e.  the  one  straight  forward  and  the  others  at  the 
corners)  are  the  places  occupied  by  the  trunk  and  the 
four  feet  of  the  elephant. 

They  play  chess — four  persons  at  a  time — with  a 
pair  of  dice.  Their  arrangement  of  the  figures  on  the 
chess-board  is  the  following  : — 


Tower 
indh). 

Pawn. 

Horse. 

Elephant. 

King. 

1 
1 
1     Pawn. 

i 
1 

Tower. 

Pawn. 

Pawn. 

Pawn. 

! 

Pawn. 

Horse. 

Pawn. 

Elephant. 

Pawn. 

King. 

King. 

Pawn. 

Klepbant. 

Pawn. 

Horse. 

Pawn. 

Pawn. 

Pawn.          Pawn. 

Pawn. 

1 
Tower.     |     Pawn. 

i 

King. 

Elephant.      Horse. 

i 

Tower. 

1 84  ALBERUNfS  INDIA. 

As  this  kind  of  chess  is  not  known  among  us,  I  shall 
here  explain  what  I  know  of  it. 

The  four  persons  playing  together  sit  so  as  to  form  a 
square  round  a  chess-board,  and  throw  the  two  dice 
alternately.  Of  the  numbers  of  the  dice  the  five  and 
six  are  blank  (i.e.  do  not  count  as  such).  In  that 
case,  if  the  dice  show  five  or  six,  the  player  takes  one 
instead  of  the  five,  and  four  instead  of  the  six,  because 
the  figures  of  these  two  numerals  are  drawn  in  the 
following  manner : — 

6  5 

4321 

so  as  to  exhibit  a  certain  likeness  of  form  to  4  and  i, 
viz.  in  the  Indian  signs. 

The  name  ShdJi  or  king  applies  here  to  the  queen 
{firzcln). 

Each  number  of  the  dice  causes  a  move  of  one  of  the 
figures. 

The  I  moves  either  the  pawn  or  the  king.  Their 
moves  are  the  same  as  in  the  common  chess.  The  king 
may  be  taken,  but  is  not  required  to  leave  his  place. 

The  2  moves  the  tower  {rukh).  It  moves  to  the  third 
square  in  the  direction  of  the  diagonal,  as  the  elephant 
moves  in  our  chess. 

The  3  moves  the  horse.  Its  move  is  the  generally 
known  one  to  the  third  square  in  oblique  direction. 

The  4  moves  the  elephant.  It  moves  in  a  straight 
line,  as  the  tower  does  in  our  chess,  unless  it  be  pre- 
vented from  moving  on.  If  this  is  the  case,  as  some- 
times happens,  one  of  the  dice  removes  the  obstacle, 
and  enables  it  to  move  on.  Its  smallest  move  is  one 
square,  the  greatest  fifteen  squares,  because  the  dice 
sometimes  show  two  4,  or  two  6,  or  a  4  and  a  6.  In 
consequence  of  one  of  these  numbers,  the  elephant 
moves  along  the  whole  side  of  the  margin  on  the  chess- 
board ;  in  consequence  of  the  other  number,  it  moves 


CHAPTER  XVL  185 

along  the  other  side  on  the  other  margin  of  the  board, 
in  case  there  is  no  impediment  in  its  way.  In  con- 
sequence of  these  two  numbers,  the  ele^^hant,  in  the 
course  of  his  moves,  occupies  the  two  ends  of  the 
diagonal. 

The  pieces  have  certain  values,  according  to  which 
the  player  gets  his  share  of  the  stake,  for  the  pieces  are 
taken  and  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  player.  The  value 
of  the  king  is  5,  that  of  the  elephant  4,  of  the  horse  3,  of 
the  tower  2,  and  of  the  pawn  i.  He  who  takes  a  king 
gets  5.  For  two  kings  he  gets  10,  for  three  kings  15, 
if  the  winner  is  no  longer  in  possession  of  his  own  king. 
But  if  he  has  still  his  own  king,  and  takes  all  three 
kings,  he  gets  54,  a  number  which  represents  a  pro- 
gression based  on  general  consent,  not  on  an  algebraic 
principle. 

If  the  Hindus  claim  to  differ  from  us,  and  to  be  The  innate 
something  better  than  we,  as  we  on  our  side,  of  course,  ofTheHiiidu 
do  vice  versa,  we  might  settle  the  question  by  an  ex- 
periment to  be  made  with  their  boys.  I  never  knew  a 
Hindu  boy  who  had  only  recently  come  into  Muham- 
madan  territory  who  was  not  thoroughly  versed  in  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  people,  but  at  the  same 
time  he  would  place  the  shoes  before  his  master  in  a 
wrong  order,  the  right  one  to  the  left  foot,  and  vice  versa; 
he  would,  in  folding,  turn  his  master's  garments  inside 
out,  and  spread  the  carpets  so  that  the  under  part  is 
uppermost,  and  more  of  the  kind.  All  of  which  is  a 
consequence  of  the  innate  perversity  of  the  Hindu 
nature. 

However,  I  must  not  reproach  the  Hindus  only  with  Customs  of 

.  ^  AT  ^^^^  heathen 

their  heathen  practices,  for  the  heathen  Arabs  too  com-  Arabs, 
mitted  crimes  and  obscenities.  They  cohabited  with 
menstruating  and  pregnant  women  ;  several  men  agreed 
to  cohabit  with  the  same  woman  in  the  same  period  of 
menstruation  ;  they  adopted  the  children  of  others,  of 
their  guests,  of  the  lover  of  their  daughter,  not  to  men- 


1 86  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

tion  that  in  some  kinds  of  their  worship  they  whistled 
on  their  fingers  and  clapped  with  their  hands,  and  that 
they  ate  unclean  and  dead  animals.  Islam  has  abolished 
all  those  things  among  the  Arabs,  as  it  has  also  abolished 
them  in  those  parts  of  India  the  people  of  which  have 
become  Miihammadans.     Thanks  be  unto  God  ! 


\ 


(  IS7  ) 


CHAPTER   XVir. 

ON    HINDU    SCIENCKS    ^yHICH    TREY   ON    THE 
IGNORANCE   OF   PEOPLE. 

We  understand  by  witchcraft,  making  by  some  kind  of  On  aichemy 

,..  ."  I'Tf     among  the 

delusion  a  thing  appear  to  the  senses  as  something  dii-  Hindus  in 
ferent  from  what  it  is  in  reality.  Taken  in  this  sense, 
it  is  far  spread  among  people.  Understood,  however,  Page  92. 
as  common  people  understand  it,  as  the  producing  of 
something  which  is  impossible,  it  is  a  thing  which 
does  not  lie  within  the  limits  of  reality.  For  as  that 
which  is  impossible  cannot  be  produced,  the  whole  affair 
is  nothing  but  a  gross  deception.  Therefore  witch- 
craft in  this  sense  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
science. 

One  of  the  species  of  witchcraft  is  alchemy,  though 
it  is  generally  not  called  by  this  name.  But  if  a  man 
takes  a  bit  of  cotton  and  makes  it  appear  as  a  bit  of 
gold,  what  would  you  call  this  but  a  piece  of  witch- 
craft? It  is  quite  the  same  as  if  he  were  to  take  a  bit 
of  silver  and  make  it  appear  as  gold,  only  with  this 
difference,  that  the  latter  is  a  generally-known  process, 
i.e.  the  gilding  of  silver,  the  former  is  not. 

The  Hindus  do  not  pay  particular  attention  to  al- 
chemy, but  no  nation  is  entirely  free  from  it,  and  one 
nation  has  more  bias  for  it  than  another,  which  must 
not  be  construed  as  proving  intelligence  or  ignorance ; 
for  we  find  that  many  intelligent  people  are  entirely 
given  to  alchemy,  whilst  ignorant  people  ridicule  the 
art  and  its  adepts.     Those  intelligent  people,  though 


i88  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

boisterously  exulting  over  their  make-believe  science, 
are  not  to  be  blamed  for  occupying  themselves  with 
alchemy,  for  their  motive  is  simply  excessive  eagerness 
for  acquiring  fortune  and  for  avoiding  misfortune.  Once 
a  sage  was  asked  why  scholars  always  flock  to  the  doors 
of  the  rich,  whilst  the  rich  are  not  inclined  to  call  at 
the  doors  of  scholars.  "The  scholars,"  he  answered, 
"are  well  aware  of  the  use  of  money,  but  the  rich 
are  ignorant  of  the  nobility  of  science."  On  the  other 
hand,  ignorant  people  are  not  to  be  praised,  although 
they  behave  quite  quietly,  simply  because  they  abstain 
from  alchemy,  for  their  motives  are  objectionable  ones, 
rather  practical  results  of  innate  ignorance  and  stupidity 
than  anything  else. 

The  adepts  in  this  art  try  to  keep  it  concealed,  and 
shrink  back  from  intercourse  with  those  who  do  not 
belong  to  them.  Therefore  I  have  not  been  able  to 
learn  from  the  Hindus  which  methods  they  follow  in 
this  science,  and  what  element  they  principally  use, 
whether  a  mineral  or  an  animal  or  a  vegetable  one.  I 
only  heard  them  speaking  of  the  process  of  sublimation, 
of  calcination^  of  analysis^  and  of  the  waxing  of  talc, 
which  they  call  in  their  language  tdlaka,  and  so  I  giiess 
that  they  incline  towards  the  mineralogical  method  of 
alchemy. 

They  have  a  science  similar  to  alchemy  which  is 
quite  peculiar  to  them.  They  call  it  Rasdijana,  a  word 
composed  with  rasa,  i.e.  gold.  It  means  an  art  which 
is  restricted  to  certain  operations,  drugs,  and  compound 
medicines,  most  of  which  are  taken  from  plants.  Its 
principles  restore  the  health  of  those  who  were  ill 
beyond  hope,  and  give  back  youth  to  fading  old  age,  so 
that  people  become  again  what  they  were  in  the  age 
near  puberty ;  white  hair  becomes  black  again,  the 
keenness  of  the  senses  is  restored  as  well  as  the  capa- 
city for  juvenile  agility,  and  even  for  cohabitation,  and 
the  life  of  people  in  this  world  is  even  extended  to  a 


CHAPTER  XVII.  189 

long  period.  And  why  not  ?  Have  we  not  already 
mentioned  on  the  authority  of  Patanjali  (v^  p.  88)  that 
one  of  the  methods  leading  to  liberation  is  liasdyana  '? 
What  man  would  hear  this,  being  inclined  to  take  it 
for  truth,  and  not  dart  off  into  foolish  joy  and  not 
honour  the  master  of  such  a  wonderful  art  by  popping 
the  choicest  bit  of  his  meal  into  his  mouth  ? 

A  famous  representative  of  this  art  was  Nagarjuna,  a  Nagarjuua, 
native  of  the  fort  Daihak,  near  Somanath.     He  excelled  of  a'bouk'on 
in  it,  and  composed  a  book  which  contains  the  sub-    '^^^^ ''^"'''• 
stance  of  the  whole  literature  on  this  subject,  and  is 
very  rare.     He  lived  nearly  a  hundred  years  before  our 
time. 

In  the  time  of  the  King  Vikramaditya,  of  whose  era  Page  93- 
we  shall   speak  hereafter,  there   lived  in  the  city  of 
Ujain  a  man  of  the  name  of  Yyadi,  who  had  tui-ned  Theaiche- 

.  .  .  .  ,  'I'ist  Vyadi 

his  whole  attention  to  this  science,  and  had  ruined  on  in  the  time 
account  of  it  both  his  life  and  property,  but  all  his  ramaditya. 
zeal  did  not  even  avail  him  so  much  as  to  help  him  to 
things  which,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  are  easily 
obtained.  Becoming  restricted  in  his  means,  he  con- 
ceived a  disgust  to  that  which  had  been  the  object  of 
all  his  exertions,  and  sat  down  on  the  bank  of  a  river 
sighing,  sorrowful,  and  despairing.  He  held  in  his 
hand  his  pJiarmacojxeia,  from  which  he  used  to  take  the 
2:)rescriptions  for  his  medicines,  but  now  he  began  to 
throw  one  leaf  of  it  after  the  other  into  the  water.  A 
harlot  happened  to  sit  on  the  bank  of  the  same  river 
farther  down,  who,  on  seeing  the  leaves  pass  by, 
gathered  them,  and  fished  up  some  relating  to  liasd- 
yana. Vyadi  did  not  notice  her  till  all  the  leaves  of 
his  book  had  gone.  Then  the  woman  came  to  him, 
asking  why  he  had  done  so  with  his  book,  whereupon 
he  answered,  "Because  I  have  derived  no  advantage 
from  it.  I  have  not  obtained  what  I  ought  to  have 
obtained  ;  for  its  sake  I  have  become  bankrupt  after 
having  had  great  treasures,  and  now  I  am  miserable 


I90  A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 

after  having  so  long  been  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  hap- 
piness." The  harlot  spoke :  "  Do  not  give  up  a  pursuit 
in  which  you  have  spent  your  life  ;  do  not  despair  of  the 
possibility  of  a  thing  which  all  sages  before  you  have 
shown  to  be  true.  Perhaps  the  obstacle  which  prevents 
you  from  realising  your  plans  is  only  of  an  accidental 
nature,  which  may  perhaps  be  removed  by  an  accident. 
I  have  much  solid  cash.  It  is  all  yours  that  you  may 
spend  it  on  the  realisation  of  your  plans."  Thereupon 
Vyadi  resumed  his  work. 

However,  books  of  this  kind  are  written  in  an 
enigmatic  style.  So  he  happened  to  misunderstand  a 
word  in  the  prescription  of  a  medicine,  which  meant 
oil  and  human  blood,  both  being  required  for  it.  It 
was  written  raktdmala,  and  he  thought  it  meant  red 
myrohalaiion.  When  he  used  the  medicine  it  had 
no  effect  whatsoever.  Now  he  began  to  concoct  the 
various  drugs,  but  the  flame  touched  his  head  and 
dried  up  his  brain.  Therefore  he  oiled  himself  with 
oil,  pouring  it  in  great  quantity  over  his  skull.  One 
day  he  rose  to  step  away  from  the  fireplace  for  some 
business  or  other,  but  as  there  happened  to  be  a  peg 
projecting  from  the  roof  right  above  his  head,  he 
knocked  his  head  against  it,  and  the  blood  began  to 
flow.  On  account  of  the  pain  which  he  felt,  he  looked 
downward,  and  in  consequence  some  drops  of  blood 
mixed  with  oil  dropped  from  the  upper  part  of  his  skull 
into  the  caldron  without  his  noticing  it.  When,  then, 
the  concocting  process  was  finished  and  he  and  his  wife 
besmeared  themselves  with  the  concoction  in  order  to 
try  it,  they  both  flew  up  into  the  air.  Vikramaditya  on 
hearing  of  this  affair  left  his  castle,  and  proceeded  to 
the  market-place  in  order  to  see  them  with  his  own 
eyes.  Then  the  man  shouted  to  him,  "  Open  thy  mouth 
for  my  saliva."  The  king,  however,  being  disgusted,  did 
not  do  it,  and  so  the  saliva  fell  down  near  the  door, 
and  immediately  the  threshold  was  filled  with  gold. 


CHAPTER  XVII.  191 

Vyadi  and  the  woman  flew  to  any  place  they  liked. 
He  has  composed  famous  books  on  this  science.  People 
say  that  both  man  and  wife  are  still  alive. 

A   similar   tale   is   the  foUowine^ : — In  the    city    of  story  about 

tliG  piece  of 

Dhara,  the  capital  of  Malava,  which  is  in  our  days  ruled  silver  in  the 
by  Bhojadeva,  there  lies  in  the  door  of  the  Government-  Govem- 
house  an  oblong  piece  of  pure  silver,  in  which  the  out-  inDMra. 
lines  of  the  limbs  of  a  man  are  visible.     Its  origin  is 
accounted  for  by  the  following  story  : — Once  in  olden 
times  a  man  went  to  a  king  of  theirs,  bringing  him  a 
FiCisdyana,  the  use  of  which  would  make  him  immortal, 
victorious,  invincible,  and  capable  of  doing  everything 
he  desired.     He  asked  the  king  to  come  alone  to  the  Page  94. 
place  of  their  meeting,  and  the  king  gave  orders  to  keep 
in  readiness  all  the  man  required. 

The  man  began  to  boil  the  oil  for  several  days,  until 
at  last  it  acquired  consistency.  Then  he  spoke  to  the 
king  :  "  Spring  into  it  and  I  shall  finish  the  process." 
But  the  king,  terrified  at  what  he  saw,  had  not  the 
courage  to  dive  into  it.  The  man,  on  perceiving  his 
cowardice,  spoke  to  him  :  "If  you  have  not  sufficient 
courage,  and  will  not  do  it  for  yourself,  will  you  allow 
me  myself  to  do  it  ?  "  Whereupon  the  king  answered, 
"  Do  as  you  like."  Now  he  produced  several  packets  of 
drugs,  and  instructed  him  that  when  such  and  such 
symptoms  should  appear,  he  should  throw  upon  him 
this  or  that  packet.  Then  the  man  stepped  forward  to 
the  caldron  and  threw  himself  into  it,  and  at  once  he 
was  dissolved  and  reduced  into  pulp.  Now  the  king 
proceeded  according  to  his  instruction,  but  when  he  had 
nearly  finished  the  process,  and  there  remained  only  one 
packet  that  was  not  yet  thrown  into  the  mass,  he  began 
to  be  anxious,  and  to  think  what  might  happen  to  his 
realm,  in  case  the  man  should  return  to  life  as  an 
immortal,  vidoi-ious,  inrinclUe  person,  as  has  above  been 
mentioned.  And  so  he  thought  it  preferable  not  to 
throw  the  last  packet  into  the  mass.     The  consequence 


192  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

was  that  the  caldron  became  cold,  and  the  dissolved 
man  becaaie  consolidated  in  the  shape  of  the  said  piece 
of  silver. 

The  Hindus  tell  a  tale  about  Vallabha,  the  king  of 
th*^  '^ity  of  Vallabhi,  whose  era  we  have  mentioned  in 
tiie  proper  chapter. 
story  of  the  A  mau  of  the  rank  of  a  Siddha  asked  a  herdsman 
Rai^kraiS  with  reference  to  a  plant  called  Thohar,  of  the  species  of 
vanaWil  the  Lactaria,  from  which  milk  flows  when  they  are  torn 
off,  whether  he  had  ever  seen  Ladaria  from  which 
blood  flows  instead  of  milk.  When  the  herdsman 
declared  he  had,  he  gave  him  some  drink-money  that 
he  should  show  it  to  him,  which  he  did.  When  the 
man  now  saw  the  plant,  he  set  fire  to  it,  and  threw  the 
dog  of  the  herdsman  into  the  flame.  Enraged  thereby, 
the  herdsman  caught  the  man,  and  did  with  him  the 
same  as  he  had  done  to  his  dog.  Then  he  waited  till 
the  fire  was  extinguished,  and  found  both  the  man  and 
the  dog,  but  turned  into  gold.  He  took  the  dog  with 
him,  but  left  the  man  on  the  spot. 

Now  some  peasant  happened  to  find  it.  He  cut  off 
a  finger,  and  went  to  a  fruit-seller  who  was  called 
Raiika,  i.e.  the  poor,  because  he  was  an  utter  pauper, 
and  evidently  near  bankruptcy.  After  the  peasant  had 
bought  from  him  what  he  wanted,  he  returned  to  the 
golden  man,  and  then  he  found  that  in  the  place  where 
the  cut  off  finger  had  been,  a  new  finger  had  grown. 
He  cut  it  off  a  second  time,  and  bought  again  from  the 
same  fruit-seller  all  that  he  wanted.  But  when  the 
fruit-seller  asked  him  whence  he  had  the  finger,  he  was 
stupid  enough  to  tell  him.  80  Kanka  went  out  to  the 
body  of  the  Siddha,  and  brought  it  on  a  carriage  to  his 
house.  He  stayed  in  his  old  abode,  but  managed  by 
degrees  to  buy  the  whole  town.  The  king  Vallabha 
desired  to  own  the  same  town,  and  asked  him  to  cede 
it  to  him  for  money,  but  Ranka  declined.  Being  how- 
ever afraid  of  the  king's  resentment,  he  fled  to  the  lord 


CHAPTER  XVII.  193 

of  Almaiisura,  made  him  presents  of  money,  and  asked, 
him  to  help  him.  by  a  naval  force.  The  lord  of  Alman- 
sura  complied  with  his  desire,  and  assisted  him.  So  ho 
made  a  night-attack  ujDon  the  king  Vallabha,  and  killed 
him  and  his  people,  and  destroyed  his  town.  Pf>'-A)le 
say  that  still  in  our  time  there  are  such  traces  left 
in  that  country  as  are  found  in  places  w^iich  were  de- 
stroyed by  an  unexpected  night-attack. 

The  greediness  of  the  ignorant  Hindu  princes  for 
gold-making  does  not  know  any  limit.  If  any  one  of 
them  wanted  to  carry  out  a  scheme  of  gold-making, 
and  2oeople  advised  him  to  kill  a  number  of  fine  little 
children,  the  monster  would  not  refrain  from  such  a 
crime  ;  he  would  throw  them  into  the  fire.  If  this 
precious'  science  of  Rasayana  were  banished  to  the 
utmost  limits  of  the  world,  where  it  is  unattainable  to 
anybody,  it  would  be  the  best. 

According  to  the  Eranian  tradition.  Isfaudivad  is  said  An  ei 
to  have  spoken  when  dying  :  "  Kaus  had  been  given  the  Page  9 
power  and  the  miraculous  things  mentioned  in  the  Book 
of  the  Law.  Finally  he  went  to  the  mountain  Kaf  as  a 
decrepit  man,  bent  down  by  old  age,  but  he  returned 
thence  as  a  lively  youth  of  well-proportioned  figure  and 
full  of  force,  having  made  the  clouds  his  carriage,  as  God 
allowed  him." 

As  regards  cbarnis  and  incantations,  the  Hindus  have  on  the  bird 
a  firm  belief  in  them,  and  they,  as  a  rule,  are  much  in- 
clined towards  them.  The  book  which  treats  of  those 
things  is  considered  as  a  work  of  Garuda,  a  bird  on 
which  Narayana  rode.  Some  people  describe  this  bird 
in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  a  Sifrid-bird  and  its  doings. 
It  is  an  enemy  of  fish,  catching  them.  As  a  rule, 
animals  have  by  nature  an  aversion  to  their  opponents, 
and  try  to  beware  of  them  ;  here,  however,  there  is  an 
exception  to  this  rule.  For  when  this  bird  flutters 
above  the  water  and  swims  on  it,,  the  fish  rise  from  the 

VOL.  I.  N 


iniau 
ion. 


194  ALBERUNTS  INDIA. 

deep  to  the  surface,  and  make  it  easy  to  him  to  catch 
them,  as  if  he  had  bound  them  by  his  spell.  Others 
describe  it  with  such  characteristics  as  might  indi- 
cate a  stork.  The  Vciyio  Purcina  attributes  to  it  a 
pale  colour.  On  the  whole,  Garuda  comes  nearer  to  a 
stork  than  to  a  Sifrid,  as  the  stork  is  by  nature,  like 
Garnda,  a  destroyer  of  snakes. 

Most  of  their  charms  are  intended  for  those  who  have 
been  bitten  by  serpents.  '  Their  excessive  confidence  in 
them  is  shown  by  this,  which  I  heard  a  man  say,  that  he 
had  seen  a  dead  man  who  had  died  from  the  bite  of  a 
serpent,  but  after  the  charm  had  been  applied  he  had 
been  restored  to  life,  and  remained  alive,  moving  about 
like  all  others. 

Another  man  I  heard  as  he  told  the  following  story  : 
"He  had  seen  a  man  who  had  died  from  the  bite  of  a 
serpent.  A  charm  was  applied,  and  in  consequence  he 
rose,  spoke,  made  his  will,  showed  where  he  had  de- 
posited his  treasures,  and  gave  all  necessary  information 
about  them.  But  when  he  inhaled  the  smell  of  a  dish, 
he  fell  down  dead,  life  being  completely  extinct." 

It  is  a  Hindu  custom  that  when  a  man  has  been 
bitten  by  a  venomous  serpent,  and  they  have  no  charmer 
at  hand,  they  bind  the  bitten  man  on  a  bundle  of  reeds, 
and  place  on  him  a  leaf  on  which  is  written  a  blessing 
for  that  person  who  will  accidentally  light  upon  him, 
and  save  him  by  a  charm  from  destruction. 

I,  for  my  part,  do  not  know  what  I  am  to  say  about 
these  things,  since  I  do  not  believe  in  them.  Once  a 
man  who  had  very  little  belief  in  reality,  and  much  less 
in  the  tricks  of  jugglers,  told  me  that  he  had  been 
poisoned,  and  that  people  had  sent  him  some  Hindus 
possessing  the  knowledge  of  charms.  They  sang  their 
charms  before  him,  and  this  had  a  quieting  effect  upon 
him,  and  soon  he  felt  that  he  became  better  and  better, 
whilst  they  were  drawing  lines  in  the  air  with  their 
hands  and  with  twigs. 


CHAPTER  XVII.  195 

I  myself  have  witnessed  that  in  hunting  gazelles  they  Hunting 
canght  them  with  the  hand.  One  Hindu  even  went  so 
far  as  to  assert  that  he,  without  catching  the  gazelle, 
would  drive  it  before  him  and  lead  it  straight  into  the 
kitchen.  This,  however,  rests,  as  I  believe  I  have  found 
out,  simply  on  the  device  of  slowly  and  constantly 
accustoming  the  animals  to  one  and  the  same  melody. 
Our  people,  too,  practise  the  same  when  hunting  the 
ibex,  which  is  more  wild  even  than  the  gazelle.  When 
they  see  the  animals  resting,  they  begin  to  walk  round 
them  in  a  circle,  singing  one  and  the  same  melody  so 
long  until  the  animals  are  accustomed  to  it.  Then 
they  make  the  circle  more  and  more  narrow,  till  at  last  . 
they  come  near  enough  to  shoot  at  the  animals  which 
lie  there  in  perfect  rest. 

The  shooters  of  Kata-birds  have  a  custom  of  beating 
copper-vessels  during  the  night  with  one  and  the  same 
kind  of  beat,  and  they  manage  to  catch  them  with  the 
hand.  If,  however,  the  beat  is  changed,  the  birds  fly 
off  in  all  directions. 

All  these  things  are  peculiar  customs  which  have 
nothing  whatsoever  to  do  with  charms.     Sometimes  the  page  96. 
Hindus  are  considered  as   sorcerers  because   of  their 
plaving  with  balls  on  raised  beams  or  on  tight  ropes, 
but  tricks  of  this  kind  are  common  to  all  nations. 


(     196     ) 


aud  the 
ocean. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

VARIOUS  NOTES  ON  THEIR  COUNTRY,  THEIR  RIVERS,  AND 
THEIR  OCEAN.  ITINERARIES  OF  THE  DISTANCES  BE- 
TWEEN THEIR  SEVERAL  KINGDOMS,  AND  BETWEEN 
THE   BOUNDARIES    OF   THEIR   COUNTRY. 

Theiniiai.it-  The  reader  is  to  imagine  the  inhabitable  world,  -q 
oiKov[X€vri,  as  lying  in  the  northern  half  of  the  earth, 
and  more  accurately  in  one-half  of  this  half — i.e.  in 
one  of  the  quarters  of  the  earth.  It  is  surrounded  by 
a  sea,  which  both  in  west  and  east  is  called  tJie  compre- 
hending one ;  the  Greeks  call  its  western  part  near  their 
country  mk€o.v6s.  This  sea  separates  the  inhabitable 
world  from  whatever  continents  or  inhabitable  islands 
there  may  be  beyond  it,  both  towards  west  and  east ;  for 
it  is  not  navigable  on  account  of  the  darkness  of  the 
air  and  the  thickness  of  the  water,  because  there  is 
no  more  any  road  to  be  traced,  and  because  the  risk 
is  enormous,  whilst  the  profit  is  nothing.  Therefore 
people  of  olden  times  have  fixed  marks  both  on  the  sea 
and  its  shores  which  are  intended  to  deter  from  enter- 
ing it. 

The  inhabitable  world  does  not  reach  the  north  on 
account  of  the  cold,  except  in  certain  places  where  it 
penetrates  into  the  north  in  the  shape,  as  it  were,  of 
tongues  and  bays.  In  the  south  it  reaches  as  far  as 
the  coast  of  the  ocean,  which  in  west  and  east  is  con- 
nected with  the  comprehending  ocean.  This  southern 
ocean  is  navigable.  It  does  not  form  the  utmost 
southern  limit  of  the  inhabitable  world.     On  the  con- 


CHAPTER  XVIII.  197 

trary,  the  latter  stretches  still  more  southward  in  the 
shape  of  large  and  small  islands  ^vhich  fill  the  ocean. 
In  this  southern  region  land  and  water  dispute  with 
each  other  their  position,  so  that  in  one  place  the  con- 
tinent protrudes  into  the  sea,  whilst  in  another  the  sea 
penetrates  deeply  into  the  continent. 

The  continent  protrudes  far  into  the  sea  in  the  west- 
ern half  of  the  earth,  and  extends  its  shores  far  into 
the  south.  On  the  plains  of  this  continent  live  the 
western  negroes,  whence  the  slaves  are  brought ;  and 
there  are  the  ^fountains  of  the  Moon,  and  on  them  are 
the  sources  of  the  Nile.  On  its  coast,  and  the  islands 
before  the  coast,  live  the  various  tribes  of  the  Zanj. 
There  are  several  bays  or  gulfs  which  penetrate  into 
the  continent  on  this  western  half  of  the  earth — the 
bay  of  Berbera,  that  of  Klysma  (the  Red  Sea),  and  that 
of  Persia  (the  Persian  Gulf) ;  and  between  these  gulfs 
the  western  continent  protrudes  more  or  less  into  the 
ocean. 

In  the  eastern  half  of  the  earth  the  sea  penetrates  as 
deeply  into  the  northern  continent  as  the  continent  in 
the  western  half  protrudes  into  the  southern  sea,  and 
in  many  places  it  has  formed  bays  and  estuaries  which 
run  far  into  the  continent — bays  being  parts  of  the  sea, 
estuaries  being  the  outlets  of  rivers  towards  the  sea. 
This  sea  is  mostly  called  from  some  island  in  it  or 
from  the  coast  which  borders  it.  Here,  however,  we 
are  concerned  only  with  that  part  of  the  sea  which 
is  bordered  by  the  continent  of  India,  and  therefore  is 
called  the  Indian  Ocean. 

As  to  the  orographic  configuration  of  the  inhabitable  Theorogra- 
world,  imagine  a  range  of  towering  mountains  like  the  of  AsSani" 
vertebrae  of  a  pine  stretching  through  the  middle  lati-     '"°''*^" 
tude  of  the  earth,  and  in  longitude  from  east  to  w^est, 
passing  through  China,  Tibet,  the  country  of  the  Turks, 
Kabul,  Badhakhshan,  Tokharistan,   Bamiyan,  Elghor, 
Khurasan,  Media,  Adharbaijan,  Armenia,  the  Roman 


India,  a  re- 
cent alluvial 
formation. 


198  ALBERUNI'S  INDIA. 

Empire,  the  country  of  the  Franks,  and  of  the  Jalalika 
(Gallicians).  Long  as  this  range  is,  it  has  also  a  con- 
siderable breadth,  and,  besides,  many  windings  which 
enclose  inhabited  plains  watered  by  streams  which 
descend  from  the  mountains  both  towards  north  and 
south.  One  of  these  plains  is  India,  limited  in  the 
south  by  the  above-mentioned  Indian  Ocean,  and  on 
Page  97.  all  three  other  sides  by  the  lofty  mountains,  the  waters 
of  which  flow  down  to  it.  But  if  you  have  seen  the 
soil  of  India  with  your  own  eyes  and  meditate  on  its 
nature — if  you  consider  the  rounded  stones  found  in 
the  earth  however  deeply  you  dig,  stones  that  are  huge 
near  the  mountains  and  where  the  rivers  have  a  violent 
current ;  stones  that  are  of  smaller  size  at  greater  dis- 
•-  tance  from  the  mountains,  and  where  the  streams  flow 
more  slowly  ;  stones  that  appear  pulverised  in  the  shape 
of  sand  where  the  streams  begin  to  stagnate  near  their 
mouths  and  near  the  sea — if  you  consider  all  this,  you 
could  scarcely  help  thinking  that  India  has  once  been 
a  sea  which  by  degrees  has  been  filled  up  by  the  allu- 
vium of  the  streams. 
First  orien-  The  middle  of  India  is  the  country  round  Kanoj 
pirdhirMa-  (Kanauj),  which  they  call  Madhyadesa,  i.e.  the  middle 
Kanojf^'''  of  the  realms.  It  is  the  middle  or  centre  from  a  geo- 
TdnShar'''^  graphical  point  of  view,  in  so  far  as  it  lies  half  way  be- 
tween the  sea  and  the  mountains,  ia  the  midst  between 
the  hot  and  the  cold  provinces,  and  also  between  the 
eastern  and  western  frontiers  of  India.  But  it  is  a 
political  centre  too,  because  in  former  times  it  was  the 
residence  of  their  most  famous  heroes  and  kings. 

The  country  of  Sindh  lies  to  the  west  of  Kanoj.  In 
marching  from  our  country  to  Sindh  we  start  from  the 
country  of  Nimroz,  i.e.  the  country  of  Sijistan,  whilst 
marching  to  Hind  or  India  proper  we  start  from  the 
side  of  Kabul.  This,  however,  is  not  the  only  possible 
road.  You  may  march  into  India  from  all  sides,  sup- 
posing that  you  can  remove  the  obstacles  in  the  way. 


CHAPTER  XVIII.  199 

In  the  mountains  wbicli  form  the  frontier  of  India 
towards  the  west  there  are  tribes  of  the  Hindus,  or  of 
people  near  akin  to  them — rebellious  savage  races — 
which  extend  as  far  as  the  farthermost  frontiers  of 
the  Hindu  race. 

Kanoj  lies  to  the  west  of  the  Ganges,  a  very  large 
town,  but  most  of  it  is  now  in  ruins  and  desolate  since 
the  capital  has  been  transferred  thence  to  the  city  of 
Bari,  east  of  the  Ganges.  Between  the  two  towns  there 
is  a  distance  of  three  to  four  days'  marches. 

As  Kanoj  (lOmydkuhja)  has  become  famous  by  the 
children  of  Pandu,  the  city  of  Mahura  [Mathurd)  has 
become  famous  by  Vasudeva.  It  lies  east  of  the  river 
Jaun  {Yamuna).  The  distance  between  Mahura  and 
Kanoj  is  2?>  farsalch. 

Taneshar  {Stlidnesvara)  lies  between  the  two  rivers  to 
the  north  both  of  Kanoj  and  Mahura,  at  a  distance  of 
nearly  ^ofarsakh  from  Kanoj,  and  nearly  50  farsahh 
from  Mahura. 

The  river  Ganges  rises  in  the  mountains  which  have 
already  been  mentioned.  Its  source  is  called  Gangd- 
dvdra.  Most  of  the  other  rivers  of  the  country  also  rise 
in  the  same  mountains,  as  we  have  already  mentioned 
in  the  proper  place. 

As  for  the  distances  between  the  various  parts  of  Hindu 
India,  those  who  have  not  themselves  actually  seen  determining 
them  must  rely  upon  tradition  ;  but  unfortunately  it  is 
of  such  a  nature  that  already  Ptolemy  incessantly  com- 
plains of  its  transmitters  and  their  bias  towards  story- 
telling. Fortunately  I  have  found  out  a  certain  rule 
by  which  to  control  their  lies.  The  Hindus  frequently 
estimate  the  burden  an  ox  could  bear  at  2000  and  3000 
mand  (which  is  infinitely  more  than  an  ox  could  carry 
at  once).  In  consequence  they  are  compelled  to  let  tbe 
caravan  make  the  same  march  to  and  fro  during  many 
days — in  fact,  so  long  until  the  ox  has  carried  the 
whole  load  assigned  to  it  from  one  end  of  the  route  to 


200 


ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 


the  other,  and  then  they  reckon  as  the  distance  between 
the  two  places  a  march  of  such  a  iw.mhcr  of  clays  as  the 
caravan  has  altogether  spent  in  marchiDg  to  and  fro. 
It  is  only  with  the  greatest  exertion  and  caution  that 
we  can  to  some  extent  correct  the  statements  of  the 
Hindus.  However,  we  could  not  make  up  our  mind  to 
suppress  that  which  we  know  on  account  of  that  which 
we  do  not  know.  We  ask  the  reader's  pardon  where 
there  is  anything  wrong,  and  now  we  continue. 

A  man  marching  from  Kanoj  to  the  south  between 
the  two  rivers  Jaun  and  Ganges  passes  the  following 
well-known  places  : — Jajjamcao,  12  farsakh  from  Kanoj, 
each  farsakh  being  equal  to  four  miles  or  one  kuroh ; 
Ahhctpilri,  S  fa7'sakh ;  Kitraha,  ^farsakh;  Barhctmshil, 
8  farsakh ;  the  Tree  of  PraycVja,  1 2  farsakh,  the  place 
where  the  water  of  the  Jaun  joins  the  Ganges,  where 
the  Hindus  torment  themselves  with  various  kinds  of 
tortures,  which  are  described  in  the  books  about  religions 
sects.  The  distance  from  Prayaga  to  the  place  where 
the  Ganges  flows  into  the  sea  is  12  farsakh  {sic). 

Other  tracts  of  country  extend  from  the  Tree  of 
Prayaga  southward  towards  the  coast.  Arku-tirtha,  12 
farsakh  horn  Prayaga;  the  realm  JJwaryahdr, /\o far- 
sakh ;    tJrdabishau  on  the  coast,   50  farsakh. 

Thence  along  the  coast  towards  the  east  there  are 
countries  which  are  now  under  the  sway  of  Jaur ;  first 
Daraur,  40  farsakh  from  tJrclahishau ;  Kctnjt,  30  far- 
sakh ;  Malaya,  Ap  farsakh  ;  Kunk,  3o/ars«/vA,  which  is 
the  last  of  Jaur's  possessions  in  this  direction. 

Marching  from  Bari  along  the  Ganges  on  its  eastern 
side,  you  pass  the  following  stations  : — Ajodaha  (Ayo- 
dhya,  Oudh),  2^  farsakh  from  Bari ;  the  famous  Band- 
rasi,  20  farsakh. 

Thence  changing  the  direction,  and  marching  east- 
ward instead  of  southward,  you  come  to  Sharivdr,  35 
farsakh  from  Banarasi ;  Pdtaliputra,  20  farsakh  ; 
Jlhmgiri,  1 5  farsakh  ;  Janpa^  30  farsakh ;  Dugiimpur, 


to 
Blioteshar. 


CHAPTER  XVIII.  20I 

50  farsakh ;    Gangdsdijara,    30    favsakli,    where    the 
Ganges  flows  into  the  sea. 

Marchino^  from  Kanoi  towards  the  east,  you  come  to  kuhoj 
Bdri,  10  farsakh;  Dugum,  45  farsakh;  the  empire  Nepal 
of  Shilahat,  10  farsakh  ;  the  town  Bihat,  12  farsakh. 
Farther  on  the  country  to  the  right  is  called  Tilwat, 
the  inhabitants  Taril,  people  of  very  black  colour  and 
flat-nosed  like  the  Turks.  Thence  you  come  to  the 
mountains  of  Kamrii,  which  stretch  away  as  far  as  the 
sea. 

Opposite  Tilwat  the  country  to  the  left  is  the  realm 
of  Naipal.  A  man  who  had  travelled  in  those  countries 
gave  me  the  following  report : — "  When  in  Tanwat,  he 
left  the  easterly  direction  and  turned  to  the  left.  He 
marched  to  Naipal,  a  distance  of  20  farsakh,  most  of 
which  was  ascending  country.  From  Naipfd  be  came 
to  Bhoteshar  in  thirty  days,  a  distance  of  nearly  80 
farsakh,  in  which  there  is  more  ascending  than  descend- 
ing country.  And  there  is  a  water  which  is  several 
times  crossed  on  bridges  consisting  of  planks  tied  with 
cords  to  two  canes,  which  stretch  from  rock  to  rock,  and 
are  fastened  to  milestones  constructed  on  either  side. 
People  carry  the  burdens  on  their  shoulders  over  such 
a  bridge,  whilst  below,  at  a  depth  of  lOO  yards,  the  water 
foams  as  white  as  snow,  threatening  to  shatter  the  rocks. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  bridges,  the  burdens  are  trans- 
ported on  the  back  of  goats.  My  reporter  told  me  that 
he  had  there  seen  gazelles  with  four  eyes  ;  that  this  was 
not  an  accidental  misformation  of  nature,  but  that  the 
whole  species  was  of  this  nature. 

"  Bhoteshar  is  the  first  frontier  of  Tibet.  There  the 
language  changes  as  well  as  the  costumes  and  the 
anthropological  character  of  the  people.  Thence  the 
distance  to  the  top  of  the  highest  peak  is  20  farsakh. 
From  the  height  of  this  mountain,  India  appears  as 
a  black  expanse  below  the  mist,  the  mountains  lying 
below  this  peak  like  small  hills,  and  Tibet  and  China 


202  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

appear  as  red.     The  descent  towards  Tibet  and  Cbina  is 
less  than  one  far sakh.^^ 

From  Kanoj  MarcMng  froHi  Kanoj  towards  the  south-east,  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Ganges,  you  come  to  the  realm  of 

Page  99.  Jajdhuti,  2,0  farsakh  irom  Kanoj.  The  capital  of  the 
country  is  Kajurdha.  Between  this  town  and  Kanoj 
there  are  two  of  the  most  famous  fortresses  of  India, 
Gwaliyar  (Gwalior)  and  Kalanjar.  Dalidla  [ — farsakh'], 
a  country  the  capital  of  which  is  Tiauri,  and  the  ruler 
of  which  is  now  Gangeya. 

The  realm  of  Kannakara,  20  farsakh.     Apsur,  Bana- 
vds,  on  the  sea-coast. 

From  Kanoj  Marching  from  Kanoj  towards  the  south-west,  you 
come  to  A  si,  iS  farsakh  from  Kanoj  ;  Sahanyd,  ly  far- 
sakh ;  Janclrd,  \Z  farsakh;  Rdjatcri,  i^  farsakh;  Bazdna, 
the  capital  of  Guzarat,  20  farsakh.  This  town  is  called 
Ndrdyan  by  our  people.  After  it  had  fallen  into 
decay  the  inhabitants  migrated  to  another  place  called 
Jadiira  (?). 

From  Ma-  The  distance  between  Mahiira  and  Kanoj  is  the  same 

Dhih/'  as  that  between  Kanoj  and  Bazana,  viz.  28  farsakh. 
If  a  man  travels  from  Mahura  to  Ujain,  he  passes 
through  villages  which  are  only  five  farsakh  and  less  dis- 
tant from  each  other.  At  the  end  of  a  march  of  3  5  far- 
sakh, he  comes  to  a  large  village  called  i)iw/a/i^  ;  thence 
to  Bdmahur,  ij  farsakh  from  Diidahi ;  Bhdilsdn,  5  far- 
sakh, a  place  most  famous  among  the  Hindus.  The 
name  of  the  town  is  identical  with  that  of  the  idol  wor- 
shipped there.  Thence  to  Ardin,  g  farsakh.  The  idol 
worshipped  there  is  called  Mahakdla.    Dhdr,  y  farsakh. 

From  Ba-  Marching  from  Bazana  southward,  you  come  to  Mai- 

Mandagir.  lodr,  2^  farsakh  from  Bazana.  This  is  a  kingdom  the 
capital  of  which  is  Jattaraur.  From  this  town  to 
Malava  and  its  capital,  Dhdr,  the  distance  is  20  farsakh. 
The  city  of  Ujain  lies  y  farsakh  to  the  east  oi  Dhdr. 

From  "Crjain  to  Bhailasan,  which  likewise  belongs  to 
Malava,  the  distance  is  10  farsakh. 


various  am 
mals  c 
India. 


CHAPTER  XV III.  203 

Marching  from  Dhar  southward,  you  come  to  Bhiimi- 
liara,  20 farsakh  from  Dhfir ;  Kand,  20  farsakh  ;  Namct- 
vur,  on  the  banks  of  the  Narmacla  (Nerbudda),  10 
farsakh;  Alispilr,  20  farsakh ;  3fandagir,  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  Godilvar,  60  farsakh. 

Again  marching  from  Dhar  southward,  you  come  to  From  Dhai 
the  valley  of  JVamiyya,  y  farsakh  from  Dhar  ;  Mahratta- 
Desh,   18  farsakh ;   the  province   of   Kunkan,  and  its 
capital,  Tana,  on  the  sea-coast,  2^  farsakh. 

People  relate  that  in  the  plains  of  Kunkan,  called  Notes  about 
Ddnak,  there  lives  an  animal  called  sharava  (Skr.  maisof' 
sarahha).  It  has  four  feet,  but  also  on  the  back  it  has 
something  like  four  feet  directed  upwards.  It  has  a 
small  proboscis,  but  two  big  horns  with  which  it  attacks 
the  elephant  and  cleaves  it  in  two.  It  has  the  shape 
of  a  buffalo,  but  is  larger  than  a  ganda  (rhinoceros). 
According  to  popular  tales,  it  sometimes  rams  some 
animal  with  its  horns,  raises  it  or  part  of  it  towards  its 
back,  so  that  it  comes  to  lie  between  its  upper  feet. 
There  it  becomes  a  putrid  mass  of  worms,  which  work 
their  way  into  the  back  of  the  animal.  In  consequence 
it  continually  rubs  itself  against  the  trees,  and  finally 
it  perishes.  Of  the  same  animal  people  relate  that 
sometimes,  when  hearing  the  thunder,  it  takes  it  to  be 
the  voice  of  some  animal.  Immediately  it  proceeds  to 
attack  this  imaginary  foe  ;  in  pursuing  him  it  climbs 
up  to  the  top  of  the  mountain-peaks,  and  thence  leaps 
towards  him.  Of  course,  it  plunges  into  the  depth  and 
is  dashed  to  pieces. 

The  ganda  exists  in  large  numbers  in  India,  more 
particularly  about  the  Ganges.  It  is  of  the  build  of  a 
buffalo,  has  a  black  scaly  skin,  and  dewlaps  hanging 
down  under  the  chin.  It  has  three  yellow  hoofs  on 
each  foot,  the  biggest  one  forward,  the  others  on  both 
sides.  The  tail  is  not  long ;  the  eyes  lie  low,  farther 
down  the  cheek  than  is  the  case  with  all  other  animals. 
On  the  top  of  the  nose  there  is  a  single  horn  which  is 


204  A  LB  E  RUNTS  INDIA. 

Page  loo.  bent  upwards.  The  Brahmins  have  the  privilege  of 
eating  the  flesh  of  the  ganda.  I  have  mj^self  witnessed 
how  an  elephant  coming  across  a  young  ganda  was 
attacked  by  it.  The  ganda  wounded  with  its  horn  a 
forefoot  of  the  elephant,  and  threw  it  down  on  its  face. 

I  thought  that  the  ganda  was  the  rhinoceros  (or 
harhadann),  but  a  man  who  had  visited  Sufala,  in  the 
country  of  the  Negroes,  told  me  that  the  hark,  which 
the  Negroes  call  iniptld,  the  horn  of  which  furnishes  the 
material  for  the  handles  of  our  knives,  comes  nearer 
this  description  than  the  rhinoceros.  It  has  various 
colours.  On  the  skull  it  has  a  conical  horn,  broad  at 
the  root,  but  not  very  high.  The  shaft  of  the  horn  (lit. 
its  arrow)  is  black  inside,  and  white  everywhere  else. 
On  the  front  it  has  a  second  and  longer  horn  of  the 
same  description,  which  becomes  erect  as  soon  as  the 
animal  wants  to  ram  with  it.  It  sharpens  this  horn 
against  the  rocks,  so  that  it  cuts  and  pierces.  It  has 
hoofs,  and  a  hairy  tail  like  the  tail  of  an  ass. 

There  are  crocodiles  in  the  rivers  of  India  as  in  the 
Nile,  a  fact  which  led  simple  Aljahiz,  in  his  ignorance 
of  the  courses  of  the  rivers  and  the  configuration  of  the 
ocean,  to  think  that  the  river  of  Muhran  (the  river 
Sindh)  was  a  branch  of  the  Nile.  Besides,  there  are 
other  marvellous  animals  in  the  rivers  of  India  of  the 
crocodile  tribe,  makara,  curious  kinds  of  fishes,  and  an 
animal  like  a  leather-bag,  which  appears  to  the  ships 
and  plays  in  swimming.  It  is  called  burhl  (porpoise  ?). 
I  suppose  it  to  be  the  dolphin  or  a  kind  of  dolphin. 
People  say  that  it  has  a  hole  on  the  head  for  taking 
breath  like  the  dolphin. 

In  the  rivers  of  Southern  India  there  is  an  animal 
called  by  various  names,  grdha,  jalatantu,  and  ta%dud. 
It  is  thin,  but  very  long.  People  say  it  spies  and  lies 
in  wait  for  those  who  enter  the  water  and  stand  in  it, 
whether  men  or  animals,  and  at  once  attacks  them. 
First  it  circles  round  the  prey  at  some  distance,  until 


CHAPTER  XV II I.  205 

its  length  comes  to  an  end.  Then  it  draws  itself 
together,  and  winds  itself  like  a  knot  round  the  feet  of 
the  prey,  which  is  thus  thrown  off  its  legs  and  perishes. 
A  man  who  had  seen  the  animal  told  me  that  it  has 
the  head  of  a  dog,  and  a  tail  to  which  there  are  attached 
many  long  tentacles,  which  it  winds  round  the  prey,  in 
case  the  latter  is  not  weary  enough.  By  means  of  these 
feelers  it  drags  the  prey  towards  the  tail  itself,  and 
when  once  firmly  encircled  by  the  tail  the  animal  is 
lost. 

After  this  digression  we  return  to  our  subject. 

Marching  from  Bazana  towards  the  south-west,  you  From  i3a- 
come  to  Anhilvdra,  60  farsakh  from  Bazana ;  Soma-  souiamub. 
ndth,  on  the  sea-coast,  ^o  farsakh. 

Marching  from  Anhilvara  southward,  you  come  to  FromAuhii- 
Ldrdesh,  to  the  two  capitals  of  the  country,  BiJmjJ  and  haraui. 
Rihanjur,  42  farsakh  from  Anhilvara.     Both  are  on  the 
sea-coast  to  the  east  of  Tana. 

Marching  from  Bazana  towards  the  west,  you  come 
to  Mvbtdn,  ^o  farsakh  ivom.  Bazana;  Bhdti,  i^  farsakh. 

Marching  from  Bhati  towards  the  south-west,  yoiT 
come  to  Aror,  1 5  farsakh  from  Bhati,  a  township  be- 
tween two  arms  of  the  Sindh  River  ;  Bamhanicd  Alman- 
sura,  20  farsakh;  Lohardni,  Sit  the  mouth  of  the  Sindh 
River,  2,0  farsakh. 

Marching  from  Kanoj  towards  the  north-north-west,  Fro.n  Kanoj 
you  come  to  Shirslidraha,  50  farsakh  from  Kanoj  ; 
Finjaur,  i2>  farsakh,  situated  on  the  mountains,  whilst 
opposite  it  in  the  plain  there  lies  the  city  of  Taneshar ; 
Dahmdla,  the  capital  of  Jalandhar,  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains,  iS  fa^'sakh ;  Balldivar,  10  farsakh ;  thence 
marching  westward,  you  come  to  Ladda,  13  farsakh; 
the  fortress  Rdjagiri,  S  farsakh  ;  thence  marching  north- 
ward, you  come  to  Kashmir,  25  farsakh. 

Marching  from  Kanoj  towards  the  west,  you  come  From  Kanoj 
to  Diydmaii,  10  farsakh  horn  Kanoj;  Kuti,  10  farsakh  ;  pkge^io"^' 
Andr,   10  farsakli ;    Mirat,    10  farsakh;    FdnijJat,   10 


2o6  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

farsakh.     Between  the  latter  two  places  flows  the  river 
Jcmn ;  Kaivital,  lo  farsakh ;  Sunndm,  lo farsakh. 

Thence  marching  towards  the  north-west,  you  come 
to  Adittahaur,  g  farsakh  ;  Jajjanir,  6  farsakh  ;  Manda- 
hukitr,  the  capital  of  Lauhawur,  east  of  the  river  Irawa, 
8  farsakh ;  the  river  Candrdha,  12  farsakh ;  the  river 
Jailam,  west  of  the  river  Biyatta,  8  farsakh  ;  Waihind, 
the  capital  of  Kaudhar,  west  of  the  river  Sindh,  20 
farsakh;  Pursluucar,  14  farsakh ;  Dunpilr,  i^  farsakh ; 
Kdbid,  12  farsakh  ;  Ghazna,  ly  farsakh. 
Notes  about  Kashmir  lies  on  a  plateau  surrounded  by  high  inac- 
cessible mountains.  The  south  and  east  of  the  country 
belong  to  the  Hindus,  the  west  to  various  kings,  the 
Bolar-Shah  and  the  Shugnan-Shah,  and  the  more  remote 
parts  up  to  the  frontiers  of  Badhakhshun,  to  the  Wakhan- 
Shah.  The  north  and  part  of  the  east  of  the  country 
belong  to  the  Turks  of  Khoten  and  Tibet.  The  distance 
from  the  peak  of  Bhoteshar  to  Kashmir  through  Tibet 
amounts  to  nearly  2,00  farsakh. 

The  inhabitants  of  Kashmir  are  pedestrians,  they 
have  no  riding  animals  nor  ele2:)hants.  The  noble 
among  them  ride  in  palankins  called  katt,  carried  on 
the  shoulders  of  men.  They  are  particularly  anxious 
about  the  natural  strength  of  their  country,  and  there- 
fore take  always  much  care  to  keep  a  strong  hold  upon 
the  entrances  and  roads  leading  into  it.  In  consequence 
it  is  very  difficult  to  have  any  commerce  with  them. 
In  former  times  they  used  to  allow  one  or  two  foreigners 
to  enter  their  country,  particularly  Jews,  but  at  present 
they  do  not  allow  any  Hindu  whom  they  do  not  know 
personally  to  enter,  much  less  other  people. 

The  best  known  entrance  to  Kashmir  is  from  the 
town  Tjabrahan,  half  way  between  the  rivers  Sindh  and 
Jailam.  Thence  to  the  bridge  over  the  river,  where  the 
water  of  the  Kusnari  is  joined  by  that  of  the  Mahwi, 
both  of  which  come  from  the  mountains  of  Shamilan, 
and   fall  into  the   Jailam,  the  distance   is  8  farsakh. 


CHAPTER  XVIII.  207 

Thence  you  reach  in  five  days  the  beginning  of  the  ravine 
whence  the  river  Jailam  comes  ;  at  the  other  end  of  this 
ravine  is  the  watch-station  Dvdr,  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Jailam.  Thence,  leaving  the  ravine,  you  enter 
the  plain,  and  reach  in  two  more  days  Addishtan,  the 
capital  of  Kashmir,  passing  on  the  road  the  village 
Ushkara,  which  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  valley,  in  the 
same  manner  as  BaramuUI. 

The  city  of  Kashmir  covers  a  space  of  four  farsaUi, 
being  built  along  both  banks  of  the  river  Jailam,  which 
are  connected  with  each  other  by  bridges  and  ferry- 
boats. The  Jailam  rises  in  the  mountains  Haramakot, 
where  also  the  Ganges  rises,  cold,  impenetrable  regions 
where  the  snow  never  melts  nor  disappears.  Behind 
them  there  is  Mahdcin,  i.e.  Great  China.  When  the 
Jailam  has  left  the  mountains,  and  has  flowed  two 
days'  journey,  it  pa,sses  through  Addishtau.  Yowv  far - 
sakh  farther  on  it  enters  a  swamp  of  one  square /ars«/jA. 
The  people  have  their  plantations  on  the  borders  of  this 
swamp,  and  on  such  parts  of  it  as  they  manage  to 
reclaim.  Leaving  this  swamp,  the  Jailam  passes  the 
town  IJshkara,  and  then  enters  the  above-mentioned 
ravine. 

The  river  Sindh  rises  in  the  mountains  Unang  in  the  The  upper 

1      •  1         course  of 

territory  of  the  Turks,  which  you  can   reach  m  the  theSmdh 
followmgf    way: — Leaving;  the    ravine   by    which   you  the  north 

T.       1  1  '  ^  ^  1  1"  and  north- 

enter  Kashmir  and  entering  the  plateau,  then  you  have  westtvon- 

1        n  1  ^     c       ^  •  tiers  of 

lor  a  march  01  two  more  days  on  your  leit  the  mountains  India. 
of  Bolor  and  Shamilan,  Turkish  tribes  who  are  called 
Bhattavarydn.  Their  king  has  the  title  Bhatta-Shah. 
Their  towns  are  Gilgit,  Aswira,  and  Shiltas,  and  their 
language  is  the  Turkish.  Kashmir  suffers  much  from 
their  inroads.  Marchiog  on  the  left  side  of  the  river, 
you  always  pass  through  cultivated  ground  and  reach  Page  102. 
the  capital ;  marching  on  the  right  side,  you  pass 
through  villages,  one  close  to  the  other,  south  of  the 
capital,  and  thence  you  reach  the  mountain  Kulaijak, 


2o8  A  LBER  UNVS  INDIA  . 

which  is  like  a  cupola,  similar  to  the  mountain  Dun- 
bawand.  The  snow  there  never  melts.  It  is  always 
visible  from  the  region  of  Takeshar  and  Lauhawar 
(Lahore).  The  distance  between  this  peak  and  the 
plateau  of  Kashmir  is  two  far sakh.  The  fortress  Eaja- 
giri  lies  south  of  it,  and  the  fortress  Lahur  west  of  it, 
the  two  strongest  places  I  have  ever  seen.  The  town 
Rajawari  is  three  farsakh  distant  from  the  peak.  This 
is  the  farthest  place  to  which  our  merchants  trade,  and 
beyond  which  they  never  pass. 

This  is  the  frontier  of  India  from  the  north. 

In  the  western  frontier  mountains  of  India  there  live 

various  tribes  of  the  Afghans,  and  extend  up  to  the 

neighbourhood  of  the  Sindh  Valley. 

The  west-  The  southcm  frontier  of    India  is  formed  by   the 

southern       occan.    The  coast  of  India  begins  with  Tiz,  the  capital  of 

frontiers  of     -nr    ■,      /^  -,  -,        ■,  •  ■,  t  • 

India.  Makran,  and  extends  thence  m  a  south-eastern  direction 

towards  the  region  of  Al-daibal,  over  a  distance  of  40 
farsakh.  Between  the  two  places  lies  the  Gulf  of 
Turan.  A  gulf  is  like  an  angle  or  a  winding  line  of 
water  penetrating  from  the  ocean  into  the  continent, 
and  is  dangerous  for  navigation,  specially  on  account  of 
ebb  and  flood.  An  estuary  is  something  similar  to  a 
gulf,  but  is  not  formed  by  the  ocean's  penetrating  into 
the  continent.  It  is  formed  by  an  expanse  of  flowing 
water,  which  there  is  changed  into  standing  water  and 
is  connected  with  the  ocean.  These  estuaries,  too,  are 
dangerous  for  the  ships,  because  the  w^ater  is  sweet  and 
does  not  bear  heavy  bodies  as  well  as  salt  water  does. 

After  the  above-mentioned  gulf  follow  the  small 
Munha,  the  great  Munha,  then  the  Bawarij,  i.e.  the 
pirates  of  Kacch  and  Somanath.  They  are  thus  called 
because  they  commit  their  robberies  on  sea  in  ships 
called  hira.  The  places  on  the  coast  are  : — TaiuallesJiar, 
^o  farsakh  horn.  DsLibsil ;  Lohardni,  12  farsakh;  Baga, 
12  farsakh;  Kacch,  where  the  mukl-tvee  grows,  and 
Bcvroi,  6  farsakh;  Soinandth,   14  farsakh;  Kcvnhdyat, 


CHAPTER  XVIII.  209 

30  farsakli ;  Asaivil,  2  days  ;  Bihroj,  30  farsakh  (?)  ; 
Sanddn,  50  farsakh ;  Silhdra,  6  farsakh ;  Tana,  5 
farsalJi. 

Thence  the  coast-line  comes  to  the  country  Ldrdn, 
in  which  lies  the  city  of  Jiniur,  then  to  Vallabha, 
Kdnjt,  Darvad.  Next  follows  a  great  bay  in  which 
Singaldih  lies,  i.e.  the  island  Sarandib  (Ceylon).  Eoiind 
the  bay  lies  the  city  of  Panjaydvar  (sic).  When  this 
city  had  fallen  into  ruins,  the  king,  Jaiir,  built  instead 
of  it,  on  the  coast  towards  the  west,  a  new  city  which 
he  called  Padndr. 

The  next  place  on  the  coast  is  thnmalndra,  then  Rdm- 
sher  (Rameshar  ?)  opposite  Sarandib  ;  the  distance  of  the 
sea  between  them  is  12  farsakh.  The  distance  from 
Panjayavar  to  Eamsher  is  ^o  farsakh,  that  between  Eam- 
sher  and  Setubandha  2  farsakh.  Setubandha  means 
bridge  of  the  ocean.  It  is  the  dike  of  Rama,  the  son  of 
Dasaratha,  which  he  built  from  the  continent  to  the  castle 
Laiika.  At  present  it  consists  of  isolated  mountains 
between  which  the  ocean  flows.  Sixteen  farsakh  from 
Setubandha  towards  the  east  is  Kihkind,  the  mountains 
of  the  monkeys.  Every  day  the  king  of  the  monkeys 
comes  out  of  the  thicket  together  with  his  hosts,  and 
settles  down  in  particular  seats  prepared  for  them.  The 
inhabitants  of  that  region  prepare  for  them  cooked  rice, 
and  bring  it  to  them  on  leaves.  After  having  eaten 
it  they  return  into  the  thicket,  but  in  case  they  are 
neglected,  this  would  be  the  ruin  of  the  country,  as 
they  are  not  only  numerous,  but  also  savage  and  aggres- 
sive. According  to  the  popular  belief,  they  are  a  race 
of  men  changed  into  monkeys  on  account  of  the  help 
which  they  had  afforded  to  Rama  when  making  war 
against  the  demons  ;  he  is  believed  to  have  bequeathed 
those  villages  to  them  as  a  legacy.  When  a  man 
happens  to  fall  in  with  them,  and  he  recites  to  them 
the  poetry  of  Rama  and  pronounces  the  incantations  of 
Rama,  they  will  quietly  listen  to  him  ;  they  will  even 

VOL.  I.  0 


2IO  (ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

lead  on  tbe  right  path  him  who  has  gone  astray  and 
give  him  meat  and  drink.  At  all  events,  thus  the 
matter  stands  according  to  popular  belief.  If  there  is 
any  truth  in  this,  the  effect  must  be  produced  by  the 
melody,  the  like  of  which  we  have  already  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  hunting  of  gazelles  (v.  p.  195)- 

The  eastern  islands  in  this  ocean,  which  are  nearer  to 
China  than  to  India,  are  the  islands  of  the  Zdhaj,  called 
by  the  Hindus  Suvarna-dvipa,  i.e.  the  gold  islands. 
The  western  islands  in  this  ocean  are  those  of  the  Zanj 
(Negroes),  and  those  in  the  middle  are  the  islands 
Ramm  and  the  Diva  islands  (Malediva,  Laccadiva),  to 
which  belong  also  the  Kumair  islands.  It  is  peculiar 
to  the  Diva  islands  that  they  rise  slowly  ;  first,  there 
appears  a  sandy  tract  above  the  surface  of  the  ocean  ;  it 
rises  more  and  more  and  extends  in  all  directions,  till 
at  last  it  becomes  a  firm  soil,  whilst  at  the  same  time 
another  island  falls  into  decay  and  melts  away,  finally 
is  submerged  and  disappears  in  the  ocean.  As  soon  as 
the  inhabitants  become  aware  of  this  process,  they  search 
for  a  new  island  of  increasing  fertility,  transport  there 
their  cocoa-nut  palms,  date  palms,  cereals,  and  house- 
hold goods,  and  emigrate  to  it.  These  islands  are, 
according  to  their  products,  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
Diva-kudha,  i.e.  the  Diva  of  the  kauri-shells,  because 
there  they  gather  kauri-shells  from  the  branches  of  the 
cocoa-nut  palms  which  they  plant  in  the  sea,  and  Diva- 
kanhdr,  i.e.  the  Diva  of  the  cords  twisted  from  cocoa- 
nut  fibres,  and  used  for  fastening  together  the  planks  of 
the  ships. 

The  island  of  Aliudkwdk  belongs  to  the  Kumair 
islands.  Kumair  is  not,  as  common  people  believe,  the 
name  of  a  tree  which  produces  screaming  human  heads 
instead  of  fruits,  but  the  name  of  a  people  the  colour  of 
whom  is  whitish.  They  are  of  short  stature  and  of  a 
build  like  that  of  the  Tarks.  They  practise  the  religion 
of  the  Hindus,  and  have  the  custom  of  piercing  their 


CHAPTER  XV III.  211 

ears.  Some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Wakwdk  island 
are  of  black  colour.  In  our  countries  there  is  a  great 
demand  for  them  as  slaves.  People  fetch  from  thence 
the  black  ebony-wood  ;  it  is  the  pith  of  a  tree,  the  other 
parts  of  which  are  thrown  away,  whilst  the  kinds  of 
wood  called  mulammct  and  shauhat  and  the  yellow 
sandal-wood  are  brought  from  the  country  of  the  Zanj 
(Negroes). 

In  former  times  there  were  pearl-banks  in  the  bay 
of  Sarandib  (Ceylon),  but  at  present  they  have  been 
abandoned.  Since  the  Sarandib  pearls  have  disap- 
peared, other  pearls  have  been  found  at  Sufala  in  the 
country  of  the  Zanj,  so  that  people  say  the  pearls  of 
Sarandib  have  migrated  to  Sufala. 

India  has  the  tropical  rains  in  summer,  which  is  called  O"  the 

■^  .  .  rainfall  in 

varshakdla,  and  these  rains  are  the  more  copious  and  india. 
last  the  longer  the  more  northward  the  situation  of  a 
province  of  India  is,  and  the  less  it  is  intersected  by 
ranges  of  mountains.  The  people  of  Multan  used  to 
tell  me  that  they  have  no  varshaMla,  but  the  more 
northern  provinces  nearer  the  mountains  have  the  var- 
shakdla. In  Bhatal  and  Indravedi  it  begins  with  the 
month  Ashadha,  and  it  rains  continually  for  four 
months  as  though  water-buckets  were  poured  out.  In 
provinces  still  farther  northward,  round  the  mountains 
of  Kashmir  np  to  the  peak  of  Judari  between  Dunpur 
and  Barshawar,  copious  rain  falls  during  two  and  a  half 
months,  beginning  with  the  month  Sravana.  However, 
on  the  other  side  of  this  peak  there  is  no  rainfall ;  for 
the  clouds  in  the  north  are  very  heavy,  and  do  not  rise 
much  above  the  surface.  When,  then,  they  reach  the 
mountains,  the  mountain-sides  strike  against  them,  and 
the  clouds  are  pressed  like  olives  or  grapes,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  rain  pours  down,  and  the  clouds 
never  pass  beyond  the  mountains.  Therefore  Kashmir 
has  no  varshakdla,  but  continual  snowfall  during  two 
and  a  half  months,  beginning  with  Magha,  and  shortly 


212  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

after  the  middle  of  Caitra  continual  rain  sets  in  for  a 
few  days,  melting  the  snow  and  cleansing  the  earth. 
This  rnie  seldom  has  an  exception ;  however,  a  certain 
amount  of  extraordinary  meteorological  occurrences  is 
peculiar  to  every  province  of  India. 


(       213      ) 


CHAPTEE   XIX. 

ON  THE  NAMES  OF  THE  PLANETS,  THE  SIGNS  OF  THE 
ZODIAC,  THE  LUNAR  STATIONS,  AND  RELATED  SUB- 
JECTS. 


We  have  already  mentioned,  near  the  beginning  of  the 
book,  that  the  language  of  the  Hindus  is  extremely  rage  104. 
rich  in  nouns,  both  original  and  derivative,  so  that  in 
some  instances  they  call  one  thing  by  a  multitude  of 
different  names.  So  I  have  heard  them  saying  that 
they  have  a  thousand  names  all  meaning  sun  ;  and,  no 
doubt,  each  planet  has  quite  as  many,  or  nearly  as 
many  names,  since  they  could  not  do  with  less  (for  the 
purposes  of  versification). 

The   names  of  the  week-days   are   the   best  known  The  names 
names  of  the  planets  connected  with  the  word  hdra,  of  the  week. 
which  follows  after  the  planet's  name,  as  in  Persian  the 
word  shamhih  follows  after  the  number  of  the  week- 
day (dilsJiamhih,  sihshamhih,  &c.).     So  they  say — 


Aditya  hdra,  i.e.  Sunday. 
Soma  hdra,  i.e.  Monday. 
Manr/ala  hdra,  i.e.  Tuesday. 
Budha  hdra,  i.e.  Wednesdav. 


Brihaspati  hdra,  i.e.  Thursday. 
S'uJcra  hdra,  i.e.  Friday. 
S'aiiaikara  hdra,  i.e.  Saturday. 


And  thus  they  go  on  counting,  beginning  anew  with 
Sunday,  Monday,  &c. 

Muslim  astronomers  call  the  planets  the  lords  of  the  onthe 
days,  and,  in  counting  the  hours  of  the  day,  they  begin  dierum. 
with  the  domimts  of  the  day,  and  then  count  the  planets 
in  the  order  from  above  to  below.     For  instance,  the  sun 
is  the  dominies  of  the  first  day,  and  at  the  same  time  the 


KaipiKui 


and 


iopuL- 


larifxepivai.. 


214  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

dominus  of  its  first  hour.  The  second  hour  is  ruled  by 
the  planet  of  the  sphere  next  under  the  sphere  of  the 
sun,  i.e.  Venus.  The  third  hour  is  ruled  by  Mercury, 
and  the  fourth  by  the  moon.  Therewith  the  descending 
from  the  sun  to  the  cether,  i.e.  the  atmosphere  of  the 
earth,  has  an  end,  and  in  counting  they  return  to  Saturn. 
According  to  this  system,  the  dominus  of  the  twenty- 
fifth  hour  is  the  moon,  and  this  is  the  first  hour  of 
Monday.  So  the  moon  is  not  only  the  dominus  of  the 
first  hour  of  Monday,  but  also  the  dominus  of  the  whole 
day. 
On  cDpai  In  all  this  there  is  only  one  difference  between  our 

system  and  that  of  the  Hindus,  viz.  that  ive  use  the  Sypai 
KatpLKat,  so  that  the  thirteenth  planet,  counted  from 
the  dominus  diei,  is  the  dominus  of  the  succeeding  night. 
This  is  the  third  planet  if  you  count  in  an  opposite 
direction,  i.e.  ascending  from  the  lower  planet-spheres 
to  the  higher.  On  the  contrary,  the  Hindus  make  the 
dominus  diei  the  dominus  of  the  whole  wxdrjf^^pov,  so 
that  day  and  night  follow  each  other  without  having 
each  a  separate  dominus.  This,  at  all  events,  is  the 
practice  of  the  people  at  large. 

Sometimes,  however,  their  chronological  methods 
make  me  think  that  the  Sypai  KaipiKai  were  not  entirely 
unknown  to  them.  They  call  the  hour  hora^  and  by 
the  same  name  they  call  the  half  of  a  zodiacal  sign  in 
the  calculation  of  the  nimhahra.  The  following  cal- 
culation of  the  dominus  horce  is  derived  from  one  of 
their  astronomical  handbooks  : — 

"  Divide  the  distance  between  the  sun  and  the  degree 
of  the  ascendens  measured  by  equal  degrees,  by  15,  and 
add  to  the  quotient  i,  droppiug  a  fraction  if  there  be 
any.  This  sum  is  then  counted  off  from  the  dominus 
diei,  according  to  the  succession  of  the  planets  from 
above  to  below."  (The  planet  you  arrive  at  in  the  end 
is  the  dominus  of  the  hour  in  question.)  This  calcula- 
tion   is    more  of   a  nature  to  make  us  think  of    w/oai 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


21'^ 


KaipLKai 


as    having    been    used,    than    of    copai    Icr-iyxe- 


It  is  a  custom  of  the  Hindus  to  enumerate  the  planets  order  of  the 

-  ■  p      -I  IT  rm  '11  •    ,     '       pLmets  and 

in  the  order  oi  the  week-days,     ihey  will  persist  m  rheimota- 
using  it  in  their  astronomical  handbooks,  as  well  as  in 
other  books,  and  they  decline  to  use  any  other  order, 
though  it  be  much  more  correct. 

The  Greeks  mark  the  planets  with  figures,  to  fix 
thereby  their  limits  on  the  astrolabe  in  an  easily  intel- 
ligible manner,  images  which  are  not  letters  of  the 
alphabet.  The  Hindus  use  a  similar  system  of  abridge- 
ment ;  however,  their  figures  are  not  images  invented 
for  the  purpose,  but  the  initial  characters  of  the  names 
of  the  planets,  e.g.  d  =  Aditya,  or  the  sun  ;  c=Candra, 
or  the  moon  ;  h  =  Buclha,  or  Mercury. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  commonest  names 
of  the  seven  planets  : — 


The  Planets. 


Sun  .  . 
Moon  . 
Mars .  . 
Mercury 
Jupiter  . 
Venus  . 
Saturn  . 


Their  Names  in  the  Indian  Language. 


Aditva,  starya,  bhanu,  arka,  divakara,  ravi,  bibata  (?), 
heli. 

Soma,  candra,  iudu,  himagu,  sitarasrai,  himarasmi, 
sitamsu,  sitadidhiti,  bimamayukha. 

Mangala,    bhaumya,    kuja,    ara,    vakra,    avaneya, 
maheya,  krurakshi  (?),  rakta. 

Budha,   saumya,  candra,  jua,  bodbana,  vitta  (?), 
hemna. 

Vrihaspati,  guru,  jiva,  devejya,  devapurobita,  deva- 
mantrin,  angiras,  suri,  devapita. 

Sukra,  bbrigu,  sita,  bhargava,  asbati  (?),  danavaguru, 
bbriguputra,  aspbujit  (?). 

Sanai4cara,  manda,  asita,  kona,  adityaputra,  saura, 
arki,  sviryaputra. 


Page  105 


The   multiplicity  of  names  of  the  sun  as  exhibited  onthe 

twelve  suns. 

in    the   previous   table  was  the    cause  which   led  the 
theologians  to  assume  also  a  multiplicity  of  suns,  so 


2i6  A  LB E RUNTS  INDIA. 

that  according  to  them  there  are  twelve  suns,  each  of 
which  rises  in  a  particular  month.  The  book  VisJimi- 
dhcmna  says :  "  Vishnu,  i.e.  Narayana,  who  is  without 
beginning  in  time  and  without  end,  divided  himself 
for  the  angels  into  twelve  parts,  which  became  sons 
to  Kasyapa.  These  are  the  suns  rising  in  the  single 
months."  Those,  however,  who  do  not  believe  that  the 
multiplicity  of  names  is  the  source  of  this  theory  of 
twelve  suns,  point  out  that  the  other  planets  also  have 
many  names,  but  each  only  one  body,  and  that,  besides, 
the  names  of  the  sun  are  not  only  twelve,  but  many 
more.  The  names  are  derived  from  words  with  generic 
meanings,  e.g.  Aditya,  i.e.  the  hcginniiig,  because  the 
sun  is  the  beginning  of  the  whole.  Savitri  means 
every  being  which  has  a  progeny,  and  since  all  progeny 
in  the  world  originates  with  the  sun,  he  is  called 
Savitri.  Further,  the  sun  is  called  liavi,  because  he 
dries  wet  substances.  The  juice  in  the  plants  is  called 
rasa,  and  he  who  takes  it  out  of  them  is  called  ravi. 

The  moon  too,  the  companion  of  the  sun,  has  many 
names,  e.g.  Soma,  because  she  is  lucky,  and  everything 
lucky  is  called  soinagraha,  whilst  all  that  is  unlucky  is 
called  pdpagraha.  Further,  Nisesa,  i.e.  lord  of  the  night, 
NaJcshatrandtha,  i.e.  lord  of  the  lunar  stations,  Dvijesvara, 
i.e.  lord  of  the  Brahmins,  Sitdriisu,  i.e.  having  a  cold  ray, 
because  the  moon's  globe  is  ivatery,  which  is  a  blessing 
to  the  earth.  When  the  solar  ray  meets  the  moon,  the 
ray  becomes  as  cool  as  the  moon  herself,  then,  being 
reflected,  it  illuminates  the  darkness,  makes  the  night 
cool  and  extinguishes  any  hurtful  kind  of  combustion 
wrought  by  the  sun.  Similarly  the  moon  is  also  called 
Candra,  which  means  the  left  eye  of  Ndrdyana,  as  the  sun 
is  his  right  eye. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  names  of  the  months 
Disturbances  and  differences  in  lists  of  these  names  pro- 
ceed from  the  causes  which  we  shall  mention  (v.  p.  228) 
when  speaking  of  the  enumeration  of  the  different  earths. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


217 


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ALBERUNFS  INDIA 


Page  107. 


The  names 
of  the 
months 
derived 
from  those 
of  the  hmar 
mansions. 


People  think,  with  regard  to  the  order  of  the  names 
of  suns  as  given  by  the  Vishnu-dharma,  that  it  is 
correct  and  undisturbed ;  for  Vfisudeva  has  a  separate 
name  in  each  month,  and  his  worshippers  begin  the 
months  with  Margasirsha,  in  which  his  name  is  Kcsava. 
If  you  count  bis  names  one  after  the  other,  you  find  that 
one  which  he  has  in  the  month  Caitra,  Vishnu,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  tradition  of  the  Vishnu-dliarma. 

The  names  of  the  months  are  related  to  those  of  the 
lunar  stations.  As  two  or  three  stations  belong  to  each 
month,  the  name  of  the  month  is  derived  from  one  of 
them.  We  have  in  the  following  table  written  these 
particular  stations  with  red  ink  (in  this  translation  with 
an  asterisk),  in  order  to  point  out  their  relationship  with 
the  names  of  the  months. 

If  Jupiter  shines  in  some  lunar  station,  the  month  to 
which  this  station  belongs  is  considered  as  the  dominant 
of  the  year,  and  the  whole  year  is  called  by  the  name  of 
this  month. 

If  the  names  of  the  month  given  in  the  following 
table  differ  in  some  respects  from  those  used  heretofore, 
the  reader  must  know  that  the  names  which  we  have 
hitherto  used  are  the  vernacular  or  vulgar  ones,  whilst 
those  given  in  this  table  are  the  classical : — 


The  Months. 

The  Lunar 
Stations. 

The  Months. 

16 
17 

The  Lunar 
Stations. 

Karttika 

•I 

3 
4 

Krittika.* 
Rohiui. 

Vaisc^kha 

1 

Visakha.  * 
Anuradha. 

Margasir-sha 

] 

5 
6 

Mrigasirsha.* 
Ardra. 

J3'aishtha 

18 

iq 

Jyesbtha.* 
Mula.  ■ 

Pausha     . 

•1 

I 

Punarvasu. 
Piishya." 

Ashaclha 

i 
1 

20 
21 

Purvashadha  * 
Uttarasbadha. 

Magha     . 

( 

Q 

Aslesha. 

1 

22 

S'ravana.* 

•  ) 

10 

Magha.* 

S'ravana 

2^ 

Dhanishta. 

j 

II 

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guni.* 

( 

24 

2S 

S'atabhishaj. 
Purva-bhadra- 

Phalguna 

1 

12 

Uttara-phal- 

gunl. 
Hasta. 

Bhadrapada 

1 

26 

pada.* 
Uttara-bbadra- 
pada. 

Caitrn 

■1 

14 

Citra.* 

f 

27 

Revati. 

T5 

Svati. 

Asvaynja 

•i 

I 

As'vinl.* 

i 

2 

Bharani. 

CHAPTER  XIX.  219 

The  sie^ns  of  the  zodiac  have  names  corresponding  to  on  the 

1         •  1-11  T         1   •    1  J.1        names  of 

the  imasfes  which  they  represent,  and  which  are  the  the  signs  of 

1         TT      T  ^^       ,^  ^-  the  Zodiac. 

same  among  the  Hindus  as  among  all  other  nations.  Page  108. 
The  third  sign  is  called  JMitJmna,  which  means  a  pair 
consisting  of  a  boy  and  a  girl ;  in  fact,  the  same  as  the 
Tivms,  the  well-known  image  of  this  sign. 

Varahamihira  says  in  the  larger  book  of  nativities 
that  the  word  applies  to  a  man  holding  a  lyre  and  a 
club,  which  makes  me  think  that  he  identified  Mithuna 
with  Orion  (Aljahhdr).  And  this  is  the  opinion  of 
common  people  in  general,  to  such  a  degree  that  the 
station  is  known  as  Aljauzd  (instead  of  the  Tivins), 
though  Aljauza  does  not  belong  to  the  image  of  this 
sign. 

The  same  author  explains  the  image  of  the  sixth  sign 
as  a  ship,  and  in  its  hand  an  ear  of  corn.  I  am  inclined 
to  think  that  in  our  manuscript  there  is  a  lacuna  in  this 
place,  for  a  ship  has  no  hand.  The  Hindus  call  this 
sign  Kanyd,  i.e.  the  virgin  girl,  and  perhaps  the  passage 
in  question  ran  originally  thus:  ''A  virgin  in  a  ship 
holding  an  ear  of  corn  in  her  hand.'''  This  is  the  lunar 
station  Alsimdk  AVazal  (Spica).  The  word  ship  makes 
one  think  that  the  author  meant  the  lunar  station 
Arawwd  (/S,  -i;,  y,  S,  €,  Yirginis),  for  the  stars  of  AFawwa 
form  a  line,  the  end  of  which  is  a  curve  (like  the  keel 
of  a  ship). 

The  image  of  the  seventh  sign  he  declares  to  be  fire. 
It  is  called  Ti</«  =  balance. 

Of  the  tenth  sign  Varahamihira  says  that  it  has  the 
face  of  a  goat,  whilst  the  remainder  is  a  malYira  (hippo- 
potamus). However,  after  having  compared  the  sign 
with  a  mahara,  he  might  have  saved  himself  the  trouble 
of  attributing  to  it  the  face  of  a  goat.  Only  the  Greeks 
require  the  latter  description,  because  they  consider  the 
sign  as  composed  of  two  animals,  as  a  goat  in  the  part 
above  the  breast  and  as  a  fish  in  the  lower  part.  But 
the  aquatic  animal  called  makara,  as  people  describe 


220 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


it,  does  not  require  to  be  explained  as  a  composition  of 
two  animals. 

The  image  of  the  eleventh  sign  he  calls  a  bucket,  and 
the  name,  Kuvibha,  corresponds  to  this  statement.  How- 
ever, if  they  sometimes  enumerate  this  sign  or  part  of 
it  among  tlie  Itu man  figures,  this  proves  that  they,  fol- 
lowing the  example  of  the  Greeks,  see  in  it  Aquarius. 

The  image  of  the  twelfth  sign  he  describes  as  the 
figure  of  two  fishes,  although  the  name  of  the  sign  in 
all  languages  signifies  only  one  fish. 

Besides  the  well-known  names,  Varahamihira  men- 
tions also  certain  Indian  names  of  the  signs  which  are 
not  generally  known.  We  have  united  both  kinds  in 
the  following  table  : — 


.2  « 

Their  Common 
Names. 

Names  which 
are  not  gene- 
rally known. 

Tiieir  Common 
Names. 

Names  which 
are  not  gene- 
rally known. 

O 

Mesha. 

Kriya. 

6 

Tula. 

Juga. 

I 

Vrishan. 

Tambiru. 

7 

Vriscika. 

Kaurba. 

2 

Mithuna. 

Jituma. 

8 

Dhanii. 

Taukshika. 

3 

Karkata. 

Kulira. 

9 

Makara. 

Agokiru. 

4 

Siriiha. 

Liyaya. 

lO 

Kumbah. 

Udruvaga. 

5 

Kanya. 

Partina. 

II 

Mina.          1 

Anta,    also 
Jitu. 

It  is  the  custom  of  the  Hindus  in  enumerating  the 
zodiacal  signs  not  to  begin  wdth  o  for  Aries  and  i 
for  Taurus,  but  to  begin  with  i  for  Aries  and  2  for 
Taurus,  &c.,  so  that  Pisces  are  No.  I2. 


(      221       ) 


CHAPTER   XX. 

ON     THE     BKAHMANDA. 

Brahmanda  means  the  egg  of  Brahman,  and  applies  in  The  egg  of 
reality  to  the  whole  of  heaven  (aWi]p),  on  account  of  its  its  coming 
being  round,  and  of  the  particular  kind  of  its  motion,  the  wate™ 
It  applies  even  to  the  whole  world,  in  so  far  as  it  is  Page  109. 
divided  into  an  upper  and  an  under  part.     When  they 
enumerate    the   heavens,   they  call    the  sum  of  them 
Brahmanda.     The  Hindus,  however,  are  devoid  of  train- 
ing  in  astronomy,   and  have  no  correct  astronomical 
notions.     In  consequence,  they  believe  that  the  earth 
is  at  rest,  more  particularly  as  they,  when  describing 
the  bliss  of  paradise  as  something  like  worldly  happi- 
ness, make  the  earth  the  dwelling-place  of  the  different 
classes  of  gods,  angels,  &c.,  to  whom  they  attribute  loco- 
motion and  the  direction  from  the  upper  worlds  to  the 
lower. 

According  to  the  enigmatic  expressions  of  their  tradi- 
tion, the  water  was  before  every  other  thing,  and  it 
filled  the  space  of  the  whole  world.  This  was,  as  I 
understand  them,  at  the  beginning  of  the  day  of  the  soul 
(purtcshdhorcUra,  p.  332),  and  the  beginning  of  formation 
and  combination.  Further,  they  say  the  water  was  roll- 
ing and  foaming.  Then  something  white  came  forth 
from  the  water,  of  which  the  Creator  created  the  egg 
of  Brahman.  Now,  according  to  some,  the  egg  broke  ; 
Brahman  came  forth  from  it,  the  one  half  became  the 
heaven,  the  other  the  earth,  and  the  broken  bits  between 
the  two  halves  became  the  rains.     If  they  said  moiin- 


A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 


Greek  par- 
allel :  Ascle- 
piu.«. 


Water  the 
first  ele- 
ment of 
creation. 
Tlie  egg  of 
Brahman 
broken  in 
two  halves. 


tains  instead  of  rams,  the  matter  would  be  somewhat 
more  plausible.  According  to  others,  God  spoke  to 
Brahman  :  "I  create  an  egg,  which  I  make  for  thy 
dwelling  in  it."  He  had  created  it  of  the  above  men- 
tioned foam  of  the  water,  but  when  the  water  sank  and 
was  absorbed,  the  Qgg  broke  into  two  halves. 

Similar  opinions  were  held  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
regarding  Asclepius,  the  inventor  of  the  medical  art; 
for,  according  to  Galenus,  they  represent  him  as  holding 
an  egg  in  his  hand,  whereby  they  mean  to  indicate  that 
the  world  is  round,  the  egg  an  image  of  the  universe, 
and  that  the  whole  world  needs  the  medical  art.  Ascle- 
pius does  not  hold  a  lower  position  in  the  belief  of  the 
Greeks  than  Brahman  in  the  belief  of  the  Hindus,  for 
they  say  that  he  is  a  divine  power,  and  that  his  name 
is  derived  from  his  action,  i.e.  protecting  against  dryness, 
which  means  death,  because  death  occurs  when  dryness 
and  cold  are  prevalent.  As  for  his  natural  origin,  they 
call  him  the  son  of  Apollo,  the  son  of  Phlegyas  (?),  and 
the  son  of  Kronos,  i.e.  the  planet  Saturn.  By  this 
system  of  affiliation  they  mean  to  attribute  to  him  the 
force  of  a  threefold  god. 

The  theory  of  the  Hindus,  that  the  water  existed 
before  all  creation,  rests  on  this,  that  it  is  the  cause  of 
the  cohesion  of  the  atoms  of  everything,  the  cause  of 
the  growing  of  everything,  and  of  the  duration  of  life  in 
every  animated  being.  Thus  the  water  is  an  instrument 
in  the  hand  of  the  Creator  when  he  wants  to  create 
something  out  of  matter.  A  similar  idea  is  propounded 
by  the  Koran  xi.  9  :  "  And  his  (God's)  throne  was  on  the 
icater!'  Whether  you  explain  it  in  an  external  way 
as  an  individual  body  called  by  this  name,  and  which 
God  orders  us  to  venerate,  or  whether  you  give  it  the 
intrinsic  meaning  of  realm,  i.e.  God's  realm,  or  the 
like,  in  any  case  the  meaning  is  this,  that  at  that 
time  beside  God  there  was  nothing  but  the  water  and 
his  throne.     If  this  our  book   were  not  restricted  to 


CHAPTER  XX.  223 

the  ideas  of  one  single  nation,  we  should  produce  from 
the  belief  of  the  nations  who  lived  in  ancient  times  in 
and  round  Babel  ideas  similar  to  the  egg  of  Brahman, 
and  even  more  stupid  and  unmeaning  than  that. 

The  theory  of  the  division  of  the  egg  into  two  halves 
proves  that  its  originator  was  the  contrary  of  a  scientific 
man,  one  who  did  not  know  that  the  heaven  compre- 
hends the  eartli,  as  the  shell  of  the  egg  of  Brahman 
comprehends  its  yolk.  He  imagined  the  earth  to  be 
below  and  the  heaven  in  only  one  of  the  six  directions 
from  the  earth,  i.e.  above  it.  If  he  had  known  the 
truth,  he  might  have  spared  himself  the  theory  of  the 
breaking  of  the  egg.  However,  he  wished  by  his  theory 
to  describe  one  half  of  the  egg  as  spread  out  for  the 
earth,  and  the  other  half  as  placed  upon  it  for  a  cupola.  Page  no. 
trying  to  outvie  Ptolemy  in  the  planispheric  represen- 
tation of  a  globe,  but  without  success. 

There  have  always  been  similar  fancies  afloat,  which  Quotation 
everybody  interprets  as  best  suits  his  religion  and  ^nmceut^^ 
philosophy.  So  Plato  says  in  his  Timceus  something 
like  the  Brahmanda  :  "  The  Creator  cut  a  straight  thread 
into  halves.  With  each  of  them  he  described  a  circle, 
so  that  the  two  circles  met  in  two  places,  and  one  of 
them  he  divided  into  seven  parts."  In  these  words  he 
hints,  as  is  his  custom,  at  the  original  two  motions  of 
the  universe  (from  east  to  west  in  the  diurnal  rotation, 
and  from  west  to  east  in  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes), and  at  the  globes  of  the  planets. 

Brahmagupta  says  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  Brahma-  Quotation 
siddJidnta,  where  he  enumerates  the  heavens,  placing  magupta.' 
the  moon  in  the  nearest  heaven,  the  other  planets  in 
the  following  ones,  and  Saturn  in  the  seventh  :  "  The 
fixed  stars  are  in  the  eighth  heaven,  and  this  has  been 
created  round  in  order  to  last  for  ever,  that  in  it  the 
pious  may  be  rewarded,  the  wicked  be  punished,  since 
there  is  nothing  behind  it."  He  indicates  in  this  chapter 
that  the  heavens  are  identical  with  the  spheres,  and  he 


224 


ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 


Quotation 
from  the 
Siddkdnta 
of  Pulisa. 


Quotations 

from  Brah- 

magupta, 

Vasishtha, 

Balabh'adra, 

and  Arya- 

bhata. 


gives  them  in  an  order  which  differs  from  that  of  the 
traditional  literature  of  their  creed,  as  we  shall  show 
hereafter  in  the  proper  place.  He  indicates,  too,  that 
the  round  can  only  be  slowly  influenced  from  without. 
He  evinces  his  knowledge  of  the  Aristotelic  notions 
regarding  the  round  form  and  the  rotating  motion,  and 
that  there  is  no  body  in  existence  behind  the  spheres. 

If  it  is  of  this  description,  evidently  Brahmanda  is 
the  totality  of  the  spheres,  i.e.  the  aWy^p,  in  fact,  the 
universe,  for  retribution  in  another  life  takes  place,  ac- 
cording to  the  ideas  of  the  Hindus,  within  it. 

Pulisa  says  in  his  Siddkdnta :  "  The  totality  of  the 
world  is  the  sum  of  earth,  water,  fire,  wind,  and  heaven. 
The  latter  was  created  behind  the  darkness.  It  appears 
to  the  eyes  as  blue,  because  it  is  not  reached  by  the 
rays  of  the  sun  and  not  illuminated  by  them  like  the 
watery  non-igneous  globes,  i.e.  the  bodies  of  the  planet 
and  the  moon.  When  the  rays  of  the  sun  fall  upon 
these  and  the  shadow  of  the  earth  does  not  reach  them, 
their  darkness  disappears  and  their  figures  become  visi- 
ble in  the  night.  The  light-giver  is  only  one,  all  the 
others  receive  the  light  from  him."  In  this  chapter 
Pulisa  speaks  of  the  utmost  limit  that  can  be  reached, 
and  calls  it  heaven.  He  places  it  in  darkness,  since  he 
says  that  it  exists  in  a  place  which  is  not  reached  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  question  as  to  the  blue-grey 
colour  of  heaven  which  is  perceived  by  the  eye  is  of  too 
great  an  extent  to  be  touched  upon  here. 

Brahmagupta  says  in  the  above-mentioned  chapter  : 
"Multiply  the  cycles  of  the  moon,  i.e.  57,753,300,000, 
by  the  number  of  the  yojana.  of  her  sphere,  i.e.  324,000, 
and  you  get  as  the  product  18,712,069,200,000,000,  i.e. 
the  number  of  the  yojana  of  the  sphere  of  the  zodiac." 
Of  the  yojana  as  a  measure  of  distance  we  have  already 
spoken  in  the  chapter  on  metrology  (ch.  xv.  p.  167). 
We  give  the  just-mentioned  calculation  of  Brahma- 
gupta, simply  reproducing  his  words  without  any  re- 


CHAPTER  XX.  225 

sponsibility  of  onr  own,  for  he  has  not  explained  on 
what  reason  it  rests,  ^'asishtha  says  that  the  Brah- 
nianda  comprehends  the  spheres,  and  the  just-mentioned 
numbers  are  the  measure  of  the  Brahmanda,  since  the 
sphere  of  the  zodiac  is  connected  with  it.  The  com- 
mentor  Balabhadra  says  :  '•  We  do  not  consider  these 
numbers  as  a  measure  of  heaven,  for  we  cannot  define 
its  greatness,  but  we  consider  them  as  the  utmost  limit 
to  which  the  human  power  of  vision  can  penetrate. 
There  is  no  possibility  of  human  perception  reaching 
above  it  ;  but  the  other  spheres  differ  from  each  other 
in  greatness  and  smallness,  so  as  to  be  visible  in  various 
degrees."  The  followers  of  Aryabhata  say  :  "  It  is  sufh-  Pa^e  ht. 
cient  for  us  to  know  the  space  which  is  reached  by  the 
solar  rays.  We  do  not  want  the  space  which  is  not 
reached  by  the  solar  rays,  though  it  be  in  itself  of  an 
enormous  extent.  That  which  is  not  reached  by  the 
rays  is  not  reached  by  the  perception  of  the  senses, 
and  that  which  is  not  reached  by  perception  is  not 
knowable." 

Let  us  now  examine  the  bearing  of  the  words  of  these  criticisms 
authors.     The  words  of  Vasishtha  prove  that  the  Brah-  different 
manda  is  a  globe  comprehending  the  eighth  or  so  called  Thrquestion 
zodiacal  sphere,  in  which  the  fixed  stars  are  placed,  and  sphere""^ 
that  the  two  spheres  touch  each  other.     Now  w^e  on  our 
own  part  were  already  obliged  to  assume  an  eighth 
sphere,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  we  should  suppose 
a  ninth  one. 

On  this  head  the  opinions  of  people  are  divided. 
Some  hold  the  existence  of  a  ninth  sphere  to  be  a  neces- 
sity on  account  of  the  rotation  froin  east  to  west,  in  so 
far  as  it  moves  in  this  direction  and  compels  everything 
which  it  comprehends  to  move  in  the  same  direction. 
Others  assume  the  ninth  sphere  on  account  of  the  same 
motion,  but  suppose  that  it  by  itself  is  motionless. 

The  tendency  of  the  representatives  of  the  former 
theory  is  perfectly  clear.    How^eve;-,  Aristotle  has  proved 


226 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA 


Aristotle, 

Ptolemy, 

Johannes 

Grammati- 

ciis. 


that  each  moving  body  is  brought  into  motion  by  some- 
thing moving  which  is  not  within  itself.  So  also  this 
ninth  sphere  would  presuppose  a  mover  outside  itself. 
What,  however,  should  prevent  this  mover  from  putting 
the  eight  spheres  into  motion  without  the  intermedia- 
tion of  a  ninth  sphere  ? 

As  regards  the  representatives  of  the  second  view, 
one  might  almost  think  that  they  had  a  knowledge  of 
the  words  of  Aristotle  which  we  have  quoted,  and  that 
they  knew  that  the  first  mover  is  motionless,  for  they 
represent  the  ninth  sphere  as  motionless  and  as  the 
source  of  the  east  to  west  rotation.  However,  Aristotle 
has  also  proved  that  the  first  mover  is  not  a  body, 
whilst  he  must  be  a  body,  if  they  describe  him  as  a 
globe,  as  a  sphere,  and  as  comprehending  something- 
else  within  itself  and  motionless. 

Thus  the  theory  of  the  ninth  sphere  is  proved  to  be 
an  impossibility.  To  the  same  effect  are  the  words  of 
Ptolemy  in  the  preface  of  his  Almagest :  "  The  first 
cause  of  the  first  motion  of  the  universe,  if  we  consider 
the  motion  by  itself,  is  according  to  our  opinion  an  in- 
visible and  motionless  god,  and  the  study  of  this  sub- 
ject we  call  a  divine  one.  We  perceive  his  action  in 
the  highest  heights  of  the  world,  but  as  an  altogether 
different  one  from  the  action  of  those  substances  which 
can  be  perceived  by  the  senses." 

These  are  the  words  of  Ptolemy  on  the  first  mover, 
without  any  indication  of  the  ninth  sphere.  But  the 
latter  is  mentioned  by  Johannes  Grammaticus  in  his 
refutation  of  Proclus,  where  he  says :  "  Plato  did  not 
know  a  ninth,  starless  sphere."  And,  according  to  Jo- 
hannes, it  was  this,  i.e.  the  negation  of  the  ninth  sphere, 
which  Ptolemy  meant  to  say. 

Finally,  there  are  other  people  who  maintain  that 
behind  the  last  limit  of  motion  there  is  an  infinite  rest- 
ing body  or  an  infinite  vacuum,  or  something  which  they 
declare  to  be  neither  a  vactmm  nor  a  'plemim.     These 


CHAPTER  XX.  227 

theories,  however,  have  no  connection  whatsoever  with 
our  subject. 

Balabhadra  gives  ns  the  impression  of  holding  the 
same  opinion  as  those  who  think  that  heaven  or  the 
heaveos  are  a  compact  body  holding  in  equilibrium  all 
heav}"  bodies  and  carrying  them,  and  that  it  is  above 
the  spheres.  To  Balabhadra  it  is  just  as  easy  to  prefer 
tradition  to  eyesight,  as  it  is  difficult  to  us  to  prefer 
doubt  to  a  clear  proof. 

The  truth  is  entirely  with  the  followers  of  Aryabhata 
who  give  us  the  impression  of  really  being  men  of  great 
scientific  attainments.  It  is  perfectly  evident  that 
Brahmanda  means  the  aWvip,  together  with  all  products 
of  creation  in  it. 


(       228       ) 


Oil  the 


CHAPTER   XXL 

DKSCKIPTION  OF  EAKTU  AND  HEAVEN  ACCOKUING  TO  THE 
llELIGIOUS  VIEWS  OF  THE  HINDUS,  BASKD  UPON 
THEIR   TRADITIONAL    LITERATURE. 

The  people  of  whom  we  have  spoken  in  the  preceding 
earths.  chapter  think  that  the  earths  are  seven  like  seven 
Page  112.  covers  one  above  the  other,  and  the  upper  one  they 
divide  into  seven  parts,  differing  from  our  astronomers, 
who  divide  it  into  K-Ai/xara,  and  from  the  Persians,  who 
divide  it  into  Kishvar.  We  shall  afterwards  give  a  clear 
explanation  of  their  theories  derived  from  the  first 
authorities  of  their  religious  law,  to  expose  the  matter 
to  fair  criticism.  If  something  in  it  appears  strange  to 
us,  so  as  to  require  a  commentary,  or  if  we  perceive  some 
coincidence  with  others,  even  if  both  parties  missed  the 
mark,  we  shall  simply  put  the  case  before  the  reader, 
not  with  the  intention  of  attacking  or  reviling  the 
Hindus,  but  solely  in  order  to  sharpen  the  minds  of 
those  who  study  these  theories. 
Differences  They  do  not  differ  among  themselves  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  earths  nor  as  to  the  number  of  the  parts  of  the 


ill  the 
sequence  of 

expiainedas  uppcr  earth,  but  they  differ  regarding  their  names  and 

resulting 
frdm  the 
co()iuusness 
of  the 
language 


th^  order  of  these  names.  I  am  inclined  to  derive  this 
difference  from  the  great  verbosity  of  their  language,  for 
they  call  one  and  the  same  thing  by  a  multitude  of  names. 
For  instance,  they  call  the  sun  by  a  thousand  different 
names  according  to  their  own  statement,  just  as  tbe 
Arabs  call  the  lion  by  nearly  as  many.  Some  of  these 
names  are  original,  while  others  are  derived  from  the 
changing  conditions  of  his  life  or  his  actions  and  facul- 
ties. The  Hindus  and  their  like  boast  of  this  copious- 
ness, whilst  in  reality  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  faults  of 


CHAPTER  XXL  229 

the  language.  For  it  is  the  task  of  language  to  give  a 
name  to  even^thing  in  creation  and  to  its  effects,  a  name 
based  on  general  consent,  so  that  everybody,  when  hear-  . 
ing  this  name  pronounced  by  another  man,  understands 
what  he  means.  If  therefore  one  and  the  same  name  or 
word  means  a  variety  of  things,  it  betrays  a  defect  of  the 
language  and  compels  the  hearer  to  ask  the  speaker 
what  he  means  by  the  word.  And  thus  the  word  in 
question  must  be  dropped  in  order  to  be  replaced  either 
by  a  similar  one  of  a  sufficiently  clear  meaning,  or  by 
an  epithet  describing  what  is  really  meant.  If  one  and 
the  same  thing  is  called  by  many  names,  and  this  is  not 
occasioned  by  the  fact  that  every  tribe  or  class  of  people 
uses  a  separate  one  of  them,  and  if,  in  fact,  one  single 
name  would  be  sufficient,  all  the  other  names  save  this 
one  are  to  be  classified  as  mere  nonsense,  as  a  means 
of  keeping  people  in  the  dark,  and  throwing  an  air  of 
mystery  about  the  subject.  And  in  any  case  this 
copiousness  offers  painful  difficulties  to  those  who  want 
to  learn  the  whole  of  the  language,  for  it  is  entirely  use- 
less, and  only  results  in  a  sheer  waste  of  time. 

Frequently  it  has  crossed  my  mind  that  the  authors 
of  books  and  the  transmitters  of  tradition  have  an  aver- 
sion to  mentioning  the  earths  in  a  definite  arrangement, 
and  limit  themselves  to  mentioning  their  names,  or  that 
the  copyists  of  the  books  have  arbitrarily  altered  the 
text.  For  those  men  who  explained  and  translated  the 
text  to  me  were  well  versed  in  the  language,  and  were  not 
known  as  persons  who  would  commit  a  wanton  fraud. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  names  of  the  earths,  The  earths 
as  far  as  I  know  them.     We  rely  chiefly  on  that  list,  the  Ailtfa-^ 
which  has  been  taken  from  the  Aditya-purdna,  because    '""' 
it  follows  a  certain  rule,  combining  every  single  earth 
and  heaven  with  a  single  member  of  the  members  of  the 
sun.     The  heavens  are  combined  with  the  members  from 
the  skull  to  the  womb,  the  earths  with  the  members  from 
the  navel  to  the  foot.     This  mode  of  comparison  illus- 
trates their  sequence  and  preserves  it  from  confusion  : — 


230 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


Page  113. 


0 

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Aditya-Pimma. 

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Vdyu-Purana. 

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Sutala. 

Vitala. 

;:^ 

Ambaratala. 

11" 

•  rt 

xh 

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<^  t;    . 

Patala. 

Nitala. 

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(Sakkaru). 

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0) 

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Asala  (?) 

Gabhastimat. 

c^  a.  g 

Gabhastimat. 

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1      H 

Mrittaia. 

Sutala. 

Sutala. 

4    -5 

-ij 

a> 

>  r^  a> 

1— 1 

1 

Rasatala. 

Jagara  (?) 

1 

CQ         0 

Rasatala. 

CHAPTER  XXI.  231 

THE  SPIRITUAL  BEINGS  LIVING  ON  THE  SEVEN      Page  1,4. 
EAETHS  ACil^ORDING  TO  THE  VAYU-PURANA. 

Of  the  Danavas — Namuci,  Sankukania,  Kabandha  (?),  Nishku- 
kada  (?),  ^uladanta,  Lohita,  Kalinga,  Svapada  ;  and  the  master  of 
the  serpents — Dhananjaya,  Kjiliya. 

Of  the  Daityas— Surakshas,  Mahajambha,  Hayagriva,  Krishna, 
Janarta  (?),  ^aukhakhsha,  Gomukha ;  and  of  the  Rakshasa— 
Nila,  Megha,  Krathanaka,  Mahoshiiisha,  Kambala,  Asvatara, 
Takshaka. 

Of  the  Danavas — Rada  (?),  Anuhlada,  Agnimukha,  Tarakaksha, 
Trisira,  ^isumara ;  and  of  the  Rakshasa — Cyavana,  Nanda,  Visilla. 
And  there  are  many  cities  in  this  world. 

Of  the  Daityas— Kalanemi,  Gajakarna,  Unjara  (?)  ;  and  of  the 
Rakshasa — Sumali,  Munja,  Vrikavaktra,  and  the  large  birds  called 
Garuda. 

Of  the  Daityas— Virocana,  Jaj^anta  (?),  Agnijihva,  Hiranyaksha  ; 
and  of  the  Rakshasa — Vidyuj jihva,  Mahamegha ;  the  serpent 
Karmara,  Svastikajaya. 

Of  the  Daityas — Kesari  ;  and  of  the  Rakshasa — Urdhvakuja  (?), 
Satasirsha,  i.e.  having  a  hundred  heads,  a  friend  of  Indra ;  Vasuki, 
a  serpent. 

The  king  Bali  ;  and  of  the  Daitya  Mucukunda.  In  this  world 
there  are  many  houses  for  the  Rakshasa,  and  Vishnu  resides  there, 
and  Sesha,  the  master  of  the  serpents. 

After  the  earths  follow  the  heavens,   consisting  of  onthe 
seven  stories,  one  above  the  other.     They  are  called  heavens. 
loJca,  which    means    '' gather ing-ijlacey      In    a    similar  f,om' 
manner   also  the    Greeks    considered   the  heavens  as  Grammati- 
o^atheriug-places.     So  Johannes  Grammaticus  says  in  Ji,,  ' 


his  refutation  of  Procliis  :  "  Some  philosophers  thought 
that  the  sphere  called  yaka^las,  i.e.  milk,  by  which 
they  mean  the  milky  way,  is  a  dwelling-place  for 
rational  souls."  The  poet  Homer  says:  "Thou  hast 
made  the  pure  heaven  an  eternal  dwelling-place  for  the 
gods.  The  winds  do  not  shake  it,  the  rains  do  not 
wet  it,  and  the  snow  does  not  destroy  it.  For  in  it  there 
is  resplendent  clearness  without  any  covering  cloud." 

Plato  says  :  "  God  spoke  to  the  seven  planets  :  You 
are  the  gods  of  the  gods,  and  I  am  the  father  of  the 
actions ;  I  am  he  who  made  you  so  that  no  dissolution 


id  Aris- 
totle. 


232 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


Page  115.  is  possible ;  for  anything  bound,  though  capable  of 
being  loosened,  is  not  exposed  to  destruction,  as  long 
as  its  order  is  good." 

Aristotle  says  in  his  letter  to  Alexander :  "  The 
world  is  the  order  of  the  whole  creation.  That  which 
is  above  the  world,  and  surrounds  it  on  the  sides,  is  the 
dwelling-place  of  the  gods.  Heaven  is  full  of  the  gods 
to  which  we  give  the  name  of  stars."  In  another  place 
of  the  same  book  he  says,  "  The  earth  is  bounded  by 
the  water,  the  water  by  the  air,  the  air  by  the  fire,  the 
fire  by  the  aW/]p.  Therefore  the  highest  place  is  the 
dwelling-place  of  the  gods,  and  the  lowest,  the  home 
of  the  aquatic  animals." 

There  is  a  similar  passage  in  the  Vdyu-Purdna  to 
this  effect,  that  the  earth  is  held  in  its  grasp  by  the 
water,  the  water  by  the  pure  fire,  the  fire  by  the  wind, 
the  wind  by  heaven,  and  heaven  by  its  lord. 

The  names  of  the  lokas  do  not  differ  like  those  of 
the  earths.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  only  re- 
garding their  order.  We  exhibit  the  names  of  the 
lokas  in  a  table  similar  to  the  former  (p.  230). 


Wliat  members  of 

Tlieir  Names 

The  Number  of  the 

the  Sun  they  repre- 

according to  the 

Heavens. 

sent  according  to 

Aditya,  Vciyu  and 

the  Aditya-Purdnu. 

Vish-iu  Purdnas. 

I. 

The  stomach. 

Bhurloka. 

II. 

The  breast. 

Bhuvarloka. 

III. 

The  mouth. 

Svarloka. 

IV. 

The  eyebrow. 

Maharioka. 

V. 

The  forehead. 

Janaloka. 

VI. 

f   Above  the   \ 
\    forehead,    j 

Tapoloka. 

VII. 

The  skull. 

Satyaloka. 

Criticisms         This  theory  of  the  earths  is  the  same  with  all  Hiudus, 

mentatorof"  cxcept  aloue  the  commentator  of  the  book  of  Patanjali. 

Pag^ii^el'      He  had  heard  that  the  Fitaras,  or  fathers,  had  their 

gatheriog-place  in  the  sphere  of  the  moon,  a  tradition 

built  on  the  theories  of  the  astronomers.     In  conse- 


CHAPTER  XXI.  233 

quence  he  made  the  lunar  sphere  the  first  heaven, 
whilst  he  ought  to  have  identified  it  with  Bhiuiolca. 
And  because  by  this  method  he  had  one  heaven  too 
many,  he  dropped  the  Svarloka,  the  place  of  reward. 

The  same  author  differs  besides  in  another  point. 
As  the  seventh  heaven,  Satyaloka,  is  in  the  Puranas 
also  called  Bralimalvka,  he  placed  the  Brahmaloka 
above  the  Satyaloka,  whilst  it  would  have  been  much 
more  reasonable  to  think  that  in  this  case  one  and  the 
same  thing  is  called  by  two  different  names.  He  ought 
to  have  omitted  the  Brahmaloka,  to  have  identified 
Pitriloka  with  Bhiirloka,  and  not  to  have  left  out  the 
Svarloka. 

So  much  about  the  seven  earths  and  the  seven 
heavens.  We  shall  now  speak  of  the  division  of  the 
surface  of  the  uppermost  earth  and  of  related  subjects. 

Dtp  (dvipa)  is  the  Indian  word  for  island.  Hence  The  system 
the  words  Sangaladip  (Simhaladvipa),  which  we  call  andsm*. 
Serendib,  and  the  Dibajdt  (Maledives,  Laccadives).  The 
latter  are  numerous  islands,  which  become,  so  to  speak, 
decrepit,  are  dissolved  and  flattened,  and  finally  dis- 
appear below  the  water,  whilst  at  the  same  time  other 
formations  of  the  same  kmd  begin  to  appear  above  the 
water  like  a  streak  of  sand  which  continually  grows 
and  rises  and  extends.  The  inhabitants  of  the  former 
island  leave  their  homes,  settle  on  the  new  one  and 
colonise  it. 

According  to  the  religious  traditions  of  the  Hindus, 
the  earth  on  which  we  live  is  round  and  surrounded  by 
a  sea.  On  the  sea  lies  an  earth  like  a  collar,  and  on 
this  earth  lies  again  a  round  sea  like  a  collar.  The 
number  of  dry  collars,  called  islands,  is  seven,  and 
likewise  that  of  the  seas.  The  size  of  both  dvipas  and 
seas  rises  in  such  a  progression  that  each  dxipa  is  the 
double  of  the  preceding  di-ipa,  each  sea  the  double  of 
the  preceding  sea,  i.e.  in  the  progression  of  the  powers 
of  two.     If  the  middle  earth  is  reckoned  as  one,  the 


and  the 

Vdi/u. 

Pardiia. 


234  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

size  of  all  seven  earths  represented  as  collars  is  127. 
If  the  sea  surrounding  the  middle  earth  is  counted  as 
one,  the  size  of  all  seven  seas  represented  as  collars  is 
127.  The  total  size  of  both  earths  and  seas  is  254. 
The  size  of  The  commentator  of  the  book  of  Patanjali  has  adopted 
and  se^^aT,^^  as  the  size  of  the  middle  earth  100,000  yojana.  Accord- 
the°Jom-^  "  ingly,  the  size  of  all  the  earths  would  be  12,700,000 
Patahjlu"^  yojana.  Further  he  adopts  as  the  size  of  the  sea  which 
surrounds  the  middle  earth  200,000  yojana.  Accord- 
ingly, the  size  of  all  the  seas  would  be  25,400,000 
yojana,  and  the  total  size  of  all  the  earths  and  seas 
38,100,000  yojana.  However,  the  author  himself  has 
not  made  these  additions.  Therefore  we  cannot  com- 
pare his  numbers  with  ours.  But  the  Vdyu-Purdna 
says  that  the  diameter  of  the  totality  of  earths  and  seas 
is  37,900,000  yojana,  a  number  which  does  not  agree 
with  the  above-mentioned  sum  of  38,100,000  yojana. 
It  cannot  be  accounted  for,  unless  we  suppose  that  the 
number  of  earths  is  only  six,  and  that  the  progression 
begins  with  the  number  4  instead  of  2.  Such  a  num- 
ber of  seas  {i.e.  6)  may  possibly  be  explained  in  this 
way,  that  the  seventh  one  has  been  dropped,  because 
the  author  only  wanted  to  find  the  size  of  the  contin- 
ents, which  induced  him  to  leave  the  last  surrounding 
sea  out  of  the  calculation.  But  if  he  once  mentions 
the  continents  he  must  also  mention  all  the  seas  which 
surround  them.  Why  he  has  commenced  the  pro- 
gression with  4  instead  of  2,  I  cannot  account  for  by 
any  of  the  principles  of  the  calculation  as  they  have 
been  laid  down. 

Each  dvipa  and  sea  has  a  separate  name.  As  far  as 
we  know  them,  we  place  them  before  the  reader  in  the 
following  table,  and  hope  that  the  reader  will  excuse  us 
for  so  doing". 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


235 


Page  I T  ■; 


-y:         )yi 


W         "^' 


rt 

^ 

^ 

03 

0 

^ 

0 

0 

3 

Ph  g. 

P 


1  I 


s:^     3  ^ 


w      ^  X 


^  a 


a, 
Jo 


O     !/3 
?-     O 


Jo 


w 


<j 

<o 

ij 

CD 

i4 

c3 

2 

a 

5 

I'-a 

I"" 

II 

Ikshurasoda,  i. 
the  juice  of 
sugar-cane. 

-a 

?  ^ 


SBdiAQ  atj:}  JO 
.igqiunu  aqx 


^  > 


236  ALBERUNfS  INDIA. 

Page  118.  The  differences  of  the  traditions  as  exhibited  by  this 

table  cannot  be  accounted  for  in  any  rational  way.  They 
can  hardly  have  sprung  from  any  other  source  but  from 
arbitrary,  accidental  changes  of  the  enumeration.  The 
most  appropriate  of  these  traditions  is  that  of  the 
Matsya-Purdna,  because  it  enumerates  the  dvipas  and 
seas  one  after  the  other  according  to  a  fixed  order,  a 
sea  surrounding  an  island,  an  island  surrounding  a  sea, 
the  enumeration  proceeding  from  the  centre  to  the 
periphery. 

We  shall  now  in  this  place  record  some  related  sub- 
jects, though  it  would  perhaps  be  more  correct  to  treat 
of  them  in  some  other  part  of  the  book. 
Quotation         The  commeutator  of  the  book  of  Patanjali,  wishing 
commenta-    to  determine  the  dimension  of  the  world,  begins  from 
jaii.       '      below  and  says  :  "  The  dimension  of  the  darkness  is  one 
koti  and  85  laksJia  yojana,  i.e.  18,000,000  yojana. 

"  Then  follows  Naraka,  i.e.  the  hells,  of  the  dimension 
of  13  koti  and  12  laksha,  i.e.  131,200.000  yojana. 

"Then  follows  darkness,  of  one  laksha,  i.e.  100,000 
yojana. 

"  Above  it  lies  the  earth  Vajra,  so  called  on  account 
of  its  hardness,  because  the  word  means  a  diamond,  and 
the  'molten  thunder-holt,  of  34,000  yojana. 

"Above  it  lies  the  middle  earth  Garhlia,  of  60,000 
yojana. 

"  Above  it  lies  the  golden  earth,  of  30,000  yojana. 

"  Above  this  the  seven  earths,  each  of  10,000  yojana, 
which  makes  the  sum  of  70,000  yojana.  The  upper  one 
of  them  is  that  which  contains  the  dvipas  and  the  seas. 

"  Behind  the  sweet-water  sea  lies  Lokdloka,  which 
means  a  not-gathering-iolace,  i.e.  a  place  without  civilisa- 
tion and  inhabitants. 

"  Thereupon  follows  the  gold-earth  of  one  Koti,  i.e. 
10,000,000  yojana.;  above  it  the  Pitriloka  oi  6,134,000 
yojana. 

"  The  totality  of  the  seven  lokas,  which  is  called  Brah- 


CHAPTER  XXI.  237 

mdnda,  has  the  dimension  of  15  hoti,  i.e.  I50,0005CXX) 
yojana.  And  above  this  is  the  darkness  tamas,  similar 
to  the  lowest  darkness,  of  18,500,000  yojana." 

We  on  our  part  found  it  already  troublesome  to 
enumerate  all  the  seven  seas,  together  with  the  seven 
earths,  and  now  this  author  thinks  he  can  make  the  sub- 
ject more  easy  and  pleasant  to  us  by  inventing  some  more 
earths  below  those  already  enumerated  by  ourselves ! 

The  Vishim-Furdua^when  treating  of  similar  subjects, 
says:  "There  is  a  serpent  under  the  seventh  lowest 
earth,  which  is  called  Seshdkhija,  worshipped  among 
the  spiritual  beings.  It  is  also  called  Ananta.  It  has 
a  thousand  heads,  and  bears  the  earths  without  being 
molested  by  their  heavy  weight.  These  earths,  one 
stored  above  the  other,  are  gifted  with  good  things 
and  happiness,  adorned  with  jewels,  illuminated  by 
their  own  rays,  not  by  those  of  sun  and  moon.  The 
latter  two  luminaries  do  not  rise  in  them.  Therefore 
their  temperature  is  always  equal,  they  have  everlasting 
fragrant  flowers,  blossoms  of  trees  and  fruits ;  their  in- 
habitants have  no  notion  of  time,  since  they  do  not 
become  aware  of  any  motions  by  counting  them.  Their 
dimension  is  70,000  yojana,  the  dimensions  of  each 
being  10,000.  Narada,  the  Rishi,  went  down  in  order 
to  see  them,  and  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  two  kinds 
of  beings  which  inhabit  them,  the  Daily  a  and  Ddnava. 
When  he  then  found  the  bliss  of  paradise  to  be  rather 
insignificant  in  comparison  with  that  of  these  earths, 
he  returned  to  the  angels,  giving  his  report  to  them, 
and  rousing  their  admiration  by  his  description." 

Further,  the  following  passage  :  "  Behind  the  sweet- 
water  sea  lies  the  gold  earth,  the  double  of  the  totality 
of  the  dvipas  and  seas;  but  not  inhabited  by  men  nor 
by  demons.  Behind  it  lies  LoMloln,  a  mountain  of  the 
height  of  10,000  yojana,  and  of  the  same  breadth.  Its  Page 
whole  dimension  is  50  koti,  i.e.  500,000,000  yojana'' 
The  totality  of  all  this  is  in  the  Hindu  language 


238  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

sometirDes  called  dhdtri,  i.e.  holding  all  tilings,  and 
sometimes  vidhdiri,  i.e.  letting  loose  all  tilings.  It  is  also 
called  the  dwelling -plaee  of  every  living  being,  and  by 
various  other  names,  which  differ  as  people  differ  in 
their  opinions  about  the  vacuum.  Those  who  believe 
in  the  vacuum  make  it  the  cause  why  all  bodies  are 
attracted  towards  it,  whilst  those  who  deny  the  vacuum 
declare  that  it  is  not  the  cause  of  the  attraction. 

Then  the  author  of  the  Vishnu- Pur  ana  returns  to  the 
Lokas  and  says:  "  Everything  which  a  foot  can  tread 
upon  and  a  ship  sail  in,  is  BhurloJm."  This  seems  to 
be  an  indication  of  the  surface  of  the  uppermost  earth. 
The  air,  which  is  between  the  earth  and  the  sun,  in 
which  the  Siddhas,  the  Munis,  and  the  Gandharvas, 
the  musicians,  wander  to  and  fro,  is  the  BhuvarloJca. 
The  whole  of  -these  three  earths  is  called  the  three 
jyrithivi.  That  which  is  above  them  is  Vydsa-mandala, 
i.e.  the  realm  of  Vyasa.  The  distance  between  the 
earth  and  sun  is  100,000  yojana,  that  between  the  sun 
and  the  moon  is  the  same.  The  distance  between  the 
moon  and  i\Iercury  is  two  lakshas,  i.e.  200,000  yojana, 
that  between  Mercury  and  Venus  is  the  same.  The 
distances  between  Venus  and  Mars,  Mars  and  Jupiter, 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  are  equal,  each  being  200,000 
yojana.  The  distance  between  Saturn  and  the  Great 
Bear  is  100,000  yojana,  and  that  from  the  Great  Bear 
to  the  pole  is  looo  yojana.  Above  it  is  Maharloka,  at 
a  distance  of  20  millions  of  yojana ;  above  it,  the  Jina- 
loka,  at  a  distance  of  80  millions  ;  above  it,  Fitriloha,  at 
a  distance    f  480  millions  ;  above  it,  Satyaloka.'^ 

This  sum,  however,  is  more  than  thrice  the  sum 
which  we  have  mentioned  on  the  authority  of  the  com- 
mentator of  the  book  of  Patanjali,  i.e.  150,000  yojana. 
lUit  such  is  the  custom  of  the  copyists  and  scribes  in 
every  nation,  and  I  cannot  declare  the  students  of  the 
Puranas  to  be  free  from  it,  for  they  are  not  men  of 
exact  learning. 


(     ^39     ) 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

TRADITIONS    RELATING   TO    THE   ROLE. 

The  pole,   in  the  language   of  the   Hindus,  is  called  The  origin 
dhruva,  and  the  axis  saldka.     The  Hindus,  with  the  poie,  and 
exception  of  their  astronomers,  speak  always  only  of  somadatta. 
one  pole,  the  reason  of  which  is  their  belief  in  the  dome 
of  heaven,  as  we  have  heretofore  explained.     According 
to  Vdyu-Purdna,  heaven  revolves  round  the  pole  like  a 
potter's  wheel,  and  the  pole  revolves  round  itself,  with- 
out changing  its  own  place.     This  revolution  is  finished 
in  30  imihilrta,  i.e.  in  one  nychthemeron. 

Regarding  the  south  pole,  I  have  heard  from  them 
only  one  story  or  tradition,  viz.  the  following.  They 
had  once  a  king  called  Somadatta,  who  by  his  noble 
deeds  had  deserved  paradise;  bnt  he  did  not  like  the 
idea  of  his  body  being  torn  away  from  his  soul  when 
he  should  depart  into  the  other  world.  Now  he  called 
on  the  Rishi  Yasishtha,  and  told  to  him  that  he  loved 
his  body,  and  did  not  wish  to  be  separated  from  it ;  bnt 
the  Rishi  informed  him  that  it  was  impossible  to  take 
along  with  oneself  the  material  body  from  this  world 
into  paradise.  Thereupon  he  laid  his  desire  before  the 
children  of  Yasishtha;  however,  these  spat  in  his  face, 
scoffed  at  him,  and  changed  him  into  a  canddla  with 
ear-rings  in  both  ears,  and  clad  in  a  kuriak  (i.e.  a  short 
shirt  worn  by  the  women  round  the  shoulders,  reaching 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  body).  When  he  came  in 
this  condition  to  the  Rishi,  Yisvamitra,  the  latter  found 
him  to  be  a  disgusting  spectacle,  and  asked  him  what 


240  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

was  the  reason  of  his  appearing  so,  whereupon  Soma- 
datta  informed  him,  and  told  him  the  wiiole  story. 
Now  Visvilmitra  became  very  angry  on  his  account ;  he 
Page  I20.  ordered  the  Brahmans  into  his  presence  in  order  to  per- 
form a  great  sacrifice,  among  those  also  the  children  of 
Vasishtha,  and  he  spoke  to  them  :  '-'I  wish  to  make  a 
new  world,  and  a  new  paradise  for  this  pious  king,  that 
there  he  may  obtain  the  fulfilment  of  his  wish."  There- 
upon he  began  to  make  the  pole  and  the  Great  Bear  in 
the  south,  but  then  Indra,  the  ruler,  and  the  spiritual 
beings  began  to  fear  him.  They  went  to  him,  humbled 
themselves  before  him,  and  asked  him  to  desist  from 
the  work  he  had  commenced  on  this  condition,  that 
they  would  carry  Somadatta  with  his  bodt/,  just  as  it 
was,  into  paradise.  This  they  did,  and  in  consequence 
the  Rishi  desisted  from  making  a  second  world,  but 
that  which  he  had  already  made  up  to  that  moment 
remained. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  north  pole  with  us  is  called 
the  Great  Bear,  the  south  pole  Canopus.  But  some  of 
our  people  (Muslims)  who  do  not  rise  above  the  unedu- 
cated mass,  maintain  that  in  the  south  of  heaven  too 
there  is  a  Great  Bear  of  the  same  shape  as  the  northern, 
which  revolves  round  the  southern  pole. 

Such  a  thing  would  not  be  impossible  nor  even 
strange,  if  the  report  about  it  came  from  a  trust- 
worthy man,  who  had  made  long  sea-voyages.  Cer- 
tainly in  southern  regions  stars  are  seen  which  we  do 
s.-ipaiaon  uot  kuow  iu  our  latitudes.  So  Sripala  says  that  the 
iMa^^'^Aij.-ii-  people  of  Multan  see  in  summer  time  a  red  star  a  little 
below  the  meridian  of  Canopus,  which  they  call  Sfda, 
i.e.  the  beam  of  cracijixion,  and  that  the  Hindus  consider 
it  as  unlucky.  Therefore,  when  the  moon  stands  in 
the  station  Piirvabhadrapada,  the  Hindus  do  not  travel 
towards  the  south,  because  this  star  stands  in  the 
south. 

Aljaihani  relates,  in  his  Book  of  Routes,  that  on  the 


baui  on  tiie 
fever-star. 
Brahma- 
guptaon  the 
Sisumara. 


CHAPTER  XXII.  241 

island  Langabalus  there  is  a  large  star  visible,  known 
as  the  fever-star.  It  appears  in  winter  about  morning 
dawn  in  the  east  as  high  as  a  date-palm  tree,  having  an 
oblong  shape,  composed  of  the  tail  of  the  Small  Bear 
and  his  back,  and  of  some  small  stars  situated  there ; 
it  is  called  the  axe  of  the  mill.  Brahmaguj^ta  mentions 
it  in  connection  with  the  Fish.  The  Hindus  tell  rather 
ludicrous  tales  when  sjDeaking  of  the  figure  in  which 
they  represent  this  group  of  stars,  viz.  the  figure  of  a 
four-footed  aquatic  animal,  which  they  call  SaJcvara.  and 
also  Sisumdra.  I  suppose  that  the  latter  animal  is  the 
great  lizard,  for  in  Persia  it  is  called  Susmdr,  which 
sounds  much  like  the  Indian  Simmdra.  Of  this  kind 
of  animals  there  is  also  an  aquatic  species,  similar  to 
the  crocodile  and  the  skink.  One  of  those  tales  is  the 
following. 

When  Brahman  wanted  to  create  mankind,  he  divided  The  story  of 
himself  into  two  halves,  of  which  the  right  one  was 
called  Virdj,  the  left  one  Manu.  The  latter  one  is  the 
being  from  whom  the  period  of  time  called  Manvantara 
has  received  its  name.  Manu  had  two  sons,  Priyavrata 
and  Uttanapada,  the  bow-legged  king.  The  latter  had 
a  son  called  Dltruva,  who  w^as  slighted  by  one  of  the 
wives  of  his  father.  On  account  of  this,  he  was  pre- 
sented with  the  power  to  turn  round  all  the  stars  as  he 
pleased.  He  appeared  in  the  Manvantara  of  Svayam- 
bhuva,  the  first  of  all  Manvantaras,  and  he  has  for  ever 
remained  in  his  place. 

The  Vdyu-Purdna  says  :  "  The  wind  drives  the  stars  Quotations 

.'in  T  -1  •        •        •    -1  1      J.       f™'^  Vdyu- 

round  the  pole,  which  are  bound  to  it  by  ties  invisible  to  PMnmaand 
man.     They  move  round  like  the  beam  in  the  olive-press,  Dharma. 
for  its  bottom  is,  as  it  were,  standing  still,  whilst  its  end 
is  moving  round. 

The  Vishnu-Dharma  says :  "  Vajra,  one  of  the  children 
of  Balabhadra,  the  brother  of  Narayana,  asked  the  Rishi  Page  121. 
Markandeya  as  to  the  pole,  upon  which  he  answered : 
When  God  created  the  world,  it  was  dark  and  desert. 

Q 


242  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

Thereupon  he  made  the  globe  of  the  sun  shining,  and 
the  globes  of  the  stars  watery,  receiving  the  light  of 
the  snn  from  that  side  of  his  which  he  turns  towards 
them.  Fourteen  of  these  stars  he  placed  round  the 
pole  in  the  shape  of  a  sisnmdra,  which  drive  the  other 
stars  round  the  pole.  One  of  them,  north  of  the  pole, 
on  the  uppermost  chin,  is  Uttanapada,  on  the  lowest 
chin  Yajna,  on  the  head  Dharma,  on  the  breast  Nara- 
yana,  on  the  two  hands  towards  the  east  the  two  stars 
Asvini  the  physicians,  on  the  two  feet  Varuna,  and 
Aryaman  towards  the  west,  on  the  penis  Samwatsara, 
on  the  back  Mitra,  on  the  tail  Agni,  Mahendra,  Marici, 
and  Kasyapa." 

The  pole  itself  is  Vishnu,  the  ruler  of  the  inhabitants 
of  paradise ;  he  is,  further,  the  time  rising,  growing, 
getting  old,  and  vanishing. 

Further,  the  Vishim-Dharma  says:  "If  a  man  reads 
this  and  knows  it  accurately,  God  pardons  to  him  the 
sins  of  that  day,  and  fourteen  years  will  be  added  to 
his  life,  the  length  of  which  has  been  fixed  before- 
hand." 

How  simple  those  people  are !  Among  us  there  are 
scholars  who  know  between  1020  to  1030  stars.  Should 
those  men  breathe  and  receive  life  from  God  only  on 
account  of  their  knowledge  of  stars  ? 

All  the  stars  revolve,  whatever  may  be  the  position 
of  the  pole  with  regard  to  them. 

If  I  had  found  a  Hindu  able  to  point  out  to  me  with 
his  finger  the  single  stars,  I  should  have  been  able  to 
identify  them  with  the  star-figures  known  among  Greeks 
and  Arabs,  or  with  stars  in  the  neighbourhood  in  case 
they  did  not  belong  to  any  of  these  figures. 


(     243     ) 


CHAPTEE   XXIII. 

ON    MOUNT   MERU   ACCOKDING   TO    THE    BELIEF    OF   THE 
AUTHORS    OF   THE    PURANAS   AND    OF   OTHERS. 

We  begin  with  the  description  of  this  mountain,  since  Braimm- 
it  is  the  centre  of  the  Dvipas  and  seas,  and,  at  the  same  th? earth 
time,  the  centre  of  Jambudvipa.  Brahmagnpta  says  :  Mem. 
"  Manifold  are  the  opinions  of  people  relating  to  the 
description  of  the  earth  and  to  Mount  Meru,  particu- 
larly among  those  who  study  the  Puranas  and  the  reli- 
gious literature.  Some  describe  this  mountain  as  rising 
above  the  surface  of  the  earth  to  an  excessive  height. 
It  is  situated  under  the  j)ole,  and  the  stars  revolve 
round  its  foot,  so  that  rising  and  setting  depends  upon 
Meru.  It  is  called  Meru  because  of  its  having  the 
faculty  of  doing  this,  and  because  it  depends  alone 
upon  the  influence  of  its  head  that  sun  and  moon 
become  visible.  The  day  of  the  angels  who  inhabit 
Meru  lasts  six  months,  and  their  night  also  six 
months." 

Brahmagupta  quotes  the  following  passage  from  the 
book  of  Jina,  i.e.  Buddha:  "Mount  Meru  is  quad- 
rangular, not  round." 

The  commentator  Balabhadra  says:   "Some  people  Baiabhadra 
say  that  the  earth  is  flat,  and  that  Mount  Meru  is  an  subject. 
illuminating,  light-giving  body.     However,  if  such  were 
the  case,  the   planets   would  not    revolve    round    the 
horizon    of  the  inhabitants  of  Meru,   and   if  it  were 
shining  it  would  be  visible  because  of  its  height,  as  the 


244 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA 


pole  above  it  is  visible.  According  to  some,  Meru  con- 
sists of  gold  ;  according  to  others  it  consists  of  jewels. 
Aryabhata  thinks  that  it  has  not  absolute  height,  but 
only  the  height  of  07ie  yojana,  and  that  it  is  round,  not 
quadrangular,  the  realm  of  the  angels;  that  it  is  in- 
visible, although  shining,  because  it  is  very  distant  from 
the  inhabited  earth,  being  situated  entirely  in  the  high 
north,  in  the  cold  zone,  in  the  centre  of  a  desert  called 
Nandana-vana.  However,  if  it  were  of  a  great  height, 
it  would  not  be  possible  on  the  66th  degree  of  latitude 
for  the  whole  Tropic  of  Cancer  to  be  visible,  and  for  the 
sun  to  revolve  on  it,  being  always  visible  without  ever 
disappearing." 

All  that  Balabhadra  23roduces  is  foolish  both  in  words 
and  matter,  and  I  cannot  find  why  he  felt  himself  called 
upon  to  write  a  commentary  if  he  had  nothing  better 
to  say. 

If  he  tries  to  refute  the  theory  of  the  flatness  of  the 
earth  by  the  planets  revolving  round  the  horizon  of 
Meru,  this  argument  would  go  nearer  proving  the 
theory  than  refuting  it.  For  if  the  earth  were  a  flat 
expanse,  and  everything  high 
on  earth  were  parallel  to  the 
perpendicular  height  of  Meru, 
there  would  be  no  change  of 
horizon,  and  the  same  horizon 
would  be  the  equinox  for  all 
places  on  earth. 

On  the  words  of  Aryabhata 
as  quoted  by  Balabhadra  we 
make  the  following  remarks. 
Let  A  B  be  the  globe  of  the  earth  ronnd  the  centre 
H.  Further,  A  is  a  place  on  the  earth  in  the  66th  de- 
gree of  latitude.  AVe  cut  off  from  the  circle  the  arc 
A  B,  equal  to  the  greatest  declination.  Then  B  is  the 
place  in  the  zenith  of  which  the  pole  stands. 

Further,  we  draw  the  line  A  C  touching  the  globe  in 


CHAPTER  XXII i.  245 

the  point  A.  This  line  lies  in  the  plane  of  the  horizon 
as  far  as  the  human  eye  reaches  round  the  earth. 

We  join  the  points  A  and  H  with  each  other, 
and  draw  the  line  H  B  C,  so  that  it  is  met  in  C  by 
the  line  A  C.  Further,  we  let  fall  the  perpendicular 
A  T  on  H  C.     Now,  it  is  evident  that — 

A  T  is  the  sine  of  the  greatest  declination  ; 

T  B  the  versed  sine  of  the  greatest  declination  ; 

T  H  the  sine  of  the  complement  of  the  greatest  declination. 

And  as  we  here  occupy  ourselves  with  Aryabhata, 
we  shall,  according  to  his  system,  change  the  sines  in 
Jcardajd  t.     A  ccor  d  ingly — 

AT  =  1397. 
TH  =  3140. 
B  T  =  298. 

Because  the  angle  H  A  C  is  a  right  angle,  we  have 
the  equation — 

H  T  :  T  A  =  T  A  :  T  C. 

And  the  square  of  A  T  is  1,951.609.  If  we  divide  it 
by  T  H,  we  get  as  quotient  622. 

The  difference  between  this  number  and  T  B  is  324, 
which  is  B  0.  And  the  relation  of  B  C  to  B  H,  the  latter 
being  sinus  ^o^?/s=3438,  is  the  same  as  the  relation  of 
the  number  of  yojanas  of  B  C  to  the  yojanas  of  B  H,  The 
latter  number  is,  according  to  Aryabhata,  800.  If  it 
is  multiplied  by  the  just-mentioned  difference  of  324 
we  get  the  sum  of  259,200.  And  if  we  divide  this 
number  by  the  sinus  totus  we  get  75  as  quotient,  which 
is  the  number  of  yojanas  of  B  C,  equal  to  600  miles  or 
200  farsakh. 

If  the  perpendicular  of  a  mountain  is  200  farsalh, 
the  ascent  will  be  nearly  the  double.  Whether  Mount 
Meru  has  such  a  height  or  not,  nothing  of  it  can  be 
visible  in  the  66th  degree  of  latitude,  and  it  would  not 
cover  anything  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  at  all  (so  as  to 
intercept  from  it  the  light  of  the  sun).     And  if  for  those 


246  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

latitudes  (66°  and  23°)  Meru  is  under  the  horizon,  it 
is  also  under  the  horizon  for  all  places  of  less  latitude. 
If  you  compare  Meru  with  a  luminous  body  like  the  sun, 
you  know  that  the  sun  sets  and  disappears  under  the 
earth.  Indeed  Meru  may  be  compared  with  the  earth. 
It  is  not  invisible  to  us  because  of  its  being  far  away 
in  the  cold  zone,  but  because  it  lies  below  the  horizon, 
because  the  earth  is  a  globe,  and  everything  heavy  is 
attracted  towards  its  centre. 

Aryabhata  further  tries  to  prove  that  Mount  Meru 
has  only  a  moderate  height  by  the  fact  that  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer  is  visible  in  places  the  latitude  of  which  is 
equal  to  the  complement  of  the  greatest  declination. 
We  must  remark  that  this  argument  is  not  valid,  for  we 
know  the  conditions  of  the  lines  of  latitude  and  other 
lines  in  those  countries  only  through  ratiocination,  not 
from  eyesight  nor  from  tradition,  because  they  are  unin- 
habited and  their  roads  are  impassable. 

If  a  man  has  come  from  those  parts  to  Aryabhata  and 
told  him  that  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  is  visible  in  that  lati- 
tude, we  may  meet  this  by  stating  that  a  man  has  also 
come  to  us  from  the  same  region  telling  us  that  one 
part  of  it  is  there  invisible.  The  only  thing  which 
covers  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  is  this  mountain  Meru.  If 
Meru  did  not  exist,  the  whole  tropic  would  be  visible. 
Who,  now,  has  been  able  to  make  out  which  of  the 
two  reports  deserves  most  credit  ? 

In  the  book  of  Aryabhata  of  Kusumapura  we  read 
that  the  mountain  Meru  is  in  Himavant,  the  cold  zone, 
not  higher  than  a  yojana.  In  the  translation,  however, 
it  has  been  rendered  so  as  to  express  that  it  is  not  higher 
than  Himavant  by  more  than  a  yojana. 

This  author  is  not  identical  with  the  elder  Arya- 
bhata, but  he  belongs  to  his  followers,  for  he  quotes 
him  and  follows  his  example.  I  do  not  know  which  of 
these  two  namesakes  is  meant  by  Balabhadra. 

In  general,  what  we  know  of  the  conditions  of  the 


CHAPTER  XXIII.  247 

place  of  this  mountain  we  know  only  by  ratiocination. 
About  the  mountain  itself  they  have  many  traditions. 
Some  give  it  the  height  of  one  yojana,  others  more ; 
some  consider  it  as  quadrangular,  others  as  an  octagon. 
We  shall  now  lay  before  the  reader  what  the  Rishis 
teach  regarding  this  mountain. 

The  Matsya-Purdiia  says  :  "It  is  golden  and  shining  Matsya- 
like  fire  which  is  not  dulled  by  smoke.  It  has  four  onMmmt 
different  colours  on  its  four  sides.  The  colour  of  the  the  moun- 
eastern  side  is  white  like  the  colour  of  the  Brahmins,  the  earth, 
that  of  the  northern  is  red  like  that  of  the  Kshatriya, 
that  of  the  southern  is  yellow  like  the  colour  of  the 
Yaisya,  and  that  of  the  western  is  black  like  the  colour 
of  the  Sudra.  It  is  86,000  yojana  high,  and  16,000  of 
these  yojana  lie  within  the  earth.  Each  of  its  four  sides 
has  34,000  yojana.  There  are  rivers  of  sweet  water 
running  in  it,  and  beautiful  golden  houses  inhabited 
by  the  spiritual  beings,  the  Deva,  by  their  singers  the 
Gandharva,  and  their  harlots  the  Apsaras.  Also  Asuras, 
Daityas,  and  Eakshasas  are  living  in  it.  Round  the 
mountain  lies  the  pond  Manasa,  and  around  it  to  all 
four  sides  are  the  Lokajpdla,  i.e.  the  guardians  of  the 
world  and  its  inhabitants.  Mount  Meru  has  seven 
knots,  i.e.  great  mountains,  the  names  of  which  are 
Mahendra,  Malaya,  Sahya,  Suktibam  (?),  Rikshabam  (?), 
Vindhya,  Pariyatra.  The  small  mountains  are  nearly 
innumerable ;  they  are  those  which  are  inhabited  by 
mankind. 

"The  great  mountains  round  Meru  are  the  follow- 
ing :  Himavant,  always  covered  with  snow,  inhabited 
by  the  Rakshasa,  Pisaca,  and  Yaksha.  Hemakuta, 
the  golden,  inhabited  by  the  Gandharva  and  Apsaras. 
Nishadha,  inhabited  by  the  Naga  or  snakes,  which  have 
the  following  seven  princes :  Ananta,  Yasuki,  Tak- 
shaka,  Karkotaka,  Mahapadma,  Kambala,  Asvatara. 
Nila,  peacock-like,  of  many  colours,  inhabited  by  the 
Siddha  and  Brahmarshi,  the  anchorites.    The  mountain  Page  124 


148 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


The  com- 
mentator of 
Patanjali 
on  the  same 
subject. 


Sveta,  inhabited  by  the  Daitya  and  Danava.  The 
mountain  Sringavant,  inhabited  by  the  Pitaras,  the 
fathers  and  grandfathers  of  the  Deva.  Not  far  to  the 
north  of  this  mountain  there  are  mountain-passes  full 
of  jewels  and  of  trees  which  remain  during  a  whole 
kalpa.  And  in  the  centre  of  these  mountains  is 
Ilavrita,  the  highest  of  all.  The  whole  is  called 
Furiishajjarvata.  The  region  between  the  Himavant 
and  the  Sriiigavant  is  called  Kailasa,  the  play-ground  of 
the  Rakshasa  and  Apsaras." 

The  Vishnu-Purdna  says  :  "The  great  mountains  of 
the  middle  earth  are  Sri-parvata,  Malaya-parvata,  Mfd- 
yavant,  Vindhya,  Trikuta,  Tripurantika,  and  Kailasa. 
Their  inhabitants  drink  the  water  of  the  rivers,  and  live 
in  eternal  bliss." 

The  Vdyu-Purdna  contains  similar  statements  about 
the  four  sides  and  the  height  of  Meru  as  the  hitherto 
quoted  Puranas.  Besides,  it  says  that  on  each  side  of  it 
there  is  a  quadrangular  mountain,  in  the  east  the  Mal- 
yavant,  in  the  north  Anila,  in  the  west  the  Gandhama- 
dana,  and  in  the  south  the  Nishadha. 

The  Aditya-Purdna  gives  the  same  statement  about 
the  size  of  each  of  its  four  sides  which  we  have  quoted 
from  the  Matsya-Purdna,  but  I  have  not  found  in  it  a 
statement  about  the  height  of  Meru.  According  to  this 
Purana,  its  east  side  is  of  gold,  the  west  of  silver,  the 
south  of  rubies,  the  north  of  different  jewels. 

The  extravagant  notions  of  the  dimensions  of  Meru 
would  be  impossible  if  they  had  not  the  same  extrava- 
gant notions  regarding  the  earth,  and  if  there  is  no 
limit  fixed  to  guesswork,  guesswork  may  without  any 
hindrance  develop  into  lying.  For  instance,  the  com- 
mentator of  the  book  of  Patanjali  not  only  makes  Meru 
quadrangular,  but  even  oblong.  The  length  of  one  side 
he  fixes  at  15  koti,  i.e.  150,000,000  yojana,  whilst  he 
fixes  the  length  of  the  other  three  sides  only  at  the 
third  of  this,  i.e.  5  Jcoti.     Regarding  the  four  sides  of 


Buddhistic 
views. 


CHAPTER  XXII I.  .    249 

Meru,  he  says  that  on  the  east  are  the  mountain 
Malava  and  the  ocean,  and  between  them  the  kingdoms 
called  Bhadmsva.  On  the  north  are  Nila,  Sita,  Sringa- 
dri,  and  the  ocean,  and  between  them  the  kingdoms 
Ramyaka,  Hiranmaya,  and  Kurn.  On  the  west  are  the 
mountain  Gandhamadana  and  the  ocean,  and  between 
them  the  kingdom  Ketumfda.  On  the  south  are 
Mravarta  (?),  Nishadha,  Hemakuta,  Himagiri,  and  the 
ocean,  and  between  them  the  kingdoms  Bbaratavarsha, 
Kimpurusha,  and  Harivarsha. 

This  is  all  I  could  find  of  Hindu  traditions  regarding 
Meru  ;  and  as  I  have  never  found  a  Buddhistic  book, 
and  never  knew  a  Buddhist  from  whom  I  might  have 
learned  their  theories  on  this  subject,  all  I  relate  of 
them  I  can  only  relate  on  the  authority  of  Aleranshahri, 
though,  according  to  my  mind,  his  report  has  no  claim 
to  scientific  exactness,  nor  is  it  the  report  of  a  man  who 
has  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  subject.  According 
to  him,  the  Buddhists  believe  that  Meru  lies  between 
four  worlds  in  the  four  cardinal  directions  ;  that  it  is 
square  at  the  bottom  and  round  at  the  top  ;  that  it  has 
the  length  of  80,000  yojana,  one  half  of  which  rises  into 
heaven,  whilst  the  other  half  goes  down  into  the  earth. 
That  side  which  is  next  to  our  world  consists  of  blue 
sapphires,  which  is  the  reason  why  heaven  appears  to 
us  blue  ;  the  other  sides  are  of  rubies,  yellow  and  white 
gems.     Thus  ]\Ieru  is  the  centre  of  the  earth. 

The  mountain  Kdf,  as  it  is  called  by  our  common 
people,  is  with  the  Hindus  the  Lokaloka.     They  main-  P^vge  125. 
tain   that   the    sun    revolves    from    Lokaloka    towards 
Meru,  and  that  he  illuminates  only  its  inner  northern 
side. 

Similar  views  are  held  by  the  Zoroastrians  of  S02'-  AUadition 

•^  ^  ^  °      of  the  Zoro- 

diana,  viz.   that  the  mountain  Ardiya  surrounds  the  astriansof 

.      .  .  Sogdiaiia. 

world  ;  that  outside  of  it  is  hliom,  similar  to  the  pupil  of 
the  eye,  in  which  there  is  something  of  everything,  and 
that  behind  it  there  is  a  vacuum.     In  the  centre  of  the 


250  A  LBER  UNFS  INDIA . 

world  is  the  mountain  Girnagar,  between  onr  KXtjia 
and  the  six  other  /cAt/xara,  the  throne  of  heaven.  Be- 
tween each  two  there  is  burning  sand,  on  which  no 
foot  could  stand.  The  spheres  revolve  in  the  climata 
like  mills,  but  in  ours  they  revolve  in  an  inclined  course, 
because  our  clima,  that  one  inhabited  by  mankind,  is 
the  uppermost. 


CHAPTER   XXIY. 

TRADITIONS   OF   THE    PURANAS    REGARDING   EACH    OF   THE 
SEVEN   DYIPAS. 

We  must  ask  the  reader  not  to  take  anv  offence  if  he  Description 
finds  all  the  words  and  meanings  which  occur  m  the  :)ccor.iing  to 
present  chapter  to  be  totally  dinerent  irom  anything  Awivishnu 
corresponding  in  Arabic.    Asfor  the  difference  of  w^ords, 
it  is  easily  accounted  for  by  the  difference  of  languages 
in  general ;  and  as  regards  the  difference  of  the  meanings, 
we  mention  them  only  either  in  order  to  draw  attention 
to  an  idea  which   might    seem  acceptable  even  to  a 
Muslim,  or  to  point  out  the  irrational  nature  of  a  thing 
which  has  no  foundation  in  itself. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  central  Dvipa  when 
describing  the  environs  of  the  mountain  in  its  centre. 
It  is  called  Jambii-Dvipa,  from  a  tree  growing  in  it,  the  p^f'™^^^" 
branches  of  which  extend  over  a  space  of  lOO  yojana. 
In  a  later  chapter,  devoted  to  the  description  of  the 
inhabitable  world  and  its  division,  we  shall  finish  the 
description  of  Jambu-Dvipa.  Next,  however,  we  shall 
describe  the  other  Dvipas  which  surround  it,  following, 
as  regards  the  order  of  the  names,  the  authority  of 
Matsya-Purdna,  for  the  above-mentioned  reason  (v.  p. 
236).  But  before  entering  into  this  subject  we  shall 
here  insert  a  tradition  of  the  Vdyu-Purdna  regarding 
the  central  Dvipa  (Jambu-Dvipa). 

According  to  this  source,  "there  are  two  kinds  of  JJJ;®s"of^^^' 
inhabitants  in   Madhyadesa.     First  the  Kimpurusha.  Madi.ya- 
Their  men  are  known  as  the  sfold-coloured  ones,  their  ^"l^i"^*^' 
women  as  surenu.     They  live  a  long  life  without  ever  «^«- 


252  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

being  ill.  They  never  commit  a  sin,  and  do  not  know- 
envy.  Their  food  is  a  juice  which  they  express  from 
the  dates  of  the  palm  trees,  called  madya  (?).  The 
second  kind  are  the  Hariimrusha,  having  the  colour 
of  silver.  They  live  ii,ooo  years,  are  beardless,  and 
their  food  is  sugar-cane."  Since  they  are  described  as 
beardless  and  silver-coloured,  one  might  be  ioclined  to 
take  them  for  Turks  ;  but  the  fact  of  their  eating  dates 
and  sugar-cane  compels  ns  to  see  in  them  a  more  south- 
ern nation.  But  where  do  we  find  people  of  the  colour 
of  gold  or  silver  ?  We  know  only  of  the  colour  of  burnt 
silver,  which  occurs,  e.g.  among  the  Zanj,  who  lead  a 
life  without  sorrow  and  envy,  as  they  do  not  possess 
anything  which  gives  birth  to  these  passions.  They 
live  no  doubt  longer  than  we,  but  only  a  little  longer, 
and  by  no  means  twice  as  long.  The  Zanj  are  so  un- 
civilised that  they  have  no  notion  of  a  natural  death. 
If  a  man  dies  a  natural  death,  they  think  he  was 
poisoned.  Every  death  is  suspicious  with  them,  if  a 
man  has  not  been  killed  by  a  weapon.  Likewise  it  is 
regarded  with  suspicion  by  them,  if  a  man  is  touched 
by  the  breath  of  a  consumptive  person. 

2.  Saka-  We  shall  now  describe  Sdka-Dvipa.    It  has,  according 

to  the  Matsya-Purdna,  seven  great  rivers,  one  of  w^hich 
equals  the  Ganges  in  purity.  In  the  first  ocean  there 
are  seven  mountains  adorned  with  jewels,  some  of  which 
are  inhabited  by  Devas,  others  by  demons.  One  of  them 
is  a  golden,  lofty  mountain,  whence  the  clouds  rise 
which   bring  us   the  rain.     Another  contains   all   the 

Page  126.  medicines.  Indra,  the  ruler,  takes  from  it  the  rain. 
Another  one  is  called  Soma.  Regarding  this  mountain 
they  relate  the  following  story  : — 

The  story  of        Kasyapa  had  two  wives,  Kadru,  the  mother  of  the 

vinata.         snakes,  and  Vinata,  the  mother  of  the  birds.     Both 

Garuda libe-    ■..-,.  i    •  i  j  i  -i  tx 

rates  bis       lived  lu  a  plain  where  there  was  a  grey  horse.     How- 

meansofThe  ever,  the   mother  of  the  snakes  maintained  that  the 

'"" '^'        horse  was  brown.     Now  they  made  the  covenant  that 


CHAPTER  XXIV.  253 

she  who  v/as  wrong  should  become  the  slave  of  the 
other,  but  they  postponed  the  decision  till  the  follow- 
ing day.  In  the  following  night  the  mother  of  the 
snakes  sent  her  black  children  to  the  horse,  to  wind 
themselves  round  it  and  to  conceal  its  colour.  In  con- 
sequence the  mother  of  the  birds  became  her  slave  for 
a  time. 

The  latter,  Vinata,  had  two  children,  Anuru,  the 
guardian  of  the  tower  of  the  sun,  which  is  drawn  by 
the  horses,  and  Garuda.  The  latter  spoke  to  his  mother  : 
"Demand  from  the  children  nourished  at  your  breast 
what  may  restore  you  to  liberty."  This  she  did. 
People  also  spoke  to  her  of  the  ambrosia  (amrita), 
which  is  with  the  Devas.  Thereupon  Garuda  flew  to 
the  Devas  and  demanded  it  from  them,  and  they  ful- 
filled his  wish.  For  Amrita  is  one  of  those  things 
peculiar  to  them,  and  if  somebody  else  gets  it,  he  lives 
as  long  as  the  Devas.  He  humbled  himself  before  them 
in  order  to  obtain  the  Amrita,  for  the  purpose  of  freeing 
therewith  his  mother,  at  the  same  time  promising  to 
bring  it  back  afterwards.  They  had  pity  upon  him, 
and  gave  it  him.  Thereupon  Garuda  went  to  the 
mountain  Soma,  in  which  the  Devas  were  living. 
Garuda  gave  the  Amrita  to  the  Devas,  and  thereby 
freed  his  mother.  Then  he  spoke  to  them  :  "  Do  hot 
come  near  the  Amrita  unless  you  have  before  bathed 
in  the  river  Ganges."  This  they  did,  and  left  the 
Amrita  where  it  was.  Meanwhile  Garuda  brought  it 
back  to  the  Devas,  and  obtained  thereby  a  high  rank 
in  sanctity,  so  that  he  became  the  king  of  all  the  birds 
and  the  riding-bird  of  Vishnu. 

The  inhabitants  of  Saka-Dvipa  are  pious,  long-lived 
beings,  who  can  dispense  with  the  rule  of  kings,  since 
they  do  not  know  envy  nor  ambition.  Their  lifetime, 
not  capable  of  any  change,  is  as  long  as  a  Tretayuga. 
The  four  colours  are  among  them,  i.e.  the  different 
castes,  which  do  not  intermarry  nor  mix  with  each  other. 


254  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

They  live  in  eternal  joy,  without  ever  being  sorry. 
According  to  Vishnu- Purdna,  the  names  of  their  castes 
are  Aryaka,  Kurura,  Yiviriisa  (Vivarhsa),  and  Bhavin  (?), 
and  they  worship  Vasudeva. 

3.  Kusa-  The  third  Dvipa  is  Kusa-Dvipa.     According  to  the 

Matsya-Furdna  it  has  seven  mountains  containing 
jewels,  fruit,  flowers,  odoriferous  plants,  and  cereals. 
One  of  them,  named  Drona,  contains  famous  medicines 
or  drugs,  particularly  the  I'isalyakarana,  which  heals 
every  wound  instantaneously,  and  mritasamjivan,  which 
restores  the  dead  to  life.  Another  one,  called  hari,  is 
similar  to  a  black  cloud.  On  this  mountain  there  is  a 
fire  called  Mahisha,  which  has  come  out  of  the  water, 
and  will  remain  there  till  the  destruction  of  the  world  ; 
it  is  this  very  fire  which  will  burn  the  world.  Kusa- 
Dvipa  has  seven  kingdoms  and  innumerable  rivers 
flowing  to  the  sea,  which  are  then  changed  by  Indra 
into  rain.  To  the  greatest  rivers  belong  Jaunu  (Ya- 
muna), which  purifies  from  all  sins.  About  the  in- 
habitants of  this  Dvipa,  Matsy a- Purdna  does  not  give 
any  information.  According  to  Vishnu- Purdna  the 
inhabitants  are  pious,  sinless  people,  every  one  of  them 
living  10,000  years.  They  worship  Jandrdana,  and 
the  names  of  their  castes  are  Damin,  Sushmin,  Sneha, 
and  Mandeha. 

4.  Kiiiuncu-       The  fourth,  or  Kraunca-Dvipa,  has,  according  to  the 
^^^^'''         3Iatsya-PuTdna,  mountains  containing    jewels,   rivers 

which  are  branches  of  the  Ganges,  and  kingdoms  the 
people  of  which  have  a  white  colour  and  are  pious  and 
Page  127.  pure.  According  to  Vishnu-Pur  ana  the  people  there 
live  in  one  and  the  same  place  without  any  distinction 
among  members  of  the  community,  but  afterwards  it 
says  that  the  names  of  their  castes  are  Pushkara, 
Pushkala,  Dhanya,  and  Tishya  (?).  They  worship 
Janardana. 

5.  sairnaia-       The  fifth,  or   Sillmala-Dvlpa,  has,  according  to  the 
^''^'''^'         Matsya-Purdna,  mountains  and  rivers.     Its  inhabitants 


CHAPTER  XXIV.  255 

are  pure,  long-lived,  mild,  and  never  angry.  They 
never  suffer  from  drought  or  dearth,  for  their  food 
comes  to  them  simply  in  answer  to  their  wishes,  with- 
out their  sowing  or  toiling.  They  come  into  exist- 
ence without  being  born  ;  they  are  never  ill  nor  sorry. 
They  do  not  require  the  rule  of  kings,  since  they  do  not 
know  the  desire  for  property.  They  live  contented  and 
in  safety  ;  they  always  prefer  that  which  is  good  and 
love  virtue.  The  climate  of  this  Dvipa  never  alters  in 
cold  or  heat,  so  they  are  not  bound  to  protect  them- 
selves against  either.  They  have  no  rain,  but  the 
water  bubbles  up  for  them  out  of  the  earth  and  drops 
down  from  the  mountains.  This  is  also  the  case  in 
the  following  Dvipas.  The  inhabitants  are  of  one  kind, 
without  any  distinction  of  caste.  Every  one  lives  3000 
years. 

According  to  the  Vishnu- Pur  dim  they  have  beauti- 
ful faces  and  worship  Bhagavat.  They  bring  offerings 
to  the  fire,  and  every  one  of  them  lives  10,000  years. 
The  names  of  their  castes  are  Kapila,  Aruna,  Pita, 
and  Krishna. 

The  sixth,  or  Gomeda-Dvipa,  has,  according  to  the  e.  Gomeda. 
Matsya-Purdna,  two  great  mountains,  the  deep-black    "^*' 
Stomanas,  which  encompasses  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Dvipa,  and  the  Kumuda,  of  golden   colour  and  very 
lofty ;    the    latter   one    contains    all    medicines.     This 
Dvipa  has  two  kingdoms. 

According  to  Vishnu- Purdna  the  inhabitants  are 
pious  and  without  sin  and  worship  A^ishnu.  The 
names  of  their  castes  are  Mriga,  Magadha,  Manasa,  and 
Mandaga.  The  climate  of  this  Dvipa  is  so  healthy  and 
pleasant  that  the  inhabitants  of  paradise  now  and  then 
visit  it  on  account  of  the  fragrancy  of  its  air. 

The  seventh,  or  Pushkara-Dvipa,  has,   accordino-  to  yPushkara- 
the  Matsya-Purdna,  in  its  eastern  part  the  mountain 
Oitrasdld,  i.e.  having  a  variegated  roof  with  horns  of 
jewels.     Its  height  is  34,000  yojana,   and   its  circum- 


2  56  ALBERUNI'S  INDIA. 

ference  25,000  yojanct.  In  the  west  lies  the  mountain 
Manasa,  shining  like  the  full  moon ;  its  height  is 
35,000  yojana.  This  mountain  has  a  son  who  protects 
his  father  against  the  west.  In  the  east  of  this  Dvipa 
are  two  kingdoms  where  every  inhabitant  lives  10,000 
years.  The  water  bubbles  up  for  them  out  of  the 
earth,  and  drops  down  from  the  mountains.  They 
have  no  rain  and  no  flowing  river ;  they  know  neither 
summer  nor  winter.  They  are  of  one  kind,  without 
any  distinction  of  caste.  They  never  suffer  from 
dearth,  and  do  not  get  old.  Everything  they  wish  for 
comes  to  them,  whilst  they  live  quiet  and  happy  with- 
out knowing  anything  else  but  virtue.  It  is  as  if  they 
were  in  the  suburb  of  paradise.  All  bliss  is  given  to 
them;  they  live  long  and  are  without  ambition.  So 
there  is  no  service,  no  rule,  no  sin,  no  envy,  no  oppo- 
sition, no  debating,  no  toiling  in  agriculture  and  dili- 
gence in  trading. 

According  to  the  Vishim-Furdna,  Pushkara-Dvipa  is 
so  called  from  a  large  tree,  which  is  also  called  nya- 
groclha.  Under  this  tree  is  Brahma-ruj^a,  i.e.  the  figure 
of  Brahman,  worshipped  by  the  Deva  and  Dauava. 
The  inhabitants  are  equal  among  each  other,  not  claim- 
ing any  superiority,  whether  they  be  human  beings  or 
beings  associating  with  the  Devas.  In  this  Dvipa 
there  is  only  a  single  mountain,  called  Mcinasottama, 
which  rises  in  a  round  form  on  the  round  Dvipa.  From 
its  top  all  the  other  Dvipas  are  visible,  for  its  height 
is  50,000  yojana^  and  the  breadth  the  same. 


(     257     ) 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

ON   THE  RIVERS  OF  INDIA,  THEIR  SOURCES  AND   COURSES. 

The   Vdyu-Purdna  enumerates  the  rivers  rising  in  the  Page  128. 
well-known  great  mountains  which  we  have  mentioned  tromV^w- 
as  the  knots  of  Mount  Meru  {vide  p.  247).     To  facili-  ^"'■"•''• 
tate  the  study  we  exhibit  them  in  the  following  table  : — 


The  Great  Knots. 


Mahendra 
Malaya   . 

Sahya     . 

Sukti 

Riksha    . 

Vindhya 

Pariyatra 
VOL.  I. 


Names  of  the  Rivers  which  rise  in  them  in 
Nagarasam  vritta. 


Trisaga,  Rishikulya,  Ikshula,  TripavS,  (?), 
Ayana  (?),  LangAlini,  Varii.savara. 

Kritamala,  Tamravarna,  Pushpajati,  Utpala- 
vati  (!). 

God^vari,  Bhimarathi,  Krishna,  Vainyfi,  Sa- 
vafijula,  Tungabhadra,  Suprayog<i,Pajaya  (?), 
KRveri. 

Rishika,  Brduka  (!),  Kumari,  Mandav^hini, 
Kirpa  (!),  Palasini. 

Sona,  Mahanada,  Narmada,  Surasa,  Kirva  (?), 
Mandakini,  Dasarna,  Citrakuhi,  Tamasa, 
Pipyala,  Sroni,  Karamoda  (?),  Pisabika  (?), 
Citrapala,  Mahavega,  Banjul^,  Baluvaliini, 
Suktimati,  Shakruna  (?),  Tridiva. 

Tapi,  Payoshni,  Nirbindhya,  Sirva  (?),  Nish- 
adha,  Venva,  Vaitarani,  Sini,  Hahu  (!) 
Kumudvati,  Toba,  Mahagauri,  Durga, 
Antasila. 

Vedasmriti,  Vedavati,  Vritraglmi  (?)  Parnasa, 
Naiidana,  Saddana  (?),  Ramadi  (?),  Para, 
Carmanvati,  Li\pa  (?),  Vidisa. 


^ 


258  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

The  rivers  of  The  Mataya-V'iiTana  and  Vdyu-Furdria  mention  the 
AsiTfsing  rivers  flowiDg  in  Jambu-Dvipa,  and  say  that  they  rise 
layaandits"  in  the  mountains  of  Himavant.  In  the  following  table 
towesrand  we  simply  enumerate  them,  without  following  any 
*'^^^'  particular  principle  of  arrangement.     The  reader  must 

imagine  that  the  mountains  form  the  boundaries  of 
India.  The  northern  mountains  are  the  snowy  Hima- 
vant. In  their  centre  lies  Kashmir,  and  they  are  con- 
nected with  the  country  of  the  Turks.  This  mountain 
region  becomes  colder  and  colder  till  the  end  of  the 
inhabitable  world  and  Mount  Meru.  Because  this 
Page  129.  mountain  has  its  chief  extension  in  longitude,  the  rivers 
rising  on  its  north  side  flow  through  the  countries  of  the 
Turks,  Tibetans,  Khazars,  and  Slavonians,  and  fall  into  the 
Sea  of  Jurjan  (the  Caspian  Sea),  or  the  sea  of  Khwarizm 
(the  Aral  Sea),  or  the  Sea  Pontus  (the  Black  Sea),  or  the 
northern  Sea  of  the  Slavonians  (the  Baltic)  ;  whilst  the 
rivers  rising  on  the  southern  slopes  flow  through  India 
and  fall  into  the  great  ocean,  some  reaching  it  single, 
others  combined. 
Rivers  of  The  rivers  of  India  come  either  from  the  cold  moun- 

India. 

tains  in  the  north  or  from  the  eastern  mountains,  both 
of  which  in  reality  form  one  and  the  same  chain,  ex- 
tending towards  the  east,  and  then  turning  towards  the 
south  until  they  reach  the  great  ocean,  where  parts  of 
it  penetrate  into  the  sea  at  the  place  called  the  Dike  of 
Rama.  Of  course,  these  mountains  differ  very  much 
in  cold  and  heat. 

We  exhibit  the  names  of  the  rivers  in  the  following 
table : — 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


259 


Sindh  or 

the  river 

of  Vaihand. 

Biyatta 
or  Jailam. 

Candrabhaga      Biyaha 
or             to  the  west 
Candr&ha.       of  Lahore. 

Iravati  to 

the  east  of 

Lahore. 

S'atarudra 

or 
Shataldar. 

Sarsat, 
flowing 
through 
the  country 
Sarsat. 

Jaun. 

] 

noA^A              Sarayu 
^^^g^-           or  Sarwa. 

Devika. 

Kuhu. 

Gomati. 

Dhutapapa. 

,,.,,,             Bahuda- 
^'^^'''-       1       sa  {!). 

Kaus'iki, 

Nis'cira. 

Gandaki. 

Lohita. 

Dnshadvati.        ^^ 

1 

Parnasa. 

Vedasmriti. 

Vidasini. 

Candana. 

Kawana.     |       Para. 

Carman  vati. 

Vidi.sa. 

Venumati. 

S'ipra,  rises 

in  the 

Pariyatra 

and  passes 

Ujain. 

Karatoya.      Shmahina. 

In  the  mountains  bordering  on  the  kingdom  of  Kaya-  siudhriv 
bish,  i.e.  Kabul,  rises  a  river  which  is  called  Ghorwand,  Page  130. 
on  account  of  its   many   branches.     It   is  joined  by 
several  affluents  : — 

1.  The  river  of  the  pass  of  Ghuzak. 

2.  The  river  of  the  gorge  of  Panchir,  below  the  town 
of  Parwan. 

3.  4.  The  river  Sharvat  and  the  river  Sawa,  which 
latter  flows  through  the  town  of  Lanbaga,  i.e.  Lamghan  ; 
they  join  the  Ghorvand  at  the  fortress  of  Driita. 

5,  6.  The  rivers  Niir  and  Kira. 

Swelled  by  these  affluents,  the  Ghorvand  is  a  great 
river  opposite  the  town  of  Purshavar,  being  there  called 
the  ford,  from  a  ford  near  the  village  of  Mahanara,  on 
the  eastern  banks  of  the  river,  and  it  falls  into  the  river 
Sindh  near  the  castle  of  Bitur,  below  the  capital  of 
Alkandahar  (Gandhara),  i.e.  Vaihand. 

The  river  Biyatta,  known  as  Jailam,  from  the  city  of 


26o  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

Rivers  of  tliis  name  on  its  western  banks,  and  the  river  Canda- 
raha  join  each  other  nearly  Sfty  miles  above  Jahravar, 
and  pass  along  west  of  Multan. 

The  river  Biyah  flows  east  of  Mnltan,  and  joins  after- 
wards the  Biyatta  and  Candaraha. 

The  river  IrCiva  is  joined  by  the  river  Kaj,  which  rises 
in  Nagarkot  in  the  mountains  of  Bhatul.  Thereupon 
follows  as  the  fifth  the  river  Shatladar  (Satlej). 

After  these  five  rivers  have  united  below  Multan 
at  a  place  called  Fancanada,  i.e.  the  meeting-place  of 
the  five  rivers,  they  form  an  enormous  watercourse. 
In  flood-times  it  sometimes  swells  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  cover  nearly  a  space  of  ten  farsakh,  and  to  rise 
above  the  tree  of  the  plains,  so  that  afterwards  the 
rubbish  carried  by  the  floods  is  found  in  their  highest 
branches  like  birds-nests. 

The  Muslims  call  the  river,  after  it  has  passed  the 
Sindhi  city  Aror,  as  a  united  stream,  the  river  of 
Mihrdn.  Thus  it  extends,  flowing  straight  on,  be- 
coming broader  and  broader,  and  gaining  in  purity  of 
water,  enclosing  in  its  course  places  like  islands,  until 
it  reaches  Almansura,  situated  between  several  of  its 
arms,  and  flows  into  the  ocean  at  two  places,  near  the 
city  Loharani,  and  more  eastward  in  the  province  of 
Kacch  at  a  place  called  SincUm-sdgara,  i.e.  the  Sindh 
Sea. 
Eraiiian  As  the  name  union  of  the  five  rivers  occurs  in  this 

tradition.  ^^^^^  ^£  ^^^  ^orld  (in  Panjab),  we  observe  that  a  similar 
name  is  used  also  to  the  north  of  the  above-mentioned 
mountain  chains,  for  the  rivers  which  flow  thence 
towards  the  north,  after  having  united  near  Tirmidh 
and  having  formed  the  river  of  Balkh,  are  called  tlie 
union  of  the  seven  rivers.  The  Zoroastrians  of  Sogdiana 
have  confounded  these  two  things  ;  for  they  say  that 
the  whole  of  the  seven  rivers  is  Sindh,  and  its  upper 
course  Baridish.  A  man  descending  on  it  sees  the 
sinking  of  the  sun  on  his  right  side  if  he  turns  his 


CHAPTER  XXV.  261 

face  towards  the  west,  as  we  see  it  here  on  onr  left 
side  (sic). 

The  river  Sarsati  falls  into  the  sea  at  the  distance  of  various 
a  bowshot  east  of  Somanath.  india. 

The  river  Jaun  joins  the  Ganges  below  Kanoj,  which 
lies  west  of  it.  The  united  stream  falls  into  the  great 
ocean  near  Gaiigasagara. 

Between  the  months  of  the  rivers  Sarsati  and  Ganges 
is  the  mouth  of  the  river  Narmada,  which  descends 
from  the  eastern  mountains,  takes  its  course  in  a  south- 
western direction,  and  falls  into  the  sea  near  the  town 
Bahroj,  nearly  sixty  yojana  east  of  Somanath. 

Behind  the  Ganges  flow  the  rivers  Eahab  and  Ka- 
wini,  which  join  the  river  Sarwa  near  the  city  of  Bari. 

The  Hindus  believe  that  the  Ganges  in  ancient  times 
flowed  in  Paradise,  and  w^e  shall  relate  at  a  subsequent 
opportunity  how  it  happened  to  come  down  upon 
earth. 

The  Matsya-PuTctna  says:   "After  the  Ganges  had  Quotation 
settled  on  earth,  it  divided  itself  into  seven  arms,  the  Mat^ya- 
middle  of  which  is  the  main   stream,   known  as  the 
Ganges.       Three    flowed    eastward,   Nalini,    Hradini, 
and  Pavani,  and  three   westward,   Sita,    Cakshu,   and 
Sindhii. 

The  river  Sita  rises  in  the  Himavant,  and  flows 
through  these  countries  :  Salila,  Karstuba,  Cina,  Yar- 
vara,  Yavasa  (?),  Baha,  Pushkara,  Kulata,  Maiigala, 
Kavara,  and  Saiigavanta  (?)  ;  then  it  falls  into  the 
western  ocean. 

South  of  Sita  flows  the  river  Cakshu s,  which  irrigates 
the  countries  Cina,  Maru,  Kalika  (?),  Dhiilika  (?),  Tuk- 
hara,  Barbara,  Kaca  (?),  Palhava,  and  Barwancat. 

The  river  Sindh  flows  through  the  countries  Sindhu, 
Darada,  Zindutuuda  (?),  Gandhara,  Eiirasa  (?),  Krura  (?), 
Sivapaura,  Indramaru,  Sabati  (?),  Saindhava,  Kubata, 
Bahimarvara,  Mara,  Mruna,  and  Sukiirda. 

The  river  Ganges,  which  is  the   middle   and  main 


Purdiia. 
Page  131 


Vishnu- 
Pur  una. 


262  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

stream,  flows  through  the  Gandharva,  the  musicians, 
Kimnara,  Yakshas,  Eakshasa,  Vidyadhara,  Uraga,  i.e. 
those  who  creep  on  their  breasts,  the  serpents,  Kalapa- 
grama,  i.e.  the  city  of  the  most  virtuous,  Kimpurusha, 
Khasa  (?),  the  mountaineers,  Kirata,  Pulinda,  the 
hunters  in  the  plains,  robbers,  Kuru,  Bharata,  Pancala, 
Kaushaka  (?),  Matsya,  Magadha,  Brahmottara,  and 
Tamalipta.  These  are  the  good  and  bad  beings 
through  whose  territories  the  Ganges  flows.  After- 
wards it  enters  into  branches  of  the  mountain  Vin- 
dhya,  where  the  elephants  live,  and  then  it  falls  into 
the  southern  ocean. 

Of  the  eastern  Ganges  arms,  the  Hradini  flows  through 
the  countries  Nishaba,  Upakana,  Dhivara,  Prishaka, 
Nilamukha,  Kikara,  Ushtrakarna,  i.e.  people  whose  lips 
are  turned  like  their  ears,  Kirata,  Kalidara,  Vivarna,  i.e. 
the  colourless  people,  so  called  on  account  of  their  intense 
blackness,  Kushikana,  and  Svargabhumi,  i.e.  a  country 
like  Paradise.     Finally  it  falls  into  the  eastern  ocean. 

The  river  Pavani  gives  water  to  the  Kupatha  (?),  who 
are  far  from  sin,  Indradyumnasaras,  i.e.  the  cisterns  of 
the  king  Indradyumna,  Kharapatha,  Bitra,  and  Sanku- 
patha.  It  flows  through  the  steppe  Udyanamariira, 
through  the  country  of  the  Kusapravarana,  and  Indra- 
dvipa,  and  afterwards  it  falls  into  the  salt  sea. 

The  river  Nalini  flows  through  Tfimara,  Haiiisamarga, 
Sam iih Ilka,  and  Piirna.  All  these  are  pious  people  who 
abstain  from  evil.  Then  it  flows  through  the  midst  of 
mountains  and  passes  by  the  Karnapravarana,  i.e.  people 
whose  ears  fall  down  on  their  shoulders,  Asvamukha, 
i.e.  people  with  horse-faces,  Parvatamaru,  mountainous 
steppes,  and  Kumimandala.  Finally  it  flows  into  the 
ocean. 

The  Vishmi-P iirclna  mentions  that  the  great  rivers 
of  the  middle  earth  which  flow  into  the  ocean  are 
Anutapata,  Shikhi,  Dipapa,  Tridiva,  Karma,  Amrita 
and  Sukrita. 


(     263     ) 


CHAPTEE   XXVL 

ON    THE    SHAPE    OF    HEAVEN   AND    EARTH    ACCORDING   TO  Page  132. 
THE   HINDU   ASTRONOMERS. 

This  and  similar  questions  have  received  at  the  Lands 

of  the  Hindus  a  treatment  and  soUition  total]\^  different 

from  that  which  they  have  received  among  ns  Muslims. 

The  sentences  of  the  Koran  on  these  and  other  subjects  The  Koran, 

necessarv  for  man  to  know  are  not  such  as  to  require  a  and  clear 

T  '^.  .  .  -,  ,  .    .  basis  of  all 

strained  interpretation  m  order  to  become  positive  cer-  research, 
tainties  in  the  minds  of  the  hearers,  and  the  same  may- 
be said  regarding  the  holy  codes  revealed  before  the 
Koran.  The  sentences  of  the  Koran  on  the  subjects 
necessary  for  man  to  know  are  in  perfect  harmony  with 
the  other  religious  codes,  and  at  the  same  time  they  are 
perfectly  clear,  without  any  ambiguity.  Besides,  the 
Koran  does  not  contain  questions  which  have  for  ever 
been  subjects  of  controversy,  nor  such  questions  the 
solution  of  which  has  always  been  despaired  of,  e.g. 
questions  similar  to  certain  puzzles  of  chronology. 

Islam  was  alreadv  in  its  earliest  times  exposed  to  the  islam 

•,..  ^"11  !••!        falsified : 

machinations  of  people  who  w^ere  opposed  to  it  m  the  i.  By  a 
bottom  of  their  heart,  people  who  preached  Islam  with  party, 
sectarian  tendencies,  and  who  read  to  simple-minded 
audiences  out  of  their  Koran-copies  passages  of  which 
not  a  single  word  was  ever  created  (i.e.  revealed)  by 
God.  But  people  believed  them  and  copied  these 
things  on  their  authority,  beguiled  by  their  hypocrisy  ; 
nay,  they  disregarded  the  true  form  of  the  book  which 
they  had  had  until  then,  because  the  vulgar  mind  is 


264 


ALBERUNPS  INDIA 


II.   B3'the 
dualists. 


Veneration 
of  the 
Hindus  for 
their  as- 
tronomers. 


always  inclined  to  any  kind  of  delusion.  Thus  the* 
pure  tradition  of  Islam  has  been  rendered  confused  by 
this  Judaistic  party. 

Islam  encountered  a  second  mishap  at  the  hands  of 
the  Zindiks,  the  followers  of  Mani,  like  Ibn  Almukaffa', 
'Abd-alkarim  Ibn  *Abi-arauja',  and  others,  who,  being 
the  fathers  of  criticism,  and  declaring  one  thing  sls  just, 
another  as  admissible,  &c.,  raised  doubts  in  weak-minded 
people  as  to  the  One  and  First,  i.e.  the  Unique  and 
Eternal  God,  and  directed  their  sympathies  towards 
dualism.  At  the  same  time  they  presented  the  bio- 
graphy of  Mani  to  the  people  in  such  a  beautiful  garb 
that  they  were  gained  over  to  his  side.  Now  this  man 
did  not  confine  himself  to  the  trash  of  his  sectarian 
theology,  but  also  proclaimed  his  views  about  the  form 
of  the  world,  as  may  be  seen  from  his  books,  which  were 
intended  for  deliberate  deception.  His  opinions  were 
far-spread.  Together  with  the  inventions  of  the  above- 
mentioned  Judaistic  party,  they  formed  a  religious 
system  which  was  declared  to  be  the  Islam,  but  with 
which  God  has  nothing  whatever  to  do.  Whoso  opposes 
it  and  firmly  adheres  to  the  orthodox  faith  in  conformity 
with  the  Koran  is  stigmatised  by  them  as  an  infidel  and 
heretic  and  condemned  to  death,  and  they  will  not 
allow  him  to  hear  the  word  of  the  Koran.  All  these 
acts  of  theirs  are  more  impious  than  even  the  words  of 
Pharaoh,  "I  am  your  highest  lord"  (Sura,  79,  24), 
and  "  I  do  not  know  of  any  god  for  you  save  myself  " 
(Sura,  28,  38).  If  party  spirit  of  this  kind  will  go  on 
and  rule  for  a  long  time,  we  may  easily  decline  from  the 
straight  path  of  honour  and  duty.  We,  however,  take 
our  refuge  with  God,  who  renders  firm  the  foot  of  every 
one  who  seeks  Hi^n,  and  who  seeks  the  truth  about 
Him. 

The  religious  books  of  the  Hindus  and  their  codes 
of  tradition,  the  Puranas,  contain  sentences  about  the 
shape  of  the  world  which  stand  in  direct  opposition  to 


CHAPTER  XXVL  265 

scientific  truth  as  known  to  their  astronomers.  By 
these  books  people  are  guided  in  fulfilling  the  rites  of 
their  religion,  and  by  means  of  them  the  great  mass  of 
the'  nation  have  been  wheedled  into  a  predilection  for 
astronomical  calculation  and  astrological  predictions 
and  warnings.  The  consequence  is,  that  they  show  much 
affection  to  their  astronomers,  declaring  that  they  are 
excellent  men,  that  it  is  a  good  omen  to  meet  them,  and 
firmly  believing  that  all  of  them  come  into  Paradise  and 
none  into  hell.     For  this  the  astronomers  requite  them  Astrono- 

...  .  ,        ,  mers  admit 

by  accepting  their  popular  notions  as  truth,  by  con-  popular 
forming  themselves  to  them,  however  far  from  truth  their 
most  of  them  may  be,  and  by  presenting  them  with  such 
spiritual  stuff  as  they  stand  in  need  of.  This  is  the 
reason  why  the  two  theories,  the  vulgar  and  the 
scientific,  have  become  intermingled  in  the  course  of 
time,  why  the  doctrines  of  the  astronomers  have  been 
disturbed  and  confused,  in  particular  the  doctrines  of 
those  authors — and  they  are  the  majority — who  simply 
copy  their  predecessors,  who  take  the  bases  of  their 
science  from  tradition  and  do  not  make  them  the  objects 
of  independent  scientific  research. 

We  shall  now  explain  the  views  of  Hindu  astrono-  oeuerai 
mers  regarding  the  present  subject,  viz.  the  shape  of  on^thr  '°^^ 
heaven  and  earth.     According  to  them,  heaven  as  well  of  the  earth, 
as  the    whole  world  is    round,   and  the   earth   has    a  andVada- 
globular  shape,  the  northern  half  being  dry  land,  the  ^'^™'^''^''^- 
southern  half  being  covered  with  water.     The  dimen-  Page  133. 
sion  of  the  earth  is  larger  according  to  them  than  it  is 
according  to  the  Greeks  and  modern  observations,  and 
in  their  calculations  to  find  this  dimension  they  have 
entirely  given  up  any  mention  of  the  traditional  seas 
and  Dvipas,  and  of  the  enormous  sums  of  yojana  attri- 
buted to  each  of  them.     The  astronomers  follow  the 
theologians  in  everything  which  does  not  encroach  upon 
their  science,  e.g.  they  adopt  the  theory  of  Mount  Meru 
being  under   the  north  pole,   and  that  of  the  island 


266  ALBERUNrS  INDIA. 

Vadav^mukha  lying  under  the  south  pole.  Now,  it  is 
entirely  irrelevant  whether  Meru  is  there  or  not,  as  it 
is  only  required  for  the  explanation  of  the  particular 
mill-like  rotation,  which  is  necessitated  by  the  fact  that 
to  each  spot  on  the  plane  of  the  earth  corresponds  a  spot 
in  the  sky  as  its  zenith.  Also  the  fable  of  the  southern 
island  Yadavamukha  does  no  harm  to  their  science, 
although  it  is  possible,  nay,  even  likely,  that  each  pair  of 
quarters  of  the  earth  forms  a  coherent,  uninterrupted 
unity,  the  one  as  a  continent,  the  other  as  an  ocean 
(and  that  in  reality  there  is  no  such  island  under  the 
south  pole).  Such  a  disposition  of  the  earth  is  required 
by  the  law  of  gravitation,  for  according  to  them  the 
earth  is  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and  everything 
heavy  gravitates  towards  it.  Evidently  on  account  of 
this  law  of  gravitation  they  consider  heaven,  too,  as 
having  a  globular  shape. 

We  shall  now  exhibit  the  opinions  of  the  Hindu 
astronomers  on  this  subject  according  to  our  translation 
of  their  works.  In  case,  however,  one  word  or  other  in 
our  translation  should  be  used  in  a  meaning  different 
from  that  which  it  generally  has  in  our  sciences,  we  ask 
the  reader  to  consider  only  the  original  meaning  of  the 
word  (not  the  technical  one),  for  this  only  is  meant. 
Quotation  PuUsa  says  in  his  Siddhdnta :  "  Paulisa  the  Greek 

from  the  ,  ^ 

says  somewhere  that  the  earth  has  a  globular  shape, 
whilst  in  another  place  he  says  that  it  has  the  shape  of 
a  cover  {i.e.  of  a  flat  plane).  And  in  both  sentences  he 
is  right ;  for  the  plane  or  surface  of  the  earth  is  round, 
and  its  diameter  is  a  straight  line.  That  he,  however, 
only  believed  in  the  globular  shape  of  the  earth,  may 
be  proved  by  many  passages  of  his  work.  Besides,  all 
scholars  agree  on  this  head,  as  Varahamihira,  Arya- 
bhata,  Deva,  Srishena,  Vishnucandra,  and  Brahman. 
If  the  earth  were  not  round,  it  would  not  be  girded 
with  the  latitudes  of  the  different  places  on  earth,  day 
and  night  would  not  be  different  in  winter  and  summer, 


Siddhdnta 
of  Pulisa. 


CHAPTER  XXVI.  267 

and  the  conditions  of  the  planets  and  of  their  rotations 
would  be  quite  different  from  what  they  are. 

"The  position  of  the  earth  is  central.  Half  of  it  is 
clay,  half  water.  Mount  Meru  is  in  the  dry  half,  the 
home  of  the  Deva,  the  angels,  and  above  it  is  the  pole. 
In  the  other  half,  which  is  covered  by  water,  lies  A^ada- 
vamukha,  under  the  south  pole,  a  continent  like  an 
island,  inhabited  by  the  Daitya  and  Naga,  relatives  of 
the  Deva  on  Meru.  Therefore  it  is  also  called  Dait- 
yantara. 

"The  line  which  divides  the  two  earth-halves,  the 
dry  and  the  wet,  from  each  other,  is  called  Niraksha,  i.e. 
having  no  latitude,  being  identical  with  our  equator.  In 
the  four  cardinal  directions  with  relation  to  this  line 
there  are  four  great  cities  : — 

Yamakoti,  in  the  east.  [      Komaka,  in  the  west. 

Lanka,  in  the  south.  |       Siddhapura,  in  the  north. 

"  The  earth  is  fastened  on  the  two  poles,  and  held  by 
the  axis.  When  the  sun  rises  over  the  line  which 
passes  both  through  Meru  and  Lanka,  that  moment  is 
noon  to  Yamakoti,  midnight  to  the  Greeks,  and  evening 
to  Siddhapura." 

In  the  same  manner  things  are  represented  by  Arya- 
bhata. 

Brahmaefupta,  the  son  of  Jishnu.  a  native  of  Bhilla-  Quotation 

.  .  .  '     '  fi'-m  the 

mala,  says  in  his  Bralimasiddhdnta :    "  Many  are  the  Bmiimasid. 
sayings  of  people  about  the  shape  of  the  earth,  specially  B.ahma- 
among  those  who  study  the  Puranas  and  the  religious 
books.     Some  say  that  it  is  level  like  a  mirror,  others  Page  134. 
say  that  it  is  hollow  like  a  bowl.     Others  maintain  that 
it  is  level  like  a  mirror,  inclosed  by  a  sea,  this  sea  being 
inclosed  by  an  earth,  this  earth  being  inclosed  by  a  sea, 
&c.,  all  of  them  being  round  like  collars.     Each  sea 
or  earth  has  the  double  size  of  that  which  it  incloses. 
The  outside  earth  is  sixty-four  times  as  large  as  the 
central  earth,  and  the  sea  inclosing  the  outside  earth  is 


268  A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 

sixty-four  times  as  large  as  the  sea  inclosing  the  central 
earth.  Several  circumstances,  however,  compel  us  to 
attribute  globular  shape  both  to  the  earth  and  heaven, 
viz.  the  fact  that  the  stars  rise  and  set  in  different 
places  at  different  times,  so  that,  e.g.  a  man  in  Yama- 
koti  observes  one  identical  star  rising  above  the  western 
horizon,  whilst  a  man  in  Eiim  at  the  same  time  observes 
it  rising  above  the  eastern  horizon.  Another  argument 
to  the  same  effect  is  this,  that  a  man  on  Meru  observes 
one  identical  star  above  the  horizon  in  the  zenith  of 
Lanka,  the  country  of  the  demons,  whilst  a  man  in 
Lanka  at  the  same  time  observes  it  above  his  head. 
Besides,  all  astronomical  calculations  are  not  correct 
unless  we  assume  the  globular  figure  of  heaven  and 
earth.  Therefore  we  must  declare  that  heaven  is  a 
globe,  because  we  observe  in  it  all  the  characteristics 
of  a  globe,  and  the  observation  of  these  characteristics 
of  the  world  would  not  be  correct  unless  in  reality  it 
were  a  globe.  Now,  it  is  evident  that  all  the  other 
theories  about  the  world  are  futile." 
Quotations         Arvabliata  inquires  into  the  nature   of   the  world, 

trom  various  "^  ,'..  „  „  t-t 

astrono-  and  says  that  it  consists  oi  earth,  water,  nre,  and  wind, 
and  that  each  of  these  elements  is  round. 

Likewise  Vasishtha  and  Lata  say  that  the  five  ele- 
ments, viz.  earth,  water,  fire,  wind,  and  heaven,  are 
round. 

Varahamihira  says  that  all  things  which  are  per- 
ceived by  the  senses,  are  witnesses  in  favour  of  the 
globular  shape  of  the  earth,  and  refute  the  possibility 
of  its  having  another  shape. 

Aryabhata,  Pulisa,  Vasishtha,  and  Lata  agree  in  this, 
that  when  it  is  noon  in  Yamakoti,  it  is  midnight  in 
Rum,  beginning  of  the  day  in  Lanka,  and  beginning  of 
the  night  in  Siddhapura,  which  is  not  possible  if  the 
world  is  not  round.  Likewise  the  periodicity  of  the 
eclipses  can  only  be  explained  by  the  world's  being 
round. 


CHAPTER  XXVI.  269 

Lata  says  :  "  On  each  place  of  the  earth  only  one-half 
of  the  globe  of  heaven  is  seen.  The  more  northern  our 
latitude  is,  the  more  Meru  and  the  pole  rise  above  the 
horizon  ;  as  they  sink  down  below  the  horizon,  the  more 
southern  is  our  latitude.  The  equator  sinks  down  from 
the  zenith  of  places,  the  greater  their  latitude  is  both  in 
north  and  south.  A  man  who  is  north  of  the  equator 
only  sees  the  north  pole,  whilst  the  south  pole  is  invi- 
sible to  him,  and  vice  versa. ^' 

These  are  the  words  of  Hindu  astronomers  regarding  Considera- 

tioiis  rc- 

the  globular  shape  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  what  is  gardingtbe 

^  ^.  11'  1  1  1       rotundity  of 

between  them,  and  regarding  the  lact  that  the  earth,  the  earth, 
situated  in  the  centre  of  the  globe,  is  only  of  a  small  of  gravity 

.,,       J,  ••11  1         r    1  between  the 

Size  m  comparison  with   the  visible  part   or   heaven,  northern 
These  thoughts  are  the  elements  of  astronomy  as  con-  el-.i  SUs' 
tained  in  the  first  chapter  of  Ptolemy's  Almagest,  and  tnictiinof 
of  similar  books,  though  they  are  not  worked  out  in  ^^'^^^ 
that  scientific  form  in  which  we  are  accustomed  to  give 
them, 

(Lacuna,) 
for  the  earth  is  more  heavy  than  the  water,  and  the 
water  is  fluid  like  the  air.  The  globular  form  must  be 
to  the  earth  a  physical  necessity,  as  long  as  it  does  not, 
by  the  order  of  God,  take  another  form.  Therefore  the 
earth  could  not  move  towards  the  north,  nor  the  water  Page  135. 
move  towards  the  south,  and  in  consequence  one  whole 
half  is  not  terra  firma,  nor  the  other  half  water,  unless 
we  suppose  that  the  terra  firma  half  be  hollow.  As  far 
as  our  observation,  based  on  induction,  goes,  the  terra 
fi/rma  must  be  in  one  of  the  two  northern  quarters,  and 
therefore  we  guess  that  the  same  is  the  case  on  the 
adjacent  quarter.  We  admit  the  possibility  of  the 
existence  of  the  island  Vadavamukha,  but  we  do  not 
maintain  it,  since  all  we  know  of  it  and  of  Meru  is 
exclusively  based  on  tradition. 

The  equatorial  line  does  not,  in  the  quarter  of  the 
earth  known  to  us,  represent  a  boundary  between  terrcc 


270  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

firma  and  the  ocean.  For  in  certain  places  the  con- 
tinent protrudes  far  into  the  ocean,  so  as  to  pass  beyond 
the  equator,  e.g.  the  plains  of  the  negroes  in  the  west, 
which  protrude  far  towards  the  south,  even  beyond  the 
mountains  of  the  moon  and  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  in 
fact,  into  regions  which  we  do  not  exactly  know.  For 
that  continent  is  desert  and  impassable,  and  likewise 
the  sea  behind  Sufala  of  the  Zanj  is  unnavigable.  No 
ship  which  ventured  to  go  there  has  ever  returned  to 
relate  what  it  had  witnessed. 

Also  a  great  part  of  India  above  the  province  of  Sindh 
deeply  protrudes  far  towards  the  south,  and  seems  even 
to  pass  beyond  the  equator. 

In  the  midst  between  both  lie  Arabia  and  Yemen, 
but  they  do  not  go  so  far  south  as  to  cross  the  equator. 

Further,  as  the  terra  firma  stretches  far  out  into  the 
ocean,  thus  the  ocean  too  penetrates  into  terra  firma, 
breaking  into  it  in  various  places,  and  forming  bays 
and  gulfs.  For  instance,  the  sea  extends  as  a  tongue 
along  the  west  side  of  Arabia  as  far  as  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Central  Syria.  It  is  narrowest  near  Kulzum, 
whence  it  is  also  called  the  Sea  of  Kulzum . 

Another  and  still  larger  arm  of  the  sea  exists  east  of 
Arabia,  the  so-called  Persian  Sea.  Between  India  and 
China,  also,  the  sea  forms  a  great  curve  towards  the  north. 

Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  coast-line  of  these 
countries  does  not  correspond  to  the  equator,  nor  keep 
an  invariable  distance  from  it, 

(^Lac}(.na,) 
and  the  explanation  relating  to  the  four  cities  will  follow 
in  its  proper  place. 

The  difference  of  the  times  which  has  been  remarked 
is  one  of  the  results  of  the  rotundity  of  the  earth,  and 
of  its  occupying  the  centre  of  the  globe.  And  if  they 
attribute  to  the  earth,  though  it  be  round,  inhabitants — 
for  cities  cannot  be  imagined  without  inhabitants — the 
existence  of  men   on  earth  is  accounted   for  by  the 


CHAPTER  XXVI.  271 

attraction  of  everything  heavy  towards  its  centre,  i.e. 
tlie  middle  of  the  world. 

Much  to  the  same  effect  are  the  expressions  of  Vdyn-  Quotations 

-n         A  •  ^       1  '  K  A^•  ••TT-       f'-oin  the 

Far  ana,  viz.  that  noon  m  Amaravati  is  sunrise  in  Vai-  rdywand 
vasvata,  midnight  in  Siikha,  and  sunset  in  Vibha.  ranas. 

Similar,  also,  are  the  expressions  of  Matsija-Purdna, 
for  this  book  explains  that  east  of  Mem  lies  the  city 
Amaravatipura,  tbe  residence  of  Indra,  the  ruler,  and 
his  wife ;  south  of  Meru,  the  city  Samyamanipura, 
the  residence  of  Yama,  the  son  of  the  Sun,  where  he 
punishes  and  requites  mankind  ;  west  of  Meru,  the  city 
Sukhapura,  the  residence  of  Varuna,  i.e.  the  w^ater  ;  and 
north  of  Meru,  the  city  Yibhavavipura,  belonging  to  the 
Moon.  Sun  and  planets  revolve  round  Meru.  When 
tbe  sun  has  his  noon  position  in  Amaravatipura,  it  is 
the  beginning  of  the  day  in  Samyamanipura,  midnight 
in  Sukha,  and  the  beuinnino' of  the  niofht  in  Vibhavari- 
pura.  And  when  the  sun  has  his  noon  position  in 
Samyamanipura,  he  rises  over  Sukhapura,  sets  over 
Amaravatipura,  and  has  his  midnight  position  with 
relation  to  Yibhavaripura.  p^ige  136. 

If  the  author  of  the  Matsya-Pardna  savs  that  the  a  note  of  the 

'     -n    iM  •  author  on 

sun  revolves  round  Meru,  he  means  a  miil-like  rotation  the  passage 
round  those  who  inhabit  Meru,  who,  in  consequence  of  Matsya-Po- 

p     1  •  n  1  r&na. 

this  nature  01  the  rotation,  do  not  know  east  nor  west. 
The  sun  does  not  rise  for  the  inhabitants  of  Meru  in 
one  particular  place,  but  in  various  places.  By  the 
word  east  the  author  means  the  zenith  of  one  city,  and 
by  loest  the  zenith  of  another.  Possibly  those  four  cities 
of  the  Matsija-Fardaa  are  identical  with  those  men- 
tioned by  the  astronomers.  But  the  author  has  not 
mentioned  how  far  they  are  distant  from  Meru.  What 
we  have  besides  related  as  notions  of  the  Hindus  is 
perfectly  correct  and  borne  out  by  scientific  methods  ; 
however,  they  are  wont  never  to  speak  of  the  pole  unless 
they  mention  in  the  same  breath  also  the  mountain  Meru.  &"pta  and 

•^  Varahanii- 


Iq  the  definition  of  what  is  low  the  Hindus  agree 


hira  on  the 
law  oi 


with  US,  viz.  that  it  is  the  centre  of  the  world,  but  their  gravitation. 


272  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

expressions  on  this  head  are  subtle,  more  particularly 
as  this  is  one  of  the  great  questions  which  is  only 
handled  by  the  most  eminent  of  their  scholars. 

So  Brahmagupta  says  :  "  Scholars  have  declared  that 
the  globe  of  the  earth  is  in  the  midst  of  heaven,  and 
that  Mount  Meru,  the  home  of  the  Devas,  as  well  as 
Vadavamukha  below,  is  the  home  of  their  opponents  ; 
the  Daitya  and  Danava  belong  to  it.  But  this  hcloiv  is 
according  to  them  only  a  relative  one.  Disregarding 
this,  we  say  that  the  earth  on  all  its  sides  is  the 
same  ;  all  people  on  earth  stand  upright,  and  all  heavy 
things  fall  down  to  the  earth  by  a  law  of  nature,  for 
it  is  the  nature  of  the  earth  to  attract  and  to  keep 
things,  as  it  is  the  nature  of  water  to  flow,  that  of  fire 
to  burn,  and  that  of  the  wind  to  set  in  motion.  If  a 
thing  wants  to  go  deeper  down  than  the  earth,  let  it 
try.  The  earth  is  the  only  low  thing,  and  seeds  always 
return  to  it,  in  whatever  direction  you  may  throw 
them  away,  and  never  rise  upwards  from  the  earth." 

Varahamihira  says  :  ''  Mountains,  seas,  rivers,  trees, 
cities,  men,  and  angels,  all  are  around  the  globe  of  the 
earth.  And  if  Yamakoti  and  Eum  are  opposite  to  each 
other,  one  could  not  say  that  the  one  is  loiv  in  its 
relation  to  the  other,  since  the  loiv  does  not  exist.  How 
could  one  say  of  one  place  of  the  earth  that  it  is  low, 
as  it  is  in  every  particular  identical  with  any  other 
place  on  earth,  and  one  place  could  as  little  fall  as  any 
other.  Every  one  speaks  to  himself  with  regard  to  his 
own  self,  '/am  above  and  the  others  are  below,'  whilst 
all  of  them  are  around  the  globe  like  the  blossoms 
springing  on  the  branches  of  a  Kadamba-tree.  They 
encircle  it  on  all  sides,  but  each  individual  blossom  has 
the  same  position  as  the  other,  neither  the  one  hanging 
downward  nor  the  other  standing  upright.  For  the 
earth  attracts  that  which  is  upon  her,  for  it  is  the  beloiv 
towards  all  directions,  and  heaven  is  the  above  towards 
all  directions." 

As  the   reader  will   observe,  these  theories  of  the 


CHAPTER  XX VI.  273 

Hindus  are  based  on  the  correct  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  nature,  but,  at  the  same  time,  they  practise  a  little 
deceit  upon  their  traditionalists  and  theologians.     So 
Balabhadra   the   commentator   says  :  "  It  is  the   most  Quotations 
correct  of  the  opinions  of  people,  many  and  different  as  bbadra,'  and 
they  are,  that  the  earth  and  Meru  and  the  zodiacal  criticisms 
sphere  are  round.     And  the  Apta  (?)-purana-kara,  i.e. 
the  faithful  followers  of  the  Purana,  say  :  '  The  earth 
is  like  the  back  of  a  tortoise  ;  it  is  not  round  from 
below.'     They  are  perfectly  right,  because  the  earth  is 
in  the   midst  of   the   water,  and  that  which  appears 
above  the  water  has  the  shape  of  a  tortoise-back  ;  and  Page  137. 
the  sea  around  the  earth  is  not  navigable.     The  fact 
of  the  earth  being  round  is  proved  by  eyesight." 

Here  the  reader  must  notice  how  Balabhadra  declares 
the  theory  of  the  theologians  as  to  the  rotundity  of  the 
back  to  be  true.  He  gives  himself  the  air  of  not 
knowing  that  they  deny  that  the  womb,  i.e.  the  other 
half  of  the  globe,  is  round,  and  he  busies  himself  with  a 
traditional  element  (as  to  the  earth  being  like  the  back 
of  a  tortoise),  which,  in  reality,  has  no  connection  with 
the  subject. 

Further,  Balabhadra  says  :  "  Human  eyesight  reaches 
to  a  point  distant  from  the  earth  and  its  rotundity  the 
96th  part  of  5000  yojana,  i.e.  52  yojana  (exactly  52yV). 
Therefore  man  does  not  observe  its  rotundity,  and  hence 
the  discrepancy  of  opinions  on  the  subject." 

Those  pious  men  (the  Apta  (?)-purana-kara)  do  not 
deny  the  rotundity  of  the  back  of  the  earth  ;  nay,  they 
maintain  it  by  comparing  the  earth  to  the  back  of  a 
tortoise.  Only  Balabhadra  makes  them  deny  it  (by 
the  words,  "  the  earth  is  not  round  from  below,"  supra), 
since  he  understood  their  words  as  meaning  that  the 
water  surrounds  the  earth.  That  which  rises  above  the 
water  may  either  be  globular  or  a  plain  rising  above 
the  water  like  an  inverted  drum,  i.e.  like  a  segment  of 
a  round  pilaster. 

VOL.  I.  S 


274 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


Calculation 
on  the  ex- 
tent of 
luinian 
vision  on 
the  earth. 


Further,  the  remark  of  Balabhadra  (v.  p.  273), 
that  mau,  on  account  of  the  smallness  of  his  stature, 
cannot  observe  the  rotundity  of  the  earth,  is  not  true  ; 
because  even  if  the  human  stature  were  as  tall  as  the 
plumb-line  of  the  highest  mountain,  if  he  were  to  make 
his  observation  only  from  one  single  point  without 
goiug  to  other  places,  and  without  reasoning  about  the 
observations  made  at  the  different  places,  even  such  a 
height  would  be  of  no  avail  to  him,  and  he  would  not  be 
able  to  perceive  the  rotundity  of  the  earth  and  its  nature. 
What,  however,  is  the  connection  of  this  remark 
with  the  popular  theory  ?  If  he  had  concluded  from 
analogy  that  that  side  of  the  earth  which  is  opposed 
to  the  round  one — I  mean  the  lower  half — was  also 
round,  and  if  he  then  had  given  his  theory  about  the 
extent  of  the  power  of  human  vision  as  a  result  of 
reflection,  not  as  a  result  of  the  perception  of  the 
senses,  his  theory  would  seem  to  have  a  certain  foun- 
dation. 

With  regard  to  Balabhadra's  definition  of  the  extent 
which  may  be  reached  by  the  human  eye,  we  propose 
the  following  calculation  : — 

Let  A  B  round  the  centre  H  represent  the  globe  of 
the  earth.  B  is  tbe  standiug- 
point  of  the  observer ;  his 
stature  is  B  C.  Further,  we 
draw  the  line  C  A,  so  that  it 
touches  the  earth. 

Now  it  is  evident  that  the 
field  of  vision  is  B  A,  which 
we  suppose  to  be  equal  to 
Jg-  of  the  circle, ie.  3f  degrees, 
if  we  divide  the  circle  into 
360  degrees. 

According  to  the  method 
followed  in  the  calculation  of  the  mountain  Meru  (in 
chap,  xxiii.),  we  divide  the  square  of  T  A,  i.e.  50,625,  by 


CHAPTER  XXVI.  275 

HT,  i.e.  3431'.    So  we  get  as  quotient  T  C  =  o°  14' 45''; 
and  B  C,  the  stature  of  the  observer,  is  0°  7'  45''. 

Our  calculation  is  based  on  this,  that  H  B,  the  sinus 
toius,  is  3438'.  However,  the  radius  of  the  earth  is, 
according  to  the  circumference  which  we  have  men- 
tioned, 795°  27'  16''  {yojana).  If  we  measure  B  C  by 
this  measure,  it  is  =  i  yojana,  6  Itoscc,  103 5  yards 
(  =  57,035  yards).  If  we  suppose  B  C  to  be  equal  to  four 
yards,  it  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  A  T,  according 
to  the  measure  of  the  sine,  as  57,035,  i.e.  the  yards 
which  we  have  found  as  the  measure  of  the  stature,  to 
A  T  according  to  the  measure  of  the  sine,  i.e.  225.  If 
we  now  calculate  the  sine,  we  find  it  to  be  0°  o'  1''  '^"' , 
and  its  arc  has  the  same  measure.  However,  each  degree 
of  the  rotundity  of  the  earth  represents  the  measure  of 
13  yojana,  7  krosa,  and  333  J  yards  {sic).  Therefore  the 
field  of  vision  on  the  earth  is  29 if  yards  {sic).  Page 

{For  an  explanation  of  this  calculation  see  the  notes.) 
The  source  of  this  calculation  of  Balabhadra's  is  the 
Pulisa-sidclhdnta,  which  divides  the  arc  of  the  quarter 
of  a  circle  into  24  kardajdt.  He  says :  "  If  anybody 
asks  for  the  reason  of  this,  he  must  know  that  each  of 
these  kardajdt  is  -^  of  the  circle  =  225  minutes  (  =  3f 
degrees).  And  if  we  reckon  its  sine,  we  find  it  also 
to  be  =  225  minutes."  This  shows  us  that  the  sines  are 
equal  to  their  arcs  in  parts  which  are  smaller  than  this 
karclaja.  And  because  the  simts  totus,  according  to 
Pulisa  and  Aryabhata,  has  the  relation  of  the  diameter 
to  the  circle  of  360  degrees,  this  arithmetical  equality- 
brought  Balabhadra  to  think  that  the  arc  was  perpen- 
dicular ;  and  any  expanse  in  which  no  convexity  pro- 
trudes preventing  the  vision  from  passing,  and  which 
is  not  too  small  to  be  seen,  is  visible. 

This,  however,  is  a  gross  mistake ;  for  the  arc  is 
never  perpendicular,  and  the  sine,  however  small  it 
be,  never  equals  the  arc.  This  is  admissible  only  for 
such  degrees  as  are  supposed  for  the  convenience  of 


276  ALBERUNI'S  INDIA. 

calculation,  but  it  is  never  and  nowhere  true  for  the 
degrees  of  the  earth. 
3f  If  Pulisa  says  (v.  p.  267)  that  the  earth  is  held 
to  by  an  axis,  he  does  not  mean  thereby  that  in  reality 
there  exists  such  an  axis,  and  that  but  for  it  the  earth 
would  fall.  How  could  he  say  such  a  thing,  since  he 
is  of  opinion  that  there  are  four  inhabited  cities  around 
the  world,  which  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  every- 
thing heavy  falls  from  all  sides  down  towards  the  earth  ? 
However,  Pulisa  holds  this  view,  that  the  motion  of  the 
peripheric  parts  is  the  reason  why  the  central  parts  are 
motionless,  and  that  the  motion  of  a  globe  presupposes 
two  poles,  and  one  line  connecting  them,  which  in  the 
idea  is  the  axis.  It  is  as  if  he  meant  to  say,  that  the 
motion  of  heaven  keeps  the  earth  in  its  place,  making 
it  the  natural  place  for  the  earth,  outside  of  which  it 
could  never  be.  And  this  place  lies  on  the  midst  of  the 
axis  of  motion.  For  the  other  diameters  of  the  globe 
mav  also  be  imagined  to  be  axes,  since  ev  Swa/xet  they 
are  all  axes,  and  if  the  earth  were  not  in  the  midst  of 
an  axis,  there  might  be  axes  which  did  not  pass  through 
the  earth.  Hence  one  may  say  metaphorically  that  the 
earth  is  supported  by  the  axes. 

As  regards  the  resting  of  the  earth,  one  of  the  ele- 
mentary problems  of  astronomy,  which  offers  many  and 
great  difficulties,  this,  too,  is  a  dogma  with  the  Hindu 
astronomers.  Brahmagupta  says  in  the  Brahmasid- 
dhdiita:  "Some  people  maintain  that  the /rs^  motion 
Page  139.  (from  east  to  west)  does  not  lie  in  the  meridian,  but 
belongs  to  the  earth.  But  Yarahamihira  refutes  them 
by  saying :  '  If  that  w^ere  the  case,  a  bird  would  not 
return  to  its  nest  as  soon  as  it  had  flown  away  from 
•  it  towards  the  west.'  And,  in  fact,  it  is  precisely  as 
Yarahamihira  says." 

Brahmagupta  says  in  another  place  of  the  same  book  : 
"The  followers  of  Aryabhata  maintain  that  the  earth 
is  moving  and  heaven  resting.     I^eople  have  tried  to 


Chapter  xxvl  277 

refute  them  by  saying  that,  if  such  were  the  case,  stones 
and  trees  would  fall  from  the  earth." 

But  Brahmagupta  does  not  agree  with  them,  and  says 
that  that  would  not  necessarily  follow  from  their  theory, 
apparently  because  he  thought  that  all  heavy  things  are 
attracted  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth.  He  says  : 
"  On  the  contrary,  if  that  were  the  case,  the  earth  icoulcl 
not  vie  in  Jceeping  an  even  and  uniform  pace  luith  the 
minutes  of  heaven,  tlie  prdnas  of  the  times.'''' 

There  seems  to  be  some  confusion  in  this  chapter, 
perhaps  by  the  fault  of  the  translator.  For  the  minntes 
of  heaven  are  21,600,  and  are  called  prdna,  i.e.  breaths, 
because  according  to  them  each  minute  of  the  meridian 
revolves  in  tJie  time  of  an  ordinary  human  hreath. 

Supposing  this  to  be  true,  and  that  the  earth  makes 
a  complete  rotation  eastward  in  so  many  breaths  as 
heaven  does  according  to  his  (Brahmagupta's)  view,  we 
cannot  see  what  should  prevent  the  earth  from  keeping 
an  even  and  uniform  pace  with  heaven. 

Besides,  the  rotation  of  the  earth  does  in  no  w^ay  im-^ 
pair  the  value  of  astronomy,  as  all  appearances  of  an 
astronomic  character  can  quite  as  well  be  explained 
according  to  this  theory  as  to  the  other.  There  are, 
however,  other  reasons  which  make  it  impossible. 
This  question  is  most  difficult  to  solve.  The  most  pro- 
minent of  both  modern  and  ancient  astronomers  have 
deeply  studied  the  question  of  the  moving  of  the  earth, 
and  tried  to  refute  it.  We,  too,  have  composed  a  book 
on  the  subject  called  Miftdh-ilm-alhai'a  (Key  of 
Astronomy),  in  which  we  think  we  have  surpassed  our 
predecessors,  if  not  in  the  words,  at  all  events  in  the 
matter. 


(    -78     ) 


on  the 

subject 
from  Pulisa. 


CHAPTER   XXVIL 

ON  THE  FIRST  TWO  MOTIONS  OF  THE  UNIVERSE  (THAT 
FROM  EAST  TO  WEST  ACCORDING  TO  ANCIENT 
ASTRONOMERS  AND  THE  PRECESSION  OF  THE  EQUI- 
NOXES), BOTH  ACCORDING  TO  HINDU  ASTRONOMERS 
AND   THE   AUTHORS   OF   THE   PURANAS. 

The  astronomers  of  the  Hindus  hold  on  this  subject 
mostly  the   same  views  as  ourselves.     We  shall  give 
quotations  from  them,  but  shall  at  once  confess  that 
that  which  we  are  able  to  give  is  very  scanty  indeed. 
Quotation  PuUsa  says  I    "The  wind  makes  the  sphere  of  the 

fixed  stars  revolve ;  the  two  poles  keep  it  in  its  place, 
and  its  motion  appears  to  the  inhabitants  of  Mount 
Meru  as  a  motion  from  the  left  to  the  right ;  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Vadavamukha  as  one  from  the  right  to 
the  left." 

In  another  place  he  says  :  "If  anybody  asks  for  the 
direction  of  the  motion  of  the  stars  which  we  see  rising 
in  the  east  and  rotating  towards  the  west  until  they  set, 
let  him  know  that  the  motion  which  we  see  as  a  west- 
ward motion  appears  different  according  to  the  places 
which  the  spectators  occupy.  The  inhabitants  of  Mount 
Meru  see  it  as  a  motion  from  the  left  to  the  right, 
whilst  the  inhabitants  of  Vadavamukha  see  it  as  the 
opposite,  as  a  motion  from  the  right  to  the  left.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  equator  see  it  exclusively  as  a 
westward  motion,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  parts  of 
the  earth  between  the  poles  and  the  equator  see  it 
more  or  less  depressed,  as  their  places  have  more  or 


CHAPTER  XXV 11.  279 

less  northern  or  southern  latitude.  The  whole  of  this 
motion  is  caused  by  the  wind,  which  makes  the  spheres 
revolve,  and  compels  the  planets  and  the  other  stars  to 
rise  in  the  east  and  to  set  in  the  west.  This,  however, 
is  only  an  accidens.  As  for  the  essentia  rei,  the  motions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  are  directed  towards  the  east, 
from  Alsliaratdn  towards  Alhutain,  the  latter  lying  east 
of  the  former.  But  if  the  inquirer  does  not  know  the 
lunar  stations,  and  is  not  capable  of  procuring  for  him-  Page  140. 
self  by  their  help  an  idea  of  this  eastward  motion,  let 
him  observe  the  moon  herself,  how  she  moves  away  from 
the  sun  once  and  a  second  time;  how  she  then  comes 
near  him,  till  she  finally  joins  him.  This  will  give  him 
an  idea  of  the  second  motion." 

Brahmasfupta  savs :   "  The  sphere  has  been  created  Quotations 
as  movmsf  with  the  greatest  rapidity  possible  about  two  Brahma- 

^  -1  ?i-Ti  1  1  g"Pta  aud 

poles  without  ever  slackening,  and  the  stars  nave  been  Baiabhadra. 
created  where  there  is  no  Batn-hut  nor  Sharafdn,  i.e.  on 
the  frontier  between  them,  which  is  the  vernal  ecpiinox." 

Baiabhadra,  the  commentator,  says:  "The  whole 
world  hangs  on  two  poles,  and  moves  in  a  circular 
motion,  which  begins  with  a  kcdpcc  and  ends  with  a 
kalpa.  But  people  must  not  therefore  say  that  the 
world,  on  account  of  the  continuity  of  its  motion,  is 
without  beginning  and  without  end." 

Brahmagupta  says :  "  The  place  without  latitude 
{Nirakshct),  divided  into  sixty  ghafiM,  is  the  horizon 
for  the  inhabitants  of  Meru.  There  east  is  west ;  and 
behind  that  place  (beyond  the  equator)  towards  the 
south  is  Yadavamukha  and  the  ocean  which  surrounds 
it.  When  the  spheres  and  the  stars  revolve,  the  meri- 
dian becomes  an  horizon  common  to  the  Devas  (in 
the  north)  and  the  Daityas  (in  the  south),  which  they 
see  together.  But  the  direction  of  the  motion  appears 
to  them  as  different.  The  motion  which  the  angels  see 
as  a  motion  to  the  right,  the  Daityas  see  as  one  to  the 
left,  and  vice  versd,  just  as  a  man  who  has  a  thing  on  his 


28o  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

right  side,  looking  into  the  water,  sees  it  on  his  left. 
The  cause  of  this  uniform  motion  which  never  increases 
nor  decreases  is  a  wind,  but  it  is  not  the  common  wind 
which  we  feel  and  hear ;  for  this  is  lulled,  and  roused, 
and  varies,  whilst  that  wind  never  slackens." 

In  another  place  Brahmagupta  says :  "  The  wind 
makes  all  the  fixed  stars  and  the  planets  revoh^e 
towards  the  west  in  one  and  the  same  revolution ;  but 
the  planets  move  also  in  a  slow  pace  towards  the  east, 
like  a  dust-atom  moving  on  a  potter's-wheel  in  a  direc- 
tion opposite  to  that  in  which  the  wheel  is  revolving. 
That  motion  of  this  atom  which  is  visible  is  identical 
with  the  motion  which  drives  the  wheel  round,  whilst 
its  individual  motion  is  not  perceived.  In  this  view 
Lata,  Aryabhata,  and  Vasishtha  agree,  but  some  people 
think  that  the  earth  moves  while  the  sun  is  resting. 
That  motion  which  mankind  conceives  as  a  motion  from 
east  to  west,  the  angels  (Deva)  conceive  as  a  motion 
from  left  to  right,  the  Daityas  as  one  from  right  to  left." 

This  is  all  I  have  read  in  Indian  books  on  the 
subject. 

Their  speaking  of  the  wind  as  the  motor  (supra) 
has,  I  think,  only  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  subject 
near  to  the  understanding  of  people  and  to  facilitate  its 
study  ;  for  people  see  with  their  own  eyes  that  the 
wind,  when  blowing  against  instruments  with  wings 
and  toys  of  this  kind,  puts  them  into  motion.  But  as 
soon  as  they  come  to  speak  of  the  first  mover  (God), 
they  at  once  give  up  any  comparison  with  the  natural 
wind,  which  in  all  its  phases  is  deteruiined  by  certain 
causes.  For  though  it  puts  things  into  motion,  the 
moving  is  not  its  essence ;  and  besides,  it  cannot  move 
without  being  in  contact  with  something,  because  the 
wind  is  a  body,  and  is  acted  upon  by  external  influences 
or  means,  its  motion  being  commensurate  with  their 
force. 


CHAPTER  XXVII.  281 

Their  saying  that  the  wind  does  not  rest,  simply 
means  that  the  moving  power  works  perpetually,  and 
does  not  imply  rest  and  motion  such  as  are  proper  to 
bodies.  Further,  their  saying  that  it  does  not  slacken 
means  that  it  is  free  from  all  kinds  of  accidents  ;  for 
slackening  and  iceakening  only  occur  in  such  bodies  or  Page  141. 
beings  which  are  composed  of  elements  of  conflicting 
qualities. 

The  expression  that  the  two  poles  keep  the  sphere  of  on  the  two 

poles  keeping 

the  fixed  stars  (p.  278)  means  that  they  keep  or  pre-  the  sphere. 
serve  it  in  its  normal  state  of  motion,  not  that  they 
keep  or  preserve  it  from  falliug  down.  There  is  a  story 
of  an  ancient  Greek  who  thought  that  once  upon  a  time 
the  Milky  Way  had  been  a  road  of  the  sun,  and  that 
afterwards  he  had  left  it.  Such  a  thing  would  mean 
that  the  motions  ceased  to  be  normal,  and  to  something 
like  this  the  expression  of  the  poles  keeping  the  sphere  of 
the  fixed  stars  may  be  referred. 

The  phrase  of    Balabhadra  about  the  endinri  of  tlie  onthe 

,  .  -.  •    1  77  o  \  rehitive 

motion  (that  it  ends  with  a  kalpa,  &c.,  p.  279)  means  nature  of 
that  everything  which  exists  and  may  be  determined 
arithmetically  has  no  doubt  an  end,  for  two  reasons  : 
first,  because  it  has  a  beginning,  for  every  number 
consists  of  one  and  its  reduplications,  whilst  the  07ie 
itself  exists  before  all  of  them  ;  and,  secondly,  because 
part  of  it  exists  in  the  present  moment  of  time,  for  if 
days  and  nights  increase  in  number  through  the  con- 
tinuation of  existence,  they  must  necessarily  have  a 
beginning  whence  they  started.  If  a  man  maintains 
that  time  does  not  exist  in  the  sphere  (as  one  of  its 
immanent  qualities),  and  thinks  that  day  and  night 
have  only  a  relative  existence,  exist  only  in  relation  to 
the  earth  and  its  inhabitants,  that  if,  e.g.,  the  earth  were 
taken  away  out  of  the  midst  of  the  world,  also  night 
and  day  would  cease  to  exist  as  well  as  the  possibility 
of  measuring  elements  composed  of  days,  he  would 
thereby  impose  upon   Balabhadra  the    necessity  of  a 


ghatikd. 


On  the  fixed 

stars. 


282  A  LB  E  RUNTS  INDIA. 

digression,  and  compel  him  to  prove  the  cause,  not  of 
the  first,  but  of  the  second  motion.  The  latter  cause  is 
the  cycles  of  the  planets,  which  have  only  a  relation  to 
the  sphere,  not  to  the  earth.  These  cycles  Balabhadra 
indicates  by  the  word  hilpa  (v.  p.  279),  since  it  com- 
prehends them  all,  and  since  all  of  them  begin  with  its 
beginning. 
Themeri-  If    Brahmagiipta    says   of   the    meridian   that  it  is 

dian  divided     t---it',-,  ,/  x-,-  -p  o 

into  sixty  aivictecl  into  sixty  parts  (v.  p.  279),  it  is  as  11  any  one  01 
lis  should  say,  the  meridian  is  divided  into  twenty-four 
parts  ;  for  the  meridian  is  a  medium  for  measuring  and 
counting  time.  Its  revolution  lasts  twenty-four  hours, 
or,  as  the  Hindus  will  have  it,  sixty  ghatihd  (or  ghari). 
This  is  the  reason  why  they  have  reckoned  the  risings 
of  the  zodiacal  signs  in  gliatikcl,  not  in  twies  of  the 
meridian  (360  degrees). 

If,  further,  Brahmagupta  says  that  the  wind  causes 
the  fixed  stars  and  the  planets  to  revolve,  if  he  besides, 
in  particular,  attributes  a  slow  eastward  motion  to  the 
planets  (p.  280),  he  gives  the  reader  to  understand  that 
the  fixed  stars  have  no  such  motion,  or  else  he  would 
have  said  that  they,  too,  have  the  same  slow  eastward 
motion  as  the  planets,  not  differing  from  them  save  in 
size  and  in  the  variation  which  they  exhibit  in  the  re- 
trograde motion.  Some  people  relate  that  the  ancients 
originally  did  not  understand  their  (the  fixed  stars') 
motions  until,  in  long  periods  of  time,  they  became 
aware  of  them.  This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  the  fact 
that  Brahmagupta's  book  does  not,  among  the  various 
cycles,  mention  the  cycles  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  that 
he  makes  their  appearing  and  disappearing  depend 
upon  invariable  degrees  of  the  sun. 

If  Brahmagupta  maintains  (p.  278)  that  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  equator  the  first  motion  is  not  amotion 
to  the  right  and  left,  the  reader  must  bear  in  mind  the 
following.  A  man  dwelling  under  either  of  the  two 
poles,  to  whatever  direction  he  turns,  has  always  the 


CHAPTER  XX VI I.  283 

moviDg  heavenly  bodies  before  himself,  and  as  they 
move  in  one  direction,  they  must  necessarily  first  stand 
opposite  one  of  his  hands,  and  then,  moving  on,  come 
to  stand  opposite  liis  other  hand.  The  direction  of  this 
motion  appears  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  two  poles  just 
the  very  contrary,  like  the  image  of  a  thing  in  the 
water  or  a  mirror,  where  its  directions  seem  to  be  ex- 
changed. If  the  image  of  a  man  is  reflected  by  the 
water  or  a  mirror,  he  appears  as  a  different  man  stand- 
ing opposite  to  the  spectator,  his  right  side  opposite  to  ^'gc  142. 
the  left  of  the  spectator,  and  his  left  side  opposite  to 
the  right  of  the  spectator. 

Likewise  the  inhabitants  of  places  of  northern  lati- 
tude have  the  revolving  heavenly  bodies  hefore  them- 
selves towards  the  south,  and  the  inhabitants  of  places 
of  southern  latitude  have  them  hefore  themselves 
towards  the  north.  To  them  the  motion  appears 
the  same  as  to  the  inhabitants  of  Meru  and  Vadava- 
mukha.  But  as  regards  those  living  on  the  equator, 
the  heavenly  bodies  revolve  nearly  ahove  their  heads, 
so  they  cannot  have  them  before  themselves  in  any 
direction.  In  reality,  however,  they  deviate  a  little 
from  the  ecpiator,  and  in  consequence  the  people  there 
have  a  uniform  motion  before  themselves  on  two  sides, 
the  motion  of  the  northern  heavenly  bodies  from  right 
to  left,  and  that  of  the  southeim  bodies  from  left  to 
right.  So  they  unite  in  their  persons  the  faculty  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  two  poles  (viz.  of  seeing  the 
heavenly  bodies  moving  in  different  directions),  and  it 
depends  entirely  npon  their  will,  if  they  want  to  see 
the  stars  move  from  the  right  to  the  left  or  vice 
irrsd. 

It  is  the  line  passing  through  the  zenith  of  a  man 
standing  on  the  equator  which  Brahmagupta  means 
when  he  says  that  it  is  divided  into  sixty  parts  (v.  p. 
279). 

The  authors  of  the  Puranas  represent  heaven  as  a 


Mal.<i/i(- 
Puruna. 


284  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

dome  or  cupola  standing  on  earth  and  resting,  and  the 
stars  as  beings  which  wander  individually  from  east  to 
west.  How  could  these  men  have  any  idea  of  the 
second  motion  ?  And  if  they  really  had  such  an  idea, 
how  could  an  opponent  of  the  same  class  of  men  con- 
cede the  possibility  that  one  and  the  same  thing  indi- 
vidually moves  in  two  different  directions  ? 

We  shall  here  communicate  what  we  know  of  their 

theories,  although  we  are  aware  that  the  reader  will 

not  derive  any  profit  from  them,  since  tliey  are  simply 

useless. 

Quotation         The  Matsya-Purdna  says  :    "  The  sun  and  the  stars 

from  the  i  i  '   i  • 

pass  along  southward  as  rapidly  as  an  arrow  revolv- 
ing round  Meru.  The  sun  revolves  round  sometLing 
like  a  beam,  the  end  of  which  is  burning  when  its 
revolution  is  very  rapid.  The  sun  does  not  really 
disappear  (during  the  night)  ;  he  is  then  invisible  only 
to  some  people,  to  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  four 
cities  on  the  four  sides  of  Meru.  He  revolves  round 
Meru,  starting  from  the  north  side  of  Mount  Lokaloka ; 
he  does  not  pass  beyond  Lokaloka,  nor  illuminate  its 
south  side.  He  is  invisible  during  the  night,  because 
he  is  so  far  away.  Man  can  see  him  at  a  distance 
of  1000  yojana,  but  when  he  is  so  far  away,  a  small 
object  sufficiently  near  to  the  eye  can  render  him 
invisible  to  the  spectator. 

"  When  the  sun  stands  in  the  zenith  of  Pushkara- 
Dvipa,  he  moves  along  the  distance  of  one-thirtieth 
part  of  the  earth  in  three-fifths  of  an  hour.  In  so 
much  time  he  traverses  21  laksha  and  50,000  yojana, 
i.e.  2,150,000  yojana.  Then  he  turns  to  the  north,  and 
the  distance  he  traverses  becomes  thrice  as  large.  In 
consecpience,  the  day  becomes  long.  The  distance  which 
the  sun  traverses  in  a  southern  day  is  9  Icoti  and  10,045 
yojana.  When  he  then  returns  to  the  north  and  revolves 
round  Kshira,  i.e.  the  Milky  Way,  his  daily  march  is 
I  koti  and  21  laksha  yojana.^' 


CHAPTER  XXVII.  285 

Now  we  ask  the  reader  to  consider  how  confused  criticisms 

of  the 

these  expressions  are.     If  the  author  of  the  Matsya-  author  on 

1  .  11  ,5    the  theory  of 

Fur  ana  says  "  the  stars  pass  as  rapidly  as  an  arrow,  the  uauya- 
&c.,  we  take  this  for  a  hyperbole  intended  for  unedu- 
cated people  ;  but  we  must  state  that  the  arrow-like 
motion  of  the  stars  is  not  peculiar  to  the  south  to  tbe 
exclusion  of  the  north.  There  are  limits  both  in  the 
north  and  south  whence  the  sun  returns,  and  the  time 
of  the  sun's  passing  from  the  southern  limit  to  the 
northern  is  equal  to  the  time  of  his  passing  from  the 
northern  limit  to  the  southern.  Therefore  his  motion  Page  143. 
northvjard  has  the  same  right  of  being  described  as  as 
rapid  as  an  arroiv.  Herein,  however,  lies  a  hint  of  the 
theological  ojoinion  of  the  author  regarding  the  north 
pole,  for  he  thinks  the  north  is  the  ahovc  and  the  south 
the  hclow.  Hence  the  stars  glide  down  to  the  south 
like  children  on  a  see-saw  plank. 

If,  however,  the  author  hereby  means  the  second 
motion,  whilst  in  reality  it  is  thejii'st,  we  must  state 
that  the  stars  in  the  second  motion  do  not  revolve  round 
Meru,  and  that  the  plane  of  this  motion  is  inclined 
towards  the  horizon  of  Meru  by  one-twelfth  of  the  circle. 

Further,  how  far-fetched  is  this  simile  in  which  he 
connects  the  motion  of  the  sun  with  a  burning  beam  ! 
If  we  held  the  opinion  that  the  sun  moves  as  an  un- 
interrupted round  collar,  his  simile  would  be  useful 
in  so  far  as  it  refutes  such  an  opinion.  But  as  we 
consider  the  sun  as  a  body,  as  it  were,  standing  in 
heaven,  his  simile  is  meaningless.  And  if  he  simply 
means  to  say  tliat  the  sun  describes  a  round  circle,  his 
comparing  the  sun  to  a  hurning  heam  is  quite  super- 
fluous, because  a  stone  tied  to  the  end  of  a  cord  describes 
a  similar  circle  if  it  is  made  to  revolve  round  the  head 
(there  being  no  necessity  for  describing  it  as  burning). 

That  the  sun  rises  over  some  people  and  sets  over 
others,  as  he  describes  it,  is  true  ;  but  here,  too,  he  is 
not  free  from  his  theological  opinions.     This  is  shown 


286  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

by  his  mentiou  of  the  mountain  Lokaloka  and  his  re- 
mark that  the  rays  of  the  sun  fall  on  it,  on  its  human 
or  north  side,  not  on  its  wild  or  south  side. 

Further,  the  sun  is  not  hidden  during  the  night  on 
account  of  his  great  distance,  but  because  he  is  covered 
by  something — by  the  earth  according  to  us,  by  Mount 
Meru  according  to  the  author  of  the  Matsya-Parcina. 
He  imagines  that  the  sun  marches  round  Meru,  whilst 
we  are  on  one  of  its  sides.  In  consequence  we  are  in 
a  varying  distance  from  the  sun's  path.  That  this  is 
originally  his  opinion  is  confirmed  by  the  later  follow- 
ing remarks.  That  the  sun  is  invisible  during  the  night 
has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  his  distance  from  us. 

The  numbers  which  the  author  of  the  Matsya-Purdna 
mentions  I  hold  to  be  corrupt,  as  they  are  not  borne 
out  by  any  calculation.  He  represents  the  path  of  the 
sun  in  the  north  as  threefold  that  in  the  south,  and 
makes  this  the  cause  of  the  difference  of  the  length  of 
the  day.  Whilst  in  reality  the  sum  of  day  and  night  is 
always  identical,  and  day  and  night  in  north  and  south 
stand  in  a  constant  relation  to  each  other,  it  seems 
necessary  that  we  should  refer  his  remarks  to  a  latitude 
where  the  summer-day  is  45  ghatikd,  the  winter-day 
15  ghatikd  long. 

Further,  his  remark  that  the  sun  hastens  in  the  north 
(marches  there  more  rapidly  than  in  the  south),  re- 
quires to  be  proved.  The  places  of  northern  latitude 
have  meridians  not  very  distant  from  each  other,  be- 
cause of  their  being  near  to  the  pole,  whilst  the 
meridians  become  more  distant  from  each  other  the 
nearer  they  are  to  the  equator.  If,  now,  the  sun  hastens 
in  traversing  a  smaller  distance,  he  wants  less  time 
than  for  traversing  the  greater  distance,  more  especially 
if  on  this  greater  distance  his  march  is  slackening. 
In  reality  the  opposite  is  the  case. 

By  his  phrase  luhen  the  sun  revolves  above  Pushkara- 
dvipa  (p.  284)  is  meant  the  line  of  the  winter  solstice. 


CHAPTER  XXVII.  287 

AccordiDg  to  hira,  on  this  line  the  day  must  be  longer 
than  in  any  other  {)lace,  whether  it  be  the  summer 
solstice  or  another.     All  this  is  unintelligible. 

Similar  notions  are  also  found  in  the  Vdyu-Purdna,  Quotation 
viz.  "that  the  day  in  the  south  is  twelve  viichurta,  in  vdyu- 
the  north  eighteen,  and  that  the  sun  between  south  and 
north  has  a  declination  of  17,221  yojanaiii  183  days,  i.e. 
94(tW)  yojctna  for  each  day." 

One  miihilrta  is  equal  to  four-fifths  of  an  hour  (  =  48 
minutes).  The  sentence  of  the  Vdyu-Purcina  applies 
to  a  latitude  where  the  longest  day  is  I4f  hours.  Page  144. 

As  regards  the  numbers  of  the  yojanas  mentioned 
by  the  Vdyu-Purdna,  the  author  means  evidently  the 
portio  of  the  double  declination  of  the  sphere.  Accord- 
ing to  him,  the  declination  is  twenty-four  degrees; 
therefore  the  yojanas  of  the  whole  sphere  would  be 
129,157^.  And  the  days  in  which  the  sun  traverses 
the  double  declination  are  half  the  solar  year,  no  regard 
being  had  to  the  fractions  of  days,  which  are  nearly 
five-eighths  of  a  day. 

Further,  the  Vdyu-Purdna  says  "  that  the  sun  in  the 
north  marches  slowly  during  the  day  aud  rapidly  dur- 
ing the  night,  and  in  the  south  vice  versd.  Therefore 
the  day  is  long  in  the  north,  even  as  much  as  eighteen 
muJmrta.'^  This  is  merely  the  language  of  a  person 
who  has  not  the  slightest  knowledge  of  the  eastern 
motion  of  the  sun,  and  is  not  able  to  measure  a  day's 
arc  by  observation. 

The  Vishnu- Dhar ma  says:  "The  orbit  of  the  Great  Quotation 
Bear  lies  under  the  pole  ;  under  it  the  orbit  of  Saturn  ;  VisUnu- 
then  that  of  Jupiter ;  next  Mars,  the  Sun,  Yenus, 
Mercury,  and  the  Moon.  They  rotate  towards  the 
east  like  a  mill,  in  a  uniform  kind  of  motion  which  is 
peculiar  to  each  star,  some  of  them  moving  rapidly, 
others  slowly.  Death  and  life  repeat  themselves  on 
them  from  eternity  thousands  of  times." 

If  you  examine  this  statement  according  to  scientific 


288  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

principles,  yon  will  find  that  it  is  confused.  Conceding 
that  the  Great  Bear  is  under  the  pole  and  that  the 
place  of  the  pole  is  absolute  height,  the  Great  Bear 
lies  heloio  the  zenith  of  the  inhabitants  of  Meru.  In 
this  statement  he  is  right,  but  he  is  mistaken  with 
regard  to  the  planets.  For  the  word  helow  is,  accord- 
ing to  him,  to  be  understood  so  as  to  mean  a  greater  or 
smaller  distance  from  the  earth ;  and  thus  taken,  his 
statement  (regarding  the  distances  of  the  planets  from 
the  earth)  is  not  correct,  unless  we  suppose  tbat  Saturn 
has,  of  all  planets,  the  greatest  declination  from  the 
equator,  the  next  greatest  Jupiter,  then  Mars,  the  Sun, 
Venus,  &c.,  and  that  at  the  same  time  this  amount  of 
their  declination  is  a  constant  one.  This,  however, 
does  not  correspond  to  reality. 

If  we  take  the  sum  total  of  the  whole  statement  of 
the  Vishnu- Dharnia,  the  author  is  right  in  so  far  as  the 
fixed  stars  are  higher  than  the  planets,  but  he  is  wrong 
in  so  far  as  the  pole  is  not  higher  than  the  fixed  stars. 

The  mill-like  rotation  of  the  planets  is  the  first 
motion  towards  the  west,  not  the  second  motion  indicated 
by  the  author.  According  to  him,  the  planets  are  the 
spirits  of  individuals  who  have  gained  exaltation  by 
their  merits,  and  who  have  returned  to  it  after  the 
end  of  their  life  in  a  human  shape.  According  to 
my  opinion,  the  author  uses  a  number  in  the  words 
tJiousajids  of  times  (p.  287),  either  because  he  wanted 
to  intimate  that  their  existence  is  an  existence  in  our 
meaning  of  the  term,  an  evolution  out  of  the  Svyafxis 
into  the  irpa^is  (hence  something  finite,  subject  to 
numeration  or  determination  by  measure),  or  because 
he  meant  to  indicate  that  some  of  those  spirits  obtain 
nioksha,  others  not.  Hence  their  number  is  liable  to 
a  more  or  less,  and  everything  of  this  description  is  of 
a  finite  nature. 


(     289     ) 


CHAPTER   XXVIIl. 

ON    THE    DEFINITION    OF   THE   TEN   DIRECTIONS. 

The  extension  of  bodies  in  space  is  in  three  directions  : 
length,  breadth .,  and  de2yth  or  hci/jht.  The  23ath  of  any 
real  direction,  not  an  imaginary  one,  is  limited  ;  there- 
fore the  lines  representing  these  three  paths  are  limited, 
and  their  six  end-points  or  limits  are  the  directions. 
If  you  imagine  an  animal  in  the  centre  of  these  lines, 
i.e.  where  they  cut  each  other,  which  turns  its  face 
towards  one  of  them,  the  directions  with  relation  to 
the  animal  are  hefore,  hehind,  right,  left,  above,  and 
bcloiv. 

If  these  directions  are  used  in  relation  to  the  world, 
they  acquire  new  names.  As  the  rising  and  setting  of  Page  145. 
the  heavenly  bodies  depend  upon  the  horizon  and  the 
Jlrst  motion  becomes  apparent  by  the  horizon,  it  is  the 
most  convenient  to  determine  the  directions  by  the 
horizon.  The  four  directions,  east,  loest,  north,  south 
(corresponding  to  before,  behind,  left,  and  right),  are 
generally  known,  but  the  directions  which  lie  be- 
tween each  two  of  these  are  less  known.  These 
make  eight  directions,  and,  together  wdth  above  and 
below,  which  do  not  need  any  further  explanation,  ten 
directions. 

The  Greeks  determined  the  directions  by  the  rising 
and  setting  places  of  the  zodiacal  signs,  brought  them 
into  relation  to  the  winds,  and  so  obtained  sixteen 
directions. 

VOL.  I.  T 


290 


ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 


Also  the  Arabs  determined  the  directions  by  the 
blowing-points  of  the  winds.  Any  wind  blowing  be- 
tween two  cardinal  winds  they  called  in  general  NaMjct. 
Only  in  rare  cases  they  are  called  by  special  names  of 
their  own. 

The  Hindus,  in  giving  names  to  the  directions,  have 
not  taken  any  notice  of  the  blowing  of  a  wind ;  they 
simply  call  the  four  cardinal  directions,  as  well  as  the 
secondary  directions  between  them,  by  separate  names. 
So  they  have  eight  directions  in  the  horizontal  plane, 
as  exhibited  by  the  following  diagram  : — 


fe- 

South. 

•'/; 

*<■ 

\ 

Dakshiiia. 

'% 

r 

Madlivadcsa, 

^ 

west. 

S. 

i.e. 

East. 

? 

the  middle  country. 

p 

+« 

Uttara. 

^»" 

#■ 

North. 

Besides  there  are  two  directions  more  for  the  two 
poles  of  the  horizontal  plane,  the  above  and  below, 
the  former  being  called  UiJctri,  the  second  Adhas  and 
Take. 

These  directions,  and  those  in  use  among  other 
nations,  are  based  on  general  consent.  Since  the  hori- 
zon is  divided  by  innumerable  circles,  the  directions 
also  proceeding  from  its  centre  are  innumerable.     The 


CHAPTER  XXVIIL  291 

two  ends  of  every  possible  diameter  may  be  considered 
as  hcfoi-e  and  behind,  and  therefore  the  two  ends  of  the 
diameter  cutting  the  former  at  right  angles  (and  lying 
in  the  same  plane)  are  rvjlit  and  left. 

The  Hindus  can  never  speak  of  anything,  be  it  an 
object  of  the  intellect  or  of  imagination,  without  repre- 
senting it  as  a  personification,  an  individual.  They  at 
once  marry  him,  make  him  celebrate  marriage,  make  his 
wife  become  pregnant  and  give  birth  to  something.  So, 
too,  in  this  case.'  The  VisJum-DJmrma  relates  that 
Ah'i,  the  star  who  rules  the  stars  of  the  Great  Bear, 
married  the  directions,  represented  as  one  person,  though 
they  are  eight  in  number,  and  that  from  her  the  moon 
was  born. 

Another  author  relates  :  Dakska,  i.e.  Prajapati,  mar- 
ried Dharma,  i.e.  the  revxird,  to  ten  of  his  daughters,  i.e. 
the  ten  directions.  From  one  of  them  he  had  many 
children.  She  was  called  Vcisu,  and  her  children  the 
Vams.     One  of  them  was  the  moon. 

Xo  doubt  our  people,  the  Muslims,  will  laugh  at  such 
a  birth  of  the  moon.  But  I  give  them  still  more  of  this 
stuff.  Thus,  e.g.  they  relate  :  The  sun,  the  son  of  Kas- 
yapa  and  of  Aditya,  his  wife,  was  born  in  the  sixth  Man- 
vantara  on  the  lunar  station  Visakha  ;  the  moon,  the  son 
of  Dharma,  was  born  on  the  station  Krittika  ;  Mars,  the 
son  of  Prajtlpati,  on  Piirvashadha  ;  Mercury,  the  son  of 
the  moon,  on  Dhanishtha  ;  Jupiter,  the  son  of  Angiras,  Page  146. 
on  Purvaphalguni ;  Venus,  the  daughter  of  Bhrigu,  on 
Pushya  ;  Saturn  on  Revati ;  the  Bearer  of  the  Tail,  the 
son  of  Yama,  the  angel  of  death,  on  Aslesha,  and  the 
Head  on  Pievati. 

According  to  their  custom,  the  Hindus  attribute 
certain  dominants  to  the  eight  directions  in  the 
horizontal  plane,  which  we  exhibit  in  the  following 
table  : — 


292 


ALBERUNI'S  INDIA. 


Their  Dominants.      The  Directions. 

Their  Dominants. 

Tlie  Directions. 

! 

Indra  .     .     .          East. 

Varuna      .     . 

West. 

The  Fire  .     .          S.E. 

Vayu    .     .      . 

N.W. 

Yama  .     .     .          South. 

Kuru    .     .     . 

North. 

Prithu      .     .         S.W. 

Mahadeva      .              N.E. 

The  Hindus  construct  a  figure  of  these  eight  direc- 
tions, called  Bdhncakra,  i.e.  the  figure  of  the  Head,  by 
means  of  which  they  try  to  gain  an  omen  or  prophecy 
for  hazard-playing.     It  is  the  following  diagram  : — 


South. 


North. 


The  figure  is  used  in  this  way  :  First,  you  must  know 
the  dominant  of  the  day  in  question,  and  its  place  in 
the  present  figure.  Next  you  must  know  that  one  of 
the  eight  parts  of  the  day  in  which  you  happen  to  be. 
The§e  eighths  are  counted  on  the  lines,  beginning  with 


CHAPTER  XXVIII.  293 

the  dominant  of  the  day,  in  uninterrupted  succession 
from  east  to  south  and  west.  Thus  you  find  the  domi- 
nant of  the  eighth  in  questiou.  If,  e.g.,  you  want  to 
know  the  fifth  eighth  of  Thursday  whilst  Jupiter  is  the 
clominus  cliei  in  the  south,  and  the  line  proceeding  from 
the  south  terminates  in  north-west,  we  find  that  the 
dominant  of  the  first  eighth  is  Jupiter,  that  of  the 
second  is  Saturn,  that  of  the  third  the  sun,  that  of  the 
fourth  the  moon,  and  that  of  the  fifth  Mercury  in  the 
north.  In  this  way  you  go  on  counting  the  eighths 
through  the  day  and  the  night  till  the  end  of  the 
vvxO-)][X€pov.  When  thus  the  direction  of  the  eighth  of 
the  day  in  which  you  are  has  been  found,  it  is  considered  rage  147. 
by  them  as  Eahu  ;  and  when  sitting  down  to  play,  you 
must  place  yourself  so  that  you  have  this  direction  at 
your  back.  Then  you  will  win,  according  to  their  belief. 
It  is  no  affair  of  the  reader  to  despise  a  man  who,  on 
account  of  such  an  omen,  in  a  variety  of  games  stakes 
all  his  chances  on  one  cast  of  the  dice.  Suffice  it  to 
leave  to  him  the  responsibility  of  his  dice-playing. 


(     294     ) 


CHAPTER   XXIX. 

DEFINITION   OF   THE   INHABITABLE   EARTH   ACCORDING 
TO   THE   HINDUS. 

In  the  book  of  the  Rishi  Bhnvanakosa  we  read  that  the 
inhabitable  world  stretches  from  Him av ant  towards  the 
south,  and  is  called  Bharata-varsha,  so  called  from  a 
man,  Bbarata,  who  ruled  over  them  and  provided  for 
them.  The  inhabitants  of  this  olKov^kvr]  are  those  to 
whom  alone  reward  and  punishment  in  another  life 
are  destined.  It  is  divided  into  nine  parts,  called  Nava- 
khanda-prathama,  i.e.  the  primary  nine  parts.  Between 
each  two  parts  there  is  a  sea,  which  they  traverse  from 
one  khanda  to  the  other.  The  breadth  of  the  inhabit- 
able world  from  north  to  south  is  looo  yojana. 

By  Himavant  the  author  means  the  northern  moun- 
tains, where  the  world,  in  consequence  of  the  cold, 
ceases  to  be  inhabitable.  So  all  civilisation  must  of 
necessity  be  south  of  these  mountains. 

His  words,  that  the  inhabitants  are  subject  to  reward 
and  punisJiment,  indicate  that  there  are  other  people 
not  subject  to  it.  These  beings  he  must  either  raise 
from  the  degree  of  man  to  that  of  angels,  who,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  simplicity  of  the  elements  they  are 
composed  of  and  of  the  purity  of  their  nature,  never 
disobey  a  divine  order,  being  always  willing  to  worship  ; 
or  he  must  degrade  them  to  the  degree  of  irrational 
animals.  According  to  him,  therefore,  there  are  no 
human  beings  outside  the  olKovjikvy]  (i.e.  Bharata- 
varsha). 


CHAPTER  XXIX.  295 

Bharatavarstia  is  not  India  alone,  as  Hindus  think, 
according  to  whom  their  country  is  the  world,  and  their 
race  the  only  race  of  mankind ;  for  India  is  not 
traversed  by  an  ocean  separating  one  Jchanda  from  the 
other.  Further,  they  do  not  identify  these  Ihanda  with 
the  diijKis,  for  the  author  says  that  on  those  seas 
people  pass  from  one  shore  to  the  other.  Further, 
it  follows  from  his  statement  that  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth  and  the  Hindus  are  subject  to  reward 
and  punishment,  that  they  are  one  great  religious 
community. 

The  nine  parts  are  called  Prathama,  i.e. 'primary  ones, 
because  they  also  divide  India  alone  into  nine  parts. 
So  the  division  of  the  oiKovixkvi^  is  a  primary  one,  but 
the  division  of  Bharatavarsha  a  secondary  one.  Be- 
sides, there  is  still  a  third  division  into  nine  parts,  as 
their  astrologers  divide  each  country  into  nine  parts 
when  they  try  to  find  the  lucky  and  unlucky  places 
in  it. 

We  find  a  similar  tradition  in  the  Vdyu-Pvrdna,  viz.  Quotation 
that  "  the  centre  of  Jambu-dvipa  is  called  Bharata-  Purdna. 
varsha,  which  means  those  icJio  acquire  something  and 
nourish  thcmsehrs.  With  them  there  are  the  four  yuya. 
They  are  subject  to  reward  and  punishment ;  and 
Himavant  lies  to  the  north  of  the  country.  It  is 
divided  into  nine  parts,  and  between  them  there  are 
navigable  seas.  Its  length  is  9000  yojana,  its  breadth 
1000;  and  because  the  country  is  also  called  Sam- 
nara  (?),  each  ruler  who  rules  it  is  called  Samnara  (?). 
The  shape  of  its  nine  parts  is  as  follows." 

Then  the  author  begins  to  describe  the  mountains  in 
the  Ichancja  between  the  east  and  north,  and  the  rivers 
which  rise  there,  but  he  does  not  go  beyond  this  de- 
scription. Thereby  he  gives  us  to  understand  that, 
according  to  his  opinion,  this  hhanda  is  the  oiKovjievii,  Page  148. 
But  he  contradicts  himself  in  another  place,  where  he 


ig6 


ALBERUNrS  INDIA. 


says  that  Jambu-dvipa  is  the  centre  among  the  Naxa- 
khanda-prathama,  and  the  others  lie  towards  the  eight 
directions.  There  are  angels  on  them,  men,  animals, 
and  plants.  By  these  words  he  seems  to  mean  the 
dini'xis. 

If  the  breadth  of  the  olKovfuv)]  is  lOOO  yojana.  its 
length  must  be  nearly  2800. 

Further,  the  Vdyu-Purdna  mentions  the  cities  and 
countries  which  lie  in  each  direction.  We  shall  exhibit 
them  in  tables,  together  with  similar  information  from 
other  sources,  for  this  method  renders  the  study  of  the 
subject  easier  than  any  other. 

Here  follows  a  diagram  representing  the  division  of 
Bharatavarsha  into  nioe  parts. 


Nagadvipa. 


Saumy£ 


Gandharva. 


South. 


Gabhastimat. 


Indradvipa  or 

Madhyadesa,  i.e. 

the  middle  country. 


North. 


Tamravarna. 


Kaseruruat. 


H 


Na2;arasariivritta. 


We  have  already  heretofore  mentioned  that  that  part 
of  the  earth  in  which  the  olKovjxkvi]  lies  resembles  a 
tortoise,  because  its  borders  are  round,  because  it  rises 
above  the  water  and  is  surrounded  by  the  water,  and 
because  it  has  a  globular  convexity  on  its  surface. 
However,  there  is  a  possibility  that  the  origin  of  the 
name  is  this,  that  their  astronomers  and  astrologers 
divide  the  directions  according  to  the  lunar  stations. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 


297 


Therefore  the  coniitry,  too,  is  divided  according  to  the 
hiiiar  stations,  and  the  figure  which  represents  this 
division  is  similar  to  a  tortoise.  Therefore  it  is  called 
Kitrma-cakra,  i.e.  the  tortoise-circle  or  the  tortoise- 
shape.  The  following  diagram  is  from  the  Samhitd  of 
Varahamihira. 

SOUTR 


4% 


^      Jyeshtha. 

K      Mftla.  ■  y 

^      I'^irvashadha. 


X. 


<c 


y 


OS 


NOUTH 


%. 


,z 


■■yjp.iy     ^ 


Varahamihira  calls  each  of  the  Nava-khanda  a  varqa.  P'^^c  149. 

•   •  ^,        Thedivisi 

He  says:   "By  them  (the  vargas)  Bharatavarsha,  i.e.  ofBharatt 
half  of  the  world,  is  divided  into  nine  parts,  the  cen-  according 
tral  one,  the  eastern,  &c."     Then  he  passes  to  the  south,  luia. 
and  thus  round  the  whole  horizon.     That  he  under- 
stands by  Bharatavarsha  India  alone  is  indicated  by 
his  saying  that  each  varga  has  a  region,  the  king  of 


On  the 
change  of 
geogrui^hi- 
cal  names. 


298  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

which   is    killed    when    some    mishap    befalls    it.     So 
belong 

To  the  ist  or  central  varga,  the  region  Pancala. 
,,        2d  varga,  .         .         ,,  Magadha. 


3d  varga, 
4th  varga, 
5th  varga, 
6th  varga, 
7th  varga, 
8th  varga, 
9th  varga, 


Kalinga. 

Avanti,  i.e.  Ujain. 

Ananta. 

Sindhu  and  Sauvira. 

Harahaura. 

Madura. 

Kulinda. 


All  these  countries  are  parts  of  India  proper. 

Most  of  the  names  of  countries  under  which  they 
appear  in  this  context  are  not  those  by  which  they  are 
now  generally  known.  Utpala,  a  native  of  Kashmir, 
says  in  his  commentary  on  the  book  Samliitd  regarding 
this  subject :  "  The  names  of  countries  change,  and 
particularly  in  the  yugas.  So  Multan  was  originally 
called  Kasyapapura,  then  Harhsapura,  then  Bagapura, 
then  Sambhapura,  and  then  MiUasthdna,  i.e.  the  origi- 
nal place,  for  mula  means  root,  origin,  and  tana  means 
place." 

A  yuga  is  a  long  space  of  time,  but  names  change 
rapidly,  when,  for  instance,  a  foreign  nation  with  a 
different  language  occupies  a  country.  Their  tongues 
frequently  mangle  the  words,  and  thus  transfer  them  into 
their  own  language,  as  is,  e.g.  the  custom  of  the  Greeks. 
Either  they  keep  the  original  meaning  of  the  names,  and 
try  a  sort  of  translation,  but  then  they  undergo  certain 
changes.  So  the  city  of  Shash,  which  has  its  name  from 
the  Turkish  language,  where  it  is  called  Tash-kand,  i.e. 
stone-city,  is  called  stone-tower  in  the  book  yecoypacfiLa. 
In  this  way  new  names  spring  up  as  translations  of 
older  ones.  Or,  secondly,  the  barbarians  adopt  and 
keep  the  local  names,  but  with  such  sounds  and  in  such 
forms  as  are  adapted  to  their  tongues,  as  the  Arabs  do 
in  Arabising  foreign  names,  which  become  disfigured  in 


CHAPTER  XXIX.  299 

their  mouth :  e.g.  Bdshang  they  call  in  their  books 
Filsanj,  and  Sakilkand  they  call  in  their  re venn e-books 
Fdrfaza  (sic).  However,  what  is  more  curious  and 
strange  is  this,  that  sometimes  one  and  the  same  lan- 
guage changes  in  the  mouth  of  the  same  people  who 
speak  it,  in  consequence  of  which  strange  and  uncouth 
forms  of  words  spring  up,  not  intelligible  save  to  him 
who  discards  every  rule  of  the  language.  And  such 
changes  are  brought  about  in  a  few  years,  without  there 
being  any  stringent  cause  or  necessity  for  it.  Of  course, 
in  all  of  this  the  Hindus  are  actuated  by  the  desire  to 
have  as  many  names  as  possible,  and  to  practise  on  them 
the  rules  and  arts  of  their  etymology,  and  they  glory  in 
the  enormous  copiousuess  of  their  language  which  they 
obtain  by  such  means. 

The  following  names  of  countries,  which  we  have 
taken  from  the  Vdyu-Purdna,  are  arranged  according  to 
the  four  directions,  whilst  the  names  taken  from  the 
Samhitd  are  arranged  according  to  the  eight  directions. 
All  these  names  are  of  that  kind  which  we  have  here 
described  (i.e.  they  are  not  the  names  now  in  general 
use).     We  exhibit  them  in  the  following  tables  : — 

The  single  countries  of  the  middle  recdm,  according  to      Page  150 
the   Vdyu-Purdna. 

Kuru,  Pailcala,  Salva,  Jangala,  Siirasena,  Bhadra- 
kara(!),  Bodha,  Pathesvara,  Vatsa,  Kisadya,  Kulya, 
Kuntala,  Kasi,  Kosala,  Arthayashava  (?),  Puhlinga  (!), 
Mashaka  (!),  Vrika. 

The  people  in  the  east : — 

Andhra,  Vaka,  Mudrakaraka  (?),  Pratragira  (?),  Vahir- 
gira,  Prathanga  (?),  Vaiigeya,  Malava  (!),  Malavartika, 
Pragjyotisha,  Munda,  Abika  (?),  Tamraliptika,  Mala, 
Magadha,  Govinda  (Gonanda  ?). 

The  people  in  the  south  : — 

Pandya,  Kerala,  Caulya,  Kulya,  Setuka,  Mushika, 
Rum  an  a  (?).  Yanavasika,  Maharashtra,   Mahisha,    Ka- 


300  ALBERUNI'S  INDIA. 

Page  151.  linga,  Abhira,  Ishika,  Atavya,  Savara  (?),  Pulindra, 
Yindhyamuli,  Yaidarbba,  Dandaka,  Mulika  (!),  Asniaka, 
Naitika(!),  Bhogavardhaoa,  Kiintala,  Andhra,  Udbhira, 
Nalaka,  Alika,  Dakshinatya,  Vaidesa,  Surpfikaraka, 
Kolavana,  Durga,  Tillita  (?),  Puleya,  Krala  (!),  Rupaka, 
Tamasa,  Tariipana  (?),  Karaskara,  Nasikya,  Uttarauar- 
mada,  Bhanukacchra  (?),  Mabeya,  Saraswata  (?),  Kac- 
chiya,  Surashtra,  Anartta,  Hndvuda  (?). 

The  people  in  the  west : — 

Malada  (?),   Kariisha,  Mekala,   Utkala,    Uttamarna, 

Basarna  (?),  Bhoja,  Kishkinda,  Kosala,  Traipura,  Vaidika, 

Tharpura  (?),  Tnmbura,  ShattiimaDa  (?),  Padha,  Kar- 

Page  152.       napravarana  (!),   Hiina,  Darva,   Hiihaka  (!),  Trigartta, 

Malava,  Kirata,  Tamara. 

The  people  in  the  north  : — 

Vahlika  (!),  Vadha,  Vana  (?),  Abhira,  Kalatoyaka, 
Apaninta  (?),  Pahlava,  Carmakhandika,  Gandhara,  Ya- 
vana,  Sindhn,  Sauvira,  i.e.  Multan  and  Jahrawar, 
Madhra(?),  Saka,  Drihfila  (?),  Litta  (Knlinda),  Malla(?), 
Kodara  (?),  Atreya,  Bharadva,  Jangala,  Daseruka  (!), 
Lampaka,  Talakuna  (?),  Siilika,  Jagara. 

The  names  of  the  countries  for  the  tortoise-figure,  as 
taken  from  the  Sarhhitd  of  Varcihamihira. 

I.  The  names  of  the  countries  in  the  centre  of  the 
realm  : — 

Bhadra,  Ari,  Meda,  Mandavya,  Salvani,  Pojjihana, 
Marn,  Yatsa,  Ghosha,  the  valley  of  the  Yamnna,  Saras- 
vata,  Matsya,  Mathura,  Kopa,  Jyotisha,  Dharmaranya, 
Surasena,  Gauragriva,  Uddehika  near  Bazana,  Pandn, 
Page  153.  Gnda  =  T<ir]eshar,  Asvattha,  Pancala,  Saketa,  Kaiika, 
Kuril  =  Taneshar,  Kfilkoti,  Kukura,  Pariyatra,  Audnm- 
bara,  Kapishthala,  Gaja. 

II.  The  names  of  the  countries  in  the  east : — 

i  Anjana,    Yrishabadhvaja,    Padma-Tulya    {sic),   Yya- 

ghramukha,  i.e.  people  with  tiger-faces,  Suhma,  Kar- 
vata,  Candrapura,  Surpakarna,  i.e.  people  with  ears  like 


CHAPTER  XXIX.  301 

sieves,  Khasha,  Magadha,  Mount  Sibira,  Mithila,  Sama- 
tata,  Odra,  Asvavadana,  i.e.  peoj^le  with  horse-faces, 
Dantnra,  i.e.  people  with  long  teeth,  Pragjyotisba, 
Lohitya,  Krira-samudra  (sic),  i.e.  the  milk-sea,  Pura- 
shfida,  Udayagiri,  i.e.  the  mountain  of  sunrise,  Bhadra, 
Gauraka,  Panndra,  Utkala,  Kasi,  Mekala,  Ambashtha, 
Ekapada,  i.e.  the  one-footed  people,  Tamaliptika,  Kau- 
salaka,  Vardhamana. 

III.  The  names  of  the  countries   of  the  south-east 
(Agneya)  :— 

Kosala,  Kaliiiga,  Vanga,  Upavaiiga,  Jatbara,  Anga, 
Saulika,  Vidarbha,  Vatsa,  Andhra,  Colika  (?),  Urdhva- 
karna,  i.e.  people  whose  ears  are  directed  upwards, 
Vrisha,  Kalikera,  Carmadvipa,  the  mountain  Vindhya, 
Tripuri,  Smasrudhara,  Hemakiitya,  Yyalagriva,  i.e.  Page  154. 
people  whose  bosoms  are  snakes,  Mahagriva,  i.e.  people 
who  have  wide  bosoms,  Kishkindha,  the  country  of  the 
monkeys,  Kandakasthala,  Nishada,  Kashtra,  Dasarna, 
Purika,  Nagnaparna,  Savara. 

IV.  The  names  of  the  countries  in  the  south  : — 
Lanka,  i.e.  the  cupola  of  the  earth,   Kalajina,   Sairi- 

kirna  (?),  Talikata,  Girnagara,  Malaya,  Dardura,  Ma- 
hendra,  Mtilindya,  Bharukaccha,  Kankata,  Tankana, 
Vanavasi  on  the  coast,  Sibika,  Phanikara,  Kohkana 
near  the  sea,  Abhh'a,  Akara,  Vena  a  river,  Avanti,  i.e. 
the  cityof  Ujain,  Dasapura,  Gonarda,  Keralaka,  Karnata, 
Mahatavi,  Citrakuta,  Nasikya,  Kollagiri,  Cola,  Kraun- 
cadvipa,  Jatadhara,  Kauverya,  Rishyamiika,  Vaidurya, 
Saiikha,  Mukta,  Atri,  Varicara,  Jarmapattana  (sie), 
Dvipa,  Ganarajya,  Krishnavaidurya,  Sibika,  Suryadri, 
Kusumanaga,  Tumbavana,  Karmaneyaka,  Yamyodadhi^  Page  155. 
Tapasasrama, Rishika,  Kailci,  Marucipattaua,  Divarsa  (!), 
Simhala,  Rishabha,  Baladevapattaua,  Dandakavana, 
Timingilasana(?),  Bhadra,  Kaccha,  Kunjaradari,  Tamra- 
parna. 

V.  The  names  of  the   countries  in  the  south-west 
{Nairrita)  ; — 


302  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

Kamboja,  Sindhn,  Sauvira,  i.e.  Multan  and  Jahravar, 
Vadavamukha,  Aravambasbtba,  Kapila,  Parasava,  i.e. 
the  Persians,  Siidra,  Barbara,  Kiiata,  Khanda,  Kravya, 
Abhira,  Cancuka,  Hemagiri,  Sindhu,  Kalaka,  Raivataka, 
Siirashtra,  Badara,  Dramicla,  Maharnava,  Narimukba, 
i.e.  men  with  women's  faces,  i.e.  the  Turks,  Anarta, 
Phenagiri,  Yavana,  i.e.  the  Greeks,  Maraka,  Karnapra- 
varana. 

VI.  The  names  of  the  countries  in  the  west : — 
Maniman,    Meghavan,   Vanangha,  Astagiri,   i.e.   the 

country  of  sunset,  Aparantaka,  Santika,  Haihaya,  Pra- 
sastadri,  Vokkana,  Pancanada,  i.e.  the  union  of  the  five 
rivers,  Mathara,  Parata,  Tarakruti  (?),  Jringa,  Vaisya, 
Kanaka,  Saka,  Mleccha,  i.e.  the  Arabs. 

VII.  The  names  of  the  countries  in  the  north-west 
( Vdyava) : — 

MaiKlavya,  Tukhara,  Tfdahala,  Madra,  Asmaka,  Kulii- 
rage  156.  talahada,  Strirajya,  i.e.  women  amongst  whom  no  man 
dwells  longer  than  half  a  year,  Nrisiilihavana,  i.e.  people 
with  lion-faces,  Khastha,  i.e.  people  who  are  born  from 
the  trees,  hanging  on  them  by  the  navel-strings,  Venu- 
mati  (?),  i.e.  Tirmidh,  Phalgulu,  Guruha,  Marukucca, 
Carmaraiiga,  i.e.  people  with  coloured  skins,  Ekavilo- 
cana,  i.e.  the  one-eyed  men,  Sulika,  Dirghagriva,  i.e. 
people  with  long  bosoms,  which  means  with  long  necks, 
Dirghamukha,  i.e.  people  with  long  faces,  Dirghakesa, 
i.e.  people  with  long  hair. 

VIII.  The  names  of  the  countries  in  the  north  : — 
Kailasa,  Himavant,  Vasumant,  Giri,  Dhanushman  (!), 

i.e.  the  people  with  bows,  Kraunca,  Meru,  Kurava, 
Uttarakurava,  Kshudramina,  Kaikaya,  Vasati,  Yamuna, 
i.e.  a  kind  of  Greeks,  Bhogaprastba,  Arjunayana,  Ag^- 
nitya,  Adarsa,  Antardvipa,  Trigarta,  Turaganana,  i.e. 
people  with  horse-faces,  Svamukha,  i.e.  people  with 
dog-faces,  Kesadhara,  Capitanasika,  i.e.  flat-noses,  Da- 
sera,  Kavatadhana,  Saradhana,  Takshasila,  i.e.  Marikala, 
Pushkalavati,    i.e.    Pukala,     Kailavata,    Kanthadhana, 


CHAPTER  XXIX.  303 

Ambara,  Madraka,  Malava,  Panrava,  KaccLara,  Danda, 
Pingalaka,  Manahala,  Huna,  Kohala,  Sataka,  Mandavya, 
Bhiitapura,  Gandhara,  Yasovati,  Hematala,  Kajanya, 
Khajara,  Yaiidhe3'a,  Dasameya,  Syamaka,  Kshema- 
dhurta  (?). 

IX.  The  names  of  the  countries  in  the  north -east 
(Aisdna^  : — 

Meru,  Kauashtharajya,  Pasupala,  Kira,  Kastnira, 
Abhi,  Sarada,  Tangana,  Kuluta,  Sairindha,  Eashtra, 
Brahmapura,  Darva,  Damara,  Vanarajya,  Kirata,  Cina, 
Kauninda,  Bhalla,  Palola,  Jatasura,  Kunatha,  Khasha, 
Ghosha,  Kucika,  Ekacarana,  i.e.  the  one-footed  people, 
Anuvisva,  Suvarnabhumi,  i.e.  the  gold  land,  Arvasu- 
dhana  (szc),Nandavishtha,  Paurava,  Ciranivasana,  Trine- 
tra,  i.e.  people  with  three  eyes,  Punjadri,  Gandharva. 

Hindu  astronomers  determine  the  longitude  of  the 
inhabitable  world  by  Lanka,  which  lies  in  its  centre  on 
the  equator,  whilst  Yamakoti  lies  on  its  east,  Komaka 
on  its  west,  and  Siddhapura  on  that  part  of  the  equator 
which  is  diametrically  opposed  to  Lanka.  Their  remarks 
on  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  heavenly  bodies  show 
that  Yamakoti  and  Eiim  are  distant  from  each  other 
by  half  a  circle.  It  seems  that  they  assign  the  countries 
of  the  West  (i.e.  North  Africa)  to  Rum  or  the  Roman 
Empire,  because  the  Rum  or  Byzantine  Greeks  occupy 
the  opposite  shores  of  the  same  sea  (the  Mediterranean); 
for  the  Roman  Empire  has  much  northern  latitude  and 
penetrates  high  into  the  north.  No  part  of  it  stretches 
far  southward,  and,  of  course,  nowhere  does  it  reach 
the  equator,  as  the  Hindus  say  with  regard  to  Romaka. 

We  shall  here  speak  no  more  of  Lanka  (as  we  are 
going  to  treat  of  it  in  a  separate  chapter).  Yamakoti 
is,  according  to  Yakiib  and  Alfazari,  the  country  where 
'is  the  city  Tclra  wdthin  a  sea.  I  have  not  found  the 
slightest  trace  of  this  name  in  Indian  literature.  As 
kofi  means  castle  and  Yama  is  the  angel  of  death,  the 


304 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


word  reminds  me  of  Kangdiz,  which,  according  to  the 
Persians,  had  been  built  by  Kaika'us  or  Jam  in  the 
most  remote  east,  behind  the  sea.  Kaikhusraii  tra- 
versed the  sea  to  Kangdiz  when  following  the  traces  of 
Afrasiab  the  Turk,  and  there  he  went  at  the  time  of 
his  anchorite  life  and  expatriation.  For  diz  means  in 
Persian  castle,  as  koti  in  the  Indian  language.  Abii- 
Mashar  of  Balkh  has  based  his  geographical  canon  on 
Kangdiz  as  the  o°  of  longitude  or  first  meridian. 

How  the  Hindus  came  to  suppose  the  existence  of 
Siddhapura  I  do  not  know,  for  they  believe,  like  our- 
selves, that  behind  the  inhabited  half-circle  there  is 
nothing  but  unnavigable  seas. 

In  what  way  the  Hindus  determine  the  latitude  of 
a  place  has  not  come  to  our  knowledge.  That  the 
longitude  of  the  inhabitable  world  is  a  half-circle  is  a 
far-spread  theory  among  their  astronomers ;  they  differ 
(from  Western  astronomers)  only  as  to  the  point  which 
is  to  be  its  beginning.  If  we  explain  the  theory  of  the 
Hindus  as  far  as  we  understand  it,  their  beginning  of 
longitude  is  Ujain,  which  they  consider  as  the  eastern 
limit  of  one  quarter  (of  the  otKovixkin-j),  whilst  the  limit 
of  the  second  quarter  lies  in  the  west  at  some  distance 
from  the  end  of  civilisation,  as  we  shall  hereafter  ex- 
plain in  the  chapter  about  the  difference  of  the  longi- 
tudes of  two  places. 

The  theory  of  the  Western  astronomers  on  this  point 
is  a  double  one.  Some  adopt  as  the  beginning  of  longi- 
tude the  shore  of  the  (Atlantic)  ocean,  and  they  ex- 
tend the  first  quarter  thence  as  far  as  the  environs  of 
Balkh.  Now,  according  to  this  theory,  things  have  been 
united  which  have  no  connection  with  each  other.  So 
Shapurkan  and  Ujain  are  placed  on  the  same  meridian. 
A  theory  which  so  little  corresponds  to  reality  is  quite 
valueless.  Others  adopt  the  Islands  of  the  Happy  Ones 
as  the  beginning  of  longitude,  and  the  quarter  of  the 
olKovfxein^  they  extend  thence  as  far  as  the  neighbour- 


CHAPTER  XXIX.  305 

hood  of  Jiirjaii  and  Nisliapur.  Both  these  theories  are 
totally  different  from  that  of  the  Hindus.  This  subject, 
however,  shall  be  more  accurately  investigated  in  a  sub- 
sequent cha^Dter  (p.  311). 

If  I,  by  the  grace  of  God,  shall  live  long  enough,  I 
shall  devote  a  special  treatise  to  the  longitude  of  Nisha- 
piir,  where  this  subject  shall  be  thoroughly  inquired 
into. 


VOL.  I, 


(  3o6  ) 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

ON  LANKA,  OR  THE  CUPOLA  OF  THE  EARTH. 

The  midst  of  the  inhabitable  world,  of  its  longitudinal 
extension  from  east  to  west  on  the  equator,  is  by  the 
astronomers  (of  the  Muslims)  called  the  cwpola  of  the 
earth,  and  the  great  circle  which  passes  through  the 
pole  and  this  point  of  the  equator  is  called  the  meridian 
of  the  cwpola.  We  must,  however,  observe  that  whatever 
may  be  the  natural  form  of  the  earth,  there  is  no  place 
on  it  which  to  the  exclusion  of  others  deserves  the 
name  of  a  cupola  ;  that  this  term  is  only  a  metaphorical 
one  to  denote  a  point  from  which  the  two  ends  of  the 
inhabitable  world  in  east  and  west  are  equidistant, 
comparable  to  the  top  of  a  cupola  or  a  tent,  as  all 
things  hauging  down  from  this  top  (tent-ropes  or  walls) 
have  the  same  length,  and  their  lower  ends  the  same 
distances  therefrom.  But  the  Hindus  never  call  this 
point  by  a  term  that  in  our  language  must  be  inter- 
preted by  cujjolcc ;  they  only  say  that  Laiika  is  between 
the  two  ends  of  the  inhabitable  world  and  without 
The  story  of  latitude.  There  Ravana,  the  demon,  fortified  him- 
self when  he  had  carried  off  the  wife  of  Eama,  the 
son  of  Dasaratha.  His  labyrinthine  fortress  is  called 
^  jl::^<Ca'  (?),  whilst  in  our  (Muslim)  countries  it  is 
called  Y dvana-koii,  which  has  frequently  been  explained 
as  Rome. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 


307 


The  followiDg  is  the  plan  of  the  labyrinthine  fort- 
ress : — 


Door  of  the  road  leading  to  the  castle. 

Rama  attacked  Rfivana  after  having  crossed  the  Page  159, 
ocean  on  a  dyke  of  the  length  of  lOO  yojana,  which  he 
had  constructed  from  a  mountain  in  a  place  called 
Setiibandha,  i.e.  bridge  of  the  ocean,  east  of  Ceylon.  He 
fought  with  him  and  killed  him,  and  Eama's  brother 
killed  the  brother  of  Ravana,  as  is  described  in  the 
story  of  Rama  and  Ramayana.  Thereupon  he  broke 
the  dyke  in  ten  different  places  by  arrow-shots. 

According  to  the  Hindus,  Lanka  is  the  castle  of  the 
demons.  It  is  30  yojana  above  the  earth,  i.e.  Sofar- 
sakh.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is  lOO  yojana ;  its 
breadth  from  north  to  south  is  the  same  as  the  height 
(i.e.  thirty). 

It  is  on  account  of  Lanka  and  the  island  of  Vadava- 
mukha  that  the  Hindus  consider  the  south  as  foreboding 
evil.     In  no  work  of  piety  do  they  direct  themselves 


On  the 
island  of 
Lanka. 


meridian. 


308  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

southward  or  walk  southward.     The  south  occurs  only 
in  connection  with  impious  actions. 
The  first  The  line  on  which  the  astronomical  calculations  are 

based  (as  0°  of  longitude),  which  passes  in  a  straight 
line  from  Lanka  to  Meru,  passes — 

(i.)  Through  the  city  of  Ujain  (Ujjayini)  in  Malava 
(Malva). 

(2.)  Through  the  neighbourhood  of  the  fortress  llohi- 
taka  in  the  district  of  Multan,  which  is  now  deserted. 

(3.)  Through  Kurukshetra,  i.e.  the  plain  of  Taneshar 
(Sthanesvara),  in  the  centre  of  their  country. 

(4.)  Through  the  river  Yamuna,  on  which  the  city  of 
Mathura  is  situated. 

(5.)  Through  the  mountains  of  the  Himavant,  which 
are  covered  with  everlasting  snow,  and  where  the 
rivers  of  their  country  rise.  Behind  them  lies  Mount 
Meru. 

The  city  of  Ujain,  which  in  the  tables  of  the  longi- 
tudes of  places  is  mentioned  as  Uzain,  and  as  situated 
on  the  sea,  is  in  reality  lOO  yojana  distant  from  the  sea. 
Some  undiscriminating  Muslim  astronomer  has  uttered 
the  opinion  that  Ujain  lies  on  the  meridian  of  Al- 
shabiirkan  in  Al-jiizajan ;  but  such  is  not  the  case,  for 
it  lies  by  many  degrees  of  the  equator  more  to  the  east 
than  Al-shaburkan.  There  is  some  confusion  about  the 
longitude  of  Ujain,  particularly  among  such  (Muslim) 
astronomers  as  mix  up  with  each  other  the  different 
opinions  about  the  first  degree  of  longitude  both  in  east 
and  west,  and  are  unable  to  distinguish  them  properly. 

No  sailor  who  has  traversed  the   ocean  round  the 
The  author's  place  which  is  ascribed  to  Laiika,  and  has  travelled  in 
aWLalka  that  direction,  has  ever  given  such  an  account  of  it  as 
bami'^"^'^"   tallies  with  the  traditions  of  the  Hindus  or  resembles 
them.     In  fact,  there  is  no  tradition  which  makes  the 
thing  appear  to  us  more  possible  (than  it  is  according 
to  the  reports  of  the  Hindus).     The  name  Lanka,  how- 
ever, makes  me  think  of  something  entirely  different, 


CHAPTER  XXX.  3^9 

viz.  that  the  clove  is  called  lavang,  because  it  is  im- 
ported from  a  country  called  Laiiga.  According  to  the 
uniform  report  of  all  sailors,  the  ships  which  are  sent 
to  this  country  land  their  cargo  in  boats,  viz.  ancient 
Western  dcnars  and  various  kinds  of  merchandise, 
striped  Indian  cloth,  salt,  and  other  usual  articles  of 
trade.  These  wares  are  deposited  on  the  shore  on 
leather  sheets,  each  of  which  is  marked  with  the  name 
of  its  owner.  Thereupon  the  merchants  retire  to  their 
ships.  On  the  following  day  they  find  the  sheets 
covered  with  cloves  by  way  of  payment,  little  or  much, 
as  the  natives  happen  to  own. 

The  people  with  whom  this  trade  is  carried  on  are 
demons  according  to  some,  savage  men  according  to 
others. 

The  Hindus  who  are  the  neig-hbours  of  those  regions  a  certain 

,  .  ,  °   .  wind  as  the 

(of  Lanka)  believe  that  the  small-pox  is  a  wind  blowing  cause  of 

^  ATI-  small-pox. 

from  the  island  of  Lanka  towards  the  continent  to  carry 
off  souls.  According  to  one  report,  some  men  warn 
people  beforehand  of  the  blowing  of  this  wind,  and  can 
exactly  tell  at  what  times  it  will  reach  the  different 
parts  of  the  country.  After  the  small-pox  has  broken 
out,  they  recognise  from  certain  signs  whether  it  is 
virulent  or  not.  Against  the  virulent  small-pox  they 
Lise  a  method  of  treatment  by  which  they  destroy  only 
one  single  limb  of  the  body,  but  do  not  kill.  They 
use  as  medicine  cloves,  which  .they  give  to  the  patient 
to  drink,  together  with  gold-dust ;  and,  besides,  the 
males  tie  the  cloves,  which  are  similar  to  date-kernels.  Page  i6o. 
to  their  necks.  If  these  precautions  are  taken,  per- 
haps nine  people  out  of  ten  will  be  proof  against  this 
malady. 

All  this  makes  me  think  that  the  Lanka  which  the 
Hindus  mention  is  identical  with  the  clove-country 
Langa,  though  their  descriptions  do  not  tally.  How- 
ever, there  is  no  communication  kept  up  with  the  latter, 
for  people  say  that  when  perchance  a  merchant  is  left 


3io  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

behind  on  this  island,  there  is  no  more  trace  found  of 
him.  And  this  my  conjecture  is  strengthened  by  the 
fact  that,  according  to  the  book  of  Rama  and  Ram  ay  ana, 
behind  the  well-known  country  of  Sindh  there  are 
cannibals.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  well  known 
among  all  seamen  that  cannibalism  is  the  cause  of  the 
savagery  and  bestiality  of  the  iuhabitants  of  the  island 
of  Laugabaliis. 


(     311     ) 


On  the 
Hindu 


CHAPTER   XXXI. 

ON   THAT   DIFFEKENCE   OF   VARIOUS   PLACES   WHICH   WE 
CALL   THE    DIFFERENCE   OF   LONGITUDE. 

He  who  aims  at  accuracy  in  this  subject  must  try  to 
determine  the  distance  between  the  spheres  of  the  meri-  method  of 
dians  of  the  two  places  m  question.  Muslim  astrono-  longitude. 
mers  reckon  by  equatorial  times  corresponding  to  the 
distance  between  the  two  meridians,  and  begin  to  count 
from  one  (the  western  one)  of  the  two  places.  The 
sum  of  equatorial  minutes  which  they  find  is  called 
the  difference  hetiveen  the  two  longitudes ;  for  they  con- 
sider as  the  longitude  of  each  place  the  distance  of  its 
meridian  from  the  great  circle  passing  through  the  pole 
of  the  equator,  which  has  been  chosen  as  the  limit  of 
the  oLKovfjievi'i,  and  for  this  first  meridian  they  have 
chosen  the  ivestern  (not  the  eastern)  limit  of  the  oIkov- 
likvt].  It  is  all  the  same  whether  these  equatorial  times, 
whatsoever  their  number  for  each  meridian  may  be,  are 
reckoned  as  360th  parts  of  a  circle,  or  as  its  6oth  parts, 
so  as  to  correspond  to  the  day-minutes,  or  as  farsakh 
or  yojana. 

The  Hindus  employ  in  this  subject  methods  which 
do  not  rest  on  the  same  principle  as  ours.  They  are 
totally  different ;  and  howsoever  different  they  are,  it  is 
perfectly  clear  that  none  of  them  hits  the  right  mark. 
As  we  (Muslims)  note  for  each  place  its  longitude,  the 
Hindus  note  the  number  of  yojanas  of  its  distance  from 
the  meridian  of  Ujain.  And  the  more  to  the  west  the 
position  of  a  place  is,  the  gi;eater  is  the  number  of 


312 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


On  the  cir- 
cumference 
of  the  earth. 


Page  i6i. 

Quotations 

from  tiie 

Klianda- 

khCidyaka 

and  the 

Karana- 

tilaka. 


yojanas  ;  the  more  to  the  east  it  is,  the  smaller  is  this 
number.  They  call  it  desdntara,  i.e.  the  differe^ice  behoeen 
the  places.  Further,  they  multiply  the  desdntara  by 
the  mean  daily  motion  of  the  planet  (the  sun),  and 
divide  the  product  by  4800.  Then  the  quotient  repre- 
sents that  amount  of  the  motion  of  the  star  which 
corresponds  to  the  number  of  yojana  in  question,  i.e. 
that  which  must  be  added  to  the  mean  place  of  the  sun, 
as  it  has  been  found  for  moon  or  midnight  of  Ujain,  if 
you  want  to  find  the  longitude  of  the  place  in  question. 

The  number  which  they  use  as  divisor  (4800)  is  the 
number  of  the  yojanas  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth, 
for  the  difference  between  the  spheres  of  the  meridians 
of  the  two  places  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the 
whole  circumference  of  the  earth  as  the  mean  motion 
of  the  plauet  (sun)  from  one  place  to  the  other  to  its 
whole  daily  rotation  round  the  earth. 

If  the  circumference  of  the  earth  is  4800  yojanas,  the 
diameter  is  nearly  1527 ;  but  Pulisa  reckons  it  as  1600, 
Brahmagupta  as  1581  ijojanas,  each  of  which  is  equal 
to  eight  miles.  The  same  value  is  given  in  the  astro- 
nomical handbook  Al-arJiand  as  1050.  This  number, 
however,  is,  according  to  Ibn  Tarik,  the  radius,  whilst 
the  diameter  is  2100  yojanas,  each  yojana  being  reck- 
oned as  equal  to  four  miles,  and  the  circumference  is 
stated  as  C^gGj-^  yojanas. 

Brahmagupta  uses  4800  as  the  number  of  yojanas 
of  the  earth's  circumference  in  his  canon  Khanda- 
hhddyaka,  but  in  the  amended  edition  he  uses,  instead 
of  this,  the  corrected  circumference,  ao-reeino-  with  Pulisa. 
The  correction  he  propounds  is  this,  that  he  multiplies 
the  yojanas  of  the  earth's  circumference  by  the  sines  of 
the  complement  of  the  latitude  of  the  place,  and  divides 
the  product  by  the  sinus  totus ;  then  the  quotient  is 
the  corrected  circumference  of  the  earth,  or  the  number 
of  yojanas  of  the  parallel  circle  of  the  place  in  question. 
Sometimes  this  number  is  called  the  collar  of  the  meri- 


CHAPTER  XX XL  313 

dian.  Hereby  people  are  frequently  misled  to  think 
that  the  4800  yojanas  are  the  corrected  circumference 
for  the  city  of  Ujain.  If  we  calculate  it  (according  to 
Brahmagupta's  correction),  we  find  the  latitude  of  Ujain 
to  be  i6\  degrees,  whilst  in  reality  it  is  24  degrees. 

The  author  of  the  canon  Karana-tilaka  makes  this 
correction  in  the  following  way.  He  multiplies  the 
diameter  of  the  earth  by  12  and  divides  the  product 
by  the  equinoctial  shadow  of  the  place.  The  gnomon 
stands  in  the  same  relation  to  this  shadow  as  the  radius 
of  the  parallel  circle  of  the  place  to  the  sine  of  the  lati- 
tude of  the  place,  not  to  the  sinus  totiis.  Evidently  the 
author  of  this  method  thinks  that  we  have  here  the 
same  kind  of  equation  as  that  which  the  Hindus  call  Theequa- 
vyastatrairasika,  i.e.  the  places  %vit  11  the  retrograde  motion,  traircdika. 
An  example  of  it  is  the  following. 

If  the  price  of  a  harlot  of  15  years  be,  e.g.  10  denars, 
how  much  will  it  be  when  she  is  40  years  old  ? 

The  method  is  this,  that  you  multiply  the  first  number 
by  the  second  (15  x  10=  150),  and  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  the  third  number  (150:  40  =  3f).  Then  the 
quotient  or  fourth  number  is  her  price  when  she  has 
become  old,  viz.  3f  denars. 

Now  the  author  of  the  Kar  ana-til  aire,  after  having 
found  that  the  straight  shadow  increases  with  the  lati- 
tude, whilst  the  diameter  of  the  circle  decreases,  thought, 
according  to  the  analogy  of  the  just  mentioned  calcula- 
tion, that  between  this  increase  and  decrease  there  is  a 
certain  ratio.  Therefore  he  maintains  that  the  diameter 
of  the  circle  decreases,  i.e.  becomes  gradually  smaller 
than  the  diameter  of  the  earth,  at  the  same  rate  as  the 
straight  shadow  ^?^nYr(S6s.  Thereupon  he  calculates  the 
corrected  circumference  from  the  corrected  diameter. 

After  having  thus  found  the  longitudinal  difference 
between  two  places,  he  observes  a  lunar  eclipse,  and 
fixes  in  day-minutes  the  difference  between  the  time  of 
its   appearance  in  the  two  places.     Pulisa  multiplies 


314  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

these  day-minutes  by  the  circumference  of  the  earth, 
and  divides  the  product  by  6o,  viz.  the  minutes  (or 
6oth  parts)  of  the  daily  revohition.  The  quotient, 
then,  is  the  number  of  the  yojanas  of  the  distance 
between  the  two  places. 

This  calculation  is  correct.  The  result  refers  to  the 
great  circle  on  which  Lanka  lies. 

Brahmagupta  calculates  in  the  same   manner,  save 
that  he   multiplies  by  4800.     The  other  details  have 
already  been  mentioned. 
Calculation       As  far  as  this,  one  clearly  recognises  what  the  Hindu 
destmtara      astrouomers  aim  at,  be  their  method  correct  or  faulty. 
iTfazart  °  "^  However,  we  cannot  say  the  same  of  their  calculation  of 
the  desdiitara  from  the  latitudes  of  two  different  places, 
which  is  reported  by  Alfazari  in  his  canon  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  : — 

"  Add  together  the  squares  of  the  sines  of  the  lati- 
tudes of  the  two  places,  and  take  the  root  of  the  sum. 
This  root  is  the  j^ortio. 

"  Further,  square  the  difference  of  these  two  sines 
and  add  it  to  the  2^ortio.  Multiply  the  sum  by  8  and 
divide  the  product  by  377.  The  quotient,  then,  is  the 
distance  between  the  two  places,  that  is  to  say,  according 
to  a  rough  calculation. 

"  Further,  multiply  the  difference  between  the  two 
latitudes  by  the  yojanas  of  the  circumference  of  the 
earth  and  divide  the  product  by  360." 

Evidently  this  latter  calculation  is  nothing  but  the 
transferring  of  the  difference  between  the  two  latitudes 
from  the  measure  of  degrees  and  minutes  to  the  mea- 
sure of  yojanas.     Then  he  proceeds  : — 

"  Now  the  square  of  the  quotient  is  subtracted  from 
the  square  of  the  roughly  calculated  distance,  and  of 
the  remainder  you  take  the  root,  which  represents  the 
straight  yojanas.''^ 
Page  162.  Evidently  the  latter  number  represents  the  distance 

between  the  spheres  of  the  meridians  of  the  two  places 


CHAPTER  XXXI.  315 

on  the  circle  of  latitude,  whilst  the  roughly  calculated 
number  is  the  distance  between  the  two  places  in 
longitude. 

This  method  of  calculation  is  found  in  the  astrono-  The  author 
mical  handbooks  of  the  Hindus  in  conformity  with  the  this  method. 
account  of  Alfazari,  save  in  oue  particular.     The  here- 
mentioned  j^oriio  is  the  root  of  the  difference  between 
the  squares  of  the  sines  of  the  two  latitudes,  not  the 
sum  of  the  squares  of  the  sines  of  the  two  latitudes. 

But  whatever  this  method  may  be,  it  does  not  hit  the 
right  mark.  We  have  fully  explained  it  in  several  of 
our  publications  specially  devoted  to  this  subject,  and 
there  we  have  shown  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
the  distance  between  two  places  and  the  difference  of 
longitude  between  them  by  means  of  their  latitudes 
alone,  and  that  only  in  case  one  of  these  two  things  is 
known  (the  distance  between  two  places  or  the  differ- 
ence between  the  longitudes  of  them),  by  this  and 
by  means  of  the  two  latitudes,  the  third  value  can  be 
found. 

Based  on  the  same  principle,  the  following  calcula-  Another 
tion  has  been  found,  there  being  no  indication  by  whom  of  the' 

.J  .  .      -,  demntara. 

it  was  invented  : — 

'•'  Multiply  the  yojanas  of  the  distance  between  two 
places  by  9,  and  divide  the  product  by  (lacuna) ;  the 
root  of  the  difference  between  its  square  and  the  square 
of  the  difference  of  the  two  latitudes.  Divide  this 
number  by  6.  Then  you  get  as  quotient  the  number 
of  day-minutes  of  the  difference  of  the  two  longi- 
tudes." 

It  is  clear  that  the  author  of  this  calculation  first 
takes  the  distance  (between  the  two  places),  then  he 
reduces  it  to  the  measure  of  the  circumference  of  the 
circle.  However,  if  we  invert  the  calculation  and  re- 
duce the  parts  (or  degrees)  of  the  great  circle  to  yojanas 
according  to  his  method,  we  get  the  number  3200,  i.e. 
100  yojanas  less  than  we  have  given  on  the  authority  of 


3i6  ALBERVNVS  INDIA. 

Al-arkand  (v.  p.  312).  The  double  of  it,  6400,  coines 
near  the  number  mentioned  by  Ibn  Tarik  {i.e.  6596^^' 
V.  p.  312),  being  only  about  200  yojanas  smaller. 

We  shall  now  give  the  latitudes  of  some  places,  as  we 
hold  them  to  be  correct. 
A  criticism        All  canons  of  the  Hindus  asfree  in  this  that  the  line 

of  Ary.a-  .  'itit  t-t  / 

bhataof  connecting  Laiika  with  Meru  divides  the  oiKovixevq 
puraouthe  lengthways  in  two  halves,  and  that  it  passes  through 
ujaiii.'  the  city  of  Ujain,  the  fortress  of  Rohitaka,  the  river 
Yamuna,  the  plain  of  Taneshar,  and  the  Cold  Moun- 
tains. The  longitudes  of  the  places  are  measured  by 
their  distance  from  this  line.  On  this  head  I  know  of 
no  difference  between  them  except  the  following  pas- 
sage in  the  book  of  Aryabhata  of  Kusumapura  : — 

"  People  say  that  Kurukshetra,  i.e.  the  plain  of 
Taneshar,  lies  on  the  line  which  connects  Lanka  with 
Meru  and  passes  through  Ujain.  So  they  report  on 
the  authority  of  Pulisa.  But  he  was  much  too  intelli- 
gent not  to  have  known  the  subject  better.  The  times 
of  the  eclipses  prove  that  statement  to  be  erroneous, 
and  Prithusvamin  maintains  that  the  difference  be- 
tween the  longitudes  of  Kurukshetra  and  Ujain  is  120 
yojrmcis.^' 

These  are  the  words  of  Aryabhata. 
ontheiati-  Ya'kub  Ibu  Tarik  says  in  his  book  entitled  The  Com- 
ujahi'!^  position  of  the  Spheres,  that  the  latitude  of  Ujain  is  4f 
degrees,  but  he  does  not  say  whether  it  lies  in  the  north 
or  the  south.  Besides,  he  states  it,  on  the  authority  of 
the  book  Al-Arlxcind,  to  be  4|-  degrees.  We,  however, 
have  found  a  totally  different  latitude  of  Ujain  in 
the  same  book  in  a  calculation  relating  to  the  distance 
between  Ujain  and  Almansura,  which  the  author  calls 
Brahmanavata,  i.e.  Bamhanwa,  viz.  latitude  of  Ujain, 
22°  29';  latitude  of  Almansura,  24°  i\ 

According  to  the  same  book,  the  straight  shadow  in 
Lohaniyye,  i.e.  Loharani,  is  5f  digits. 


CHAPTER  XXXI.  317 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  all  the  canons  of  the 
Hindus  agree  in  this,  that  the  latitude  of  Ujain  is  24 
degrees,  and  that  the  sun  culminates  over  it  at  the  time 
of  the  summer  solstice. 

Balabhadra,  the  commentator,  gives  as  the  latitude 
of  Kanoj  26"  35';  as  that  of  Taneshar,  30°  12'.  Page  163. 

The  learned  Abu- Ahmad,  the  son  of  Catlaghtagin, 
calculated  the  latitude  of  the  city  of  Karli  (?),  and 
found  it  to  be  28°  o\  that  of  Taneshar  27',  and  both 
places  to  be  distant  from  each  other  by  three  days' 
marches.  What  the  cause  of  this  difference  is  I  do 
not  know. 

According  to  the  book  Karaiia-sdra,  the  latitude  of 
Kashmir  is  34°  9',  and  the  straight  shadow  there  S-^ 
digits. 

I  myself  have  found  the  latitude  of  the  fortress 
Lauhur  to  be  34"^  10'.  The  distance  from  Lauhur  to 
the  capital  of  Kashmir  is  56  miles,  half  the  way  being 
rugged  country,  the  other  half  plain.  What  other  lati- 
tudes I  have  been  able  to  observe  myself,  I  shall 
enumerate  in  this  place  : — 

Ghazna .  .  .  -33°  35' 
Kabul  .  .  .  .33°  47' 
Kandi,  the  guard-station 

of  the  prince      .         .     33°  55' 
Dunpur ....     34°  20' 

The  distance  between  the  latter  place  and  Mult  an  is 
nearly  200  miles. 

S^lkot 32°  58' 

Mandakkakor      .         .         .         .         .     31°  50' 
Multan        ......     29°  40' 

If  the  latitudes  of  places  are  know^n,  and  the  distances 
between  them  have  been  measured,  the  difference  be- 
tween their  longitudes  also  may  be  found  according  to 
the  methods  explained  in  the  books  to  which  we  have 
referred  the  reader. 


Lamghan 

•     34°  43' 

Purshavar 

. 

•     34°  44' 

Waihand 

. 

•     34°  30' 

Jailam   . 

•     33°  20' 

The  fortress 

Nandna 

.     32°    0' 

3i8  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

We  ourselves  have  (in  our  travels)  in  their  country 
not  passed  beyond  the  places  which  we  have  mentioned, 
nor  have  we  learned  any  more  longitudes  and  latitudes 
(of  places  in  India)  from  their  literature.  It  is  God 
alone  who  helps  us  to  reach  our  objects ! 


(    319     ) 


CHAPTER   XXXIL 

ON  THE  NOTIONS  OF  DURATION  AND  TIME  IN  GENERAL, 
AND  ON  THE  CREATION  OF  THE  WORLD  AND  ITS 
DESTRUCTION. 

According  to  the  relation  of  Mnliammad  Ibn  Zaka-  ontheno- 

A»iA,..i  .  •  iM  1  fi        tion  of  time 

•riyya   Alrazi,   the    most    ancient    philosophers    oi    the  according  to 
Greeks  thought  that  the  following  five  things  existed  other  pwio- 
from  all  eternity,  the  creator,  the  universal  soul,  the  first  ^°^'^^''"" 
vXt],  space  in  the  abstract,  and  time  m  the  abstract.     On 
these   things  Alrazi  has  founded  that  theory   of  his, 
which    is    at    the    bottom    of    his    whole    philosophy. 
Further,  he  distinguishes  between  time  and  duration 
in  so  far  as  numher  applies  to  the  former,  not  to  the 
latter ;  for  a  thing  which  can  be  numbered  is  finite, 
whilst    duration   is   infinite.      Similarly,    philosophers 
have  explained  time  as  duration  with  a  beginning  and 
an  end,  and  eternity  as  duration  without  beginning  and 
end. 

According  to  Alrazi,  those  five  things  are  necessary 
j)ostulatcs  of  the  actually  existing  world.  For  that 
w^hich  the  senses  perceive  in  it  is  the  vX^i  acquiring 
shape  by  means  of  combination.  Besides,  the  vXr] 
occupies  some  place,  and  therefore  we  must  admit  the 
existence  of  space.  The  changes  apparent  in  the  world 
of  sense  compel  us  to  assume  the  existence  of  time,  for 
some  of  them  are  earlier,  others  later,  and  the  hefore 
and  the  aftervmrds,  the  earlier  and  the  later,  and  the 
simultaneous  can  only  be  perceived  by  means  of  the 


320  A  LB  E  RUNTS  INDIA. 

notion  of  time,  which  is  a  necessary  postulate  of  the 
existing  world. 

Further,  there  are  living  heings  in  the  existing  world. 
Therefore  we  must  assume  the  existence  of  the  soul. 
Among  these  living  beings  there  are  intelligent  ones, 
capable  of  carrying  the  arts  to  the  highest  perfection  ; 
and  this  compels  us  to  assume  the  existence  of  a 
Creator,  who  is  wise  and  intelligent,  who  establishes 
and  arranges  everything  in  the  best  possible  manner, 
and  inspires  people  with  the  force  of  intelligence  for 
the  purpose  of  liberation. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  sophists  consider  eternity 
and  time  as  one  and  the  same  thing,  and  declare  the 
motion  which  serves  to  measure  time  alone  to  be  finite. 

Another  one  declares  eternity  to  be  the  circular 
motion.  No  doubt  this  motion  is  indissolubly  con- 
nected with  that  being  which  motes  by  it,  and  which 
is  of  the  most  sublime  nature,  since  it  lasts  for  ever. 
Thereupon  he  rises  in  his  argumentation  from  the 
moving  being  to  its  mover,  and  from  the  moving  mover 
to  the  first  mover  who  is  motionless. 

This  kind  of  research  is  very  subtle  and  obscure. 
But  for  this,  the  opinions  would  not  differ  to  such  an 
extent  that  some  people  declare  that  there  is  no  time 
at  all,  while  others  declare  that  time  is  an  independent 
substance.  According  to  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias, 
Aristotle  gives  in  his  book  c^vo-i/ct)  aKpoacris  the  foUow- 
Page  164.  ing  argumentation  :  "  Everything  moving  is  moved  by 
a  mover ; "  and  Galenus  says  on  the  same  subject  that 
he  could  not  understand  the  notion  of  time,  much  less 
prove  it. 
The  notions  The  theory  of  the  Hindus  on  this  subject  is  rather 
phiioso-^  poor  in  thought  and  very  little  developed.  Varahami- 
hira  says  in  the  opening  of  his  book  Samkitd,  when 
speaking  of  that  which  existed  from  all  eternity:  "It 
has  been  said  in  the  ancient  books  that  the  first 
primeval  thing  was   darkness,  which  is  not  identical 


phers  on 
time. 


CHAPTER  XXXII,  321 

with  the  black  colour,  but  a  kind  of  non-existence  like 
the  state  of  a  sleeping  person.  Then  God  created  this 
world  for  Brahman  as  a  cupola  for  him.  He  made  it 
to  consist  of  two  parts,  a  higher  and  a  lower  one,  and 
placed  the  sun  and  moon  in  it."  Kapila  declares  : 
"  God  has  always  existed,  and  with  him  the  world,  with 
all  its  substances  and  bodies.  He,  however,  is  a  cause 
to  the  world,  and  rises  by  the  subtlety  of  his  nature 
above  the  gross  nature  of  the  world."  Kumbhaka 
says:  "The  primeval  one  is  Mahdhlmta,  i.e.  the  com- 
pound of  the  five  elements.  Some  declare  that  the 
primeval  thing  is  time,  others  nature,  and  still  others 
maintain  that  the  director  is  karmaii,  i.e.  action." 

In  the  book  Vishmi-Dharma,  Vajra  speaks  to  Mar- 
kandeya  :  "Explain  to  me  the  times  ;  "  whereupon  the 
latter  answers:  "Duration  is  dtma2mrusJia,"  i.e.  a 
breath,  and  purusha,  which  means  the  lord  of  the  uni- 
verse. Thereupon,  he  commenced  explaining  to  him 
the  divisions  of  time  and  their  dominants,  just  as  we 
have  propounded  these  things  in  detail  in  the  proper 
chapters  (chap,  xxxiii.  et  seq.). 

The  Hindus  have  divided  duration  into  two  periods, 
a  period  of  motion,  which  has  been  determined  as  time, 
and  a  period  of  rest,  which  can  be  determined  only  in 
an  imaginary  way  according  to  the  analogy  of  that 
which  has  first  been  determined,  the  period  of  motion. 
The  Hindus  hold  the  eternity  of  the  Creator  to  be 
determinable,  not  measurable,  since  it  is  infinite.  We, 
however,  cannot  refrain  from  remarking  that  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  imagine  a  thing  which  is  deter- 
minable but  not  measurable,  and  that  the  whole  idea 
is  very  far-fetched.  We  shall  here  communicate  so 
much  as  will  suffice  for  the  reader  of  the  opinions  of 
the  Hindus  on  this  subject,  as  far  as  we  know  them. 

The  common  notion  of  the  Hindus  regarding  creation  The  Day  of 

,  P  1  1  T  •  T     Brahman  a 

IS  a  popular  one,  tor,  as  we  nave  already  mentioned,  period  of 
they  believe  matter  to  be  eternal.     Therefore,  they  do  Night  0/ 
YOL.  I.  X 


322  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

not,  by  the  word  creation,  understand  a  formation  of 
something  out  of  nothing.  They  mean  by  creation  only 
the  working  with  a  piece  of  clay,  working  out  various 
combinations  and  figures  in  it,  and  making  such  arrange- 
ments with  it  as  will  lead  to  certain  ends  and  aims 
which  are  potentially  in  it.  For  this  reason  they  at- 
tribute the  creation  to  angels  and  demons,  nay,  even 
to  human  beings,  who  create  either  because  they  carry 
out  some  legal  obligation  which  afterwards  proves 
beneficial  for  the  creation,  or  because  they  intend  to 
allay  their  passions  after  having  become  envious  and 
ambitious.  So,  for  instance,  they  relate  that  Visva- 
mitra,  the  Rishi,  created  the  buffaloes  for  this  purpose, 
that  mankind  should  enjoy  all  the  good  and  useful 
things  which  they  afford.  All  this  reminds  one  of  the 
words  of  Plato  in  the  book  Timceus :  "The  deol,  i.e. 
the  gods,  who,  according  to  an  order  of  their  father, 
carried  out  the  creation  of  man,  took  an  immortal  soul 
and  made  it  the  beginning ;  thereupon  they  fashioned 
like  a  turner  a  mortal  body  upon  it." 

Here  in  this  context  we  meet  with  a  duration  of  time 
which  Muslim  authors,  following  the  example  of  the 
Hindus,  call  the  years  of  the  ivorld.  People  think  that 
at  their  beginnings  and  endings  creation  and  destruc- 
tion take  place  as  kinds  of  new  formations.  This, 
however,  is  not  the  belief  of  the  people  at  large.  Ac- 
cording to  them,  this  duration  is  a  day  of  Brahman 
and  a  consecutive  night  of  Brahman  ;  for  Brahman  is 
intrusted  with  creating.  Further,  the  coming  into 
existence  is  a  motion  in  that  which  grows  out  of  some- 
thing different  from  itself,  and  the  most  apparent  of 
the  causes  of  this  motion  are  the  meteoric  motors,  i.e. 
the  stars.  These,  however,  will  never  exercise  regular 
influences  on  the  world  below  them  unless  they  move 
and  change  their  shapes  in  everj^  direction  (=  their 
aspects).  Therefore  the  coming  into  existence  is  limited 
to  the  clay  of  Brahman^  because  in  it   only,  as  the 


CHAPTER  XXXII.  323 

Hindus  believe,  the  stars  are  moving  and  their  spheres  Page  165. 
revolving  according  to  their  pre-established  order,  and 
in  consequence  the  process  of  coming  into  existence 
is  developed  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  without  any 
interruption. 

On  the  contrary,  during  the  night  of  Brahman  the 
spheres  rest  from  their  motions,  and  all  the  stars,  as 
well  as  their  apsides  and  nodes,  stand  still  in  one 
particular  place. 

In  consequence  all  the  affairs  of  the  earth  are  in  one 
and  the  same  unchanging  condition,  therefore  the  coming 
into  existence  has  ceased,  because  he  who  makes  things 
come  into  existence  rests.  So  both  the  processes  of  act- 
ing and  of  being  acted  upon  are  suspended ;  the  elements 
rest  from  entering  into  new  metamorphoses  and  com- 
binations, as  they  rest  now  in  {lacuna  ;  perhaps :  the 
night),  and  they  prepare  themselves  to  belong  to  new 
beings,  which  will  come  into  existence  on  the  following 
day  of  Brahman. 

In  this  way  existence  circulates  during  the  life  of 
Brahman,  a  subject  which  we  shall  propound  in  its 
proper  place. 

According  to  these  notions  of  the  Hindus,  creation  Critical 
and  destruction  only  refer  to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  author. 
By  such  a  creation,  not  one  piece  of  clay  comes  into 
existence  which  did  not  exist  before,  and  by  such  a 
destruction  not  one  piece  of  clay  which  exists  ceases  to 
exist.  It  is  quite  impossible  that  the  Hindus  should 
have  the  notion  of  a  creation  as  long  as  they  believe 
that  matter  existed  from  all  eternity. 

The  Hindus  represent  to  their  common  people  the  Brahman's 

•1  'TIT  p-r-.i  T    ^^'akiiig  and 

two  durations  here  mentioned,  the  day  01  Brahman  and  sleeping. 
the  night  of  Brahman,  as  his  ivaking  and  sleeping  ;  and 
we  do  not  disapprove  of  these  terms,  as  they  denote 
something  which  has  a  beginning  and  end.     Further, 
the  whole  of  the  life  of  Brahman,  consisting  of  a  sue- 


324  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

cession  of  motion  and  rest  in  the  world  during  such  a 
period,  is  considered  as  applying  only  to  existence,  not 
to  non-existence,  since  during  it  the  piece  of  clay  exists 
and,  besides,  also  its  shape.  The  life  of  Brahman  is  only 
a  day  for  that  being  who  is  above  him,  i.e.  Purusha  (cf 
chap.  XXXV.).  When  he  dies  all  compounds  are  dissolved 
during  his  night,  and  in  consequence  of  the  annihilation 
of  the  compounds,  that  also  is  suspended  which  kept 
him  (Brahman)  within  the  laws  of  nature.  This,  then, 
is  the  rest  of  Purusha,  and  of  all  that  is  under  his 
control  {lit.  and  of  his  vehicles). 

When  common  people  describe  these  things,  they 
make  the  night  of  Brahman  follow  after  the  night  of 
Purusha  ;  and  as  Purusha  is  the  name  for  a  man,  they 
attribute  to  him  sleeping  and  waking.  They  derive 
destruction  from  his  snoriug,  in  consequence  of  which 
all  things  that  hang  together  break  asunder,  and 
everything  standing  is  drowned  in  the  sweat  of  his 
forehead.  And  more  of  the  like  they  produce,  things 
which  the  mind  declines  to  accept  and  the  ear  refuses 
to  hear. 

Therefore  the  educated  Hindus  do  not  share  these 
opinions  (regarding  the  waking  and  sleeping  of  Brah- 
man), for  they  know  the  real  nature  of  sleep.  They  know 
that  the  body,  a  compound  of  antipathetic  humores, 
requires  sleep  for  the  purpose  of  resting,  and  for  this 
purpose  that  all  which  nature  requires,  after  being 
wasted,  should  be  duly  replaced.  So,  in  consequence 
of  the  constant  dissolution,  the  body  requires  food  in 
order  to  replace  that  which  had  been  lost  by  emacia- 
tion. Further,  it  requires  cohabitation  for  the  purpose 
of  perpetuating  the  species  by  the  body,  as  without 
cohabitation  the  species  would  die  out.  Besides,  the 
body  requires  other  things,  evil  ones,  but  necessary, 
while  simple  substances  can  dispense  with  them,  as 
also  He  can  who  is  above  them,  like  to  whom  there  is 
nothing, 


CHAPTER  XXXII.  325 

Further,  the  Hindus  maintain  that  the  world  will  Notions  re- 
perish  in  consequence  of  the  conjunction  of  the  twelve  end  of  the 
suns,  which  appear  one  after  the  other  in  the  different 
months,  ruining  the  earth  by  burning  and  calcining  it, 
and  by  withering  and  drying  up  all  moist  substances. 
Further,  the  world  perishes  in  consequence  of  the  union 
of  the  four  rains  which  now  come  down  in  the  different 
seasons  of  the  year  ;  that  which  has  been  calcined  attracts 
the  water  and  is  thereby  dissolved.  Lastly,  the  world 
perishes  by  the  cessation  of  light  and  by  the  prevalence 
of  darkness  and  non-existence.  By  all  this  the  world 
will  be  dissolved  into  atoms  and  be  scattered. 

The  Matsya-Parctna  says  that  the  fire  which  burns 
the  world  has  come  out  of  the  water  ;  that  until  then  it 
dwelt  on  Mount  Mahisha  in  the  Kusha-Dvipa,  and  was 
called  by  the  name  of  this  mountain. 

The  VishiuL-Piirdna  says  that  "  Maharloka  lies  above 
the  pole,  and  that  the  duration  of  the  stay  there  is  one  p^ge  166. 
halloa.  When  the  three  worlds  burn,  the  fire  and 
smoke  injure  the  inhabitants,  and  then  they  rise  and 
emigrate  to  Janaloka,  the  dwelling-place  of  the  sons  of 
Brahman,  who  preceded  creation,  viz.  Sanaka.  Sananda, 
Sanandanada  (?),  Asuras,  Kapila,  Yodhu,  and  Pafica- 
sikha." 

The  context  of  these  passages  makes  it  clear  that  Abu-Ma'- 
this  destruction  of  the  world  takes  place  at  the  end  of  a  Indian 
kaljia,  and  hence  is  derived  the  theory  of  Abii-Mashar 
that  a  deluge  takes  place  at  the  conjunction  of  the 
planets,  because,  in  fact,  they  stand  in  conjunction  at 
the  end  of  each  caturyuga  and  at  the  beginning  of  each 
kaliyuga.  If  this  conjunction  is  not  a  complete  one, 
the  deluge,  too,  will  evidently  not  attain  the  highest 
degree  of  its  destructive  power.  The  farther  we  advance 
in  the  investigation  of  these  subjects,  the  more  light 
will  be  shed  on  all  ideas  of  this  kind,  and  the  better 
the  reader  will  understand  all  words  and  terms  occur- 
ring in  this  context. 


326 


ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 


Buddhist 

notions 

from 

Aleran- 
shahri. 


Aleranshahri  records  a  tradition,  as  representing  the 
belief  of  the  Buddhists,  which  much  resembles  the  silly 
tales  just  mentioned.  On  the  sides  of  Mount  Meru 
there  are  four  worlds,  which  are  alternately  civilised  or 
desert.  A  world  becomes  desert  when  it  is  overpowered 
by  the  fire,  in  consequence  of  the  rising  of  seven  suns, 
one  after  the  other,  over  it,  when  the  water  of  the 
fountains  dries  up,  and  the  burning  fire  becomes  so 
strong  as  to  penetrate  into  the  world.  A  world  becomes 
civilised  when  the  fire  leaves  it  and  migrates  to  another 
world  ;  after  it  has  left,  a  strong  wind  rises  in  the  world, 
drives  the  clouds,  and  makes  them  rain,  so  that  the 
world  becomes  like  an  ocean.  Out  of  its  foam  shells 
are  produced,  with  which  the  souls  are  connected,  and 
out  of  these  human  beings  originate  when  the  water 
has  sunk  into  the  ground.  Some  Buddhists  think  that 
a  man  comes  by  accident  from  the  perishing  world  to 
the  growing  world.  Since  he  feels  unhappy  on  account 
of  his  being  alone,  out  of  his  thought  there  arises  a 
spouse,  and  from  this  couple  generation  commences. 


(     327     ) 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

ox  THE  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  THE  DAY  OR  NYCHTHEMERON, 
AND  ON  DAY  AND  NIGHT  IN  PARTICULAR. 

According  to  the  general  usage  of  Muslims,.  Hindus,  Definition 
and  others,  a  day  or  nychthemeron  means  the  dura-  nighf  ^" 
tion  of  one  revolution  of  the  sun  in  a  rotation  of  the 
universe,  in  which  he  starts  from  the  one  half  of  a 
great  circle  and  returns  to  the  same.  Apparently  it  is 
divided  into  two  halves  :  the  day  (i.e.  the  time  of  the 
sun's  being  visible  to  the  inhabitants  of  a  certain  place 
on  earth),  and  the  7iiyJit  (i.e.  the  time  of  his  being  in- 
visible to  them).  His  being  visible  and  being  invisible 
are  relative  facts,  which  differ  as  the  horizons  differ. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  horizon  of  the  equator,  which 
the  Hindus  call  the  country  ivithout  latitude,  cuts  the 
circles  parallel  to  the  meridian  in  two  halves.  In  con- 
sequence, day  and  night  are  always  equal  there.  How- 
ever, the  horizons  which  cut  the  parallel  circles  without 
passing  through  their  pole  divide  them  into  two  un- 
equal halves,  the  more  so  the  smaller  the  parallel  circles 
are.  In  consequence,  there  day  and  night  are  unequal, 
except  at  the  times  of  tbe  two  equinoxes,  when  on  the 
whole  earth,  except  Meiu  and  Yadavamukha,  day  and 
night  are  equal.  Then  all  the  places  north  and  south 
of  the  line  share  in  this  peculiarity  of  the  line,  but  only 
at  this  time,  not  at  any  other. 

The  beginning  of  the  day  is  the  sun's  rising  above  Mannshy&. 
the  horizon,  the  beginning  of  the  night  his  disappearing  ^^^^^^^'*" 
below  it.     The  Hindus  consider  the  day  as  the  first,  the 


328  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

Page  167.  night  as  the  second,  part  of  the  nychthemeron.  There- 
fore they  call  the  former  Sctvana,  i.e.  a  day  depending 
on  the  rising  of  the  sun.  Besides,  they  call  it  Manu- 
sliydhordtra,  i.e.  a  human  day,  because,  in  fact,  the  great 
mass  of  their  people  do  not  know  any  other  kind  of  day 
but  this.  Now,  assuming  the  Sdvana  to  be  known  to 
the  reader,  we  shall  in  the  following  use  it  as  a  standard 
and  gauge,  in  order  thereby  to  determine  all  the  other 
kinds  of  days. 

Day  of  the         After  tJu  Jiuman  day  follows  Pitrindm  aliordtra,  i.e. 

fatheis.  '      ' 

the  nychthemeron  of  the  forefathers,  whose  spirits, 
according  to  the  belief  of  the  Hindus,  dwell  in  the 
sphere  of  the  moon.  Its  day  and  night  depend  upon 
light  and  darkness,  not  upon  the  rising  and  setting  in 
relation  to  a  certain  horizon.  When  the  moon  stands 
in  the  highest  parts  of  the  sphere  with  reference  to 
them,  this  is  a  day  to  them  ;  and  when  it  stands  in  the 
lowest  parts,  it  is  night  to  them.  Evidently  their  moon 
is  the  time  of  conjunction  or  full  moon,  and  their  mid- 
night is  opposition  or  new  moon.  Therefore  the  nych- 
themeron of  the  forefathers  is  a  complete  lunar  month, 
the  day  beginning  at  the  time  of  half-moon,  when  the 
light  on  the  moon's  body  begins  to  increase,  and  the 
night  beginning  at  the  time  of  half-moon,  when  her 
light  begins  to  wane.  This  follows  of  necessity  from 
the  just-mentioned  determination  of  the  noon  and  mid- 
night of  the  nychthemeron  of  the  forefathers.  Besides, 
it  may  be  brought  near  to  the  reader  by  a  comparison, 
as  the  bright  half  of  the  light  on  the  moon's  body  may 
be  compared  to  the  rising  of  half  of  the  globe  of  the 
sun  over  the  horizon,  and  the  other  half's  setting  below 
the  horizon.  The  day  of  this  nychthemeron  extends 
from  the  last  quarter  of  a  month  to  the  first  quarter  of 
the  succeeding  month  ;  the  night  from  the  first  to  the 
second  quarter  of  one  identical  month.  The  totality 
of  these  two  halves  is  the  nychthemeron  of  the  fore- 
fathers. 


CHAPTER  XXXII I.  329 

Thus  the  subject  is  explained  by  the  author  of  Vishnv- 
Dharma  both  at  large  and  in  detail,  but  afterwards  he 
treats  it  a  second  time  with  very  little  understanding, 
and  identifies  the  day  of  the  forefathers  with  the  hlack 
half  of  the  month  from  opposition  to  conjunction,  and 
their  night  with  its  wldtc  half,  whilst  the  correct  state- 
ment is  that  which  w^e  have  just  mentioned.  This  view 
is  also  confirmed  by  their  custom  of  offering  gifts  of 
food  to  the  forefathers  on  the  day  of  conjunction,  for 
they  explain  noon  to  be  the  time  of  taking  food.  For 
this  reason  they  offer  food  to  the  forefathers  at  the 
same  time  when  they  themselves  take  it. 

Next  follows  the  Dirydhordtra,  i.e.  the  nychthemeron  cayof  ti.e 
of  the  angels.  It  is  known  that  the  horizon  of  the 
greatest  latitude,  i.e.  that  of  90  degrees,  where  the  pole 
stands  in  the  zenith,  is  the  equator,  not  exactly,  but 
approximately,  because  it  is  a  little  below  the  visible 
horizon  for  that  place  on  earth  which  is  occupied  by 
Mount  Meru  ;  for  its  top  and  slopes  the  horizon  in 
question  and  the  equator  may  be  absolutely  identical, 
although  the  visible  horizon  lies  a  little  below  it  {i.e. 
farther  south).  Further,  it  is  evident  that  the  zodiac 
is  divided  into  two  halves  by  being  intersected  by  the 
equator,  the  one  half  lying  above  the  equator  {i.e.  north 
of  it),  the  second  half  below  it.  As  long  as  the  sun 
marches  in  the  signs  of  northern  declination  it  revolves 
like  a  mill,  since  the  diurnal  arcs  which  he  describes 
are  parallel  to  the  horizon,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sun- 
dials. For  those  who  live  under  the  north  pole  the 
sun  appears  above  the  horizon,  therefore  they  have  day, 
whilst  for  those  living  under  the  south  pole  the  sun  is 
concealed  below  the  horizon,  and  therefore  they  have 
night.  When,  then,  the  sun  migrates  to  the  southern  Page  168. 
signs,  he  revolves  like  a  mill  below  the  horizon  {i.e. 
south  of  the  equator) ;  hence  it  is  night  to  the  people 
living  under  the  north  pole  and  day  to  those  living 
under  the  south  pole. 


330  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

The  dwellings  of  the  Devaka,  i.e.  the  spiritual  beings, 
are  under  the  two  poles ;  therefore  this  kind  of  day- 
is  called  by  their  name,  i.e.  the  nychthemeron  of  the 
Deva. 

Aryabhata  of  Kusumapnra  says  that  the  Deva  see 
one  half  of  the  solar  year,  the  Danava  the  other;  that 
the  Pitaras  see  one  half  of  the  lunar  month,  human 
beings  the  other.  So  one  revolution  of  the  sun  in  the 
zodiac  affords  day  and  night  both  to  the  Deva  and 
Danava,  and  their  totality  is  a  nychthemeron. 

In  consequence  our  year  is  identical  with  the  nych- 
themeron of  tbe  Deva.  In  it,  however,  day  and  night 
are  not  equal  (as  in  the  nychthemeron  of  the  fore- 
fathers), because  the  sun  moves  slowly  in  the  half  of 
the  northern  declination  about  its  apogee,  by  which  the 
day  becomes  a  little  longer.  However,  this  difference 
is  not  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  visible  horizon 
and  the  real  one,  for  this  cannot  be  observed  on  the 
globe  of  the  sun.  Besides,  according  to  Hindu  notions, 
the  inhabitants  of  those  places  are  raised  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  dwelling  on  Mount  Mem.  Who- 
ever holds  this  view  holds  regarding  the  height  of  Meru 
the  same  opinions  as  those  we  have  described  in  the 
proper  place  (in  chap,  xxiii.).  In  consequence  of  this 
height  of  Mount  Meru,  its  horizon  must  fall  a  little 
lower  (i.e.  more  southward  than  the  equator),  and  in 
consequence  the  rate  of  the  day's  being  longer  than  the 
night  is  lessened  (as  then  the  sun  does  not  entirely 
reach  his  northern  apogee,  where  he  makes  the  longest 
days).  If  this  were  anything  else  but  simply  a  reli- 
gious tradition  of  the  Hindus,  besides  being  one  regard- 
ing which  even  they  do  not  agree  among  themselves, 
we  should  try  to  find,  by  astronomical  calculation,  the 
amount  of  this  depression  of  the  horizon  of  Mount 
Meru  below  the  equator,  but  as  there  is  no  use  in  this 
subject  (Mount  Meru  being  simply  an  invention),  we 
drop  it. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII.  33i 

Some  uneducated  Hindu  heard  people  speak  of  the 
day  of  such  a  nychthemeron  in  the  north,  and  of  its 
night  in  the  south.  In  connection  with  these  elements 
he  determined  the  two  parts  of  the  year  by  the  two 
halves  of  the  zodiac,  the  one  which  ascends  from  the 
winter  solstice,  called  the  northern,  and  the  one  which 
descends  from  the  summer  solstice,  called  the  southern. 
Then  he  identified  the  day  of  this  nychthemeron  with 
the  ascending  half,  and  its  night  with  the  descending 
half.     All  of  which  he  has  eternised  in  his  books. 

Not  much  better  is  what  the  author  of  the  Vishmi- 
Dharina  says  : — "The  half  beginning  with  Capricornus 
is  the  day  of  the  Asura,  i.e.  the  Danavas,  and  their 
night  begins  with  the  sign  of  Cancer."  Previously  he 
had  said:  ''The  half  beginning  with  Aries  is  the  day 
of  the  Deva."  This  author  acted  without  any  under- 
standing of  the  subject,  for  he  simply  confounds  the 
two  poles  with  each  other  (for  accordiug  to  this  theory 
the  half  of  the  sun's  revolution,  beginning  with  Capri- 
cornus or  the  winter  solstice,  would  be  the  day  of  the 
beings  under  the  north  pole  or  the  Devas,  not  that  of 
the  beings  under  the  south  pole  or  Asuras,  and  the 
revolution  of  the  sun  beginning  with  Cancer  or  the 
summer  solstice  would  be  the  day  of  the  Asuras,  not 
their  night).  If  this  author  had  really  understood  the 
sentence,  and  had  known  astronomy,  he  would  have 
come  to  other  conclusions. 

Next  follows  the  Brahmdhordtra,  i.e.  the  nvchtheme-  DayofBrah 
ron  of  Brahman.  It  is  not  derived  from  light  and  dark- 
ness (as  that  of  the  forefathers),  nor  from  the  appearing 
or  disappearing  of  a  heavenly  body  (like  that  of  the 
Devas),  but  from  the  physical  nature  of  created  things, 
in  consequence  of  which  they  move  in  the  day  and  rest 
in  the  night.  The  length  of  the  nychthemeron  of 
Brahman  is  8,640,000,000  of  our  years.  During  one 
half  of  it,  i.e.  during  the  day,  the  £ether,  with  all  that 
is   in  it,   is  moving,  the  earth  is  producing,   and  the 


Puruslia. 


332  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

changes  of  existence  and  destruction  are  constantly 
going  on  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth.  During  the 
other  half,  i.e.  the  night,  there  occurs  the  opposite  of 
everything  which  occurs  in  the  day  ;  the  earth  is  not 
changing,  because  those  things  which  produce  the 
changes  are  resting  and  all  motions  are  stopped,  as 
nature  rests  in  the  night  and  in  the  winter,  and  con- 

PageiGg.      ccntrates  itself,  preparing  for  a  new  existence  in  the 
day  and  in  the  summer. 

Each  day  of  Brahman  is  a  Ixxdpa,  as  also  each  night, 
and  a  kalpa  is  that  space  of  time  which  Muslim  authors 
call  the  year  of  the  Sindhind. 

Day  of  Lastly  follows  the  Furushdhordtra,  i.e.  the  nychthe- 

meron  of  the  All-soul,  which  is  also  called  Mahdlalpa, 
i.e.  the  greatest  Jcalpa.  The  Hindus  only  use  it  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  duration  in  general  by  some- 
thing like  a  notion  of  time,  but  do  not  specify  it  as 
day  and  night.  I  almost  feel  inclined  to  think  that 
the  day  of  this  nychthemeron  means  the  duration  of 
the  soul's  being  connected  with  the  vXrj,  whilst  the 
night  means  the  duration  of  their  being  separated  from 
each  other,  and  of  the  resting  of  the  souls  (from  the 
fatigue  of  being  mixed  up  with  the  vXi-j),  and  that  that 
condition  which  necessitates  the  soul's  being  connected 
with  the  vXrj  or  its  being  separated  from  the  vXi-j  reaches 
its  periodical  end  at  the  end  of  this  nychthemeron. 
The  Vishnu-Dharma  says:  "The  life  of  Brahman  is 
the  day  of  Purusha,  and  the  night  of  Purusha  has  the 
same  length." 

The  Hindus  agree  in  assigning  to  the  life  of  Brahman 
a  hundred  of  his  years.  The  number  of  our  years  which 
corresponds  to  one  of  his  years  betrays  itself  to  be  a 
multiplication  of  360  with  the  number  of  our  years, 
which  correspond  to  one  nychthemeron  of  his.  We 
have  already  mentioned  (p.  331)  the  length  of  the 
nychthemeron  of  Brahman.  Now  the  length  of  a  year 
of  Brahman   is   3,110,400,000,000   of   our   years  {i.e. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII.  333 

360  X  8,640,000,000).  A  hundred  years  of  the  same 
kind,  reckoned  in  our  years,  are  represented  by  the 
same  number  increased  by  two  ciphers,  so  that  you  get 
in  the  whote  ten  ciphers,  viz.  311,040,000,000,000. 
This  space  of  time  is  a  dai/  of  Purusha ;  therefore  his 
nychthemeron  is  double  of  it,  viz.  622,080,000,000,000 
of  our  years. 

According:  to  the  Pulisa-Siddhdnta,  the  life  of  Brah-  Pavardha- 

kalpa. 

man  is  a  day  of  Purusha.  However,  it  has  also  been 
mentioned  that  a  day  of  J^urusha  is  a  pardrdhaJcalpa. 
Other  Hindus  say  that  2'><-^'^'drdliakalpa  is  the  day  of  kha, 
i.e.  the  point,  by  which  they  mean  the  first  cause,  on 
which  all  existence  depends.  The  kalpa  occupies  the 
eighteenth  place  in  the  scale  of  the  degrees  of  the  num- 
bers (see  p.  175).  It  is  coXIq^  par drdha,  which  means 
the  half  of  heaven.  Now,  the  double  of  this  would 
be  the  whole  of  heaven  and  the  whole  nychthemeron. 
Therefore  kha  is  represented  by  the  number  864,  fol- 
lowed by  twenty-four  ciphers,  this  number  representing 
oiir  years  (c/.  p.  331). 

These  terms  must,  on  the  whole,  be  rather  considered 
as  a  philosophical  means  of  conveying  an  abstract 
notion  of  time  than  as  mathematical  values  composed 
of  the  various  kinds  of  numbers,  for  they  are  derived 
from  the  processes  of  combination  and  dissolution,  of 
procreation  and  destruction. 


(     334     ) 


CHAPTER   XXXIV. 

ON   THE    DIVISION    OF    THE    NYCHTHEMERON    INTO    MINOR 
PARTICLES   OF   TIME. 

Ghati.  The  Hindus  are  foolishly  painstaking  in  inventing  the 

most  minute  particles  of  time,  but  their  efforts  have 
not  resulted  in  a  universally  adopted  and  uniform 
system.  On  the  contrary,  you  hardly  ever  meet  with 
two  books  or  two  men  representing  the  subject  iden- 
tically. In  the  first  instance,  the  nychthemeron  is 
divided  into  sixty  minutes  or  ghati.  We  read  in  the 
book  Srudhava  by  Utpala  the  Kashmirian  :  "  If  you 
bore  in  a  piece  of  wood  a  cylindrical  hole  of  twelve 
fingers'  diameter  and  six  fingers'  height,  it  contains  three 
mand  water.  If  you  bore  in  the  bottom  of  this  hole 
another  hole  as  large  as  six  plaited  hairs  of  the  hair  of  a 
young  woman,  not  of  an  old  one  nor  of  a  child,  the  three 
mand  of  water  will  flow  out  through  this  hole  in  one 
ghati. ''^ 

Cashaka.  Each  mluute  is   divided  into   sixty   seconds,  called 

cashaka  or  cakhaka,  and  also  vighatikd. 

Plana.  Each  sccond  is  divided  into  six  parts  or  prdna,  i.e. 

Page  170.  breath.  The  above-mentioned  book,  AS'?'ilr/A«rrt,  explains 
t\\Q prdna  in  the  following  manner:  "It  is  the  breath 
of  a  sleeping  person  who  sleeps  a  normal  sleep,  and  not 
like  a  man  who  is  ill,  who  suffers  from  retention  of  the 
urine,  who  is  hungry,  or  has  eaten  too  much,  whose 
mind  is  occupied  with  some  sorrow  or  pain  ;  for  the 
breath  of   a  sleeping  person  varies  according  to  the 


CHAPTER  XXXIV.  335 

conditions  of  his  soul,  which  originate  either  from  desire 
or  fear,  according  to  the  conditions  of  his  body,  depend- 
ing upon  the  emptiness  or  fulness  of  his  stomach,  and 
according  to  various  accidents  disturbing  the  kind  of 
Jmmor  which  is  considered  the  most  desirable." 

It  is  all  the  same  whether  we  determine  the  pr an  a 
according  to  this  rule  (one  nychthemeron  =  21,600 
prdna),  or  if  we  divide  each  gJiafi  into  360  parts 
(60  X  360  =  21,600),  or  each  degree  of  the  sphere  into 
sixty  parts  (360  x  60  =  21,600). 

As  far  as  this  all  Hindus  agree  with  each  other  in  Vmadi. 
the  matter,  though  they  use  different  terms.  So,  for 
instance,  Brahmagupta  calls  the  cashaka  or  seconds 
vinddi,  likewise  Aryabhata  of  Kusumapura.  Besides 
the  latter  calls  the  minutes  nddi.  Both,  however,  did 
not  use  particles  of  time  smaller  than  the  prdna,  which 
correspond  to  the  minutes  of  the  sphere  (60  X  360). 
For  Pulisa  says  :  "  The  minutes  of  the  sphere,  which  are 
21,600,  resemble  the  normal  breaths  of  man  at  the  time 
of  the  equinoxes,  and  when  man  is  in  perfect  health. 
During  one  breathing  of  man  the  sphere  revolves  as  far 
as  one  minute." 

Other  people  insert  between  minute  and  second  a  Ksham. 
third  measure,  called  kshana,  which  is  equal  to  one- 
fourth  of  a  minute  (or  fifteen  seconds).  Each  Icshana 
is  divided  into  fifteen  kald,  each  of  which  is  equal  to 
one-sixtieth  of  a  minute,  and  this  is  the  cashaka,  only 
called  by  another  name. 

Among  the  lower  orders  of  these  fractions  of  time  Nimesha, 
there  occur  three  names  which  are  always  mentioned 
in  the  same  sequence.  The  largest  is  the  nimesha,  i.e. 
the  time  during  which  the  eye,  in  the  normal  state  of 
things,  is  open  between  two  consecutive  looks.  The 
lara  is  the  mean,  and  the  truti  the  smallest  part  of 
time,  the  latter  word  meaning  the  cracking  of  the  fore- 
finger against  the  inside  of  the  thumb,  which  is  with 
them  a  gesture  expressive  of  astonishment  or  admiia- 


336  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

tion.  The  relation  between  these  three  measures  varies 
very  much.     According  to  many  of  the  Hindus — 

2  truti—  I  lava, 
2  lava=  I  nlmesha. 

Further,  they  differ  as  to  the  relation  between  the 
nimesha  and  the  next  higher  order  of  fractions  of  time, 
for  according  to  some  the  latter  (MsJithd)  contains 
fifteen,  according  to  others  thirty  nimesha.  Others, 
again,  divide  each  of  these  three  measures  into  eighths, 
so  that — 

8  truti=  I  lava. 

8  lava  —  I  nimesha. 

8  nimesha—  i  kdshthd  (?). 

The  latter  system  is  used  in  the  book  Srddhava,  and 
has  also  been  adopted  by  S  M  Y{?),  one  of  their  learned 
astronomers.  He  makes  this  division  still  more  subtle 
by  adding  a  further  measure,  smaller  than  the  truti, 
which  is  called  ami,  and  eight  of  which  are  one  triiti. 
Kashtha,  The  next  higher  orders,  parts  of  time  larger  than  the 

nimesha,  are  kdshthd  and  kald.  We  have  said  already 
(p.  3^5)  that  with  some  Hindus  hald  is  only  another 
name  for  cashaka,  and  is  considered  as  equal  to  thirty 
kdshthd.     Further — 

I  kashthd—i^  nimesha. 
I  nimesha  =  2  lava. 
I  lava  =  2  truti. 

Others  reckon  thus — 

I  A-aZa=rVth  minute  of  the  nychthemeron  =  30  Mshthd. 
I  kdshthd  =T,o  nimesha. 

And  the  further  fractions  such  as  those  just  men- 
tioned. 

Lastly,  others  reckon  thus — 

I  cashaka  — 6  nimesha. 
I  nimesha— T,  lava. 

Here  ends  the  tradition  of  Utpala. 


kaia. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV.  337 

According  to  the  Vdyu-Purdna — 

I  muhurta  =  30  kald. 
I  laid  =  30  kdshthd. 
I  Mshflid  =  15  nimesha. 

The   smaller  fractions  are  disregarded  by  the    Vdijic 
Purdna. 

We  have  no  means  of  settling  the  question  as  to  which  Page  171 
of  these  systems  is  the  most  authentic  one.     Therefore 
it  is  the  best  for  ns  to  adhere  to  the  theory  of  Utpala 
and  >S'  M  F(?),  i.e.  to  divide  all  measures  of  time  smaller 
than  Q,  prdna  by  eight — 


I  prdna  =  8  niniesha. 
I  nimesha  =  8  lava. 


I  I  Zai'a  =  8  truti. 

I  I  truti  =  8  ami. 


The   whole   system  is  represented  in  the  following 
table :— 


How  many  times  the 

The  names  of  the  mea- 

smaller one  is  con- 

How many  of  it  are  con- 

sures of  time. 

tained  in  the  larger 
one. 

tained  in  one  day. 

Ghati,  Nadi      . 

60 

60 

Kshana    . 

4 

240 

Cashaka,    Viaiuli,    ) 

Kala     .         .'       \ 

15 

3600 

Prana       . 

6 

21,600 

Nimesha . 

8 

172,800 

;  Lava 

8 

1,^^82,400 

Truti 

8 

11,059.200 

Anu 

8 

88,47^,600 

The  Hindus  have  also  a  popular  kind  of  division  of  prahara 
the  nychthemeron  into  eight  frahara,  i.e.  changes  of 
the  watch,  and  in  some  parts  of  their  country  they 
have  clepsydrae  regulated  according  to  the  ghati,  by 
which  the  times  of  the  eight  watches  are  determined. 
After  a  watch  which  lasts  seven  and  a  half  ghati  has 
elapsed,  they  beat  the  drum  and  blow  a  winding  shell 

VOL.  L  Y 


338  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

called  sanhha,  in  Persian  sped-miihra.     I  have  seen  this 
in  the  town  of  PursJmr.     Pions  people  have  bequeathed 
for  these  clepsydra,  and  for  their  administration,  lega- 
cies and  fixed  incomes. 
Muhurta.  Further,  the   day  is  divided  into   thirty   mithilrta, 

but  this  division  is  not  free  from  a  certain  obscurity  ; 
for  sometimes  you  think  that  the  muhurtas  have 
always  the  same  length,  since  they  compare  them  either 
with  the  (jhciti,  and  say  that  two  gliati  are  one  muhurta, 
or  with  the  watches,  and  say  that  one  vsatch  is  three  and 
three-quarters  muhihia.  Here  the  muhHrtas  are  treated 
as  if  they  were  horce  mquinodiales  {i.e.  so  and  so  many 
equal  parts  of  the  nychthemeron).  However,  the  num- 
ber of  such  hours  of  a  day  or  of  a  night  differs  on  every 
degree  of  latitude,  and  this  makes  us  think  that  the 
length  of  a  mulmirta  duriug  the  day  is  different  from 
its  length  during  the  night  (for  if  four  watches  or  fifteen 
muhurta  represent  a  day  or  a  night,  the  muhurtas 
cannot  be  of  the  same  length  in  the  day  and  in  the 
night,  except  at  the  times  of  the  equinoxes). 

On  the  other  hand,  the  way  in  which  the  Hindus 
count  the  dominants  of  the  miihurtas  makes  us  more 
inclined  to  the  opposite  opinion,  that,  in  fact,  the 
nuthilrtas  are  of  different  length,  for  in  the  case  of  day 
and  night  they  simply  attribute  to  each  of  them  fifteen 
dominants.  Here  the  muhurtas  are  treated  like  the 
horoi  ohliqum  tem'porales  (i.e.  twelve  equal  parts  of  the 
day  and  twelve  equal  parts  of  the  night,  which  differ 
as  day  and  night  differ). 

The  latter  opinion  is  confirmed  by  a  calculation  of 
the  Hindus  which  enables  them  to  find  the  number  of 
the  muhurtas  (which  have  elapsed  of  the  day)  by 
means  of  the  digits  which  the  shadow  of  a  person 
at  the  time  measures.  From  the  latter  number  you 
subtract  the  digits  of  the  shadow  of  the  person  at 
noon,  and  the  remaining  number  you  look  out  in  the 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 


339 


middle  column  of  the  following  diagram,  which  we  have 
taken  from  some  of  their  metrical  compositions.  The 
corresponding  field  of  the  upper  or  lower  columns 
shows  the  number  of  muhurtas  which  you  wanted  to 
find. 


The     muhurtas     w  hich  \ 
have    elapsed    before  V 
noon.         .         .         .J 

I 

2 

3 

^ 

5 

6 

7 
2 
8 

0 

How   many  digits  the^ 
shadow  in  question  is  1 
larger  than  the  noon-  j 
shadow      .         .         J 

The    muhurtas    which  "i 
have     elapsed    after  V 
noon          .         .         .J 

96 
14 

60 
13 

12 
12 

6 
II 

5 
10 

3 
9 

The  commentator  of  the  Siddhdnta,  Pulisa,  comments  whetherthe 

•     •  Til  1  1        •  1    leiigth  of  a 

on  the  latter  opinion,  and  blames  those  who  m  general  muhtirtasa 

,  ^  .  variable  or 

declare  one  muhurta  to  be  equal  to  tivo  glictti,  saying  invariable, 
that  the  number  of  the  fjhati  of  the  nychthemeron  ^^^®  '72- 
varies  in  the  different  parts  of  the  year,  whilst  the 
number  of  its  muliurtas  does  not  vary.  But  in  another 
place  he  contradicts  himself,  where  he  reasons  about 
the  measure  of  the  viuMrta.  He  fixes  one  mvhitrta  as 
equal  to  720  irrdna  or  breaths,  one  breath  being  com- 
posed of  two  things  :  the  apdna  or  the  inhaling,  and 
the  irrdna  or  the  exhaling  of  breath.  Two  other  terms 
of  the  same  meaning  are  nihsvdsa  and  arasvd'ia.  How- 
ever, if  one  thing  is  mentioned,  the  other  is  tacitly 
included  and  understood  ;  as,  for  instance,  if  you  speak 
of  dai/s,  you  include  the  nights,  meaning  to  express 
days  and  nights.  Accordingly  a  muhurta  is  360  apdna 
and  ^60 prdna. 

In  the  same  manner,  when  speaking  of  the  measure 


340  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

of  a  gliati,  he  only  mentions  the  one  species  of  breath, 
connoting  the  other,  for  he  explains  it  in  general  as 
equal  to  360  breaths  (instead  of  180  ajxtna  and  180 
prdna). 

If  now  the  muhilrta  is  measured  by  hreatJis,  it  is 
dependent  upon  the  ghati  and  the  Jwrw  cequinodiales  as 
the  gauges  of  its  measure.  But  this  is  exactly  the  con- 
trary of  what  Palisa  intends,  for  he  argues  against  his 
opponents  who  maintain  that  a  day  has  fifteen  muliilrtas 
only,  if  he  who  counts  them  dwells  on  the  equator  or 
somewhere  else,  but  at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes. 
Pulisa  observes  that  the  ahliijit  coincides  with  noon 
and  the  beginning  of  the  second  half  of  the  day ; 
that,  therefore,  if  the  number  of  the  mvJmrtas  of  the 
day  varied,  the  number  of  the  muliurta  called  ahhijit 
and  denoting  noon  would  vary  too  {i.e.  it  would 
not  always  be  called  the  eighth  mulmrta  of  the 
day). 

Vyasa  says  that  the  birth  of  Yudhishthira  took  place 
in  the  ivhite  half,  at  noon,  at  the  eighth  muhilrta.  If  an 
opponent  means  to  infer  from  this  that  it  was  the  day 
of  an  equinox,  we  answer  by  referring  him  to  the  state- 
ment of  Markandeya,  viz.  that  the  birth  took  place  at 
full  moon  in  the  month  Jyaishtha,  a  time  of  the  year 
which  is  far  distant  from  an  equinox. 

Further,  Vyasa  says  that  the  birth  of  Yudhishthira 
took  place  at  the  ahhijit,  when  the  youth  of  the  night  teas 
gone,  at  midnight,  at  the  eighth  (niithurta)  of  the  hlack 
half,  in  the  month  of  Bhadrapada.  This  date,  too,  is 
far  distant  from  an  equinox. 
story  of  Vasishtha  relates  that  Vasudeva  killed  Sisupala,  the 

si^upaia.  gQi^  Qf  ^\^Q  daughter  of  Kaiiisa,  at  the  ahhijit.  The 
Hindus  tell  the  following  story  of  Sisupala.  He  had 
been  born  with  four  hands,  and  one  day  his  mother 
heard  a  voice  from  above  saying,  "  When  that  person 
who  will  kill  him  touches  him,  his   two  superfluous 


CHAPTER  XXXIV.  341 

hands  will  fall  off.  Thereupon  they  put  the  child  to 
the  bosom  of  each  of  those  who  were  present,  and  when 
it  came  to  be  touched  by  Yasudeva,  the  two  hands  fell 
off,  as  had  been  prophesied.  Now^  the  aunt  spoke 
to  him,  "Assuredly  you  wdll  one  day  kill  my  child  ;" 
whereupon  Vasudeva,  who  was  still  a  child,  answered, 
"I  shall  not  do  that  except  he  deserve  it  for  some 
crime  committed  intentionally,  and  I  shall  not  call  him 
to  account  until  his  misdeeds  exceed  ten.'' 

Some  time  afterwards  Yudhishthira  was  occupied 
with  preparing  a  sacrifice  to  the  fire  in  the  presence  of 
the  most  famous  personages.  He  consulted  A^yasa  as 
to  the  rank  of  the  guests  present  and  the  honours  due 
to  the  president  of  such  an  assembly,  consisting  in  the 
presentation  of  water  and  roses  in  a  cup,  and  Vyasa 
advised  him  to  make  ATisudeva  the  president.  In  this 
assembly  also  Sisupala,  his  cousin,  was  present,  and 
now  he  began  to  rage,  maintaining  that  he  had  a  better 
claim  to  such  an  honour  than  Yasudeva.  He  boasted 
much'  and  went  even  so  far  as  to  abuse  the  parent  of 
Yasudeva.  The  latter  called  the  present  company  to 
witness  as  to  his  bad  behaviour,  and  let  him  do  as  he 
liked.  However,  when  the  affair  lasted  too  long,  and 
passed  beyond  the  number  of  ten  {innhurtas),  Yasudeva 
took  the  cup  and  threw  it  at  him,  as  people  throw  with 
the  cahra,  and  cut  off  his  head.  This  is  the  story  of 
Sisupala. 

He  who  wants  to  prove  the  above-mentioned  theory  crit 
(like  Pulisa,  viz.  that  the  imihurtas  are  thirty  equal 
parts  of  the  nychthemeron),  will  not  succeed  unless 
he  prove  that  the  ahliijit  falls  together  with  noon  and 
with  the  middle  of  the  eighth  mttlmrta  (so  that  the 
day  consists  of  twice  seven  and  a  half  equal  muhurtcts, 
and  likewise  the  night).  As  long  as  he  does  not  prove 
this,  the  muhurtas  differ  in  length  as  days  and  nights, 
though  just  in  India  only  very  little,  and  it  is  possible 


icisms 
on  Pulisa. 


342 


A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA  > 


Page  172 


Dominants 
of  the  Tdu- 
hurtas. 


that  in  times  distant  from  the  equinoxes  noon  falls 
either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the  eighth 
nuihiirta,  or  within  it. 

How  little  exact  is  the  learning  of  the  author  (Pnlisa) 
who  meant  to  prove  this,  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
among  his  arguments  he  produces  a  tradition  from 
Garga  to  this  effect,  that  at  the  cibhijit  of  the  equator 
there  is  no  shadow ;  for,  in  the  first  instance,  it  is  not 
true  save  at  the  two  days  of  the  equinoxes ;  and, 
secondly,  if  it  were  true,  it  would  not  have  anything 
to  do  with  the  subject  he  tries  to  prove  (as  the  ques- 
tion of  the  different  length  of  day  and  night  and  their 
divisions  does  not  refer  to  the  equator,  where  day  and 
night  always  equal  each  other,  but  only  to  southern  or 
northern  latitudes  of  the  earth). 

We  represent  the  dominants  of  the  single  mulmrtas 
in  the  following  table  : — 


^   i 

The  dominants  of  the  Mulivirtas 

The  dominants  of  the  Muhurtas  in  the 

5    "2 

in  the  day. 

night. 

g    ^ 

I. 

Siva,  i.e.  MahMeva. 

Eudra,  i.e.  Mahadeva. 

2. 

Bhujaga,  i.e.  the  snake. 

Aja,  i.e.  the  lord  of  all  cloven- 
footed  animals. 

3- 

Mitra. 

Ahirbudhnya,  the  lord  of  Uttara- 
bhadrapada. 

4' 

Pitri. 

Pilshan,  the  lord  of  Revati. 

5. 

Vasu. 

Basra,  the  lord  of  Asvini. 

6. 

Apas,  i.e.  the  water. 

Antaka,  i.e.  the  angel  of  death. 

7. 

Visva. 

Agni,  i.e.  the  fire. 

8. 

Virificya,  i.e.  Brahman. 

Dhatri,  i.e.  Brahma  the  preserver. 

9- 

Kesvara  (?),  i.e.  Mahadeva. 

Soma,  the  lord  of  Mrigasirsha. 

10. 

Indragni. 

Guru,  i.e.  Jupiter. 

II. 

Indra,  the  prince. 

Hari,  i.e.  N^rayana. 

12. 

Nisakara,  i.e.  the  moon. 

Ravi,  i.e.  the  sun. 

13. 

Varuna,  i.e.  the  lord  of  the 
clouds. 

Yama,  the  angel  of  death. 

14. 

Aryaman. 

Tvashtri,  the  lord  of  Citra. 

15- 

Bhageya  {?). 

Anila,'i.e.  the  wind. 

CHAPTER  XXXIV.  343 

Nobody  in  India  uses  the  hours  except  the  astrologers,  on  the 
for  they  speak  of  the  dominants  of  the  hours,  and,  in  Hindu  as- 
consequence,  also  of  do minants  of  the  nychthemera.  The 
dominant  of  the  nychthemeron  is  at  the  same  time 
the  dominant  of  the  night,  for  they  do  not  separately 
establish  a  dominant  for  the  day,  and  the  night  is, 
in  this  connection,  never  mentioned.  They  arrange 
the  order  of  the  dominants  according  to  the  horc£ 
temporales. 

They  call  the  hour  liord,  and  this  name  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  in  reality  they  use  the  horce  oUiquce  tempo- 
rcdes ;  for  the  Hindus  call  the  media  signorum  (the 
centres  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac)  hord,  which  we  Mus- 
lims call  nimhahr  (cf.  chap.  Ixxx.).  The  reason  is  this, 
that  in  each  day  and  each  night  always  six  signs  rise 
above  the  horizon.  If,  therefore,  the  hour  is  called  by  the  Page  174. 
name  of  the  centre  of  a  sign,  each  day  and  each  night  has 
twelve  hours,  and  in  consequence  the  hours  used  in  the 
theory  of  the  dominants  of  the  hours  are  horce  ohliqum 
temjwrales,  as  they  are  used  in  our  country  and  are 
inscribed  on  the  astrolabes  on  account  of  these  domi- 
nants. 

This  opiaion  is  coufirmed  by  the  following  sentence 
of  Vijayanandin  in  the  Karana-tilaJca,  i.e.  the  first  of 
the  canons.  After  having  explained  the  rule  how  to 
find  the  dominant  of  the  year  and  of  the  month,  he 
says  :  "  To  find  the  horddliipati,  add  the  signs  which  have 
risen  since  the  morning  to  the  degree  of  the  horoscope, 
the  whole  being  reckoned  in  minutes,  and  divide  the 
sum  by  900.  The  quotient  you  get  count  off  from  the 
dominant  of  the  nychthemeron,  counting  the  planetary 
spheres  from  above  to  below.  The  dominant  of  a  day 
you  arrive  at,  is  at  the  same  time  the  dominant  of  the 
hour."  He  ought  to  have  said,  "To  the  quotient  you 
get  add  one,  and  count  off  the  sum  from  the  dominant 
of  the  nychthemeron."     If  he  had  said,  "  Eeckon  the 


344 


ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 


equatorial  degrees  which  have  risen/'  &c.,  the  calcula- 
tion would  have  resulted  in  horw  cequinoctiales. 

The  Hindus  give  certain  names  to  the  horce  obliqu(E, 
which  we  have  united  in  the  following  table.  We  think 
they  are  taken  from  the  book  ^rudhava. 


Names  of  the 
Horas  in  the  day. 

Whether 
favourable 
or  unkicky. 

Their  names  in  the 
night. 

Whether 
favourable 
or  unlucky. 

I. 

Raudra. 

Unlucky. 

Kaiaratri. 

Unlucky. 

2. 

Saumya. 

Lucky. 

Rodhini. 

Lucky. 

3- 

Karala. 

Unlucky. 

Vairahma  (?). 

Lucky. 

4- 

Sattra. 

Lucky. 

Trasaniva. 

Unlucky. 

5- 

Vega. 

Lucky. 

Guhaniya  (?). 

Lucky. 

6. 

Visala. 

Lucky. 

1     Maya. 

Unlucky. 

7- 

Mrityusara. 

Unlucky. 

Damariya  (?). 

Lucky. 

8. 

Subha.    . 

Lucky. 

Jivaharani. 

Unlucky. 

9- 

Kroda. 

Lucky. 

Soshini. 

Unlucky. 

lO. 

Candala. 

Lucky. 

Vrishin. 

Lucky. 

II. 

Kri'ttika. 

Lucky. 

j     Dahariya  (?). 

I 

The  most 
unlucky 
of  all. 

12. 

Amrita. 

Lucky. 

Cantima  (?). 

Lucky. 

What  time 
is  under  the 
influence  of 
the  serpent 
Kiilika. 


Pacre 


75- 


The  book  Vislinu-Dharma  mentions,  among  the  ncigas 
or  serpents,  a  serpent  called  Ndga  Kuliha.  Certain  por- 
tions of  the  hours  of  the  planets  stand  under  its  in- 
fluence. They  are  unlucky,  and  everything  which  is 
eaten  during  them  hurts  and  is  of  no  use  for  anything. 
Sick  people  who  treat  themselves  with  poisonous  medi- 
cines do  not  recover,  but  die  and  perish.  During  these 
times  no  incantation  is  of  any  avail  against  the  bite  of 
a  snake,  for  the  incantation  consists  in  the  mention  of 
the  Garuda,  and  in  those  inauspicious  times  the  stork 
himself  cannot  help  in  any  way,  much  less  the  mention 
of  his  name. 

These  times  are  represented  in  the  following  table 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 


345 


where  the  planetary  hour  is  reckoned  as  consisting  of 
150  parts. 


Tiie  Dominants  of 

>. 

<u 

tc 

g 

the  }{ours. 

M 

0 
0 

7^ 

1 

> 

3 

Number  of  the 

150  parts  of 

the  hour  be- 

fore the  be- 

ginning     of 

the   time   of 

Kulika  . 

^V 

71 

0 

0 

17 

144 

86 

Number  of  the 

parts  during 

which  tlie  in- 

fluence      of 

2 

Kulika  lasts. 

16 

8 

- 

2 

I 
2 

6 

64 

(     346     ) 


CHAPTEE   XXXV. 

ON    THE   DIFFERENT   KINDS    OF   MONTHS    AND    YEARS. 

DefiniLiouof  The  ncituTal  montli  is  the  period  of  the  moon's  syno- 

the  lunar  ^  1  -J 

montli.  dical  revolution.  We  call  it  physical  because  it  de- 
velops in  the  same  way  as  all  natural  phenomena, 
rising  out  of  a  certain  beginning  like  non-existence, 
increasing  by  degrees,  and  growing,  standing  still  when 
the  climax  is  attained,  then  descending,  waning  away 
and  decreasing,  till  at  last  they  return  to  the  non- 
existence whence  they  came.  In  the  same  manner  the 
light  develops  on  the  body  of  the  moon,  since  she 
appears  after  the  moonless  nights  as  a  crescent,  then 
as  a  young  moon  (after  the  third  night),  and  as  full 
moon,  and  thereafter  returns  through  the  same  stages 
to  the  last  night,  which  is  like  non-existence,  at  all 
events  with  reference  to  human  senses.  It  is  well 
known  to  everybody  why  the  moon  continues  for  some 
length  of  time  in  the  moonless  nights,  but  it  is  not 
equally  known,  not  even  to  educated  people,  why  she 
continues  some  time  as  full  moon.  They  must  learn 
how  small  the  body  of  the  moon  is  in  comparison  with 
that  of  the  sun,  that  in  consequence  the  enlightened 
portion  by  far  exceeds  the  dark  one,  and  that  this 
is  one  of  the  causes  why  the  moon  must  necessarily 
appear  as  full  moon  for  some  length  of  time. 

Effects  of  That  the  moon  has  certain  effects  on  moist  substances, 

moonliglit.       ,i       .     .i  ^  ^   •  i  •      n 

that  they  are  apparently  subject  to  her  mtluences,  that, 
for  instance,  increase  and  decrease   in  ebb  and  flow 


CHAPTER  XXXV.  347 

develop  periodically  and  parallel  with  the  moon's 
phases,  all  this  is  well  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  sea- 
shores and  seafaring  people.  Likewise  physicians  are 
well  aware  that  she  affects  the  humorcs  of  sick  people, 
and  that  the  fever-days  revolve  parallel  with  the  moon's 
course.  Physical  scholars  know  that  the  life  of  animals 
and  plants  depends  upon  the  moon,  and  experimen- 
talists know  that  she  influences  marrow  and  brain, 
eggs  and  the  sediments  of  wine  in  casks  and  jngs,  that 
she  excites  the  minds  of  people  who  sleep  in  full  moon- 
light, and  that  she  affects  (?)  linen  clothes  which  are 
exposed  to  it.  Peasants  know  how  the  moon  acts  upon 
fields  of  cucumbers,  melons,  cotton,  &c.,  and  even  make 
the  times  for  the  various  kinds  of  sowing,  planting,  and 
grafting,  and  for  the  coveriug  of  the  cattle  depend  upon 
the  course  of  the  moon.  Lastly,  astronomers  know  that  ^'^°*^  ^^^• 
meteorologic  occurrences  depend  upon  the  various  phases 
through  which  the  moon  passes  in  her  revolutions. 

This  is  the  month,  and  twelve  of  them  are  in  tech- 
nical language  called  a  lunar  year. 

The  natural  year  is  the  period  of  a  revolution  of  the  Soiar 
sun  in  the  ecliptic.  We  call  it  the  natural,  because  it 
comprehends  all  the  stages  in  the  process  of  generation 
which  revolve  through  the  four  seasons  of  the  year. 
In  the  course  of  it,  the  rays  of  the  sun  as  passing 
through  a  window-glass  and  the  shadows  of  the  sun- 
dials reassume  the  same  size,  position,  and  direction  in 
which,  or  from  which,  they  commenced.  This  is  the 
year,  and  is  called  the  solar  one,  in  antithesis  to  the 
lunar  year.  As  the  lunar  month  is  the  twelfth  part  of 
the  lunar  year,  the  twelfth  part  of  the  solar  year  is  a 
solar  month  in  theory,  the  calculation  being  based  on 
the  mean  rotation  of  the  sun.  If,  however,  the  calcula- 
tion is  based  on  his  varying  rotation,  a  solar  month  is 
the  period  of  his  staying  in  one  sign  of  the  zodiac. 

These  are  the  well-known  two  kinds  of  months  and 
years. 


solar 
c 


348  A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 

onimii-  The    Hindus    call    the    conjunction    amdvdsyd,    the 

icuiation.  opposition  pilniwid,  and  the  two  quarters  ATVH  (?). 
Some  of  them  use  the  lunar  year  with  lunar  months 
and  days,  whilst  others  use  the  lunar  year  but  solar 
months,  beginning  with  o  degree  of  each  zodiacal  sign. 
The  sun's  entering  a  sign  is  called  sanhrdnti.  This 
luni-solar  calculation  is,  however,  only  an  approxima- 
tive one.  If  they  constantly  used  it,  they  would  soon 
feel  induced  to  adopt  the  solar  year  itself  and  solar 
months.  In  using  this  mixed  system  they  had  only 
this  advantage,  that  they  could  dispense  with  inter- 
calation. 

Those  who  use  lunar  months  begin  the  month  with 
conjunction  or  new  moon,  and  this  method  is  the  canoni- 
cal one,  whilst  the  others  begin  it  with  the  opposition  or 
full  moon.  I  have  heard  people  say  that  Varahamihira 
does  the  latter,  but  I  have  not  yet  been  able  to  ascer- 
tain this  from  his  books.  The  latter  method  is  for- 
bidden. Still  it  seems  as  if  it  were  rather  old,  because 
the  Veda  says  :  "Men  say  the  moon  has  become  com- 
plete, and  by  her  becoming  complete  also  the  month 
has  become  complete.  Thus  they  speak  because  they 
do  not  know  me  nor  the  interpretation  of  me,  for  the 
Creator  of  the  world  commenced  creating  with  the  white 
half,  not  with  the  black  half."  But  possibly  these  words 
are  only  a  saying  of  men  (not  really  a  sentence  taken 
from  the  Veda). 

The  numeration  of  the  days  of  the  month  begins  with 
the  new  moon  and  the  first  lunar  day  is  called  BBBA, 
and  again  enumeration  begins  with  full  moon  {i.e.  they 
count  twice  fifteen  days,  beginning  with  new  moon  and 
full  moon).  Each  two  days  which  are  equidistant  from 
new  moon  or  full  moon  have  the  same  name  (or  num- 
ber). In  them,  light  and  darkness  on  the  body  of  the 
moon  are  in  corresponding  phases  of  increasing  and 
waning,  and  the  hours  of  the  rising  of  the  moon  in  one 
day  correspond  to  the  hours  of  her  setting  in  the  other. 


CHAPTER  XXXV.  349 

For  the  purpose  of  finding  these  times  they  use  the 
following  calculation  : — 

Multiply  the  elapsed  lunar  days  of  the  month,  if 
they  are  less  than  15,  or,  in  case  they  are  more,  the 
difference  between  them  and  15,  by  the  number  of  the 
ghatis  of  the  night  in  question.  Add  2  to  the  product, 
and  divide  the  sum  by  15.  Then  the  quotient  repre- 
sents the  number  of  ghatis  and  minor  fractions  of  time 
between  the  first  night,  and  cither  the  setting  of  the 
moon  in  the  night  in  question,  one  of  the  nights  of  the 
lahite  half,  or  the  rising  of  the  moon  in  the  night  in 
question,  one  of  the  nights  of  the  black  half. 

This  calculation  is  based  on  the  fact  that  the  space 
of  time  between  the  first  night  and  the  rising  or  setting 
of  the  moon  in  some  following  night  of  the  same  luna- 
tion varies  by  two  minutes  {ghatt),  and  that  the  nights 
vary,  lasting  either  a  little  longer  or  a  little  shorter 
than  thirty  minutes.  If,  therefore,  you  count  thirty 
minutes  for  each  nychthemeron,  and  you  divide  the 
product  by  half  the  number  of  the  minutes,  you  get 
two  minutes  for  each  nychthemeron.  As  these  two 
minutes,  however,  agree  with  the  difference  of  the 
nights,  they  multiplied  the  number  of  nychthemera 
by  the  measure  of  the  night,  i.e.  the  number  of  its 
ghatis  (see  above,  11.  6,  7),  whilst  it  would  have  been 
more  accurate  to  multiply  by  the  half  of  the  sum  of 
the  ghatis  of  the  night  in  question  and  of  the  first  night 
of  the  lunation.  It  is  useless  to  add  the  two  minutes.  Page  177. 
for  they  represent  the  moment  when  the  crescent  of 
the  moon  first  becomes  visible,  but  if  this  moment  were 
adopted  as  the  beginning  of  the  month,  the  two  minutes 
would  be  transferred  to  the  conjunction. 

As  months  are  composed  of  days,  there  are  as  many  vmions 
kinds  of  months    as  there   are  kinds   of  days.     Each  inonths. 
month  has  thirty  days.     We  shall  here  use  the  civil  day 
(Sdvana,  v.  chap,  xxxiii.)  as  a  standard. 

In  agreement  with  the  Hindu  calculation  of  the  re- 


350  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

volutions  of  sun  and  moon  in  a  halpa,  a  lunar  month 
=  29i^fff||- nyclithemera.  Yon  find  tliis  number  by 
dividing  the  sum  of  the  days  of  the  kalpa  by  the 
number  of  its  Innar  months.  The  number  of  the  lunar 
months  of  a  kalpa  represents  the  difference  between  the 
revolutions  of  sun  and  moon  in  it,  viz.  $3,433,300,000. 

A  month  has  30  lunar  days,  for  this  number  is 
canonical,  as  the  number  of  360  is  canonical  for  the 
number  of  days  of  a  year.  The  solar  month  has  30 
solar  days  and  30j^;fft'f|^  civil  days. 

The  month  of  the  fathers  is  equal  to  30  of  our  months, 
and  has  SSsi-f-f.TTT  civil  days. 

The  month  of  the  angels  is  equal  to  30  years,  and  has 
10,95714-^  civil  days. 

The  month  of  Brahman  is  equal  to  60  halpas,  and 
has  94,674,987,000,000  civil  days. 

The  mo7ith  of  Purusha  is  equal  to  2,160,000  kalpas, 
and  has  3,408,299,532,000,000,000  civil  days. 

The  month  of  Kha  has 
9,497,498,700,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  civil  days. 

By  multiplying  each  of  these  months  by  twelve,  we 
get  the  number  of  days  of  the  corresponding  year. 

The  luna,r  year  has  354TTFfTTT  civil  days. 

The  solar  year  has  365  3^^%  civil  days. 

The  year  of  the  fathers  has  360  lunar  months,  or 
iO,63ixyV:TTT  civil  days. 

The  year  of  the  a7igels  has  360  of  our  years,  or 
i3i>493in)- civil  days. 

The  year  of  Brahman  has  720  kalpas,  or 
1,136,099,844,000,000  civil  days. 

The  year  of  Purusha  has  25,920,000  kalpas,  or 
40,899.594,384,000,000,000  civil  days. 

The  year  of  Kha  has 
1 1 3, 609,984, 400,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  civil  days. 

The    latter    number  is   mentioned    by   the   Hindus, 

although  it  is  written  in  their  books  that  there  is  no 

PumshV*    combination  of  numbers  beyond  the  day  of  Purusha,  for 


Various 
kinds  of 
years. 


CHAPTER  XXXV.  351 

it  is  the  first  aud  the  last,  and  is  without  a  beginning  in 
the  past  and  without  *an  end  in  the  future.  The  other 
kinds  of  days,  of  which  months  and  years  (those  of  the 
fathers,  the  angels,  and  Brahman)  are  composed,  refer 
to  beings  who  stand  under  Punish  a  in  the  order  of 
beings,  and  w^hose  duration  is  defined  by  certain  limits 
of  time.  The  day  of  Puntsha  is  simply  an  abstraction 
of  the  Hindu  mind  to  denote  that  which  is  above  the 
soul  (cUman),  for  they  make  no  distinction  between 
jmricsJia  and  dtman  except  in  the  ordepor  sequence  in 
which  they  enumerate  them.  They  speak  of  Purusha 
in  terms  resembling  those  of  the  vSiifis,  viz.  the  he  is  not 
the  first,  and  is  not  something  else.  It  is  quite  possible  Page  178. 
in  imagination  to  extend  the  idea  of  duration  from  the 
existing  present  moment  towards  both  sides,  i.e.  towards 
the  past  which  no  longer  exists,  and  towards  the  future 
which  possibly  will  exist,  and  to  measure  duration  ; 
and  if  some  part  of  it  admits  of  being  determined  by 
days,  imagination  also  admits  reduplications  of  it  in  the 
guise  of  months  and  years.  In  all  this  it  is  the  inten- 
tion of  the  Hindus  that  we  should  refer  the  years 
invented  by  them  to  certain  periods  of  life,  beginning 
with  the  coming  into  existence,  and  endiug  with  de- 
struction and  death.  However,  God  the  Creator  is 
sublime  beyond  either,  and  also  the  simple  substances 
(air,  fire,  earth,  water)  do  not  know  coming  into  exist- 
ence nor  destruction  (in  periodical  returns).  Therefore 
we  stop  with  the  day  of  Purusha,  and  do  not  think  it 
necessary  to  use  still  larger  periods  of  time. 

Things  which  do  not  rest  on  intrinsic  necessity  offer  Atr.iditiou 
a  wide  field   for  difference  of    opinion  and   arbitrary  theV";S-sof 
systematising,   so   as  easily   to  become   the   source  of  Bearind 
numerous  theories.     Some  of  them  may  be  developed  ^'*^^'°®* 
according  to  a  certain  order  and  rule,  whilst  others  are 
devoid  of  such.     In  the  latter  class  I  reckon  the  follow- 
ing theory,  but  unfortunately  I  have  forgotten  from 
what    source    it    has    come    to    me:    "33,000    human 


352  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

years  are  one  year  of  the  Great  Bear;  36,000  linman 
years  are  one  year  of  Brahman,  and  99,000  human 
years  are  one  year  of  the  pole."  However,  as  regards 
the  year  of  Brahman,  we  remember  that  Vasudeva 
speaks  to  Arjuna  on  the  battlefield  between  the  two 
ranks:  "The  day  of  Brahman  is  two  kalpas;''  and  in 
the  Brahmasiddhdnta  there  is  a  tradition  from  Vyasa,  the 
son  of  Parasara,  and  from  the  book  Smriti,  that  kalpa 
is  a  day  of  Devaka,  i.e.  Brahman,  and  also  a  night  of 
his.  In  consequence  the  there-mentioned  theory  is 
evidently  wrong  (one  year  of  Brahman  being  infinitely 
longer  than  36,000  years).  Further,  36,000  years  are 
the  period  of  one  revolution  of  the  fixed  stars  in  the 
ecliptic,  since  they  pass  one  degree  in  lOO  years,  and 
the  Great  Bear  belongs  to  them.  However,  in  their 
traditional  literature  the  Hindus  separate  the  Great 
Bear  from  the  fixed  stars,  and  attribute  to  it  a  distance 
from  the  earth  which  differs  from  the  real  distance, 
and  therefore  they  describe  it  by  qualities  and  con- 
ditions which  in  reality  do  not  belong  to  it.  If  the 
author  of  that  theory  meant  by  the  year  of  the  Great 
Bear  one  revolution  of  it,  we  do  not  see  why  it  should 
revolve  so  much  more  rapidly  than  the  other  fixed 
stars  (for,  in  that  case,  the  diameter  of  its  course  would 
be  much  larger  than  that  of  the  others),  nor  why 
it  should  form  an  exception  to  the  laws  of  nature 
(according  to  which  all  fixed  stars  revolve  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  earth  and  in  the  same  time) ;  and 
the  pole  has  no  revolution  which  might  be  considered 
as  a  year  of  it.  From  all  this  I  conclude  that  the 
author  of  the  theory  was  a  man  entirely  devoid  of 
scientific  education,  and  one  of  the  foremost  in  the 
series  of  fools  who  simply  invented  those  years  for  the 
benefit  of  people  who  worship  the  Great  Bear  and  the 
pole.  He  had  to  invent  a  vast  number  of  years,  for 
the  more  outrageous  it  was,  the  more  impression  it 
would  make. 


(    353     ) 


CHAPTER   XXXVI. 

ON   THE   FOUR   MEASURES    OF   TIME    CALLED    MANA. 

Mana  and  pramdna  mean  measure.  The  four  kinds 
of  measures  are  mentioned  by  Ya  kiib  Ibn  Tavik  in  his 
book  Com'positio  Sphavriruvi,  but  he  did  not  know  them 
thoroughly,  and,  besides,  the  names  are  misspelled,  if 
this  is  not  the  fault  of  the  copyists. 
They  are — 

Saiwa-mdna,  i.e.  the  solar  measure. 

Sdvana-mdna,  i.e.  the  measure  depending  upon  the  rising  (civil 
measure). 

Candra-mdna,  i.e.  the  lunar  measure. 

Nakshatra-mdna ,  i.e.  the  lunar-station  measure  {sidereal  mea- 
sure). 

There  are  days  of  all  four  kinds  of  measure,  days  of 
an  individual  nature,  which,  when  compared  with  other 
days,  show  a  certain  difference  of  measure.  However, 
the  number  360  is  common  to  all  of  them  (360  days  of 
each  class  being  a  year).  The  civil  days  are  used  as  a 
gauge  to  determine  thereby  the  other  days. 

As  regards  the  saura-mdnci,  it  is  known  that  the  solar  Measure- 
year  has  365/0--0V  civil  days.     Dividing  this  sum  by  fourdiffer- 
360,  or  multiplying  it  by  10  seconds  (=  -3-^  day),  you  years \md° 
get  as  the  measure  of  the  soIclt  day  i-y^^x.wo  ^ivil  day.    ^^^' 

According  to  the  Vishnu- Dhar ma,  this  is  the  time  of  Page  179. 
the  sun's  passing  his  hhuldi. 

The  civil  day,  based  on  the  sdvana-mdna,  is  here  used 
as  the  unit  of  a  day,  for  the  purpose  of  measuring 
thereby  the  other  kinds  of  days. 

VOL.  I.  Z 


354  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

The  lunar  day,  based  on  the  candra  mdna,  is  called 
titlii.  Dividing  the  lunar  year  by  360  or  the  lunar 
month  by  30,  you  get  as  the  measure  of  the  lunar 
^ay  sT?-h%?-A\  civil  days  (ivrong :  read  ^UiliU  civil 
day). 

According  to  the  Vishnu- Dharma,  this  is  the  time 
during  which  the  moon  is  visible  when  she  is  far  dis- 
tant from  the  sun. 

Nakshatra-mdna  is  the  period  of  the  moon's  passing 
through  her  twenty-seven  stations,  viz.  27^i;|-g~|  days. 
This  number  is  the  quotient  which  you  get  by  dividing 
the  days  of  a  kalpa  by  the  number  of  the  revolutions 
of  the  moon  in  a  kalpa.  Dividing  it  by  27,  you  get  as 
the  time  of  the  moon's  passing  one  station  i^^,^^  civil 
days.  Multiplying  the  same  number  by  12,  as  we  have 
done  with  the  lunar  month,  we  get  327Yf;^^^  civil  days 
as  the  time  of  the  moon's  passing  twelve  times  through 
all  her  stations.  Dividing  the  first  number  by  30,  we  get 
as  the  measure  of  the  sidereal  day  f if;^^  civil  days. 

According  to  the  Vishnu- Dharma,  the  sidereal  month 
has  only  twenty-seven  days,  whilst  the  months  of  the 
other  measures  have  thirty  days ;  and  if  a  year  is  com- 
posed of  these  days,  it  has  2>^7\t,^^  days  (see  above). 
Evidently  there  is  a  fault  in  the  text  of  Vishm- Dharma, 
as  the  month  is  reckoned  too  short. 
What  use  is       The  saura-vidna  is  used  in  the  computation  of  the 
7auZ°ndna,  years  which  compose  the  kal^m  and  the  four  yiLgas  in 
mdna^&nd    the  caturijugas,  of  the  years  of  the  nativities,  of  the 
equinoxes  and  solstices,  of  the  sixth  parts  of  the  year 
or  the  seasons,  and  of  the  difference  between  day  and 
night  in  the  nychthemeron.     All  these  things  are  com- 
puted in  solar  years,  months,  and  days. 

The  candra-mdna  is  used  in  the  computation  of  the 
eleven  karana  (v.  chap.  Ixxviii.),  in  the  determination 
of  the  leap  month,  in  the  computation  of  the  sum  of 
days  of  the  unardtra  (v.  chap,  li.),  and  of  new  moon  and 
full  moon  for  lunar  and  solar  eclipses  (v.  chap,  lix.). 


savana- 


CHAPTER  XXXV 1 ,  355 

In  all  these  things  the  Hindus  use  lunar  years,  months, 
and  days,  which  are  called  tithi. 

The  sdvana-mdna  is  used  in  the  calculation  of  the 
vara,  i.e.  the  days  of  the  week,  of  the  ahargana,  i.e.  the 
sum  of  the  days  of  an  era  (v.  chap,  li.)  ;  in  determining 
the  days  of  marriage  and  fasting  (v.  chap.  Ixxv.) ;  the 
siltaka,  i.e.  the  days  of  childbed  (v.  chap.  Ixix.) ;  the 
days  of  the  uncleanness  of  the  houses  and  the  vessels 
of  the  dead  (v.  chap.  Ixxii.) ;  the  cikitsd,  i.e.  certain 
months  and  years  in  which  Hindu  medical  science  pre- 
scribes the  taking  certain  medicines  ;  further  in  deter- 
mining the  i^rdyascitta,  i.e.  the  days  of  the  expiations 
which  the  Brahmans  make  obligatory  for  those  who 
have  committed  some  sin,  times  during  which  they  are 
obliged  to  fast  and  to  besmear  themselves  with  butter 
and  dung  (v.  chap.  Ixxi.).  All  these  things  are  deter- 
mined according  to  sdvana-mdna. 

On  the  contrary,  they  do  not  determine  anything 
by  the  naksliatra-mdna,  since  it  is  comprehended  in  the 
candra-mcina. 

Every  measure  of  time  which  any  class  of  people 
may  choose  by  general  consent  to  call  a  day,  may  be 
considered  as  a  mdna.  Some  such  days  have  already 
been  mentioned  in  a  preceding  chapter  (v.  chap,  xxxiii.). 
However,  the  four  mdnas  par  eo:cellence  are  those  to 
the  explanation  of  which  we  have  limited  the  present 
cha^Dter. 


(    356    ) 


CHAPTER   XXXVir. 

ox  THE  TARTS  OF  THE  MONTH  AND  THE  YEAE. 

uttamyana    As  the  year  is  one  revolution  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic, 
^shinayana.     it  is  divided  in  the  same  way  as  the  ecliptic.     The  latter 
is  divided  into  two   halves,  depending  upon  the  two 
solstitial  points.     Correspondingly  the  year  is  divided 
into  two  halves,  each  of  which  is  called  ay  an  a. 
Page  i8o.  When  the  sun  leaves  the  point  of  the  winter  solstice,  he 

begins  to  move  towards  the  north  pole.  Therefore  this 
part  of  the  year,  which  is  nearly  one  half,  is  referred  to 
the  north  and  called  uttardyana,  i.e.  the  period  of  the 
sun's  marching  through  six  zodiacal  signs  beginning 
with  Caper.  In  consequence,  this  half  of  the  ecliptic 
is  called  makarddi,  i.e.  having  Caper  as  heginning. 

When  the  sun  leaves  the  point  of  the  summer  solstice 
he  begins  to  move  towards  the  south  pole  :  therefore 
this  second  half  is  referred  to  the  south  and  called 
daksJiindya/ia,  i.e.  the  period  of  the  sun's  marching 
through  six  zodiacal  signs  beginning  with  Cancer.  In 
consequence,  this  half  of  the  ecliptic  is  called  Icarhddi, 
i.e.  having  Cancer  as  heginning. 

Uneducated  people  use  only  these  two  divisions  or 
year-halves,  because  the  matter  of  the  two  solstices  is 
clear  to  them  from  the  observation  of  their  senses. 
uttarakuia        Further,  the  ecliptic  is  divided  into  two  halves,  ac- 
kuia.  cording  to  its  declination  from   the  equator,  and  this 

division  is  a  more  scientific  one,  less  known  to  the 
people  at  large  than  the  former,  because  it  rests  on 
calculation  and  speculation.     Each  half  is  called  kula. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 


357 


That  which  has  northern  declination  is  called  utiarakilla 
or  meshddi,  i.e.  having  A  ries  as  beginning  ;  that  which 
has  southern  declination  is  called  dakshalmla  or  tuldcli, 
i.e.  having  Libra  as  beginning. 

Further,  the  ecliptic  is  by  both  these  divisions  divided  The  seasons. 
into  four  parts,  and  the  periods  during  which  the  sun 
traverses  them  are  called  the  seasons  of  the  year — spring, 
summer,  autumu,  and  winter.  Accordingly,  the  zodiacal 
signs  are  distributed  over  the  seasons.  However,  the 
Hindus  do  not  divide  the  year  into  four,  but  into  six 
parts,  and  call  these  six  parts  ritu.  Each  ritu  com- 
prehends two  solar  months,  i.e.  the  period  of  the  sun's 
marching  through  two  consecutive  zodiacal  signs.  Their 
names  and  dominants  are  represented,  according  to  the 
most  widespread  theory,  in  the  following  diagram. 

I  have  been  told  ttat  in  the  region  of  Somanath  people 
divide  the  year  into  three  parts,  each  consistiug  of  four 
months,  the  first  being  varshakdla,  begiuniug  with  the 
month  Ashadha;  the  second,  sitakala,  i.e.  the  winter; 
and  the  third,  ushnaMla,  i.e.  the  summer. 


Uttarayana, 

belonging  to  tlie  Devas 

or  Angels. 

> 

The  Zodiacal  Signs 
of  the  Ritu. 

Capricornus 
and  Amphora. 

Pisces  and                Taurus  and 
Aries.                        Gemini. 

1 

Their  name. 

S'isira. 

Vasanta  or     j     Grishma  or 
Kusumakara.    ;       Nidagha. 

Their  domi- 
nants. 

Narada. 

Agni  the  Bi..e.  :      !-'-«- 

1 

Scorpio  and 
Sagittarius. 

Virgo  and 
Libra. 

Cancer  and 
Leo. 

The  Zodiacal  Signs 
of  the  Ritu. 

Dakshindyana, 

belonging  to  the  Pitaras 

or  Fathers. 

Hemanta. 

S'arad. 

Varshakala. 

Their  names. 

Vaishnava. 
1 

Prajapati. 

Vlsvedevah. 

Their  domi- 
nants. 

358 


ALBERUNI'S  INDIA. 


Page  1 5 


The  domin- 
ants of  tiie 
single  halves 
of  months. 


I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  Hindus  divide  the 
ecliptic  by  such  an  opening  of  the  circle  which  divides 
the  circumference  of  a  circle  into  six  parts,  a  measure 
which  is  equal  to  the  radius,  beginning  with  the  two 
solstitial  points,  and  that  therefore  they  use  sixth  parts 
of  the  ecliptic.  If  this  is  really  the  case,  we  must  not 
forget  that  we,  too,  sometimes  divide  the  ecliptic,  be- 
ginning with  the  two  solstitial  points,  at  other  times 
beginning  with  the  equinoctial  points,  and  that  we  use 
the  division  of  the  ecliptic  in  twelfth  parts  side  by 
side  with  that  in  fourth  parts. 

The  months  are  divided  into  halves  from  new  moon 
to  full  moon,  and  from  full  moon  to  new  moon.  The 
Vishnu- Dliar ma  mentions  the  dominants  of  the  halves 
of  the  months,  as  we  give  them  in  the  following  table  :  — 


The  Names  of  the 
months. 

The  dominants  of  the 

Bright  half  of  each 

month. 

The  dominants  of  the 

Black  half  of  each 

month. 

Caitra 

Twashtri      . 

Yamya. 

Vais'akha      . 

Indragni 

Agneya. 

Jyaishtha     . 

Sukra 

Eaudra. 

Ashadlia 

Visvedevah 

Sarpa.      . 

Sravaiia 

Vishnu 

Pitrya. 

Bhadrapada 

Aja   ■   . 

Santa. 

Asvayuja      . 

Asana  (?)      . 

Maitra. 

Karttika 

Agni    . 

Sakra. 

Margasirsha 

Saumya 

Nirriti. 

Pausha. 

Jiva      . 

Vishnu. 

Magha 

Pitrja 

Varuna. 

Phaiguna      . 

Bhaga 

Pilshan. 

(     359    ) 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII. 

ON   THE   VARIOUS    MEASURES    OF   TIME   COMPOSED    OF        Page  182. 
DAYS,    THE   LIFE    OF   BRAHMAN   INCLUDED. 

The  dav  is  called  dimas  (dimasu),  in  classical  language  Kecapituia- 
divasa,  the  night  rdtri,  and  the  nychthemeron  ahoratra,  single  mea- 
The  month  is  called  mdsa  and  its  hali  paksha.    The  first  time. 
or  luhite  half  is  called  suJdapaksha,   because  the  first 
parts  of  its  nights  have  moonlight  at  times  when  people 
do  not  yet  sleep,  when  the  light  on  the  moon's  body 
increases  and  the  dark  portion  decreases.     The  other 
or  black  half  is  called  krishnapaksha,  because  the  first 
parts  of  its  nights  are  moonless,  whilst  other  parts  have 
moonlight,  but  only  then  when  people  sleep.     They  are 
the  nights  when  the  light  on  the  body  of  the  moon 
wanes,  whilst  the  dark  part  increases. 

The  sum  of  two  months  is  a  ritu,  but  this  is  only  an 
approximative  definition,  for  the  month  which  has  two 
paksha  is  a  lunar  month,  whilst  that  one  the  double 
of  which  is  a  rittc  is  a  solar  month. 

Six  ritu  are  a  year  of  mankind,  a  solar  year,  which 
is  called  harh  or  larkh  or  harsh,  the  three  sounds  h, 
kh,  and  sJi  being  much  confounded  in  the  mouth  of  the 
Hindus  (Skr.  varsha). 

Three  hundred  and  sixty  years  of  mankind  are  one 
year  of  the  angels,  called  dihha-harh  (divya-rarsha),  and 
12,000  years  of  the  angels  are  unanimously  reckoned  as 
one  caturyuga.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  only 
regarding  the  four  parts  of  the  caiurynga  and  regarding 
the  multiplications  of  it  which  form  a  manvantara  and 


36o  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

a  kalpa.  This  subject  will  be  fully  explained  in  the 
proper  place  (v.  chaps,  xli.  and  xliv.). 

Two  Icalpas  are  a  day  of  Brahman.  It  is  the  same 
if  we  say  two  kalpas  or  28  manvaniaras,  for  360  days 
of  Brahman  are  a  year  of  Brahman,  i.e.  720  kalpas  or 
10,080  manvantaras. 

Further,  they  say  that  the  life  of  Brahman  is  100  of 
his  years,  i.e.  72,000  Icalpas  or  1,008,000  manvantaras. 

In  the  present  book  we  do  not  go  beyond  this  limit. 
The  book  Vishnu-Dharma  has  a  tradition  from  Mar- 
kandeya,  who  answers  a  question  of  Vajra  in  these 
words:  ''Kalpa  is  the  day  of  Brahman,  and  the  same 
is  a  night  of  his.  Therefore  720  kalpas  are  a  year  of 
his,  and  his  life  has  lOO  such  years.  These  lOO  years 
are  one  day  of  Purusha,  and  the  same  is  a  night  of  his. 
How  many  Brahmans,  however,  have  already  preceded 
Purusha,  none  knows  but  he  who  can  count  the  sand 
of  the  Ganges  or  the  drops  of  the  rain." 


(     36i     ) 


CHAPTEE  XXXIX. 

ON   MEASURES    OF   TIME   WHICH   ARE   LARGER   THAN 
THE   LIFE   OF   BRAHMAN. 

All  that  is  devoid  of  order  or  contradicts  the  rules  laid  wantof  sys- 

.-,  -,.  pi-11'  1*         *^™  regard- 

down  m  the  precedmor-  parts  of  this  book  is  repulsive  ing  tiie 

greatest 

to  our  nature  and  disagreeable  to  our  ear.  But  the  measures  of 
Hindus  are  people  who  mention  a  number  of  names, 
all — as  they  maintain — referring  to  the  One,  the  First, 
or  to  some  one  behind  him  who  is  only  hinted  at. 
When  they  come  to  a  chapter  like  this,  they  repeat  the 
same  names  as  denoting  a  multitude  of  beings,  measur- 
ing out  lives  for  them  and  inventing  huge  numbers, 
The  latter  is  all  they  want ;  they  indulge  in  it  most 
freely,  and  num^bers  are  patient,  standing  as  you  place 
them.  Besides,  there  is  not  a  single  subject  on  which 
the  Hindus  themselves  agree  among  each  other,  and 
this  prevents  us  on  our  part  adopting  the  use  of  it.  On 
the  contrary,  they  disagree  on  these  imaginary  measures 
of  time  to  the  same  extent  as  on  the  divisions  of  the 
day  which  are  less  than  a  prdna  (v.  cbap.  xxxiv.). 

The  book  Sritdhava  by  Utpala  says  that  "  a  man-  Page  183. 
vantara  is  the  life  of  Indra  the  ruler,  and  28  manvan-  meafures^o^ 
taras  are  one  day  of  Pitamaha,  i.e.  Brahman.     His  life  mined  by 
is  100  years,  or  one  day  of  Kesava.     The  life  of  the    "^"*' 
latter  is  100  years,  or  one  day  of  Mahadeva.     The  life 
of  the  latter  is  lOO  years,  or  one  day  of  Isvara,  who  is 
near  to  the  Supreme  Being.     His  life  is  lOO  years,  or 
one  day  of   Sadasiva.     The  life  of  the  latter  is   100 
years,  or  one  day  of  Virancana,  the  Eternal,  who  will 


362  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

last   for    ever,  even  when  the  preceding   five    beings 
perish." 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  life  of  Brahman 
is  as  long  as  72,000  hdpcis.  All  numbers  which  we 
shall  here  mention  are  halpas. 

If  the  life  of  Brahman  is  a  day  of  Kesava,  his  year, 
consisting  of  three  hundred  and  sixty  days,  has 
25,920,000  kalpas,  and  his  life,  2,592,000,000  kalpas. 
The  latter  is  i  day  of  Mahadeva  ;  his  life,  therefore, 
93,3 1 2,000,000,000  kalpias.  The  latter  is  i  day  of  tsvara ; 
therefore  his  life  3,359,232,000,000,000,000  kalpas. 
The  latter  is  i  day  of  Sadasiva;  therefore  his  life 
120,932,352,000,000,000,000,000  halpas.  The  latter  is 
one  day  of  Viraficana,  of  which  the  pardrdliakalpa  is 
only  relatively  a  very  small  part  (v.  p.  175). 
The  same  Whatever  maybe  the  nature  of  these  calculations, 

by  tratis'!  apparently  the  day  and  the  centennium  are  the  elements 
out  of  which  the  whole  from  beginning  to  end  has 
been  constructed.  Others,  however,  build  their  system 
on  the  small  particles  of  the  day  which  we  have  pre- 
viously mentioned  (in  chap,  xxxiv.).  In  consequence, 
these  people  differ  among  themselves  regarding  that 
which  they  compose,  as  they  differ  regarding  the  par- 
ticles out  of  which  they  compose.  We  shall  here  give 
one  system  of  this  kind  as  invented  by  those  who  use 
the  following  metrologic  system  : — 

I  glmti  =16  Ivald. 
I  kald  =  30  Icdshthd. 
I  kdshthd  =  30  nimcsha. 
»  I  nimesha  —  2  lava. 

I  lava  =  2  truti. 

The  reason  of  this  division  is,  as  they  maintain,  the 
fact  that  the  day  of  Siva  is  composed  out  of  similar 
particles  ;  for  the  life  of  Brahman  is  one  ghati  of  Hari, 
i.e.  Vasudeva.  The  life  of  the  latter  is  100  years,  or 
one  kald  of  Eudra,  i.e.  Mahadeva  ;  the  life  of  the  latter 
is  100  vears,  or  one  kdshthd  of  Isvara ;  the  life  of  the 


CHAPTER  XXXIX.  363 

latter  is  100  years,  or  one  nimesha  of  Sadasiva ;  the 
life  of  the  latter  is  100  years,  or  one  lava  of  Sakti ;  the 
life  of  the  latter  is  lOO  years,  or  one  t7^uti  of  Siva. 

If,  now,  the  life  of  Brahman  is 
72,000  Tcalpas, 

the  life  of  Narayana  is 
155,5 20,000,000  kalpas  ; 

the  life  of  Rudra, 
55374j77i>20o,ooo,ooo,ooo  ; 

the  life  of  Isvara, 
5,572,562,780, 160,000,000,000,000,000  ; 

the  life  of  Sadasiva, 
173,328,992,714,096,640,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ; 

the  life  of  Sakti, 
10,782,449,978,758,523781,120,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. 

The  latter  number  represents  one  truti. 

If  you  compose  a  day  out  of  it  according  to  the  above- 
mentioned  system,  it  has  37,264,147,126,589,458,187, 
5  50,720,000,-000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  kal- 
pas. The  latter  number  is  one  day  of  Siva,  whom  they 
describe  as  the  eternal  one,  who  is  exemptfrom  being  pro- 
created and  from  procreating,  free  from  all  qualities  and 
attributes  which  may  be  applied  to  created  things.  The 
last-mentioned  number  represents  fifty-six  orders  of 
number  [i.e.  units,  tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  &c.  &c.) ; 
but  if  those  dreamershad  more  assidiioasly  studied  arith- 
metic, they  would  not  have  invented  such  outrageous 
numbers.  God  takes  care  that  their  trees  do  not  grow 
into  heaven. 


(     364     ) 


CHAPTER   XL. 

ON  THE  SAMDHI,  THE  INTERVAL  BETWEEN  TWO  PERIODS 
OF  TIME,  FORMING  THE  CONNECTING  LINK  BETWEEN 
THEM. 

The  original  sarhdhi  is  the  interval  between  day  and 
night,  i.e.  morning-dawn,  called  samdJd  udaya,  i.e.  the 
samdhi  of  the  rising,  and  evening  dawn,  called  sanii- 
dlii  astamana,  i.e.  the  samdhi  of  the  setting.  The 
Hindus  require  them  for  a  religious  reason,  for  the 
Brahmans  wash  themselves  during  them,  and  also  at 
noon  in  the  midst  between  them  for  dinner,  whence  an 
uninitiated  person  might  infer  that  there  is  still  a  third 
samdhi.  However,  none  who  knows  the  subject  pro- 
perly will  count  more  than  two  samdhis. 

The  Puranas  relate  the  following  story  of  King  Hiran- 
yakasipu,  of  the  class  of  the  Daitya  : — 

By  practising  devotion  for  a  long  period,  he  had 
earned  the  claim  that  any  prayer  of  his  should  be 
granted.  He  asked  for  eternal  life,  but  only  long  life 
was  granted  to  him,  for  eternity  is  a  quality  of  the 
Creator  alone.  Not  having  obtained  the  realisation 
of  this  wish,  he  desired  that  his  death  should  not  be 
effected  by  the  hand  of  a  human  being,  angel,  or  demon, 
and  that  it  should  not  take  place  on  earth  nor  in  heaven, 
neither  in  the  night  nor  in  the  day.  By  such  clauses 
he  meant  to  avoid  death,  which  is  unavoidable  by  man. 
His  wish  was  granted  to  him. 

This  wish  reminds  one  of  the  wish  of  the  devil  that 
he  should  be  allowed  to  live  till  the  day  of  resurrection, 


CHAPTER  XL.  365 

because  on  that  day  all  beings  would  rise  from  death. 
However,  he  did  not  attain  his  object,  as  it  was  only 
conceded  to  him  to  live  till  the  day  of  the  well-known 
time,  of  which  it  has  been  said  that  it  is  the  last  of  the 
days  of  trouble. 

The  king  had  a  son  called  Prahlada,  whom  he  in- 
trusted to  a  teacher  when  he  grew  up.     One  day  the 
king  ordered  him  into  his  presence  to  learn  what  he 
was  studying.     Now  the  boy  recited  to  him  a  poem, 
the   meaning  of  which   was  that  only  A^ishnu   exists, 
whilst  everything  else   is  illusion.     This   went   much 
against  the  opinions  of  his  father,  who  hated  Vishnu, 
and  therefore  he  ordered  the  boy  to  be  intrusted  to 
another  master,  and  that  he   should  learn  to  distin- 
guish a  friend  from  an  enemy.     Thereupon  he  waited 
a  certain  time,  and  then  examined  him  again,  when  the 
boy  answered,  "  I  have  learned  what  you  have  ordered, 
but  I  do  not  want  it,  for  I  am  in  friendship  alike  with 
everything,  not  in  enmity  with  anything."     Now  his 
father  became  angry  and  ordered  him  to  be  poisoned. 
The  boy  took  the  poison  in  the  name  of  God  and  thought 
of  Vishnu,  aud  lo  !   it  did  not  hurt  him.     His  father 
said,  "Do  you  know  witchcraft  and  incantations  ?  "    The 
boy  answered,  "'No,  but  the  God  who  has  created  me 
and  given  me  to  thee   watches   over  me."     Now  the 
wrath  of   the  king  increased,  and  he   gave  orders  to 
throw  him  into  the  deep  sea.     But  the  sea  threw  him 
out  again,  and  he  returned  to  his  j)lace.     Then  he  was 
thrown  before  the  king  into  a  huge  blazing  fire,  but  it 
did  not  hurt  him.     Standing  in  the  flame,  he  began  to 
converse  with  his  father  on  God  and  his  power.     When 
the  boy  by  chance  said  that  Vishnu  is  in  every  place, 
his  father  said,  "  Is  he  also  in  this  column  of  the  por- 
tico ?  "     The  boy  said,  "  Yes."     Then  his  father  jumped 
against  the  column  and  beat  it,  whereupon  Narasiriiha 
came  forth  from  it,  a  human  figure  with  a  lion's  head, 
therefore  neither  a  human  being,  nor  an  angel,  nor  a 


366  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

demon.  Now  the  king  and  his  people  began  to  fight 
with  Narasimha,  who  let  them  do  so,  for  it  was  day- 
time. But  when  it  was  towards  evening  and  they  were 
in  the  samdhi  or  twilight,  therefore  neither  in  the  day 
nor  in  the  night,  then  Narasimha  caught  the  king, 
raised  him  into  the  air,  and  killed  him  there  ;  therefore 
not  on  earth  nor  in  heaven.  The  prince  was  taken  out 
of  the  fire  and  ruled  in  his  place. 
Samdhi  Hindu  astrologers  require  the  two  samdhi,  because 

astrology,     then  some  of  the  zodiacal  signs  exercise  the  most  power- 
hira  quoted,  ful  influence,  as  we  shall  explain  hereafter  in  the  proper 
place.     They  make  use  of  them  in  a  rather  superficial 
way,  simply  reckoning  the  time  of  each  samdhi  as  one 
m2ch4rta  =  two  ghat i  =  4.S  minutes.     However,  Varaha- 
mihira,  excellent  astronomer  as  he  is,  always  only  used 
day  and  night,  and  did  not  allow  himself  to  follow  the 
opinion  of  the  crowd  regarding  the  samdhi.     He  ex- 
plained the  samdhi  as  that  which  it  really  is,  viz.  as 
the  moment  when  the  centre  of  the  body  of  the  sun 
rage  185.      stands    exactly  over   the    horizontal    circle,    and    this 
moment  he  establishes  to  be  the  time  of  the  greatest 
power  of  certain  zodiacal  signs. 
On  the  Besides  the  two  samdhi  of  the  natural  day,  astrono- 

theyear-haif  mers  and    other  people   assume    still    other   samdhis, 
binatioii""'   which  do  not  rest  on  a  law  of  nature  nor  on  observa- 

with  the  pre- 
cession of 
the  equi- 
noxes. 

oilanuuS.  ^  in  which  the  sun  ascends  and  descends  (v.  chap,  xxxvii.), 
a  samdhi  of  seven  days  before  its  real  beginning.  On 
this  subject  I  have  an  idea  which  is  certainly  possible, 
and  even  rather  likely,  viz.  that  this  theory  is  of 
recent  origin,  not  of  ancient  date,  and  that  it  has  been 
brought  forward  about  1300  of  Alexander  (  =  A.D.  989), 
when  the  Hindus  found  out  that  the  real  solstice 
precedes  the  solstice  of  their  calculation.  For  Pun- 
jala,  the  author  of  the  Small  Ifdnasa,  says  that  in  the 
year  854  of  the  Sakakala  the  real  solstice  preceded  his 


tion,  but  simply  on  some  hypothesis.     So  they  attribute 
a  samdhi  to  each  ay  ana,  i.e.  to  each  of  the  year-halves 


CHAPTER  XL.  367 

calculation  by  6^  50',  and  that  this  difference  will  in- 
crease in  future  by  one  minute  every  year. 

These  are  the  words  of  a  man  who  either  was  him- 
self a  most  careful  practical  observer,  or  who  examined 
the  observations  of  former  astronomers  which  he  had 
at  his  disposal,  and  thereby  found  out  the  amount  of 
the  annual  difference.  No  doubt,  also,  other  people 
have  i^erceived  the  same  or  a  similar  difference  by 
means  of  the  calculation  of  the  noon-shadows.  There- 
fore (as  this  observation  was  already  much  known) 
Utpala  of  Kashmir  has  taken  this  theory  from  Punjala. 

This  conjecture  of  mine  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that 
the  Hindus  prefix  the  sariidhis  of  the  solstices 'to  each 
of  the  six  seasons  of  the  year,  in  consequence  of  which 
they  begin  already  with  the  twenty-third  degree  of  the 
next  preceding  signs. 

The  Hindus  assume  a  scohdhi,  too,  between  the  dif- 
ferent yugas  and  between  the  mawvantaras  ;  but  as  the 
bases  of  this  theory  are  hypothetical,  so  everything  else 
derived  from  them  is  hypothetical.  We  shall  give  a 
sufficient  explanation  of  these  things  in  the  proper 
place. 


(     368     ) 


CHAPTEE   XLT. 

DEFINITION  OF  THE  TERMS  ''KALPA"  AND  "  CATURYUGA," 
AND    AN   EXPLICATION    OF   THE    ONE   BY   THE    OTHER. 

onthemea.  TwELVE  tlioiisand  Divya-yeai's,  the  length  of  which  has 
caturyuga     already  been  explained  (v.  chap,  xxxv.),  are  one  catur- 

and  a  kalpa.  -,  ,  77  •     i        . 

yuga,  and  looo  camryugas  are  one  kcUpa,  a  period  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  which  there  is  a  conjunction 
of  the  seven  planets  and  their  apsides  and  nodes  in  o° 
of  Aries.  The  days  of  the  kal^pa  are  called  the  kalfci- 
almrgana,  for  ah  means  day,  and  argana  means  tlie  sum. 
Since  they  are  civil  days  derived  from  the  rising  of  the 
sun,  they  are  also  called  days  of  the  earth,  for  rising 
presupposes  an  horizon,  and  an  horizon  is  one  of  the 
necessary  attributes  of  the  earth. 

By  the  same  name,  kalpa-ahargana,  people  also  call 
the  sum  of  days  of  any  era  up  to  a  certain  date. 

Our  Muslim  authors  call  the  days  of  the  kalpa  the 
days  of  the  Siiid-hind  or  the  days  of  the  world,  counting 
them  as  1,577,916,450,000  days  (sdvana  or  civil  days), 
or  4,320,000,000  solar  years,  or  4,452,775,000  lunar 
years.  The  same  sum  of  days  converted  into  years  of 
•  360  civil  days  is  equal  to  4,383,101,250  of  them,  and  to 

1 2,000,000  divya-years. 

The  Aditya-Purana  says  :  "  Kalpana  is  composed  of 
kal,  which  means  the  existence  of  the  species  in  the 
world,  and  pana,  which  means  their  destruction  and 
'  disappearance.     The  sum  of  this  existing  and  perish- 

ing is  a  kalpa.^^ 

Brahmagupta  says  :  "  Since  the  planets  and  mankind 


CHAPTER  XLL  369 

ill  the  world  came  into  existence  at  the  beginning  of 
the  day  of  Brahman,  and  since  they  both  perish  at 
the  end  of  it,  we  must  adopt  this  day  of  their  existence 
as  a  kalpa,  not  another  period." 

In  another  place  he  says  :  "  A  thousand  caiiiryuga  are  Page  186. 
one  day  of  Dcvaka,  i.e.  Brahman,  and  a  night  of  his  is 
of  the  same  length.     Therefore  his  day  is  equal  to  2000 
caturyaga. 

In  the  same  way  Yyasa  the  son  of  Parasara  says  :  "He 
who  believes  that  1000  caturyugas  are  a  day  and  1000 
caturyugas  a  night,  knows  Brahman." 

Within  the  space  of  a  kalpa  7 1  caturyugas  are  equal  Relation  be- 

-.  ^  .     -,  -,  tweeii  moM- 

to  I  manu,  i.e.  manvantara,  or  Mana-period,  and   14  rontamand 
maims  are  equal  to   i   JmljM.     Multiplying  71   by   14,    "■^"* 
you  get  994  catiirytigas  as  the  period  of  14  manirin- 
taras,  and  a  remainder  of  6  caturyugas  till  the  end  of 
the  kal2)cc. 

If  we,  however,  divide  these  6  caturyugas  by  15,  in 
order  to  find  the  sarhdhi  both  at  the  beginning  and  end 
of  each  of  the  14  manvantaras,  the  number  of  the 
samdhis  being  by  i  larger  than  that  of  the  manvantaras, 
the  quotient  is  fths.  If  we  now  insert  f  caturyuga 
between  each  two  consecutive  manvantaras,  and  add  the 
same  amount  both  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  and  the 
end  of  the  last  manvantaras,  the  fraction  of  f  disap- 
pears at  the  end  of  1 5  manvantaras  (f  x  15=6).  The 
fractions  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  JccdiJa  repre- 
sent the  samdhi,  i.e.  a  common  link.  A  Icalpa,  includ- 
ing its  sarhdhi,  has  looo  ccduryugas,  as  we  have  said  in 
the  first  part  of  this  chapter. 

The  single  parts  of  a  kcdpa  stand  in  a  constant  rela-  conditions 

T  1  1  •  •  T  ,,        oftbebe- 

tion  to  each  other,  one  bearing  witness  regarding  the  ginning  of 

.    ,        I  ,  .  a.  kalpa. 

other.  For  it  commences  with  the  vernal  equinox,  a 
Sunday,  the  conjunction  of  the  planets,  their  apsides 
and  nodes,  which  takes  place  there  where  there  is  neither 
Eevati  nor  Asvini,  i.e.  between  them,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  month  Caitra,  and  in  the  moment  of  the  sun's 
VOL.  I.  2  a 


370  ALBERUNfS  INDIA. 

rising  over  Laiika.     When  there  occurs  an  irregularity 
with  one  of  these  conditions,  all  the  others  become  con- 
.    fused  and  are  no  longer  valid. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  number  of  the  days 
and  the  years  of  a  kalpa.  Accordingly  a  caturyuga,  as 
yoVo*^  of  a  M^M,  has  1,577,916,450  days  and  4,320,000 
years.  The  numbers  show  the  relation  between  a  lcal2m 
and  a  caturyuga,  and  show  further  how  to  determine 
the  one  by  the  other. 

All  we  have  said  in  this  chapter  rests  on  the  theory 

of  Brahmagupta  and  on  the  arguments  by  which  he 

supports  it. 

Theories  of        Aryabhata  the  elder  and  Pulisa  compose  the  maiivan- 

th/eideV,      twra  from  ^2  caturyugas,  and  the  kalpa  from  14  man- 

iryabiiata    vantccras,  without  inserting  anywhere  a  samclhi.    There- 

the younger.  ^^^^^  according  to  tliem,  a  kalpa  has  1008  caturyuga s  ; 

further,  1 2, ogo, 000  divy a  years,  or  4, 3  54, 560,000  human 

years. 

According  to  Pulisa,  a  caturyuga  has  1,577,917,800 
civil  days.  According  to  him,  therefore,  the  sum  of  the 
days  of  a  halpa  would  be  1,590,541, 142,400.  These  are 
the  numbers  which  he  uses  in  his  book. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  find  anything  of  the  books 
of  Aryabhata.  All  I  know  of  him  I  know  through 
the  quotations  from  him  given  by  Brahmagupta.  The 
latter  says  in  a  treatise  called  Critical  Research  on  the 
Basis  of  the  Canons,  that  according  to  Aryabhata  the 
sum  of  the  days  of  a  caturyuga  is  1,577,917,500,  i.e. 
300  days  less  than  according  to  Pulisa.  Therefore  Arya- 
bhata would  give  to  a  ka^xc  1,590,540,840,000  days. 

According  to  Aryabhata  and  Pulisa,  the  kalpa  and 
caturyuga  begin  with  midnight  which  follows  after  the 
day  the  beginning  of  which  is  the  beginning  of  the 
kalpa,  according  to  Brahmagupta. 

Aryabhata  of  Kusumapura,  who  belongs  to  the  school 

of  the  elder  Aryabhata,  says  in  a  small  book  of  his  on 

Page  187.      Al-nff  (?),  that  "  1008  caturyugas  are  one  day  of  Brah- 


CHAPTER  XLL  371 

man.  The  first  half  of  504  caturyugas  is  called  utsar- 
pini,  during  which  the  sun  is  ascending,  and  the  second 
half  is  called  arasarpini,  during  which  the  sun  is  de- 
scending. The  midst  of  this  period  is  called  saw  a,  i.e. 
equality,  for  it  is  the  midst  of  the  day,  and  the  two 
ends  are  called  chtrtama  (?)." 

This  is  so  far  correct,  as  the  comparison  between  day 
and  kaJpa  goes,  but  the  remark  about  the  sun's  ascend- 
ing and  descending  is  not  correct.  If  he  meant  the 
sun  who  makes  our  day,  it  was  his  duty  to  explain  of 
what  kind  that  ascending  and  descending  of  the  sun  is  ; 
but  if  he  meant  a  sun  who  specially  belongs  to  the  day 
of  Brahman,  it  was  his  duty  to  show  or  to  describe  him 
to  us.  I  almost  think  that  the  author  meant  by  these 
two  expressions  the  progressive,  increasing  develop- 
ment of  things  during  the  first  half  of  this  period,  and 
the  retrograde,  decreasing  development  in  the  second 
half. 


(     372     ) 


gupta. 


CHAPTER   XLII. 

ON   THE  DIVISION  OF   THE   CATUKYUGA   INTO   YUGAS,  AND 
THE   DIFFERENT   OPINIONS   KEGARDING   THE   LATTER. 

The  single  The  autlior  of  the  Vislinu-Dlwrma  says  :  ''  Twelve  him- 
Yaturyuga  dred  cUvya  years  are  one  yuga,  called  tishya.  The  double 
^vishnu-^^^  of  it  is  a  dvdpara,  the  triple  a  tretd,  the  quadruple  a 
Brahma-''"'^  /jriYr^,  and  all  iowvyugas  together  are  one  caturyuga,  i.e. 
the  four  yugas  or  sums. 

"  Seventy-one  caturyitgas  are  one  manvantara,  and 
14  manvantaras,  together  with  a  samdhi  of  the  duration 
of  one  kritayuga  between  each  two  of  them,  are  one 
kcdpa.  Two  kcdpas  are  a  nychthemeron  of  Brahmau, 
and  his  life  is  a  hundred  years,  or  one  day  of  Purusha, 
the  first  man,  of  whom  neither  beginning  nor  end  is 
known." 

This  is  what  Varuna,  the  lord  of  the  water,  communi- 
cated to  Rama,  the  son  of  Dasaratha,  in  primeval  times, 
since  he  knew  these  things  thoroughly.  The  same 
information  has  also  been  given  by  Bhargava,  i.e. 
Markandeya,  who  had  such  a  perfect  knowledge  of  time 
that  he  easily  mastered  every  number.  He  is  to  the 
Hindus  like  the  angel  of  death,  who  kills  them  with 
his  seat,  being  aprati-dhrishya  (irresistible). 

Brahmagupta  says  :  "  The  book  Smriti  mentions  that 
4000  devaka  years  are  one  kritayuga,  but  together  with 
a  samdhi  of  400  years  and  a  samdhydmsa  of  400  years, 
a  kritayuga  has  4800  devaka  years. 

''Three  thousandyears  are  one  tretdyuga,  but  together 


CHAPTER  XLIL 


373 


with  a  samdJii  and  a  samdhydmsa,  each  of  300  years,  a 
tretdyuga  has  3600  years. 

"Two  thousand  years  are  a  dvdpara,  but  together 
with  a  sarhdhi  and  a  samdhydmsa,  each  of  200  years, 
a  dixipara  has  2400  years. 

"A  thousand  years  are  one  kali,  but  together  with  a 
sarhdhi  and  a  samdhychhsa,  each  of  1 00  years,  a  kali- 
yuga  has  1 200  years." 

This  is  what  Brahmagupta  quotes  from  the  book 
Sinriti. 

"  Divya  years  are  changed  into  human  years  by  being  d 
multiplied  by  360.     Accordingly  the  fonr  yugas  have  yagZ 
the  following  sums  of  human  years  : — 


uration  of 
the  single 


A  hritayuga  has     1,440,000  years, 


besides 
and 

14^1,000      ,, 
144,000      ., 

saihdhi, 
safadhydrhki. 

Sum  total 

A  tretdyuga  has 
besides 
and 

1,728,000  years  = 

1,080,000  years, 
108,000      ,, 
108,000      ,, 

:one  hritayuga. 

saihdhi, 
say'iidhydmia. 

Sum  total 

A  dvdpara  has 
besides 
and 

1,296,000  years  = 

720,000  years, 
72,000      „ 
72,000      ,, 

=  one  tretdyuga. 

sarhdhi, 
sarhdhydih^a. 

Sum  total 

A  kali  has 

besides 
and 

864,000  years  = 

360,000  years, 
36,000      ,, 
36,000      „ 

-  one  dvdpara. 

saihdhi, 
saihdhijdihki. 

Sum  total 

432,000  years: 

=  one  hdlyuga. 

Page 


"The  sum  of  the  ]:rita  and  tretd  is  3,024,000  years, 
and  the  sum  of  the  hrila.  tretd,  and  dvapara  is 
3,888,000  years." 

Further,  Brahmaofupta  says  that  "  Aryabhata  con-  Aryabhata 

'  IP  f    '  aiidPaulisa 

siders  the  four  iiugas  as  the  four  equal  parts  of  a  ccdur-  quoted  by 

.  .  Brahma- 

yuga.     Thus  he  differs  from  the  doctrine  of  the  book  gnpta. 
Smriti,  just  mentioned,  and  he  who  differs  from  us  is  an 


374  ALB E RUNTS  INDIA, 

opponent."  On  the  other  hand,  Brahmagiipta  praises 
Paulisa  for  what  he  does,  since  he  does  not  differ  from 
the  book  Smriti ;  for  he  subtracts  1200  from  the 
4800  years  of  the  hritayuga,  and  diminishes  the  re- 
mainder still  more  and  more,  so  as  to  get  yugas  which 
correspond  with  those  of  the  Smriti,  but  yugas,  without 
sarhdJii  and  sariidhydmsa.  As  regards  the  Greeks,  we 
may  notice  that  they  have  nothing  like  the  tradition 
of  the  Smriti,  for  they  do  not  measure  time  by  yugas, 
manvantaras,  or  kalpas. 

So  far  the  quotation  from  Brahmagupta. 
As  is  well  known,  there  is  no  difference  of  opinion 
on  the  sum  of  the  years  of  a  complete  caturyuga.  There- 
fore, according  to  Aryabhata,  the  kaliyuga  has  3000  divya 
years  or  1,080,000  human  years.  Each  two  yugas  has 
6000  divya  years  or  2,160,000  human  years.  Each 
three  yugas  has  9000  divya  years  or  3,240,000  human 
years. 

The  rule  of  There  is  a  tradition  that  Paulisa  in  his  Siddhdnta 
specifies  various  new  rules  for  the  computation  of  these 
numbers,  some  of  which  may  be  accepted,  whilst  others 
are  to  be  rejected.  So  in  the  rule  for  the  computation 
of  the  yugas  he  puts  48  as  the  basis  and  subtracts  one- 
fourth  of  it,  so  as  to  get  36.  Then  he  again  subtracts 
12,  for  this  number  is  his  basis  of  subtraction,  so  as  to 
get  24,  and  subtracting  the  same  number  a  third  time, 
he  gets  12.  These  12  he  multiplies  by  lOO,  and  the 
product  represents  the  number  of  divya  years  of  the 
yugas. 

Criticism  If  he  had  made  the  number  60  the  basis,  for  most 

things  may  be  determined  by  it,  and  had  made  one-fifth 
of  it  the  basis  of  subtraction,  or  if  he  had  subtracted 
from  60  consecutive  fractions  of  the  remaining  number, 
first  i  =  12,  from  the  remainder  J  =  12,  from  the  re- 
mainder I  =  12,  and  from  the  remainder  J  =  12,  he 
would  have  obtained  the  same  result  which  he  has  found 
by  his  method  (60-^  =  48,  --4  =  36,-  ^  =  24,  -  J=  12). 


Paulisa. 


thereon. 


CHAPTER  XLII.  375 

It  is  possible  that  Panlisa  simply  mentions  this  method 
as  one  among  others,  and  that  it  is  not  that  one  in  par- 
ticular which  he  himself  adopted.  A  translation  of  his 
whole  work  into  Arabic  has  not  hitherto  yet  been  under- 
taken, because  in  his  mathematical  problems  there  is 
an  evident  religious  and  theological  tendency. 

Pulisa  deviates  from  the  rule  which  he  himself  gives  Puiisa  cai- 

\.  dilates  how 

when  he  wants  to  compute  how  many  of  our  years  have  much  of  the 
elapsed  of  the  life  of  Brahman  before  the  present  kalpa.  man  has' 
Up  to  the  time  of  his  writing,  eight  years  five  months  foVethepre- 
and  four  days  of  a  new  Jcalpa  had  elapsed.     He  counts 
6068  kalpas.     As,  according  to  him,  a  hdjm  has  1008 
caturyugas,  he  multiplies  this  number  by  1008  and  gets 
6,1 16,544  caturyuijas.     These  he  changes  into  yugas  by 
multiplying  them  by  4,  and  he   gets  24,466,176  yiigas. 
As  a  yuga,  according  to  him,  has  1,080,000  years,  he 
multiplies  the  number  of  yugas  by  1,080,000,  and  gets  Page  189. 
as  the  product  26,423,470,080,000,  i.e.  the  number  of 
years  which  have  elapsed  of  the  life  of  Brahman  before 
the  present  halpa. 

Perhaps  it  will   seem   strano^e  to  the  followers    of  Criticisms 

^  c5  on  this  cal- 

Brahmagupta  that    he   (Pulisa)   has  not  changed  the  cuiation. 
catirnjugas  into  exact  yugas,  but  simply  changed  them 
into  fourth  parts  (by  dividing  them  by  4),  and  mul- 
tiplied these  fourth  parts  by  the  number  of  years  of  a 
single  fourth  part. 

Now,  we  do  not  ask  him  what  is  the  use  of  repre- 
senting the  caturyugas  as  fourth  parts,  inasmuch  as 
they  have  no  fraction  which,  in  this  manner,  must  be 
reduced  to  wholes.  The  multiplication  of  the  whole 
caturyugas  by  the  years  of  one  complete  caturyuga,  i.e. 
4,320,000,  would  have  been  sufficiently  lengthy.  We, 
however,  say  that  he  would  be  correct  in  doing  so  if  he 
had  not  been  influenced  by  the  wish  of  bringing  the 
elapsed  years  of  the  present  Irdpa  into  relation  with  the 
last-mentioned  number,  and  multiplied  the  complete 
elapsed   manvantaras  by   72   in    agreement    with    his 


376 


A  LB E RUNTS  INDIA. 


Brahmagup- 
ta's  harsh 
criticisms 
on  Ar^-a- 
bhata. 


Different 
lengths  of 
the  solar 
3'ear. 


theory ;  further,  if  he  had  not  multiplied  the  product 
by  the  years  of  a  caturyuga,  which  gives  the  product  of 
1,866,240,000  years,  and,  moreover,  had  not  multiplied 
the  number  of  the  complete  caturyugas  which  have 
elapsed  of  the  current  manvantara  by  the  years  of  a 
single  caturijuga,  whioh  gives  the  product  of  1 16,640,000 
years.  Of  the  current  caturyuga  there  have  elapsed 
three  yugas,  i.e.  according  to  him,  3,240,000  years.  The 
latter  number  represents  three-fourths  of  the  years  of  a 
caturyuga.  He  uses  the  same  number  when  comj^uting 
the  week-day  of  a  date  by  means  of  the  number  of  the 
days  of  the  here-mentioned  number  of  years.  If  he 
believed  in  the  above-mentioned  rule,  he  would  use  it 
where  it  is  required,  and  he  would  reckon  the  three 
yugas  as  nine-tenths  of  a  caturyuga. 

Now,  it  is  evident  that  that  which  Brahmagupta  re- 
lates on  his  authority,  and  with  which  he  himself  agrees, 
is  entirely  unfounded  ;  but  he  is  blind  to  this  from  sheer 
hatred  of  Aryabhata,  whom  he  abuses  excessively.  And 
in  this  respect  Aryabhata  and  Pulisa  are  the  same  to 
him.  I  take  for  witness  the  passage  of  Brahmagupta 
where  he  says  that  Aryabhata  has  subtracted  something 
from  the  cycles  of  the  Caput  Draconis  and  of  the  aims 
of  the  moon,  and  thereby  rendered  confused  the  com- 
putation of  the  eclipse.  He  is  rude  enough  to  compare 
Aryabhata  to  a  worm  which,  eating  the  wood,  by  chance 
describes  certain  characters  in  it,  without  understanding 
them  and  without  intending  to  draw  them.  "  He,  how- 
ever, who  knows  these  things  thoroughly  stands  oppo- 
site to  Aryabhata,  Srishena,  and  Vishnucandra  like  the 
lion  against  gazelles.  They  are  not  capable  of  letting 
him  see  their  faces."  In  such  offensive  terms  he  attacks 
Aryabhata  and  maltreats  him. 

We  have  already  mentioned  (v.  chap,  xli.)  how  many 
civil  days  (sdvana)  a  caturyuga  has  according  to  the 
three  scholars.  Pulisa  gives  it  1350  days  more  than 
Brahmagupta,  but  the  number  of  years  of  a  caturyuga 


CHAPTER  XLIL  377 

is  the  same  according  to  both.  Therefore,  evidently 
Piilisa  gives  the  solar  year  more  days  than  Brahraa- 
gnpta.  To  judge  from  the  report  of  Brahmagiipta, 
Aryabhata  gives  a  caturynga  300  days  less  than  Pulisa, 
and  1050  more  than  Brahmagnpta.  Accordingly,  Arya- 
bhata must  reckon  the  solar  year  longer  than  Brahma- 
gnpta and  shorter  than  Piilisa. 


(     378     ) 


CHAPTER   XLIII. 

A  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  FOUR  YUGAS,  AND  OF  ALL  THAT 
IS  EXPECTED  TO  TAKE  PLACE  AT  THE  END  OF  THE 
FOURTH   YUGA. 

The  ancient  Greeks  held  regarding  the  earth  various 
opinions,  of  which  we  shall  relate  one  for  the  sake  of 
an  example. 
On  natural        The  disastors  which  from  time  to  time  befal  the  earth, 

cataclysms. 

both  from  above  and  from  below,  differ  in  quality  and 
Page  190.  quantity.  Frequently  it  has  experienced  one  so  in- 
commensurable in  quality  or  in  quantity,  or  in  both 
together,  that  there  was  no  remedy  against  it,  and  that 
no  flight  or  caution  was  of  any  avail.  The  catastrophe 
comes  on  like  a  deluge  or  an  earthquake,  bringing 
destruction  either  by  the  breaking  in  of  the  surface, 
or  by  drowning  with  water  which  breaks  forth,  or  by 
burning  with  hot  stones  and  ashes  that  are  thrown 
out,  by  thunderstorms,  by  landslips,  and  typhoons  ;  fur- 
ther, by  contagious  and  other  diseases,  by  pestilence, 
and  more  of  the  like.  Thereby  a  large  region  is  stripped 
of  its  inhabitants  ;  but  when  after  a  while,  after  the 
disaster  and  its  consequences  have  passed  away,  the 
country  begins  to  recover  and  to  show  new  signs  of  life, 
then  different  people  flock  there  together  like  wild 
animals,  who  formerly  were  dwelling  in  hiding-holes 
and  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains.  They  become 
civilised  by  assisting  each  other  against  common  foes, 
wild  beasts  or  men,  and  furthering  each  other  in  the 
hope  for  a  life  in  safety  and  joy.     Thus  they  increase 


CHAPTER  XLIIL  379 

to  great  numbers  ;  but  then  ambition,  circling  round 
them  with  the  wings  of  wrath  and  envy,  begins  to  dis- 
turb the  serene  bliss  of  their  life. 

Sometimes  a  nation  of  such  a  kind  derives  its  pedi- 
gree from  a  person  who  first  settled  in  the  place  or 
distinguished  himself  by  something  or  other,  so  that  he 
alone  continues  to  live  in  the  recollection  of  the  suc- 
ceeding generations,  whilst  all  others  beside  him  are 
forgotten.  Plato  mentions  in  the  Book  of  Laws  Zeus,  i.e. 
Jupiter,  as  the  forefather  of  the  Greeks,  and  to  Zeus  is  Pedigree  of 
traced  back  the  pedigree  of  Hippocrates,  which  is  men-  crates. 
tioned  in  the  last  chapters  added  at  the  end  of  the  book. 
We  must,  however,  observe  that  the  pedigree  contains 
only  very  few  generations,  not  more  than  fourteen.  It  is 
the  following  : — Hippokrates — Gnosidikos — Nebros — 
Sostratos  —  Theodoros  —  Kleomyttades  —  Krisamis  — 
Dardanas — Sostratos — \j^^^y  (?) — Hippolochos — Po- 
daleirios  —  Machaon — Asclepios — Apollo — Zeus — Kro- 
nos,  i.e.  Saturn. 

The  Hindus  have    similar   traditions  regarding  the  Hindu 

_,  „  1        1         •        •  p   notions 

Caturyuga,  tor  according  to  them,  at  the  beginning  01  regarding 

11..  p^rr   •  T  1  •  tlie  four 

it,  I.e.  at  the  begmningoi  Kritayuga,  there  was  happiness  ages  or 
and  safety,  fertility  and  abundance,  health  and  force, 
ample  knowledge  and  a  great  number  of  Brahmans. 
The  good  is  complete  in  this  age,  like  four-fouiths  of  a 
whole,  and  life  lasted  4000  years  alike  for  all  beings 
during  this  whole  space  of  time. 

Thereupon  things  began  to  decrease  and  to  be  mixed 
with  opposite  elements  to  such  a  degree,  that  at  the 
beginning  of  Tretayuga  the  good  was  thrice  as  much  as 
the  invading  bad,  and  that  bliss  was  three-quarters  of 
the  whole.  There  were  a  greater  number  of  Kshat- 
riyas  than  of  Brahmans,  and  life  had  the  same  length 
as  in  the  preceding  age.  So  it  is  represented  by  the 
Vishw-Dliarma,  whilst  analogy  requires  that  it  should 
be  shorter  by  the  same  amount  than  bliss  is  smaller,  i.e. 
by  one-fourth.     In  this  age,  when  offering  to  the  fire, 


38o  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

they  begin  to  kill  animals  and  to  tear  off  plants,  prac- 
tices which  before  were  unknown. 

Thus  the  evil  increases  till,  at  the  beginning  of  Dva- 
para,  evil  and  good  exist  in  equal  proportions,  and  like- 
wise bliss  and  misfortune.  The  climates  begin  to  differ, 
there  is  much  killing  going  on,  and  the  religions  become 
different.  Life  becomes  shorter,  and  lasts  only  400 
years,  according  to  the  Vishnu- Dhar ma.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  Tishya,  i.e.  Kaliyuga,  evil  is  thrice  as  much  as 
the  remaining  good. 

The  Hindus  have  several  well-known  traditions  of 
events  which  are  said  to  have  occurred  in  the  Treta  and 
Dvapara  yugas,  e.g.  the  story  of  Rama,  who  killed  Ha- 
vana ;  that  of  Parasurama  the  Brahman,  who  killed  every 
Kshatriya  he  laid  hold  upon,  revenging  on  them  the 
death  of  his  father.  They  think  that  he  lives  in  heaven, 
that  he  has  already  twenty-one  times  appeared  on  earth, 
and  that  he  will  again  appear.  Further,  the  story  of 
the  war  of  the  children  of  Pandu  with  those  of  Kuru. 

Tn  the  Kaliyuga  evil  increases,  till  at  last  it  results 
in  the  destruction  of  all  good.  At  that  time  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  earth  perish,  and  a  new  race  rises  out  of 
those  who  are  scattered  through  the  mountains  and  hide 
themselves  in  caves,  uniting  for  the  purpose  of  worship- 
ping and  flying  from  the  horrid,  demoniac  human  race. 
Therefore  this  age  is  called  Krilayuga,  which  means 
"  Being  ready  for  going  away  after  having  finished  the 
work." 

In  the  story  of  Saunaka  which  Venus  received  from 
Brahman,  God  speaks  to  him  in  the  following  words : 
"When  the  Kaliyuga  comes,  I  send  Buddhodana,  the 
son  of  Suddhodana  the  pious,  to  spread  the  good  in  the 
creation.  But  then  the  MuJiar/imira,  i.e.  the  red-wear- 
ing ones,  who  derive  their  origin  from  him,  will  change 
everything  that  he  has  brought,  and  the  dignity  of  the 
Brahmans  will  be  gone  to  such  a  degree  that  a  Sudra, 
their  servant,  will  be  impudent  towards  them,  and  that 


CHAPTER  XLIIL  381 

a  Siidra  and  Candala  will  share  with  them  the  presents 
and  offerings.  Men  will  entirely  be  occupied  with 
gathering  wealth  by  crimes,  with  hoarding  up,  not  re- 
fraining from  committiDg  horrid  and  sinful  crimes.  All 
this  will  result  in  a  rebellion  of  the  small  ones  against 
the  great  ones,  of  the  children  against  their  parents, 
of  the  servants  against  their  masters.  The  castes  will 
be  in  uproar  against  each  other,  the  genealogies  will 
become  confused,  the  four  castes  will  be  abolished,  and 
there  will  be  many  religions  and  sects.  Many  books 
will  be  composed,  and  the  communities  which  formerly 
were  united  will  on  account  of  them  be  dissolved  into 
single  individuals.  The  temples  will  be  destroyed  and 
the  schools  will  lie  waste.  Justice  will  be  gone,  and 
the  kings  will  not  know  anything  but  compression  and 
spoliation,  robbing  and  destroying,  as  if  they  wanted 
to  devour  the  people,  foolishly  indulging  in  far-reaching 
hopes,  and  not  considering  how  short  life  is  in  com- 
parison with  the  sins  (for  which  they  have  to  atone). 
The  more  the  mind  of  people  is  depraved,  th,e  more  will 
pestilential  diseases  be  prevalent.  Lastly,  people  main- 
tain that  most  of  the  astrological  rules  obtained  in  that 
age  are  void  and  false. 

These  ideas  have  been  adopted  by  Mani,  for  he  says :  saying  of 
"  Know  ye  that  the  affairs  of  the  world  have  been 
changed  and  altered  ;  also  priesthood  has  been  changed 
since  the  o-<^atpat  of  heaven,  i.e.  the  spheres,  have  been 
changed,  and  the  priest  can  no  longer  acquire  such  a 
knowledge  of  the  stars  in  the  circle  of  a  sphere  as  their 
fathers  were  able  to  acquire.  They  lead  mankind  astray 
by  fraud.  What  they  prophesy  may  by  chance  happen, 
but  frequently  it  does  not  happen." 

The  description  of  these  things  in  the  Vishnu-Dharma  Description 
is  much  more  copious  than  we  have  given  it.     People  taj-uga  " 
will  be  ignorant  of  what  is  reward  and  punishment ;  ^vishml-^ 
they  will  deny  that  the  angels  have   absolute  know-  -^ '"'*'""• 
ledge.    Their  lives  will  be  of  different  length,  and  none 


382  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

of  them  will  know  how  long  it  is.  The  one  will  die  as 
an  embryo,  the  other  as  a  baby  or  child.  The  pious 
will  be  torn  away  and  will  not  have  a  long  life,  but 
he  who  does  evil  and  denies  religion  will  live  longer. 
Siidras  will  be  kings,  and  will  be  like  rapacious  wolves, 
robbing  the  others  of  all  that  pleases  them.  The  doings 
of  the  Brahmans  will  be  of  the  same  kind,  but  the 
majority  will  be  Sudras  and  brigands.  The  laws  of  the 
Brahmans  will  be  abolished.  People  will  point  with 
their  fingers  at  those  who  worry  themselves  with  the 
practice  of  frugality  and  poverty  as  a  curiosity,  will 
despise  them,  and  will  wonder  at  a  man  worshipping 
Vishnu  ;  for  all  of  them  have  become  of  the  same 
(wicked)  character.  Therefore  any  wish  will  soon  be 
Page  192.  granted,  little  merit  receive  great  reward,  and  honour 
and  dignity  be  obtained  by  little  worship  and  service. 

But  finally,  at  the  end  of  the  y^fja,  when  the  evil 
will  have  reached  its  highest  pitch,  there  will  come  for- 
ward Garga,  the  son  of  J-S-V  (?)  the  Brahman,  i.e.  Kali, 
after  whom  this  yuga  is  called,  gifted  with  an  irresis- 
tible force,  and  more  skilled  in  the  use  of  any  weapon 
than  any  other.  Then  he  draws  his  sword  to  make 
good  all  that  has  become  bad  ;  he  cleans  the  surface  of 
the  earth  of  the  impurity  of  people  and  clears  the  earth 
of  them.  He  collects  the  pure  and  pious  ones  for  the 
purpose  of  procreation.  Then  the  Kritaynga  lies  far 
behind  them,  and  the  time  and  the  world  return  to 
purity,  and  to  absolute  good  and  to  bliss. 

This  is  the  nature  of  the  yugas  as  they  circle  round 

through  the  Caturyuga. 

The  origin         The  book   Carccka,  as  quoted  by  'All  Ibn   Zain  of 

according  to  Tabaristan,  says:  "In  primeval  times  the  earth    was 

caraka.        always  fertile  and  healthy,  and  the  elements  or  malia- 

hhuta  were  equally  mixed.    Men  lived  with  each  other 

in  harmony  and  love,  without  any  lust  and  ambition, 

hatred  and   envy,   without  anything  that  makes   soul 

and  body  ill.     But  then  came  envy,  and  lust  followed. 


ion 
from  Ara- 
tus. 


CHAPTER  XLIII.  383 

Driven  by  lust,  they  strove  to  hoard  up,  which  was  dif- 
ficult to  some,  easy  to  others.  All  kinds  of  thoughts, 
labours,  and  cares  followed,  and  resulted  in  war,  deceit, 
and  lying.  The  hearts  of  men  were  hardened,  the 
natures  were  altered  and  became  exposed  to  diseases, 
which  seized  hold  of  men  and  made  them  neglect  the 
worship  of  God  and  the  furtherance  of  science.  Igno- 
rance became  deeply  rooted,  and  the  calamity  became 
great.  Then  the  pious  met  before  their  anchorite 
Krisa  (?)  the  son  of  Atreya,  aud  deliberated  ;  whereupon 
the  sage  ascended  the  mountain  and  threw  himself  on 
the  earth.  Thereafter  God  taught  him  the  science  of 
medicine." 

All  this  much  resembles  the  traditions  of  the  Greeks,  Quotat 
which  we  have  related  (in  another  place).  For  Aratus 
says  in  his  $ati'd/j,€i'a,  and  in  his  intimations  referring 
to  the  seventh  zodiacal  sign  :  "Look  under  the  feet  of 
the  Herdsman,  i.e.  Al'aivivd,  among  the  northern  figures, 
and  you  see  the  Virgin  coming  with  a  blooming  ear  of 
corn  in  her  hand,  i.e.  Alsimdk  Ardzal.  She  belongs 
either  to  the  star-race,  which  are  said  to  be  the  fore- 
fathers of  the  ancient  stars,  or  she  was  j^rocreated  by 
another  race  which  we  do  not  know.  People  say  that 
in  primeval  times  she  lived  among  mankind,  but  only 
among  women,  not  visible  to  men,  being  called  Justice. 
She  used  to  unite  the  aged  men  and  those  who  stood 
in  the  market-places  and  in  the  streets,  and  exhorted 
them  with  a  loud  voice  to  adhere  to  the  truth.  She 
presented  mankind  with  innumerable  wealth  and  be- 
stowed rights  upon  them.  At  that  time  the  earth  was 
called  golden.  None  of  its  inhabitants  knew  pernicious 
hypocrisy  in  deed  or  word,  and  there  was  no  objection- 
able schism  among  them.  They  lived  a  quiet  life,  and 
did  not  yet  navigate  the  sea  in  ships.  The  cows  afforded 
the  necessary  sustenance. 

"Afterwards,  when  the  golden  race  had  expired  and 
the  silver  race  come  on,  Virgo  mixed  with  them,  but 


A  scholion 
on  Aratus. 


384  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

without  being  bappy,  and  concealed  herself  in  the 
mountains,  having  no  longer  intercourse  with  the  women 
as  formerly.  Then  she  went  to  the  large  towns,  warned 
their  inhabitants,  scolded  them  for  their  evil  doings, 
and  blamed  them  for  ruining  the  race  which  the 
golden  fcUhers  had  left  behind.  She  foretold  them 
that  there  would  come  a  race  still  worse  than  they, 
and  that  wars,  bloodshed,  and  other  great  disasters 
would  follow. 

"  After  having  finished,  she  disappeared  into  the  moun- 
tains till  the  silver  race  expired  and  a  bronze  race  came 
up.  People  invented  the  sword,  the  doer  of  evil ;  they 
tasted  of  the  meat  of  cows,  the  first  who  did  it.  By  all 
this  their  neighbourhood  became  odious  to  Justice,  and 
she  flew  away  to  the  sphere." 

The  commentator  of  the  book  of  Aratus  says  :  "  This 
Virgin  is  the  daughter  of  Zeus.  She  spoke  to  the 
people  on  the  public  places  and  streets,  and  at  that 
time  they  were  obedient  to  their  rulers,  not  knowing 
the  bad  nor  discord.  Without  any  altercation  or  envy 
they  lived  from  agriculture,  and  did  not  travel  on  sea 
for  the  sake  of  commerce  nor  for  the  lust  of  plunder. 
Their  nature  was  as  pure  as  gold. 

"  But  when  they  gave  up  these  manners  and  no 
longer  adhered  to  truth,  Justice  no  longer  had  inter- 
course with  them,  but  she  observed  them,  dwelling  in 
the  mountains.  When,  however,  she  came  to  their 
meetings,  though  unwillingly,  she  threatened  them,  for 
they  listened  in  silence  to  her  words,  and  therefore  she 
no  longer  appeared  to  those  who  called  her,  as  she  had 
formerly  done. 

"When,  then,  after  the  silver  race,  the  bronze  race 
came  up,  when  wars  followed  each  other  and  the  evil 
spread  in  the  world,  she  started  off,  for  she  wanted  on 
no  account  to  stay  with  them,  and  hated  them,  and  went 
towards  the  sphere. 

"There  are  many  traditions  regarding  this  Justice, 


CHAPTER  XLIII.  385 

According  to  some,  she  is  Demeter,  because  she  lias  the 
ear  of  corn  ;  according  to  others,  she  is  Tvx^?." 

This  is  what  Aratus  says. 

The  following  occurs  in  the  third  book  of  the  Laws  Quotation 

from  the 
01  1  latO  : Laws  of 

"  The  Athenian  said  :  '  There  have  been  deluges,  dis- 
eases, disasters  on  earth,  from  which  none  has  been 
saved  but  herdsmen  and  mountaineers,  as  the  remnants 
of  a  race  not  practised  in  deceit  and  in  the  love  of 
power.' 

"  The  Kuossian  said  :  '  At  the  beginning  men  loved 
each  other  sincerely,  feeling  lonely  in  the  desert  of  the 
world,  and  because  the  Avorld  had  sufficient  room  for 
all  of  them,  and  did  not  compel  them  to  any  exertion. 
There  was  no  poverty  among  them,  no  possession,  no 
contract.  There  was  no  greed  among  them,  and  neither 
silver  nor  gold.  There  were  no  rich  people  among 
them  and  no  poor.  If  we  found  any  of  their  books, 
they  would  afford  us  numerous  proofs  for  all  this.'  " 


VOL.  I.  2  B 


<^ 


(     386    ) 


CHAPTER   XLIV. 

ON    THE    MANVANTARAS. 

The  single  As  72,ooo  Aulpas  are  reckoned  as  the  life  of  Brahman, 
ras,  their  the  manvantcira,  i.e.  period  of  Mann,  is  reckoned  as  the 
the  children  life  of  Indra,  whose  rule  ends  with  the  end  of  the 
period.  His  post  is  occupied  by  another  Indra,  who 
then  rules  the  world  in  the  new  mani-antara.  Brahma- 
gLipta  says :  "  If  a  man  maintains  that  there  is  no  samdhi 
between  two  manvantaras,  and  reckons  each  manvan- 
tcira as  71  cahiryiigas,  he  will  find  that  the  kalpa  is  too 
short  by  six  catiiryngas,  and  the  minus  below  lOOO  (i.e. 
in  994)  is  not  better  than  the  j;/?ds  above  lOOO  (i.e.  in 
1008,  according  to  Aryabhata).  Both  numbers,  how- 
ever, differ  from  the  book  Smriti." 

Further  he  says  :  "Aryabhata  mentions  in  two  books 
of  his,  the  one  of  which  is  called  Dasagitikd,  the  other 
Arydstasata,  that  each  manvantara  is  equal  to  72  catiir- 
yngas. Accordingly  he  reckons  a  Izalpa  at  1008  catur- 
yngas(i^  X  72)." 

In  the  book  Vishnu-Dharma  Markandeya  gives  to 
Vajra  the  following  answer :  "  Purusha  is  the  lord  of 
Page  194.  the  universe  ;  the  lord  of  the  kalim  is  Brahman,  the 
lord  of  the  world ;  but  the  lord  of  the  manvantara  is 
Manu.  There  are  fourteen  Manus,  from  whom  the 
kings  of  the  earth,  ruling  at  the  beginning  of  each 
manvantara,  descended." 

We  have  united  their  names  in  the  following  table  : — 


^ 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 


387 


^        ^^ 

CS^          ^ 

,^ 

ci 

1^ 

5.22 

"15  0^ 

"5 

c^      -^ 

1 
72 

■S 

S 

a 

> 

ren  of  Manu, 
ed  at  the  beg 
ccording  to  t 
Purfina. 

3 

a 

> 

C3_ 

G 

5 

f 

a 

1 

Ph 

3 

i 

5 

CO 

si 
0 

i  ^ 

<c3 

of  the  child 

irth  who  rul 

\c\\  period,  a 

Vishnu- 

1 

3    <-.      rf 

1 

> 

1 

a 

1 

> 

Q 

g    1 

0 

s5    > 

-a 

s 
PP 

e  Names 

of  thee 

of  e 

> 

ii 

^ 

5"' 

Si 

0 

if 

i 

1 

II  i 

1 

^ 

0  g  20 

•-! 

ei 

?^" 

3 

S 

^v5_-S 

3 

^§H 

m 

^2; 

?Q      Ph 

> 

G 

CO 

CO 

P       Q 

t:^ 

?H    ""I 

'S  2  -• 

0       If 

*s 

^11 

III- 

H  ■ 

C3 

a  he 

■Hi 

e3 

ill 

CO 

2    i 

%  1 

3 

Ph 

1 

0  i: 

72 

> 

1    i 

2-   £ 

-co 

cir  Names  taken 
m  other  Sources, 

> 

1     1 

a 

=3 

i 

a 

c3 

1   1 

g3         «? 

> 

'3 

> 

CO 

IS 

S  g 
> 

Si  s^ 

"re. 
1 

a 

<3 

h£ 

m     m 

<! 

"^ 

P?        0 

> 

P8IITO 

yay 

dAl| 

ssaqj,  p^ 

p^i 

-a 

c3 

il 

0  -< 

1 

1  1 
h  1 

i^ 

3 

a 
^1 

c3 

3    "^ 

> 

i' 

a 
1 
9 

i 

I 

a 

1 

3 

1      ^ 

1      ^ 

CC        02 

<ii 

02 

K       Q 

h> 

CO 

> 

w 

Ph 

P      P^ 

P4 

.r-( 

> 

2         C3 

e^ 

c3 

c« 

> 

i 

f^ 

0  a  sitcL, 

liii 

«S  g.2 
•ST;jB:tui:A 

>       t> 

M       CO 

g 
1 
<3 

g 

5    1 
1    1 

> 
> 

1 

1 

c3 

^5 

a 

a 

S 

p^    p^ 

c3 

-u^Itt  aq;  JO 

M              C^ 

fO 

^ 

Ln       VO 

t^ 

00 

o\ 

u 

1-4 

l-H                 l-C 

^ 

aoqiun^  oqX 

388  ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 

Page  195.  The  difference  which  the  reader  perceives  in  the  enu- 

tion  oT^^"  meration  of  the  future  manvaiitaras  beyond  the  seventh 
p'urSavQ-  <^^^'  arises,  as  I  think,  from  the  same  cause  whence 
^manmnui-^  the  difference  in  the  names  of  the  Dvipas  is  derived 
ras.  ^y  pp_  235^  236),  viz.  from  the  fact  that  the  people  care 

more  for  the  names  than  for  the  order  in  which  they 
are  handed  down  to  posterity.  We  may  here  rely  on 
the  tradition  of  the  Vishnu- Fur dna,  for  in  this  book 
their  number,  their  names  and  descriptions,  are  given 
in  such  a  way  that  renders  it  necessary  to  us  to  con- 
sider also  the  order  in  which  it  gives  them  as  trust- 
worthy. But  we  have  refrained  from  communicating 
these  things  in  this  jolace,  since  they  offer  only  very 
little  use. 

The  same  book  relates  that  King  Maitreya,  a  Ksha- 
triya,  asked  Parasara,  the  father  of  Vyasa,  about  the 
past  and  the  future  manvaiitaras.  Thereupon  the  latter 
mentions  the  name  by  which  each  Manu  is  known,  the 
same  names  which  our  table  exhibits.  According  to 
the  same  book,  the  children  of  each  Manu  will  rule  the 
earth,  and  it  mentions  the  first  of  them,  the  names  of 
whom  we  have  given  in  the  table.  According  to  the 
same  source,  the  Manus  of  the  second,  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth  manvantaras  will  be  of  the  race  of  Priyavrata, 
an  anchorite,  who  stood  in  such  favour  with  Vishnu, 
that  he  honoured  his  children  by  raising  them  to  this 
distinction. 


(  389  ) 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

ON  THE  CONSTELLATION  OF  THE  GREAT  BEAK. 

The  Great  Bear  is  in  the  Indian  language  called  Sapfar-  a  tradition 
shay  as,  i.e.  tlic  Seven  Rishis,     They  are  said  to  have  been  Arundhati, 
anchorites  who  nourished  themselves  only  with  what  it  vSirhtha. 
is  allowable  to  eat,  and  with  them  there  was  a  pious 
woman,  Al-suhd  (Ursa  Major,  star   8o  by   ().     They 
plucked  off  the  stalks  of  the  lotus  from  the  ponds  to  eat 
of  them.     Meanwhile  came  The  Laiv  (Dharma  ?)  and 
concealed  her  from    them.     Every   one  of  them   felt 
ashamed  of  the  other,  and  they  swore  oaths  which  were 
approved  of  by  Dharma.     In  order  to  honour  them, 
Dharma  raised  them  to  that  place  where  they  are  now 
seen  {sic). 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  books  of  the  Hin-  Quotation 
dus  are  composed  in  metres,  and  therefore  the  authors  hamihira? 
indulge  in  comparisons  and  epitheta  ornaniia,  such  as 
are  admired  by  their  countrymen.  Of  the  same  kind 
is  a  description  of  the  Great  Bear  in  the  Sariihitd  of 
Varahamihira,  where  it  occurs  before  the  astrological 
prognostics  derived  from  this  constellation.  We  give 
the  passage  according  to  our  translation  :  ^ — 

"  The  northern  region  is  adorned  with  these  stars,  as 
a  beautiful  woman  is  adorned  with  a  collar  of  pearls 
strung  together,  and  a  necklace  of  white  lotus  flowers, 
a  handsomely  arranged  one.  Thus  adorned,  they  are 
like  maidens  who  dance  and  revolve  round  the  pole  as 
the  pole  orders  them.     And  I  say,  on  the  authority  of 

^  Samhitd,  chap.  xiii.  v.  i-6. 


oil  Gar 


390  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

Garga,  the  ancient,  the  primeval  one,  that  the  Great 
Bear  stood  in  Magha,  the  tenth  lunar  station,  when 
Yudhishthira  ruled  the  earth,  and  the  Sakakala  was 
2526  years  after  this.  The  Great  Bear  remains  in  each 
lunar  station  600  years,  and  it  rises  in  the  north-east. 
He  (of  the  Seven  Rishis)  who  then  rules  the  east  is 
Marici ;  west  of  him  is  Vasishtha,  then  Aiigiras,  Atri, 
Pulastya,  Pulaha,  Kratu,  and  near  Vasishtha  there  is  a 
chaste  woman  called  Arundhati." 

As  these  names  are  sometimes  confounded  with  each 
other,  we  shall  try  to  identify  them  with  the  corre- 
sponding stars  in  the  Great  Bear  : — 

Marici  is  the  27th  star  of  this  constellation. 
Vasishtha  ,,   26th  ,,  ,, 


V  iVSlSlll  IJO. 

Angiras 

,  25th 

Atri 

,    1 8th 

Kratu 

,   1 6th 

Pulaha 

,    17th 

Pulastya 

,    19th 

Criticisms         These  stars  occupy  in  our  time,  i.e.  in  the  952nd  year 


of  the  SakakTda,  the  space  between  i^°  of  Leo  and  ii\° 
of  Spica  (Virgo).  According  to  the  peculiar  motion  of  the 
fixed  stars,  as  we  know  it,  the  sams  stars  occupied  at 
the  time  of  Yudhishthira  the  space  between  8f  °  Gemini 
and  20f  ^  of  Cancer. 
Page  196,,  According  to  the  motion  of  the  fixed  stars,  as  adopted 

by  the  ancient  astronomers  and  Ptolemy,  these  stars 
occupied  at  that  time  the  space  between  26  J°  of  Gemini 
and  8f  °  of  Leo,  and  the  here-mentioned  lunar  station 
(Magha)  occupied  the  space  between  0-800  minutes 
in  Leo. 

Therefore  it  would  be  much  more  suitable  in  the 
present  time  to  represent  the  Seven  Rishis  as  standing 
in  Maghfi  than  in  the  time  of  Yudhishthira.  And  if 
the  Hindus  identify  Magha  with  the  Heart  of  the  Lion, 
we  can  only  say  that  this  constellation  at  that  time 
stood  in  the  first  degrees  of  Cancer. 


CHAPTER  XLV.  391 

The  words  of  Garga  are  without  any  foundation  ;  they 
only  show  how  little  he  knew  of  that  which  every 
one  must  know  who  wants  to  fix  the  places  of  the 
stars,  either  by  eyesight  or  by  means  of  astronomical 
observation  on  certain  degrees  of  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac. 

I  have  read  in^the  almanacs  for  the  year  951  of  the  Note  from  a 
Sakakala  which  came  from  Kashmir  the  statement  almanac. 
that  the  Seven  Rishis  stand  since  seventy-seven  years 
in  the  lunar  station  Anuradha.  This  station  occupies 
the  space  between  3^^°  and  the  end  of  i6f  °  of  Scorpio. 
However,  the  Seven  Rishis  precede  this  place  by  about 
a  whole  zodiacal  sign  and  20  degrees,  i.e.  by  if  signs 
(v.  p.  390).  But  what  man  would  be  able  to  learn  all 
the  different  theories  of  the  Hindus,  if  he  does  not  dwell 
among  them  ! 

Let  us  now  first  suppose  that  Garga  is  right,  that  he  Examina- 
has  not  stated  the  precise  place  in  Magha  which  the  statements 
Seven  Rishis  occupy,  and  let  us  suppose  that  this  place  thl^'posltfon 
was  0°  of  Magha,  which  would  correspond  to  0°  of  Leo  Bean 
for  our  time.     Further,  between  the  time  of  Yudhish- 
thira  and  the  present  year,  i.e.  the  year  1340  of  Alex- 
ander, there  is  an  interval  of  3479  years.     And  lastly, 
let  us  suppose  that  Varahamihira  is  right  in  saying  that 
the  Seven  Rishis  dwell  600  years  in  each  lunar  station. 
Accordingly,  they  ought  in  the  present  year  to  stand  in 
17°  18'  of  Libra,  which  is  identical  with  10°  38'  of  Svati. 
However,  if  we  suppose  that  they  stood  in  the  midst  of 
Magha  (not  in  the  beginning),  they  ought  at  present 
to  stand  in  3°  58'  of  Visakha.     And  if  we  suppose  that 
they  stood  m  the  end  of  Magha,  they  ought  at  present 
to  stand  in  10°  38'  of  Visakha. 

Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  statement  of  the  Kash- 
mirian  calendar  does  not  agree  with  the  statement  in  the 
Samhitd.  Likewise,  if  we  adopt  the  rule  of  the  said 
calendar  regarding  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  and 
reckon  with  this  measure  backward,  we  do  by  no  means 


392 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


Rule  of  the 
Karanasara 
to  find  the 
position  of 
the  Great 
Bear  at  any 
time. 


arrive  at  Magba  as  the  lunar  station  in  which  the  Seven 
Rishis  stood  in  the  time  of  Yudhishthira. 

Hitherto  we  used  to  think  that  in  our  time  the  revo- 
lution of  the  fixed  stars  is  more  rapid  than  in  former 
times,  and  we  tried  to  account  for  this  by  peculiarities 
of  the  shape  of  the  celestial  sphere.  According  to  us, 
they  move  one  degree  in  66  solar  j^ears.  Therefore 
Varahamihira  highly  astonishes  us,  for,  according  to 
him,  the  rate  of  this  motion  would  be  one  degree  in 
forty-five  years,  i.e.  much  more  rapid  than  at  present, 
whilst  his  time  precedes  ours  only  by  525  years. 

The  author  of  the  canon  Karanasdra  gives  the  fol- 
lowing rule  for  the  computation  of  the  motion  of  the 
Great  Bear,  and  of  the  place  which,  at  any  given  time, 
it  occupies : — 

'•'  Subtract  821  from  the  Sakakala.  The  remainder 
is  the  hasis,  i.e.  the  number  of  years  above  4000  which 
have  elapsed  since  the  beginning  of  the  Kaliyuga. 

"Multiply  the  basis  by  47,  and  add  68,000  to  the 
product.  Divide  the  sum  by  10,000.  The  quotient  re- 
presents the  zodiacal  signs  and  fractions  of  them,  i.e. 
the  position  of  the  Great  Bear  which  was  sought." 

The  addition  of  68,000,  prescribed  in  this  rule,  must 
be  the  original  position  of  the  Great  Bear  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  basis,  multiplied  by  10,000.  If  we 
divide  68,000  by  10,000,  we  get  the  quotient  64,  i.e. 
six  zodiacal  signs  and  twenty-four  degrees  of  a  seventh 
sign. 

It  is  evident  that  if  we  divide  the  10,000  by  47,  the 
Great  Bear  has  wandered  through  one  zodiacal  sign  in 
212  years,  9  months,  and  6  days,  according  to  solar  time. 
Accordingly  it  wanders  through  one  degree  of  a  sign 
in  7  years,  l  month,  and  3  days,  and  through  one  lunar 
station  in  94  years,  6  months,  and  20  days. 

Now  there  is  a  great  difference  between  the  values  of 
Varahamihira  and  those  of  Vittesvara,  if  there  is  not  a 
fault  in  the  tradition.     If  we,  by  way  of  an  example, 


CHAPTER  XLV.  393 

make  such  a  computation  for  the  present  year  (1030 
A.D.),  we  get  9°  17'  in  the  lunar  station  Anuradha  as 
the  position  of  the  Great  Bear. 

The  people  of  Kashmir  believed  that  the  Great  Bear 
wanders  through  a  lunar  station  in  lOO  years.  There- 
fore the  above-mentioned  calendar  says  that  of  the 
present  centennium  of  the  motion  of  the  Great  Bear 
there  is  still  a  remainder  of  twenty-three  years. 

Mistakes  and  confusion  such  as  we  have  here  laid  Theological 

opinions 

open  arise,  in  the  first  place,  from  the  want  of  the  neces-  mpe^  "^' 
sary  skill  in  astronomical  researches,  and  secondly,  from  astronomy. 
the  way  of  the  Hindus  of  mixing  up  scientific  questions 
with  religious  traditions.     For  the  theologians  believe 
that  the  Seven  Rishis  stand  higher  than  the  fixed  stars, 
and  they  maintain  that  in  each  manvantara  there  will 
appear  a  new  Manu,  whose  children  will  destroy  the 
earth  ;  but  the  rule  will  be  renewed  by  Indra,  as  also 
the  different  classes  of  the  augels  and  the  Seven  Rishis. 
The  angels  are  necessary,  for  mankind  must  offer  sacri- 
fices to  them  and  must  bring  to  the  fire  the  shares  for 
them  ;  and  the  Seven  Rishis  are  necessary,  because  they  P-'ge  197. 
must  renew  the  Veda,  for  it  perishes  at  the  end  of  each 
manvantara. 

Our  information  on  this  subject  we  take  from  the  The  seven 

•^  Rishis  in  the 

VislimL-Purdna.    From  the  same  source  we  have  taken  different 

manvan- 

the  names  of  the  Seven  Rishis  in  each  manrantara,  as  <«*'««• 
exhibited  by  the  following  table  : — 


394 


A  LB  BRUNTS  INDIA. 


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03 

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s.i9qranM 

(     395     ) 


CHAPTER    XLVI. 

ON   NARAYANA,   HIS   APPEARANCE   AT   DIFFERENT   TIMES,     Page  198. 
AND   HIS   NAMES. 

NarayANA  is  according  to  the  Hindus  a  snperiiatnral  Onthe 

•  .        .     ,  ,      .  ,  nature  of 

power,  which  does  not  on  principle  try  to  bring  about  Narayana. 
the  good  by  tlie  good,  nor  the  bad  by  the  bad,  but  to 
prevent  the  evil  and  destruction  by  whatever  means 
happen  to  be  available.  For  this  force  the  good  exists 
prior  to  the  bad,  but  if  the  good  does  not  properly  develop 
nor  is  available,  it  uses  the  bad,  this  being  unavoidable. 
In  so  doing,  it  may  be  compared  to  a  rider  who  has  got 
into  the  midst  of  a  cornfield.  When  he  then  comes 
back  to  his  senses,  and  wants  to  avoid  evil-doing  and  to 
get  out  of  the  mischief  he  has  committed,  he  has  no 
other  means  but  that  of  turning  his  horse  back  and 
riding  out  on  the  same  road  on  which  he  has  entered 
the  field,  though  in  going  out  he  will  do  as  much  mis- 
chief as  he  has  done  in  entering,  and  even  more.  But 
there  is  no  other  possibility  of  making  amends  save 
this. 

The  Hindus  do  not  distinguish  between  this  force 
and  the  First  Cause  of  their  philosophy.  Its  dwelling 
in  the  world  is  of  such  a  nature  that  people  compare 
it  to  a  material  existence,  an  ap23earance  in  body  and 
colour,  since  they  cannot  conceive  any  other  kind  of 
appearance. 

Besides  other  times,  Narayana  has  appeared  at  the 
end  of  the  first  manvantara,  to  take  away  the  rule  of 
the  worlds  from  VCdakhilya  (?),  who  had  given  it  the 


396  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

name,    and    wanted   to  take    it   into  his   own    hands. 
Narayana  came  and  handed  it  over  to  Satakratu,  the 
performer    of    a    hundred    sacrifices,    and    made    him 
Indra. 
story  of  Another  time  he  appeared  at  the  end  of  the  sixth 

Bali,  the  son  "^  ^   . 

of  viiocana.  manvciutara,  when  he  killed  the  King  Bali,  the  son  of 
Virocana,  who  ruled  the  whole  world  and  had  Venus 
as  his  vazir.  On  having  heard  from  his  mother  that 
the  time  of  his  father  had  been  much  better  than  his 
time,  since  it  was  nearer  the  kritayuga,  when  people 
enjoyed  more  profound  bliss  and  did  not  know  any 
fatigue,  he  became  ambitious  and  desirous  of  vying 
with  his  father.  Therefore  he  commenced  doing  works 
of  piety,  giving  presents,  distributing  money,  and  per- 
forming sacrifices,  which  earn  the  rule  of  paradise  and 
earth  for  him  who  finishes  a  hundred  of  them.  When 
he  was  near  this  term,  or  had  nearly  finished  the  ninety- 
ninth  sacrifice,  the  angels  began  to  feel  uneasy  and  to 
fear  for  their  dignity,  knowing  that  the  tribute  which 
men  bring  them  would  cease  if  they  stood  no  longer  in 
need  of  them.  Now  they  united  and  went  to  Nara- 
yana, asking  him  to  help  them.  He  granted  their  wish, 
and  descended  to  the  earth  in  the  shape  of  Vamana, 
i.e.  a  man  whose  hands  and  feet  are  too  short  in  com- 
parison with  his  body,  and  in  consequence  his  figure  is 
thought  to  be  hideous. 

Narayana  came  to  the  King  Bali  whilst  he  was  offer- 
ing, his  Brahmans  standing  round  the  fires,  and  Venus, 
his  vazir,  standing  before  him.  The  treasure-houses 
had  been  opened  and  the  precious  stones  had  been 
thrown  out  in  heaps,  to  be  given  as  presents  and  alms. 
Now  Vamana  commenced  to  recite  the  Veda  like  the 
Brahmans  from  that  part  which  is  now  called  Sdmaveda, 
in  a  melancholy,  impressive  kind  of  melody,  persuading 
the  king  to  grant  him  liberally  what  he  would  wish 
and  demand.  Upon  this  Venus  spoke  stealthily  to  him  : 
"  This  is  Narayana.     He  has  come  to  rob  thee  of  thy 


CHAPTER  XL VI.  397 

rule."  But  the  king  was  so  excited  that  he  did  not 
mind  the  words  of  Venus,  and  asked  Vfimaua  what 
was  his  desire.  Thereupon  Yamana  said,  "As  much 
as  four  paces  of  thy  realm,  that  I  may  live  there." 
The  king  answered,  "  Choose  what  you  wish,  and  how 
you  wish  it ; "  and  according  to  Hindu  custom,  he 
ordered  water  to  be  brought  to  pour  it  over  his  hands 
as  a  sign  of  the  confirmation  of  the  order  he  had  given. 
Now  Yen  lis,  because  of  her  love  to  the  king,  brought 
in  the  jug,  but  had  corked  the  spout,  so  that  no  water 
should  flow  out  of  it,  whilst  she  closed  the  hole  in  the 
cork  with  the  him  grass  of  her  ring-finger.  But  Yenus  page  199. 
had  only  one  eye  ;  she  missed  the  hole,  and  now  the 
water  flowed  out.  In  consequence,  Yamana  made  a 
pace  towards  east,  another  towards  west,  and  a  third 
towards  above  as  far  as  Svarloka.  As  for  the  fourth 
pace,  there  was  no  more  space  in  the  world ;  he  made, 
by  the  fourth  pace,  the  king  a  slave,  putting  his  foot 
between  his  shoulders  as  a  sign  of  making  him  a  slave. 
He  made  him  sink  down  into  the  earth  as  far  as  Patala, 
the  lowest  of  the  low.  He  took  the  worlds  away  from 
him,  and  handed  the  rule  over  to  Puraiiidara. 

The  following  occurs  in  the  Vishim-Purdna  : —  Quotation 

"  The  King  Maitreya  asked  Parasara  about  the  yugas.  vlSinu- 
So  the  latter  answered :  '  They  exist  for  the  purpose  '^"'■"'•^"• 
that  Yishnu  should  occupy  himself  with  something  in 
them.  In  the  Kritayuga  he  comes  in  the  shape  of 
Kapila  alone,  for  the  purpose  of  spreading  wisdom  ; 
in  Tretayuga,  in  the  shape  of  Rama  alone,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  spreading  fortitude,  to  conquer  the  bad,  and  to 
preserve  the  three  worlds  by  force  and  the  prevalence 
of  virtuous  action ;  in  Dvapara,  in  the  shape  of  Yyasa, 
to  divide  the  Yeda  into  four  parts,  and  to  derive 
many  branches  from  it.  In  the  end  of  Dvfipara  he 
appears  in  the  shape  of  Yasudeva  to  destroy  the  giants  ; 
in  the  Kaliyuga,  in  the  shape  of  Kali,  the  son  of 
J-sh-v  (?)  the  Brahman,  to  kill  all,  and  to  make  the 


398 


ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 


Enumera- 
tion of  the 
Vjnlsas  of 
the  seventh 
manvan- 
tara. 


cycle  of  the  yngas  coromence  anew.  That  is  his 
(Vishnu's)  occupation.' " 

In  another  passage  of  the  same  book  we  read : 
"  Vishnu,  i.e.  another  name  for  Narayana,  comes  at  the 
end  of  each  clvdpara  to  divide  the  Veda  into  four  parts, 
because  men  are  feeble  and  unable  to  observe  the  whole 
of  it.     In  his  face  he  resembles  Vyasa." 

We  exhibit  his  names  in  the  following  table,  though 
they  var}^  in  different  sources,  enumerating  the  Vyasas 
who  have  appeared  in  the  caturyugas  of  the  present  or 
seventh  manvantara  which  have  elapsed  : — 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 

Svayambhti 

Prajapati 

Usanas 

Brihaspati 

8avitri 

i6 

17 
i8 

19 

20 

Dhanaifajaya 
Kritamjaya 
Rinajyeshtha  (?) 
Bharadvaja 
Gautama 

6 

Mrityu 

21 

Uttama 

7 

8 

Indra 
Vasishtha 

" 

Haryatman 
Veda-vyasa 

9 

lO 

Sarasvata 
Tridbaman 

24 

2=; 

Vajasravas 
Somasushma 

II 

12 

Trivrisha 
Bharadvaja 

26 

27 

Bhargava 
Valmiki 

13 

Antariksha 

28 

Krishna 

14 
15 

Vapra  (?) 
Trayyaruna 

29 

Asvatthaman    the 
of  Drona 

son 

Quotation 
Ironi 
Vishnu- 
Dharma. 


Krishna  Dvaipayana  is  Vyasa  the  son  of  Parasara. 
The  twenty-ninth  Vyasa  has  not  yet  come,  but  will 
appear  in  future. 

The  book  Vishnu- Dliar ma  says :  "  The  names  of 
Hari,  i.e.  Narayana,  differ  in  the  yngas.  They  are  the 
following  :  Vasudeva,  Saiiikarshana,  Pradyumna,  and 
Aniruddha." 

I  suppose  that  the  author  has  not  here  preserved  the 
proper  sequence,  for  Vasudeva  belongs  to  the  end  of 
the  four  yugas. 

The  same  book  says :  "  Also  his  colours  differ  in  the 
yugas.  In  the  Kritayuga  he  is  white,  in  the  Treta- 
yuga  red,  in  the  Dvapara  yellow,  the  latter  is  the  first 


CHAPTER  XLVI.  399 

phase  of  his  being  embodied  in  human  shape,  and  in 
the  Kaliynga  he  is  black." 

These  colours  are  something  like  the  three  ijrimary 
forces  of  their  philosophy,  for  they  maintain  that  Satya 
is  transparent  white,  Rajas  red,  and  Tamas  black.     We  ^•'^°®  ^oo. 
shall  in  a  later  part  of  this  book  give  a  description  of 
his  last  appearance  in  the  world. 


(     400     ) 


Analogies  of 
the  course  of 
luiture  to 
the  history 
of  mankind. 


CHAPTER   XLVII. 

ON   VASUDEVA   AND   THE    WAES   OF   TEIE   BHAEATA. 

The  life  of  the  world  depends  upon  sowing  and  pro- 
creating. Both  processes  increase  in  the  course  of 
time,  and  this  increase  is  unlimited,  whilst  the  world 
is  limited. 

When  a  class  of  plants  or  animals  does  not  increase 
any  more  in  its  strnctiire,  and  its  peculiar  kind  is  estab- 
lished as  a  species  of  its  own,  when  each  individual  of 
it  does  not  simply  come  into  existence  once  and  perish, 
but  besides  procreates  a  being  like  itself  or  several 
together,  and  not  only  once  but  several  times,  then  this 
will  as  a  single  species  of  plants  or  animals  occupy  the 
earth  and  spread  itself  and  its  kind  over  as  much  terri- 
tory as  it  can  find. 

The  agriculturist  selects  his  corn,  letting  grow  as 
much  as  he  requires,  and  tearing  out  the  remainder. 
The  forester  leaves  those  branches  which  he  perceives 
to  be  excellent,  whilst  he  cuts  away  all  others.  The 
bees  kill  those  of  their  kind  who  only  eat,  but  do  not 
work  in  their  beehive. 

Nature  proceeds  in  a  similar  way  ;  however,  it  does 
not  distinguish,  for  its  action  is  under  all  circumstances 
one  and  the  same.  It  allows  the  leaves  and  fruit  of  the 
trees  to  perish,  thus  preventing  them  from  realising 
that  result  which  they  are  intended  to  produce  in  the 
economy  of  nature.  It  removes  them  so  as  to  make 
room  for  others. 

If  thus  the  earth  is  ruined,  or  is  near  to  be  ruined, 


CHAPTER  XLVII.  401 

by  having  too  many  inhabitants,  its  ruler — for  it  has  a 
ruler,  and  his  all-embracing  care  is  apparent  in  every 
single  particle  of  it — sends  it  a  messenger  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reducing  the  too  great  number  and  of  cutting 
away  all  that  is  evil. 

A  messenger  of  this  kind  is,  according  to  the  belief  story  of  the 
of  the  Hindus,  Vasudeva,  who  was  sent  the  last  time  in  vasudeva. 
human  shape,  being  called  Vasudeva.  It  was  a  time 
when  the  giants  were  numerous  on  earth  and  the  earth 
was  full  of  their  oppression ;  it  tottered,  being  hardly 
able  to  bear  the  whole  number  of  them,  and  it  trembled 
from  the  vehemence  of  their  treading.  Then  there  was 
born  a  child  in  the  city  of  Mathura  to  Vasudeva  by  the 
sister  of  Kamsa,  at  that  time  ruler  of  the  town.  They 
were  a  Jatt  family,  cattle-owners,  low  Sudra  people. 
Karhsa  had  learned,  by  a  voice  which  he  heard  at  the 
wedding  of  his  sister,  that  he  would  perish  at  the  hands 
of  her  child ;  therefore  he  appointed  people  who  were 
to  bring  him  every  child  of  hers  as  soon  as  she  gave 
birth  to  it,  and  he  killed  all  her  children,  both  male  and 
female.  Finally,  she  gave  birth  to  Balabhadra,  and 
Yasoda,  the  wife  of  the  herdsman  Nanda,  took  the 
child  to  herself,  and  managed  to  keep  it  concealed  from 
the  spies  of  Kariisa.  Thereupon  she  became  pregnant 
an  eighth  time,  and  gave  birth  to  Vasudeva  in  a  rainy 
night  of  the  eighth  day  of  the  black  half  of  the  month 
Bhadrapada,  whilst  the  moon  was  ascending  in  the 
station  Eohini.  As  the  guards  had  fallen  into  deep 
sleep  and  neglected  the  watch,  the  father  stole  the 
child  and  brought  it  to  Nandakula^  i.e.  the  stable  of  the 
cows  of  Nanda,  the  husband  of  Yasoda,  near  Mathura, 
but  separated  from  this  place  by  the  river  Yamuna. 
Vasudeva  exchanged  the  child  for  a  daughter  of  Nanda, 
which  happened  to  be  born  at  the  moment  when  Vasu- 
deva arrived  with  the  boy.  He  brought  this  female 
child  to  the  guards  instead  of  his  son.  Karhsa,  the 
VOL.  I.  2  c 


402  ALBERUNFS  INDIA. 

ruler,  wanted  to  lall  the  child,  but  she  flew  up  into 
the  air  and  disappeared. 

Vasudeva  grew  up  under  the  care  of  his  foster- 
mother  Yasoda  without  her  knovviug  that  he  had  been 
exchanged  for  her  daughter,  but  Kaiiisa  got  some  ink- 
ling of  the  matter.  Now  he  tried  to  get  the  child  into 
his  power  by  cunning  plans,  but  all  of  them  turned  out 
against  him .  Lastly,  Kaiiisa  demanded  from  his  parents 
that  they  should  send  him  (Vasudeva)  to  wrestle  in  his 
(Kamsa's)  presence.  Now  Vasudeva  began  to  behave 
overbearingly  towards  everybody.  On  the  road  he  had 
already  roused  the  wrath  of  his  aunt  by  hurting  a 
serpent  which  had  been  appointed  to  watch  over  the 
lotus  flowers  of  a  pond,  for  he  had  drawn  a  cord  through 
its  nostrils  like  a  bridle.  Further,  he  had  killed  his 
fuller,  because  the  latter  had  refused  to  lend  him  clothes 
for  the  wrestling.  He  had  robbed  the  girl  who  accom- 
Page  20I.  panied  him  of  the  sandal-wood  with  which  she  was 
ordered  to  anoint  the  wrestlers.  Lastly,  he  had  killed 
the  rutting  elephant  which  was  provided  for  the  pur- 
pose of  killing  him  before  the  door  of  Kaiiisa.  All  this 
heightened  the  wrath  of  Kamsa  to  such  a  degree,  that 
his  bile  burst,  and  he  died  on  the  spot.  Then  Vasu- 
deva, his  sister's  son,  ruled  in  his  stead. 
The  names  Vasudcva  has  a  special  name  in  each  month.  His 
hithTdiffer^  followers  begin  the  months  with  Margasirsha,  and  each 
month  they  begin  with  the  eleventh  day,  because  on 
this  day  Vasudeva  appeared. 

The  following  table  contains  the  names  of  Vasudeva 
in  the  months  : — 


ent  months. 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 


403 


The  Months. 

The  N'ames  cf 
V4sudev;i. 

The  Months. 

The  Names  of 
Vasudeva. 

Margasirsha 

Kesava 

Jyaishtha 

Trivikrama 

Pausha 

Narayana 

Ashadha 

Vamana 

Magha 

Madhava            ' 

Sravana 

Sridhara 

Phalguna 

Govinda 

Bhadrapada 

Hrishikesa 

Caitra 

Vishnu 

Asvayuja 

Padmanabhi 

Vai^akha 

Madhustidana 

Karttika 

Damodara 

.  Now  the  brother-in-law  of  the  deceased  Kaihsa  be- 
came angry,  went  rapidly  to  Mathnra,  took  possession 
of  the  realm  of  Vasudeva,  and  banished  him  to  the 
ocean.  Then  there  appeared  near  the  coast  a  golden 
castle  called  Baroda,  and  Vasudeva  made  it  his  resi- 
dence. 

The  children  of  Kaurava  (i.e.  Dhritarashtra)  had  the 
charge  of  their  cousins  (the  children  of  Panda).  Dhri- 
tarashtra received  them  and  played  dice  with  them,  the 
last  stake  being  their  whole  property.  They  lost  more 
and  more,  until  he  laid  upon  them  the  obligation  of 
expatriation  for  more  than  ten  years,  and  of  conceal- 
ment in  the  remotest  part  of  the  country,  where  nobody 
knew  them.  If  they  did  not  keep  this  engagement 
they  would  be  bound  to  return  into  banishment  for  a 
like  number  of  years.  This  engagement  was  carried 
out,  but  finally  came  the  time  of  their  coming  forward 
for  battle.  Now  each  party  began  to  assemble  their 
whole  number  and  to  sue  for  allies,  till  at  last  nearly 
innumerable  hosts  had  gathered  in  the  plain  of  Tane- 
shar.  There  were  eighteen  aksJumhini.  Each  party 
tried  to  gain  Vasudeva  as  ally,  whereupon  he  offered 
either  himself  or  his  brother  Balabhadra  together  with 
an  army.  But  the  children  of  Pandu  preferred  him» 
They  were  five  men — Yudhishthira,  their  leader,  Arjuna, 
the  bravest  of  them,  Sahadeva,  Bhimasena,  and  Nakula. 
They  had  seven  aksJiauhini,  whilst  their  enemies  were 


Continua- 
tion of  the 
story  of 
Vasudeva. 


404 


ALBERUNPS  INDIA. 


End  of  Vasu- 
deva  and 
of  the  five 
Pandu 
brothers. 


Page  202. 


much  stronger.  But  for  the  cunning  devices  of  ^'asu- 
deva  and  his  teaching  them  whereby  they  might  gain 
victory,  they  would  have  been  in  a  less  favourable 
situation  than  their  enemies.  But  now  they  conquered  ; 
all  those  hosts  were  destroyed,  and  none  remained  ex- 
cept the  five  brothers.  Thereafter  Yasudeva  returned 
to  his  residence  and  died,  together  with  his  family, 
who  were  called  Yadava.  Also  the  five  brothers  died 
before  the  year  had  reached  its  end,  at  the  end  of 
those  wars. 

Vasudeva  had  concerted  with  Arjuna  the  arrangement 
that  they  would  consider  the  quivering  of  the  left  arm 
or  left  eye  as  a  mysterious  intimation  that  there  was 
something  happening  to  him.  At  that  time  there  lived 
a  pious  Rishi  called  Durvasas.  Now  the  brothers  and 
relations  of  Yasudeva  were  a  rather  malicious,  incon- 
siderate set  of  people.  One  of  them  hid  under  his  coat 
a  new  frying-pan,  went  to  the  anchorite,  and  asked  him 
what  would  be  the  result  of  his  pregnancy,  jeering  at 
the  pious  man.  The  latter  said,  "In  thy  belly  there 
is  something  which  will  be  the  cause  of  thy  death  and 
that  of  thy  whole  clan."  When  Yasudeva  heard  this 
he  became  sorry,  because  he  knew  that  these  words 
would  be  fulfilled.  He  gave  orders  that  the  pan  should 
be  filed  away  and  be  thrown  into  the  water.  This 
was  done.  There  was  only  a  small  part  of  it  left,  which 
the  artisan  who  had  done  the  filing  considered  as  insig- 
nificant. Therefore  he  threw  it,  as  it  was,  into  the 
water.  A  fish  devoured  it ;  the  fish  was  caught,  and  the 
fisherman  found  it  in  its  belly.  He  thought  it  would 
be  a  good  tip  for  his  arrow. 

When  the  predestined  time  came,  Yasudeva  rested 
on  the  coast  under  the  shadow  of  a  tree,  one  of  his  feet 
being  crossed  over  the  other ;  the  fisherman  took  him 
for  a  gazelle,  shot  at  him,  and  hit  his  right  foot.  This 
wound  became  the  cause  of  the  death  of  Yasudeva.  At 
the  same  time  the  left  side  of  Arjuna  began  to  quiver. 


CHAPTER  XLVIL  405 

and  then  his  arm.  Now  his  brother  Sahadeva  gave 
orders  that  he  should  never  any  more  embrace  anybody, 
that  he  might  not  be  bereft  of  his  strength  (?).  Arjuna 
went  to  Vasudeva,  but  could  not  embrace  him  on  account 
of  the  state  in  which  he  was.  Vasudeva  ordered  his 
bow  to  be  brought,  and  handed  it  over  to  Arjuna,  who 
tried  his  strength  at  it.  Vasudeva  ordered  him  to  burn 
his  body  and  the  bodies  of  his  relations  when  they  had 
died,  and  to  bring  away  his  wives  from  the  castle,  and 
then  he  died. 

Out  of  the  filings  or  bits  of  iron  which  had  fallen  off 
when  the  pan  was  filed  a  hardi  bush  had  grown.  To 
this  there  came  the  Yadavas,  who  tied  together  some 
bundles  of  its  twigs  to  sit  upon.  Whilst  they  were 
drinking  there  arose  a  quarrel  between  them  ;  they 
beat  each  other  with  the  hardi  bundles,  and  killed  each 
other.  All  this  happened  near  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Sarsati,  where  it  flows  into  the  sea,  near  the  situation  of 
Somanath. 

Arjuna  had  done  all  he  had  been  ordered  by  Vasu- 
deva. When  he  brought  away  the  women,  they  were 
suddenly  attacked  by  robbers.  When,  now,  Arjuna  was 
no  longer  able  to  bend  his  bow,  he  felt  that  his  strength 
was  going.  He  whirled  the  bow  in  a  circle  above  his 
head,  and  all  who  stood  under  the  bow  were  saved, 
while  the  others  were  seized  by  the  robbers.  Now 
Arjuna  and  his  brothers  saw  that  life  was  no  more  of 
any  use  to  them,  therefore  they  emigrated  to  the  north 
and  entered  the  mountains,  the  snow  of  which  never 
melts.  The  cold  killed  them  one  after  the  other,  till 
at  last  only  Yudhishthira  remained.  He  obtained  the 
distinction  of  being  admitted  to  paradise,  but  before 
that  he  was  to  pass  through  hell  in  consequence  of  the 
sole  lie  which  he  had  spoken  in  his  life,  at  the  request 
of  his  brothers  and  of  Vasudeva.  These  were  the  words 
which  he  had  spoken  within  hearing  of  the  Braliman 
Drona :  "  Asvatthaman,  the  elephant,  has  died."     He 


4o6  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

had  made  a  pause  between  AsvattJichnan  and  the  ele- 
phant, by  which  he  had  led  Drona  to  believe  that  he 
meant  his  son.  Yudhishthira  spoke  to  the  angels  :  "  If 
this  must  be,  may  my  intercession  be  accepted  on  be- 
half of  the  people  in  hell ;  may  they  be  freed  from  it." 
After  this  desire  of  his  had  been  granted,  he  went  into 
paradise. 


(     407     ) 


CHAPTER   XLVIII. 

AN   EXPLANATION    OF   THE   MEASURE   OF   AN   AKSHAUHINI. 

Each  alshcmhini  has  lo  antkint. 
anikini  ,,      3  camu. 


camu 

pritand 

vdhint 

fjana 

gulma 

sendmukha 

imtti 


3  pritand. 
3  vdhint. 

3  S'""*- 
3  gulma. 
3  sendmukha, 
3  patti. 
I  rat  ha. 


In  chess,  the  latter  is  called  rukh,  whilst  the  Greeks 
call  it  chariot  of  ivar.  It  was  invented  by  Mankalus 
(Myrtilos  ?)  in  Athens,  and  the  Athenians  maintain  that 
they  were  the  first  who  rode  on  chariots  of  war.  How- 
ever, before  that  time  they  had  already  been  invented 
by  Aphrodisios  (sic)  the  Hindu,  when  he  ruled  over 
Egypt,  about  900  years  after  the  deluge.  They  were 
drawn  by  two  horses. 

The  following  is  a  tale  of  the  Greeks :  Hephasstos 
loved  Athene  and  desired  to  ]30ssess  her,  but  she  refused 
him,  preferring  to  remain  a  virgin.  Now  he  concealed 
himself  in  the  country  of  Athens,  and  intended  to  seize 
her  by  force,  but  she  pierced  him  with  a  spear  and  then 
he  let  her  go.  From  a  drop  of  his  blood,  which  had 
dropped  to  the  earth,  there  grew  Erichthonios.  He  Page  203. 
arrived  on  a  chariot  like  the  tower  of  the  sun,  the 
holder  of  the  reins  riding  together  with  him.  Similar 
to  this  are  the  customs  of  the  hippodrome,  as  they  exist 
in  our  time,  the  running  and  driving  with  carriages  in 
the  race. 


4o8  ALBERUNVS  INDIA. 

A  ratha  comprehends  besides,  one  elephant,  three 
riders,  and  five  footmen. 

All  these  orders  and  divisions  are  necessary  for  the 
preparation  for  battle,  for  pitching  camp  and  breaking 
up  camp. 

An  akshcmhini  has  21,870  chariots,  21,870  elephants, 
65,610  riders,  109,350  footmen. 

To  each  chariot  there  belong  four  horses  and  their 
conductor,  the  master  of  the  chariot,  armed  with  arrows, 
his  two  companioDS  armed  with  spears,  a  guard  who 
protects  the  master  from  behind,  and  a  car tw right. 

On  each  elephant  there  sits  its  conductor,  and  behind 
him  the  vice-conductor,  a  man  who  has  to  goad  the 
elephant  behind  the  chair,  the  master,  armed  with 
arrows,  in  the  chair,  and  together  with  him  his  two 
spear-throwing  companions  and  his  jester,  liauhava  (?), 
who  on  other  occasions  runs  before  him. 

Accordingly  the  number  of  people  who  ride  on  chariots 
and  elephants  is  284,323  {sic).  The  number  of  those 
who  ride  on  horses  is  87,480.  The  number  of  elephants 
in  an  akshauJiini  is  21,870;  the  number  of  chariots, 
too,  is  21,870;  the  number  of  horses  is  153,090;  the 
number  of  men,  459,283. 

The  sum-total  of  the  living  beings  of  one  akshauhini, 
elephants,  horses,  and  men,  is  634,243  ;  the  same  num- 
ber for  eighteen  cilcsliavJiini  is  11,416,374,  viz.  393,660 
elephants,  2,755,620  horses,  8,267,094  men. 

This  is  an  explanation  of  the  akshanliini,  and  of  its 
single  parts. 


END   OF   VOL.    I. 


Printed  by  BALLANTrNB,  Hanson  ^^  Co. 
Edinburgh  dr"  London. 


3  1158  00304  8864    _,  P 


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